Encyclopedia of New Jersey

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEW JERSEY

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF

NEW

JERSEY Edited by

Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen Maps by Michael Siegel

Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey, and London

To the memory of Frances D. Pingeon

Disclaimer: Some images in the original version of this book are not available for inclusion in the eBook.

Second printing, 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of New Jersey / edited by Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen ; maps by Michael Siegel. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN --- (alk. paper) . New Jersey—Encyclopedias. I. Lurie, Maxine N., – II. Mappen, Marc. F.E  . —dc British Cataloging-in-Publication information for this book is available from the British Library. C  by Rutgers, The State University Copyright 

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Please contact Rutgers University Press,  Joyce Kilmer Avenue, Piscataway, NJ –. The only exception to this prohibition is “fair use’’ as defined by U.S. copyright law.

Manufactured in the United States of America

Advisory Board Governor James E. McGreevey Honorary Co-Chair Governor Christine Todd Whitman Honorary Co-Chair Governor Thomas Kean Governor Brendan Byrne Congressman Rodney Frelinghuysen Senator Leonard Lance The Honorable Maureen Ogden Stanley N. Katz, Ph.D. Barbara J. Mitnick, Ph.D. Nicholas G. Rutgers IV Frances D. Pingeon (In Memoriam)

Cosponsors

The following organizations joined Rutgers University Press in providing a variety of resources, ranging from in-kind contributions to substantial financial support. New Jersey Historical Commission The Star-Ledger New Jersey Council for the Humanities Women’s Project of New Jersey, Inc. New Jersey Historical Society Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries Scholarly Communications Center, Rutgers Universities Libraries New Jersey Studies Academic Alliance Seton Hall University

Leadership Gifts

Bodman Foundation Clarence and Anne Dillon Dunwalke Trust Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, Inc. Captain Joseph G. Lerner National Endowment for the Humanities New Jersey Council for the Humanities New Jersey Historical Commission Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Nicholas G. Rutgers IV State of New Jersey Legislature Tomlinson Family Foundation, Inc. Victoria Foundation, Inc.

Major Gifts Bunbury Company, Inc. Colonel William Carl Heyer Frances D. Pingeon and Rene A. Pingeon Ralph W. Voorhees

Patrons Angelo V. Baglivo Elena S. Buchanan Catherine M. Cavanaugh Descendants of Founders of New Jersey Fidelity Investments Charitable Gift Fund Forbes Foundation Peter Frelinghuysen Hon. Rodney P. Frelinghuysen Grant F. Walton Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis, Rutgers University Barbara J. and Howard S. Mitnick Glenn L. Noland Hon. Maureen Black Ogden Franklin E. and Margaret H. Parker Roxiticus Fund Anne M. Thomas

Donors Mary Anne Adams

Stephen D. Crocco

Howard Gillette

Susan E. Klepp

Samuel Alewitz G. Alex Ambrose

Carol C. Cronheim Jo Ann Cubberley

Monica R. Gisolfi Anne Glowacz

Laura E. Koller Scott M. Kozel

American Labor Museum

Richard Cummings

Michael Gochfeld

Robert F. Krygoski

William Andersen Andrew J. Anderson

Joyce S. Cummins-Anglin Augustine J. Curley

David Golden Cynthia M. Goldsmith

Elizabeth K. Lambert William La Rosa

Paul S. Anselm James Applegate

Monica Czaplinski Scott Daniels

Anne M. Gordon Grand Marnier Foundation

Gregory Lattanzi Olga S. Leafgreen

Rocio Aranda-Alvarado

Anthony P. DeCondo, Sr.

J. Frederick Grassle

Hubert Lechevalier

Patricia M. Ard Doris B. Armstrong

Richelle Delavan Kayo Denda

Howard Green Frank Greenagel

Roger Lederer Maurice DuPont Lee, Jr.

Kim Avagliano

Howard M. Dess

Deborah S. Greenhut

Tina Lesher

Patricia Beaber Bonnie Benbow

Edward Devine David DeVorkin

Constance M. Greiff James Greller

Marceil Mimi Letts Vicki Gold Levi

Dery Bennett

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Robert D. Griffin

Laura Levine

Bessemer Trust Co. John M. Bettis

George T. Di Ferdinando, Jr. Sunday Di Palma

David Griffith Lee Ellen Griffith

Yukio Lippit Roger R. Locandro

Patricia W. Blakely

Maureen Dillon

Marion Grzesiak

Alan V. Lowenstein

Mary Blanchard Beth Bloom

Karen Di Prima Kathryn Dodson

Martin L. Haines Sidney and Susan Hammer

Nancy Luberecki Maxine N. Lurie

Mark Boriek

Delight W. Dodyk

Christopher Hann

Betty McAndrews

Marnie S. Bowers William J. Boyle, Jr.

Jameson W. Doig Burton J. Doremus

Bruce Hanson Margaret L. Harrer

Thomas McCabe Bonnie J. McCay

James Broderick

John Dougherty

Dorothy Hartman

Richard P. McCormick

William R. Buck Joanna Burger

John Drew Anthony D. Duke, Jr.

Nathaniel Hartshorne John E. Hasse

Grace-Ellen McCrann David W. MacFarlane

David Burke

Patrick E. Dunican

Philip Hayden

Brian McGonigle

J.Harlan Buzby Radhames Camilo

James Eberwine Hendrik Edelman

Priscilla E. Hayes Rita Heller

Patricia M. McGuire Jeffrey N. Maclin

Marilyn Campbell

Joan Ehrenfeld

James N. J. Henwood

Linda B. McTeague

Melissa Campbell John M. Carbone

Lee Eisenberg Frank J. Esposito

Frederick M. Herrmann Evelyn M. Hershey

Alexander B. Magoun Bob Makin

Patrick C. Carr

Firth H. Fabend

Cynthia Hertlik

Anthony Marchetta

Guy C. Carter Ruth Smith Case Timothy M. Casey

John Fabiano William R. Farr Victoria A. and William S. Fay

Brian Hill Rudy Hirschmann Sheldon Hochheiser

Margherita Marchione James Kirby Martin Julie Martin

James Cassedy Phillip Dennis Cate Cam Cavanaugh

James Fisher Robert J. Fitzpatrick Joan Fleming

Anne C. Martindell Michael Mathis Michael L. May

Peter B. Childs Alexandra Christy Carolyn Clark Bruce B. Clarke Paul G. E. Clemens John Coakley David S. Cohen Kevin J. Collins Bruce Compton Andrea Luppino Cooke Pamela Cooper Linda Barone Corcoran Patrick Cote David L. Cowen Robert Craig Angela Cristini

Stephen Fleming Marie Flynn Susan G. Ford Muriel Freeman Peter H. B. Frelinghuysen, Sr. Robert Fridlington John H. Fritz Jack Fruchtman, Jr. Theresa L. Gander Joan Garb Laura Garber Russell L. Gasero Ronald W. Giaconia Ellen D. Gilbert Laverne M. Gill Lisa M. Gillard Hanson

Briavel Holcomb David and Elizabeth W. Holdsworth Steven B. Hoskins Connie O. Hughes James W. Hughes Richard Hunter Robert Hunter Joseph Jacobs Louis R. and Susan S. Jeffrey Wolfgang Jochle Joseph R. Burns and Associates, Inc. Joyce Kane Carmela A. Karnoutsos Paula Kassell Frank F. Katz Stanley N. Katz Ann H. Kessler Edward Kissling

Annmarie and David Mellwain David Messineo Peter Mickulas Edward C. Miller, Jr. Pauline S. Miller Steven Miller Elizabeth A. Milliken Barbara Mitnick in memory of Frances D. Pingeon August J. Molnar Linda Moore Alice A. Morash Mark D. Morgan Sibyl E. Moses Kevin Mulcahy George J. Mullen

Daniel and Janet O. Murnick

Clement A. Price

William D. Sharpe

Shaun C. Van Doren

Miriam Murphy Connie Myers

Norbert P. Psuty Public Service Electric & Gas Co. Amy Rashap

Kelly Shea George Latimer Shinn

Earl R. Verbeek Arlene Wacker

Ruth J. Simmons

Betty Wagner

James W. Reed

Richard C. Simon Alan Singer

Richard Waldron Jill Walsh

Catherine Noonan Jeffrey Norman

Pat Reilly Howard Reinert

Edward J. Siskin Merrill M. Skaggs

Frances Ward Harry M. Ward

P. Gerard Nowicki

Jason Rimmer Mark G. Robson

Edward T. Skipworth

George Warne

Joseph C. Small Phyllis N. Smith

Yvonne N. Warren Mark Wasserman

Robert W. Snyder

Marlie Wasserman

Leonard J. Soucy, Jr. Stacy Spies

Beverly Weaver Joseph S. Weisberg

Alan R. Stein

Mathew J. Weismantel

Gail F. Stern Stephanie Stevens

Allen B. Weisse Henry Wessells

Eric Stiles

George White, Jr.

Garry Wheeler Stone Paul G. Stridick

Willesley West Friends Audra Wolfe

Donald Sutherland

Gary K. Wolinetz

Larry Tamburri Constance A. Tate

Kimberly Wood Joanne L. Yeck

Harriet Teweles

Sally Yerkovich

Mark Thistlethwaite Michael Tischman

Ulana D. Zakalak Richard Zimmer

Carla Tobias

Susan Zimmerman

David Myers Medhat Nasr Edward M. Neafsey

Daniel F. O’Connell Elisabeth Oliu Kevin K. Olsen Brendan O’Malley Margaret O’Neil Wesley H. Ott Patrick J. Owens Lisa Pain David C. Parris John M. Payne John D. and Joanna F. Pearson Jessica Pellien Jose Fernando Pena Steven P. Perskie Mimi Peteet Nancy A. Piwowar Charles A. Poekel, Jr. Eileen L. Poiani Deborah Popper Albert Porroni

Michael Rockland Carlos Macedo Rodrigues Raffaele Roncalli Joseph C. Rowland Jane Brailove Rutkoff Anne Salvatore Joseph Salvatore Patricia Anne Salvatore Sagan T. Sanderson Angelica M. Santomauro Richard Saunders Brian Sauser Reeve Schley III Lawrence Schmidt Karen L. Schnitzspahn Robert Schopp Robert Schuyler Elaine L. Schwartz

Melissa Posten

Dale Schweitzer Joseph Seneca

Frank Tomczuk Tree-Tech Robert L. Trelsted

Mary Prendergast

Harriet Sepinwall

James F. Turk

Project Staff Editors in Chief:

Maxine N. Lurie Marc Mappen

Production Controller: Illustrations Editor:

Sharon Hazard

Assistant Editors:

Catherine Keim Peter Mickulas Jason Rimmer

Cartographer:

Michael Siegel

Sponsoring Editor:

Marlie Wasserman

Managing Editor:

Marilyn Campbell

Copyeditors:

Editorial Assistants:

Alice Calaprice Diana Drew Diane Grobman Lisa Nowak Jerry Gretchen Oberfranc Lee Parks Anne Schneider Willa Speiser Shelle Sumners

Anne Hegeman

Kristen Block Radhames Camilo Krista Gulbin Rachel Hatzipetros Larry D. Lyons II Brian McGonigle Melissa Schiavo Szymon Smakolski Jill Walsh Nikisha Young

Editorial Board Ronald Becker, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Herbert C. Kraft, Seton Hall University Museum (In Memoriam)

Michael J. Birkner, History, Gettysburg College

Mark E. Lender, Nathan Weiss College of Graduate Studies, Kean University

Henry Bischoff, History, Ramapo College (emeritus)

Don Linky, Public Affairs Research Institute

Joanna Burger, Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University

Maxine N. Lurie, History, Seton Hall University

Paul Clemens, History, Rutgers University

Marc Mappen, New Jersey Historical Commission

David L. Cowen, History, Rutgers University (emeritus)

Barbara J. Mitnick, Task Force on New Jersey History

John T. Cunningham, independent historian

Frances D. Pingeon, Morris County Historian (In Memoriam)

Ulysses Grant Dietz, Newark Museum

David Robinson, New Jersey State Climatologist

Mark Di Ionno, The Star-Ledger

Robert Rosenberg, Thomas A. Edison Papers

Delight Wing Dodyk, Women’s Project of New Jersey

Emily W. B. Russell, Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis, Rutgers University

Angus Kress Gillespie, American Studies, Rutgers University

Michael Siegel, Geography, Rutgers University

William Gillette, History, Rutgers University

Anita L. Talar, Seton Hall University Library

Michael Gochfeld, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University

Peter O. Wacker, Geography, Rutgers University

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb, Communications, Seton Hall University

Robert F. Williams, School of Law, Rutgers University–Camden

Bonita Craft Grant, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Robert J. Wister, Religion, Seton Hall University

H. Roger Grant, History, Clemson University Howard Green, New Jersey Historical Commission Larry A. Greene, History, Seton Hall University Constance M. Greiff, Heritage Studies

Lorraine Williams, New Jersey State Museum

Peter Wosh, New York University Archives B. Michael Zuckerman, Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts

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Editor’s Preface The editors of this encyclopedia emphatically believe that New Jersey is a place of interest and importance that is worth studying for what it has contributed to the world. It is our hope that this volume will help New Jersey come out from the shadow cast by its metropolitan neighbors, Philadelphia and New York City, to be recognized and appreciated in its own right. We do not, however, present this work as a simply uncritical paean to New Jersey. We want this volume to inform readers of the state’s blemishes as well as its accomplishments. We offer this encyclopedia, with its two thousand and nine hundred entries by more than six hundred authors, as a step toward proving the role the state has played in the history, culture, economy, and politics of the nation. We hope that others will build on what we have begun here; that this encyclopedia will be a jumping-off point for further exploration of the Garden State, and that future generations of investigators, both amateur and professional, will be able to fill in the blanks and extend the coverage of this work. This project was the brainchild of Marc Mappen who, impressed by the Encyclopedia of New York City, decided New Jersey needed a similar work. He convinced Maxine Lurie to work on the project with him. Marlie Wasserman, the director of Rutgers University Press, was eager to publish the volume. Kenneth Jackson, the editor of the Encyclopedia of New York City, at a very early stage, kindly provided advice. John Pearson and the Rutgers Foundation helped identify possible sources of funding. To jumpstart the effort an editorial board of experts was assembled, and each person was asked to suggest one hundred possible entries in his or her field. To this were later added other entries proposed by the public, other scholars, and authors. The result is a major reference work on the state covering history, agriculture, business, government, politics, religion, weather, education, law, medicine, science, geography, transportation, art, architecture, sports, music, and literature. There are biographies of those who have been born, lived, or worked in the state. Included are the famous and infamous, wealthy

individuals and former slaves, governors and inventors. An effort has been made to reflect the diversity as well as the accomplishments of residents. And because New Jersey is a state with a strong tradition of home rule, there is an entry for every municipality (all ) and every county (all ). We have also included more than six hundred pictures from repositories in New Jersey and elsewhere and nearly one hundred and fifty maps, most created for this book by Michael Siegel at the Rutgers Cartography Lab. The work follows an A-to-Z format that mingles long interpretive entries (for example, “agriculture’’) with shorter entries (for example, “blueberries’’ and “corn’’). These range in length from two thousand words to a brief one hundred words. Most entries are followed by a bibliography, many by cross-references to other entries, maps, and illustrations. Entries are as accurate as possible as of December . We made numerous editorial decisions before proceeding. For example, we included biographies of living individuals, but restricted the number of such entries to keep them from quickly becoming outdated. Many living individuals are mentioned in larger entries, such as popular music, but not treated separately. Efforts were made to include the good and the bad, gangsters as well as Nobel Prize winners, pollution sources as well as preservation efforts. Some suggested subjects were rejected because they were of limited importance, because of insufficient information, or because an appropriate author could not be found. All entries were assigned to specific authors, and when written they were carefully read by both the editors and the copyeditors. The interpretations within each entry are, of course, those of its author. Public relations pieces were not accepted, and some entries were rejected as unsuitable. The range of subjects covered by this volume is large and varied, but no reference work devoted to a state that has been home to millions of people over hundreds of years can hope to capture every topic. If your favorite subject has been missed, we regret it, and plead ignorance, restrictions of time and space, and in some cases the inability to find an appropriate author. We invite readers who feel that there are topics that should be added, or who have identified errors in this volume, to send their suggestions and corrections to Rutgers University Press, for use in a second edition if the occasion arises. Again, we see this volume as a beginning, not as an end.

xi

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Acknowledgments Elsewhere in this work are listed the names of the donors, editorial and advisory board members, writers, and staff. We will resist the temptation of making this long volume even longer by listing all of their names once again in this acknowledgments section. We do, however, want to single out some men and women who have rendered particularly significant service during the nine years it took to complete this project. For help with fundraising we would particularly like to thank Senator Leonard Lance, Scott McVay, and Nicholas G. Rutgers IV, as well as the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Dodge Foundation, and the State of New Jersey. At Rutgers University Press the support of Marlie Wasserman, the efforts in particular of our Assistant Editors Catherine Keim, Peter Mickulas, and Jason Rimmer, as well as the work of Marilyn Campbell, Anne Hegeman, and others, have made this book possible. At Rutgers University Joseph J. Seneca and John Pearson offered valuable support. For help with maps and illustrations special thanks go to Michael Siegel and Sharon Hazard. Numerous librarians and archivists in New

Jersey and elsewhere helped find information and pictures—special thanks go to the staff at Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, the New Jersey Historical Society, the Newark Museum, the Newark Public Library, The StarLedger, and the Women’s Project of New Jersey. While we are grateful to the enormous number of authors who contributed their entries, we would particularly like to thank a few of those who went out of their way to be helpful, or wrote a large number of entries—Richard Connors, Pamela Cooper, Gail Greenberg, Robert Hordon, and Sandra Moss, among others. Thanks also to several special friends of the project— Franny Pingeon, who we miss and to whom this book is dedicated, as well as Barbara Mitnick, Carol Cronheim, Mark DiIonno, and James Willse. Thanks are also owed to the institutions we both work for—Seton Hall University and the New Jersey Historical Commission—for supporting us. A final thanks to our spouses and children (and their spouses) for their patience and support: Jon, Ellen, David, Debbie, Daniel, Benjamin, Rebecca, Jason, and Hikari.

Maxine N. Lurie Marc Mappen

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Note on the Use of the Encyclopedia Several decisions were made for this book regarding the use of census figures, abbreviations, and sources. Regarding population statistics, we have used the  U.S. census. Because the  census allowed respondents to select more than one race to describe themselves, and established Hispanic/Latino as a separate category from race, the total population figures for a municipality may add up to more than  percent. A detailed enumeration of racial and ethnic groups for every New Jersey municipality is given in a long chart that follows the entry entitled “census.’’ Briefer  census data are presented at the end of the entries on each of the state’s  municipalities. In these individual municipality entries, the listing of racial groups has been simplified to present only

the largest—generally those of  percent or more. In short, the municipal entry presents a sketch of the community’s population makeup; the census table provides a more complete picture. In addition, it was decided that, since this book is all about New Jersey, it would be assumed that places named are in New Jersey unless otherwise noted. The bibliographies at the end of the entries suggest additional sources for the reader. We attempted to limit them, as far as possible, to material that is accessible to the public. That said, they have been written keeping in mind that this encyclopedia is intended both for scholars who would like to do more work, and for the general reader.

xv

Municipalities: Atlantic, Cape May, and Cumberland Counties

15

ATLANTIC COUNTY

12

19

7

22

4 5

14

55

13

53 45

54 49

56

43

26

1

25 10

48

9

52 47

20

11

16

50

6

2 8 24

23

51 46

3

21

18 17

44

34 37 42

30

CUMBERLAND COUNTY

35

32 27

33

31 28

CAPE MAY COUNTY

36

39

38

N

0

40 41

5 miles

29

Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

ATLANTIC Absecon City Atlantic City Brigantine City Buena Boro Buena Vista Twp Corbin City Egg Harbor City Egg Harbor Twp Egg Harbor Twp Egg Harbor Twp Estell Manor City Folsom Boro Galloway Twp Hamilton Twp Hammonton Town Linwood City Longport Boro Margate City Mullica Twp Northfield City Pleasantville City Port Republic City Somers Point City Ventnor City Weymouth Twp Weymouth Twp

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

CAPE MAY Avalon Boro Cape May City Cape May Point Boro Dennis Twp Lower Twp Middle Twp North Wildwood City Ocean City Sea Isle City Stone Harbor Boro Upper Twp West Cape May Boro West Wildwood Boro Wildwood City Wildwood Crest Boro Woodbine Boro

43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56

CUMBERLAND Bridgeton City Commercial Twp Deerfield Twp Downe Twp Fairfield Twp Greenwich Twp Hopewell Twp Lawrence Twp Maurice River Twp Millville City Shiloh Boro Stow Creek Twp Upper Deerfield Twp Vineland City

Municipalities: Bergen and Passaic Counties 81

85

33

36

83

47

1

42

71

58

72

43

76

55

28

35

74

40

27 69

68

51

PASSAIC COUNTY

53

71

66

20

79

BERGEN COUNTY

65

48

14

7 26

22

44

84 17 80

54

10 52 38

8

3

63

78 13

82 86 75

61 72 77

N

34

57

21

2

9

46 73

41

24

31

23

62

59

4

15

16

29 25 64 19 50 67 70 30 45 37 49 5 6 56 60 18 11 12 32

0

5

39

miles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

BERGEN Allendale Boro Alpine Boro Bergenfield Boro Bogota Boro Carlstadt Boro Cliffside Park Boro Closter Boro Cresskill Boro Demarest Boro Dumont Boro East Rutherford Boro Edgewater Boro Elmwood Park Boro Emerson Boro Englewood City Englewood Cliffs Boro Fair Lawn Boro Fairview Boro Fort Lee Boro Franklin Lakes Boro Garfield City Glen Rock Boro Hackensack City Harrington Park Boro Hasbrouck Heights Boro Haworth Boro Hillsdale Boro Ho-Ho-Kus Boro Leonia Boro Little Ferry Boro Lodi Boro Lyndhurst Twp Mahwah Twp Maywood Boro Midland Park Boro Montvale Boro

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

Moonachie Boro New Milford Boro North Arlington Boro Northvale Boro Norwood Boro Oakland Boro Old Tappan Boro Oradell Boro Palisades Park Boro Paramus Boro Park Ridge Boro Ramsey Boro Ridgefield Boro Ridgefield Park Village Ridgewood Village River Edge Boro River Vale Twp Rochelle Park Twp Rockleigh Boro Rutherford Boro Saddle Brook Twp Saddle River Boro South Hackensack Twp South Hackensack Twp South Hackensack Twp Teaneck Twp Tenafly Boro Teterboro Boro Upper Saddle River Boro Waldwick Boro Wallington Boro Washington Twp Westwood Boro Wood-Ridge Boro Woodcliff Lake Boro Wyckoff Twp

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

PASSAIC Bloomingdale Boro Clifton City Haledon Boro Hawthorne Boro Little Falls Twp North Haledon Boro Passaic City Paterson City Pompton Lakes Boro Prospect Park Boro Ringwood Boro Totowa Boro Wanaque Boro Wayne Twp West Milford Twp West Paterson Boro

4

BURLINGTON COUNTY

OCEAN COUNTY

3 14

68

7 2 12 30

9

10

38

8

26

55

24

69

47

43 67

34 37 16

22 19

5

52

18

6

31 27

15

25

40

23 11

17

63

54 48

29

28

51

73 62

56

46

70 66

33

45

21 13

71

64

53 39

20 35

65 32 42

41 61 50 60

74

36 1 49

57

Municipalities: Burlington and Ocean Counties

N

75 72

76

59 44

0 58

5 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

BURLINGTON Bass River Twp Beverly City Bordentown City Bordentown Twp Burlington City Burlington Twp Chesterfield Twp Cinnaminson Twp Delanco Twp Delran Twp Eastampton Twp Edgewater Park Twp Evesham Twp Fieldsboro Boro Florence Twp Hainesport Twp Lumberton Twp Mansfield Twp Maple Shade Twp Medford Lakes Boro Medford Twp Moorestown Twp Mount Holly Twp Mount Laurel Twp New Hanover Twp North Hanover Twp Palmyra Boro Pemberton Boro Pemberton Twp Riverside Twp Riverton Boro Shamong Twp Southampton Twp Springfield Twp Tabernacle Twp Washington Twp Westampton Twp Willingboro Twp Woodland Twp Wrightstown Boro

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76

OCEAN Barnegat Light Boro Barnegat Twp Bay Head Boro Beach Haven Boro Beachwood Boro Berkeley Twp Brick Twp Dover Twp Eagleswood Twp Harvey Cedars Boro Island Heights Boro Jackson Twp Lacey Twp Lakehurst Boro Lakewood Twp Lavallette Boro Little Egg Harbor Twp Long Beach Twp Long Beach Twp Long Beach Twp Long Beach Twp Manchester Twp Mantoloking Boro Ocean Gate Boro Ocean Twp Pine Beach Boro Plumsted Twp Point Pleasant Beach Boro Point Pleasant Boro Seaside Heights Boro Seaside Park Boro Ship Bottom Boro South Toms River Boro Stafford Twp Surf City Boro Tuckerton Boro

29

Municipalities: Camden, Gloucester, and Salem Counties

26

18

8 39

19 2 14 27 51

7

53 59

61

46

17 9 20 1 35 23 16 25 3 4 32 33 60 21 13

62 58

6

15

5 31

57 63

72

38 43

73

78 69

37

45

55

65

10

54

47

24

30

49 70

36

11

56 71

N

34

41

22

42

48

28 12

40

50

CAMDEN COUNTY

77 44 66

76

64 52

67

74

75

68

SALEM COUNTY 0

GLOUCESTER COUNTY

5 miles @Rutgers, The State University

CAMDEN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Audubon Boro Audubon Park Boro Barrington Boro Bellmawr Boro Berlin Boro Berlin Twp Brooklawn Boro Camden City Cherry Hill Twp Chesilhurst Boro Clementon Boro Collingswood Boro Gibbsboro Boro Gloucester City Gloucester Twp Haddon Heights Boro Haddon Twp (east) Haddon Twp (north) Haddon Twp (south) Haddonfield Boro Hi-Nella Boro Laurel Springs Boro Lawnside Boro Lindenwold Boro Magnolia Boro Merchantville Boro Mount Ephraim Boro Oaklyn Boro Pennsauken Twp Pine Hill Boro Pine Valley Boro Runnemede Boro Somerdale Boro Stratford Boro Tavistock Boro Voorhees Twp Waterford Twp Winslow Twp Woodlynne Boro

SALEM

GLOUCESTER 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63

Clayton Boro Deptford Twp East Greenwich Twp Elk Twp Franklin Twp Glassboro Boro Greenwich Twp Harrison Twp Logan Twp Mantua Twp Monroe Twp National Park Boro Newfield Boro Paulsboro Boro Pitman Boro South Harrison Twp Swedesboro Boro Washington Twp Wenonah Boro West Deptford Twp Westville Boro Woodbury City Woodbury Heights Boro Woolwich Twp

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78

Alloway Twp Carneys Point Twp Elmer Boro Elsinboro Twp Lower Alloways Creek Twp Mannington Twp Oldmans Twp Penns Grove Boro Pennsville Twp Pilesgrove Twp Pittsgrove Twp Quinton Twp Salem City Upper Pittsgrove Twp Woodstown Boro

Municipalities: Essex, Hudson, and Union Counties

7 15 4

21

ESSEX COUNTY

3 20

6

18

13 8

N

HUDSON COUNTY

16 2

30 1

22

31

10 17

UNION COUNTY

5

24

19

25

33

32 29 27

26

12

34

11 9

14

52

28 51

45

53

44

41

42

35

38

49 54

37

40

39

23

48 55

50 46

43

36 47

0

5 miles @Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

ESSEX Belleville Town Bloomfield Town Caldwell Boro Cedar Grove Twp East Orange City Essex Fells Boro Fairfield Boro Glen Ridge Boro Irvington Town Livingston Twp Maplewood Twp Millburn Twp Montclair Town Newark City North Caldwell Boro Nutley Town Orange City Roseland Boro South Orange Village Verona Boro West Caldwell Boro West Orange Town

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

HUDSON Bayonne City East Newark Boro Guttenberg Town Harrison Town Hoboken City Jersey City Kearny Town North Bergen Twp Secaucus Town Union City Weehawken Twp West New York Town

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55

UNION Berkeley Heights Twp Clark Twp Cranford Twp Elizabeth City Fanwood Boro Garwood Boro Hillside Twp Kenilworth Boro Linden City Mountainside Boro New Providence Boro Plainfield City Rahway City Roselle Boro Roselle Park Boro Scotch Plains Twp Springfield Twp Summit City Union Twp Westfield Town Winfield Twp

Municipalities: Hunterdon, Mercer, and Somerset Counties 13

3

HUNTERDON COUNTY 19

4 24

12 14

2

42

54 46

41

40

18

60 25

59

5

6

45

15

53

48

1 22

55 57

44

10 20

43 50

21

58

11 16

49 9

51

7

8

47

52 56

23

26 17

31

SOMERSET COUNTY

36

32

35

34 33

30

39

N

28 27 37

MERCER COUNTY

38

29

0

5 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

HUNTERDON Alexandria Twp Bethlehem Twp Bloomsbury Boro Califon Boro Clinton Town Clinton Twp Delaware Twp East Amwell Twp Flemington Boro Franklin Twp Frenchtown Boro Glen Gardner Boro Hampton Boro High Bridge Boro Holland Twp Kingwood Twp Lambertville City Lebanon Boro Lebanon Twp Milford Boro Raritan Twp Readington Twp Stockton Boro Tewksbury Twp Union Twp West Amwell Twp

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

MERCER East Windsor Twp Ewing Twp Hamilton Twp Hightstown Boro Hopewell Boro Hopewell Twp Lawrence Twp Pennington Boro Princeton Boro Princeton Twp Trenton City Washington Twp West Windsor Twp

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

SOMERSET Bedminster Twp Bernards Twp Bernardsville Boro Bound Brook Boro Branchburg Twp Bridgewater Twp Far Hills Boro Franklin Twp Green Brook Twp Hillsborough Twp Manville Boro Millstone Boro Montgomery Twp North Plainfield Boro Peapack Gladstone Boro Raritan Boro Rocky Hill Boro Somerville Boro South Bound Brook Boro Warren Twp Watchung Boro

3

Municipalities: Middlesex and Monmouth Counties

1 22

10

25 17

9 16

5 7 13

20 19

14

77

44

50

11 23 51 4

N

6

45

58 15

24

26

31

46

59

27

21

47

68

40

8 57

66

69

52

18

61

71 12

2

72

39

65 54 38

36

80

55 76 42

MIDDLESEX COUNTY

64

43 67

37 28

49

60

62

63

41

53

30

34 32

48 29

79 75

MONMOUTH COUNTY 0

33

73

78

74 70

35

5

56

miles Rutgers, The State University

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

MIDDLESEX Carteret Boro Cranbury Twp Dunellen Boro East Brunswick Twp Edison Twp Helmetta Boro Highland Park Boro Jamesburg Boro Metuchen Boro Middlesex Boro Milltown Boro Monroe Twp New Brunswick City North Brunswick Twp Old Bridge Twp Perth Amboy City Piscataway Twp Plainsboro Twp Sayreville Boro South Amboy City South Brunswick Twp South Plainfield Boro South River Boro Spotswood Boro Woodbridge Twp

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

MONMOUTH Aberdeen Twp Aberdeen Twp Allenhurst Boro Allentown Boro Asbury Park City Atlantic Highlands Boro Avon By The Sea Boro Belmar Boro Bradley Beach Boro Brielle Boro Colts Neck Twp Deal Boro Eatontown Boro Englishtown Boro Fair Haven Boro Farmingdale Boro Freehold Boro Freehold Twp Gateway Nat’l Rec Area Hazlet Twp Highlands Boro Holmdel Twp Howell Twp Interlaken Boro Keansburg Boro Keyport Boro Little Silver Boro Loch Arbour Village

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

Long Branch City Manalapan Twp Manasquan Boro Marlboro Twp Matawan Boro Middletown Twp Millstone Twp Monmouth Beach Boro Neptune City Boro Neptune Twp Ocean Twp Oceanport Boro Red Bank Boro Roosevelt Boro Rumson Boro Sea Bright Boro Sea Girt Boro Shrewsbury Boro Shrewsbury Twp South Belmar Boro Spring Lake Boro Spring Lake Heights Boro Tinton Falls Boro Union Beach Boro Upper Freehold Twp Wall Twp West Long Branch Boro

Municipalities: Morris, Sussex, and Warren Counties

53 63 56 60

61

44 42

48

62

52

SUSSEX COUNTY

50

45 49 55

59 72

54 57

41

46

3

40

14

33 15

67

47

69

43

31

35 51

58

76

2

64

N

25

74 28

75

20 26

71

77

39

36

9

23

24

38

11 7

18

17 13

84

81 70 65

4

5

68

82

10

12 19

83

78

27

22

6

73

WARREN COUNTY

16

1

32 79

80

21

29

37

85 66

8

34

MORRIS COUNTY

30

0

5 miles

Rutgers, The State University

MORRIS COUNTY 1. Boonton Town 2. Boonton Twp 3. Butler Boro 4. Chatham Boro 5. Chatham Twp 6. Chester Boro 7. Chester Twp 8. Denville Twp 9. Dover Town 10. East Hanover Twp 11. Florham Park Boro 12. Hanover Twp 13. Harding Twp 14. Jefferson Twp 15. Kinnelon Boro 16. Lincoln Park Boro 17. Madison Boro 18. Mendham Boro 19 . Mendham Twp

20 . Mine Hill Twp 21 . Montville Twp 22 . Morris Plains Boro 23 . Morris Twp 24 . Morristown Town 25 . Mount Arlington Boro 26 . Mount Olive Twp 27 . Mountain Lakes Boro 28 . Netcong Boro 29 . Parsippany-troy Hills Twp 30 . Passaic Twp 31 . Pequannock Twp 32 . Randolph Twp 33. Riverdale Boro 34 . Rockaway Boro 35 . Rockaway Twp 36 . Roxbury Twp 37. Victory Gardens Boro 38 . Washington Twp 39 . Wharton Boro

SUSSEX COUNTY 40. Andover Boro 41. Andover Twp 42. Branchville Boro 43. Byram Twp 44. Frankford Twp 45. Franklin Boro 46. Fredon Twp 47. Green Twp 48. Hamburg Boro 49. Hampton Twp 50. Hardyston Twp 51. Hopatcong Boro 52. Lafayette Twp 53. Montague Twp 54. Newton Town 55. Ogdensburg Boro 56. Sandyston Twp 57. Sparta Twp 58. Stanhope Boro 59. Stillwater Twp 60. Sussex Boro 61. Vernon Twp 62. Walpack Twp 63. Wantage Twp

WARREN COUNTY 64. Allamuchy Twp 65. Alpha Boro 66. Belvidere Town 67. Blairstown Twp 68. Franklin Twp 69. Frelinghuysen Twp 70. Greenwich Twp 71. Hackettstown Town 72. Hardwick Twp 73. Harmony Twp 74. Hope Twp 75. Independence Twp 76. Knowlton Twp 77. Liberty Twp 78. Lopatcong Twp 79. Mansfield Twp 80. Oxford Twp 81. Phillipsburg Town 82. Pohatcong Twp 83. Washington Boro 84. Washington Twp 85. White Twp

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEW JERSEY

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A A&P. See Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company. Abbett, Leon

(b. Oct. , ; d. Dec. ,

). Governor, politician, lawyer, and jurist.

Leon Abbett was one of the ablest and most intriguing men ever to serve as governor of New Jersey. Although he was both a machine boss and a spoils politician, he was also a reform-minded lawmaker of considerable importance. Abbett was born in Philadelphia, the son of Ezekiel Abbett, a hatter, and Sarah Howell. He graduated Central High School in , studied law, and became an attorney in . On the eve of the Civil War, he moved to New York, where he practiced law and entered into a partnership with William Fuller. In , Abbett married Mary Briggs of Philadelphia and set up housekeeping in Hoboken. Two years later, Abbett entered politics and won a seat in the state assembly. Relying on his traditional base of Democratic support in Hudson County, he steadily moved up both the party ranks and civic positions; he served as Speaker of the General Assembly (–) and president of the State Senate (). In  he was elected governor of his adopted state. Although his career on the face of it followed a logical progression, he had long defied the ruling elite, and, even within the Democratic party, he stood against the wind. Affectionately known as the “Great Commoner,’’ Abbett appealed primarily to the deprived urban lower classes and the marginally deprived agricultural yeomanry. He served two terms as governor: first from  to , and again from  to . By capitalizing upon labor unrest, ethnic conflict, and a generation of agrarian discontent, he demonstrated a capacity for leadership that enabled him to arouse enthusiasm among constituencies demoralized by the domination of big business and concentrated wealth. An urban populist reared in the Jacksonian spoils tradition, he voiced the sentiments of the common man beset by the intransigent forces of unrestrained capitalism and special privilege. Undoubtedly, the boldest act of Abbett’s career was his battle to tax the railroads. This audacious venture was fraught with risk. Although he won the protracted battle, he paid a heavy price. The powerful railroads used their political clout to defeat him for the U.S. Senate in . Upon his reelection as governor in , he pushed through a ballot reform law designed to reduce vote fraud.

To right the wrongs of oppressed labor was Abbett’s passion. He initiated a series of laws that improved conditions of industrial employment. He established standards of occupational health and safety, maximum hours, and wage payment in cash rather than scrip. He abolished convict labor and child labor, outlawed the use of Pinkerton detectives in strikes, and eliminated yellow-dog contracts. All were ways in which he sought to improve the workplace for both men and women. He also created a state police force for maintaining industrial peace. After his second defeat for the U.S. Senate in , Abbett was appointed a judge on the state supreme court. He died the following year. DAB. Hogarty, Richard A. Leon Abbett’s New Jersey: The Emergence of the Modern Governor. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, . ———. “The Political Apprenticeship of Abbett,’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

Leon

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard A. Hogarty

Abbott, Charles Conrad

(b. June ,

; d. July , ). Archaeologist, naturalist,

and author. C. C. Abbott, the son of Timothy Abbott and Susan Conrad, was born in Trenton and received his B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in  and his M.D. in . During the Civil War he served in the New Jersey National Guard. In , he married Julia Boggs Olden. Abbott and his wife lived on a farm near Trenton, which Abbott called the Three Beeches. While collecting Native American artifacts in Trenton, Abbott found stone hand axes resembling ones unearthed by contemporary archaeologists in Europe. Abbott believed that his finds represented a Paleolithic occupation of the New World coeval with that of Europe’s Old Stone Age. In  he published a book outlining his views titled The Stone Age in New Jersey. Shortly thereafter, Frederick Ward Putnam of Harvard University’s Peabody Museum hired Abbott and later Ernest Volk to continue collecting New Jersey artifacts. Although initially well received, Abbott’s theories came under scrutiny from prominent scholars of the day and were eventually disproven. He remains important as New Jersey’s first archaeologist, the individual who first noted in and around Trenton the extensive archaeological deposits subsequently designated the Abbott Farm National Historic Landmark. For much of his life Abbott supported himself by writing popular books on natural history and archaeology. He also served briefly as the University of Pennsylvania Museum’s first curator of archaeology. C. C. Abbott died in Bristol, Pennsylvania, and is buried in

Trenton’s Riverview Cemetery, near where he believed he had found the remains of Paleolithic man. Joyce, Arthur A., William Sandy, and Sharon Horan. “Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott and the Question of Human Antiquity in the New World.’’ Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey  (): –. Kraft, Herbert C. “Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, New Jersey’s Pioneer Archaeologist.’’ Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey  (): –.

See also archaeology

Richard F. Veit

Abbott and Costello.

Stars of burlesque, radio, film, and television, and one of America’s greatest comedy teams. Bud Abbott (b. Oct. , ; d. Apr. , ), born William Alexander Abbott in Asbury Park, moved from New Jersey as a child. Lou Costello (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ), born Lou Cristillo, grew up in Paterson and remained a favorite son long after he left. Abbott and Costello teamed up in  on the burlesque circuit, honing their act in the Costello family’s garage. A typical skit cast Abbott as a well-dressed, smooth-talking con man, and Costello, in his trademark baggy pants, skinny tie, and round hat, as his befuddled sidekick. Their rendition of an old burlesque skit, “Who’s on First?’’ became their signature routine. Their performance on the Kate Smith Hour, a nationally broadcast radio show, in the late s, made Abbott and Costello overnight stars. The routine, in which Abbott attempts to inform Costello of the odd names of baseball players—“Who’s on first, What’s on Second, I Don’t Know is on third’’—endures as a

Bronze statue of Lou Costello, Paterson.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger. 1

2

Abbott v. Burke

metaphor for situations of hopeless confusion. Time magazine named “Who’s on First?’’ the best comedy routine of the twentieth century. After moving to California around , Abbott and Costello appeared in the first of their thirty-six films, A Night in the Tropics. Their next film, Buck Privates, established “the boys’’ as a box-office smash. They also starred in their own radio show and television series. The team routinely inserted references to Paterson and New Jersey into their skits, and several Abbott and Costello movies premiered at Paterson’s Fabian Theater. Occasional feuds and personal tragedy punctuated Abbott and Costello’s long friendship. In  Costello’s baby son and namesake drowned in the family pool in Sherman Oaks, California. Heavy gamblers, Abbott and Costello were forced to pay hefty fines following audits by the Internal Revenue Service. The team broke up in . In , Paterson residents erected a statue of Lou Costello with a baseball bat resting on his shoulder, a nod to “Who’s on First?’’ Costello, Chris, and Raymond Strait. Lou’s on First. New York: St. Martin’s, . Furmanek, Bob, and Ron Palumbo. Abbott and Costello in Hollywood. New York: Perigee, .

Christopher Hann

Abbott v. Burke.

In  the New Jersey Supreme Court again faced the constitutionality of how the state funds its public school system, a question previously addressed in the  Robinson v. Cahill case. Over the course of the next sixteen years the court was asked by several poor urban school districts to declare that the Public School Education Act of  violated the “thorough and efficient’’ clause of the New Jersey constitution. In responding to this claim, the justices realized that they would be in “an area where confrontation between the branches of government [judicial and legislative] is not only a distinct possibility but has been an unfortunate reality.’’ The court noted the existence of judicial opinions from twenty-one states challenging the funding of public education on constitutional grounds. None of the other state court opinions had the unique attribute of this case: “an educational funding system specifically designed to conform to a prior court decision, having been declared constitutional by the Court but now attacked as having failed to achieve the constitutional goal.’’ Thus the court was not able to look elsewhere for an answer, but had to fashion an answer through its interpretation of the state constitution. Despite legislative action, funding and spending disparities between poor urban districts and rich suburban districts had worsened. Although the justices rejected a complete overhaul of New Jersey’s system of financing education, they concluded that the Public School Education Act failed to provide disadvantaged students with the chance to compete. Mindful of the socioeconomic

hardships faced by the urban poor and the impact these hardships have on the quality of education, the justices concluded that these socioeconomic differences increased the need for additional spending. The justices also noted that the level of education offered to students in some of the poorer urban districts was tragically inadequate. These districts suffered by comparison to the richer districts in each of the indicators set forth by the legislature to constitute a thorough and efficient education, such as teacher/student ratios and teacher experience and level of education. The remedy imposed was to amend the Public School Education Act to create “special need’’ districts, “so as to assure that poorer urban districts’ educational funding is substantially equal to that of property-rich districts.’’ Contrary to public perception, the court did not itself create “special need’’ districts, currently classified as “Abbott districts,’’ but relied upon the classification of “urban aid districts’’ by the Department of Community Affairs. The justices instructed the legislature that the means of such funding “cannot depend on the budgeting and taxing decisions of local school boards.’’ The court identified the poorer urban areas; however, the court left it to the legislature and the commissioner of education to add or delete specific school districts based upon spending calculations and formulas. The justices declared the minimum aid provision of the act unconstitutional since this formula was counterequalizing. The sole function of this aid was to enable richer districts to spend even more, “thereby increasing the disparity of educational funding between richer and poorer.’’ Despite the substantial breadth of their ruling, the justices once again declined to address the state equal-protection claim presented by the plaintiffs—that wealth-based disparity is causing educational disparity. Since  there have been six Abbott v. Burke decisions. They have imposed remedies consisting of the creation of thirty Abbott districts, several revisions in the Public School Education Act and Regulations, and the creation of an $. billion Public School Construction Fund (of which $ billion was allocated to the Abbott districts) due to the sixteen-year history of “chronic failure’’ of local districts to attain the statewide academic standards. Despite these decisions, the urban/suburban rift in the New Jersey educational community continues to grow as the state tries to resolve the discrepancies. Pollock, Stewart G. “Celebrating Fifty Years of Judicial Reform under the  New Jersey Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –. Tractenberg, Paul L. “A Clear and Powerful Voice for Poor Urban Students: Chief Justice Robert Wilentz’s Role in Abbott v. Burke.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (): –.

See also education; Robinson v. Cahill; “thorough and efficient’’ clause

Peter F. Bariso, Jr.

Aberdeen.

.-square-mile township in northernmost Monmouth County. The area was settled in , largely by Scots Presbyterians. First called New Aberdeen, it was part of Middletown Township from  to , when it became Matawan Township. With Matawan Borough, Aberdeen, at the southern periphery of central New Jersey’s clay deposits, has been home to numerous pottery, tile, and brick industries. The area’s former role as Monmouth County’s major manufacturing region was in part a result of its transportation network, including the former Freehold and New York Railroad and the former New York and Long Branch Railroad (now the North Jersey Coast Line), and its location on Matawan Creek (a narrow, now-silted stream). The Cliffwood Beach section attained prominence in the s as a waterfront resort, a role lost to changing recreational patterns and beach erosion. Aberdeen’s character as a residential suburb was solidified in the early s by William J. Levitt’s construction of Strathmore, a development of nearly two thousand houses built in ten sections, which propelled population growth that decade from , to ,. In  Matawan Township voters narrowly chose to change the municipality’s name to Aberdeen to help it develop an identity separate from Matawan Borough. In  Aberdeen’s population of , was  percent white and  percent black. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Henderson, Helen. Images of America: Around Matawan and Aberdeen. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Tiemann, Mrs. Frank. Township of Matawan, – . N.p., n.d.

Randall Gabrielan

abolition.

Efforts to abolish slavery in New Jersey began soon after the Dutch introduced the first slaves. As early as , individual Quakers argued for slavery’s end. In  Quaker John Hepburn penned the first publication in New Jersey opposing slavery. But widespread opposition to slavery was slow in coming, even among the Friends. In  the Friends of the Shrewsbury Quarterly Meeting thought slave buying was wrong and should be prohibited. The leadership of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, however, argued that abolition would create “contention and uneasiness’’ among Friends, “which should be carefully avoided.’’ A more liberal Quaker leadership emerged in the s and in  recommended against slaveholding. By , Quakers selling or transferring slaves for any reason but to free them faced disownment, and in  the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting banned slavery completely among its members. The Methodists condemned slavery in  and vowed in  that they would “not cease to seek its destruction, by all wise and prudent

Absecon Lighthouse

Title page of an antislavery pamphlet by William Griffith, president of the New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. means.’’ In  the Presbyterian Synod urged the use of “prudent measures to secure the eventual final abolition of slavery in America.’’ By , the Methodists had banned slaveholding among their membership. The colonial government of New Jersey attempted to limit the slave population through import duties passed between  and . In  a petition to the legislature recommended a gradual emancipation plan similar to Pennsylvania’s Act of , and an abolition society soon formed at Burlington. Legislation was passed in  to prevent the importation of slaves, to authorize their manumission, and to protect them from abuse. In the same year, another abolition society was organized in Trenton. Gov. William Livingston urged the legislature in  to take steps toward eventual emancipation. Another society had formed in Princeton that year, and in , while a member of the legislature, John Witherspoon, president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), introduced another plan for gradual abolition. The New Jersey Abolition Society was organized in  to coordinate all antislavery activity in the state. A gradual emancipation act introduced in the legislature in  failed by one vote. Nevertheless, the Abolition Society’s success with strategically engaged lawsuits and intense lobbying began to erode slavery’s weakening base of support. When a constituent branch of the society was formed in Trenton in , its members successfully carried the fight into Hunterdon and Sussex counties, where resistance to abolition was strong. Victory came in , when the

legislature passed an act for the gradual abolition of slavery. Having achieved its primary goal of an abolition law, the Abolition Society went into a rapid decline. The Burlington society’s minutes end in , and only the Trenton society continued to operate until the New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery was officially declared dissolved in . A slave-trading scandal in New Brunswick in  provoked renewed antislavery efforts. Led by William Griffith, a new abolition society focused its energies on protecting fugitives and combating the illicit slave trade. By the s, it had given way to the New Jersey branch of the American Anti-Slavery Society, which strongly denounced the gradualist methods of its predecessors and demanded an immediate end to slavery. New Jersey’s first abolitionist newspaper began in Boonton in , and in the same year abolitionist lawyers unsuccessfully argued before the New Jersey Supreme Court that the preamble to the state’s new constitution abolished slavery outright. A final blow came when a new abolition law passed by the legislature in  ended slavery, though in name only. By , the abolition movement in New Jersey was all but dead. American Convention for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery and Improving the Condition of the African Race. Minutes, Constitution, Addresses, Memorials, Resolutions, Reports, Committees and Antislavery Tracts, –. Vols.  and . New York: Bergman, . Bloomfield, Joseph, comp. Cases Adjudged in the Supreme Court of New-Jersey Relative to the Manumission of Negroes and Others Holden in Bondage. Burlington: Isaac Neale, . Hodges, Graham Russell. Slavery and Freedom in the Rural North: African Americans in Monmouth County, New Jersey, –. Madison, WI: Madison House, .

Scott D. Peters

Abraham Clark House. Built in , this dwelling in Roselle Borough is a replica of the home of Abraham Clark, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The original farmhouse was destroyed by fire at the turn of the twentieth century. The reconstruction, commissioned by the Abraham Clark Chapter of the Sons of the American Revolution and the Daughters of the American Revolution, was based on photographs and anecdotal evidence of former owners and residents. The building serves as a meeting hall and memorial for the SAR and the DAR, with one room set aside as a museum, displaying items that belonged to Clark, as well as objects of historical interest. Mary McAleer Balkun

Absecon.

Absecon was a “resort town’’ for its early American Indian visitors. Members of the Lenape tribe came here during the summers. They called it Absegami, which, according to historians, has more than one translation. One was “little sea water,’’ and another “place of the swans.’’ The Indians not only fished and prepared their catches here for winter use but also gathered seashells to be used as money. Absecon’s first non-Indian settler was Peter White, who built his home there in . By  Absecon was a busy seaport, with shipbuilding as its major industry. In  the Friendship Saltworks was established, and salt-making soon became Absecon’s biggest industry. Absecon was chartered as a town in  and incorporated as a city on March , , when it was set off from the towns of Galloway and Egg Harbor. For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries residents earned their livings working in Atlantic City’s resort hotels. Currently, for the most part, they work in Atlantic City’s casinos. Although Absecon has business sections along Route  and Route , the city today is mostly residential, with more than , households and a  population of ,. Eighty-three percent of its population was white and  percent was Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ewing, Sarah W. R., and Robert McMullin. Along Absecon Creek; a History of Early Absecon, New Jersey. Absecon: National Publishing, . Shaw, H. Leslie, ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Shrewsbury: National Resources Directories, .

Jerome E. Klein

Absecon Lighthouse.

See also slavery

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County, two miles west of Absecon Bay and five miles west of Atlantic City. Although never a modern resort like its neighbor, Atlantic City,

3

The Absecon Lighthouse is located between Pacific and Rhode Island avenues in Atlantic City. Lieutenant George Meade (who later achieved military fame in the Civil War) played a role in the design and construction of Barnegat Lighthouse and signed the surveys and plans for Absecon. Work began on the lighthouse in , and it was first illuminated the night of January , . A first-order fixed Fresnel lens intensified the light from Funck’s style oil lamps so that the lighthouse cast a beam of white light that was visible up to twenty miles at sea. At  feet tall to the focal plane of the lens, the lighthouse is the equivalent of a sixteen-story building. Visitors climb  steps to the base of the light platform, and there are  more steps to the lightroom. The lighthouse is the only first-order lighthouse in New Jersey with its original lens still in place. Daniel Scull was the first keeper, appointed on November , , and was paid an annual salary of $. The lighthouse was decommissioned in  and turned over to the state of New Jersey. The Inlet Public/Private Association currently operates it.

4

Academy of Medicine of New Jersey

Gately, Bill. Sentinels of the Shore: A Guide to the Lighthouses and Lightships of New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Holland, Francis Ross. America’s Lighthouses: Their Illustrated History since . Brattleboro, VT: Stephen Green Press, . Veasey, David. Guarding New Jersey’s Shore. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

See also lighthouses

Kim M. Ruth

Academy of Medicine of New Jersey. The Academy of Medicine of New Jersey (AMNJ), located in Lawrenceville, is the umbrella organization for New Jersey medical and medical-specialty groups that deliver health services and medical education. The AMNJ was founded in  and is a teaching branch of the Medical Society of New Jersey. Under the auspices of the Accrediting Council for Continuing Medical Education, the AMNJ designs and sponsors continuing medical education courses for physicians, dentists, and supporting health care providers. The AMNJ also assists in the establishment of medical libraries and archives and presents awards for achievement in the field of medicine. See also Medical Society of New Jersey; medicine and public health

Pamela Cooper

Adams,

Harriet

Stratemeyer

series, revealed in an interview that she was Carolyn Keene. Adams was believed to be the sole author of the books until it was revealed in , during a lawsuit involving the syndicate, that there were up to eight other people who had written under the Carolyn Keene pseudonym. Adams was still writing and running the Stratemeyer Syndicate full time when she died at age eighty-nine in . Before Adams died, the Nancy Drew books alone had sold  million copies in the United States and hundreds of millions of copies in eighteen languages around the world. Adams was a world traveler, an avid doll collector, and the owner, with her husband, of two New Jersey farms. According to her daughter, Adams believed strongly that a woman should not be dependent upon a husband and that education was the best way to prepare for life. Widely honored, Adams was named  “Mother of the Year.’’ In  Adams endowed a chair for the study of children’s literature at Wellesley College. Mainiero, Lina, ed. American Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide from Colonial Times to the Present. Vol. . New York: Unger, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also literature

Kathy B. Roche

(b. Dec. , ; d. Mar. , ). Author and

businesswoman. Harriet Stratemeyer Adams, the daughter of Edward L. Stratemeyer, a born storyteller who initiated the Rover Boys series in , was graduated from Wellesley College in . In the year between graduation and her marriage to Russell Vroom Adams, Harriet edited manuscripts written by authors employed by her father’s syndicated book firm. In  Adams and her sister inherited the Stratemeyer Syndicate, which had published several hundred juvenile books in several series, including the Rover Boys, Tom Swift, the Bobbsey Twins, the Hardy Boys, and Nancy Drew series. Adams hired a nurse to care for her four children and began to edit her father’s remaining manuscripts. The syndicate’s series were created using a very successful, simple formula. First, the name of the book was chosen, and a general theme developed. Then Adams or one of her three partners created each plot and a detailed outline, insisting on clean, wholesome stories, full of suspense, humor, and action. These outlines were given to freelance writers (who agreed to relinquish all royalty and authorship rights for a flat fee) who would then flesh out and add dialogue to the novels. The first page was designed to hook the reader, the last page of each chapter to be a cliff-hanger. The text was revised and then edited and checked for accuracy and consistency with other books in the series by at least three syndicate employees. In the s Adams, who by then had written several books in the Nancy Drew and other

Addams,

Charles

(b.

Jan.

,

;

d. Sept. , ). Cartoonist. Westfield-born Charles Addams was best known for the series of Addams Family cartoons he drew for The New Yorker. Created in , the ghoulish family lived in an old Victorian house modeled on one that Addams was fascinated with as a child. The Addams Family appeared in The New Yorker dozens of times over a period of decades. In , a television sitcom based on the Addams Family was aired; the characters were also adapted into an animated series, as well as two feature films and many books. In addition to the Addams family, Addams created over thirteen hundred drawings during his career, all of them using a macabre twist to poke fun at the mundane. His dark humor took current or everyday events and commented on them in cartoons that were funny as well as foreboding. He indulged his preoccupation with the eerie and received inspiration for new drawings by spending time in a local cemetery trying to imagine what the people in the graves looked like. Another of Addams’s hobbies was collecting and racing automobiles. He died in Westfield, while sitting in his Audi . Addams, Charles. The World of Charles Addams. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Sharon Hazard

Admiral Farragut Academy.

This naval prep school was located in Pine Beach from  to . The first school of its kind

in the country, the academy was named for Civil War admiral David G. Farragut, who was renowned for his  battle cry, “Damn the torpedoes! Full speed ahead!’’ At its height the school enrolled  students, but by , the number had declined significantly. Efforts to increase the student body by admitting day students, and then women, failed to preserve the New Jersey facility, and today only the campus established in St. Petersburg, Florida, in  remains.

Maxine N. Lurie

ADP.

See Automatic Data Processing.

Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center. The Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center (ADTC) was the first freestanding prison in the United States devoted exclusively to sex offenders. Authorized by statewide referendum in , the ADTC opened in  in Avenel, near Rahway State Prison. It is both a therapeutic prison, in which sex offenders receive psychological treatment, and a diagnostic center. During the s, rising rates of convictions for sex crimes and longer sentences generated severe overcrowding and a construction boom at the ADTC. In the s, the ADTC came under increasing attack because of crimes committed by released convicts, but it survived. Cole, Simon A. “From the Sexual Psychopath Statute to ‘Megan’s Law’: Psychiatric Knowledge in the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Adjudication of Sex Criminals in New Jersey, –.’’ Journal of the History of Medicine  (): –. Knoop, Fay Honey. Retraining Adult Sex Offenders: Methods and Models. Orwell, VT: Safer Society Press, .

See also mental hospitals

Simon A. Cole

Advisory Commission on the Status of Women. The Advisory Commission on the Status of Women is an eleven-member board under the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs’ Division on Women. The commission advises the division regarding policies and programs affecting women and coordinates county and municipal advisory commissions. Members serve threeyear terms, and are appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. The commission was first established in  as the Governor’s Commission on the Status of Women, with Doris Hubatka, former president of the New Jersey Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, elected as the first chair. It was later subsumed under the Division on Women, Department of Community Affairs, with passage of the Division on Women Act of . New Jersey Department of Community Affairs Programs Book, –. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Community Affairs, Office of Internal Services/Grants Management, .

Joann E. Donatiello

African Americans

Advocates for New Jersey History. A not-for-profit educational organization, the Advocates for New Jersey History was incorporated in  to promote and support the work of the history community in New Jersey. In  the Advocates successfully spearheaded the effort to keep funding for history services in the state budget. The organization worked to support the efforts of the Task Force on New Jersey History and developed a plan for expansion of history services statewide. The organization sponsors the History Issues Convention each year, educates the public about history, and works to promote New Jersey’s history services to state and local government.

Dorothy W. Hartman

affirmative action.

When affirmative action programs were developed in the s and s, they were intended to remedy past discriminatory actions and patterns of inequality in employment and education. The first program, which was developed by President Richard Nixon under the Office for Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP), aimed at reducing African American unemployment in an attempt to quell urban unrest. In the private sector, affirmative action is required only when an employer has a substantial contract with either the federal government or, in some states like New Jersey, with a state or local government. In New Jersey, the state treasurer formulates and administers these requirements. Affirmative action plans, however, have come under increasing scrutiny in the courts, and in some cases they have been struck down as violations of equal-protection or statutory antidiscrimination provisions. For example, in , the affirmative action plan adopted by the New Jersey Casino Control Commission, which established goals and laid out plans for the employment of women and minorities, was struck down by a federal district court as running afoul of equal protection. Affirmative action law in the area of public education also continues to be in flux. In its  decision in University of California v. Bakke, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that state universities could use race as one factor in admissions decisions, but could not employ quotas. Here the Court established that affirmative action plans had to pass muster under the strict scrutiny standard, and that states had to establish that these plans furthered a compelling state interest and that this interest could not be achieved without them. Later court decisions have disagreed about whether an interest in racial and ethnic diversity is sufficiently important to be deemed compelling, as was debated in the  Supreme Court cases against the University of Michigan. Concluding the widely publicized proceedings, the Supreme Court of the United States upheld the right of universities to consider race in

admissions procedures in order to achieve a diverse student body. Some have argued that affirmative action programs will continue to come under fire, not only because of the judiciary’s ongoing hostility to all racial and ethnic classifications, but also because changes in immigration and racial and ethnic identification and increased intermarriage are blurring traditional demographic categories. See also discrimination; educational equity

Suzanne U. Samuels

AFL.

See American Federation of Labor.

African

Americans. For African Americans, New Jersey has been at various times a place of oppression and a place of sanctuary. Although the state did not fully abolish slavery until after the Civil War, free blacks had established their own communities in the early s, and runaway slaves found a highway to freedom through New Jersey’s Underground Railroad routes. The duality of the black experience in New Jersey continued into the twentieth century as well. New Jersey, like other northern states, provided opportunity to the descendants of southern slaves looking for more economic security, wider participation in politics, and greater personal freedom than possible in the legally segregated South. African Americans progressed in this more liberal atmosphere, but not without a struggle. New Jersey’s efforts to ensure racial equality were tentative and gradual. Among the northern colonies, New Jersey and New York had the largest populations of slaves. As early as , the Dutch West India Company began importing Africans into its New Netherland colony, where they worked on fortifications and other projects. After the British forced the Dutch to surrender the colony in  and renamed it New York, many Dutch farmers began to migrate with their slaves into the New Jersey counties of Bergen, Middlesex, and northern Monmouth. New Jersey’s first constitution (), “The Concessions and Agreements of the Lords Proprietors,’’ encouraged the importation of African slaves by providing a land grant totaling  acres for every slave imported. In succeeding years, the grant was reduced to  and then  acres. During the first half of the eighteenth century, thousands of blacks were brought into New Jersey and New York from Barbados and Jamaica. The black population increased from , out of a total New Jersey population of , in  to , out of , by . In the eighteenth century, New Jersey’s African workforce was employed in a variety of occupations commensurate with the colony’s diverse economy. Black males toiled in agricultural work, but in winter months were often hired out for nonfarming jobs. Black

5

women often provided domestic labor. In addition to farm and domestic tasks, black labor supported such enterprises as salt works and tanneries. Slave laborers could be found at the ironworks of Charles Read in Burlington County and at the Andover ironworks in Sussex County. Copper ore mined by slaves on the lands of the Schuyler family in Bergen County proved a lucrative enterprise. Even the Lambertville ferry in Hunterdon County used black labor. Some blacks became skilled artisans and entrepreneurs after obtaining their freedom. In West Jersey, where members of the Quaker religion encouraged manumission, a free black population began to emerge. In Burlington County, for example, two former slaves operated successful businesses: Cyrus Bustill opened a bakery and Caesar Murray ran a shoemaking shop. Although slaves in New Jersey may have worked in more varied occupations and perhaps had a greater chance for manumission than their southern counterparts, the reality is that most blacks in the colony endured an oppressive bondage maintained by regulation and violence. As in the other colonies, slaves in New Jersey resorted to various forms of resistance, from the destruction of farm tools and animals, to flight, to conspiracies to rebel. In , fearful of the spread of rebellion after the slave insurrection in New York City in , New Jersey authorities tightened the laws regulating slavery in their colony and enacted duties on slave importations to limit the size of the black population. Earlier laws in  and  had limited blacks trading with others and black access to guns. A rash of fires in New York City in  led to a belief that blacks were attempting to burn down the city; when several barns in Hackensack were destroyed by fire, a hysterical reaction culminated in the conviction and burning alive of three black New Jerseyans. The fortunes of Africans in New Jersey gradually improved in the eighteenth century. Quakers like John Woolman and John Hepburn proselytized among their coreligionists about the incompatibility of slavery and Christianity, and the influence of the democratic rhetoric of the American Revolution concerning the inalienable rights of men convinced enough New Jersey legislators to support a law in  that provided for gradual emancipation. Passage of this law may have been influenced by black participation in the Revolutionary War. Despite the Continental Congress’s decision in  to exclude blacks, both slave and free, from the Continental Army, New Jersey’s Militia Act of  allowed the enlistment of free blacks, and the state’s Militia Act of  did not exclude free blacks or slaves. Oliver Cromwell, a slave from Burlington County, served in the New Jersey Continental Line, and a free black, James Array of Readington, joined the Continental Line and the Hunterdon County militia. Blacks

African Americans

6

African Americans: Percentage of Total Population 1790 2000 1790

0

20 Miles

1870

0.0 - 4.0 4.1 - 8.0 8.1 - 12.0 12.1 - 16.0 16.1 - 20.0

1970

1930

0.0 - 2.5 2.6 - 5.0 5.1 - 7.5 7.6 - 10.0 10.1 - 12.5

2000

0.0 - 3.0 3.1 - 6.0 6.1 - 9.0 9.1 - 12.0 12.1 - 15.0

Essex, Union, Camden, and Hudson counties accounted for 53.4 percent of New Jersey's black population in 2000. The largest increases in the state's black population during the 1990s occurred in Union, Middlesex, Essex, and Camden counties (a statewide gain of 10.1%).

Population by Race, 2000

White 73%

Black 14% Asian 6% Other 7%

0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 30.0

0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 41.0

Source: U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov

For the first time, Americans were allowed to identify themselves as members of more than one race on their census form. The Census 2000 data by race are, therefore, not directly comparable with data from previous censuses. @Rutgers, The State University

even served with British forces, hoping that a British victory might result in their freedom. Pro-British blacks played an important role in Loyalist raids on the East Jersey coast. Ty(e), a black man with the title of colonel, frequently commanded blacks in raids in the Sandy Hook area.

In the years following the Revolution, the condition of blacks improved, but they were still viewed as a people apart. Some of the divisions and compromises at the  Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia reflected the developing abolitionist sentiment in the North, which led to the creation of the New

Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery in  and New Jersey’s eventual passage of a gradual abolition law in . That law, deferring to the economic interests of slaveholders, did not confer immediate emancipation. Slaves born on or after July , , would be free only after they came of age.

African Americans Three years later, the state passed a law excluding blacks and women from the franchise. Meanwhile, the Rev. Robert Finley of Basking Ridge played an important part in the formation of the American Colonization Society (ACS) in . Believing a multiracial society based on racial harmony and equality to be impossible, the members of the ACS supported the repatriation of America’s black population to Africa. The New Jersey chapter of the ACS purchased a ship, the Saluda, and , acres of land in Liberia in  to establish a New Jersey settlement. Perhaps not surprisingly, colonization never attracted a significant portion of the black population. Of the , blacks who settled in Liberia between  and , only  were from New Jersey. Blacks at an anticolonization meeting in Newark in  gave Samuel E. Cornish, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Newark, and Theodore S. Wright, a Presbyterian minister from New York, the task of drafting a letter explaining that large-scale resettlement of blacks would leave too few advocates for their southern brethren still in slavery. Despite the political and economic limitations that still burdened blacks, emancipation in New Jersey set the stage for the emergence of an increasingly important free black population. Freedom brought the ability to establish churches with black ministers and deacons. By , African Methodist Episcopal (AME) churches were flourishing in Princeton and Trenton, and the first African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AME Zion) congregation, the Clinton Memorial Church, was founded in Newark in . The first black abolitionist society in the state grew out of a meeting in Newark in  that formed an auxiliary of William Lloyd Garrison’s American Anti-Slavery Society. Reflecting the growth of black activism, the first statewide convention of blacks met in Trenton’s AME Zion Church in  to petition the state legislature to overturn the continued exclusion of the black population from the franchise under the revised state constitution of . In attendance was one of the state’s most distinguished blacks, Dr. John S. Rock, physician, dentist, and the first black attorney to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court. Opposition to racism and slavery was expressed beyond protest meetings. While employed as a cook in a Cape May hotel in the summer of , Harriet Tubman, an escaped slave from Maryland, worked clandestinely as a conductor on the Underground Railroad, helping slaves from Delaware and Maryland to escape across Delaware Bay to Cape May. Similarly, William Still, a New Jersey–born black abolitionist in Philadelphia, played a major role on the Underground Railroad as the head of the General Vigilance Committee, which offered financial and other aid to runaway slaves, many of whom passed through New Jersey. His  account, The Underground Railroad, vividly records this story of courage

and sacrifice. Some of the escapees who reached New Jersey along the Underground Railroad settled in the state and helped to establish a number of all-black towns, including Skunk Hollow in Bergen County, Timbuctoo in Burlington County, Lawnside in Camden County, and Gouldtown in Cumberland County. The efforts of abolitionists and conductors on the Underground Railroad contributed to the sectional tensions that ultimately culminated in the Civil War and emancipation. Blacks played a significant role in their own liberation, enthusiastically joining the Union ranks. Some , blacks can be counted among New Jersey’s , Civil War soldiers, and  of the state’s black troops died. Their sacrifice was not wholeheartedly appreciated in a state where many residents opposed Lincoln’s  Emancipation Proclamation, mistrusted the midwar admission of black soldiers into the Union army, voted against Lincoln in both  and , and resented the migration of blacks into the state. Hostility toward the improved status of blacks can be seen in New Jersey’s official reactions to postwar constitutional amendments: in  the legislature rejected the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, and in  the Democrat-controlled legislature rescinded the previous Republican legislature’s passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, which provided citizenship to freedmen. In  the legislature even refused to ratify the Fifteenth Amendment, which extended the franchise to men of all races. Enough other states approved the amendment, however, and Thomas Mundy of Perth Amboy became the first African American in New Jersey to vote under the Fifteenth Amendment. Racial progress was also advanced with the passage in  of a state law prohibiting the exclusion of children from public schools because of race, religion, or nationality. The state supreme court upheld the law in , when the Rev. Jeremiah H. Pierce brought suit against Burlington City for its refusal to admit his students to white schools. In that same year, the state passed a civil rights act guaranteeing equal access to public accommodations under penalty of fines and damages paid to the victim. Nonetheless, public schools in South Jersey remained segregated for many more decades, and establishments continued to bar black patrons. Subscribing to the philosophy of self-sufficiency advocated by Booker T. Washington, the Rev. Walter A. Rice of the AME church founded Ironsides School, which became known as the Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown when the state took it over in . The outbreak of World War I in  created a demand for labor that could not be filled entirely by European immigrants. Southern blacks migrated in huge numbers to northern cities, looking for work in factories. New Jersey’s black population increased from

7

, in  to , by . In their search for housing, the newly urban blacks were generally confined to former workingclass districts, like Newark’s old Third Ward. Amid this ghettoization of the black population, new black newspapers, fraternal associations, and businesses developed, such as the Apex Beauty Products Company, founded in Atlantic City by Sara Spencer Washington. The expanding black population also supported the rise of black politicians to elective office. In  Walter G. Alexander, a Republican, became the first black man elected to the New Jersey Assembly. These gains, however, were largely overshadowed by the heavy toll of the Great Depression. The rate of black unemployment by ,  percent, was almost twice as high as that for the state as a whole. By ,  percent of all New Jersey families on relief were black. Still worse, a survey by the New Jersey Conference of Social Work () revealed that  percent of employers excluded qualified black workers from better jobs and opportunities available to white workers. Under these conditions, the black vote nationally swung to the Democratic party in  for the first time, and Guy Moorhead was elected as the first black Democrat to the New Jersey Assembly. Following the nation’s declaration of war in , nearly twenty-five thousand black New Jerseyans served in the armed forces. At the same time, still more southern blacks sought jobs in the defense industries in northern states. Between  and , New Jersey’s black population increased by more than  percent, to ,. The successful national movement to pressure President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue an executive order in  banning racial discrimination by companies with defense contracts set the precedent for postwar national and state civil rights legislation. In  New Jersey passed an act to forbid racial discrimination in employment. Two years later, a new state constitution, drafted under the liberal leadership of Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll, prohibited segregation in the public schools and state militia. The Freemen Act, written with the help of officials from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and introduced by Assemblywoman Grace Freemen in , banned racial discrimination in public accommodations and public places. This act and others laid the legal foundation for combating racial discrimination within the state. The gains and limitations of state and national civil rights legislation became apparent in the s, as racial progress failed to keep pace with rising expectations for employment, housing, and political influence. Racial polarization and interracial divisions along class lines exploded in the  Newark riots and Black Power Conference in Newark. Those low points were followed by steady gains, as the growing black middle class acquired better

8

African Methodist Episcopal Church

jobs, education, and status through hard work and the strengthening of civil rights legislation. In  Kenneth Gibson became the first black mayor of Newark; the Rev. S. Howard Woodson, Jr., was selected as speaker of the New Jersey Assembly in ; and Daniel Payne was elected as the state’s first black congressman in . Yet, far too many of the state’s African American families are locked in a cycle of poverty. In –, the median income of white families in New Jersey was $,, while for black families it was only $,. Blacks were more than twice as likely to be unemployed as whites in . Racial profiling by state police remained a troubling issue at the turn of the twenty-first century. Progress has been made, but even more needs to be made before equality is reality. Greene, L. A. “A History of African-Americans in New Jersey.’’ Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries  (June ): –. Price, Clement Alexander, comp. and ed. A Freedom Not Far Distant: A Documentary History of AfroAmericans in New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Wright, Giles R. Afro-Americans in New Jersey History: A Short History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Wright, Marion Manola Thompson. The Education of Negroes in New Jersey. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, .

See also abolition; civil rights; ethnicity

Larry A. Greene

African Methodist Episcopal Church. The nation’s oldest black religious denomination, the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church was founded in  in Philadelphia by Richard Allen (–), its first bishop. Born a slave in Philadelphia, Allen was raised in Dover, Delaware, where his family had been sold to another slave owner. By his early twenties, with the permission of his owner, he had taught himself to read and write and had become a preacher in the Methodist Society. Returning to Philadelphia after purchasing his freedom, he served as a wagon driver in the American Revolution, and continued to preach. After the war he became an itinerant preacher; South Jersey was included in his travels. He returned in  to Philadelphia, where, in , responding to the discriminatory racial practices of white Methodists, he helped form the Free African Society, and in  established the Bethel Church, the first congregation in what would become the AME Church. Because of its proximity to Philadelphia and Allen’s early preaching efforts in South Jersey, some of the earliest AME churches are found in New Jersey. For example, the Mount Pisgah congregation of Salem, generally considered New Jersey’s oldest black church (established around ), was one of five congregations present at the  founding conference of the AME Church in Philadelphia.

(Most likely, however, it was the Salem circuit as a whole, which included congregations in Springtown and Bushtown, that was represented at this initial conference.) From this early period down to the present, New Jersey has remained an AME Church stronghold; it is part of the denomination’s First Episcopal District, which has its headquarters in Philadelphia. Lincoln, C. Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya. The Black Church in the African American Experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, . Smith, Edward D. Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Rise of Black Churches in Eastern American Cities, – . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also African Americans; religion

Giles R. Wright

African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Organized in  by its first bishop, James Varick (–), the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Church is the nation’s second oldest and second largest black Methodist denomination. Varick, whose father was born and raised in Hackensack, established the Zion Church in  in his native New York City in protest against the segregated seating provided for black people in the Methodist Episcopal Church, the denomination that had licensed him to preach. New York City’s closeness to New Jersey enabled the AME Zion Church to spread quickly to New Jersey. One of the denomination’s oldest churches, and perhaps the oldest black congregation in Newark, is the Clinton Memorial AME Zion Church, established in . Paul Robeson, one of New Jersey’s most illustrious natives, provides another important New Jersey connection with the AME Zion Church. Robeson’s father, following his pastorate at Princeton’s Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church, joined the AME Zion denomination and served as the pastor of two of its New Jersey congregations: Westfield’s Saint Luke’s AME Zion Church and Somerville’s Saint Thomas AME Zion Church. The life of New Jerseyan Florence Spearing Randolph illustrates the opportunities for women in the AME Zion Church. Ordained a deacon and an elder in  and , respectively, she was one of the first black women to receive such authority. One of the first black women pastors as well, she served Summit’s Wallace Chapel AME Zion Church from  to . Lincoln, C. Eric, and Lawrence H. Mamiya. The Black Church in the African American Experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, . Smith, Edward D. Climbing Jacob’s Ladder: The Rise of Black Churches in Eastern American Cities, – . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, . Walls, William J. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Charlotte, NC: A.M.E. Zion Publishing House, .

See also African Americans; religion

Giles R. Wright

Africans. In the s, following the liberation of many former European colonies, Africans started emigrating in large numbers to the United States, seeking political freedom, economic opportunity, and better education. Many of these immigrants settled in New Jersey, owing to the state’s close proximity to New York City and Philadelphia. The U.S. Bureau of the Census reported that in , , Africans lived in metropolitan areas of the state, representing . percent of all inhabitants who were born overseas or born in the United States of foreign or mixed parentage. These African immigrants originated in North Africa, the Union of South Africa (now South Africa), and other parts of the continent. By  there were , Africans residing in New Jersey, and by  the number had reached ,, a jump of over  percent. The number of African immigrants in New Jersey continues to grow. They arrive from Morocco, Egypt, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Ghana, Ethiopia, and Ivory Coast. In addition to their native African languages, they speak English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic. Their religious affiliations include Islam, Christianity (Catholic, Presbyterian, Methodist, Jehovah’s Witness), and Judaism (a small number from Ethiopia). Some are employed as unskilled laborers, fabricators, operators, and service workers; others are skilled medical doctors, lawyers, university professors, teachers, writers, engineers, artists, and administrators and managers. When they settle in New Jersey, most African immigrants tend to choose urban areas (Newark, Jersey City, Trenton, and Atlantic City), where they can more easily obtain employment and housing. See also ethnicity Edward Lama Wonkeryor

Afro-American Historical and Cultural Society Museum. In , Thomas Taylor, president of the Jersey City Branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), initiated the idea of having an exhibit on AfroAmerican history and culture for Black History Month. Theodore Brunson, with Nora Fant and Virginia Dunnaway, formed the Historical and Cultural Committee to fulfill that mission with the assistance of the NAACP. In , the committee found permanent space for a museum as a separate nonprofit organization housed on the second floor in the Greenville Branch of the Jersey City Free Public Library. The museum has galleries for lectures, special exhibits, and a permanent collection of material culture of New Jersey’s African Americans, as well as African artifacts. The collection includes memorabilia of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (the nation’s first African American labor union) and the civil rights movement, documents regarding

agriculture the slave trade and the Underground Railroad, and other items reflecting the contributions of African Americans to the state’s history. See also museums

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

agriculture.

Native Americans (the Lenape) had been growing domesticated plants in New Jersey for several hundred years before the arrival of European settlers. Corn, beans, and squash were their most important crops. Corn, because of its high yields, was especially favored by the early colonists. They initially adopted Native American agricultural techniques, such as growing the corn in hills and clearing land for crops by slashing the bark of trees to kill them (rather than cutting them down), allowing sunlight to penetrate to the tilled earth. The first recorded colonial farmer was Aert Van Putten, who in  leased land at what is now Hoboken. Thus began an influx of exotic domesticated plants and animals with which New Jersey farmers have continued to experiment. Other Dutch farmers followed Van Putten, but withdrew due to hostilities with the Lenape. The Dutch returned in , and after the English conquest of New Netherland in  a great influx of farmers of various European origins arrived, along with slaves (especially in Dutch-settled areas) and free blacks. Unlike the Lenape, who were subsistence farmers and also depended on hunting, fishing, and gathering, these settlers were commercially oriented from the outset. They were expected to pay taxes and desired European imports, and thus had to produce a marketable surplus. The areas first settled reflected this commercial orientation, with their proximity to navigable waterways and the better soils. The Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain rapidly filled up, while the poor soils of the readily accessible Outer Coastal Plain were generally avoided. Agriculture in early New Jersey was influenced by several factors. The environment was a major one—New Jersey’s long, warm summers were especially favorable to corn, for example. The cultural backgrounds of the settlers and the markets they hoped to supply were also important. Because early New Englanders settled in groups and tended to have rather small farms, they needed a crop that would return high monetary yields per unitarea cultivated. Another major factor was the cost and feasibility of transporting the produce to market. By  New Jersey was well known as one of the “Bread Colonies,’’ a term including New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Wheat and flour were major exports. In New Jersey, wheat production was especially profitable in the Raritan Valley, where good soils and an amenable climate were joined by relatively inexpensive transport of crops and ˆ t of New York by way flour to the entrepo

of ports and landings on the Raritan River. At about the same time, the large farms on the good soils of the southern Inner Coastal Plain and Piedmont concentrated on the cultivation of corn, which was fed to cattle and especially to hogs. “Burlington Pork,’’ which was exported through Philadelphia, particularly to the Caribbean, had a wide reputation. For the New Englanders of northeastern New Jersey, the answer for their small farms was apple orchards. As did others, these farmers grew the full panoply of crops for their own use and local sale, but concentrated on producing dried apples for the Caribbean market and, even more importantly, on fermenting and distilling apple cider into apple brandy—the well-known “Jersey Lightning.’’ In areas more remote from the major ports of Philadelphia and New York or on poor soils, livestock roamed the woods, with ownership of the animals established by registered “ear notches.’’ For such farmers, fences were to keep livestock out rather than in. By midcentury, New Jersey was indeed, as Benjamin Franklin is supposed to have said, “a barrel tapped at both ends,’’ with produce flowing to and through the ports of Philadelphia and New York. Much of the success of these two ports came from the fruits of the labor of New Jersey farmers. The corridor between these two cities, lying on the fertile and readily accessible soils of the Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain, was densely settled and most productive. A typical contemporary view was that expressed by a Swedish scholar, Peter Kalm, in October of : “I never saw any place in America, the towns excepted, so well populated.’’ At about the time of the Revolution, the soils in many areas in New Jersey had been depleted of their nutrients. Also, a serious Eurasian pest, the “Hessian fly,’’ had been introduced, temporarily devastating wheat production. And, of course, loss of the colonial relationship with England disrupted traditional markets, especially in the Caribbean. On the other hand, the local market was growing, slowly at first, but then rapidly as the urban centers, particularly New York and Philadelphia, blossomed. New Jersey farmers close to these markets were already specializing in perishables and produce expensive to transport (truck crops, fattened cattle), and this trend intensified. Jersey farmers increased production of corn as a fodder for livestock, which became the meat consumed by urban dwellers. Hides as a by-product flowed especially to places like Newark, expanding an already important leather industry, adding population, and again expanding the market for other agricultural products. Succeeding improvements in transportation—turnpikes, canals, and railroads—made the urban markets ever more accessible to the New Jersey hinterland. Clearance for agriculture took place on increasingly marginal land in some places.

9

By  nearly  million of the state’s total area of . million acres lay in farms. In addition to expanding acreage, in many places there had been various attempts to improve soil fertility and productivity. Along the lower Delaware River and Bay, banks (dikes) were raised to drain areas of rich alluvial soils. In southern New Jersey the application of marl, a calcareous material found widely on the Inner Coastal Plain, improved soil not only there but also on the nearby poor sandy soils of the Outer Coastal Plain. Finally, lime burning and the application of lime to the soil became widespread in the southern Highlands and Ridge and Valley sections. Improvements in transportation such as the railroad were a two-edged sword for New Jersey farmers, making the urban markets much more accessible to lower-cost producers located beyond New Jersey. New Jersey farmers responded by becoming increasingly more efficient and knowledgeable in regard to improved crops and livestock. In  the New Jersey State Agricultural Society (having originated in ) was reorganized, joining several county organizations already in existence. Increasingly, New Jersey farmers turned their attention to fresh produce for the nearby urban markets. These areas were not only growing rapidly in population during the nineteenth century, but also providing the income that allowed purchase of produce beyond the staples of the past. By , for example, Bergen and Passaic counties were described as “one large strawberry patch,’’ and two years later one gate on the Bergen Turnpike recorded , wagons headed for New York with . million baskets of strawberries. Momentum toward agricultural modernization picked up in the post–Civil War period through the interplay of factors such as new institutions for the support of agriculture, advances in raising crops and livestock, development of agricultural machines and chemicals, urbanization, and new marketing organizations. The Morrill Act of , also known as the Land-Grant Act, was landmark federal legislation that provided institutional support for the growth of agriculture. The act authorized the establishment of a land-grant college in each state to teach agriculture, conduct agricultural research, and provide extension services. The act provided financial support for these colleges in the form of grants of public lands. The second Morrill Act, , allocated annual federal funding for these institutions. Rutgers College in  became a land-grant institution through the establishment of the Rutgers Scientific School, the predecessor of Cook College. In  the state of New Jersey enacted legislation for the establishment of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture. The legislation describes the mission of the state board to “become the center about which to collect the

10

agriculture

LAND IN AGRICULTURAL USE

N

0

10 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

results of successful farming and from which to send out digested information in regard to the great questions of farm economy, tillage, crops, stock, fertilizers, reclamation of land, training of farmers, etc.’’ Professor George H. Cook was the board’s first secretary. The board

widely disseminated annual reports that included practical solutions for farmers. The board stopped producing reports in  and henceforth determined the annual priorities of the newly created New Jersey State Department of Agriculture.

The Department of Agriculture published monthly bulletins on important topics for farmers, with each bulletin focusing on a single problem. For example, the early bulletins covered issues such as control of hog cholera, marketing, farm sources of soil fertility, tuberculosis control in dairy cows, and the Japanese beetle menace. In  the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station was founded to comply with the mission of the land-grant college. Professor George H. Cook was appointed as its first director. (Cook College was later named after him for his pioneering contribution to New Jersey agriculture.) Table  provides a portrait of agriculture in New Jersey in  when a total of  percent of the land was devoted to agriculture:  percent as cropland and pastures and an additional  percent attached to farms as unimproved land. The agriculture at this time can be described as mixed farming. Most farmers raised both livestock and crops. Annual income for the state as a whole from animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter was six times higher than income for orchard produce and more than twice that of the market for garden products. The high rate of industrialization and immigration had a great impact on New Jersey agriculture. New Jersey’s population of half a million in  doubled by  and doubled again by . Urban growth during this period was explosive. In  urban population in New Jersey was  percent. It increased to  percent by  and reached  percent by . The rapidly growing urban centers of the Northeast became attractive national markets. Responding to these societal changes, New Jersey agriculture became more mechanized and market oriented, with a higher degree of specialization. In  the counties of Burlington, Hunterdon, Monmouth, Gloucester, and Salem, in that order, were the top income producers of agricultural products. Specialization was also evident. For example, Sussex County became the top producer of milk and butter. Camden was the top producer of peas and beans, and Hudson was top in greenhouse–market garden products. Burlington and Ocean counties were the top producers of cranberries in the nation. Because cranberry cultivation required boggy soil and lots of fresh water, the Pinelands sections of these counties have remained major cranberry producers. Blueberries, another Pinelands crop, were domesticated from swamp huckleberries by Elizabeth White of Burlington County. New Jersey agriculture was at the forefront of adopting new machines and methods. Labor shortages in the farm sector at the turn of the twentieth century and thereafter became acute and provided the impetus for rapid mechanization. Steam engines were widely used for threshing, hulling clover, filling silos, and other tasks. Gasoline tractors and motor trucks appeared in , along

agriculture

Table 1. New Jersey Agriculture, 1870 Total value of products and betterments Orchard products Market garden products Value of animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter Number of horses Number of mules Number of cows Number of oxen Number of sheep Number of swine

$42,725,198* 3.0% 7.0% 16.3% 79,700 8,800 133,300 3,800 120,000 142,000

Percent total value of livestock Percent total value of other commodities and betterments Wheat (bushels) Corn (bushels) Oats (bushels)

2,301,000 8,745,000 4,010,000

Potatoes (bushels) Sweet potatoes (bushels) Butter (pounds) Milk (gallons) Hay (tons)

4,705,000 1,551,000 8,266,000 5,373,000 522,000

50.2% 23.5%

Percent N.J. land in farms

62%

Source: State Board of Agriculture, First Annual Report, 1874. *Equal to $3,525,181,500 in 1997 dollars.

with electric motors, bringing about the rapid mechanization that transformed agriculture. By  horses were no longer used on most farms. Another significant development that increased agricultural productivity was the invention by Carol Bosch and Walter Haber of the process to manufacture ammonia—the basis of nitrogen fertilizer. Farmers were always concerned with the fertility of the soil. Green marl, phosphate rock, guano (seabird droppings excavated from Peru)—along with barn manure—were widely used. Nitrogen fertilizer led to rapid increases in crop yields.

To assure consumers of the high quality of New Jersey products, inspection and grading practices were instituted just before World War I. Fruits, vegetables, eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and livestock were covered under this program. Grading helped in the marketing and promotion of these products. Canning of fruits and vegetables was common, but remained a small component. But during World War II, demand for New Jersey canned goods soared. Income from various agricultural activities from  to  shows far-reaching changes (Table ). Poultry, dairy, and other livestock,

11

which were the bedrock of New Jersey agriculture, have been eclipsed. Potatoes and sweet potatoes have also declined. A bright spot since  has been the substantial increase in value of Standardbred horses for racing, sport, and recreational activities. Grain and hay were a small component, but show increases since . Soybeans, a new crop, contributed to this increase. Nursery and greenhouse products have increased in importance, contributing one-third of the current agricultural income. Peaches have replaced apples as the dominant fruit. In  the top five agricultural-incomeproducing counties in descending order were Cumberland, Burlington, Salem, Monmouth, Gloucester, and Atlantic. Nursery items, vegetables, fruits, and berries are major products in all these counties. Recently farm size and number show an interesting trend. The number of farms of less than  acres and – acres have increased. The owners of these small farms are usually supported by nonfarm income. On the other extreme, the number of farms over , acres has also increased. Farms between these two categories have decreased. Today agriculture is a very small but highly valued segment of New Jersey’s economy. Income from agricultural products in  was $ million, less than one-half of one percent of the total income of the state. Suburban and exurban encroachment on agricultural land is visible everywhere. The state government has programs to protect farmland through the purchase of development rights, preservation of open spaces, and through the state master plan. New Jersey, a small state, cannot muscle its way to national markets like its competitors California and Florida. New Jersey agriculture, with specialized products, has to cater to the market for fresh fruits and vegetables

Table 2. New Jersey Agricultural Income, 1930–1996

Percent of total income Poultry and eggs

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

1996

22.8

24.9

37.8

28.4

14.3

3.8

5.4

3.9

Dairy products Hogs Cattle, calves, and other livestock

23.5 2.2 3.3

29.1 1.4 3.6

20.6 1.9 4.0

22.3 1.6 4.4

19.4 2.5 4.6

15.0 1.3 4.1

8.2 0.3 2.6

5.6 0.2 1.2

Horses* All vegetables All fruits and berries

—— 18.6 9.8

—– 18.6 6.0

—– 15.7 4.8

—– 17.7 8.3

—– 23.4 9.6

4.0 20.0 13.7

13.7 15.8 8.8

13.4 23.0 13.4

Potatoes/sweet potatoes Grains and hay

7.5 2.1

6.4 1.6

4.6 1.9

3.7 4.0

3.9 5.9

4.4 13.3

2.0 8.0

1.0 7.8

Nursery and greenhouse

11.1

10.6

8.8

9.6

15.9

18.8

35.3

31.5

$107,803 $997,253

$104,764 $962,020

$292,717 $1,248,793

$295,460 $1,180,895

$242,047 $826,663

$438,449 $592,259

$648,812 $692,509

$805,506 $792,353

36.5 27,300

38.9 27,200

37.0 26,900

30.0 15,800

22.0 8,600

21.0 9,400

18.0 8,100

17.4 9,200

Total income (in thousands) Total income in 1997 (in thousands) Percent land in farms Number of farms

Sources: New Jersey Agriculture Annual Reports, Agricultural Statistics and U.S. Census of Agriculture, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Natl. Agricultural Statistics Service. *Income from horses was included in the “Cattle, calves, and other livestock’’ category up to 1970.

12

airports

within the tristate region, New England, and eastern Canada. Through its “Jersey Fresh’’media campaign in these regions, the state government is making a concerted effort to promote its locally grown fruits and vegetables, such as asparagus, bell peppers, spinach, lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, snap beans, cabbage, squash, eggplant, cranberries, blueberries, peaches, and corn. Cunningham, John T. Garden State: The Story of Agriculture in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. New Jersey’s Rich Harvest: A Brief History of Agriculture in New Jersey Published in Commemoration of the th Anniversary of the New Jersey Agricultural Society. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, . Schmidt, Hubert G. Agriculture in New Jersey: A Three-Hundred-Year History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Rural Hunterdon: An Agricultural History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wacker, Peter O., and Paul G. E. Clemens. Land Use in Early New Jersey: A Historical Geography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Peter O. Wacker and Harbans Singh

airports.

New Jersey’s first major airport was Newark International (now known as Newark Liberty International Airport). Built by the city of Newark on sixty-eight acres of marshland, it opened for commercial service on October , . It quickly became the busiest airport in the world, the major airline and airmail terminal for the East Coast. In addition to its commercial use, the airport also housed many private planes and was a terminal point for many historic flights, such as a transcontinental speed test and round-theworld trips. In , a disagreement between the city of Newark and several of the airlines, combined with the opening of La Guardia Field in New York, led to most of the airlines’ moving to the newer airport. This left only one airline at Newark, which ceased operations the following year. At the same time, World War II had started in Europe, and the LendLease Act of  allowed for the transfer of weapons, aircraft, and other equipment to nations whose defense was considered vital to the United States. Newark Airport’s close proximity to the Port of Newark attracted the attention of War Department planners, who viewed Newark as a potential key staging site for shipments of cargo to overseas ports. It was not long before Lend-Lease aircraft were flown to Newark, where they were prepared for shipment, and placed on ships at the port. Following the U.S. entry into World War II, Newark was closed to civilian aircraft and became a major facility for receiving, assembling, recording, and delivering Army Air Forces cargo to the ports of New York. By the end of the war, thousands of aircraft and vehicles and tons of other cargo had passed through Newark on the way to front lines all over the world.

Aerial view of Cape May County Airport, Wildwood, .

Courtesy National Archives and Records Administration.

The war also brought new construction of several large airports in New Jersey as part of the buildup in national defense. On the eve of the war, the Civil Aeronautical Authority began to construct hundreds of new airports throughout the country. They were built as civilian airports, but designed to be quickly converted for military use, should they be needed. The first of these to be completed was Millville Airport in Cumberland County, earning it the title “The Nation’s First Defense Airport.’’ New airports were also constructed at Pomona, Atlantic County (Atlantic City), and Rio Grande, Cape May County (Wildwood). All three of these massive airports were subsequently taken over by the military and used as flight training bases. Additional airports were built near General Motors’ Eastern Aircraft Division aircraft plants at Linden and West Trenton for flight testing new Wildcat and Avenger aircraft made for the U.S. Navy. Following the war, Newark, Millville, and Wildwood were returned to civilian control. Atlantic City remained a U.S. Navy base until , though it began operating commercial flights in . Today, thousands of passengers and tons of cargo pass through commercial airports at Newark, Atlantic City, and Trenton. Fortyseven primary and secondary general aviation airports provide facilities for industrial, corporate, and sport aviation. The Division of Aeronautics, Department of Transportation, is responsible for the licensing and development of airports and their associated safety programs. It publishes annual aeronautical charts, maps, and related

data, and a New Jersey Airport Directory that lists fifty-three airports located in New Jersey open for use by the public. Sixteen of these airports are publicly owned, while thirtyfive are privately owned and operated, and two (McGuire Air Force Base and Lakehurst Naval Air Engineering Center) are government facilities. When heliports, balloon ports, and skydive and free-fall facilities are added to the fifty-three airports, the number of “Licensed Aeronautical Facilities’’ in New Jersey is . Included are eighty-four privately owned airfields and strips in New Jersey, which are not open to the public. Forty of those eighty-four are designated “restricted use’’airports, meaning that their use by their owners is conditional upon state and other dictates. And forty-four (thirty-nine for airplanes and five for seaplanes) of the eighty-four are designated “special use’’ airports, meaning that only specific aircraft and pilots may use them. There are , aircraft in New Jersey registered with the FAA, and , New Jersey residents currently hold FAA certificates. (All figures are as of .) Atlantic Overseas Air Service. The History of Newark AAF. Newark, . (Microfilm reel A, USAF Historical Research Agency, Maxwell AFB, AL.) General Motors Corporation, Eastern Aircraft Division. A History of Eastern Aircraft Division. Linden: Eastern Aircraft Division, . New Jersey Facilities List. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, Division of Aeronautics, . Stoddard, Michael, ed. New Jersey Airport Directory. Trenton: Department of Transportation, Division of Aeronautics, .

airports

13

U.S. Air Force Historical Division. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .

See also transportation

AIRPORTS Michael Stowe

GREENWOOD LAKE

SUSSEX

and Vincent M. Altamuro

NEWTON

Airports in New Jersey AeroflexAndover Airport

Andover

Alexandria Field

Pittstown (Franklin Twp.–Hunterdon) Belmar Atlantic City

Allaire Airport Atlantic City International Airport Bader Field Blairstown Airport Buck’s Airport Camden County Airport

HACKETTSTOWN

Atlantic City Blairstown Bridgeton Berlin

Cross Keys (Monroe Twp.–Gloucester) West Creek

Airport Essex County

(Eagleswood Twp.) Caldwell

LINDEN SOLBERG-HUNTERDON

SKY MANOR CENTRAL JERSEY REGIONAL

PRINCETON

Wildwood

MARLBORO TWIN PINE

OLD BRIDGE

TRENTON MERCER COUNTY

ALLAIRE

TRENTONROBBINSVILLE RED WING S. JERSEY REGIONAL

LAKEWOOD

MCGUIRE AFB

LAKEHURST NAEC

PEMBERTON Lumberton West Milford Hackettstown

RED LION

FLYING W OLDMANS

CROSS KEYS

R. J. MILLER AIRPARK

CAMDEN COUNTY

EAGLES NEST

Hammonton

SOUTHERN CROSS

Lakehurst NAEC Lakewood

Lakehurst Lakewood

BUCKS

Airport LiCaizi Airport Lincoln Park

Bridgeton Lincoln Park

LICAIZI

Airport Linden Airport Little Ferry

Linden Little Ferry

Seaplane Base McGuire Air

Wrightstown

Municipal Airport

LITTLE FERRY SPB

SOMERSET

Vineland

Millville Municipal Airport Morristown

MORRISTOWN MUNICIPAL

ALEXANDRIA FIELD

Airport Kroelinger Airport

Force Base Marlboro Airport Robert J. Miller Airpark

ESSEX COUNTY

NEWARK LIBERTY INTERNATIONAL

Cross Keys Airport Eagle’s Nest

Hammonton Municipal

TETERBORO

TRINCA

Hillsborough

Airport Hackettstown Airport

LINCOLN PARK

BLAIRSTOWN

Cape May County Airport Central Jersey Regional Airport

Airport Flying W Airport Greenwood Lake

AEROFLEX-ANDOVER

HAMMONTON MUNICIPAL

PINEY HOLLOW

Matawan Toms River

RUDY'S

VINELAND-DOWNSTOWN KROELINGER

ATLANTIC CITY INTERNATIONAL BADER FIELD

MILLVILLE MUNICIPAL

CAPE MAY COUNTY

OCEAN CITY MUNICIPAL N

WOODBINE MUNICIPAL

0

10 miles

Millville @Rutgers, The State University

Morristown

14

airships

Newark Liberty International Airport

Newark

Newton Airport Ocean City Municipal Airport

Newton Ocean City

Old Bridge Airport Oldmans Airport

Old Bridge

Pemberton Airport Piney Hollow Airstrip

Pemberton

Princeton Airport Red Lion Airport Red Wing Airport

Pedricktown (Oldmans Twp.)

Hammonton Princeton Vincentown (Southampton Twp.) Jobstown (Springfield Twp.)

Rudy’s Airport Sky Manor Airport

Vineland Pittstown (Franklin Twp.–Hunterdon)

SolbergHunterdon

Readington

Airport Somerset Airport Southern Cross Airport South Jersey Regional Airport Sussex Airport

Bedminster Franklinville (Franklin Twp.–Gloucester) Mount Holly

Sussex

Teterboro Airport Trenton–Mercer

Teterboro Trenton

County Airport Trenton-

Robbinsville

Robbinsville Airport Trinca Airport

(Washington Twp.–Mercer) Andover

Twin Pine Airport Vineland-

Pennington Vineland

Downstown Airport Woodbine Municipal Airport

airships.

Woodbine

New Jersey has been closely tied to the history of rigid airships and blimps in the United States for forty years. In May  the navy purchased , acres in the village of Lakehurst for use as a dirigible field. The air station and its principal airship hangar were completed in . After World War I the navy envisioned rigid airships for use as longrange scouts. Nonrigid airships (blimps) were to be used for antisubmarine work. The performance of nonrigid blimps in World War I had been impressive, with , hours in the air covering over , miles of patrol duty. Lakehurst commenced operations with rigid airships with the arrival of USS Shenandoah (ZR-) in , the first rigid airship to

use nonflammable helium, and later with the arrival of USS Los Angeles (ZR-) in . The USS Los Angeles was built by the German Zeppelin company and was delivered as part of war compensation by Germany. Lakehurst was the principal landing point for transAtlantic dirigibles, and it was the starting and ending point of the first around-the-world flight of a rigid airship, the Graf Zeppelin, in . Crashes of dirigibles, usually brought on by adverse weather conditions, brought into question the viability of airships for military and commercial purposes. Three navy dirigibles crashed, all with loss of life: the USS Shenandoah in , the USS Akron in , and the USS Macon in . More spectacular was the fiery crash of the German dirigible Hindenburg at Lakehurst on May , . This crash was caught on film and there were news reporters on scene to capture the horror. Although the Hindenburg was designed to use nonflammable helium, the American monopoly on this gas and its unwillingness to release it for export resulted in the Hindenburg using flammable hydrogen instead. With the advent of World War II and the threat of German submarines to the American East Coast, the use of blimps and dirigibles by the navy was increased. Lakehurst became home to many of the new squadrons. In all,  K-Class dirigibles were built for the navy during World War II. After the war, Lakehurst continued as the center of naval lighter-thanair activity. In the s dirigibles were used to extend radar coverage to provide early air defense warning. At the beginning of the s, the navy had twenty-seven nonrigid airships in service, the majority of which were based at Lakehurst. By  the completion of the radar early warning system and the advent of long-range antisubmarine fixed-wing aircraft ended the practical usefulness of the navy airships. All of the squadrons were disbanded. In  the Naval Air Test Facility was established at Lakehurst. Later, in , Lakehurst changed designations and became the Naval Air Engineering Center. It currently develops and tests all aircraft launch and recovery equipment, including catapults, arresting gear, jet blast deflectors, and visual landing aids. It also develops important aviation support equipment used for aircraft handling, servicing, and propulsion/avionics.

of musicians would gather to pick and sing on their back porch every Saturday night until , when George Albert died. The “Sounds of the Jersey Pines’’ was then moved to the Waretown Auction building and the local elementary school until Albert Music Hall was dedicated and officially opened on January , . Concerts are held Saturday nights.

Andrew J. Anderson

Aldrin, Edwin E. “Buzz’’

(b. Jan. ,

). Astronaut, second man on the Moon.

Born and raised in Montclair, Buzz Aldrin attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point upon graduation from Montclair High School. After graduating third in his class at West Point, he served as a combat pilot in Korea for the U.S. Air Force. During that time, he shot down two MIG  aircraft and flew sixty-six combat missions in F-s. Later, he earned a doctoral degree in aeronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. NASA selected Aldrin as an astronaut in . On November , , he and command pilot James Lovell were launched into space in the Gemini  spacecraft on a four-day flight that brought the Gemini program to a successful close. In July , he served as lunar module pilot for Apollo , the first manned lunar landing mission. Aldrin followed Neil Armstrong onto the lunar surface on July , . He retired from NASA in July  and has since written books and spoken about the need to continue exploring space. He is married to the former Lois Driggs Cannon of Phoenix. Their combined family includes six grown children and one grandson.

Robinson, Douglas H. Giants in the Sky: A History of the Rigid Airship. Seattle: University of Washington Press, .

Rocco G. Tomazic

Albert Music Hall. Located in Waretown, the Albert Music Hall is run by the Pinelands Cultural Society with the goal of preserving and stimulating interest in the Pine Barrens musical heritage. It was named after two brothers, Joe and George Albert, who lived in a cabin known as the Home Place near the Forked River Mountains. A handful

Apollo  lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin walks on the Moon, July , .

Courtesy National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Alexander, William (Lord Stirling) and social and moral science. Alexander Street in Princeton is named for him. DAB. Mackay, John A. “Archibald Alexander (–): Founding Father.’’ In Sons and Prophets—Leaders in Protestantism from Princeton Theological Seminary, edited by Hugh T. Kerr. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Selden, William K. Princeton Theological Seminary: A Narrative History, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Henry Innes MacAdam

Alexander, Cosmo

(b. ; d. Aug. ,

). Portrait painter. Because of debt, Cosmo

Archibald Alexander.

Courtesy Library of Princeton Theological Seminary.

Aldrin, Edwin E., and John Barnes. The Return. New York: Forge, . Cole, Michael. Apollo : First Moon Landing. Springfield: Enslow Publishers, . Vogt, Gregory L. Apollo Moonwalks: The Amazing Lunar Missions. Berkley Heights: Enslow Publishers, .

Alexander borrowed money from his brother, Charles, for his passage from his native Scotland to the colonies. He painted portraits of his countrymen, first in Philadelphia and New York. In  New Jersey’s royal governor William Franklin invited Alexander to the governor’s mansion in Burlington. There he earned ninety guineas doing commission work. The next year Alexander went to Newport, Rhode Island, where fourteen-yearold Gilbert Stuart watched him paint Portrait of Dr. William Hunter. Stuart accompanied Alexander back to Edinburgh in  to further his studies with the master, but Alexander died the next year. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Opitz, Glenn B., ed. Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, .

Kitta MacPherson Lorraine Ash

Alexander, Archibald

(b. Apr. , ;

Alexander, James (b. May , ; d. Apr.

Presbyterian pastor, educator, and author. Founding professor Princeton Theological Seminary. Archibald Alexander was born to William and Ann Reid Alexander, near Lexington, Virginia. Licensed and ordained a Christian minister by the Presbytery of Hanover, Virginia, Alexander served as a rural pastor and itinerant frontier missionary in Ohio and Virginia. In  he accepted the presidency of Hampden-Sydney College in Virginia, where he served for ten years. He married Janetta Waddell in . Alexander was then called to become pastor of the Third Presbyterian (Pine Street) Church in Philadelphia in , the same year he was elected moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church U.S.A. Over the next five years he helped draft a constitution for a new Presbyterian theological seminary in Princeton. Elected its first professor, he was formally installed on August , . He remained at that post until his death. Alexander oversaw the gradual enlargement of the seminary’s student body, which grew to two hundred by midcentury; the faculty, which added six professors; and the seminary’s facilities, including both academic buildings and a chapel. During his tenure he published eight books and dozens of articles, reviews, and sermons on biblical history, theology, biography,

, ). Lawyer, public official, reformer. Born in Muthil, Perthshire, Scotland, and trained as an engineer, Alexander emigrated in  and quickly obtained successive appointments as surveyor general of East Jersey, West Jersey, and New York. These positions facilitated his acquisition of vast tracts of land; Alexandria Township in Hunterdon County is named for him. He was practicing law by , when he served as attorney general of New Jersey and in the provincial councils of New Jersey and New York. Despite these royal appointments, Alexander’s bitter rivalry with Gov. William Cosby led to his sponsorship of John Peter Zenger’s opposition newspaper, the New-York Weekly Journal, and Alexander’s disbarment and loss of government positions, restored only upon Cosby’s death. With his interest in legal reform, Alexander assumed the role of defender of popular rights. He married the wealthy merchant Mary Sprat Provoost in ; Continental Army general William Alexander was one of their seven children.

d. Oct. , ).

15

Alexander, Walter G. (b. ; d. Feb. , ). African American physician and politi-

cian. Born in Lynchburg, Virginia, Walter Alexander graduated from the Boston College of Physicians and Surgeons in  and set up a medical practice in Orange, New Jersey, the following year. Because the Medical Society of New Jersey did not admit African American physicians, he organized the North Jersey Medical Society, an organization for black health professionals, in . Committed to the professional advancement of black physicians, Alexander served as president of the National Medical Association in  and received its Distinguished Service Award in . In , he was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly, becoming Speaker in . In , he was appointed to the state board of health, and served as vice president of the board in . See also North Jersey Medical Society

Sandra Moss

Alexander, Stirling) (b.

William

(Lord

Dec. , ; d. Jan., ).

Landowner, merchant, politician, and Revolutionary War general. William Alexander was the son of James Alexander, a Scottish immigrant lawyer, surveyor, and member of the Councils of New York and New Jersey, and Mary Sprat Provoost, a merchant. His  marriage to Sarah Livingston reinforced his connections to the political elite of both colonies and made future governor William Livingston his brother-in-law. William Alexander first assisted his mother in her business enterprises and then, with several partners, served as an army contractor during the French and Indian War. His efforts to supply the Niagara Campaign in – led to later accusations of

ANB. MacCracken, Henry Noble. Prologue to Independence: The Trials of James Alexander, American, –. New York: James H. Heineman, . Valentine, Alan Chester. Lord Stirling. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Mariam Touba

Bass Otis, William Alexander, Lord Stirling, possibly after the Joseph Napoleon Gimbrede engraving, c. . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia.

Alexandria

16

profiteering. He succeeded his father as a member of the East Jersey Board of Proprietors and the Councils of New York and New Jersey. In  he began to build a large country house in Basking Ridge on a -acre estate inherited from his parents. During this period he also spent five years in England where he not only represented the East Jersey proprietors’ interests and tried to collect payment on the army contracts, but also worked to obtain recognition of his claim to a lapsed Scottish earldom. Although rejected by the House of Lords, friends in America accepted his use of the title “Lord Stirling’’ when he returned to the colonies. Before the Revolution both his involvement in the nascent iron mining industry in North Jersey and his lavish lifestyle helped to deplete his financial resources. In  he even resorted, without success, to selling lands via a lottery. From the onset of the American Revolution, Stirling was a strong patriot. He served on the New Jersey Council of Safety and in the New Jersey militia as a colonel. With other New Jersey troops he was transferred to the Continental Army, where he served throughout the war as one of George Washington’s generals. He participated in the defense of Long Island, and fought at Trenton, Germantown, Brandywine, Monmouth, and Springfield. At one point captured by the enemy, he was later exchanged for a British officer. He was the president of the court martial of Gen. Charles Lee and served on the board that tried Maj. John Andre. Although described as “flamboyant’’ and an “overweight, rheumatic, vain, pompous, gluttonous inebriate,’’ he was loyal, brave, and a popular soldier, although not a great general. In the end he served Washington and the American cause better than his own interests. On his death Congress noted his “early and meritorious exertions’’ “in the common cause’’ and his “bravery, perseverance, and military talents.’’ He died in Albany, New York, from gout and the rigors of wartime service. Bankrupt at the time of his death, his property was sold to pay off his debts.

purchased ten thousand acres of land in what became Alexandria Township. On March , , the township was formed by royal charter out of what had been the western portion of Bethlehem Township. Incorporation took place on February , . Alexandria is still an agricultural township made up of farms and single-family residences, and rolling hills and fields surround the villages of Everittstown, Pittstown, Little York, and Mount Pleasant. Each of these villages grew up around a mill or a church, with general stores being later amenities. According to the  census, the population of , people was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

presents professional and community-based theater, dance, music, and film there. See also theater

John W. Drew

Allaire, James P.

(b. July , ; d. May

, ). Industrialist, marine engineer, steam

engine manufacturer. Allaire was born in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia, the son of Peter Alexander Allaire and Frances Wilmot. A brass founder and steam engine manufacturer, he was early associated with Robert Fulton. By , Allaire operated the largest marine engine building shop in the country, and shortly thereafter he purchased a bog iron furnace in Monmouth County to supply needed raw materials. His business expanded considerably between  and  until his New Jersey property holdings alone included nearly fifty tracts of land covering almost eight thousand acres. He died at his home at Howell Works, Monmouth County.

Scott D. Peters

Stephanie B. Stevens

Algonquin Arts Theatre.

Built in Manasquan in  as a movie theater in the Arcadia chain, the theater was named Algonquin as a result of a contest among local residents. In , the Algonquin became part of the Walter Reade chain, which closed it in . In , it was bought by Frances and John Drew of Manasquan, who restored and converted it to a performing arts theater with an enlarged stage, fly-tower orchestra pit, and dressing rooms. Renamed the Algonquin Arts Theatre and opened in May , the Algonquin Arts nonprofit corporation

Allaire Village. Monmouth Furnace, an ironworks originally developed about  by Burlington County attorney William Griffith, was acquired by steamship engine manufacturer James P. Allaire in . He renamed the property the Howell Works and developed it into a self-contained industrial community that produced iron products, such as the pipes for the first waterworks in New York City. It flourished until . In  newspaper editor Arthur Brisbane purchased the village and , acres. He leased the village to the Boy Scouts in , and in  Brisbane’s widow donated , acres and the village to the state of New Jersey “to be used as an Historical

ANB. Nelson, Paul David. William Alexander, Lord Stirling. University, AL: University of Alabama Press, . Valentine, Alan. Lord Stirling. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Maxine N. Lurie

Alexandria. .-square-mile township in northwestern Hunterdon County. Alexandria is bounded on the west by the Delaware River, on the east by Franklin Township, on the south by Kingwood Township, and on the north by the Musconetcong River and Bethlehem and Union townships. The township was named for James Alexander, proprietor of West Jersey and father of Revolutionary War hero William (Lord Stirling) Alexander. In  James Alexander

Gateway to the deserted Village of Allaire. A portrait of James P. Allaire is located in the upper right-hand corner.

From Greetings from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike.

Allentown Center and Forest Park Reservation . . . and for no other purpose.’’ The property is now Allaire State Park. See also historic sites

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also New Jersey Education Association

Blair T. Birmelin and Cynthia Robinson Scott D. Peters

Allamuchy. .-square-mile township in Warren County. Allamuchy, whose name derives from the Lenape Indian Allamuchahokkingen or Allamucha, broke away from Independence Township in . Among its significant villages are Allamuchy, Quaker Settlement, Warrenville or Wiretown, Alphano, and Saxton Falls. The first white settlers were Quakers who arrived prior to  on land that was eventually deeded to them by Richard Penn, grandson of William Penn. Quaker Settlement was the birthplace of Benjamin Lundy, a founder of the abolitionist movement. The community played an important part as a station on the Underground Railroad that directed slaves to freedom. Allamuchy is the ancestral home of the Rutherford-Stuyvesant family who traced their beginnings to the first governor of New Amsterdam and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. The early economy was based on employment from the large Rutherford-Stuyvesant farms. Today the affluent communities of homes and townhouses rely on income from outside the county. Saxton Falls was the Warren County entry port to the old Morris Canal, which ran thirty-three miles to the Delaware River. According to the  census of the ruralto-residential community, the population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Armstrong, William Clinton. The Lundy Family and Their Descendents. New Brunswick: J. Heidingsfeld, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . King, Betty Jo. “The Progression of the Allamuchy Land from the Indians to the Rutherfurds and Stuyvesants.’’ Oakleaves: Warren County Historical and Genealogical Society Newsletter (winter ): –.

Gladys Harry Eggler

Allen, Elizabeth Almira ; d. May , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Teacher, teacher advocate, first woman president of the New Jersey Teachers’ Association. Elizabeth Almira Allen was born in Joliet, Illinois, to James and Sarah J. Allen (Smith). She worked for forty-eight years in the Hoboken schools as a teacher, as the principal of the elementary and the high school, and finally as the supervisor of teacher education at Hoboken Normal and Training School. Allen’s campaign for teachers’ rights resulted in the first statewide teachers’ retirement fund in America. In  she became the first woman president of the New Jersey Teachers’ Association (NJTA), later the New Jersey Education Association.

Allen, William F.

(b. Oct. , ; d.

Dec. , ).

Implementer of standard railroad time schedules. Born in Bordentown, the son of Joseph Warner and Sarah (Norcross) Allen, William F. Allen was educated at the Bordentown Model School and the Protestant Episcopal Academy of Philadelphia. On April , , he married Caroline Yorke, with whom he had four sons. As editor of the Official Guide of the Railways and Steam Navigation Lines, the publication that contained passenger train schedules for all railroads in the country, Allen knew the confusion caused by each railroad’s choosing a time system of its own convenience. By the s, railroads increasingly required a system of standard timekeeping for safe, dependable service. A strong proponent of such a system, Allen became the secretary of the General Time Convention, later the American Railway Association, an organization of railroaders seeking to solve the dilemma of timekeeping. He presented a report to the convention, which concluded that the four-zone system proposed earlier by Professor C. F. Dowd of Saratoga and Professor Cleveland Abbe and F. B. Elliott, who worked for the American Meteorological Society, was the best solution. Allen persuaded  railroads to adopt its implementation. Despite some resistance, the plan went into effect on November , , and proved its value. A plaque in Union Station in Washington, D.C., recognizes Allen for his work. Bartky, Ian R. “The Invention of Railroad Time.’’ Railroad History  (): –. DAB.

See also railroads

Robert E. Mohowski

Allendale.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The name of the borough is derived from that of Joseph Warner Allen, who surveyed the area in  for the Paterson and Ramapo Railroad. Originally part of Orvil Township, Allendale was incorporated in . In the eighteenth century Allendale was the site of a large wampum factory, and the town had a colorful history during the Revolutionary War. The British imprisoned one of its most famous residents, John Fell, who later became a state delegate to the Continental Congress. Allendale was primarily a farming area, and it developed a reputation for the cultivation of strawberries. The advance of the railroad into Bergen County in the late nineteenth century opened up Allendale to development as a summer resort for people from New York City. Today, the Celery Farm, a nature preserve, is a popular destination for birdwatchers and

17

hikers. The main industries, in order of importance, are professional services, retail, and manufacturing. According to the  census, the population was ,. Of this,  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . History Committee of Allendale, New Jersey Tercentenary Committee. A History of Allendale, – . Paramus: Highway Printing, . Horner, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Northern Edition. Neptune: National Resource Directories, . Wardell, Patricia Webb. Allendale, Background of a Borough. Allendale: Allendale Historical Society, .

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Allenhurst. .-square-mile borough on the Atlantic Ocean in Monmouth County. Bordered on the west by the Hogswamp Creek branch of Deal Lake, Allenhurst was designated on early maps as being a part of Deal Beach, Ocean Township. In  the Allen family, who had operated an inn and farm on this site since , and G. W. Spier sold their property to Edwin P. Benjamin. The Coast Land Development Company is credited with laying out streets for residential homes, large hotels, and guesthouses for the explicit purpose of developing the tract as a seashore resort. In  the New York and Long Branch Railroad established a station. The beachfront was developed in  with a wooden pavilion and horse-carriage transportation from the hotels and train station. The Atlantic Coast Electric Railroad trolley barn and powerhouse, both on Main Street, existed from  to . In  Allenhurst seceded from Ocean Township, forming a new borough. The community is predominantly singlefamily residential, with a small business district along Main Street. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Edelson, Marjorie, and Kay Zimmerer. An Historic Perspective of the Township of Ocean. Ocean Township: Township of Ocean Historical Society, . Eid, Joseph. Trolleys in the Coast Cities. Brick Town: J. Eid, . Sylvester, Marie A. Around Deal Lake. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Marie A. Sylvester

Allentown. .-square-mile borough in westernmost Monmouth County. Settlement of the small community, located on early major roads, dates at least from the first quarter of the eighteenth century, when Nathan Allen built a mill (c. ) on Doctors Creek. Rebuilt over the years, the mill structure remains the most visible landmark in town. Known earlier as Allens Town, the town is near the

18

Alliance

meeting point of three counties. It developed as a trading community for the surrounding farm area and attained borough status in  after breaking from Upper Freehold Township. On the route of British forces removing from Philadelphia to New York in , Allentown saw skirmishing prior to the Battle of Monmouth and throughout the Revolution. Allentown is the location of an important Georgian building, the  John Imlay House at  South Main Street, and the town was home to a number of notable figures. Foremost was William A. Newell, a physician who served as governor of New Jersey from  until  and three terms in Congress; he is also considered the founder of the U.S. Life-Saving Service. Allentown, which preserves a stock of buildings from most historic periods, has listings in the National Register of Historic Places. Although major retail trade and travel routes now pass outside Allentown’s borders, its intact Main Street has adapted to reuse, while its charm attracts visitors; the resulting congestion challenges the town in the twenty-first century. Allentown’s  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Allentown and Upper Freehold Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Storms, F. Dean. History of Allentown, New Jersey. Allentown: Allentown Messenger, .

Randall Gabrielan

Alliance.

See Pittsgrove.

Alling, David ).

(b. Sept. , ; d. Feb. ,

Chairmaker. Of Welsh descent, the

Alling family was in Newark by . David Alling was the son of Isaac Alling, a chairmaker, and Mary Clisbie. Alling expanded his business, located in Newark from  until , beyond that of traditional colonial artisans such as his father to an operation based on a system of specialized tasks. He bought parts from jobbers and employed perhaps ten assemblers and decorators. His retail trade consisted of ready-made and custom work for residential and commercial customers, and he developed large wholesale markets in Newark and southern New Jersey. Skemer, Don C. “David Alling’s Chair Manufactory: Craft Industrialization in Newark, New Jersey, –.’’ Winterthur Portfolio : (spring ): –. White, Margaret E. Early Furniture Made in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, .

produced Wistarburg glass; the factory closed in . During the nineteenth century, the distinctive Ware chairs were built in this community. Settlements in the township that have retained their names are Cohansey, Friesburg, Penton, and Aldine. Alloway is the home of Ranch Hope for boys. The township is rural in character. In , the population of , was  percent white, and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Allen, Mae. “The Township of Alloway.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (June ): –. Alloway Remembers. d ed. Pitman: Alloway Township Bicentennial of the Constitution Committee, .

Patricia W. Blakely

See also furniture making

Suzanne Corlette Crilley

Alloway.

-square-mile township in Salem County. First settled by Quakers, Alloway was originally part of the Monmouth Precinct, so named by John Fenwick in honor of the duke of Monmouth; it was set off from that tract of land in . The community was known as Thompson’s Bridge until  when it was renamed Alloways Town. The John Dickinson house, built in , is the most elaborate patterned-brick house in Salem County. The first industry was farming, an occupation that continues today. Other early industries included two shipyards, a gristmill, a bark mill, sawmills, and a canning factory. Of special note is the Wistar Glass Works, established in . It was the first successful glass factory in the country and

Alpha.

.-square-mile borough in Warren County. Originally a village in central Pohatcong, Alpha was separated from that township and incorporated in . It shares its earliest history with Pohatcong and Greenwich. Clearly different from other communities in the county, Alpha was a boomtown in the heart of farmland. Its industrial history started as early as , when A. B. Bonneville noticed an outcropping of limestone, referred to as cement rock, essential for making high-grade portland cement. Alpha had the potential for a successful operation: quarries, mills, and an influx of immigrant labor from Eastern Europe. The success of the industry caught the attention of Thomas Edison, who built a similar portland cement complex in nearby Franklin Township. Alpha was both the brand name and the location. Vulcanite was the second cement plant to operate within the area. Cement rock deposits were eventually depleted, and cement production ceased by , to be resumed briefly during World War I. Alpha is now largely residential. The  census showed a population of , that was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Historical Sites of Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Alpine.

Johann Jenny (attributed), The House and Shop of David Alling, c. –. Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1939 Thomas Raymond Bequest Fund, 39.265. Photo: Witt, 1966.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Located along the Hudson River atop the Palisades, Alpine is one of the wealthiest communities in the nation. It was originally part of Hackensack Township (–) and later part of Harrington Township (–); Alpine Borough was incorporated in . In  the eastern portion of Cresskill was ceded to Alpine. The borough was known as Upper Closter until the s, and the origin of Alpine’s name

American Federation of Labor is uncertain, deriving from either Closter’s Alpine Lodge of Free and Accepted Masons or the Swiss Alps. Alpine was originally a farming community, but the blasting of traprock from the Palisades cliffs was its major industry until . The fishing industry flourished into the middle of the twentieth century. Today it is overwhelmingly residential and has few businesses and no industry. Opulent estates in luxury subdivisions predominate, while more modest middle-class homes survive in the Old Alpine neighborhood. With few municipal programs, the borough’s property taxes are among the lowest in the state. More than half of the borough’s land remains undeveloped as part of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission system, Alpine Boy Scout Camp, and borough parks. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bradley, Stanley W. Crossroads of History: The Story of Alpine, N.J. Alpine: Alpine Bicentennial Committee, . Garbe-Morillo, Patricia. Closter Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

and

Alpine.

Susan Chore

amber.

Amber is the hardened residue of ancient tree sap. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects. In ancient times, well-established trade routes for amber originated from the Baltic countries (where amber was plentiful along the coast) that went to virtually every corner of Europe. Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury. Most of the amber found in New Jersey is from sedimentary deposits of the Late Cretaceous age, the last part of the age of dinosaurs. The strip of Cretaceous rocks producing amber stretches from Raritan Bay in the northeast diagonally southwest across the state to the Delaware River. Amber is especially abundant in the Magothy Formation, a sequence of clays and sands laid down in coastal rivers and floodplains about ninetyfive million years ago. In  this deposit produced the oldest known fossil ants (engulfed by the flowing resin of ancient sap-producing trees and preserved when the resin turned to solid amber), a species named Specomyrma freyi by the Harvard entomologist E. O. Wilson. Since then amber from this formation has been extensively collected at Sayreville in Middlesex County, where it has produced representatives of thirty families of arthropods, including the oldest known true ants, bees, wasps, cockroaches, flies, midges, lacewings, leafhoppers, mites, spiders, and pseudoscorpions. True rarities from this site are the oldest known feathers of birds from North America. The Sayreville amber deposit is one of the most

significant concentrations of Cretaceous fossil insects in the world. Gallagher, William B. When Dinosaurs Roamed New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also minerals

William B. Gallagher

American Aluminum Company. American Aluminum was founded in  by Henry Brucker, a Newark native. Brucker had previously served as superintendent of the New Jersey Aluminum Company, and won a medal at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in . In , Brucker set up his own shop with his brother Oscar on Oliver Street in Newark, expanding to a larger factory on Jelliff Avenue in . The firm produced a wide range of household and industrial products. In  the American Aluminum Company moved to a new factory in Mountainside, where it remains today.

Ulysses Grant Dietz

American Boychoir School.

The only nonsectarian choir boarding school in the United States, the American Boychoir School is built on the conviction that musical performance is a means of building character and motivating academic achievement. Founded in , the school moved to New Jersey in  and occupies the former Lambert estate in Princeton. Each year, eighty boys in grades five through eight come together from across the country to attend the school. While completing a comprehensive academic program—and winning admission to prestigious secondary schools—they sing  concerts annually, performing regularly with the world’s finest orchestras and in festivals overseas.

Donald B. Edwards

American Can Company.

Founded in New Jersey in  by Edward and Oliver W. Norton and nurtured by area food manufacturers, the American Can Company grew prosperously throughout the first half of the twentieth century. During the s, the company sought to diversify through a wideranging series of acquisitions and ventures into paper, chemicals, commercial printing, and glass bottle manufacturing. Beneficial developments in can technology, such as the pop-top and ring-tab opener, counterbalanced AmCan’s less successful ventures such as chemicals, commercial printing, and glass bottle-making. Inevitably, the company’s inexperience would force them to divest these ventures. Subsequent acquisitions involving aluminum recycling and resource recovery, as well as smaller concerns such as records and mail-order retail products, again produced varied results. In , AmCan designed a computerized system to rank investment risks in seventy countries. The sale of the company’s forest products operations during

19

the early s financed the acquisition of four insurance companies, most notably American General Capital Corporation and Associated Madison. Chairman Gerald Tsai severed AmCan’s ties to its can-making business in  by selling the packaging operations to Triangle Industries. He restructured the company into a financial services conglomerate, renamed Primerica, with headquarters in Greenwich, Connecticut. Successive alliances and mergers with Travelers Corporation and Citibank led to the creation of Citigroup. Derdak, Thomas, ed. International Directory of Company Histories. Vol. . Chicago: St. James Press, . Gordon, John Steele. The Business of America. New York: Walker, . Robinson, Richard, comp. United States Business History, –: A Chronology. New York: Greenwood Press, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

American Chemical Society.

The American Chemical Society (ACS), founded in , is now the world’s largest scientific society, with over , members in . Reflecting the high concentration of chemical and pharmaceutical operations in New Jersey (both commercial and academic), there are nine local sections (or chapters) of the ACS in the state. The North Jersey Section has the distinction of having the largest membership (more than ,) of any of the  local sections in the United States. Some representative functions of the New Jersey ACS sections include sponsoring awards to individual chemists for distinguished accomplishments in the field (most notably the Baekeland Award), supporting educational programs that advance the study of chemistry, and providing forums for the presentation and discussion of current research topics. Nationally, the society is a major publisher of chemistry books, serials, and journals. See also chemical industry

Howard M. Dess

American Federation of Labor. At an  Pittsburgh conference, delegates from a variety of workers’ organizations formed the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions in the United States and Canada; it reorganized in  as the American Federation of Labor (AFL). From the start it stood in stark contrast to its predecessor, the Knights of Labor, which had attempted to organize all workers, skilled and unskilled. By , however, the Knights organization was devastated by losses of crucial strikes and the Haymarket riot. Into the fray stepped the AFL, which sought to create a craft-based organization that would capitalize on the power of skilled workers. This approach of “pure and simple’’unionism was to characterize the AFL’s approach for decades to come. Samuel Gompers served as president of the AFL from  until his death in . In

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Greene, Julie. Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, –. New York: Cambridge University Press, .

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Gowaskie, Joseph. Workers in New Jersey History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

name means “the people’’ or “common folk,’’ once occupied all of present-day New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware, southeastern New York State (including western Long Island and Staten Island), and parts of western Connecticut. This area was called “Lenapehoking,’’ meaning “the land of the Lenape.’’ The bands who lived north of the Raritan River and Delaware Water Gap spoke a Munsee dialect of the Delaware language and developed a culture somewhat different from that of the Unami speakers who lived to the south. Those who spoke a northern Unami dialect, sometimes identified as Unalachtigo, lived in and around Easton, Pennsylvania, and in adjacent parts of New Jersey. Increasingly after , the English called the Lenape “Delaware Indians’’ because many were then living along the river and bay named after Lord De La Warr. In the archaeological record, the Lenape become recognizable after c.  c.e. Before

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Gompers, Samuel. Seventy Years of Life and Labor: An Autobiography. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

then, Lenapehoking was occupied by cultures identified only by generic names assigned by archaeologists: Paleo-Indians, Archaic Indians, Early, Middle, and Late Woodland Indians. Some of these may have been ancestors of the Lenape. Paleo-Indians (c. – b.c.e.) entered New Jersey following the retreat of the Wisconsin glacier. The park tundra environment of that time supported mastodon, mammoth, sloth, caribou, and walrus, among other cold-adapted animals. How often early hunters killed mastodon is unknown, but their exquisitely crafted fluted spearpoints were efficient weapons. Knives, choppers, scrapers, and drills were made with equal care, using only the best stones. Throughout the Archaic period (c. –  b.c.e.), forests yielded nuts and berries that helped to sustain human beings and provided mast foods for deer, bear, turkeys, and other forest-edge animals. Trees could also be made into dugout canoes and shelters, and

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that time, this former cigarmaker determined a new course for the American labor movement. Whereas the Knights had included unskilled workers, women, African Americans, and immigrants in their ranks, Gompers’s AFL excluded those workers on the pretext that they could be used by employers to undermine skilled trade workers. Under his leadership, the AFL championed an exclusionary form of unionism that was far more restrictive and conservative than other efforts to realize industrial unionism. Despite a major defeat in the  Homestead strike, the AFL not only weathered the depression of the s but grew to encompass some , members by —a membership it more than tripled by . In New Jersey, the AFL successfully organized scores of skilled workers in the metal, printing, and building trades. These workers pressed for better work conditions, increased pay, and decreased work hours for themselves, though the majority of New Jersey’s unskilled laborers did not share in these gains. Indeed, the AFL’s failure to represent most industrial workers helped to pave the way for other more inclusive unions. Thus, although the AFL-affiliated United Textile Workers included a few of Paterson’s silk workers, it was the militant Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) that most prominently supported the laborers in their famous  strike. The AFL continued to expand, but by the beginning of the twentieth century the industrial world itself was changing significantly: skilled workers increasingly found themselves displaced and faced crushing defeats in actions including the  strike against U.S. Steel. To widen its sphere of influence, the AFL increasingly turned to collective bargaining, no-strike contracts, and the use of union labels to designate union-produced goods. Although the AFL did not represent most of New Jersey’s workers ( percent of whom were not unionized), it did represent , of the state’s , unionized workers before World War II. Under the leadership of Gompers’s successors, William Green and George Meany, the AFL eventually emerged as the largest union in the United States and boasted some  million members when it merged in  with the advocate of industrial unionism, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).

Hudson

20

GREAT SICONESE

0

20 miles

Unami Dialects Munsee Dialects Possibly not Munsee speakers modern state boundaries © Rutgers, The State University of NJ

See

American Indians they provided firewood for warmth and cooking. Stone axes, adzes, and gouges, first made in Archaic times, were essential for felling trees. Women also used these tools to chop firewood, crack bones in order to extract marrow, and perform other domestic chores. Spearpoints, essential to the hunt, were made in many shapes and sizes. Fastened to long shafts, they were thrown with a catapultlike atlatl, or spear-thrower. Mounted into short handles, such points served equally well as knives. Traps and snares were also set to capture game, and fish were caught in nets and weirs. Slain animals provided meat, skin for clothing and containers, sinew and gut for sewing and binding, bones and antlers for tools, and hooves from which to make glue and rattles. Almost nothing was wasted. Women and children contributed significantly by gathering plants, fruits, seeds, roots, tubers, berries, nuts, birds’ eggs, shellfish, crustaceans, turtles, frogs, and other edible or useful things. Seeds and nuts were ground into flour using milling stones and handheld mortars and pestles. Foods were eaten raw or roasted, as ceramic cooking pots were unknown to Archaic people. However, cooking may have been accomplished by placing water, meat, fish, and plant ingredients in skin or bark containers and immersing fire-heated stones into the liquid—a process called “stoneboiling.’’Toward the end of the Archaic period, about  b.c.e., people began carving stone bowls out of soapstone and talc. These could be placed on or over a fire without cracking. Clay pots also appeared about this time. Houses were probably ephemeral, because Archaic people moved frequently, depending on available food and resources. In mountainous places, rock shelters and caves were occupied during hunting and gathering forays. On coastal plains, huts were probably made from saplings covered with mats or skins. Early and Middle Woodland cultures (c.  b.c.e.– c.e.) were remarkable for their sometimes elaborate burials, often accompanied by copper artifacts from Lake Superior, shells from the Gulf Coast, fine stones from faraway places like Labrador and the Dakotas, and other exotic objects. With such burials, archaeologists have found the first evidence of woven cloth and tobacco pipes. During Middle Woodland times (c.  c.e.) the bow and arrow replaced the spear as the preferred hunting weapon. Lenape Indians are usually identified with the Late Woodland period (c. – c.e.). Dependable and storable garden vegetables were added to foods obtained by hunting, fishing, and gathering. Garden crops included corn, beans, squash, and possibly sunflower and tobacco. The need to tend gardens required the construction of more permanent and substantial houses and storage facilities. After crops were harvested and stored, hunting and nut-gathering forays were undertaken. Edible American chestnuts abounded and,

together with certain acorns and other nuts, provided easily procurable foods that helped to sustain the bands throughout the winter. Deer and bear were hunted more intensively in cold weather, when they had grown fat and their pelts were thick and warm. Elderly and infirm persons were always provided for, as sharing was an essential part of Lenape life. Lenape people lived seemingly tranquil lives in small, unfortified communities; there is no archaeological evidence of warfare until after European colonists arrived. Houses were constructed from saplings stuck into the earth at opposite sides and bent together at the top to form a dome-shaped trellis tied with bast fibers. Beginning at the bottom and overlapping one another, rectangular slabs of tree bark were tied to the frame to provide a secure, watertight cover. Openings in the roof vented smoke. A single doorway provided entrance. Raised platforms along the inside walls of the house were covered with skins or furs and provided seating during the day and sleeping places at night. Firewood and stored foods were probably kept under the bunks, and bundles of tobacco and herbs were suspended from roof poles. Storage pits lined with bark and mold-resistant grass were located at the ends of large houses for easy access to dried meats and plant foods in bad weather. Similar storage pits, suitably covered against rain or snow, were located outside the dwellings. Round-ended longhouses might measure sixty feet in length and twenty feet in width; wigwams were usually smaller and more circular. Historic accounts indicate that twenty-five or more people might occupy a single longhouse. Lenape lived in small bands near streams, lakes, and seashores. Each band operated independently, there being no centralized political authority and no chiefs before the coming of Europeans. Clan identities included the wolf, turtle, and turkey. Every person belonged to one such descent group, which served to regulate marriage, among other things. For example, a woman was expected to marry a man from a lineage other than her own; their children kept the mother’s lineage. Should anything happen to the parents, members of the mother’s lineage would care for the children. Marriage was simple, oftentimes nothing more than an agreement to live together. Initially, the couple resided in the woman’s house, which was likely shared by her mother, sisters, and their respective husbands and children. Gender division characterized labor within the society. Women cared for the children and performed domestic chores, tanned hides, made clothing, fashioned pottery vessels, tended gardens, gathered firewood, and, accompanied by children, foraged for edible plants, nuts, shellfish, and other foods. Men hunted, fished, and did heavy physical work. They cut down and burned sections of the forest to provide clearings, tilled the garden soils, made dugout canoes, cut saplings

21

and bark for house construction, chipped stone tools and weapons, and made wooden bowls and ladles. Surviving skeletal remains indicate that Lenape people were healthy, although increasing consumption of garden foods, high in sugar and starch, resulted in more tooth decay and abscesses. Herbal teas and poultices were used for internal disorders and topical applications. Every woman knew the properties of common medications, but herbalists with special skills were highly regarded. To be effective, herbal remedies, whether made from plants, roots, leaves, or bark, had to be gathered in a ritually prescribed manner. When found, the spirit of the herbal plant was prayed to and informed of the condition to be alleviated. Death often came at an early age. Infant mortality was particularly high. Burials usually occurred on the day following death. Shallow graves accommodated bodies placed in a flexed position, with knees drawn up and arms folded. The elaborate offerings found in Early and Middle Woodland graves were seldom included, although the Lenape held a “Feast of the Dead’’ on the day of burial and on subsequent anniversaries. A very spiritual people, the Lenape believed in a single, all-powerful, creative force who “creates us by his thoughts.’’ Prayers and supplications had to be recited twelve times before reaching the twelfth heaven, where `ng, the supreme deity, resided. Kish¨elemuko Having created the universe and all good `ng delegated the maintethings, Kish¨elemuko nance of the system to lesser spirit beings. Among these were thunder beings, sun, moon, stars, and corn mother. M¨esingw, “the Keeper

Carved wooden mask with sheet-metal eyes and tressed with horsehair, possibly representing ¨singw, the Keeper of the Game, who protected Me forest animals, nineteenth century.

Courtesy Woodruff Museum of Indian Artifacts, Bridgeton Free Public Library. Photo: R. Alan Mounier.

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American Indians

WISCONSIN

LENAPE MIGRATION ROUTES

1783-Present

00 18

-1

82

1

1830-186 8

KANSAS

the “Delaware Tribe of Western Oklahoma.’’ The “Stockbridge Munsee’’ live near Green Bay, Wisconsin, and still other Lenape reside in Moraviantown and Munsee Town, Ontario, among the Six Nations in Canada, and elsewhere. Small numbers of Delaware remained in New Jersey, where they intermarried with other Native Americans and people of European and African American descent. Many have lost their identity, though others are members of groups claiming longestablished histories in the state. There is also a growing number of individuals of questionable descent who for one reason or another desire to be identified as Lenape or Delaware. The Oklahoma and Canadian Delawares do not recognize these persons.

ONT.

1 8 2 1-1 8 3 0

1789 1868-Present OKLAHOMA 1875-Present N

5 81 7- 1 0 8 1

0 TEXAS

1854

100 miles

© Rutgers, The State University of NJ

of the Game,’’ was of special importance, for he safeguarded the animals, but also permitted their occasional deaths to assuage human hunger and to provide the skins and sinews needed for clothing and other uses. The counterpart to the beneficent creator who provided wholesome and useful things was Mahtantu, who put thorns on berry bushes, created poisonous snakes, spread useless plants, and caused other undesirable things. Mahtantu was not a devil in the Christian sense, for he did not consign men’s souls to everlasting damnation. In fact, the Lenape had no conception of hell. Rather, evildoers would be barred from participation in the pain-free afterlife that good people would enjoy in a provident and pleasant place. Relationships to spirit beings were individual and personal; there were few prescribed prayers or rituals. Certain occasions— for example, the Corn Dance, or fall harvest ceremony—required the participation of all members of the community, as did the later Big House ceremony. An essential rite, especially for boys, was the Vision Quest, wherein an aspiring youth was led into the woods or mountains without food. Alone and afraid, he prayed that some spirit—a bird, animal, or insect—would pity him and agree to serve as his guardian. Those who failed in this endeavor often considered themselves unworthy and bereft of spiritual protection. A girl, favored with a vision when sick and delirious, was considered to be especially blessed and was often encouraged to become a herbalist. The seemingly uncomplicated and satisfying life of the Lenape changed with the arrival of European traders, who offered iron axes, knives, brass pots, glass beads, and other useful and desirable things in exchange for pelts. Beaver, otter, and other fur-bearing animals were hunted relentlessly—not for food or clothing, but solely to satisfy the Europeans’

insatiable demands and to acquire trade items. When overhunting reduced the number of furs, traders stopped providing rum and trade goods, leaving the Indians frustrated and angry. Alcohol and drugs were unknown before European contact, and the introduction of rum and beer wreaked havoc among native people unaccustomed to intoxicants. Unwittingly, Europeans also introduced epidemic diseases. Native people had never been exposed to such deadly pathogens and had no immunity to them. According to some estimates, epidemic diseases annihilated up to  percent of the native populations, often destroying entire villages. Under intense pressure to sell their lands, weakened and dispirited, the Indians saw no way to survive and maintain their traditional culture amid the growing population of unsympathetic and self-serving European immigrants. To preserve themselves and their culture, the Indians moved westward, only to become embroiled in the French and Indian War, Pontiac’s Rebellion, the Revolutionary War, and other struggles that further diminished their numbers. The  treaties of Crosswicks and Easton offered small compensations to the Indians in return for quitclaims to all their remaining lands in New Jersey. At that time, too, the Brotherton Reservation was established in Burlington County for the benefit of Christianized Lenape living south of the Raritan River. This, the first and only Indian reservation in New Jersey, was dissolved in , and the last native population moved into New York State and eventually to Wisconsin and Kansas. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the Lenape, often called “Delaware Indians,’’ are among the most fragmented of all Indian peoples. The majority live in northeastern Oklahoma, where they are identified as the “Delaware Tribe of Indians,’’ and in western Oklahoma, where they are known as

Kraft, Herbert C. The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . ———. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: , B.C. to A.D. . Union: Lenape Books, . Weslager, C. A. The Delaware Indians: A History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Herbert C. Kraft

American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark. This museum and education center in Haledon presents public exhibits, classes, lectures, artistic performances, and outreach programs in the fields of labor and immigrant studies. It is a nonprofit membership institution that was founded in  by a consortium of community, business, and labor leaders. The American Labor Museum is one of a growing number of museums throughout the world that are dedicated to celebrating the history and contribution of working people. The Botto House, home of the museum, is a twelve-room, three-family Victorian house built in  by Pietro (–) and Maria (–) Botto, immigrants from Biella, Italy. A trolley-car suburb, Haledon was home to working families employed in neighboring Paterson, which was known as “Silk City.’’ Pietro Botto was a skilled weaver, and Maria was a silk inspector who worked at home on a “picking frame.’’ During the  Paterson Silk Strike, the house became a haven for free speech and assembly for over twenty thousand strikers who were forbidden to meet in Paterson. This strike was one of several historic events that led to labor legislation and improvements in working conditions. Golin, Steve. The Fragile Bridge: Paterson Silk Strike, . Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

See also labor; museums

Angelica M. Santomauro

American Littoral Society.

Based in Sandy Hook, the American Littoral Society (ALS) is a national, nonprofit environmental watchdog group with more than six thousand members. It was founded in  by fishermen and divers worried about development and water quality; since then the ALS has played

American Revolution a role in the enactment of key legislation affecting littoral areas (such as the Wetlands Act, the Coastal Facility Review Act, and the Waterfront Development Act). The ALS supports free public access to beaches, the removal of structures such as jetties, groins, and bulkheads, and the buyout of beachfront and other property subjected to frequent flooding and storm damage. The society has consistently objected to tax-funded beach replenishment. Two society projects concentrate on New Jersey watersheds: the Baykeeper is an advocate for the Hudson-Raritan Estuary at the mouth of New York Harbor, and the Delaware Riverkeeper keeps an eye on that river’s lands and waters.

Mark McGarrity

American Pottery Manufacturing Company. Located in Jersey City, the American Pottery Manufacturing Company was the first U.S. pottery manufacturer to introduce English factory methods using molds and a division of labor. In , Scottish brothers David and James Henderson, operating as D. and J. Henderson, employed English master potters William and James Taylor to make brown-glazed stoneware vessels in a factory previously built and occupied by the Jersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company on the block bounded by Essex, Sussex, and Warren streets. In , the name was changed to the American Pottery Manufacturing Company (also known as the American Pottery Company), and David Henderson took control of the operation. By this time, the company had introduced the extensive use of press molds, first utilizing molds acquired from England and, later, employing master moldmakers like Englishman Daniel Greatbach.

Products included brown-glazed stonewares, yellow earthenware, and refined white earthenware. Much of the white earthenware was transfer printed, a process in which elaborate decoration is transferred from engraved copper plates to the pottery surface. The company is known for its use of the Canova pattern copied from English originals. It decorated hexagonal pitchers for the presidential campaign of William Henry Harrison in  with transfer prints of Harrison and his log cabin symbol. Whitewares were embellished with blue color sponged onto the surface. Plates and teapots marked by the American Pottery Company are known by this decoration. Many wares, however, may have survived without marks and may be identified as English products today. The company is known primarily for its hound-handled pitchers with low-relief hunt scenes on the sides. Many of these were covered with a Rockingham glaze, which is distinguished by a dark brown spotted appearance. Developed in England, this type of glaze was introduced to American manufacture about  and persisted through the nineteenth century. In , David Henderson was killed in an accident in the Adirondack Mountains. The surviving corporate owners of the company, including William Rhodes, Oliver Strong, and Thomas McGerron, continued to make similar wares and probably also used the same company name. By , however, the pottery was owned by John Owen Rouse and Nathaniel Turner, and was called the Jersey City Pottery Company. They continued to make Rockingham household wares, such as pitchers and teapots, including their own version of the socalled Rebekah-at-the-Well pattern. The pottery also produced a line of white granite tableware, although few marked examples have survived and the full range of this line is not known today. During the s, it made a line of cream-colored earthenware in ornamental shapes, called ivory whiteware, which was sold undecorated, for embellishment by independent china decorators across the United States. Turner died in . Rouse sold the property in . The buildings were demolished shortly thereafter. During David Henderson’s tenure, the pottery was at the forefront of the American ceramics market. From  to , the company’s wares competed favorably with English imported stoneware and earthenware. After the Civil War, however, the pottery’s products were uninspired. Stradling, Diana, and Ellen Paul Denker. Jersey City: Shaping America’s Pottery Industry, –. Jersey City: Jersey City Museum, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker Earthenware pitcher with cream background and black transfer prints made by the American Pottery Manufacturing Company for William Henry Harrison’s presidential campaign, .

Collection of the New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. Museum Purchase, CH1986.11.

American Repertory Ballet/ Princeton Ballet School. The American Repertory Ballet (ARB) is New Jersey’s largest dance company. The Princeton Ballet

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Society maintains both the ARB and its affiliate, the Princeton Ballet School. ´e Estey, a former actress-dancer for Audre Fox Studio and a renowned ballet teacher, founded the Princeton Ballet School in . More than twelve hundred students now study at its studios in Princeton, Cranbury, and New Brunswick, making it one of the largest dance schools in the nation. The school offers a wide-ranging curriculum, conservatory atmosphere, and apprenticeship program in order to provide the training that will help guide its students to careers as professional dancers. In , the success of the Princeton Ballet School led Estey to establish the Princeton Regional Ballet Company, which, in , became the professional Princeton Ballet Company. Its growing national reputation inspired the name change, in , to the American Repertory Ballet. The company’s home theaters are the New Brunswick State Theatre and McCarter Theatre in Princeton. The ARB is also a principal affiliate of the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. Since , the New Jersey State Council on the Arts has designated the company a Major Arts Institution and, in addition, awarded the ARB a citation of excellence for –. See also dance

Beth S. Bloom

American Revolution.

The worst crisis to strike the state of New Jersey was also its first crisis—the Revolutionary War of –. New Jersey was a corridor between the northern and southern colonies and between the two key cities of New York and Philadelphia. Many of the crucial military actions of the Revolution took place in New Jersey, and the small and sparsely populated state suffered a disproportionate share of the war’s battles, invasions, and civil strife. Through the years of war, George Washington spent more time in New Jersey than in any other state, including three winter encampments (Morristown in  and – and Raritan in –). For New Jerseyans, the home front and the battlefront were often the same. Prior to its major role in the Revolution, New Jersey played a relatively minor part in the decade of protest that preceded the outbreak of war. With a population of about ,, the colony had no large cities to match Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, with their urban mobs, and no large merchant class that bridled at limits imposed by Britain on commerce with Europe and the West Indies. Unlike many other colonies, New Jersey made no claims to western territories and so did not suffer from British limitations on settlement beyond the Allegheny Mountains. The colony had no newspaper to rally public opinion, and it produced no leaders with the influence of Patrick Henry of Virginia or Samuel Adams of Massachusetts. In , at the beginning of the

AMERICAN REVOLUTION IN NEW JERSEY OVERVIEW OF BATTLES MAJOR BATTLES K

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A. Trenton 1 December 26, 1776 B. Trenton 2 (Assunpink) January 2, 1777

N

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C. Princeton January 3, 1777 D. Monmouth June 28, 1778 MINOR BATTLES E. Chestnut Neck October 5–7, 1778

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NUMBER OF SKIRMISHES

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1

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F. Paulus Hook August 19, 1779 G. Fort Lee November 20, 1776

5 - 10 20 - 30

H. Red Bank (Fort Mercer) October 22, 1777 I. Gloucester November 25 & 27, 1777

I H

J. Connecticut Farms June 7, 1780 K. Baylor Massacre September 28, 1778 M

E

N

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L. Osborne Island October 15, 1778 M. Quinton's Bridge March18, 1778 N. Hancock's Bridge March 21, 1778 O. Springfield June 23, 1780

0

20 miles Rutgers, The State University

American Revolution protest movement, New Jersey’s legislature initially turned down a request to send delegates to an intercolonial conference called to protest the Stamp Act. Although the colony was not in the forefront of the protest, a majority of New Jerseyans came to share with other colonists the sentiment that restrictive legislation passed by Parliament posed a threat to liberty. One issue that agitated the colony was Britain’s limitation on the issuance of paper currency, a move that disadvantaged New Jersey’s debtor farmers. The colony sent delegates to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and residents engaged in protest activities such as hanging unpopular officials in effigy, boycotting British imports, holding anti-British meetings, and forming Sons of Liberty groups. Inspired by events in Boston, a mob in Greenwich destroyed a cargo of British tea. As in other colonies, rebel New Jerseyans set up an extralegal government of local committees, and they formed a colonywide Provincial Congress to which towns sent representatives. By , this ad hoc structure had taken charge of the affairs of the colony in place of the increasingly isolated royal governor, William Franklin, and his officials. But unlike more militant colonies in the South and New England, New Jerseyans still hung back from calling for a complete break with Great Britain. Even as late as January , nine months after armed conflict began at Lexington and Concord, most New Jerseyans did not favor independence. The turning point for New Jersey came in June , when the Provincial Congress arrested Governor Franklin and removed him from office. In July the rebels adopted a constitution that declared New Jersey’s independence and replaced the old colonial government. This hastily written document continued to refer to New Jersey as a colony, rather than a state, and contained a final clause that provided for its own nullification in the case of reconciliation between England and its colonies. But for all the hesitancy, the crucial step had been taken: New Jersey was independent. The constitution provided for a governor to be elected annually by the legislature. As the first occupant of that office, the legislature chose William Livingston, a retired lawyer and fervent revolutionary. Livingston proved to be an excellent war leader and was reelected each succeeding year. The newly formed state government faced serious problems. First was the presence of a large Tory faction, perhaps one-third of the population, which remained loyal to the Crown and regarded the rebels as traitors. Another block of New Jerseyans, the Quakers, though not overt supporters of the British, followed their pacifist religious principles and declared themselves neutral in the war. A second problem was to provide regiments of regular troops for the Continental

Army and to raise an effective state militia. This manpower problem was never satisfactorily solved, and throughout the war New Jersey struggled to recruit and maintain soldiers. The Jersey militia had a poor reputation in the eyes of General Washington. The third and most pressing threat facing Livingston and the new government came from the British Army, which had captured New York City in August  and threatened to invade New Jersey. The invasion came on the morning of November , , when a force of six thousand men under the command of Maj. Gen. Charles Cornwallis crossed the Hudson from Manhattan and climbed the Palisades. Gen. William Howe’s army captured Fort Lee, the main rebel stronghold on the west bank of the Hudson River, and then relentlessly advanced south through the length of New Jersey in pursuit of George Washington and the Continental Army. The retreat across New Jersey from late November through late December  marked the lowest point of the American Revolution. Washington’s shrinking, poorly clad, and poorly equipped force, virtually abandoned by the New Jersey militia, could not stop the British juggernaut. Washington was forced to flee across the Delaware to Pennsylvania, leaving the enemy in possession of the major towns of New Jersey. Governor Livingston and the state legislature went into hiding. Under British occupation, many former rebels signed loyalty oaths to the Crown. But then came a master stroke. On Christmas night , Washington and approximately twenty-four hundred soldiers crossed the Delaware River and the next morning routed the Hessian garrison at Trenton, killing the commander and capturing almost one thousand prisoners. The Battle of Trenton was a momentous victory that helped to keep the American cause alive. A week later, Washington defeated the British at Princeton, enabling him to reestablish the presence of the Continental Army in New Jersey. The victories at Trenton and Princeton forced the British to close ranks in a few heavily garrisoned towns, and they withdrew almost entirely from New Jersey in . Civil authority was restored. Although the remaining years of the Revolution were difficult in New Jersey, the situation never reached the depths of defeat and disunity that marked the perilous days of late . In the late summer of  Howe tried another strategy. He occupied Philadelphia, driving out the Continental Congress. But the Americans blocked the Delaware River south of Philadelphia through fortifications on islands in the river and at Fort Mercer on the Jersey side. A fierce British and Hessian attack on Fort Mercer was repulsed in October. The Delaware eventually did fall to Howe, but his occupation of Philadelphia failed to extinguish the rebellion.

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In June  Henry Clinton, Howe’s successor in command of the Crown forces, evacuated Philadelphia, marching across New Jersey toward New York City with some ten thousand British and Hessian soldiers. Presented with an opportunity to strike a blow at the enemy, Washington set out in pursuit, this time assisted by the New Jersey militia, which harassed the British line of march. Washington finally caught up with the British Army at Monmouth Courthouse on June , . The Battle of Monmouth was inconclusive, but the American force showed that it could stand head-to-head against the British. One final large-scale invasion of New Jersey occurred in June , when a force of five thousand British and Hessian soldiers under Gen. Wilhelm von Knyphausen landed near Elizabethtown. American resistance forced Knyphausen to turn back, but not before his soldiers set fire to the towns of Connecticut Farms and Springfield. New Jerseyans suffered much from these military campaigns, invasions, and encampments. Soldiers from both armies requisitioned property and routinely stole livestock to fill their bellies and fences to fuel their fires. The British and their allies committed the most serious depredations, and episodes of pillaging were common. Even after regular troops left the area as the major focus of the war shifted from the mid-Atlantic to the southern colonies, New Jerseyans lived in fear of Tory raids. New York City remained in British hands until the end of the war, giving the Tories a safe base from which to launch assaults. Virtually no county in New Jersey was untouched by civil strife, but the bloodiest were Bergen and Monmouth counties, where vigilante bands of Tories and rebels committed atrocities against each other. The rebels had the government on their side and used the law to banish or execute Loyalists and confiscate their estates. There was more to the Revolution than war. The state’s first newspaper, the NewJersey Gazette, was established in December , and its pages became a forum where residents could express their views about maintaining revolutionary virtue, about the need for vigilance against the enemy, and about the ramifications of independence for religion and education. One remarkable exchange in the paper in – addressed the question of whether slavery was compatible with the ideals of the Revolution—a debate that one historian has described as “the most extensive conducted in any state prior to the s.’’ During the war, New Jerseyans were also concerned about the organization of a national government. The state legislature approved the Articles of Confederation in November , but expressed serious reservations about the potential for large states to dominate the smaller ones. New Jersey’s representatives would grapple with this vexing

AMERICAN REVOLUTION: MAJOR BRITISH INVASION ROUTES, 1776 1780

1776 1777 British Victory British Forces American Forces

3

1777

2 Battle at Ft. Washington Sept. 1776

British Victory British Forces American Forces

Battle at Ft. Lee Nov. 1776

Morristown NYC

Princeton

General Washington's retreat Nov. Dec. 1776

Trenton N

Perth New Amboy Brunswick

1 Battle of Long Island Aug. 27,1776

5 General Cornwallis pursues the retreating Continental Army.

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1778

American Victory British Forces American Forces

New York City 4

2 The Continental Army marched from its winter encampment in Valley Forge to engage the British.

The battle was inconclusive. After dark, the British withdrew and continued on toward New York City.

River

Philadelphia

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3 The largest land artillery battle of the Revolution, Battle of Monmouth June 28, 1778.

1 In June, British evacuated from Philadelphia and withdrew toward New York City.

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British Navy landed troops to march on 2 Philadelphia in the spring of 1777.

1780

1 The winter of 1780 was the coldest of the century. General Washington faced mutiny from troops who had not been paid for months.

4 1,000 Continental troops met the British force, Battle of Springfied June 23, 1780. 3 British burn the village of Connecticut Farms, June 7, 1780. NYC

Morristown

Princeton

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5 Fort Mercer and Fort Mifflin beseiged fall 1777

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Trenton 6 Americans counterattack at Trenton and Princeton Dec. 26, 1776 January 3, 1777.

Philadelphia Campaign 4 summer 1777

Philadelphia

Princeton

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1 Continental Army encampment winter 1777

General Washington marched south to defend Philadelphia in the spring of 1777.

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Morristown

5 Retreating British troops burn Elizabethtown, June 23, 1780 The failed attacks on Morristown were the last major Brititsh military actions in New Jersey. 2 American Victory British Victory

General Knyphausen led 5,000 British troops to attack Continental troops in early June.

British Forces American Forces 0

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0 Source: National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/crossroads

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© Rutgers, The State University

amphibians issue a decade later in the debate over the federal Constitution. When the war finally ended in , New Jersey was left devastated and impoverished. The currency was hopelessly inflated; farms, churches, and homes had been burned to the ground; and families and communities had been torn apart by bitterness between Loyalists and rebels. But for all the difficulty, the war had been won, and New Jersey could chart its own future as a state within the new American nation. Historians have long debated the nature of the American Revolution. Was it a conservative movement to preserve the rights Americans already enjoyed? Was it a class war between haves and have-nots? Did it unleash a new revolutionary ideology? Looked at from the perspective of little New Jersey, the war’s origins were deeply conservative. There was no intent to turn the world upside down; no conscious change occurred in the relationship between rich and poor, masters and slaves, or men and women. One of New Jersey’s military leaders, William Alexander, proudly claimed to be the heir to a British noble title and was deferentially referred to as “Lord Stirling.’’ No New Jerseyans objected to having this aspiring aristocrat in their midst. But in the debates in the Gazette and in private letters and public legislation one can see a radical view of the political and social order emerging. At the end of the war, Governor Livingston spoke to the General Assembly and, through that legislative body, to the people of New Jersey: “Let us now shew ourselves worthy of the inestimable Blessings of Freedom by an inflexible Attachment to publick Faith and national Honour. Let us establish our Character as a Sovereign State on the only durable Basis of impartial and universal Justice.’’ The revolutionary implication was that, from the eminent Lord Stirling to the humblest resident, New Jerseyans were equal in the eyes of the state. It is a concept that continues to challenge the people of the state in the third century since the Revolution. Gerlach, Larry R., ed. New Jersey in the American Revolution, –: A Documentary History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Lundin, Leonard. Cockpit of the Revolution: The War for Independence in New Jersey. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Marc Mappen

American Standard Corporation. The American Standard Corporation was formed in  with the merger of two major heating and plumbing supply manufacturers, American Radiator of Buffalo, New York, and Standard Sanitary Manufacturing Corporation of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, becoming American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation. In , company president Theodore Ahern purchased the Thomas Maddock’s Sons sanitary pottery in Hamilton Township, giving it a state-of-the-art pottery on the East Coast.

Adding products ranging from toilet seats to air conditioners to truck braking systems, American Standard, as it was formally known from  on, became the world’s largest plumbing products producer. In , it purchased the Trane Corporation, manufacturers of air conditioners and furnaces, with a plant in Hamilton Township. The corporation moved its international headquarters from New York City to Piscataway in a cost-cutting move in . After upgrading its New Jersey pottery in the late s and early s, American Standard cut its staff by half in , asserting that the plant was old and inefficient. Although workers protested that the seventy-sixyear-old facility remained profitable and that renovations were under way that would further modernize it, American Standard closed the plant in December , shifting remaining production to Tiffin, Ohio; Mexico; and Costa Rica. Under CEO and president Frederick M. Poses, American Standard had revenues of $. billion, profits of $ million, and about sixty thousand employees in twenty-seven countries in . It ranked  on the  Fortune  list of corporations. Maddock, Archibald M. The Polished Earth: A History of the Pottery Plumbing Fixtures Industry in the United States. Trenton: Privately published, . Stern, Marc Jeffrey. The Pottery Industry of Trenton: A Skilled Trade in Transition, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

27

educational works used in schools for former slaves established in the South by northern philanthropists. By the mid–twentieth century, after a period of book publishing, the society returned to tract distribution. Leaving its longtime home in New York City in the s, it moved to Garland, Texas, where it is still active. American Tract Society Documents, –. New York: Arno Press, .

See also Presbyterians

Margaret M. Sumner

American Type Founders Company. Incorporated in New Jersey in , the American Type Founders (ATF) was created by the merger of twenty-three leading American type foundries, including the oldest, begun in . The company eventually bought the four remaining important foundries and became the leading supplier of printing type in the United States. ATF gradually consolidated casting and manufacturing operations in Jersey City and opened an important typographic library there. A second factory, opened in  in Elizabeth, later supplanted the Jersey City factory. In , during the Depression, ATF declared bankruptcy, from which it slowly reemerged as a smaller operation. Changes in printing technology relentlessly drove it into a second, and final, bankruptcy on May , .

See also sanitary ware industry

Stephen O. Saxe

Marc J. Stern

Ammann, American Telephone and Telegraph. See AT&T Corporation. American Tract Society.

When tract societies from New England, New York, and New Jersey agreed to combine their efforts, the American Tract Society was founded on May , . From its headquarters in New York City, the society published and distributed thousands of religious pamphlets—or tracts— designed, as the Rev. William Blackwood stated in an  speech at Princeton Theological Seminary, to spread the gospel, which “alone is intended to achieve the subjugation of the world to Christ.’’ Influenced by the religious revivalism and reform efforts of the early nineteenth century, the society’s directors, mostly Congregationalist and Presbyterian ministers, encouraged cooperative efforts among the growing number of Protestant sects. Tract writers promoted social purity movements like temperance and urged believers to support missionary work, both spiritually and financially. New Jersey educator Theodore Frelinghuysen, active in the Presbyterian Church and the temperance movement, served as president of the American Tract Society from  to , before becoming president of Rutgers College in . After the Civil War, the society provided many

Othmar

Hermann

(b. Mar. , ; d. Sept. , ).

Engineer and designer. Born in Feuerthalen, near Schaffhausen, Switzerland, Othmar Ammann was the son of Emmanuel Christian Ammann and Emilie Rose Labhardt. Ammann received a degree in engineering from the Federal Polytechnic Institute, Zurich, in , and immigrated to the United States in . He served as bridge engineer with the Port of New York Authority from  to , becoming chief engineer in  and director of engineers in . He designed the innovative George Washington Bridge (), the Bayonne Bridge (), and the Lincoln Tunnel (), all of which connected New Jersey to New York. In  he returned to private practice and later designed the Delaware Memorial Bridge (), which connected New Jersey to Delaware. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Rastorfer, Darl. Six Bridges: The Legacy of Othmar H. Ammann. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also bridges; George Washington Bridge

P. Gerard Nowicki

amphibians.

Amphibians were the first vertebrates to be adapted for life on land. Jointed, bony limbs for walking on land and lungs capable of breathing gaseous oxygen,

28

Amtrak

Amtrak.

Spadefoot toad.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife. along with a mucus-covered skin to minimize water loss, allowed amphibians to make the transition from water to land. Amphibians normally spend only a portion of their life cycle on land, however, and return to the water to breed. The typical amphibian life cycle comprises an aquatic larval stage followed by a terrestrial adult stage. There are, however, exceptions to this standard life cycle. For example, the red-spotted newt, which is found throughout New Jersey, has aquatic larvae and adults, but it also has a fully terrestrial juvenile (or red eft) stage. New Jersey is home to thirty-two different species of amphibians. Salamanders account for sixteen of these species and include the endangered blue-spotted salamander and eastern tiger salamander, as well as the threatened long-tailed salamander and eastern mud salamander. One common species of salamander is the redback, which is found in moist forests throughout New Jersey. Other species such as the mountain dusky, Jefferson, and northern red salamander are found only in northern counties of the state. Frogs and toads are the most commonly observed group of amphibians. The familiar sounds of male frogs and toads calling during the breeding season increases our awareness of these amphibians in the state. Some species, like the ubiquitous spring peeper, may call as early as March following the first spring rains of the year. An icon of the Pinelands, the Pine Barrens treefrog is a state endangered species that prefers to breed in fishless ponds and temporary wetlands. Like salamanders, the porous skin and semiaquatic life cycle of frogs and toads make them very sensitive to water pollution. Habitat loss and the degradation of water quality are the two major threats to amphibian populations in New Jersey. Beans, Bruce E., and Larry Niles, eds. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Conant, Roger, and Joseph T. Collins. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians: Eastern/Central North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

David Golden

Railroads had been losing passenger, express, and mail service to airlines, trucks, cars, and buses since the Depression, and by the late s the quality and reliability of much of the remaining service had significantly declined. Railroads saw no incentive to acquire new equipment or facilities. Blending “America,’’ “travel,’’ and “track,’’ Amtrak, a semipublic corporation, was created by the federal government in  to operate most of the nation’s remaining intercity passenger trains. Under its national scope, Amtrak brought coordinated scheduling, reservations, ticketing, and uniform service standards. Despite gloomy predictions at its inception, the company has expanded services, purchased new equipment, speeded up schedules on several routes, and offers premium express shipment service on its trains. The recently inaugurated Acela trains have reduced the Boston-to-Washington time to six and a half hours. Amtrak serves five hundred stations in forty-five states and provides contract commuter service for eight state and regional authorities. Much of its service operates over routes belonging to freight railroads but it owns the Boston-Washington corridor, and the New Jersey section of this route handles the highest volume of trains. Amtrak owns , cars and  locomotives, and employs , individuals. More than . million customers are served yearly. Bradley, Rodger. Amtrak: The U.S. National Railroad Passenger Corporation. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, . Edmonson, Harold A., ed. Journey to Amtrak. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

ancient Oriental churches.

Almost all ancient Oriental churches have congregations in New Jersey. Generally, they are considered Eastern churches, in distinction to the Roman or Western Church, which itself fragmented into many distinct Protestant denominations. Some of these Eastern churches are in communion with Rome; others are not and are considered Eastern Orthodox, although they derive from many traditions: Byzantine, Antiochian, Coptic, Armenian, and Syriac. The Oriental churches vary little in belief but greatly in ritual and administration. Generally, they do not accept the primacy of the Roman pontiff or Latin-rite patriarch, preferring the orthodoxy of the early church, which accepted diversity, local governance, and the authority of the patriarchs of Antioch and Constantinople. Some had their origins in Nestorianism and others in the schism of , which split the Eastern and Western churches. In the eighteenth century and thereafter, several Oriental groups reentered communion with Rome (for example, the Melkites and Ukrainians) and are thus known to westerners as “Uniates.’’

The largest of these Oriental traditions is the Byzantine or Eastern Orthodox Church. After Rome, it is also the most “universal.’’ Unlike the groups listed above, which are Arab to one degree or another, the Byzantine tradition also includes Greeks, Russians, Ukrainians, and other Slavic groups. All have communities throughout New Jersey. Among Eastern communities in general, the Greek Orthodox Church in New Jersey is most widely known and widespread, and it also serves as the embodiment of that ethnic community, as seen in the numerous Greek festivals held at churches throughout the state. Owing to their diversity, however, no single organization represents all the Eastern churches in New Jersey. Rather, the various ethnic Orthodox bodies belong to a larger national organization that is slowly melding them into a singular American Byzantine Orthodox Church. Oriental churches were first established in New Jersey at the turn of the twentieth century. At that time, most congregants were either Byzantine-rite Catholics from Syria, known as Melkites, or Syrian Orthodox Christians from the cities of Syria and Lebanon. Both the Byzantine Catholics and the Orthodox Syrians are now known as Antiochian Orthodox. Along with these Arab immigrants came Armenian-rite Catholics from Aleppo, Syria. All have thriving congregations in the suburbs of Paterson, where they have built beautiful modern churches and community centers. Orthodox congregations from Armenia were first established at the same time, mostly in Bergen and Passaic counties. More recently, the venerable Coptic Church thrives in Jersey City, brought there by Egyptian immigrants. The Syriac-rite Christians of Turkey have also arrived in the state from Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq. They consider themselves Syriac Orthodox and use Aramaic (the language Christ spoke) in their liturgy, which is often interspersed with Arabic and Turkish as well. Also using Aramaic in the liturgy are the Maronites of Lebanon. This new community has settled in New Brunswick and is in the process of establishing a permanent parish there. Bailey, Betty Jane, and J. Martin Bailey.Who Are the Christians in the Middle East? Grand Rapids, MI, and Cambridge, UK: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, . Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also Eastern Orthodox Church; religion

Philip M. Kayal

Ancora Psychiatric Hospital.

Ancora Psychiatric Hospital (Camden County) opened in  to provide psychiatric services to adults and children in southern New Jersey and to relieve crowding at other state psychiatric hospitals. Approximately two thousand patients were housed in nine modern buildings. Ancora’s inpatient population has decreased to just over six hundred patients

Annin Flag Company as coordinated programs moved some inpatients to geriatric facilities and communitycare settings. Current programs include a forensic psychiatry facility and drug and alcohol rehabilitation for patients with coexisting mental illness. An innovative “Campus Brief Visit’’ program allows patients approaching discharge and their families to reexperience family living during brief stays in a cottage on the hospital grounds. See also mental hospitals

Sandra Moss

Anderson, John (b. ; d. Mar. , ). Politician. Following an unsuccessful attempt to establish a Scottish colony on the Isthmus of Panama, John Anderson sailed for New York in  but abandoned his unseaworthy ship in New Jersey. He settled there and soon began serving as provincial court judge. John Anderson married Anna Reid on December , , and fathered nine children. Apart from a suspension between  and , Anderson was a member of the New Jersey Council from  until . As senior councilor, Anderson became acting governor after the death of William Cosby on March , . He served for only eighteen days before dying on March .

was split off from Newton Township in ; the village of Andover was set off from the township as a borough in . The Andover Mine, a pre-Revolutionary iron mine located north of Andover Village, was one of the most important colonial iron mines in the state, and was active until the late nineteenth century. The town as a whole was greatly assisted by the arrival of the Sussex Mine Railroad in , built by Peter Cooper and Abraham Hewitt, and its extension as the Sussex Railroad in , which provided the first rail access to the interior of Sussex County. Iron mining and limestone quarrying remained important through the late nineteenth century, and agriculture was and to a degree remains an important part of the township, although much residential construction has occurred in recent decades. The  population was ,,  percent of which was white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Borough of Andover, Sussex County—New Jersey. . Reprint. Andover: Historical Society of Andover Township, . Snell, James P., ed. The History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr. Hornor, William S. This Old Monmouth of Ours. Freehold: Moreau Brothers, . Raimo, John W. Biographical Directory of American Colonial and Revolutionary Governors, –. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, .

John W. Raimo

Andover Borough. .-square-mile borough in Sussex County. Formerly the primary village of Andover Township, Andover Borough was incorporated in . The village grew from the Andover Ironworks, an important colonial operation that ceased operation in . The ironworks included a furnace erected in , as well as a gristmill and an ironmaster’s dwelling. A number of these stone buildings survive. The furnace building, later converted to a community playhouse, was adaptively reused as a supermarket. The arrival of the Sussex Railroad in  brought new prosperity to the village and secured its role as the shipping and mercantile center for the surrounding area, which was largely agricultural. Though colonial in origin, the village today reflects its railroad-era heritage. The  population count was , of whom  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Borough of Andover, Sussex County—New Jersey. . Reprint. Andover: Historical Society of Andover Township, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Andover Township.

.-square-mile municipality in Sussex County. The township

Andrews, Solomon

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Inventor, politician, and physi-

cian. Solomon Andrews served as Collector of the Port of Perth Amboy in –, was the mayor of his town for three terms, and spearheaded the construction of Perth Amboy’s first sewer system. As a doctor, having received his M.D. from Rutgers College in , Andrews recognized the importance of modern sewage systems in preventing the outbreak of cholera and yellow fever. In  Andrews converted a former army barracks in Perth Amboy into the Inventor’s Institute. Andrews developed many products, including a sewing machine, barrel maker, fumigator, velocipede, gas lamp, and kitchen stove. In addition, he invented a burglarproof lock for safe and vault doors. Andrews built a flying machine, the Aereon, which had its maiden flight over Perth Amboy on June , . Later, Andrews met President Abraham Lincoln to discuss its use during the Civil War, but with the conflict coming to an end, nothing further transpired. After the war, Andrews organized the Aerial Navigation Company, hoping to manufacture commercial airships for flights between New York and Philadelphia. Unfortunately, the postwar economic panic wiped out his company and defeated his flight plans. Kingsley, Mary. “The Flying Jerseyman: Dr. Solomon Andrews of Perth Amboy.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (): –.

See also airships

E. Richard McKinstry

Andros, Edmund

29

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Military officer and politician.

Born on the Isle of Guernsey, the son of Amias and Elizabeth (Stone) Andros, and a member of a prominent family that supported the Royalist cause during the English Civil Wars, the young Andros was well positioned to advance his career following the restoration of Charles II in . A military officer whose early responsibilities included service in Barbados, he found an important patron in James, the duke of York and brother of the king, who looked to Andros to help administer extensive North American holdings recently taken from the Dutch. In July  Andros received a commission as governor of New York, and in , following the death of Sir George Carteret, he seized an opportunity to extend his rule to East Jersey. Andros’s tactless handling of the situation led to his recall to England in January , but he returned in December , this time to supervise Charles II’s ambitious attempt at consolidating under the Dominion of New England all of the Crown’s northern colonies. Andros’s efforts at a sweeping overhaul of government in America and greater adherence to English practice ended with the overthrow of James II and the accession of William of Orange to the throne. Before his tenure as governor ended, however, Andros received a commission dated April , , which incorporated East and West Jersey into the Dominion of New England. He governed in that capacity from August  until his arrest and eventual return to England in spring . Andros’s strong skills as an administrator continued to be admired in England, and he later served as governor of Virginia from September  to December  and lieutenant governor of Guernsey from  to . Andros then retired to London, where he died. Lustig, Mary Lou. The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, –. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Raimo, John W. Biographical Directory of American Colonial and Revolutionary Governors, –. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John W. Raimo

Annin Flag Company. The world’s largest flag company has its corporate offices and distribution facilities in Roseland. There are two manufacturing plants in the state, at Verona and Orange, and others in Pennsylvania, California, and Virginia. Although Annin manufactures more than twenty thousand different flags and flag accessories, its principal product since its incorporation in  has been the American flag. Between then and July , , the number of stars has increased sixteen times, from twenty-nine to fifty. Annin-made flags have

30

Antheil, George

flown at every presidential inauguration since that of Zachary Taylor in . The company made the flag that Neil Armstrong and Edwin “Buzz’’ Aldrin placed on the Moon during their historic landing on July , , and the ones flown on Robert E. Peary’s expeditions to the North Pole, Richard E. Byrd’s flights over the North and South poles, and the National Geographic Society’s expedition to the top of Mount Everest. Annin is also the official flag manufacturer for the United Nations.

Maureen Dillon

Antheil, George

[Georg] (Carl Johann)

(b. July , ; d. Feb. , ). Composer, con-

cert pianist, lonely hearts columnist, and inventor of a torpedo. Born in Trenton, Antheil studied violin and piano as a child and began composing as a teenager. He trained as an aviator for World War I, but his first trip to Europe was as a concert pianist after the war. The early twentieth century was a time of experimentation, a time of turning against traditions in the arts. Antheil’s concerts were considered avant-garde in Germany, where rioting audiences became commonplace. The riots were fueled by Antheil’s playing of ultramodern works, including his own “barbarous’’ piano sonatas. For protection, he carried a pistol under his tuxedo. Antheil’s reputation pre´a ˆtre des Champs Elyse ´es ceded him to the The in Paris, where on October , , his performance again precipitated a riot, which made him notorious with the Parisian critics and a champion to modernists. Antheil composed solo piano works, symphonies, film music, ballets, and operas. His music was influenced by jazz, cubism, technology, and later, neoclassicism. Early works, like his Sonata Sauvage, Airplane Sonata, and Mechanisms are machinelike in their rhythmic and percussive qualities. Ballet m´ecanique (– ), originally scored for sixteen player pianos and percussion, is his best-known work. Antheil’s music is rarely performed today, but his compositional experimentation and notoriety as a performer are important to early twentieth-century musical aesthetics. His music reflects the effect technology and war had on the arts. Antheil, George. Bad Boy of Music. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran, . Pound, Ezra. Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony with Supplementary Notes. . Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, . Whitesitt, Linda. The Life and Music of George Antheil, –. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, .

Nan Childress Orchard

Anuszkiewicz, Richard ).

(b. May ,

Painter. Born in Erie, Pennsylvania, Richard Anuszkiewicz studied at the Cleveland Institute of Art and began seriously painting in the s as a student of the influential Bauhaus artist Josef Albers at Yale University. Anuszkiewicz dislikes the designation “Op art’’ coined in  to describe many new

paintings. “Scientific art’’ would be a more apt term. Early in his career, he stated that he was interested in exploring how the mind, based on definite psychological laws, organizes what the eye sees. Recoiling from Abstract Expressionism’s abandon, his smoothly surfaced paintings combine repetition and organized procedures to create symmetrical patterns of geometric lines or blocks of color. Because no one part is dominant, his works can be understood as metaphors for the ideal of human equality. His works can also be considered to be two-dimensional equivalents to Buckminster Fuller’s tensigrity, a modern architectural principle of balanced forces. After marrying Elizabeth (Sally) Feeney in , Anuszkiewicz moved to Englewood. He taught at Cooper Union, Dartmouth, Cornell, and Kent State. Besides many one-man and group shows, in , the Brooklyn Museum organized a mid-career retrospective. An outdoor mural near Journal Square in Jersey City marks his contribution to New Jersey’s public art. Anuszkiewicz, Richard. Anuszkiewicz/Karl Lunde. New York: Harry N. Abrams, . Color Function Painting: The Art of Josef Albers, Julian Stanczak, and Richard Anuszkiewicz. WinstonSalem, NC: Wake Forest University Fine Arts Gallery, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Apex Beauty Products Company. Apex Beauty Products Company was founded by Sara Spencer Washington, an African American entrepreneur and philanthropist, who served as president of the company from  until her death in . Apex Hair Company of Atlantic City, originally a one-room beauty shop located at Indiana and Arctic avenues, was the first of Washington’s numerous Apex enterprises. At her laboratory she developed a patented hair curl-removal system called Glossatina, which included hair sheen, pomade, and hot-comb pressing oils that soothed the scalp. Perfumes, lipstick, and facial creams were also created in the laboratory. The company manufactured over seventy-five beauty products for black women in its Atlantic City plant. The finished products were delivered to company agents using a fleet of Apex Hair Company trucks and cars. The company employed more than  men and women as chemists, lab technicians, office workers, teachers, sales representatives, and chauffeurs. By , Apex Enterprises grossed over a million dollars a year and included beauty schools, Apex Farm, Apex Rest, and Apex News, a national beauty magazine for Apex beauticians and agents. The magazine was first issued in  and was published regularly after . The Apex Schools of Scientific Beauty Culture, graduating more than , people a year, were located in eleven American cities, plus Johannesburg, South Africa, and the Caribbean Islands. Apex Farm and Apex

Rest were purchased in the s. Apex Farm was a -acre tract of land in Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Apex Rest was a fifteen-room facility in Atlantic City used primarily by company employees but open to the public. Recreational facilities included a hall routinely converted from dance floor to basketball court and a nine-hole golf course carved out of the woods of Pomona in the late s. The golf club is now the Pomona Golf Course. An influential business executive and pioneer in promotional techniques, Washington established a public relations department that worked with black organizations throughout the country to explain the importance of buying from blacks and supporting their businesses. In  Washington was awarded a medallion at the New York World’s Fair as one of the outstanding businesswomen of New York State. She received a citation for meritorious service during World War II and was the recipient of numerous awards from schools, organizations, and businesses nationwide. Washington’s only child, her adopted daughter Joan Cross Washington Hayes, assumed the presidency of Apex upon Washington’s death in . The business was absorbed by a Baltimore firm in the s. The last line of Apex products seen in the marketplace was produced in Memphis. Although Apex Beauty Products Company is no longer in existence, the product name is still being used. See also Washington, Sara Spencer

Ethel M. Washington

Appalachian Mountains. The remains of an ancient mountain belt in the eastern United States that resulted from the collision of lithospheric plates at the close of the Paleozoic era about  million years ago. The Appalachian system extends from northern Georgia and Alabama northeast to New England and the Canadian Maritimes. In north-central New Jersey, the Appalachians are represented by three northeast-southwest trending physiographic provinces, or landform regions (the Ridge and Valley, the Highlands, and the Piedmont) that together cover  percent of the state. Kittatinny Mountain, a prominent ridge of the Appalachians, extends thirty-five miles from the New York border to the Delaware Water Gap. The highest elevation in New Jersey (High Point at , feet) is located on Kittatinny Mountain. Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; geology; physiography

Robert M. Hordon

Appalachian Trail.

The Appalachian Trail is a footpath extending more than , miles from Springer Mountain, Georgia, to Mount Katahdin, Maine. A stretch of . miles passes through Warren, Sussex, and Passaic counties in northwestern New Jersey.

aquifers

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The idea for the Appalachian Trail originated in  at an informal gathering at Hudson Guild Farm in Sussex County, near Lake Hopatcong. The meeting resulted in an essay by forester and planner Benton MacKaye advocating a linear Appalachian Mountain park as a tool for regional planning. The portion of the Appalachian Trail through New York and New Jersey was the first to be completed, c. , through the efforts of Raymond H. Torrey and the New York–New Jersey Trail Conference. From the south, the Appalachian Trail enters New Jersey via the Delaware Water Gap, ascending Mount Tammany and Kittatinny Ridge, which it follows for  miles. In Worthington State Forest and the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, the trail passes Sunfish Pond, Raccoon Ridge, and Catfish Fire Tower before entering Stokes State Forest and ascending Culver’s Gap. From there it passes Culver Fire Tower and approaches Sunrise Mountain, where a large pavilion was constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in –. Entering High Point State Park, it passes near High Point Monument before leaving Kittatinny Ridge to go through the Kittatinny Valley. Traversing woods, fields, and swamps, it crosses the Wallkill River before ascending Pochuck Mountain and passing through the Vernon Valley, where a -foot suspension bridge and ,-foot boardwalk were constructed across the Pochuck River floodplain in the late s. Ascending foot Wawayanda Mountain, the Appalachian Trail enters the Highlands, passing through Wawayanda State Park and entering New York State on Bearfort Mountain. The Appalachian Trail was constructed and is primarily maintained by volunteers

from local hiking organizations. Seven shelters for backpackers have been constructed along the New Jersey section of the Appalachian Trail, spaced an average of ten miles apart; there is also one campground. Since the s, state and federal authorities have acquired land to buffer the Appalachian Trail from adjacent development, particularly in the Vernon and Wallkill valleys. The portion of trail between Wawayanda Mountain and Kittatinny Ridge was completely relocated away from highways onto a protected corridor by the late s, and numerous bridges and sections of boardwalk were constructed. Several thousand backpackers hiking some or all of the Appalachian Trail pass through New Jersey annually. Chazin, Daniel D., field ed. Appalachian Trail Guide to New York–New Jersey. Harpers Ferry, WV: Appalachian Trail Conference, . Scherer, Glenn, and Don Hopey. Exploring the Appalachian Trail—Hikes in the Mid-Atlantic States. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Appel Farm Arts and Music Center. Founded in  and located on a -acre farm, Appel Farm Arts and Music Center is a nonprofit regional arts center located in Upper Pittsgrove Township. The center’s programs include a residential summer arts camp for children ages nine through seventeen, a nationally renowned folk festival held on the first Saturday in June, a professional concert series, community and school arts outreach, and a conference center. Appel Farm serves over fifty thousand people annually.

Mark E. Packer

plejack is also known as apple brandy, apple whiskey, cider spirits, or “Jersey Lightning.’’ Applejack has mainly been produced by distilling hard cider. Because of the adaptability of the imported trees and the ease of manufacturing cider, which ferments naturally, apples were the primary source of alcohol in early America. It was safer to drink than water, and was therefore consumed in great quantities. In New Jersey, known for the quality of its apples, applejack was already being produced by the late seventeenth century, and in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries “Newark cider’’ was exported to much of the country. Stills that rendered the mildly alcoholic cider into more potent and portable applejack were widespread in the state as early as the mid-eighteenth century. Most large farms distilled small quantities for household consumption, but by the early nineteenth century commercial distillers were using huge cider stills with capacities of over a thousand gallons; in  there were  distilleries in the state. New Jersey never had a monopoly on applejack production but, as the name “Jersey Lightning’’ suggests, it was closely identified with the liquor. During Prohibition, bootleg Jersey applejack was popular, in part because it was thought to be safer to drink than other forms of moonshine. Legitimate distillers rebounded somewhat after the  repeal, but rising apple prices and changes in American drinking habits proved fatal to almost all of them. The sole survivor, Laird and Company of Scobeyville, is the oldest operating distillery in the United States; although its apples are no longer grown in New Jersey, the company continues to produce and market applejack, in addition to bottling and importing less traditional spirits. Weiss, Harry B. The History of Applejack or Apple Brandy in New Jersey from Colonial Times to the Present. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

See also agriculture

David Lurie

Apollo Muses.

Apollo Muses supports and presents arts programs in central New Jersey. The organization was founded in  by Eric Gustafson of Peapack-Gladstone to help young professional artists find opportunities to perform their music, dance, theater, and poetry, as well as to show their paintings and sculpture. The organization also arranges for distinguished veteran artists to share their experiences. The organization has supported programs in New Jersey schools, libraries, and museums, as well as at Carnegie Hall, New York University, and the Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center in New York.

Michael Redmond

aquifers.

Aquifers are water-bearing geological formations that can store and transmit substantial amounts of groundwater to

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wells and springs. The formations can be either unconsolidated (e.g., Kirkwood-Cohansey Formation in the Coastal Plain of southern New Jersey) or consolidated (e.g., Stockton Formation in central New Jersey). The most productive aquifers in the state are the sandy formations in the Coastal Plain (e.g., PotomacRaritan-Magothy) and the sand and gravel deposits in buried glacial valleys in northern New Jersey (e.g., Ramapo River Valley in Bergen County). The least productive aquifers are the diabase and argillite formations in central New Jersey (e.g., Sourland Mountains) that are poorly fractured, with very limited capability to transmit water. Fetter, C. W. Applied Hydrogeology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, .

See also water

Robert M. Hordon

arbitration.

In the last decade, there has been a huge increase in the number and type of disputes submitted to arbitration. The benefits of arbitration are well known: this process is less costly, less time-consuming, and probably more equitable than is adjudication. Under the New Jersey Arbitration Act, individuals must submit to court-annexed or mandatory arbitration if they are filing a civil claim alleging personal injury, and if the amount of monetary damages sought is less than either $, for a claim arising from an automobile accident or $, for injuries arising from other claims. New Jersey is one of only six states that mandate arbitration, and there are a number of facets that are unique to the state’s arbitration procedure, such as the requirement that the parties exempt themselves from arbitration if they seek medical expenses in excess of $, or if the case involves novel or complex features. Under state law, parties have a right to appeal their arbitration awards in court, and there is little penalty for those who have not participated in the arbitration process in good faith. An award arising from court-annexed arbitration can be vacated only if there is evidence that the arbitrators have engaged in fraud, corruption, or other wrongdoing. In addition to mandatory arbitration, parties can agree to submit to arbitration as part of a contract. For a court to uphold a voluntary arbitration agreement, there must be clear and unambiguous evidence of the parties’ intent to arbitrate. The contract must state that arbitration will proceed in accordance with all federal and state statutory and common law, and that all remedies and rights established under these laws will be recognized. At present, some state agencies, including the New Jersey Division on Civil Rights, are seeking to expand the use of mediation, which has less formal procedures and may provide greater opportunities for participation by the disputants. Davant, Charles, IV. “Tripping on the Threshold: Federal Courts’ Failure to Observe Controlling

State Law under the Federal Arbitration Act.’’Duke Law Journal  (): .

See also law

Suzanne U. Samuels

archaeology.

New Jersey’s first archaeological excavations occurred during the midnineteenth century and were carried out by avocational archaeologists coming from a natural science tradition. With few exceptions, these early archaeologists studied the state’s aboriginal past. Charles Conrad Abbott (–), generally regarded as the state’s first archaeologist, conducted pioneering excavations on his family’s property, Three Beeches, near Trenton. Abbott’s interest focused on New Jersey’s Native American inhabitants. In his excavations, he discovered ancient stone tools, which he termed “paleoliths.’’ These artifacts, found in gravel deposits along the Delaware River, appeared similar to stone tools found in Pleistocene deposits in Europe. Citing these similarities, Abbott argued vociferously that human occupation of the New World dated back some forty thousand years. Abbott’s theories generated considerable interest in New Jersey’s prehistory. Under the sponsorship of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University (–, –) and the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago ´ ge ´, Ernest Volk, (–), Abbott’s prote excavated sites in and around Trenton, searching for traces of early human presence. Although Volk discovered extensive archaeological evidence for prehistoric occupation of the Delaware Valley, his work failed to support Abbott’s claims about the earliest arrival of humans in the New World. Ultimately, Abbott’s theories were disproved. Nonetheless, he was an important figure in the development of North American archaeology. The Abbott Farm, his family homestead, was designated a National Historic Landmark in . It is one of two archaeological sites in New Jersey to be accorded this honor, and it remains one of the most important sites in the mid-Atlantic region. In the late nineteenth century, researchers from the Smithsonian Institution carried out other pioneering excavations in New Jersey. Charles Rau investigated Native American shell heaps near Keyport, while Frank Hamilton Cushing examined the Tuckerton Shell Mound. In  the New Jersey Geological Survey, working in cooperation with the Department of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History, began the state’s first formal archaeological survey. Archaeologists Alanson Skinner, Leslie Spier, and Max Schrabisch directed the fieldwork. A preliminary report of the survey, published in , listed roughly one thousand sites: camps, burial grounds, rock shelters, and shell heaps. Schrabisch and Spier continued the survey in , with Schrabisch focusing on Sussex County, where he

located numerous rock shelters. Spier investigated sites in and around Plainfield in Union County, as well as portions of Gloucester and Salem counties. In  and  Schrabisch carried out further fieldwork in Warren and Hunterdon counties. The results of this survey were published in three reports by the New Jersey Geological Survey. Later, working on his own, Schrabisch investigated Native American sites in the northern portion of the state and adjacent sections of Pennsylvania and New York. Although much of this early work was undertaken without a clear understanding of how long Native Americans had inhabited New Jersey and focused more on artifacts than context, these studies remain valuable sources of information about New Jersey’s prehistoric past. During the s, Dorothy Cross (Jensen), a professor of anthropology at Hunter College, supervised the New Jersey Indian Site Survey, a project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) designed to employ out-of-work laborers. Between  and , Cross identified numerous sites, and she later reported her findings in two lavish volumes published with the assistance of the New Jersey State Museum and the Archaeological Society of New Jersey. The first volume () provides an overview of New Jersey prehistory and detailed descriptions of thirty-nine sites investigated by the survey. The second volume () focuses on Cross’s excavations at the Abbott Farm. Until the s, historic sites in New Jersey received less archaeological attention than prehistoric ones. (Notable exceptions were Charles Conrad Abbott’s investigation of a seventeenth-century Dutch site in Burlington County in the s and Max Schrabisch’s testing at a Revolutionary War site at Pluckemin in  and .) Crews of Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) workers under the direction of National Park Service archaeologists carried out extensive formal excavations at Morristown National Historical Park, identifying the remains of soldiers’ huts, earthworks, and other structures associated with the Revolutionary War. In the second half of the twentieth century Herbert Kraft of Seton Hall University, following in the footsteps of Abbott and Cross, studied numerous Native American sites in the upper Delaware Valley. Excavations probed Harry’s Farm, the Pahaquarra Site, and the Minisink Site (also a National Historical Landmark). The latter, located along the Delaware River in Sussex County, New Jersey, and Pike County, Pennsylvania, has yielded a wealth of information on New Jersey’s Native Americans in the late prehistoric and early historic periods. Kraft’s excavations at these sites set a new standard for archaeology in New Jersey. His book The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography () remains the definitive summary of New Jersey’s prehistory. Since the s the amount of archaeological research in the state, at both historic

architecture and prehistoric sites, has grown considerably. Much of this work was spurred by federal legislation enacted in the s and s. As a result, extensive excavations were carried out in Paterson, New Brunswick (including nearby Raritan Landing), Trenton, and along the Morris Canal and the Delaware and Raritan Canal. Highway construction in the area around Trenton also led to a massive reinvestigation of the Abbott Farm site. Institutions holding major archaeological collections from New Jersey include the New Jersey State Museum, the Seton Hall University Museum, the University of Pennsylvania Museum, the Peabody Museum at Harvard University, and the Smithsonian Institution. The State Museum maintains a database of registered sites in the state, and the Historic Preservation Office in the Department of Environmental Protection serves as a repository for archaeological reports. The Archaeological Society of New Jersey, the only statewide organization dedicated to studying New Jersey’s archaeological heritage, was founded in . Active today, it continues to publish its annual Bulletin. During the twentieth century, archaeology in New Jersey developed from a dilettante’s passion to a scientific endeavor often mandated by federal and state regulations. Ongoing archaeological studies are reshaping our understanding of New Jersey’s Native American heritage and historic development. Cross, Dorothy. The Archaeology of New Jersey. Vol. . Trenton: Archaeological Society of New Jersey, New Jersey State Museum, . Mounier, R. Alan. Looking beneath the Surface: The Story of Archaeology in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Veit, Richard. Digging New Jersey’s Past: Historical Archaeology in the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Richard F. Veit

architecture. Because of the diverse nature of its settlement, New Jersey’s seventeenth- and eighteenth-century architecture is complex and varied, with forms and materials related to location and ethnicity. Initially settled by Dutch, Swedes, and Finns, New Jersey after  passed into the hands of English proprietors, many of whom were Quakers. They offered religious freedom, which attracted English and Scots-Irish immigrants of several religious persuasions from various parts of Great Britain. During the latter part of the eighteenth century, Germans settled in the northwestern part of the state. These groups brought differing vernacular traditions, which they adapted to the New World. Their buildings vary in materials and plan. Early descriptions of New Jersey houses mention several building materials, including brick, stone, and vertical planking, undoubtedly over a wooden frame. Log construction also was used from the late seventeenth through the mid-eighteenth century, although

33

The Ford Mansion in Morristown was Gen. George Washington’s headquarters from December  through June .

Courtesy National Park Service, Morristown National Historical Park. few examples survive. It was a handy and inexpensive building material, adopted by almost all groups, although probably brought to this country by settlers from northern Europe. In southwestern New Jersey the log-building techniques are thought to have been introduced by the Finns and Swedes. The best known of the surviving examples is the one-room Nothnagel Cabin in Gibbstown, Gloucester County, which accords with a seventeenth-century description of a Swedish cabin as having a corner fireplace. Germans coming into the northern Delaware Valley from Pennsylvania are believed to have introduced log construction to the northwestern counties. Often, as in the two-story Seigle Homestead in Warren County, the logs have been masked by clapboarding. Congregationalists moved down from New England into the Newark area, bringing a medieval tradition of heavy timber framing. In this type of construction, posts and beams with diagonal braces form one or more “boxes,’’ which then are sheathed in clapboard. This method spread through the northeastern part of the state. Again, few examples survive in pristine condition. One is the house built circa  on the William Robinson Plantation in Clark. Another is a section of Rockingham, a house along the Millstone River near Kingston. Several buildings in Cape May County, which again was settled by New Englanders, also are framed in this manner. Brick came into use quite early in the southwest, where William Penn urged the early Quaker settlers to use this fireproof material. What he might not have anticipated is that they would develop a distinctive, highly decorative form of brick patterning. This features a bond known as Flemish checker, combining black or blue-gray glazed headers (the

short end of the brick) with red stretchers. Gable ends are ornamented with dates and the builder’s initials and sometimes with elaborate patterns of diamonds, zigzags, or flowers. The Dutch entered New Jersey in two streams. One, from the Hudson River Valley, came from a masonry tradition, generally expressed in stone, as in numerous houses in Bergen County. The other group emigrated from Long Island, where frame was prevalent. In contrast to the English braced frame, Dutch construction employed a series of bents, with each beam resting directly on posts. Building vernacular structures with traditional plans, construction methods, and materials continued well into the nineteenth century. But contemporaneous with these were a series of high styles. The earliest of these styles, the Georgian or Anglo-Palladian, depended on symmetry, balance, and rational geometry. The most common house form became twoand-a-half-stories high and one or two rooms deep, with a center stair hall flanked by rooms of equal size to either side. Smaller houses might utilize two-thirds of this plan, that is, a side hall, usually with two rooms to one side. The brick Trent House, circa , in Trenton is a remarkable example of early Georgian design. Another house museum in the Georgian style is the mid-eighteenth-century Dey Mansion in Wayne, which mingles Dutch and English influences. One of the finest Anglo-Palladian houses executed in wood is the Ford Mansion (–) in Morristown, now part of the National Historical Park. Its handsome Palladian doorway and the matching window on the second floor are derived from an English pattern book. With this more formal style, the influences of New York and Philadelphia overrode that

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of traditional cultural differences. The Trent House, for example, is clearly related to James Logan’s Stenton in Germantown, on the outskirts of Philadelphia. The College of New Jersey in Princeton turned to a Philadelphia builder-architect, Robert Smith, for its main building, Nassau Hall, and its president’s house (–). In contrast, in Perth Amboy the provincial council chose a New York builder-architect, John Edward Pryor, for the Proprietary House. Most builders, however, remain anonymous, like the designer of the Ford Mansion, although he clearly had access to English pattern books by Batty Langley. But, in fact, most of New Jersey’s Anglo-Palladian buildings are simplified versions of high-style prototypes. Like the Conover House in Freehold or the Burrowes House in Matawan, they merely feature Anglo-Palladian massing and center- or side-hall plans with rather plain decorative details such as paneling and classically derived decorative motifs. Regional preferences for materials persisted—wood in East Jersey and masonry in West Jersey. In the post-Revolutionary, or Federal, period, basic design principles of symmetry and axial organization continued, but walls often appeared as a thin membrane, openings became larger, and detailing more delicate. Decoration remained based on motifs from classical antiquity. Now, however, it was influenced by the more delicate forms unearthed in late eighteenth-century excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii. The Morris County Courthouse (), for example, is basically an Anglo-Palladian building, but with attenuated pilasters and blind arches over the windows. Again, few New Jersey design sources can be identified and dependence on adjacent metropolitan centers remained strong. Several buildings are direct echoes of Philadelphia prototypes. The transitional Georgian/Federal Burlington County Courthouse () in Mount Holly is a copy of Congress Hall in Philadelphia; Merino Hill () in Wrightsville, Monmouth County, is based on the Bingham House, also in Philadelphia; the Presbyterian Church (– ) in Bridgeton, Cumberland County, echoes Saint Peter’s in the same city. Other designs were based on pattern books. A number of widely scattered buildings derive from designs published by the New England builder-architect Asher Benjamin. Examples include the Edward Sharp House () in Camden City, the Castner Parsonage (– ) in Asbury, Warren County, and Fenwick Manor () in New Lisbon, Burlington County. Although classical motifs, such as pediments and columns, had formed the decorative vocabulary of both Georgian and Federal architecture, they had not been derived from antique models. In the early years of the new United States, however, Rome was looked at as a font of republicanism and Greece as the birthplace of democracy.

The A.W. Demarest House, c. –, in Upper Saddle River is a significant example of Queen Anne style architecture.

Courtesy Bergen County Department of Parks, Division of Cultural and Historic Affairs. Photo: Jim DelGiudice. Because of this, their architecture was viewed as something to be emulated. Full-blown Greek Revival never was as prominent in New Jersey as in New York State, Vermont, and Ohio. Nevertheless, some important examples survive, although others have been demolished. Mercer and Middlesex counties erected ambitious Greek Revival courthouse complexes in  and . The former was by Princeton builder-architect Charles Steadman, the latter by New Brunswick native Minard Lafever, a cousin of the New York architect of the same name. Although these failed to survive growth in central New Jersey, two more rural templefront courthouses did better, the Hunterdon County Courthouse in Flemington (; perhaps most famous as the site of the Lindbergh kidnapping trial) and the Sussex County Courthouse in Newton (). A few houses with colossal colonnaded porticoes were built, such as Mead Hall (), now the main building of Drew University in Madison, Morris County, and Drumthwacket (–) in Princeton, now the governor’s mansion. Most dwellings expressed the style more modestly. The Nassau Street Presbyterian Church () in Princeton is

an early example of a temple-form in antis facade, designed by Thomas U. Walter, and became a prototype for several churches built in the s. Flemington, in Hunterdon County, has a particularly rich group of impressive Greek Revival buildings designed by a local builder-architect, Mahlon Fisher. Among them are Fisher’s own house (–) and the Reading-Large House (), the latter with the extravagant detailing typical of later phases of the style. Again, however, as in earlier periods, the vast majority of buildings are vernacular, distinguished as Greek Revival only by such features as attic windows or small porticoes with classical columns. To look at ancient Rome and classical Greece for inspiration was a romantic notion. So although the Greek Revival continued the classical tradition of Anglo-Palladianism, it also was the first of the romantic revivals that dominated in the pre–Civil War period. The country’s first major Italianate villa, Riverside (–; demolished), was built in Burlington City. Three later examples by its architect, John Notman, survive in Princeton. The Italianate became a popular style for buildings of all types. Many houses were based on pattern books; once

architecture again location in relation to New York and Philadelphia to some extent determines their source. Thus Freehold, in Monmouth County, has several Italianate houses derived from the influential publications of A. J. Downing, a landscape architect based in Newburgh, New York, while houses drawn from a Philadelphia pattern book by John Riddell are largely confined to Burlington City. By this time, however, widespread dissemination of publications began to break down regional differences; examples from Philadelphian Samuel Sloan’s books are scattered throughout the state. Not all Italianate buildings are freestanding. Jersey City and Hoboken have streets of wellpreserved brownstones, emulating the row houses of New York City. The treatment of their doorways, windows, and heavy cornices derives from the Italian palazzo. The early Gothic Revival is also well represented in domestic and church architecture. Important examples include the Nicholls Cottage, the boyhood home of Charles Follen McKim of McKim, Mead, and White, and the gatehouse in Llewellyn Park in West Orange. These were designed by A. J. Davis, who, in collaboration with developer Llewellyn S. Haskell, also laid out this early planned, romantic suburb (). In Ho-Ho-Kus, Bergen County, New York architect William Ranlett transformed an early Dutch stone house, known as The Hermitage, into a fanciful Gothic cottage (c. ). Victorians were concerned with suitability. Gothic, because of its association with English and French medieval religion, was considered particularly appropriate for churches. The ecclesiological movement, which called for a return to medieval rites and medieval architecture, produced a spate of important Episcopal churches at midcentury. New Jersey has examples by New Yorkers Richard Upjohn and Frank Wills and Philadelphian John Notman. One of the less common of the romantic styles, because of its associations with death and entombment, was the Egyptian Revival. Philadelphia architect John Haviland designed two public buildings in the style. One, Trenton State Penitentiary (), was the first major Egyptian Revival building in the United States, and had worldwide influence as a model for prisons. The other was the Essex County Courthouse (; demolished). In the decades from the end of the Civil War to the end of World War II, the population of New Jersey almost trebled, and construction of buildings expanded accordingly. A popular post–Civil War style was the French Second Empire, distinguished by the mansard roof. Although this had relatively little impact on major projects, builders erected many dwellings, again often based on pattern books, in all parts of the state. The form of the Gothic Revival known as Carpenter’s Gothic enjoyed special popularity at the Shore. Significant concentrations of houses with elaborate jigsaw trim survive in Ocean Grove and Cape May.

More formal masonry High Victorian Gothic appeared in such buildings as William A. Potter’s Chancellor Green Library () at Princeton University. The Jersey Shore was also a fertile ground for the Stick and Shingle styles. Although few examples in the former style remain, the Dr. Emlen Physick House () in Cape May, attributed to Frank Furness, is now a museum. What is generally considered Charles McKim’s first Shingle style house, the Moses Taylor House (), is in Elberon. The last three decades of the nineteenth century and the first three of the twentieth century introduced a plethora of new styles—Queen Anne, Beaux Arts Classical, Renaissance Revival, Romanesque Revival, and Colonial Revival. New Jersey clients often continued to turn to New York and Philadelphia architects. From the former city these included McKim, Mead, and White; `re and Hastings; J. Cleveland Cady; John Carre Russell Pope; Delano and Aldrich; Albro and Lindeberg; Cass Gilbert; Bruce Price; and William Lawrence Bottomley. Among the Philadelphians were Cope and Stewardson, Mellor Meigs and Howe, Wilson Eyre, G. W. and W. D. Hewitt, William L. Price, and Day and Klauder. Boston firms that worked in the state included Cram and Ferguson and Peabody and Stearns. At the same time, the architectural profession was becoming established locally. Henry Hudson Holly maintained an office in New York, but many of the designs he published were for New Jersey clients. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, local practitioners flourished, among them Guilbert and Battelle, William E. William, Sr., and W. Halsey Wood in Newark; Arnold Moses of Camden, who designed New Jersey’s senate chamber; William A. Poland in Trenton; and Joy Wheeler Dow, who worked in Millburn and other northern suburbs. In the early twentieth century, the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement began to be felt. Commuting suburbs burgeoned in this period with bungalows, four-squares, and other house types, frequently based on the publications of Gustav Stickley. Stickley himself developed his country estate, Craftsman Farms (–) in Parsippany–Troy Hills. Through the twentieth century, New Jersey’s rapidly developing suburbs provided streets lined with Georgian Revival, Dutch Colonial, Tudor, and Mediterranean designs. In the years following World War II, traditional house forms and styles often gave way to split-level and ranch houses. New Jersey was slow to accept modernism. Nevertheless, the Depression years of the s witnessed construction of some notable Art Deco buildings. The headquarters of Jersey Bell in Newark, completed just before the stock market crash in , was the most prominent of a number of buildings erected in that style by the company. Newark also gained two important transportation terminals in : Penn Station, a late work by the

35

firm of McKim, Mead, and White, and the original terminal at Newark Airport. A monumental, multibuilding Art Deco complex, the Jersey City Medical Center, was under construction through most of the s. William Lescaze designed an International Style office building for the Kimble Glass Factory in Vineland, while Antonin Raymond was the architect for a small Art Moderne office building in Trenton. The period following World War II saw the gradual emergence of modernism and postmodernism, although much building in New Jersey remains conservative. Examples include four Usonian houses by Frank Lloyd Wright, Bell Laboratories at Holmdel () by Eero Saarinen and Kevin Roche, Louis Kahn’s bathhouses and master plan for the Jewish Community Center (–) in Trenton, and several buildings by Robert Venturi at Princeton University. One of the best-known architects practicing in New Jersey is Michael Graves, who designed, among other buildings, the environmental pavilion at Liberty State Park in Jersey City and the Ploeck House in Warren Township. Other nationally known New Jersey firms are the Robert Hillier Group and the Grad Partnership. New Jersey’s early settlers produced a rich variety of vernacular buildings derived from the traditions of several European countries, and thus exhibiting the greatest architectural diversity to be found in the original thirteen colonies. By the eighteenth century, affluent citizens chose high-style architecture. Although prevailing forms were widely disseminated, the historic East Jersey/West Jersey split continued to be expressed, with the former influenced by New York and the latter by Philadelphia. These preferences continued well into the twentieth century, with many patrons choosing architects from the two metropolises. By the end of the nineteenth century, New Jersey was less dependent on out-of-state practitioners, but followed national trends rather than exhibiting identifiable regional characteristics. Despite the state’s high population density, a surprising number of examples of the architecture of all periods have survived. Some, especially those with strong historical associations, are preserved by the Historic Sites section of the state’s Division of Parks and Forestry. Others are in the hands of local historical societies and other private groups. Still others, far outnumbering those held publicly or by organizations, remain in the hands of private owners. Cities such as Burlington and Salem display rich collections of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century architecture. Other early buildings can be found in still-rural areas, particularly in the southern and northwestern sections of the state. Victorian architecture is well represented along the Shore in towns such as Cape May, Ocean Grove, and Spring Lake. Other fine examples from the second half of the nineteenth

36

archives

century can be found in suburbs developed at that time, such as Maplewood, Montclair, and Millburn–Short Hills. Cities such as Newark exhibit a range of building types dating from the eighteenth century to the present. So do smaller towns, such as Princeton, where both town and gown display a panorama of American architecture, with the university having retained major architects to fulfill its needs from the mid-eighteenth century onward. Bassett, William B. Historic American Buildings Survey of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Guter, Robert P., and Janet W. Foster. Building by the Book: Pattern Book Architecture in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hand, Susanne C. New Jersey Architecture. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Whiffen, Marcus, and Frederick Koeper. American Architecture, –. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, .

See also barns; country houses; courthouses; industrial architecture; log cabin; patterned brickwork; prefabricated housing; religious architecture; theater architecture

Constance M. Greiff

Directory of County Historical Societies in New Jersey, . Freehold: Monmouth County Historical Association, . Murrin, Mary P. New Jersey Historical Manuscripts: A Guide to Collections in the State. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

George W. Cooke

Argall, Samuel

(b. c. ; d. Mar. ).

Sea captain, explorer, and agent of the Virginia Company. Sir Samuel Argall was born to English landowner Richard Argall and Mary Scott of Kent. He fought for England on land and sea before serving the Virginia Company as a sea captain beginning in , and set records for the speed of his Atlantic crossings. He explored the New Jersey seacoast in  while seeking supplies for Virginia, and again in  on his way to attack the French in Maine. He served as the deputy governor of the Virginia Company from May , , to April , . He had neither wife nor children and died fighting the Spanish at sea near Cadiz in January . McCormick, Richard P. New Jersey from Colony to State, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Joseph P. Byrne

archives. New Jersey has thousands of collections of records from the past, which provide valuable information to historians, scholars, genealogists, and other researchers. Most of these collections are preserved in special repositories known as archives. An archive is a special library established by an institution to collect and preserve its own records and history. The state of New Jersey maintains an archive in Trenton to collect and preserve all official state records—vital records of births, deaths, estates, and much more—dating from the earliest colonial days to the present. County and municipal governments have established archives to collect and store their own records. Several hundred county and local historical societies also preserve and collect materials; the New Jersey Historical Society and many local historical societies maintain New Jersey archives of great value. Many large archives contain much more than the official records of their own institutions. Princeton University, Rutgers University, and others hold vast collections of materials relating to New Jersey history, as well as special collections of rare materials. These include medieval manuscripts and ancient records from all over the world, written in many languages, on clay tablets, parchment, vellum, and palm leaves. Some public libraries, such as the Newark Public Library, maintain large archives of rare materials. Large corporations often have archives of their business records, correspondence, and official acts, and religious-affiliated institutions such as Seton Hall University and Drew University have established central archives to preserve the records of their particular denominations.

Armbruster, William

(b. Mar. ,

; d. Feb. , ). Photographer. William

Armbruster was born in Brooklyn, New York. When he was sixteen his father, Charles, moved the family to Jersey City where he owned and operated Greenville Schuetzen

Park. This large and socially prominent club— which hosted shooting matches, equestrian events, and civic functions—also served as a home for the Greenville Camera Club, and Armbruster was its most accomplished member, documenting life in the park in a straightforward manner, photographing visitors, neighbors, and family. He also composed atmospheric carbon and platinum prints of landscapes and portraits that are typical of pictorial photography at the turn of the twentieth century. Late in life Armbruster kept a summer home in the utopian community of Free Acres (Berkeley Heights), where he also found many subjects to photograph. See also photography

Thomas Strider

Armenians. Fleeing the social and political turmoil of their ancestral homeland in the Caucasus and Eastern Anatolia, the earliest Armenian immigrants started settling in New Jersey in the s. For the most part, they found factory jobs in Paterson, Camden, and West Hoboken. Immigration was accelerated by the  genocide of Armenians in Turkey. Since , a new wave of Armenians has arrived from the Middle East and the former Soviet Union. The  U.S. Census recorded , people of Armenian descent living in New Jersey. The ratio of immigrant generation to American-born is roughly /. As early as , three Armenian congregations conducted services in rented halls in New Jersey. Holy Cross Armenian Church,

William Armbruster, The Smithy, n.d. Orange-toned carbon print,  ×  / in.

Collection of the Jersey City Museum. Photo: Erik Landsberg.

art built in Union City in , serves the oldest congregation to remain in its original location. The Armenian Presbyterian Church was relocated to Paramus in . Other Apostolic/Orthodox churches are found in Elberon, Livingston, Ridgefield, Fair Lawn, and Tenafly. In the s, the Sacred Heart Catholic Armenian Church was established in Little Falls. The twenty-five-year-old Hovnanian Armenian School in New Milford serves approximately  full-time students, from prekindergarten to eighth grade. Between the s and s, Asbury Park was a favorite summer rendezvous spot for Armenians from all along the East Coast. The Lincoln, Fenimore, Hye, and Van hotels were operated by Armenians, and Armenian music and dancing were featured every weekend. Bakalian, Anny. Armenian-Americans: From Being to Feeling Armenian. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, . Waldstreicher, David. The Armenian Americans. New York: Chelsea House, .

See also ethnicity

Anny Bakalian

art.

Notwithstanding the state’s significant position between New York and Philadelphia, historically two of America’s most prominent centers of artistic activity, the contributions of New Jersey’s artists have suffered from a lack of attention by the critics and the media. Yet it is clear that several of the nation’s most important artists have lived and worked in the Garden State. Although New Jersey artists did not lead but essentially followed the subject matter and styles developed outside the state, some distinguished New Jersey practitioners nevertheless can be identified. As early as the eighteenth century, when portraiture served a purpose aside from being an accepted art form, prominent portrait painters established their homes and studios in New Jersey, and others visited and worked in the state. The wax portraiture of Bordentown’s Patience Lovell Wright (–); the paintings and sculpture of her son Joseph (– ); and the portraits of John Watson (– ) of Perth Amboy, for example, have remained impressive and lasting works of art. In , just before the conclusion of the American Revolution, Joseph Wright is known to have created a life mask of George Washington at his headquarters at Rocky Hill, and also portrayed him in both painting and sculpture. Gilbert Stuart (–), America’s most important early portrait painter, worked for a short period in Bordentown, and the portrait and history painter Charles Willson Peale (–), who also took part in the Battle of Trenton, painted in New Jersey. In the nineteenth century, even as new art forms developed, portraiture remained an important feature of the work of several New Jersey artists, including Henry Inman (–), who maintained a studio

in Mount Holly beginning in , and Lilly Martin Spencer (–), who settled in Newark in . New Jersey artists also played a major role in the development of nineteenth-century landscape, marine, and seascape painting. Picturesque areas including the Jersey Meadows, the New Jersey Shore, and the Falls at Passaic attracted several artists. Indeed, the development of the Hudson River school, the nation’s most important group of nineteenthcentury landscape painters, was largely due to the talent and efforts of Asher B. Durand (–), who became a resident of Jefferson Village (now Maplewood) in . And in , George Inness (–), generally acknowledged as one of America’s preeminent painters of subjective and idealized landscapes, and Worthington Whittridge (–), a major Hudson River school painter, were residents of Montclair and Summit respectively. Women artists were also represented in nineteenth-century landscape painting circles, most notably Julia Hart Beers Kempson (–), who lived and worked in Metuchen. In the area of marine painting, Winslow Homer (–) visited the New Jersey Shore in , where he painted one of his most famous works, Long Branch, New Jersey. And the Atlantic City paintings of William Trost Richards (–), the marine paintings of James Buttersworth (–), and the steamship portraits of Antonio Jacobsen (–) attest to the popularity of subject matter related to New Jersey’s proximity to the ocean. During the middle of the nineteenth century, after New Jersey artists had the opportunity to participate in the activities of the Art-Unions in New York and Philadelphia, the popularity of those organizations led to the  establishment in Newark of the New Jersey Art-Union. Paintings were selected for annual prize drawings, including works by landscape painters William Mason Brown (–) and Jasper Francis Cropsey (– ). Other selected paintings generally featured still life, genre, and history, and since prints made after them were distributed to all Art-Union members, those subjects had a positive influence on the development of taste for American themes. But the life of that organization was short; following the demise of the New York Art-Union due to a perceived violation of state lottery laws, its Newark counterpart was disbanded in . During the nineteenth century, still life, animal, genre, and history painting also flourished in New Jersey. The fruit paintings of Hoboken’s Paul Lacroix (fl. –); the animal portraits of Susan Waters (–) of Bordentown; the flower paintings of Paul de Longpre (–), who lived for a time in Short Hills; and the best-known resident stilllife painter, John Frederick Peto (–) of Island Heights, attest to a great interest

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in these subjects. Genre and history painters, such as Karl Witkowski (–), William Tylee Ranney (–), Lilly Martin Spencer, Robert Walter Weir (–), and the important Civil War artist, Julian Scott (– ), also lived and worked in the state. Religious painting in nineteenth-century New Jersey was represented in the work of Rembrandt Lockwood (–after ) and William Page (–). Just after the turn of the twentieth century, New Jersey art schools and organizations began to flourish, particularly in Newark. And before World War I, both the Newark and the Montclair museums opened to the public, due to the efforts of patrons and collectors such as William T. Evans and Louis Bamberger. Some New Jersey artists began to take leading roles in the development of newer art historical movements. Born in Woodstown, Everett Shinn (–) was a prominent member of the Ashcan school, led by the artist Robert Henri (–), a style emphasizing contemporary urban realism. In , Shinn was responsible for the Trenton City Hall murals. George Bellows (–), who painted in a similar style, also depicted polo scenes that he observed in  on a visit to Lakewood. Guy `ne Du Bois (–), a former student of Pe Henri’s who became a writer as well as a realist painter, lived in Nutley. With the coming of the Great Depression, the New Deal spawned the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) to help unemployed artists create easel paintings as well as mural projects for public buildings. One of the most important examples produced in New Jersey was the Newark Airport Aviation murals by the Armenianborn Arshile Gorky (–); unfortunately these works disappeared during World War II and are known today only through photographs. Other commissioned WPA paintings include those of the renowned social realist, Ben Shahn (–), who lived and worked in the Jersey Homesteads (renamed Roosevelt after the president’s death in ) where, in , he completed the extant monumental mural in a local elementary school depicting the history of the Jewish flight from oppression and search for better working conditions in the New World. Adolf Konrad (b. ) also worked under the auspices of the WPA; and for the rest of the twentieth century, this “painter laureate of Newark’’ has continued to paint in a highly subjective form of realism. Before World War II, New Jersey’s artists remained more interested in realism than in newer art movements, including impressionism, precisionism, and cubism; this tendency was evident in the inventory of the major prewar Newark gallery, Rabin and Kreuger. Naturally, there were exceptions, for example, Van Dearing Perrine (–), an impressionist, who concentrated on scenes of the Palisades, and Stuart Davis (–), who developed an American form of cubism. But

38

Arthur Kill

realism dominated the work of many artists including George Overbury “Pop’’ Hart (– ), Walt Kuhn (–), and one of the most significant of all New Jersey artists, John Marin (–), who developed his own form of expressionism mixed with realism in several scenes related to his hometown of Weehawkin. After World War II, as the center of the art world essentially shifted from Paris to New York, New Jersey artists certainly became aware of the newest trends, but for many years, realism continued to be favored over abstract expressionism and other modern art movements. Ben Shahn lived until , continuing his social realist work, and his Roosevelt neighbor, Jacob Landau (–), continued to portray controversial scenes of catastrophies and injustice. Gregario Prestopino (–), also a resident of Roosevelt, carried on his relationship with the Ashcan school paintings until quite late into the twentieth century. At the same time, in the work of the most important husband-and-wife artistic team in the history of New Jersey, Elsie Driggs (–) and Lee Gatch (–), Driggs developed a style heavily influenced by the modernism of the precisionists, creators of an American form of cubism, while Gatch’s work evolved over time into a form of abstract expressionism. Other contemporary New Jersey artists have either absorbed the newest art movements or paralleled their development. For example, Harry Devlin (–), of Mountainside, a writer and architectural historian as well as an artist, produced highly successful architectural compositions exhibiting the strong influence of contemporary photorealism; George Brecht (b. ), formerly of New Brunswick, is considered the father of conceptional and interactive art; Richard Anuszkiewicz (b. ), of Englewood, after moving away from the abandon of abstract expressionism, has created his own form of “scientific art’’ containing blocks of colors, organization, and symmetry; and Lucas Samaras (b. ), formerly of West New York, has created a radical means of expression by evoking various states of mind through the art of assemblage. Gerdts, William, Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also assemblage art; performance art; photography; sculpture

Barbara J. Mitnick

Arthur Kill.

Arthur Kill is a fifteen-milelong tidal strait that separates Staten Island from northern New Jersey. The kill connects with the Kill van Kull and Newark Bay to the north and with Raritan Bay in the south. The Arthur Kill receives tidal water from both the north and the south, resulting in a long flushing time of about two weeks. It is part of the New York–New Jersey harbor estuary, a series of connecting tidal waterways that receives freshwater drainage from a

Washed-up debris on the shore of Prall’s Island in the Arthur Kill.

Photo: Kathleen W. Perlett. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

,-square-mile area. Its banks are heavily populated and highly industrialized, and it is a major shipping lane. The Arthur Kill was heavily impacted in the s by low oxygen levels due to the dumping of raw sewage, and still has relatively high levels of heavy metals such as mercury, zinc, cadmium, and lead. In January , , gallons of number  fuel oil leaked into the kill from an underwater pipe at the Exxon Bayway refinery. This created a major hazard for invertebrate and fish communities, killing  percent of the salt marsh vegetation and many fish and fiddler crabs, and impacting the herons, egrets, raccoons, and other animals that fed on fish and invertebrates. Some species, such as snowy egrets, suffered lowered reproductive success for several years following the spill. The Arthur Kill supports a variety of ecosystems, including tidal mudflats, tidal creeks, and salt marshes that grade into uplands supporting shrubs and trees. Much of the kill shoreline is lined with bulkheads and riprap, but about  percent of the shoreline is natural mudflats and marshes. The Arthur Kill supports a rich community of fiddler crabs, ribbed mussels, snails, and a diversity of other invertebrates, and a diverse fish community of resident and seasonal migrant species. The salt marshes, composed of cordgrass and salt hay, provide primary productivity, nutrient cycling, and habitat, as well as supporting nesting marsh hawks, ducks, blackbirds, and rails. The marshes and the mudflats provide prime foraging areas for herons, egrets, and ibises that nest on Prall’s Island and Isle of Meadows. These islands have traditionally housed some of the largest heronries anywhere in New York and New Jersey. Gulls and double-crested cormorants also nest on these islands and

abandoned piers. Many hawks overwinter in the Arthur Kill. The Arthur Kill is also important for local residents who fish, crab, boat, and engage in other recreation on the water and in adjacent parks and uplands. Burger, Joanna, ed. Before and After an Oil Spill: The Arthur Kill. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kennish, M. J. Ecology of Estuaries. Vol. , Biological Aspects. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, .

Joanna Burger

ArtPRIDE New Jersey.

Incorporated in , ArtPRIDE New Jersey is a nonprofit organization that promotes and supports arts groups throughout the state. ArtPRIDE’s over two hundred members helped increase state arts funding from $ million in fiscal year  to a present appropriation of $ million in fiscal year . In , ArtPRIDE successfully advocated for passage of the New Jersey Cultural Trust Act, which will, as stated in the act, “help build endowments, create institutional stability, and fund capital projects.’’ The organization hosts the annual ArtPRIDE Congress and keeps the arts on the public policy agenda by providing information and research to federal, state, and local elected officials.

Ann Marie Miller

Asbury Park.

.-square-mile city in Monmouth County. New York City brush manufacturer James Bradley purchased five hundred acres from Ocean Township in  and named the community for the first bishop of the Methodist Church in America. He incorporated the town, bordered by Deal Lake to the north and Wesley Lake to the south, in  and guided its development as a resort for physical and mental rejuvenation

Asbury Park Press

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In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, .

Susan Hamburger

Asbury Park Press.

Asbury Park postcard.

From Greeting from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike. until his death in . Bradley fulfilled his primary intent—to design a white, middleclass resort with gardens, parks, and lakes— with the goal of having the entire beachfront and boardwalk owned by the city rather than private citizens. The city’s specialized districts included hotels, business, amusement, and the cottage community—an early experiment in urban planning. A temperance resort more like Ocean Grove than the gamblers’ haven of Long Branch, the town also catered to the more worldly pursuits of billiards, bowling, and dancing. Railroad service began in , bringing thousands of people to the summer resort each day. Starting in , the town supported several daily, weekly, monthly, and summer-only newspapers with particular and distinct foci—temperance, religion, African Americans, labor, and society. Asbury Park operated the first trolleys in the state in  and constructed the first comprehensive citywide sewer system on the New Jersey coast in . Until  Asbury Park was a popular family resort, with promenades, piers, water pageants, band concerts, children’s carnivals, and baby parades. Hundreds of hotels, motels, cottages, and guesthouses supported the burgeoning tourist trade. Day-trippers and group excursionists arrived by train from Philadelphia and New York. Visitors and residents could spend the day lounging on the beach, then dress up to view exclusiveengagement films at one of the five palatial movie theaters, and cap off the evening with a stroll on the boardwalk. Children enjoyed pony rides on the beach and swan-shaped paddleboat rides on Wesley Lake. The Cookman Avenue business district attracted shoppers from towns throughout the county. In the mids a fire from a dropped cigarette destroyed the boardwalk and most of the rides and

concessions; owners rebuilt everything in time for the following season. Asbury Park earned honorable mention as an All-American City in  and . By the late nineteenth century, a distinct and growing African American and workingclass district had developed across the railroad tracks in West Park, where residents were confined to segregated housing amid the laundries and auto repair shops. They were welcome as hotel staff but were excluded from the resort’s amusement district and beach. West Park grew as a shadow resort, fostering recreational activities deemed morally unsuitable for the middle-class vacationers. A July  riot damaged and destroyed much of the downtown business district and injured almost two hundred civilians and police. Longtime residents believe the riot sparked the mass exodus of businesses and homeowners. Hotels not boarded up or demolished were converted to apartments for senior citizens and the mentally ill, who had been discharged from Marlboro State Hospital to community outpatient care. The once-vibrant boardwalk, anchored by Convention Hall and the Paramount Theatre on the north and by the Casino and Palace Amusements on the south, awaits either destruction by the next hurricane or redevelopment of the beachfront with state or private funds. Gone are the rides and arcades; only a few scattered, boarded-up buildings remain. While the north end valiantly hangs on with the restored Paramount Theatre and Berkeley-Carteret Hotel, the south end of the boardwalk has fallen into disrepair. Today Asbury Park is seeking to recover. One hopeful sign is that Palace Amusements—the former home of the Aurora Ferris wheel—has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The second-largest newspaper in the state, the Asbury Park Press circulates primarily in Monmouth and Ocean counties. It was founded as a weekly newspaper on July , , by Dr. Hugh S. Kinmonth, above his pharmacy on Cookman Avenue in Asbury Park. That first edition of the Shore Press, as it was called, sold  copies. Kinmonth sold the paper sixteen years later to his nephew, J. Lyle Kinmonth. The younger Kinmonth transformed the paper into a daily and renamed it the Daily Press. He also introduced a Sunday newspaper, a popular innovation in the late nineteenth century. Kinmonth relocated the newspaper operation to a new building on Mattison Avenue in , but four years later the building was destroyed by fire. He replaced the structure with a five-story building and continued to expand his news operation. When Kinmonth died in , ownership of the newspaper passed to its senior executives, Wayne D. McMurray and Ernest W. Lass. McMurray was at the helm for twenty-nine years and Lass for thirtyfive. When McMurray died in , he willed his ownership in the newspaper to Jules L. Plangere, Jr., then secretary and general manager. In  Plangere became publisher. When Lass died in , his son, E. Donald Lass, became president and editor. The newspaper left Asbury Park in  and relocated to new headquarters in Neptune, although it retained the Shore resort’s name on its masthead. In  Plangere passed the publisher’s job to Lass and became chairman of the board. In  the privately owned New Jersey Press, the holding company for the Asbury Park Press, expanded its influence with the purchase of the Home News and the News Tribune, two Middlesex County newspapers. Those papers were combined to form the Home News and Tribune (later shortened simply to the Home News Tribune), which began publishing on October , . In  Plangere and Lass sold the newspapers to Gannett, the publisher of USA Today and one of the largest newspaper chains in the United States. In the year  the Asbury Park Press had a daily circulation of ,, according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, and a Sunday circulation of ,, surpassed only by the Star Ledger. The publisher is Robert Collins and the editor-in-chief is Raymond Ollwerther. Hixson, Richard F. The Press in Revolutionary New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Ashbridge, Elizabeth

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Lewin, William. A Story of New Jersey Journalism. Newark: N.p., .

See also newspapers

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Ashbridge, Elizabeth (b. ; d. May , ). Preacher and writer. Born in Cheshire, England, Elizabeth Ashbridge was the only child of Thomas and Mary Sampson. She eloped at fourteen with a stocking weaver who died three months later. Estranged from her parents, she stayed for a time with relatives in Ireland, one of whom was a Quaker. In  she decided to immigrate to New York. Forced into indenture by the ship’s captain, for three years she served a cruel master, paying off the last year of her contract in . In  she married a schoolteacher named Sullivan, and the two lived in New Jersey, where most of her later autobiographical narrative takes place. Her husband opposed her  conversion to Quakerism, and in an attempt to isolate her from the Quaker community, Sullivan instigated a number of moves in the ensuing years, to Freehold in East Jersey, Bordentown, and Mount Holly. In  Sullivan died, and six years later Elizabeth married Aaron Ashbridge, a Quaker from Chester County, Pennsylvania, and was soon an influential preacher in Quaker circles. In  she was granted permission to travel back to Europe to pursue her ministry. She fell ill and died in Ireland. Ashbridge is best known for her autobiography, Some Account of the Fore Part of the Life of Elizabeth Ashbridge. . . Written by Her Own Hand Many Years Ago, which details her spiritual and temporal struggles. ANB. Davidson, Cathy N., and Linda Wagner-Martin. The Oxford Companion to Women’s Writing in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, . Shea, Daniel. “Some Account of the Fore Part of the Life of Elizabeth Ashbridge.’’ In Journeys in New Worlds: Early American Women’s Narratives, edited by William L. Andrews. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, .

Mary McAleer Balkun

Ashby, George

(b. Jan. , ; d. Apr. ,

Farmer and soldier. In August , Burlington-born George Ashby, an African American living in Crosswicks, enlisted as a private in the Forty-fifth United States Colored Infantry. He served in Virginia and Texas until mustered out in November  as first sergeant of the Forty-fifth Colored Infantry’s Company H. In January  a reporter interviewed the old veteran, who predicted an Allied victory in World War II and stated that if he could, he “would enlist all over again.’’ When Sgt. George Ashby died in Allentown in , he was the last surviving New Jersey Civil War veteran. See also Civil War

).

Joseph G. Bilby

Ashby, William ).

(b. Oct. , ; d. May ,

Social worker. William Ashby, New

William Ashby, the first black social worker in the state.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark. Jersey’s first African American social worker, was born in Virginia to freeborn blacks who owned their own property, and later moved to Roselle, New Jersey. He earned a degree in social work from Yale University in . Returning to Newark, he worked to improve black life in New Jersey in an era when racial discrimination in employment and housing was rampant. A superb teacher of history who devoted much of his life to the pursuit of social justice and an end to racial discrimination, Ashby authored Tales without Hate, a notable collection of stories detailing black life in New Jersey. Ashby, William. Tales without Hate. Newark: Newark Preservation Landmarks Committee, . Hevesi, Dennis. “William Ashby, Longtime Worker for Civil Rights, Is Dead at .’’ New York Times, May , .

Sunday Di Palma

Asian Indians.

Americans of Asian Indian origin are a growing ethnic group in New Jersey. Although, beginning in the s, many immigrants arrived in New Jersey directly from India and from Kenya, Trinidad, and England, a large percentage of the present population was born in New Jersey. The earliest recorded emigration from India to the United States began in the nineteenth century, when workers sought construction jobs on the transcontinental railroad and agricultural jobs in California. Indians were granted citizenship, but then had it revoked in  by the U.S. Supreme Court. The ruling in United States v Bhagat Singh Thind ( US ) stated: “It may be true that the blond Scandinavians and the brown Hindu have a common ancestor in the dim reaches of antiquity, but the average man knows perfectly well that there are unmistakable and profound differences between them today. . . . [The law] does not employ the word ‘Caucasian’ but the

words ‘white’ person. . . . [The intention of the Founding Fathers was to] confer the privilege of citizenship upon the class of persons [called ‘white’].’’ Between  and , when immigration laws were reformed, few Indians were allowed to enter the United States. According to the  U.S. Census, , Asian Indians live in New Jersey, accounting for more than  percent of the state’s total population and making them one of the largest ethnic minorities. New Jersey’s Asian Indian community constitutes nearly  percent of the nation’s total of . million Asian Indian residents. Asian Indians reside in all of New Jersey’s communities. Middlesex County, with some , Asian Indian residents, has one of the largest concentrations, amounting to . percent of the county’s total population. Other counties with significant Asian Indian populations include Hudson (, residents), Bergen (,), Morris (,), and Somerset (,). Nearly nine out of ten Asian Indian children belong to two-parent families. Fewer than  percent of Asian Indians under the age of sixty-five receive public assistance. Given that  percent of Asian Indians have a college degree and that  percent of the women are employed, Asian Indian families enjoy one of the highest median family household incomes. Nearly  percent of Asian Indians practice Hinduism, a religion with origins dating to  b.c.e. Among the other religious affiliations of Asian Indians are Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Judaism. Language, food, and culture play an important unifying role for Asian Indians. Alongside English, which most Asian Indians can read, write, and speak, various regional languages of India, like Hindi and Gujarati, are commonly used in Asian Indian households. Asian Indian food is as varied in taste, ingredients, and preparation as the different regions of India. Many Asian Indians, as practicing Hindus, are vegetarians for religious (and health) reasons. One of the oldest secular organizations for Asian Indians is the Association of Indians in America, which was founded in  in New Jersey to provide a forum for those united by the common bond of Indian heritage and American commitment. Another organization, founded in , is the IndoAmerican Cultural Society, which holds the annual Navratri festival in Edison, New Jersey. Kalita, S. Mitra. Suburban Sahibs: Three Immigrant Families and Their Passage from India to America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also ethnicity

D. C. Agrawal

assemblage art.

Assemblage art is a form of three-dimensional collage in which found objects—everything from old iron chains to movie posters and Cracker Jack

astronomy and astrophysics prizes—are combined to make sculpture. By the early s, assemblage art in one form or another had become the dominant style among contemporary artists living and working in New Jersey. As the name implies, assemblage has its roots in French art history, particularly in the collage experiments of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque nearly one hundred years ago. But the most important influence in America was Joseph Cornell (–), a recluse who lived his entire life with his mother and crippled brother in Ozone Park, Queens, New York, where he made tiny, ornate boxes filled with found objects. Dozens of New Jersey artists of the past two decades owe their original creative impulse to his work. Similarly, in the s, a group of African American artists in Newark began using assemblage to express their own cultural concerns. Ranging through the abandoned buildings and refuse-strewn lots that dotted the core of the city following its rapid decline in the late s, this group—among them Yolande Skeete, Ujima Kuumba Majied, and Bisa Washington—started assembling African-tinged sculptures out of the remains of a prewar culture that was hardly African at all. The most successful was Willie Cole, a Newark native who enjoyed a one-man show at the Museum of Modern Art in , showing scorch marks made on paper with old steam irons found in the streets. Cole dedicated his work to his mother, who worked as a domestic in Newark homes. Assemblage now has a multigenerational cast. Sculptor Mel Edwards, whose forged iron chains (made from industrial debris) recall slavery, has kept a studio in Plainfield for more than twenty years; Chakaia Booker, who is from Newark, showed a mural of diced and twisted automobile tires at the Whitney Biennial for the first time in . Hughes, Robert. American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Marter, Joan, ed. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick and Newark: Rutgers University Press and the Newark Museum, .

See also art

Assemblies of God boasted  churches in New Jersey, with a membership exceeding ,. The Assemblies of God Current Facts. Springfield, MO: Gospel Publishing House, . Blumhofer, Edith L. Restoring the Faith: The Assemblies of God, Pentecostalism, and American Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also religion

Peter J. Wosh

Assumption College for Sisters. Founded in  by the Sisters of Christian Charity, this accredited, two-year independent Catholic college in Mendham is unusual in that its mission is the education of women in religious orders at the collegiate level. The origin of this mission can be found in several historical legacies. When Pauline Von Mallinckrodt founded the Sisters of Christian Charity in Paderborn, Germany, in , she expressed her belief that sisters must be educated “spiritually, academically, and culturally’’ in order to fulfill the goals of their missions. Von Mallinckrodt soon began a normal school for sisters within her convent. Many American congregations maintained similar schools and training programs to prepare sisters for the demands of teaching in parochial schools. Another factor in the founding of the college may be the Sister Formation movement of the s and s, which sought to raise the educational and professional standards of Catholic sisters in a process of renewing the vocation of the religious life. Assumption College for Sisters awards the degrees of associate of arts and associate of religious arts and also a certificate in theological studies. In  the student body of thirty-one included women of many religious orders from around the world. Laypeople are permitted to attend theology and philosophy classes. Beane, Marjorie Noterman. From Freedom to Framework: A History of the Sister Formation Conference. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, . Wedmore, Delphine. The Woman Who Couldn’t Be Stopped. N.p.: Sisters of Christian Charity, .

See also religious communities of women; Roman Catholic Church

Elizabeth A. Milliken Dan Bischoff

astronomy Assemblies of God.

A Pentecostal denomination established in , the Assemblies of God emphasizes believers’ access to such spiritual gifts as speaking in tongues and healing. Pentecostal churches began appearing throughout New Jersey early in the twentieth century, concentrating especially in such rural counties as Cumberland. By , the Assemblies had experienced sufficient growth within the state to create a separate New Jersey district for administrative purposes. Youth programs, overseas missions, and success in reaching Hispanic groups transformed the Assemblies into America’s fastest-growing denomination during the s. By , the

and

astrophysics.

Astronomy in New Jersey has had a remarkable past. Since their founding in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Princeton and Rutgers Universities have led the way in astronomy instruction and research within the state. Early instructional efforts probably dealt only peripherally with astronomy, focusing instead on celestial mechanics and navigation. At Rutgers, astrophysics emerged as an area of active research during the Great Depression. The most significant achievement during this period was the work of Robert Atkinson, who served at Rutgers between  and . Atkinson laid much of the groundwork for our current understanding

41

of energy generation in stellar interiors. His pioneering work on thermonuclear fusion in stellar interiors paved the way for Hans Bethe’s Nobel Prize in physics in . Bethe, in his Nobel lecture, singled out the pioneering work of Atkinson and emphasized its influence on his own research. This question of energy generation in stellar interiors dominated much of the research by the worldwide astronomical community during the middle of the twentieth century. A number of key contributions to this then-burgeoning field were made at Princeton by Martin Schwarzschild during the s and s. His work explained the existence and properties of giant stars and revealed unexpected phenomena that occur during a stellar lifetime. In collaboration with fellow Princeton astrophysicist Lyman Spitzer, he pioneered the design of a fusion reactor that mimicked the astrophysical processes at work in the interior of the Sun. Spitzer, meanwhile, developed and championed the idea of putting a telescope in space, far above the blurring effects of the Earth’s atmosphere. His vision ultimately led to the Hubble Space Telescope. Following Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the expanding universe in , debate raged in the astronomical community over whether or not the universe was formed in a “big bang,’’ with most astronomers preferring an alternative “steady state’’ universe. In  a team of Princeton astronomers, led by Robert H. Dicke and P.J.E. Peebles, published a landmark paper in which they pointed out that if the universe did indeed form as a result of a big bang, then it should now be permeated by microwave radiation left over from this catastrophic event. In a companion paper, Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson, working at Bell Labs in Holmdel, reported their detection in  of this relic radiation using a microwave antenna at Crawford Hill. Their discovery was proof that the universe was born at a definite moment (about  billion years ago), and provided overwhelming evidence in support of the Big Bang Theory. They were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in . New Jersey’s contributions to astronomy have also extended into the domain of instrumentation and technology. In  George Smith and Willard Boyle, also working at Bell Labs, created the first chargecoupled device, or CCD. This device—an electronic memory that can be charged by light—has probably revolutionized astronomical research more than any other single device, with the exception of the telescope itself. The future of astronomy in the state looks bright. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey, a monumental effort to map one quarter of the entire sky in exquisite detail using a dedicated .-meter telescope at Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico, is based at Princeton. The survey is well under way, and is already producing a steady stream of impressive discoveries. Meanwhile, the astronomy group at

42

AT&T Corporation

Rutgers has undergone rapid growth since the mid-s, an expansion that culminated with Rutgers’s participation in the design and construction of the Southern African Large Telescope. This enormous telescope, boasting a primary mirror with a diameter of  meters, is currently under construction at Sutherland, South Africa, and is scheduled to begin scientific operations in . When completed, it will be the largest optical telescope in the Southern Hemisphere.

Patrick Cote

AT&T Corporation.

American Telephone and Telegraph originated as the longdistance subsidiary of the American Bell Telephone Company. Alexander Graham Bell had formed the Bell Telephone Company in , a year after inventing the telephone. The firm had become American Bell in  and had acquired Western Electric in . In  it established AT&T and opened its first longdistance line, which connected Philadelphia and New York. Theodore J. Vail, AT&T’s first president, left the company after disagreements with its Boston-based shareholders in . In  AT&T became the parent company of the Bell System. With the assistance of financier J. P. Morgan, Vail returned as head in . After moving the company’s headquarters from Boston to New York, Vail worked to turn its declining fortunes around. The firm opened its first transcontinental line in , and by the time of America’s entry into World War I, it was on its way to becoming a model business operation. After a period of nationalization during the war, when the firm was placed under the control of the post office, it was returned to the private sector and enjoyed decades of unprecedented growth. Assisting this growth were technological advances from Bell Labs, the firm’s development group, which had facilities in Murray Hill and later Holmdel. Western Electric maintained a large manufacturing facility in Kearny from the s until the mids, and AT&T itself opened office facilities in Bedminster and Basking Ridge in the s. A  lawsuit by MCI led to the breakup of the Bell System by the Department of Justice in . At that time the firm’s assets totaled $ billion, more than those of Exxon, Mobil, and General Motors combined. Despite increased competition, the firm remains a major provider of long-distance telephone service.

Brooks, John. Telephone: The First Hundred Years. New York: Harper and Row, . Garnet, Robert W. The Telephone Enterprise: The Evolution of the Bell System’s Horizontal Structure. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Stone, Alan. Public Service Liberalism: Telecommunications and Transitions in Public Policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also Bell Labs; Lucent Technologies

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Atlantic Cape Community College. Located on  acres in Mays Landing, Atlantic Cape Community College (ACCC) serves Atlantic and Cape May counties, with branch campuses in Atlantic City and Rio Grande. ACCC was founded in  as the second community college established under the New Jersey County College Act. A number of local groups recommended its establishment. In particular, the Citizens Centennial Committee on Adult Education for Atlantic City made a strong push for the establishment of a community college in the area. Two years after the New Jersey County College Act was passed, ACCC opened its doors—with approval from the county freeholders—using facilities rented from Atlantic City High School. In February , the college moved to its present location in Mays Landing. Enrollment in fall  was nearly six thousand students. ACCC offers thirty-seven associate degree programs and twenty-eight noncredit professional certificates and administers casino career, culinary arts, and distance education programs. See also higher education

Kelly A. Shea

Atlantic City. .-square-mile city in Atlantic County. Absecon Island, on which Atlantic City was later founded, was known to the Lenape as Absegami, or “little sea water.’’ In  the island was purchased by Thomas Budd, a Quaker farmer. Jeremiah Leeds, who arrived in  to build a cabin on the desolate island of sand dunes, mosquitoes, and black snakes, was reportedly the first European to live on it. By  there were still only seven houses on Absecon. Dr. Jonathan Pitney, a resident of Absecon village, formed a business relationship with Richard Osborne, a civil engineer from Philadelphia, and Samuel Richards, a manufacturer of glass in Weymouth, to develop the area by building a sixty-mile railroad from Camden. While Osborne mapped the route of the proposed railway, Pitney and Richards described to investors a vision of a “delectable’’ spot of summer cottages, healthful air, and restorative surf. In June , thousands of Camden and Atlantic Railroad shares were sold, mainly to businessmen with factories or landholdings in the Absecon vicinity. Osborne is said to have come up with the name “Atlantic City,’’ and with the idea of calling the streets after oceans and states—names that would later be immortalized in the popular board game Monopoly. Train service began in , and accommodations for tourists soon sprang up, including the huge United States Hotel and the still larger Surf House. By  Atlantic City had a permanent population of about seven hundred, and as many as four thousand tourists could be housed and fed at one time in

hotels and rooming houses. Publicity began in earnest. Dr. Lewis Reed, the town’s first resident physician, wrote: “Pneumonia and bronchitis are of infrequent origin here.’’ The air was said to be rich in ozone, which, boosters claimed, could cure consumption, rheumatism, laryngitis, digestive disorders, and insanity. The laborers who hammered the tracks and built the first hotels were, for the most part, African Americans, drawn from the South by the promise of work. The first black man to settle in Atlantic City was Billy Bright, who lived on Rhode Island Avenue. Others followed quickly. From  to , , African Americans made permanent homes in Atlantic City; by , they made up  percent of the town’s population. Thirty years later, blacks composed one-quarter of the population. Atlantic City boomed in the decades after the arrival of the railroad. In  a wooden esplanade was built over the beach—the world’s first Boardwalk. Periodically improved and expanded, the Boardwalk became the resort’s main artery. On one side were hotels, eateries, and souvenir shops. Amusement piers jutted out from the walk’s other side. Appelgate’s Pier, the first successful amusement pier, was built in  by James Appelgate and later purchased by showman Captain John Lake Young and his business partner, Stewart McShea. By  they turned the pier into Young’s Ocean Pier, which boasted a ballroom, rides, and games, and the daily net haul, which yanked strange creatures from the sea. Young presented Sarah Bernhardt, and the pier was known as the “Home of the Cakewalk.’’ Young’s Million Dollar Pier opened in  and became an immediate success. Harry Houdini appeared (and disappeared) there, Bull Moose presidential candidate Teddy Roosevelt gave a speech there in , and the pier was the site of movies, conventions, and exhibits of every description. The most celebrated of the piers, Steel Pier, opened in , and was billed as the “Showplace of the Nation’’ and gained fame, by the mid-twentieth century, as a place where visitors could see a high-diving horse and Frank Sinatra in one afternoon. The grand hotels overlooked the piers. The most famous dated from  and earlier: the Dennis, the Traymore, the MarlboroughBlenheim, the Shelburne, the Brighton, the Chalfonte-Haddon Hall, and the Chelsea. Newer hotels included the Ritz-Carlton, the President, the Ambassador, and the Claridge. Each in its heyday buzzed with excitement and featured ballroom dancing, dining, and lavish furnishings. In the era between the world wars, the city was given to spectacular events and stunts: weddings under the sea, marathon dance contests, women riding high-diving horses, men buried alive, elephants bathing in the ocean. In , businessmen looking to extend the

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Atlantic City skyline, c. .

Photo copyright Al Gold.

postsummer season and scratch out another week of profits hit upon the idea of the Atlantic City Fall Frolic, which grew to include a Bathing Revue, Rolling Chair Parade, Night Spectacle, and an Inter-City Beauty competition. The latter evolved into the Miss America Pageant. The city boasted the world’s largest electrical sign, the largest tube of toothpaste, the largest typewriter, and the first building to be built without roof pillars or posts. The Atlantic City Auditorium, formerly Convention Hall and now known as Boardwalk Hall, opened on May , , and houses the world’s largest pipe organ. The resort became a show business center. John Philip Sousa roused Boardwalk listeners, Abbott and Costello performed on the Steel Pier, Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis first teamed up at the  Club, and Sammy Davis sang at the Club Harlem. New York City shows, including all the early Ziegfeld Follies, premiered in Atlantic City. The authorities tolerated illegal gambling, which flourished in back rooms. After World War II, however, the city’s fortunes began to fade. More and more tourists flew to Florida and other destinations. By  the Atlantic City tourist was likely to be poor or elderly, or both. In the s the city’s poverty rate was New Jersey’s highest. The population had declined, while crime rates had increased. Legal gambling was seen as a way to revitalize the city. A referendum calling for legalization

of casino gambling was placed on the state ballot in . It was defeated. In  a similar referendum passed. On Saturday, May , , when the first casino opened, the Atlantic City Press ran a banner headline: “Queen of Resorts Reigns Again.’’ While the casinos initially failed to prove a quick fix, the influx of funds from the Casino Redevelopment Association has provided sectional revitalization and has created new neighborhoods in what were once blighted areas. The city’s success has caused other states around the nation to consider casino gambling as a tool for urban renewal. In  the city saw the start of $ billion in planned casino and commercial development. In , the city’s total population of , was  percent black,  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Funnell, Charles E. By the Beautiful Sea: The Rise and High Times of That Great American Resort, Atlantic City. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kent, Bill, Robert E. Ruffolo, Jr., and Lauralee Dobbins. Atlantic City, America’s Playground. Encinitis, CA: Heritage Media, . Levi, Vicki Gold, and Lee Eisenberg. Atlantic City:  Years of Ocean Madness. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, .

See also illustration, color section

Lee Eisenberg and Vicki Gold Levi

Atlantic City and Shore Railroad. Opened in , the Atlantic City and Shore Railroad (AC & S) operated a high-speed trolley line between Atlantic City, Somers Point, and Ocean City, and leased the railroadowned Atlantic Avenue trolley line, which extended the length of Absecon Island from the inlet to Longport. The company did well financially in the early years, but later the Depression and competition from automobiles, buses, and jitneys adversely affected it. In , the leases ended; the railroad sold its property to the new Atlantic City Transportation Company, as did the AC & S, which was dissolved. Trolley service to Ocean City ended in  and on Atlantic Avenue in . New Jersey Transit took over the successor bus lines in . Gladulich, Richard. By Rail to the Boardwalk. Glendale, CA: Trans-Angelo Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

James N. J. Henwood

Atlantic City Bacharach Giants. The Atlantic City Bacharach Giants baseball team was a founding member of the second major Negro League, the Eastern Colored League, which was established in . This outstanding team represented their league in the  and  Negro League World Series. In , during the “Great Migration’’ of blacks from the South to the North, the club was brought intact to Atlantic City

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from Jacksonville, Florida, by two local black businessmen/politicians, Tom Jackson and Henry Tucker. The team derived its name from the leading Atlantic City politician of the day, Mayor Harry Bacharach, who sponsored it in its first years in the city. Among the great players to wear the Bacharach uniform were John Henry “Pop’’ Lloyd, a legendary shortstop and a member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame; Richard “King’’ Lundy, also a shortstop and a manager; the hard-throwing righthanded pitcher Arthur “Rats’’ Henderson; and longtime first baseman Napoleon “Chance’’ Cummings. See also baseball

Lawrence D. Hogan

Atlantic City Electric Company. See Atlantic Energy.

Atlantic City Medical Center. This -bed facility has two divisions: one, in the heart of Atlantic City, has been in existence for more than a century; the other, the Mainland Division, opened in , and is located in Galloway Township on the campus of the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. The Medical Center is one of six units of AtlantiCare, which has been ranked among the nation’s top integrated health-care systems. Atlantic City Medical Center was Atlantic City’s first hospital and, in the year , had the region’s only Level II trauma center, its only neonatal intensive care unit, and its most comprehensive cancer and heart centers. The Medical Center’s Heart Institute offers the region’s first and only cardiac surgery program. It is a teaching hospital affiliated with the Jefferson Health System, which includes the Jefferson University Hospital in Philadelphia and the DuPont Hospital for children in Wilmington. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Bruce R. Cowen

Atlantic City Press. See Press of Atlantic City.

Atlantic City Surf.

Established in , the Atlantic City Surf won the Atlantic League Championship in the league’s inaugural season. The Surf is not affiliated with any Major League Baseball organization. They play in the Sandcastle, a ,-seat stadium co-funded by the City of Atlantic City, which contains an arcade, merchandise store, and a ,square-foot picnic area. From May through September, the Surf play  games. Frank Boulton is the principal owner of the team and Mitch Williams, a former Major League pitcher, is the manager. See also baseball

Brian McGonigle

Atlantic Coastal Plain.

The Atlantic Coastal Plain is the largest of New Jersey’s physiographic provinces, covering some threefifths of the land area of the state. It is to be found to the southeast of a line from New Brunswick to Trenton and southward along the Delaware River to the Atlantic Ocean. This Coastal Plain can be divided into three subdivisions: an inner lowland progressing from Raritan Bay southward and bordering the Delaware River, a central upland lying roughly at fifty feet above sea level, and an outer lowland comprising the area facing the Atlantic Ocean from Raritan Bay to Delaware Bay. The inner lowland possesses some of the best soils in the state, while very sandy and droughty soils often compose the rest of the Coastal Plain, which is covered by a mixture of oaks and pines, with white cedars found in bog locations. Much of this area is covered by the Pinelands National Reserve. Most of the outer lowland, from Sandy Hook to Cape May, consists of barrier islands backed by lagoons. It is much valued, especially in the summer, for recreational activities.

Wolfe, Peter. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; physiography

Peter O. Wacker

Atlantic

County. .-square-mile county in southeastern New Jersey, with twenty-three incorporated municipalities. Mays Landing is the county seat. Hamilton Township is the largest municipality in geographic area and Atlantic City is the municipality with the largest population (,) according to the  census. The original inhabitants were the Lenape Indians, and Absegami was the Indian name for the area. Henry Hudson surveyed the coast in . In  Cornelius Jacobsen Mey, another early Dutch explorer, gave the name Eyerhaven (Egg Harbor) to the area because waterfowl were so plentiful that the meadows were filled with their eggs. Most of the early settlement took place along the coast and waterways. Somers Point was one of those early settlements. In  John Somers of Great Egg Harbor was granted a license to “keep a ferry over Great Egg Harbour for men, hors, and Kattle.’’ Many of the early settlers were Quakers. In , Daniel Leeds made surveys of Egg Harbor. Prior to the s, the inhabitants of Great Egg Harbor were overseen by Cape May County. By an act of the state legislature dated January , , Gloucester County was granted jurisdiction over the area that now encompasses Atlantic County. As the population of the eastern portion of Gloucester County expanded, men of influence deemed it important to form their own government. Appointees to governmental positions often found it difficult to get to meetings across the state in Woodbury, the county seat. Riding on

horseback or in carriages along rutted trails to reach the scheduled meetings, they were often delinquent and fined for not appearing. Deeds, wills, and legal documents needed to be filed, and the trip to Woodbury was often difficult and time-consuming due to weather and road conditions. Atlantic County was created from the eastern portion of Gloucester County in . Public meetings were held in Haddonfield and Woodbury approving the measure, and the legislature passed an act setting off the townships of Egg Harbor, Galloway, Hamilton, and Weymouth to form the new county. Many of the inhabitants were employed in the maritime industry and related businesses. Along the Mullica and Great Egg Harbor rivers and adjoining creeks, shipbuilders (Vansant, Gaskill, Risley, Clark, Pennington, Wheaton, Frambes, English, and others) kept the maritime business afloat. The soil of Atlantic County provided agricultural opportunities, and farming became a major part of people’s lives. Iron forges and glass factories were early industries in the county. To improve transportation for both materials and people, Jonathan Pitney and Enoch Doughty proposed to build the first railroad to connect the Philadelphia market to Atlantic County. They suggested that the railroad would open up markets for the glass industry, help convert forested lands to fruit and truck farms, and establish South Jersey as an attractive bathing resort for Philadelphians. Although many proponents of the maritime industry opposed a rival mode of

ATLANTIC COUNTY

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Atlantic Highlands Borough transportation, the Camden and Atlantic Railroad was established at a meeting of the directors held in Philadelphia, June , . Thus began the new Atlantic County business of tourism. The Leeds family opened the first hotel on Absecon Beach. The hotel was mainly a place where hunters and sportsmen could stay while they enjoyed a few days of gunning at the Shore. In  there were only seven houses on Absecon Island, and one of them was the home of Jeremiah Leeds, the first permanent settler on the island. Upon his death in , his widow Millicent Leeds added rooms to the house and started taking in boarders. After the first train arrived on July , , the tourist industry played a major part in the economy of Atlantic County. The wealthy and famous, including actors, musicians, and politicians, vacationed and played in Atlantic City. Grand homes and summer cottages were built. Support industries grew on the mainland, and Atlantic County flourished along with Atlantic City. A year-round economy was never established in Atlantic City, and as the summer season ended so did the residents’ employment. New tourist destinations, neglect of properties, and a rising crime rate, along with unemployment, should have forewarned of serious problems for the city. By the s the tourist industry had declined along with the overall economy of the area. On November , , voters passed a referendum legalizing casino gambling, and on Memorial Day , Resorts International opened its doors to the gambling public. What followed was a partial revitalization of Atlantic City and tremendous growth in Atlantic County as both business and residential areas expanded. Atlantic County is crossed by the Garden State Parkway and the Atlantic City Expressway; the former connects Atlantic County with the New York City metropolitan area and the latter connects it with the Philadelphia metropolitan area. Other major highways are Routes  (Black Horse Pike),  (White Horse Pike), , , , , , , , and . The Amtrak rail system carries passengers from Philadelphia to Atlantic City, passing through the communities of Absecon, Egg Harbor City, Hammonton, Atco, and Lindenwold. Atlantic City International Airport is located in Egg Harbor Township, and Bader Field and Hammonton Municipal Airport service private plane and helicopter traffic. Atlantic County’s principal industries are casino hotels, aviation testing/engineering, agriculture, yacht building, plastics, pharmaceutical research, and tourism. There are many opportunities for recreation, from relaxing on the beaches to surf and deep-sea fishing; enjoying the extensive park systems including wildlife refuges and passive and active parks; and visiting historical sites such as Absecon Lighthouse, the Somers Mansion, Renault Winery, Weymouth Furnace, Dr. Smith’s Sanitorium, Lucy the Elephant, Pleasant Mills,

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Risley Homestead, the county buildings at Mays Landing, and the Jonathan Pitney House. Federal, state, county, and municipal parks occupy , acres. There are fourteen miles of beach and more than five miles of boardwalk. Six hospitals and numerous nursing and rehabilitation centers serve the county’s medical needs. According to the  federal census the population of Atlantic County was ,:  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be any race). The median household income in  was $,.

erosional landform known as a cuesta, which develops on the resistant rock strata generally associated with a coastal plain. The Highlands form the highest part of the Atlantic coastline south of Cadillac Mountain in Maine, reaching an elevation of  feet at Crawford’s Hill south of Keyport, which is the highest altitude in the New Jersey Coastal Plain. The cuesta, or ridge, forms the divide between the streams that drain into the Atlantic to the east and those that drain into the Raritan and Delaware rivers to the north and west. The northern part of the Highlands overlooks Sandy Hook.

Atlantic County Historical Society. Early History of Atlantic County, New Jersey. Baltimore: Gateway Press, .

Strahler, Alan H., and Arthur N. Strahler. Physical Geography. New York: Wiley, .

Hall, John F. The Daily Union History of Atlantic City and County. Atlantic City: Daily Union Printing Company, .

June G. Sheridan

Atlantic Energy.

Atlantic Energy is a holding company created in  as the parent company of Atlantic City Electric Company (ACE) and several newly created unregulated subsidiaries. The Electric Light Company of Atlantic City, established in , merged with three other electric utilities in  to form ACE, which provides electricity to approximately five hundred thousand customers in the southern part of New Jersey. Atlantic Electric’s other subsidiaries are ATE Investment, Atlantic Energy Technology, Atlantic Generation, and Atlantic Southern Properties. In , Atlantic Energy merged with Delmarva Power and Light Company to form Connectiv. See also energy industry

Stephen Marshall

Atlantic Highlands. The Atlantic Highlands in Monmouth County are a type of

Robert M. Hordon

Atlantic Highlands Borough.

.square-mile borough in Monmouth County. This shorefront community was first settled in  by Thomas Henry Leonard. In  the Rev. Robert Emery developed a Methodist camp meeting there, which lasted until , when it ran out of money. On March ,  Atlantic Highlands was organized as a borough. Atlantic Highlands is located along the northern New Jersey shore with easy access to Sandy Hook Bay, Raritan Bay, Flynn’s Knoll, Romer Shoal, and the Shrewsbury and Navesink rivers. Its major industry is fishing. Atlantic Highlands is home to one of New Jersey’s largest fleets of party and charter fishing boats. The Atlantic Highlands Municipal Marina provides full marina services and a launch ramp. Mount Mitchell, the highest point on the eastern seaboard, rises approximately  feet above sea level and overlooks the Raritan River and Sandy Hook Bay, with good views of the Verrazano Narrows Bridge and New York Harbor.

Postcard view of Atlantic Highlands.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

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Atlantic Terra Cotta Company

Today, Atlantic Highlands is primarily a residential waterfront community with many Victorian-style homes. The total population in  was , and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

part of Haddon Township, had experienced sufficient population growth to incorporate as the Borough of Audubon. Mrs. Samuel Nicholson Rhodes is said to have suggested its name to honor John James Audubon. The  census count was ,, and  percent of the population was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bell, Marianna Leonard. I Remember. Atlantic Highlands: Atlantic Highlands Historical Society, . Gabrielan, Randall. Atlantic Highlands. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Gail Greenberg

Leonard, Thomas Henry. From Indian Trail to Electric Rail. Atlantic Highlands: Atlantic Highlands Journal, .

Audubon Park.

Barbara Pepe

Atlantic Terra Cotta Company. As the largest architectural terra cotta manufacturer in the world, the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company contributed nearly  percent of the visible structural materials of Manhattan’s famous terra cotta skyline in the early s. The firm was formed in  when the old Atlantic Terra Cotta Company of Tottenville, Staten Island, joined Perth Amboy Terra Cotta and Excelsior Terra Cotta. The three became plants , , and , respectively, of the new company, with Perth Amboy as the headquarters. Two additional firms were later acquired. Atlantic Terra Cotta’s most notable achievement was the terra-cotta-clad Woolworth Building in New York City (), which was sheathed and trimmed in custom ornamental detail. The company closed in . See also ceramics industry; terra cotta

Diane Jones Sliney

Audubon, John James (b. Apr. , ; d. Jan. , ).

Naturalist and watercolorist, best known for The Birds of America. Born Jean Jacques Fougere Audubon in Haiti, the artist fled to America in  to escape conscription during the Napoleonic Wars and anglicized his name. He was naturalized in . His early years in America were spent at his father’s estate near Philadelphia, Mill Grove, observing and drawing birds. Here he met and married his wife, Lucy Bakewell. Later, Audubon eked out a living as a portraitist, art teacher, and taxidermist, making trips down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to study natural habitats. In  Audubon’s drawings were published in England, securing his reputation as an artist and naturalist. In  Audubon, commissioned to draw a grouse for use on a New Jersey banknote, met Edward Harris, a Moorestown ornithologist who became a lifelong friend. In the spring of , while living in Camden, Audubon observed a nest of Warbling Vireo and other migratory warblers. Visiting Great Egg Harbor for three weeks, he delighted in the variety of bird and marine life. He returned to Camden that fall and again in June of , when he completed drawings of New Jersey specimens including the Mottled Owl, the Connecticut Warbler, the Blackpoll Warbler, the

John James Audubon, Self-Portrait, . Pencil on paper,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy University of Liverpool, Art Gallery and Collections, FA2334. Rathbone Family Collection.

Wood-Peewee, the Great Crested Flycatcher, the Golden-crowned Thrush, the Yellowbreasted Chat, the Seaside Finch, and the Baywinged Bunting. Audubon was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in . From  until his death Audubon lived on his estate, Minnie’s Land, now Audubon Terrace, New York City. Audubon, John James. The Life of John James Audubon. New York: G. P. Putnam, . DAB. Ford, Alice, ed. Audubon by Himself. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, .

See also art; birds

Gail Greenberg

Audubon.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Audubon was once part of the lands belonging to Francis Collins of Newton Township, whose land survey dates to . The first industry in the borough was John Breach’s gristmill, on Newton Creek. The Bettle family operated a large dairy farm in the late nineteenth century, shipping six hundred quarts of milk daily to Pennsylvania Hospital. In  the farm became part of Abbotts Dairies, which owned the property until , when apartment houses were built on the tract. Audubon lies in the center of several important travel routes: Nicholson Road, to the north, extends to Gloucester City, formerly a major Delaware River port; Kings Highway, to the south, runs east and west through Camden County; the Black Horse Pike, to the west, and the White Horse Pike, to the east, were major roads to Atlantic City. By , although nearly half of the community remained farmland, the many settlements of the area, then

.-square-mile borough, one of the smallest municipalities in Camden County. Audubon Park, originally part of Audubon Borough, was incorporated in . An early planned development located near Camden City, it was designed by architects Oscar Stonorov and Joseph Norman Hettel about  and sponsored by Camden Local #, the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America. It began as a pioneer defense housing project, on the Camden Plan, a program financed by the Federal Works Agency. Residents neither rented nor owned their homes but bought stock in the nonprofit mutual company that owned the project. The arrangement continues to the present day. Residents pay property taxes to the borough, build equity in their homes, and are shareholders in the Audubon Park Mutual Housing Corporation. When they move, they receive a share of their equity but can sell only to a blood relative, or ownership reverts to the corporation, which sells it to the next person on the waiting list. “The Park’’ contains  prefabricated units, which were built in twenty-six days. A community center and athletic fields complete the municipality; students attend the Audubon School District. There is no industrial or business section. The population in  was , and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

“History of Audubon Park.’’ N.d. Camden County Pamphlets File. Camden County Library, Voorhees. “Unique Situation Fosters Close Ties in Audubon Park.’’ Courier Post, Dec. , . “U.S. Speeds Village of New Homes for Defense Workers.’’ Courier Post, Dec. , .

Gail Greenberg

Augusta.

See Frankford.

Automatic Data Processing.

Automatic Payrolls was formed in Paterson in  by Henry Taub and two partners, whom he bought out during their first year of business. Offering what was then the unique service of weekly payroll preparation, the firm picked up data from clients and delivered finished payroll checks to them. In , Henry Taub, with his brother Joe, who had joined the firm soon after it began, hired Frank Lautenberg to become Automatic Payroll’s first full-time salesman. The firm renamed itself Automatic

Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey Data Processing (ADP) in  and became a publicly held corporation three years later. In  Frank Lautenberg replaced Henry Taub as CEO, and in  he left the firm to become a U.S. senator from New Jersey. Today ADP provides a wide variety of data processing services, including payroll processing and tax filing, securities transaction processing for brokerage firms, and inventory processing for auto and truck dealers. During the s, the company processed the payroll check of one of every ten workers in the United States. With its world headquarters in Roseland, ADP is one of the top twenty-five employers in New Jersey.

Elaine L. Schwartz

auto racing. The sport of auto racing has had deep roots in New Jersey from its earliest days, attracting national-level competitors in a variety of racing disciplines at several facilities. Indianapolis  pioneer Ira Vail won the first auto race at the Flemington Fairgrounds in . A high-banked, one-and-a-half-mile speedway was constructed entirely of wood at Amatol, just outside Hammonton, in  but closed the following year. In the s and s several major race teams were based in Paterson. Indianapolis-level drivers competed regularly at the one-mile dirt (later paved) oval at the state fairgrounds in Trenton during the s and s. In the late s the fairgrounds track was expanded to a one-anda-half-mile superspeedway, drawing Indy and NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) events, but it closed around . Championship Auto Racing Teams Indy racing took place on a temporary course at the Meadowlands sports complex for five years until the mid-s. Drag strips sprang up at Great Meadows and Atco, followed by Raceway Park in Old Bridge Township, which has hosted a major annual National Hot Rod Association meet since the early s. Short, oval dirt tracks still host well-attended weekly events, mainly for stock cars, at Bridgeport, East Windsor, and New Egypt. Flemington hosted weekly stock car racing on dirt until the track was paved in . The historic fairgrounds have been dormant since  and is a development target. Another paved oval, Wall Township Speedway, is still a significant draw. Bids since the late s to build major NASCAR superspeedways at the Meadowlands and the former Atlantic City Race Course have failed to materialize thus far. Jim Donnelly

auto theft.

For many years, the rate of auto theft in New Jersey’s urban areas consistently ranked among the worst in the nation. This ranking reflects some of the realities of auto theft. Jersey City and Newark serve as entry ports for many of the vehicles

that are imported into the United States. The primary economic reason for stealing a car is not for the car itself but for the resale value of the parts. While some of these parts are exported overseas, many are resold domestically in a thriving black market involving unscrupulous auto repair shops and consumers seeking cheaper deals on auto repairs. The  New Jersey Uniform Crime Report indicates that  percent of motor vehicle thefts cleared by arrest were committed by persons under twenty-five, the overwhelming majority of them being male. Of the  juveniles arrested for auto theft in ,  percent lived in the counties containing the six major urban areas: Camden City (Camden), Elizabeth (Union), Jersey City (Hudson), Newark (Essex), Paterson (Passaic), and Trenton (Mercer). Prior to the s auto theft was considered a low-priority offense because it was viewed as a relatively harmless, nonviolent, economic crime. This perception began to change when carjacking introduced an element of violence and fear. Also, stolen cars are often used to commit another offense or as a means of escape. Stolen vehicles are involved in police chases and contribute to motor vehicle collisions that result in death and injury. In addition, as cars became more expensive, the economic consequences increased. The cost of automobile insurance has become one of the most contentious issues in New Jersey. People have begun to see the impact of this crime in their increasing auto insurance premiums. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Crime in the United States , Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, .

See also insurance industry

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by the Reading line across a bridge at Ninetysixth Street. Today, as in the past, tourism is Avalon’s primary industry. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara St. Clair

Avenel. See Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center. Aventis

Pharmaceuticals.

See

Hoechst.

Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey. Founded in , the Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum (AHOF) preserves New Jersey’s two-centuriesold aeronautical history and honors the men and women who created that special heritage. The AHOF was the first state aviation hall of fame in America. It is the repository of biographical histories and photographs of the Garden State’s pilots, astronauts, inventors, engineers, mechanics, writers, artists, executives, and corporations. The bronze plaques of  New Jersey aviation pioneers hang in the AHOF, housed in a modern museum at Teterboro Airport. The museum’s galleries are dedicated to airports, the military, space flight, airmail, lighter-than-air craft, aerobatic pilots, women aviators, and early fliers. There is also a library. See also museums

H. V. Pat Reilly

Patrick E. Dunican

Avalon.

.-square-mile borough in Cape May County located on part of Seven Mile Island. When Aaron Leaming purchased Seven Mile Island in  for $, the land had little value. Named Leaming’s Beach, it was used for pasturing cattle, hunting game, and landing whales. In  the Seven Mile Beach Company bought the land, built a hotel, and sold huge tracts to other developers. Two years later, hoping to ensure growth, the company gave the West Jersey Railroad a right-of-way the length of the island, a decisive factor in the island’s development. During summer weekends trains brought four to five thousand people to enjoy the beach, picnic, and perhaps purchase a lot. Avalon separated from Middle Township and incorporated in . A lifesaving station was established in  and a boardwalk was constructed in the early s; in  the first school was built. In  Gov. Woodrow Wilson opened bridges on Stone Harbor Boulevard to link the island with the mainland. In  service from Cape May Courthouse was provided

Bernice “Bee’’ Falk Haydu, wearing open-cockpit aircraft gear, during WASP training, .

Courtesy Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum, Teterboro.

48

aviation industry

aviation industry.

The New Jersey aircraft industry began as part of the industrial buildup in support of World War I. There were failed attempts as early as , but the war economy produced the environment for the aviation industry to emerge. The state’s first successful aircraft plant was the Aeromarine Plane and Motor Corporation at Keyport, which made hydroplane trainers and a flying boat for the navy. Another plant, the Standard Aero Company, began production of military aircraft in  in Plainfield and later in Linden. Both companies failed to survive the cut in government orders and public sale of war surplus aircraft and engines following the  armistice. Anthony H. G. Fokker, famed for his World War I German aircraft, founded the Fokker Aircraft Corporation in  at Teterboro. Fokker designed and built aircraft for emerging airlines and other businesses for the remainder of the s, but the company collapsed during the Great Depression. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation, later known as Wright Aeronautical Company, was formed in  and began building engines for the military in New Brunswick. Wright survived the fate of other failed companies by acquiring the rights to a successful air-cooled engine and improving upon it. Wright became a major supplier of civilian and military aircraft engines and later merged with the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation to become the Curtiss-Wright Corporation. In World War II, Curtiss-Wright produced engines for a great variety of military aircraft, including the B-, B-, A-, TBM, and SBC. The Curtiss-Wright Propeller Division at Caldwell produced one-fifth of all of the propellers made in the United States during the war. The General Motors Corporation also played a big part in the New Jersey aircraft industry. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government ordered the curtailment of all civilian automobile production to conserve materials for the war. This left the modern General Motors plants in Linden and West Trenton idle with no equipment or facilities that could be easily converted to war production. Company representatives visited the Navy Department in an attempt to secure a contract for aircraft components. They were granted contracts for fighter planes and torpedo bombers and formed the Eastern Aircraft Division of the General Motors Corporation. The Linden plant produced Wildcat fighters and West Trenton, Tarrytown, New York, and Baltimore, Maryland, worked together to build Avenger dive bombers, with final assembly in West Trenton. Another plant, in Bloomfield, made the hydraulic lines, cables, wires, and electrical components for both aircraft. Before production could begin, the Linden and West Trenton plants had to be stripped of tons of automobile-assembly equipment. The buildings were modified, and aircraftassembly equipment and fixtures were

constructed and installed. Airfields and hangars also had to be constructed adjacent to the plants in order to test the new aircraft. After a slow start production got under way, and Eastern Aircraft Division produced a total of , aircraft, which went to every theater of the war, and some remained in service until the s. The conclusion of the war brought an end to the need for additional combat aircraft. Military agencies quickly canceled contracts for thousands of aircraft and aircraft engines. The Eastern Aircraft plants, no longer needed for Avenger and Wildcat production, soon resumed production of General Motors automobiles. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . General Motors Corporation. Eastern Aircraft Division. A History of Eastern Aircraft Division. Linden: Eastern Aircraft Division, . White, Graham. Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II: History and Development of Frontline Aircraft Piston Engines Produced by Great Britain and the United States during World War II. Washington: Society of Automotive Engineers, .

Michael Stowe

aviation research. New Jersey has been a center for aviation research for the military and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) from the s to the present. Some of the earliest aviation research and development in the state was conducted at Lakehurst, where the navy acquired , acres of land once used by the army. The new facility was used to develop America’s dirigible program. A huge hanger was constructed and the navy’s first dirigible, the USS Shenandoah, was assembled within. For the next decade, Lakehurst pioneered the development of the navy’s dirigibles. A number of blimps also operated from the station. At the same time, the first parachute school opened at Lakehurst. The school not only provided training in operation and use of parachutes, but also testing and development. The USS Shenandoah was followed by the USS Los Angeles and later the USS Akron and USS Macon. The Akron and Macon were designed to carry, launch, and recover fighter aircraft. In April , the Akron was lost during a thunderstorm off Barnegat Light; the Macon was lost in , when the ship fell into the Pacific Ocean off the California coast. These two tragic events brought an end to the navy’s attempt to develop dirigibles. The blimps and lighterthan-air research remained at Lakehurst until . Today, the Naval Air Systems Command at Lakehurst provides expertise, testing, and research in areas most often associated with aircraft carriers. Areas of expertise include catapults, jet blast deflectors, arresting gear, visual landing aids, handling equipment, servicing equipment, and propulsion/avionics support equipment. In  the U.S. Navy Development Squadron  (VX-) moved to Lakehurst and

began testing, research, and training with Sikorsky and Bell helicopters. It moved to Naval Air Station Atlantic City in , where the squadron began research and training with fighter aircraft. For nearly ten years, VX- tested aircraft, systems, and munitions at Atlantic City. It continued its work at Quonset Point, Rhode Island, upon the decommissioning of NAS Atlantic City in . In the same year, the National Aviation Facilities Experiment Center (NAFEC) was established as a research and development center for the FAA in Atlantic City, selected because of its wide range of weather conditions and location close to both the Northeast corridor and the open space over the ocean. NAFEC used the former navy facilities until , when it constructed a new $-million facility and moved to another part of Atlantic City Airport. At that time it became the Federal Aviation Technical Center, but was renamed the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center in . The center is the national scientific test base for FAA research, development, and acquisition programs. The facility tests and evaluates air traffic control, communications, navigation, aircraft, and airport security. It also develops new equipment and software and recommends modifications to existing procedures and systems. Armstrong, William J., and Clarke Van Vleet. United States Naval Aviation –. Washington, DC: Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, . History of the FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center. Egg Harbor Township: FAA William J. Hughes Technical Center, . Shettle, Mel L., Jr. United States Naval Air Stations of World War Two. Vol. , Eastern States. Roswell, GA: Schaertel Publishing, .

Michael T. Stowe

Avon-by-the-Sea.

.-square-mile borough located between the Shark River and Sylvan Lake in Monmouth County. Avon-bythe-Sea was originally named Key East in , when Edward Batchelor purchased three hundred acres in Neptune Township for a seaside development scheme. The community’s street plan was based on a strict grid pattern, with six eighty-foot-wide tree-lined avenues running east to west. Key East was patterned after the religious community of Ocean Grove, with a Christian Philosophy Summer School run by the American Institute, a Baptist Seaside Assembly, and a summer home for crippled orphans managed by the Episcopal Church. In  Key East seceded from Neptune Township to become an independent borough named Avonby-the-Sea. The building of grand hotels and open-porch homes in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries attests to Avon-bythe-Sea’s appeal as a summer beach resort. The U.S. Coast Guard Shark River Boat Station is located in the borough on the Shark River.

Aylsworth, Jonas Walter The borough has a mix of , housing units, with  (or . percent) of them available for seasonal use. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gensch, Dolores M. Avon-by-the-Sea. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

Aylsworth, Jonas Walter d. ).

(b. ;

Chemist and manufacturer. Jonas Aylsworth, born in Attica, Indiana, attended Purdue University for one year before joining Thomas Edison’s laboratory staff as a chemist in . He left Edison’s direct employ in  but continued to work under contract on a number of Edison’s inventions. Aylsworth’s most important contributions came in the development of the Edison phonograph

49

record technology. In the late s he developed the standard wax record, around  devised, with Walter Miller, a process for manufacturing molded records, and around  created Condensite, the first interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) material, which was used in Edison disc records and many other molded plastic products.

Paul Israel

B Babe Ruth Baseball. This premier amateur baseball program for thirteen- to fifteenyear-olds was founded in Yardville in . It began in February  as a local organization called the Little-Bigger League (recognizing that the Little League, founded in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, in , graduated its players at age twelve). The first games were played in Yardville and Trenton on May , . Later that summer, the organization established a nationwide Little-Bigger League with its leaders as the first national board. The league’s first nationwide championship, or “world series,’’ was held in Trenton in August . Before the start of the  season, the organization changed its name to Babe Ruth Baseball, Inc., to honor George Herman “Babe’’ Ruth, America’s greatest baseball player, who had died in . Babe Ruth Baseball has grown steadily and now operates throughout North America and Europe. It had more than a million players worldwide in . A twelve-and-younger division, now known as the Cal Ripken Division in honor of the former Baltimore Orioles shortstop, was added in . Trenton teams won the Babe Ruth World Series in  and , and a Ewing team did so in . See also baseball

Robert W. Craig

Baby M case.

As the first major trial to address surrogate motherhood and reproductive-technology questions, the Baby M case was the focus of national media attention in  and . At issue was custody of so-called Baby M (Melissa Stern), the biological child of William Stern, a biochemist, and Mary Beth Whitehead, a housewife married to a sanitation worker. Baby M was conceived through artificial insemination using Stern’s sperm and Whitehead’s egg after they signed a contract stipulating that Whitehead would terminate her parental rights and turn the child over to Stern and his wife, Elizabeth, a pediatrician. Whitehead was to be paid $, upon surrendering the infant. Soon after the birth, Whitehead decided that she could not give up the child, whom she had named Sara. Drama ensued as first Whitehead, then the Sterns, then Whitehead had custody of the child. Whitehead then fled with the baby to Florida for four months, while the Sterns took legal action to enforce the surrogacy contract and were awarded temporary custody. Whitehead was given limited visitation rights. A trial followed, and a lower-court judge ruled in the Sterns’ favor, terminating

50

Mrs. Whitehead’s parental rights and granting custody to Stern. Mrs. Stern was allowed to adopt the baby and become her legal mother. Many opposed the ruling, arguing on Whitehead’s behalf that involuntary termination of parental rights was legal only in cases of abandonment or abuse. Others noted inherent socioeconomic bias, since the well-off Sterns had better resources to fight in court and were able to provide an arguably “better’’ life for the baby. Critics worried that contractual surrogacy would create a “breeder class’’ of lower-income women. On appeal the New Jersey Supreme Court ruled seven to zero to invalidate the surrogacy contract, calling it “baby-selling.’’ Whitehead’s parental rights were restored and Mrs. Stern’s adoption of the baby annulled. The court granted Mr. Stern custody to spare the baby further disruption, but allowed Whitehead expanded visitation rights. Richardson, Herbert, ed. On the Problem of Surrogate Parenthood: Analyzing the Baby M Case. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, . Whitehead, Mary Beth, with Loretta SchwartzNobel. A Mother’s Story: The Truth about the Baby M Case. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

Suzanne Travers

Bacon, Henry

(b. Nov. , ; d. Feb. ,

). Architect. Henry Bacon, son of Henry

and Elizabeth Kelton Bacon, was born in Watseka, Illinois, in  and married Laura Florence Calvert in . He trained at the architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White from  to , studied in Europe from  to , and established his own firm in . A devotee of the classical vocabulary for public architecture, Bacon was most notably the designer of the simple yet majestic Lincoln Memorial () in Washington, D.C. He also designed humbler municipal buildings in New Jersey including the Public Library (c. ) in Jersey City and the Dansforth Memorial Public Library () in Paterson. Packard, Robert T. Encyclopedia of American Architecture. New York: McGraw–Hill, . Stern, Robert A. M. Modern Classicism. New York: Rizzoli, .

See also architecture

Jeanne Kolva

Bakelite.

In  a Belgian scientist and university lecturer working in the United States, Leo Henrik Baekeland (–), succeeded in producing a synthetic shellac by combining formaldehyde, a wood alcohol used by morticians as embalming fluid, and phenol, a coal-tar distillate used as a turpentine substitute. Called “Bakelite,’’ it was the first of the thermosetting plastics—it could be molded into any shape but, after it had solidified, it could not be melted again. Once hard, it could be machined into any shape and it was waterproof and resistant to heat, cold, and acid. Baekeland was the first to put together a series of small molecules in a chain to form

a commercially useful artificial substance. On February , , at the Chemist’s Club in New York, Baekeland introduced his new product, calling it the “Material of a Thousand Uses.’’ One of its first uses was in the manufacture of billiard balls, replacing rare and expensive ivory. The material became the ideal component for the emerging electronics industry in need of new kinds of insulators. Bakelite was quickly used to form telephones, airplane propellers, electrical plugs and sockets, pot handles, toasters, cheap radios, electronic ignitions for automobiles, and, eventually, heat shields for spaceships. Baekeland’s work unleashed a flurry of chemical research into synthetic material, work that would produce celluloid, nylon, and polyvinyl chloride. This work had been bankrolled by an earlier discovery. In the s Baekeland had invented Velox, an improved photographic paper that freed photographers from having to use sunlight for developing images. With Velox, they could rely on artificial light. George Eastman, whose camera and developing services would make photography an almost everyday activity, bought full rights to Velox from Baekeland for the then astonishing sum of $ million. Soon after he had presented Bakelite to a worldwide audience, a flash fire consumed Baekeland’s home garage, torching most of his adjacent laboratory. When he learned that the Perth Amboy Chemical Works in Perth Amboy had space to rent, he relocated the General Bakelite Company to safer quarters. Bakelite also helped Heyden Chemical Works to thrive in Garfield, where workers eventually perfected a new process for making formaldehyde. Bakelite products dominated the plastics industry throughout the s. The company bought the old Swayze Farm in Bound Brook in , and in  merged full operations in the new plant, which was turning out more than  million tons of finished product annually. By  the editors of Fortune magazine had crowned Bakelite the “King of Plastics.’’ Control of Bakelite passed to Union Carbide and Carbon Corporation in . Bakelite’s use continued during World War II, including use in the design of the atomic bomb. But the company also developed a material it called Vinylite. Going beyond military uses, the material grew in less than a decade into an immense postwar enterprise dedicated to making swimming pools, beach balls, raincoats, shower curtains, and automobile upholstery. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Fenichell, Stephen. Plastic: The Making of a Synthetic Century. New York: HarperBusiness, . Meikle, Jeffrey L. American Plastic: A Cultural History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Kitta MacPherson

bald eagle

Considered the greatest U.S. hockey player of his era, Hobey Baker was born in Wissahickon, Pennsylvania. He starred at the rover position for Princeton (–), where he captained the team to two intercollegiate championships. He was also an all-American football player. After graduation, Baker played amateur hockey for the Saint Nicholas Skating Club in New York City and led the team to a Ross Cup victory over Montreal. While serving as a military pilot, Baker died in a crash at Toul, France, during a test flight one month after the end of World War I. In  Princeton dedicated the Hobey Baker Arena for ice hockey, and the Hobey Baker Memorial Award is given annually to the nation’s best college hockey player.

became president. This organization broadened into the United Textile Workers (UTW), an AFL affiliate. Baldanzi was active in the UTW’s merger with the Textile Workers’ Organizing Committee, part of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). The two organizations formed the Textile Workers’ Union of America (TWUA) of which he became executive vice president in . During World War II, Baldanzi was the chairman of the CIO Italian-American Trade Union Committee. In  a long rivalry with Emil Rieve, president of the TWUA, over administrative issues, led to the ouster of Baldanzi and several colleagues. In  he was elected president of the United Textile Workers of America and served until his death in . Baldanzi was married to Lena Parenti and resided in Hawthorne.

Davies, John. The Legend of Hobey Baker. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Baker, Hobart “Hobey’’ Amory Hare (b. Jan. , ; d. Dec. , ). Athlete.

See also labor movement

See also hockey

Angelica M. Santomauro

Glenn R. Modica

Baldanzi, George

bald eagle. (b. Jan. , ; d. Apr.

, ). Labor union leader. At the age of sixteen, Baldanzi began working as a coal miner alongside his father. After moving to Paterson, he became an active textile unionist and organized the Dyers’ Federation, of which he

Haliaeetus leucocephalus, a member of the Accipitridae family, is among New Jersey’s largest birds, with a wingspan between . and  feet. Adults have a brown body and wings, gaining their characteristic white head and tail at five years of age. Juveniles are chocolate brown and at three to four years old

have a mixture of brown and white feathers in the head and tail. Bald eagles are associated with open waters of bays, rivers, and lakes, where they hunt for their primary food of fish; their diet is supplemented by carrion and waterfowl. Eagles build large stick nests atop tall trees. They mate for life, with the same pair returning to the nest each year; however, they are very sensitive to human disturbance, and excessive activity will cause them to abandon a location. The population declined due to the effects of DDT, which caused eagles and other raptors to lay thin-shelled eggs that broke under incubation. The population recovered after restoration efforts; biologists in New Jersey restored the population by releasing young eaglets obtained from Canada in the s. New Jersey breeding eagles are resident year-round and numbered twenty-four pairs in , near the historic, pre-DDT population level. Bald eagles remain on New Jersey’s endangered list but are due to be removed from the federal endangered species list. Beans, Bruce E. Eagle’s Plume: Preserving the Life and Habitat of America’s Bald Eagle. New York: Scribner’s, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds

Kathleen E. Clark

40 35

Number of nests and young

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992 Nests

1994

1996

51

1998

2000

2002

Young

The bald eagle population in New Jersey declined to just one nest due to contamination by DDT in the s. As a result of recovery efforts that included habitat protection and release of young eagles from Canada, the population has rebounded to a new high of  pairs in . Biologists continue to monitor threats such as habitat destruction and environmental contaminants.

52

Ballantine, Peter

Bamberger’s Department Store.

Ballantine Brewery, Newark, .

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

Ballantine, Peter

(b. Nov. , ; d. Jan.

, ). Brewer. Born in Ayrshire, Scotland,

Peter Ballantine immigrated to Albany, New York, in  and spent ten years learning the brewery business. He married Julia Wilson in ; they had three sons. Ballantine ran a brewery in Albany for ten years before relocating to Newark. In partnership with Erastus Patterson, he rented a brewery on High Street from Gen. John R. Cumming. In  he opened a large facility, noted for its ale, on the Passaic River. By the s Peter S. Ballantine & Sons was the fourth largest brewery in the country. Baron, Stanley. Brewed in America: A History of Beer and Ale in the United States. Boston: Little, Brown, . One Hundred Years of Brewing. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, .

See also breweries

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Ballantine House. Built in  for beer brewer John Holme Ballantine and his wife, Jeannette Boyd Ballantine, the twenty-threeroom Ballantine House is the only restored urban mansion in New Jersey open to the public. Designed by John Edward Harney of New York City and Newburgh, New York, the house combines a Renaissance exterior with an interior featuring rich Renaissance, Colonial Revival, and Aesthetic movement woodwork, wall coverings, and furnishings. Bought by the Newark Museum in , it was restored in  and in , and presently serves as the decorative arts wing for the museum. See also Newark Museum

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company. Chartered in , the Baltimore and Ohio (B & O) was the oldest common carrier in the United States. Originally operated by horsepower, it hosted a race between a steam locomotive and a horse—the locomotive lost. Locomotive technology advanced rapidly, however, with the B & O playing a major role in its development. Operating along the border areas during the Civil War, it moved troops and supplies for the Union and suffered numerous raids by Confederate forces. The B & O operated freight and passenger trains in New Jersey over the main routes of the Reading and Jersey Central between Philadelphia and Jersey City. The B & O also operated the Staten Island Rapid Transit Company, via a link extending from the Jersey Central at Cranford Junction onto the island. With six thousand miles of track, the B & O was one of the nation’s biggest systems. Coal from West Virginia and Pennsylvania was a major source of revenue, along with heavy manufactured goods from industrial cities along its route. Passenger service operated between New York, Baltimore, and Washington and to St. Louis and Chicago. The B & O was one of the first railroads to experiment with diesel locomotives and streamlined trains. It became part of CSX in .

Louis Bamberger, Louis Frank, and Felix Fuld founded Bamberger’s in Newark in . The firm’s creation was part of a late nineteenthcentury merchandising revolution that saw large, multiproduct stores like Bamberger’s, R. H. Macy’s in New York, and Marshall Field in Chicago take their place alongside traditional, smaller, specialty dry-goods shops. These stores did not simply offer more goods, but expanded enormously the range of goods sold in one place, brought in opulent and exotic goods from world markets, displayed their wares in glamorous settings, and introduced innovative marketing techniques to convince the growing middle class, especially housewives, that consuming was pleasurable. The firm helped pioneer “satisfaction-guaranteed’’ purchasing and the use of credit accounts; for employees, it offered the option of buying stock in the company. The company’s initial success led to the creation of the multistoried “Great White Store’’ in . Bamberger’s established WOR radio in  to help sell its goods, and published Charm magazine (–), which blended literary works, fashion reports, and advertisements for the store’s products. In , after Fuld’s death, Louis Bamberger sold the store to R. H. Macy, which eventually built additional stores throughout New Jersey. In , Macy’s discontinued the use of the Bamberger name. After retirement in , Louis Bamberger became a noted philanthropist, providing money for the Newark Museum and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, among other endeavors.

Harwood, Herbert H., Jr. Royal Blue Line. Sykesville, MD: Greenberg Publishing, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert Mohowski

L. Bamberger and Company, Newark, .

Courtesy Pike Archives.

banking

53

O’Connor, John E., and Charles F. Cummings. “Bamberger’s Department Store, Charm Magazine, and the Culture of Consumption in New Jersey, –.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

Paul Clemens

Bancroft, Margaret

(b. June , ;

d. Jan. , ). Educator. In her public school

teaching in Philadelphia, Bancroft took particular interest in children with academic problems. To determine whether the causes were physical or mental, she consulted a noted surgeon, Dr. W. W. Keen of Jefferson Medical College, and Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, a well-known neurologist. In  Bancroft decided to devote herself full time to these special children, and founded the Haddonfield School for the Mentally Deficient and Peculiarly Backward (later renamed the Bancroft Training School). At a time when families hid disabilities and custodial or institutionalized care was the norm, Bancroft created innovative techniques of individualization and behavior modification. She was a forerunner of current thought in teaching the developmentally disabled. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Shirley M. Montgomery

Bancroft NeuroHealth.

Margaret Bancroft founded the Bancroft Training School in Haddonfield in  as a residential school for children with cognitive learning disabilities. Bancroft was a pioneer in the field and believed that her students should be encouraged to reach their highest potential and live as full a life as possible. Today, Bancroft NeuroHealth’s mission continues to be focused on the quality of life. Programs include early intervention pediatric services, rehabilitation services, in-home and residential and vocational services, a subacute care facility, community living group homes, brain injury and trauma programs, long-term daycare treatment for brain injuries, and autism educational and research programs. In New Jersey, the organization helps brain-injured adults attend college. Bancroft NeuroHealth serves nine hundred children and adults from foreign countries as well as the United States, from newborns to seniors. Historic Lullworth Hall, its original center, is now the administrative hub. The private, nonprofit corporation also has accredited centers in California, Delaware, Louisiana, and Maine. See also Bancroft, Margaret

Gail Greenberg

banking.

The first two banks opened in New Jersey, the Newark Banking and Insurance Company and the Trenton Banking Company, were chartered by the state legislature in .

A $ bank note from the First National Bank of Eatontown, which was chartered in .

Courtesy Paul Severini.

The Trenton Banking Company was organized by Isaac Smith, a member of the Continental Congress, a colonel in the Continental Army, and a state supreme court justice. Since Gov. Joseph Bloomfield was one of the original directors, the bank enjoyed a close relationship with the state government and, indeed, lent money to the state for military purposes during the War of  and the Civil War. The first savings bank incorporated by the legislature, Newark Savings Fund Association, was founded in . The second savings bank, Provident Savings Bank, was founded in  and is the oldest bank still in existence in New Jersey today. In , the legislature passed its first banking law, which established state banks at Camden, Trenton, New Brunswick, Elizabeth, Newark, and Morristown and provided some state regulation and supervision of banks. Due to the growth in the economy and number of industries of the state, and the questionable practices of some banks, the legislature updated the state banking law by passing the General Banking Act of . Since this act was perceived to be vague, amendments were adopted in . These included the creation of a board of bank commissioners consisting of the governor, secretary of state, and attorney general. With the passage of the National Banking Act of , which created a federal banking charter, most state banks in New Jersey converted to national bank status. In  there had been forty-nine state banks. By  there were just five. Trust companies became another popular type of financial institution after legislation was passed in  to allow their formation. A Department of Banking and Insurance with a commissioner at its head was established in  to supervise financial institutions and make an annual report to the state legislature. The banking laws of the state were revised once more by the General Bank Revision Act of March , . The credit union movement that was spreading throughout the country reached New Jersey in  with the passage of an act allowing the creation of state

credit unions. An entirely new state banking code was adopted in . On December , , President Woodrow Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act into law. In addition to stabilizing the monetary and financial system, this act created a central bank and established twelve federal reserve banks in major cities throughout the country. The federal reserve banks of Philadelphia and New York continue to share responsibility for the state of New Jersey. As the country’s banking system felt the force of the Great Depression, the New Jersey legislature passed the Altman Act in February . This law gave the state’s struggling banks time to reorganize. President Franklin Roosevelt, following the lead of several state governors including New Jersey’s A. Harry Moore, declared a national bank holiday on March , closing all banks in the country until their soundness could be determined. Of thirty-eight state banks closed by banking regulators between June  and June , eleven were later reorganized. At the close of  there were  commercial banks and trust companies in the state with almost $ billion in assets. New Jersey banks prospered, but they never equaled the growth of banks in other states because state law prohibited banks from branching outside the county of their main office. This created a system with many banks but few large ones. As a result, large New Jersey corporations had to go to New York or Philadelphia for financing. In  the state legislature divided the state into three geographic areas to allow banks to expand into neighboring counties. In  the laws were further liberalized so that banks could branch throughout the state. This change, in combination with the  amendments to the federal Bank Holding Act, led to the growth of multibank holding companies. In  ten holding companies owned sixty-two banks, which controlled  percent of the deposits in the state. Consolidation continued, and the number of independent commercial banks decreased from  in  to  in .

54

Baptists

On January , , New Jersey opened its borders to interstate banking by permitting national reciprocity. Thus out-of-state banks could acquire New Jersey banks and vice versa. Many acquisitions followed between banks in New Jersey and the Philadelphia area. In the mid-s out-of-state banks invaded the state, and the banking market rapidly consolidated. New Jersey attracted banks from elsewhere with its high per capita income, its great population density, its favorable interstate banking laws, and the number of sizable banks available for acquisition. Four Pennsylvania banks (PNC Bank Corporation, Mellon Financial Corporation, CoreStates Financial Corporation, and Sovereign Bank), First Union Corporation from North Carolina, and Fleet Financial Group from Boston all acquired banks in New Jersey during this period. In  First Union purchased the state’s largest bank, First Fidelity Bancorporation. That same year UJB (United Jersey Banks) Financial Corporation acquired Summit Bancorporation and created the largest remaining homegrown independent bank holding company, Summit Bancorp of Princeton. Today New Jersey’s highly competitive banking market is dominated by out-of-state banks. Fleet Bank purchased the native Summit Bancorp in  and became the largest bank in the state. Wachovia Bank’s merger with First Union in September  made it second. First Union had acquired First Fidelity in  and CoreStates in . At the end of , there were  commercial banks in New Jersey with assets of nearly $. billion and  savings institutions with assets of almost $ billion. As of June , there were  credit unions with more than $ billion in total assets. French, Bruce H. Banking and Insurance in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Ann Kessler

Baptists.

The first Baptist churches in East and West Jersey were organized by settlers from New England and the British Isles. Middletown Church, the first Baptist church in New Jersey, originated with a group of settlers from Newport, Rhode Island, who had been meeting since . The Rev. Thomas Killingsworth, who had come from Norwich, England, in , assisted the group to organize as a Baptist church in  with at least eighteen constituent members. In Piscataway in , Killingsworth gathered a group of settlers from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island as a Baptist congregation (now the Stelton Baptist Church). One of three original Seventh Day Baptist churches in the colonies was organized in , when some members withdrew from the Piscataway Church to constitute themselves as a congregation. Killingsworth himself settled in Salem Town, where he became the first judge of Salem County Courts. He preached widely in

South Jersey and Chester County, and in  gathered with some members of the Pennepack Baptist Church of Philadelphia to organize the Cohansey Baptist Church, which in  merged with a congregation of Welsh Baptists who had settled at Bowentown. In  Killingsworth, who had been granted a license to preach as an Anabaptist Dissenter under the Toleration Act, was tried at the Salem Court of Quarter Sessions for speaking contemptuously of the Church of England. He was accused of calling it a “carnal church,’’ but a jury found him “not guilty.’’ The three original churches (Middletown, Piscataway, and Cohansey) joined with two Pennsylvania churches in  to form the Philadelphia Baptist Association, the first such body established by Baptists in the United States. Throughout the eighteenth century New Jersey Baptist churches belonged to either the Philadelphia Association or the New-York Baptist Association (). The first Baptist association in the state was the New Jersey Baptist Association (, which became West New Jersey), followed by Central New Jersey (), Sussex (, which became North Sussex), East New Jersey (), Trenton (), Camden (), and Morris and Essex (). In  the Baptist churches organized the New Jersey Baptist State Convention for Missionary Purposes to establish new churches and strengthen feeble ones. This body, now the American Baptist Churches of New Jersey, has  member churches, while the Seventh Day Baptists have . The first Baptist church organized in New Jersey by freedmen and freedwomen was the Kaighnsville (now Kaighn Avenue) Baptist Church in Camden (). In the northern part of the state the oldest surviving African American congregation is Bethany Baptist Church in Newark (). In  black Baptists in the state organized the Afro-American Baptist Association of New Jersey, which became the General Baptist State Convention of New Jersey in  and now has seven district associations. Heavy immigration from Europe in the nineteenth century led to the organization of Baptist congregations that could provide services in the immigrants’ native languages. The first such churches in New Jersey were German Baptist, Newark (); Swedish Baptist, Dover (); Holland Baptist, Paterson (); Italian Baptist, Newark (); Finnish Baptist, Jersey City (); Slovak Baptist, Newark (); Polish Baptist, Newark (); Hungarian Baptist, Perth Amboy (); and First Ukrainian-Russian, Newark (). More recent immigrants have also organized Baptist congregations: Iglesia Bautista Central, Elizabeth (Hispanic, ); Haitian Bethel Baptist, Newark (); South Jersey Chinese Christian (); Global Mission Church, Rutherford (Korean, ); First Portuguese Speaking, Elizabeth (); Terrill Road Arabic, North Plainfield (); Vietnamese Gospel,

Jersey City (); Indo-Pak, Bergenfield (Pakistani, ); and Asian Indian Fellowship, East Brunswick (). A strong sense of national and ethnic identity, as well as theological and political differences, has led to the formation of other bodies of Baptist churches. Among those with members in New Jersey are the North American Baptist Conference, founded by German Baptists (, now with  churches in the state) and the Baptist General Conference, formed by Swedish Baptists (, now with  churches). African American churches in New Jersey belong to three national conventions: the National Baptist Convention USA, the parent convention of black Baptists (, now with  churches in the state); the National Baptist Convention of America, which divided from the other body in  (now with  churches); and the Progressive National Baptist Convention (, now with  churches). Theological controversies among American Baptists caused the formation of the General Association of Regular Baptists (, with  churches in New Jersey) and the Conservative Baptist Association of America (,  churches). The Southern Baptist Convention, organized in , began missionary activity in the New York metropolitan area in ; the Metropolitan New York Baptist Association now includes  churches in New Jersey, while another  are affiliated with the South Jersey Baptist Association. Dual alignment causes some churches to be counted more than once, but if independent congregations are also included, there were at least  Baptist churches in New Jersey in . The number of baptized believers in those congregations is estimated to be ,. See also religion

George D. Younger

Baraka,

Amiri

(b. Oct. , ).

(LeRoi

Jones)

Poet and political activist. Amiri Baraka was born Everett LeRoi Jones in Newark. His father was a postal worker and his mother a teacher. Educated in the city’s public school system, he attended and graduated from Howard University and later served in the Air Force. Baraka’s literary career began when he settled in Greenwich Village in the late fifties and became friends with contemporary poets Frank O’Hara, Allen Ginsberg, Charles Olson, and Langston Hughes. He attracted notice with his first poetry pamphlet, “Preface to a Twenty-Volume Suicide Note’’ (), but he became a literary celebrity when his play Dutchman was staged Off-Broadway in . This Obie-winning play about race relations in the United States helped make Baraka one of the “militant’’ voices of the civil rights era. His literary output—novels such as The System of Dante’s Hell (), plays such as The

Barnegat Toilet (), and his cultural study of jazz, Blues People—helped establish him as one of the most creative African American writers of his generation. The death of Malcolm X in February  had a profound effect on Baraka. He changed his name from LeRoi Jones to Imamu Amiri Baraka (shortened to Amiri Baraka in ) and he simultaneously converted to Islam and embraced Black Nationalism. He moved uptown to Harlem and established his Black Arts Repertory Theater School, which inspired the establishment of black theaters throughout the country. After returning to Newark in , he became involved as a community activist and worked to elect Kenneth Gibson as the city’s first black mayor. During this period, he became a controversial figure, given his often anti-white and anti-Semitic public pronouncements and writings. In  Baraka abandoned Black Nationalism and embraced Marxism. In a piece in the New York Times, he rejected “a narrow nationalism that says the white man is the enemy’’ and went as far as declaring it “a form of fascism.’’ Baraka was involved in the “anti-revisionist’’ Maoist movement throughout the seventies, and books of poems such as Hard Facts () and plays such as The Motion of History () reflected his changing worldview. Also during this period, he began teaching in the Africana Studies department at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, where he is currently professor emeritus. Baraka continues to be a varied, complex, and controversial literary figure. Recent years have found him working around the world with rappers, jazz musicians, and his wife, poet Amina Baraka. His fusion of avantgarde poetics, an intense musical sensibility, and a radical Africana worldview have had a profound influence on two generations of black artists and intellectuals, along with the anti-academic poetry community at large. His  appearance in Warren Beatty’s political satire Bullworth, in which he played a community activist, brought the poet national attention. He is regarded as one of the most important figures in African American literary culture. In recognition of this stature, in , Gov. James McGreevey asked Baraka to serve as the state’s poet laureate. The appointment became controversial when Baraka recited a poem at the  Dodge Poetry Festival that implied Israel had prior knowledge of the September , , terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. Though various state legislators denounced the poem as anti-Semitic and called for Baraka’s resignation from the ceremonial post, others argued against his removal on free speech grounds. Baraka, who defended his information, refused McGreevey’s request to step down. In response, the New Jersey State Legislature abolished the position of poet laureate in July .

Baraka, Imamu Amiri. The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka. Chicago: Lawrence Hill, . Watts, Jerry Gafio. Amiri Baraka: The Politics and Art of a Black Intellectual. New York: New York University Press, . Woodard, Komozi. A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka and Black Power Politics. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

Joel Lewis

Barclay, Robert (b. Dec. , ; d. Oct. , ). Quaker leader and politician. In  Robert Barclay, the eldest son of David and Katherine (Gordon) Barclay of Gordonstown, Murrayshire, Scotland, converted to Quakerism, following his father’s example, and over the next decade he established himself as one of the most powerful advocates for the Society of Friends. He married Christian Molleson, by whom he had nine children, in . His religious convictions led him to join a Quaker-dominated group of proprietors that acquired the province of East Jersey from the heirs of Sir George Carteret in . Barclay was chosen as governor by the proprietors in September , an election that became official in  after the duke of York (later James II) granted a patent to the group. Although he never visited the province, Barclay sought with the other proprietors to promote greater Scottish migration. This endeavor was only partially successful, and despite retaining considerable personal popularity among the residents of East Jersey, Barclay died without having realized his vision for the province. Landsmen, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Pomfret, John E. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Trueblood, D. Elton. Robert Barclay. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also Quakers

John W. Raimo

Bardeen, John

(b. May , ; d. Jan. ,

). Physicist. Born and raised in Madison,

Wisconsin, Bardeen received a Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He worked at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill from  to , where he became the coinventor of the transistor and thus one of the most important creators of the “semiconductor revolution’’ that transformed science and technology. For this achievement he shared the Nobel Prize for physics in . Later, at the University of Illinois, he was the leader of the group that developed the first fundamental theory of superconductivity, resulting in his second Nobel Prize in physics in . Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also transistor

Peter Lindenfeld

Barkan, Alexander E.

55

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Labor leader and political orga-

nizer. Alexander Barkan was born in Bayonne to Jacob and Rachel Barkan. A University of Chicago graduate, Barkan began his career in the labor movement as an organizer for the Congress of Industrial Organizations’ (CIO) Textile Workers Organizing Committee (TWOC) and its successor, the Textile Workers’ Union (TWU). Barkan married fellow TWU organizer Helen Stickno in , with whom he raised two children. After World War II military service he returned to serve as political action director for the TWU from  to . With the merger of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the CIO in , Barkan joined the national AFL-CIO’s Committee on Political Education (COPE), and rose to its directorship in . COPE directs labor’s electioneering efforts, and under Barkan’s leadership COPE played a major role in delivering a record victory to Lyndon Johnson and the Democratic party in . Later years presented greater difficulties as divisions within the AFL-CIO, declining union membership, and the efforts of rival political action organizations challenged labor’s influence on the Democratic party. Barkan, American labor’s political voice for a generation, retired as COPE director in . Dark, Taylor E. The Unions and the Democrats. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, . Draper, Alan. A Rope of Sand: The AFL-CIO Committee on Political Education, –. New York: Praeger, .

See also labor movement

Clayton Sinyai

Barnegat.

.-square-mile township in Ocean County. The Dutch referred to the area as Barendegat, meaning “an inlet with breakers’’; they established the first European settlement in . Barnegat Village thrived on the basis of its proximity to Barnegat Bay and rich natural resources, including bog iron, fish and shellfish, and lumber. When Union Township was formed from parts of Dover and Stafford townships in old Monmouth County in , Barnegat was one of the two principal villages in the new township. The village continued to grow as a port community and resort destination throughout the nineteenth century. Major industries included maritime commerce, shipbuilding, and glassmaking. Parts of Union Township were annexed to form Lacey Township in , and Ocean Township was formed from parts of northeastern Union Township in . Union Township’s piece of Long Beach Island also broke away, part becoming Harvey Cedars in  and the rest Long Beach Township in . By the dawn of the twentieth century, railroads and other factors reduced Barnegat Village’s importance as a port, and its attraction to tourists waned. The village returned to

56

Barnegat Bay

its earlier economic roots. Today, many residents continue to look to fishing and marine trades for their livelihoods. In  rapidly growing Union Township became Barnegat Township. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hughes, Kevin. Barnegat: Life by the Bay. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Miller, Pauline. Ocean County in Four Centuries. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . New Jersey Historic Sites Inventory—Ocean County: Union Township/Barnegat Township. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Out of the Past: A Pictorial History of Barnegat, New Jersey. Barnegat: Barnegat Historical Society, .

Scott D. Peters

Barnegat Bay.

The largest body of water wholly within the limits of the state of New Jersey, Barnegat Bay runs from Point Pleasant southward along the entire inner side of the Squan Peninsula and halfway down Long Beach Island to the Bay Bridge between Manahawkin and Ship Bottom, where it meets the tidal currents of Little Egg Harbor. It is twenty-seven miles long, and from one to four miles wide. The bay is fed by the Metedeconk River, Kettle Creek, Cedar Creek, Oyster Creek, Forked River, Toms River, and Gunning River. In earlier years when its only connection to the ocean was at Barnegat Inlet, its upper end was very nearly fresh water. In , however, the newly completed two-mile Point Pleasant Canal joined the bay with the Manasquan River estuary, and its currents and salinity have greatly increased since then. Barnegat Bay is a part of the Intracoastal Waterway, and is one of the most popular areas in the state for recreational boating, fishing, and crabbing. There are several sizable wildlife sanctuaries on Barnegat Bay, but much of the former open marshland along both sides is now extensively developed, with vacation and year-round homes on artificial lagoons.

the inlet’s entrance were so dangerous to shipping in foul weather that a lighthouse was built there in . It was replaced in  by the present -foot tower, which has not been lit since the s but remains in a state park as the island’s most enduring symbol. In  a vacation community called Barnegat City was established at the base of the lighthouse with two large hotels and a score of fine cottages, many of which survive in the town’s historic district. Around  many Norwegian and Swedish immigrants began to settle in the area, and they soon built up a thriving fishing industry. Barnegat City was so often confused with the village of Barnegat on the mainland that its citizens voted in  to change its name to Barnegat Light. The  population of  was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Barnegat Lighthouse. Barnegat Lighthouse is located on the northern tip of Long Beach Island in the town of Barnegat Light. Construction of the present lighthouse began in ; it was completed in . Equipped with a first-order flashing Fresnel lens, it flashed once every ten seconds at each point of the compass. The lens was removed in  when the Barnegat Lightship took up station off Barnegat Inlet. The lens was returned to the town of Barnegat Light and is on exhibit in the Barnegat Light Historical Museum. The lighthouse is owned by the state of New Jersey and is now part of Barnegat Lighthouse State Park.

Blanchard, Peter B. The Century Plan: A Study of One Hundred Conservation Sites in the Barnegat Bay Watershed. New York and Morristown: Trust for Public Land; New Jersey Field Office, . Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, . ——— . Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History of Long Beach Island, New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Barnegat Light.

.-square-mile borough on Barnegat Inlet at the north end of Long Beach Island in Ocean County. The name Barnegat is derived from an English cartographer’s misspelling of the Dutch Barendegat, “inlet with breakers,’’ given to the dangerous inlet by its discoverers in . The shoals at

Barnegat Lighthouse, built c. .

Courtesy Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, Toms River.

Gately, Bill. Sentinels of the Shore: A Guide to the Lighthouses and Lightships of New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Holland, Francis Ross. America’s Lighthouses: Their Illustrated History since . Brattleboro, VT: Stephen Green Press, . Veasey, David. Guarding New Jersey’s Shore. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

See also lighthouses

Kim M. Ruth

barns. Described as more important in “situation, size, convenience, and good finishing’’ to a farmer than “his dwelling,’’ barns were vitally important to New Jersey settlers from the time the Dutch first began arriving in the area. In the agricultural period that followed there were three eras with much overlap, during which time barn types changed. The first was an early economy that included bartering and trading goods and selling surpluses in the market. The second era saw diversified commercial family farming, with the sale of farm products, including livestock, to urban areas. The final stage was truck farming, which saw the raising of mostly fruits and vegetables. Throughout the earliest period the main barn types were the vernacular Dutch New World barn, the English-type barn, and the two-story Pennsylvania barn. Dutch and English barns were made of local indigenous hardwood, Pennsylvania barns of stone and brick. Dutch barns were used to store a variety of grain crops in the large hayloft. The barn itself tended to be wider than long, with a threshing floor in the middle and a bay on either side. The bays were usually at ground level where hay would be placed to house the animals. Wagon doors were situated at both gable ends of the barn, with Dutch doors on either side allowing people access to the animals. Steep and sloping, the roofs allowed rain and snow to fall off easily. The barns faced south to avoid harsh weather. The Dutch barns were located wherever Dutch culture agriculture established itself, which was primarily along the Hackensack, Millstone, Raritan, Passaic, and Hudson rivers and their tributaries. The English barn was found throughout the Jerseys. The basic English barn had three bays—two side bays, one to house livestock, the other to store grain, and a threshing floor, with the wagon doors on the long sides of the barn. The dimensions of most English barns were sixty feet in length by thirty feet in width. The center portion was used for threshing. One of the keys to the English barn in North America was the swing beam that allowed for a large storage area for fodder in the loft. The Pennsylvania barn was built in New Jersey’s southern Piedmont throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. It was a two-floor banked barn that allowed wagons access to both levels. Animals were kept on the first level. The second level contained the threshing floor and storage space for grain. It also had a floor bay extending over the

Barton, Clara

Old Dutch-type barn, Blackwells Mills, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

animal yard. Some Pennsylvania-style barns in the nineteenth century eliminated the floor bay and did not build into land banks, instead constructing an earthen ramp to the second floor. Around the time of the Civil War, English and Dutch barns started to hybridize and blend as newer barn technology, mass production techniques, specialized farming, and a changeover to truck and dairy farming led to the universal, modern barn with which we are familiar today. By the end of the nineteenth century barns became uniform in style, with metal sides, gable roofs, and occasionally silos; the form has continued to the present. Andersby, Eric, Alexander Greenwood, and David Franklin. Barn: The Art of a Working Building. New York: Houghton Mifflin, . Fitchens, John. The New World Dutch Barn. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, . Noble, Allen G., and Richard K. Cleek. The Old Barn Book: A Field Guide to North American Barns and Other Farm Structures. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Robert Cohen

barrier islands. The barrier islands protecting most of New Jersey’s -mile coastline are land masses risen from sandbars and shaped over several thousand years by the action of wind, storm surges, and currents. In the natural state their seaward sides are a wall of dunes stabilized by the root systems of grasses and other vegetation. Between every barrier island and the mainland lie bays and lagoons of varying sizes edged with salt marshes and mudflats. Tides and ocean currents form evershifting new sandbars offshore and in the inlets, occasionally causing a barrier island to join the mainland and become a peninsula, like Sandy Hook or Island Beach. Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, .

———. Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; SandPaper, . Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. A Geography of New Jersey: The City in the Garden. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also coast; geography

John Bailey Lloyd

Barrington.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Incorporated out of Centre Township on April , , Barrington is one of a number of towns of single-family homes that developed along White Horse Pike after the parallel Philadelphia and Atlantic City railways became operational in . The original station name was Dentdale. One of the developers named the new community Barrington after his hometown of Great Barrington, Massachusetts. The population more than doubled after World War II, when homes were built on the remaining farms. The Edmund Scientific Company, an internationally known supplier of optical instruments, is located here. The Barrington Band, organized in , first participated in the Philadelphia Mummers Parade in  and is still going strong. For a few years in the s Barrington had its own airport, where some returning servicemen learned to fly, supported by the GI Bill. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

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as a schoolteacher. In , to further her education, she enrolled in the Liberal Institute in Clinton, New York, and a year later, visiting a school friend in Hightstown, she resumed her teaching career in New Jersey. In  she moved to a school in Bordentown. Because she disliked a system in which she had to bill students at the end of each term for her salary, she began a campaign to establish a free public school supported by the town. A popular teacher, Barton’s project enjoyed townwide support, and the school board built a larger school to accommodate the growing numbers of enthusiastic students eager for free education. Barton was disappointed, however, when the town insisted on hiring a male principal and then paid him a salary much higher than her own. She was also not pleased to be called his “female assistant.’’ In  she found better-paid employment as a government clerk in Washington, D.C., but faced harassment from male colleagues. These early experiences of discrimination led Barton, a friend of Susan B. Anthony, to support the woman suffrage movement and other feminist causes. Her efforts to aid a contingent of Massachusetts soldiers quartered in the capital on the eve of the Civil War led to a personal drive to collect food and medicine for the Union Army. By  she was running supply lines to the Army of the Potomac throughout the battlefields of Virginia and Maryland. Transporting supplies and nursing the wounded, Barton often worked under fire and assisted at such bloody battles as Antietam and Fredericksburg. From  to , she gave public lectures about her experiences and became a popular speaker. On a trip to Europe for her health, she learned about the International Committee of the Red Cross, a relief organization that carried out the new Geneva Convention’s mandate

History of Barrington. Barrington: Barrington Historical Society, .

William R. Farr

Barton, Clara

(b. Dec. , ; d. Apr.

, ). Teacher, nurse, philanthropist, and

founder of American Red Cross. Clarissa Harlowe Barton was born in North Oxford, Massachusetts, the youngest child of a farming family. At age eighteen, she began a career

Matthew Brady, Clara Barton, c. . Albumen print,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy American National Red Cross and the National Archives and Records Administration.

basalt

58

for the humane treatment of wounded soldiers and prisoners. Impressed with Red Cross efforts during the Franco-Prussian War, Barton returned to America and, almost singlehandedly, convinced Congress to ratify the Geneva Convention. By  she had established an American Association of the Red Cross in Washington, D.C. As president of the Red Cross throughout the s and s, Barton personally directed relief efforts in both international and national arenas, introducing the practice of assisting natural disaster victims as well as those of war. During the Spanish-American War, the Red Cross was criticized for disorganization and financial mismanagement and Barton’s leadership was questioned. Under pressure from President Theodore Roosevelt and her own board of directors, she reluctantly resigned in . Bitterly estranged from the Red Cross, Barton spent her later years living in Glen Echo, Maryland, where she continued philanthropic work and wrote her memoirs. ANB. Barton, Clara. The Story of My Childhood. Meriden, CT: Journal Publishing Company, . Oates, Stephen. A Woman of Valor: Clara Barton and the Civil War. New York: Free Press, . Pryor, Elizabeth Brown. Clara Barton: Professional Angel. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also nursing

Margaret M. Sumner

basalt.

Basalt is a very common volcanic rock composed largely of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Three layers of basalt exposed as parallel ridges across northern New Jersey (the Watchung Mountains) are known as the Orange Mountain, Preakness, and Hook Mountain Formations in order of their relative age. Each of the three formations consists of multiple flows that extruded out of rifts that opened during the initial Jurassic stages of the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. The flows are part of a major continental flood basalt event that covered large portions of eastern North America and northwest Africa about  million years ago before they were separated. The individual flows in New Jersey are unusually thick (up to  feet). See also minerals

John H. Puffer

baseball. Baseball as it is played today throughout the world began on June , , at the Elysian Fields in Hoboken. That day, Alexander Cartwright’s Knickerbockers and the New York Nine crossed the Hudson River to play the first game under new rules devised by Cartwright. Persistent tales that Abner Doubleday “invented’’ the game at Cooperstown, New York, are patently false. Several forms of organized baseball had been played since colonial times: a  book

The Knickerbocker Nine Baseball Club, .

Courtesy National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, NY.

published in London had a segment devoted to “Baseball.’’ Several varieties of the game were being played in the early s. The June  game in Hoboken clarified the game and codified the rules. Most of those  rules persist, such as the diamond-shaped field, the ninety-foot distance between the bases, nine-man teams with each player assigned to a definite spot on the field, formal lineups, innings of three outs each, outs made by throwing out or touching out offensive players, and the pitcher’s box placed within the diamond. The pitcher was only forty-five feet from the batter, however; that distance was increased to the present sixty feet, six inches, in . In an era when nearly all men worked as many as twelve hours a day, the Knickerbockers played every Tuesday and Thursday afternoon. They believed themselves socially superior and felt only “aristocrats’’ would ever play the game. Despite this attitude, the Knickerbockers sent out a complete description of their game rules to anyone who inquired. By Civil War time, more than  teams played baseball in New Jersey as seniors, juniors, or “muffets’’ (the forerunner of Little Leagues). By  many teams began paying players to perform before crowds of up to five thousand. Three members of the renowned Cincinnati Red Stockings, who barnstormed across the country in  (winning fifty-nine straight games), were from New Jersey. Each received eight hundred dollars for the season. The College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) emerged as New Jersey’s strongest team after three Brooklyn players enrolled in , bringing their own bats and balls to the campus. In a show of strength, the Princeton college nine defeated three strong Brooklyn teams in a four-game swing through the area that was then the heart of baseball. No other team had ever accomplished that feat. The two finest early New Jersey professionals were Mike “King’’ Kelly of Paterson and

Billy “Sliding Billy’’ Hamilton of Newark. Kelly’s prowess made him the first player to earn five thousand dollars in a season. His basestealing style prompted a song in his honor, “Slide, Kelly, Slide.’’ Hamilton, also flashy on the bases, stole  bases in his career (a mark that stood until ) and had a lifetime batting average of ., eighth highest in major league history. Two of the first African American players in high-level professional baseball were George Stovey, pitcher, and Fleetwood “Fleet’’ Walker, catcher. Both played in the s with the Newark team in the old International League. Stovey won thirty games in  and thirty-two games a year later. Walker went on to play for Toledo, a major professional team. Nearly every community in New Jersey had a team by . Most games were played on Saturday afternoons because of the long work week of most people. Companies in urban areas hired the best players to represent the firms on the field. Particularly strong were the Newark Westinghouse nine, the Doherty Silk Sox of Paterson, and the Michelin Tire Company team in Millville. New Jersey had only one major league baseball team, the Newark Peps of the shortlived Federal League. The Peps actually played in Harrison under the Newark name. Their wooden stadium, seating thirty thousand people, was built in seventeen days in . The Federal League existed for only one year, and when it died in , the Peps died as well. New Jersey baseball historians believe the finest teams ever to play in New Jersey were the Newark Bears of the s. In  Jacob Ruppert, a New York beer baron and owner of the New York Yankees, bought the team and began sending fine prospects to Newark. The  team won  games and lost only . Most of the players went on to major league stardom. The  team initially showed little promise, but it caught fire and won  games,

Basie, William “Count’’ losing only  in the regular season. Twentyeight of the thirty-three players on the roster became major leaguers. College baseball began with the College of New Jersey team in the early s, and, before the end of the nineteenth century, nearly every college or university had a team. High school baseball in New Jersey began in the late s but did not become popular until about , when the state had approximately a hundred secondary schools. Nearly every high school had a fully equipped team by . The high point for New Jersey baseball came in the s, during a time of stifling economic depression and well before Little Leagues began. Sandlot teams, self-organized and self-governed, played everywhere—often as many as a hundred games in a season for an exceptional team. Most towns were members of adult “twilight’’ leagues, with games being played between six p.m. and the onset of darkness. Working men with high skills played in highly competitive weekend semipro leagues. During World War II several young New Jersey women ventured to the Chicago area to play in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League. The game was, in reality, fastpitch softball, but intense competition for jobs promoted hard play, which made the games exciting and often inflicted severe injuries. Title IX of the Education Amendments of  opened the way for full female participation in fast-paced softball. Trenton State College (now The College of New Jersey) was arguably the nation’s finest college fast-pitch softball team during the s and s. The same can be said at the high-school level for Whippany Park, whose softball teams had a seventy-six-game winning streak from  to . Its star, Toni Forunato, pitched  innings in three years, struck out  batters, pitched no-hitters, and won eighty games while losing only one. For most players today, baseball consists of Little League—now open to both girls and boys—possibly high school or college play, and rarely a big league tryout. Baseball is no longer the great American game, at least in comparison with the s, when it was a way of life. But the recent revival of minor league baseball in the new stadiums around the state demonstrates that interest in the game remains very much alive. DiClerico, James, and Barry Pavelec. The Jersey Game. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also sports

Camden Riversharks, Atlantic League, Campbell’s Field, Camden Lakewood Blue Claws, South Atlantic League, Class-A affiliate of Philadelphia Phillies, First Energy Park, Lakewood Newark Bears, Atlantic League, Bears and Eagles Stadium, Newark New Jersey Cardinals, New York–Penn League, Class-A affiliate of St. Louis Cardinals, Skylands Park, Frankfort Township New Jersey Jackals, Northern League, Yogi Berra Stadium, Little Falls Somerset Patriots, Atlantic League, Commerce Bank Ballpark, Bridgewater Trenton Thunder, Eastern League, Class-AA affiliate of New York Yankees, Mercer County Waterfront Park, Trenton

John T. Cunningham

BASF.

In , Frederick Englehorn of Mannheim, Germany, founded a company to manufacture dyes from coal tar; his company specialized in indigo. Reestablished in  as Badische Anilin und Soda Fabrik, AG, BASF became one of the three largest German chemical companies. Later, as part of a cartel under ´riel I. G. Farben, BASF manufactured war mate for the German Reich during World War II, which resulted in the destruction of  percent of its buildings by the Allies. Restructured following the war, BASF became the world’s fourth-largest chemical company. BASF’s products include mineral oil, natural gas, plastics, intermediaries for synthetic fibers, nitrogen compounds, and dyes. Although BASF’s plan to launch operations in the United States was thwarted initially by protests in the s, BASF started numerous joint ventures with U.S. companies during the s. Then in , the International Trade Zone in Mount Olive became the headquarters of North American operations for BASF AG, with over , employees. BASF also manufactures agricultural products in West Windsor; polystyrene packaging in South Brunswick; auto paints and coatings in Belvidere; plastics in Washington, Warren County; and pharmaceuticals in Whippany. The company’s community efforts include donating land in Winslow Township to the New ¨ bbe Jersey Natural Lands Trust. Klaus Peter Lo now heads BASF Corporation, which is BASF AG’s NAFTA region representative. See also chemical industry

Deborah S. Greenhut John T. Cunningham

Basie, William “Count’’ Minor League Baseball Teams in New Jersey In  New Jersey had eight professional minor league baseball teams, more than at any earlier time. Several are affiliated with major league teams. Atlantic City Surf, Atlantic League, Sandcastle Park, Atlantic City

59

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Apr. , ). Jazz musician, composer,

and bandleader. Count Basie was one of the greatest bandleaders of the swing era, along with Duke Ellington and Benny Goodman. He developed a new approach to jazz piano. Basie and company revolutionized swing rhythm and the concept of the jazz rhythm section, laid the groundwork for the bebop and

Count Basie playing with his orchestra.

Courtesy Institute of Jazz Studies, Rutgers University, Newark.

cool schools of jazz, and established an enduring big band legacy. William Basie was born in Red Bank to Harvey Lee Basie and Lilly Ann Childs Basie, both originally from Chase City, Virginia. Harvey was a groundskeeper on several local estates and played the horn; Lilly did laundry and ironing for local gentry and played the piano well enough to accompany church services. As a youth Bill Basie studied piano, first with his mother, and later with Miss Vandervere, a German woman. He had a good ear, could easily pick out tunes, and set about to master ragtime. He did odd jobs at the Palace Theater in Red Bank, and once, when the regular piano accompanist for the silent films was sick, young Basie substituted for him and did well enough at the matinee to be invited back for the evening program. He later made his debut as a pianist/bandleader at the same theater as part of a vaudeville show. Basie’s first quartet included New Jerseyans Bill Robinson on violin, Sonny Greer on drums, and a Mr. Duffin on C-melody saxophone. In the summer of , Basie and Elmer Williams went to Asbury Park, where they intended to work as musicians in the resort town, but they found only sporadic employment. The next summer, they joined Harry Richardson’s Sunny Kings of Syncopation, house band at the Hong Kong Inn in Asbury Park, but Basie lost his job in midsummer to a more experienced pianist. In the fall of , the two moved to Harlem where they joined a vaudeville act, Katie Krippen and Her Kiddies, led by Lou Henry, and toured for more than a year. From  to , Basie assimilated the Harlem stride piano styles of James P. Johnson (b. New Brunswick), Willie “the Lion’’ Smith, Luckey Roberts, and Beetle Henderson, but it was Thomas “Fats’’ Waller who befriended and mentored him. He toured with another

60

Basilone, John

vaudeville show and was stranded in Kansas City (). There he accompanied silent movies, then played with Walter Page’s Blue Devils (), and eventually joined Benny Moten’s Kansas City Orchestra (), the best of the “territorial bands.’’ After Moten died in , Basie organized the nine-piece “Barons of Rhythm’’ with Lester Young and Jo Jones. A lengthy engagement followed at the Reno Club. A  radio broadcast attracted the attention of John Hammond, leading to a recording contract with Decca. The band expanded to fifteen pieces, traveled to New York City via Chicago, and established itself as the Count Basie Orchestra. By  it was one of the preeminent big bands. Recordings such as “Doggin’ Around’’ and “Jumpin’ at the Woodside’’ () and “Taxi War Dance’’ and “Lester Leaps In’’() are considered jazz masterpieces. Southwestern jazz was hot, hard driving, and danceable, built around the rhythm section, and Basie’s was the best in jazz, featuring Basie on piano, Walter Page on bass, Freddie Green on guitar, and Jo Jones on drums. The swing was driving yet relaxed and light. The original Basie Band used “head arrangements’’ and “riffs’’ and featured great soloists, including the incomparable Lester Young. Blues was its mainstay, and the great blues singers Jimmy Rushing and Joe Williams sang and recorded with Basie, as did Billie Holiday. Basie simplified and abstracted swing. The band’s style was a KC streamlining of Fletcher Henderson’s approach. Basie’s rhythm section clarified the roles of the instruments. The piano no longer doubled the bass; its crisp, sparse punctuation left space for Page’s bass, which “walked’’ in four even beats per measure, legato, leading the rhythm section. Green’s guitar chorded in swinging quarter notes that glided horizontally, instead of pounding vertically: “They put wheels on all four beats of the bar.’’ The focus of Jones’s drumming was the light hi-hat—a supple coordination of foot and stick, not the heavy bass drum on every beat. Recordings made between  and  are considered the most genuine. After leading a combo in –, Basie returned as a big band leader in  with great success. Tours of Europe, beginning in , numerous awards, and top standings in popularity polls followed. The post- band depended less on soloists and more on writers able to capture the Basie legacy in swinging charts. Basie led the band when his health permitted until the early s, although after his  heart attack, he was not always able to perform. He died of cancer at age seventynine. Thad Jones and Frank Foster led the band following his death.

Kliment, Bud. Count Basie: Bandleader and Composer. New York: Chelsea House, .

Basie, William, and Albert Murray. Good Morning Blues: The Autobiography of Count Basie. New York: DaCapo Press, .

Sgt. John Basilone, USMC, on the cover of Collier’s magazine, June , .

Dance, Stanley. The World of Count Basie. New York: DaCapo Press, .

Williams, Martin. The Jazz Tradition. d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also jazz

Roger H. Wesby

Basilone, John

(b. Nov. , ; d. Feb.

, ). Soldier and Medal of Honor recipi-

ent. John Basilone was born in Buffalo, New York, but grew up in Raritan, New Jersey. He was one of ten children born to Salvatore and Dora Basilone. His father, a tailor, was born near Naples, Italy, and his mother was born in Raritan. In  John Basilone enlisted in the U.S. Marines and served in the Philippines until he was honorably discharged in . After spending some time in Raritan, he reenlisted in July . Because of his time in the Philippines, his friends in the service called him “Manila John.’’ On the night of October –, , Basilone was a gunnery sergeant serving on Guadalcanal in the First Battalion, Seventh Marine Regiment, First Marine Division. He was in charge of two heavy machine-gun sections that protected a small pass leading to Henderson Airfield. During a Japanese attack that knocked out one machine gun section, Basilone picked up a ninety-pound machine gun and tripod and ran two hundred yards to replace the lost gun. He then repaired and manned another machine gun, under tremendous fire, until reinforcements arrived. Later that night, his men were cut off from their supply lines and ran low on ammunition. Basilone fought his way through enemy lines to bring back enough ammunition to sustain his men until the attack was repelled. The next day thirty-eight dead Japanese soldiers were found around his gun emplacement.

For his actions at Guadalcanal, Basilone was awarded the Medal of Honor in a ceremony held in Balcombe, Australia, on May , . He was sent to the United States to head a bond drive, which raised $. million. In  thirty thousand people attended a rally held in his honor at the Doris Duke estate near Raritan. Despite the praise and publicity he received for his heroism, he refused promotion to officer rank and stateside postings, insisting, “I’m a plain soldier. I want to stay one.’’ After the bond tour, he said he was beginning to feel like a “museum piece’’ and wanted to return to the fighting in the Pacific. Before his return to combat late in , he married Marine Sgt. Lena Riggi. On February , , Basilone landed with the marine forces on the first day of the Battle of Iwo Jima. He single-handedly destroyed a Japanese blockhouse. A few minutes later, a mortar shell exploded and killed him and four other marines. Basilone was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and the Purple Heart. He was the only enlisted marine to receive the Medal of Honor, the Navy Cross, and the Purple Heart in World War II. His body was reburied in Arlington National Cemetery. The USS Basilone, a U.S. Navy destroyer launched in , was named after him. His hometown of Raritan remembers him with a bronze statue, which shows him carrying his machine gun on Guadalcanal, and annually holds a John Basilone Day Parade. Lang, George, Raymond L. Collins, and Gerard F. White, comps. Medal of Honor Recipients – .  vols. New York: Facts on File, . Smith, S. E., comp. The United States Marine Corps in World War II. New York: Random House, . Wheeler, Richard. A Special Valor: The U. S. Marines and the Pacific War. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also World War II

David A. Norris

basketball.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

From pickup games in city playgrounds and suburban driveways to formal play in elementary-school-throughcollege gymnasiums to big bucks in the big time, basketball is as much a part of New Jersey as the Shore. Although the first professional basketball game was played in Trenton in , the state had a shaky beginning at the pro level. The New Jersey Nets, who started out as the New Jersey Americans in the nowdefunct American Basketball Association, lasted one year (–) in the state before heading to New York, where they were renamed the Nets. They returned to New Jersey in –, however, and have been in the state ever since. They made their first appearance in the National Basketball Association championships in , advancing to the finals before losing to the Los Angeles Lakers. Prominent individuals have made their mark on New Jersey basketball. The state’s best-known hoopster may be former United States Senator Bill Bradley, who played for

Batsto Princeton University and then the New York Knicks. Bradley is now in the Sports Hall of Fame of New Jersey. The state’s association with the pros does not end there. NBA Commissioner David Stern is a  graduate of Rutgers University. College basketball is governed by the National Collegiate Athletic Association, which holds tournaments for men and women in March of every year. The Rutgers University men’s team advanced to the NCAA Final Four in the – season, and the women’s team advanced to the NCAA Final Four in March of . Rutgers made history in  when Theresa Grentz was named the first fulltime women’s basketball coach in the country. Seton Hall University in South Orange has been a perennial men’s powerhouse in the NCAA tournament, particularly while P. J. Carlesimo was its coach. Seton Hall has made seven trips to the tournament. In  the team advanced to the championship game, where it lost to the University of Michigan in overtime. Carlesimo went on to become head coach of the Golden State Warriors and the Portland Trail Blazers. He is not Seton Hall’s winningest coach, though. John “Honey’’ Russell won  games in eighteen years (– and –). In  he guided Seton Hall to the championship at the National Invitational Tournament. At the high school level, the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association sets the tone. Since  Saint Anthony’s in Jersey City has left its mark, winning twenty-two titles. In , with twenty-one state championships, Saint Anthony’s was second in the nation, trailing a Wyoming school that had won twenty-four. Saint Anthony’s enjoyed its best years under the tutelage of Bob Hurley, who is also in the Sports Hall of Fame of New Jersey. His son, Bobby Hurley, played for Duke University, then went on to the pros (–), spending most of his career with the Sacramento Kings. The NJSIAA added the girls’ tournament in , and the perennial favorite there has been Saint John Vianney, Holmdel, which has achieved eight championships. See also sports

Dona M. Amici

Basking Ridge.

A village of Bernards township in the northwest corner of Somerset County. The first settlers were Scots-Irish and arrived about . The earliest use of the name Basking Ridge—originally written Baskinridge—was in  in the records of the only Presbyterian church at the time. According to legend, the name originated with the early settlers who noticed “the wild animals of the adjacent lowlands were accustomed to bask in the warm sun of this beautiful ridge.’’ William Alexander, Lord Stirling, who served a general in the Continental Army, built a palatial home in Basking Ridge in . There was much activity in and near the village during the American Revolution, and Maj.

Gen. Charles Lee was arrested by the British there in December . The Basking Ridge Classical School educated young men as part of the Brick Academy who then entered the College of New Jersey, as Princeton University was then known. Brick Academy graduates included U.S. senators Theodore Frelinghuysen and William L. Dayton, and Samuel L. Southard, who served as governor of New Jersey in  and . The school contributed many “more men to the bench, the bar, and the pulpit.’’ During the Civil War, uniforms and mess wagon axles were made in Basking Ridge. Development occurred with the arrival of the railroad in ; a century later, Routes  and  fostered a population increase. Today Basking Ridge is primarily a residential community. The Brick Academy. Basking Ridge: Basking Ridge Historical Society, . Historical Booklet of Bernards Township. Basking Ridge: Bicentennial reprint, Historical Booklet Committee, . Inside Bernards Township. Basking Ridge: League of Women Voters of Bernards Area, .

June O. Kennedy

Basse, Jeremiah

(b. date unknown;

west of the town. Major waterways within the township include the Bass, Wading, and Oswego rivers. The township was founded in  from a division of Little Egg Harbor Township and an acquisition of land from neighboring Washington Township. The township’s principal community is the bayside hamlet of New Gretna along Route  and the Garden State Parkway. New Gretna’s halcyon days date back to the s, when it was a prime port for fishing, oystering, and clam harvesting. Today, New Gretna is primarily known for the construction of boats, especially the luxury craft built by the Viking Yacht Company. The New Gretna House, an inn dating back to , is still standing and awaits restoration. Most of the township’s remaining area consists of the Bass River State Forest. Cranberry and blueberry growing are the other main industries in the township. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

d. ).

Colonial governor. Jeremiah Basse served as proprietary governor of East and West Jersey from April  to November . Although many are critical of his short administration, he was instrumental in solving a major problem that had plagued the colony since its inception—interference from New York with the right of the Jerseys to free ports. Trade was the key to wealth, and so after an impassioned plea to the East Jersey Assembly, Basse brought a test case with his ship the Hester. The New York royal governor, Lord Bellomont, seized the Hester and its cargo, whereupon Basse charged him with theft. Bellomont was prosecuted in a criminal court in London. The court found for Basse in , and in April , with the surrender of the proprietary charters, Queen Anne granted free ports to the colony. Ricord, Frederick W., and William Nelson, eds. Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New Jersey. Vol. , Journal of the Governor and Council, , –. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Claribel F. Young

Bass River. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. First settled in the seventeenth century by English immigrants, Bass River is deep within the Pine Barrens, which cover the majority of its acreage. Its primary boundaries are the Great Bay on the east, along with the Mullica River on the south; the latter forms the border between Atlantic and Burlington counties. Woodland and Washington Township lie to the north and

61

Jim Donnelly

bats. Nine species of bats can be found in New Jersey, six of them as year-round residents. The most common are the big brown and little brown bats; others include the northern long-eared bat, small-footed myotis, Eastern pipistrelle, and the endangered Indiana bat. The hoary, red, and silver-haired bats migrate south in winter. Bats in New Jersey feed exclusively on insects and roost in the darkness of structures such as attics, barns, and bridges. During winter, colonies of bats hibernate by the thousands in caves and abandoned mines. The Hibernia mine in Rockaway is considered one of the most vital bat habitats in the eastern United States; as many as thirty thousand bats have been counted there. Jon Blackwell

Batsto.

Batsto Village, located in Wharton State Forest, is the site of a former bog-iron and glassmaking industrial center. Founded in , Batsto’s ironworks provided munitions and other iron products for George Washington’s Continental Army. William Richards and his descendants owned and operated Batsto from  to . During this time, Batsto was noted for its pig iron, castiron water pipe, firebacks, and window glass. In  Joseph Wharton, a Philadelphia industrialist, purchased Batsto and invested heavily in the village’s agricultural and commercial aspects, cultivating cranberries, raising livestock, and rebuilding the sawmill. The state of New Jersey acquired Batsto along with the Wharton tract in –. Today, Batsto

62

Battleship New Jersey vated and used for shore bombardment during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. The ship played a similar role off the coast of Lebanon during –. The USS New Jersey was decommissioned in . Nine years later, the ship was moved to the Camden waterfront, and opened to the public as a floating museum. Stillwell, Paul. Battleship New Jersey: An Illustrated History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, .

See also museums

Donald E. Bender

Bay Head.

Exterior of the mansion at Batsto Village, located in Wharton State Forest.

Photo: Vic Yepello. Courtesy The Star-Ledger. reflects Wharton’s late nineteenth-century “gentleman’s farm.’’ Pierce, Arthur D. Iron in the Pines. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Yates, W. Ross. Joseph Wharton: Quaker Industrial Pioneer. Bethlehem: Lehigh University Press, .

See also iron industry

Beverly A. Weaver

Battleship New Jersey.

The USS New Jersey (BB-) was one of four Iowa-class battleships constructed during World War II, the others being the Missouri, the Iowa, and the Wisconsin. With the exception of the Japanese Yamato and Musashi, these were the largest

battleships ever built. Construction of the New Jersey commenced at the Philadelphia Navy Yard during September , and the ship was commissioned in May . The New Jersey measured  feet in length and had a beam of  feet. The ,-ton ship was capable of a maximum speed of  knots. Its main battery of nine -inch guns could fire ,-pound projectiles as far as twenty-three miles. During World War II the New Jersey was active in the Pacific theater, where it served as the flagship of Admirals Raymond Spruance and William Halsey and participated in the amphibious assaults of the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. The New Jersey was reacti-

.-square-mile borough in Ocean County. This land at the head of the Barnegat Bay, between the Atlantic Ocean and Metedeconk River, was originally inhabited by Lenape Indians; in the seventeenth century farmers and fishermen from New England settled there. Bay Head was initially part of Shrewsbury Township, Monmouth County, but was annexed by Ocean County when it was established in . In  a group of Princeton bankers founded the Bay Head Land Company to build homes along the dunes, and in  Bay Head was incorporated. The borough flourished in the late nineteenth century as large hotels were constructed and boatbuilding developed as an industry. Bay Head gained an international reputation for the high-quality boats its boatyards produced. When Bay Head became a stop along the New York and Long Branch train line in , summer visitors flocked to the borough for bathing and boating. With its grand homes along the beach, the borough retains its Victorian flavor and reputation as a summer resort. In , its total population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Christine Lutz

Bayley, James Roosevelt ; d. Oct. , ).

Battleship New Jersey.

Courtesy Battleship New Jersey Foundation.

(b. Aug. ,

Roman Catholic bishop and founder of Seton Hall University. James Roosevelt Bayley was born in Manhattan to a prominent New York physician, Guy Carleton Bayley, and Grace Roosevelt, a member of a venerable Dutch family. Raised an Episcopalian, Bayley entered Amherst College in  but stayed only two years, graduating instead from Washington (now Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, in . He determined to study for the Episcopalian ministry and was ordained in October . Within a year, however, he had resigned from the ministry, convinced that Christian truth lay with the Roman Catholic Church. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church in April . Bayley’s conversion and subsequent ordination to the Catholic priesthood (in March ) alienated his family. He rose rapidly

Bayonne Naval Base

Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley.

Courtesy Seton Hall University Archives and Special Collections, West Orange. within his new communion, however, and served as a professor of rhetoric and vice president of Saint John’s College (later Fordham University); a pastor on Staten Island; secretary to Bishop Hughes of New York; and editor of the Freeman’s Journal. In  when the Diocese of Newark was created—covering the whole of New Jersey—Bayley was named its first bishop. Bayley’s bishopric came at a time of exceptional challenges and exceptional growth. He ministered during a severe recession and, of course, the Civil War. Bayley’s achievements, however, matched his challenges. In nineteen years he expanded the diocese from  to  churches, built dozens of schools, and established a seminary and college, Seton Hall, which he named in honor of his aunt, Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton (later canonized the first U.S.-born saint). In July , Bayley was named archbishop of Baltimore and served there until his death. Dougherty, John J., ed. The Bishops of Newark, – . South Orange: Seton Hall University Press, . Yeager, Hildegarde. The Life of James Roosevelt Bayley, First Bishop of Newark and Eighth Archbishop of Baltimore, –. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America, .

See also Roman Catholic Church; Seton Hall University

Dermot Quinn

Bayonne. .-square-mile city in Hudson County. Bayonne’s earliest settlement dates back to , when the Dutch West India Company granted Jacob J. Roy, a constable (or chief gunner), a patent for land located in New York Harbor on the peninsula surrounded by Newark Bay, New York Bay, and Kill van Kull. It became known as Constable Hook, or

“gunner’s point.’’ It developed slowly during British colonial rule as a trading post called Bergen Neck, the southernmost tip of the township of Bergen in Bergen County. Residents prospered in oystering and shad fishing. During the Revolutionary War, British forces secured Bergen Neck Fort, renaming it Fort Delancey. In  the peninsula’s four villages of Salterville (Pamrapo), Centreville, Constable Hook, and Bergen Point became part of newly formed Hudson County. Mansions with docks and boathouses graced the shoreline, and tourists vacationed at the La Tourette Hotel. In  the villages united as the township of Bayonne. The name was derived from the Bayonia real estate venture “on the bays,’’ halted due to the Civil War. It appears to have no connection with Bayonne, France. Having outgrown township governance, the City of Bayonne was incorporated on March , . During the Civil War the railroad brought dramatic changes to Bayonne. The Central Railroad of New Jersey connected Bayonne northward to the Jersey City Railroad Terminal and southward to Elizabeth via a drawbridge over Newark Bay. In  the Jersey Central Railroad built the Port Johnston Coal Docks at Constable Hook. John D. Rockefeller bought the Prentice Oil Refining Company in  to establish the Standard Oil Company. Soon an extensive pipeline connected several petroleum oil refineries at Constable Hook with outof-state oil fields. Tide Water Oil Company, Texaco, Humble Oil, Gulf Refining Company, and other industries took hold of the once rural community, now called the “Peninsula of Industry.’’ Heavy immigration from southern and central Europe followed and transformed Bayonne into a working-class community of diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Industrialization and location made Bayonne a war-production center during World War II. The Bayonne Naval Base outfitted warships and shipped supplies to U.S. overseas bases. Companies such as Babcock and Wilcox, General Cable, ELCO Boat Works, and Maidenform participated in the war effort. The refineries supplied vital petroleum products to service war equipment. In  the Military Ocean Terminal, a significant military and cargo facility, succeeded the naval base. It closed in September , except for the Coast Guard operations. Containerport operations and service industries form the base of the city’s economy today. The community is a mix of predominantly one-family and two-family homes, with scattered small apartment buildings. The First Federated Church, the city’s oldest congregation, started in , is on the National and State Registers of Historic Places. The Bayonne Bridge, completed in , is the city’s signature structure. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail Transit System, opened in April , connects Bayonne with other communities in Hudson and Bergen counties.

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In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Robinson, Walter F. Bayonne Centennial Historical Revue, –. Bayonne: Progress Printing, . Sinclair, Gladys Mellor. Bayonne Old and New: The City of Diversified Industry. New York: Maranatha Publishers, . Whitcomb, Royden Page. First History of Bayonne, N.J. Bayonne: R. P. Whitcomb, .

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

Bayonne Bridge. A steel arch vehicular bridge connects Bayonne to the Port Richmond section of Staten Island, New York. The Bayonne Bridge was designed by the Swissborn engineer Othmar H. Ammann for the Port of New York Authority and was dedicated on November , . The arch spans , feet over the Kill van Kull, which connects Upper New York Bay to Newark Bay. This busy waterway is part of the main shipping channel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Hackensack and Passaic rivers and the inland ports of Newark and Elizabeth. The bridge has a midspan clearance of  feet to allow unobstructed navigation for tall oceangoing vessels. Chief engineer Ammann used a high-strength manganese alloy for the main arch ribs and rivets—the first use of this alloy in bridge construction. The bridge received the Annual Award of Merit as the “Most Beautiful Steel Bridge, Class A’’ from the American Institute of Steel Construction in . Dana, Allston. “Design and Erection: Kill van Kull Bridge.’’ Proceedings ASCE [American Society of Civil Engineers]  (): –. Moisseiff, Leon S. “Design, Material, and Erection of the Kill van Kull (Bayonne) Bridge.’’ Journal of the Franklin Institute  (): –. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Rastorfer, Darl. Six Bridges: The Legacy of Othmar H. Ammann. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also bridges

P. Gerard Nowicki

Bayonne Naval Base.

The Bayonne Naval Base in New York Harbor developed from a joint project between the city of Bayonne and Central District, Inc., in  for a maritime terminal at Constable Hook, the east side of Bayonne’s peninsula. The result was a filled-in island, connected with the peninsula by a narrow causeway, and the dredging of a wider navigable channel in the harbor. Although the project failed financially in , it gained the attention of the U.S. Navy, which wanted to use the site to complement shipbuilding at the nearby Brooklyn Navy Yard. In early , due to mounting concerns over the war in Europe, the Third Naval District chose the terminal for its Atlantic coast location because of its railway connections,

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Bayshore Discovery Project

appropriate water depth, berthing space for warships, and potential for expansion. The navy took possession of the “made-land’’ acre site, and it was commissioned as the U.S. Naval Supply Depot on June , . During World War II, the naval base became the world’s largest dry dock and played a significant role in the nation’s global defense program. Expansion of the base involved the construction of twenty storehouses and a repair yard for damaged ships on  acres. As the northeastern distribution center for the navy, it supported the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and outfitted six to thirteen ships daily. Service personnel and war materials were transported to North Africa, England, the Caribbean, and stateside training stations. After V-E Day,  percent of its shipment of provisions went to the Pacific and the Seventh Fleet. The base became Bayonne’s largest employer, with , civilian personnel in various defense operations. Its presence also encouraged home-front activities such as a Navy Mothers Club, USO, and a successful war-bond fund drive in the city. After World War II, the Naval Supply Operational Center opened at the naval base to provide supplies for the Military Sea Transportation Service of the navy. Operations again escalated during the Korean War; it shipped supplies from other installations and worked on the reactivation of ships of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, including the USS New Jersey, decommissioned there in . The navy upgraded the facility to a modernized Naval Supply Center in . Goldsborough Village, a nine-building complex, provided housing for military personnel. Another overhaul of the naval base included installation of an automated handling system for supplies, the Uniform Automatic Data Processing System, and Naval Supply Corps School. In  the U.S. Army took over the naval base, with a civilian staff of approximately twenty-five hundred, and renamed it the Military Ocean Terminal, Bayonne (MOTBY). It reported to the Eastern Area Military Traffic Management and Terminal Service. MOTBY’s initial mission was to ship goods to personnel at European military bases for the Department of Defense and to assume port operations after the closing of the Brooklyn Army Terminal. During the Vietnam War, it sent food and clothing to overseas American fleets, and it shipped equipment to the Middle East during Operation Desert Storm, –. The Defense Department closed MOTBY, except for the Coast Guard operation, in September , and the now -acre property reverted to the city of Bayonne for redevelopment.

The A. J. Meerwald, New Jersey’s official tall ship.

Courtesy Bayshore Discovery Project, Port Norris.

Bayshore Discovery Project.

Established in  as the Delaware Bay Schooner Project, this nonprofit organization promulgates conservation of the environment and the history and culture of New Jersey’s Bayshore region. Located on the Delaware Bay, the project uses the A. J. Meerwald, designated New Jersey’s official tall ship in , as a floating classroom to educate visitors. It sails from April to November, allowing the public to experience navigation on New Jersey’s waters. This  schooner, made of New Jersey cedar and pine, is a restored relic from the area’s once-booming oyster industry. In  the

organization was renamed the Bayshore Discovery Project.

Sharon Hazard

Bayway refinery.

Officially known as Tosco Bayway Refining Company, this complex, now owned by Phillips Petroleum Company, was built by Standard Oil in . The jungle of pipe, towers, stacks, columns, and catwalks, situated improbably on both sides of the New Jersey Turnpike in Linden, is staggering to behold. Nearly  miles of pipes snake around the ,-acre complex.

Frank, Al. “Bayonne’s Economic Hopes Stretch Out Along Terminal.’’ Star-Ledger, Apr. , . “Naval Supply Center Began as a Civic Dream to Develop East Shore; Government Took Legal Possession Just Prior to Outbreak of World War II.’’ Bayonne Times, June , .

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

The Bayway Refinery.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Bedle, Joseph Dorsett Bayway, one of six oil refineries in New Jersey, cranks out  million barrels—. billion gallons—of product a year. This is where the American petrochemical industry began, in the early s, with the refinery’s production of isopropyl alcohol. A staggering array of fuel and other products is made here, everything from gasoline—Bayway produces enough gasoline to supply half the state’s daily needs— to jet fuel (pumped directly to Newark, JFK, and La Guardia airports), diesel fuel, home heating oil, propane, and even chewing gum base. Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also oil refineries

and German immigrants from New York City. Developers catered to prospective buyers by providing a community clubhouse, pier, bathhouse, and even a place for temporary lodging while houses were under construction. Municipal status was approved and Beachwood was incorporated in  by a handful of voters. The population, only forty in , grew sharply in the s during the housing boom in Ocean County. To better serve the increased population, the original commission form of government was scrapped for a mayor-council system. In , the population of , was  percent white and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Peter Genovese

Beach Haven. .-square-mile borough on the southern end of Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Beach Haven was founded as a resort in  by a group of wealthy Philadelphia sportsmen who had hunted and fished the area for two decades. Among them were railroad men who sought to increase business for the new Tuckerton Railroad, which had been built on the mainland in . The sea air and the absence of plant pollen so relieved her symptoms of hay fever that the daughter of the railroad’s president, A. Pharo, suggested calling it Beach Heaven, but Pharo settled for Beach Haven. The resort grew rapidly after a railroad bridge across Manahawkin Bay was built to the island in . Beach Haven became an independent borough in . Known today as the “Queen City,’’ it is the largest community on the island, with a  estimated permanent population of , swelling to , in the summer. It has one amusement park and several motels and bar restaurants, but it is predominantly residential, with a sizable historic district of vintage Victorian cottages, a museum, a public library, a public grade school, and numerous bed-and-breakfast establishments. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Beachwood.

.-square-mile borough fronting the southern bank of the Toms River in Ocean County. Beachwood’s name derives from the fact that in the nineteenth century the beach was a dumping ground for charcoal, which had been hauled over a mulepowered wooden railway from burning pits in Lakehurst. Traces of charcoal were still evident many years later on the blackened sandy feet of bathers. Beachwood’s founding was unique: lots were given away in a  subscription drive by the New York Tribune, and a cluster of tents and summer cottages soon arose. Many of the people who came and eventually became permanent residents were Irish

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book.  ed. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

bear.

See black bear.

beaver.

Castor canadensis, often referred to as nature’s engineer, is North America’s largest rodent. Adults range in weight from thirty to over seventy pounds and can live for twenty years. Their thick fur varies from brownish black to yellowish brown. Beavers were important to Native Americans for fur and food, and are of historical significance because the quest for their pelts by trappers resulted in the exploration of much of the North American continent. Beavers are vegetarians and eat one to two pounds of bark, leaves, twigs, grasses, sedge, or roots each day. They stockpile caches of branches for food during the winter months. Beavers live in family groups or colonies, consisting of two adults and their young of the current and preceding years. Some build traditional lodges and others live in dens dug under stream banks. Beaver lodges, dams and associated ponds, fallen trees, and other signs of beaver habitation can be observed in many areas of the state, including undeveloped sections of Sussex County in northwestern New Jersey and Atlantic and lower Burlington Counties in the Pinelands region. Today, more than one thousand beavers occupy suitable habitat throughout New Jersey.

Whitacker, John O., and William J. Hamilton, Jr. Mammals of the Eastern United States. d ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

David Burke

Beck, Henry Charlton

(b. May ,

; d. Jan. , ). Author, journalist, and

folklorist. Henry Charlton Beck was born in Philadelphia, the son of Henry C. Beck, Sr. and Jennie Walsh Beck. The family moved to Haddonfield in , where Beck grew up and graduated from Haddonfield High School in

65

. While working at the Camden CourierPost in the s, he developed an interest in New Jersey legends and folklore. His first book on the subject was Forgotten Towns of Southern New Jersey, published in , and followed by several others on South Jersey and other parts of the state written during the next quartercentury. Most are still in print. Beck helped organize the New Jersey Folklore Society in . In  he was ordained a priest in the Episcopal Church. Brydon, Norman F. “Henry Charlton Beck: An Appreciation.’’ New Jersey History  (): – .

Edward Skipworth

Becton Dickinson and Company. Organized in New York City in  by salesman Maxwell Wilbur Becton and Fairleigh Stanton Dickinson, the company established a manufacturing facility for producing thermometers and hypodermic needles and syringes. It was incorporated in East Rutherford in . During World War I the firm produced all-glass syringes, a significant improvement over the metal ones of the day. It also developed the ACE (“all cotton elastic’’) brand bandage. Other innovative products included the first insulin syringe, the modern stethoscope, and disposable blood collection systems. After the founders died, the company continued to expand internationally. It broadened its product line with innovations in sterile disposable products and diagnostic medical equipment. It became a publicly held corporation in  and was first listed as a Fortune  company in . It moved into its present headquarters in Franklin Lakes in . Today, the company, known as BD, comprises three core businesses: BD Medical Systems, manufacturing syringes, surgical blades, and other medical devices; BD Clinical Laboratory Solutions, focusing on blood collection and diagnostic equipment for hospitals and laboratories; and BD Biosciences, a leader in manufacturing equipment for use in molecular and life science analysis. Caracio, Judyann R. Northern New Jersey—Gateway to the World Marketplace. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Robert D. Griffin

Bedle, Joseph Dorsett

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Governor and lawyer. Joseph

Bedle was born in Middletown Point (now Matawan), the son of Thomas Bedle, a merchant, justice of the peace, and judge of the Court of Common Pleas for Monmouth County, and Hannah Dorsett. After working two years in a general country store, the younger Bedle studied for about one and a half years in the Trenton law office of William L. Dayton, a former U.S. senator and, in , the first Republican vice presidential candidate.

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Following one winter at the law school in Ballston Spa, New York, and another in a Poughkeepsie law office, Bedle was admitted as an attorney and counselor in New York State. Additional study with Henry S. Little, who was to become a member of the Democratic “State House Ring,’’ was followed by admission to the New Jersey bar in . During the next two years Bedle practiced law in Middletown Point; he moved to Freehold in  and became a counselor in . Five years later he married Althea F. Randolph, the niece of Democratic governor Theodore F. Randolph (–). In , at the age of thirty-four, Bedle became the second youngest justice in the state supreme court’s history, and Gov. Joel Parker appointed him to the largest circuit (Hudson, Bergen, Passaic). Shortly thereafter, Bedle moved his residence to Jersey City, next to that of Leon Abbett, who later served two terms as Democratic governor (–; –). Before the end of Bedle’s term as justice (), the State House Ring planned to nominate him for governor, but Abbett persuaded Parker to run (successfully) for a second nonconsecutive term. In  Bedle was reappointed to the bench. The  Democratic convention unanimously selected Bedle as its gubernatorial nominee to oppose Republican George A. Halsey of Newark. By then, Bedle’s charges to the grand jury in Hudson’s Court of Oyer and Terminer had led to the indictment and conviction in his courtroom of the Republican ring controlling Jersey City. He was elected by the second greatest state majority until that time. Bedle’s vigorous attacks on special legislation and his plans for economy and home rule marked his inaugural address of . Ratification of the state’s constitutional amendment in November  restricted special laws. The percentage of enactments that were special laws fell from  percent during Parker’s term to only  percent during Bedle’s administration. The total enactments declined from , laws under Parker to  under Bedle. Not until  would fewer statutes be enacted during a single session () than during Bedle’s last year in office (). Attention to the railroads was notable in Bedle’s administration. In January  he complained that “the revenue received by the State from Railroad Companies is not near as large as it should be.’’ But during the great  railroad strike he called up all companies of the state’s National Guard to protect the trains and the new crews of two railroads. After his term ended, Bedle served as legal counsel for the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad and became a director of many large corporations. He declined judgeships (three times) and presidential nominations as minister to Russia and Austria. During the last year of his life he served on the state’s constitutional commission of .

Applegate, John Stilwell. Early Courts and Lawyers of Monmouth County. [New York]: L. Middleditch, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Harris I. Effross

Bedminster.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Formed in  by royal charter from the Northern Precinct and incorporated on February , , Bedminster was settled by Dutch, German, and ScotsIrish in about  and named after a village in England. It remained exclusively agricultural until the s, when the railroad reached Peapack, bringing a flood of wealthy Manhattanites who built their palatial homes amid the beauty of the Somerset Hills. Pottersville, named after Searing Potter, owner of the mills to which the place owed its existence, Lamington, Burnt Mill, Greater Cross Roads, Lesser Cross Roads (now Bedminster), and Pluckemin are the township’s villages. Pluckemin, probably named after a town in Scotland, was the site of the Continental Army’s artillery park during the winter of –. British captain William Leslie, son of a Scottish earl, wounded at the  Battle of Princeton, is buried in the Presbyterian Church’s graveyard. Nearby is The Hills, a prodigious development of nearly four thousand townhouses and condominiums at the foot of the Watchung Mountains. Rolling hills, large estates, horse farms (the U.S. Equestrian Center is here), and substantial single-family dwellings mark the township. The  population of , was  percent white. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Schleicher, William A., and Amanda R. Schleicher. Bedminster. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Alan A. Siegel

Beemerville. bees.

See Wantage.

Bees, flying insects of the superfamily Apoidae, which includes wasps, feed on nectar and pollen from flowers, and live in solitary nests or in societies that share the same nest. Hundreds of bee species are found in New Jersey, the most notable being the large hairy bee known as the bumblebee. The honeybee, the official state insect, is an introduced species brought by early settlers in the seventeenth century to produce honey. Honeybees are also the most important pollinators of plants. In  there were one thousand beekeepers who kept ten thousand bee colonies in New Jersey. The value of

crops pollinated by bees exceeds $ million. Honeybees are subject to infection by various disease pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Other parasites and predators will also attack honeybees; in recent years, two parasitic mites, the tracheal mite and the Varroa mite, have killed a large number of bee colonies across North America, including many in New Jersey. Graham, Joe M., ed. The Hive and Honey Bee. Rev. ed. Hamilton, IL: Dadant and Sons, .

Medhat Nasr

Beirne, Joseph A.

(b. Feb. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Telephone worker and labor

leader. Joseph Beirne was born in Jersey City to Michael and Annie Beirne. He became a utility worker at Western Electric Company in Jersey City before finishing high school, and in  he married Anne Mary Abahaze with whom he raised three children. In time Beirne climbed to the leadership of the National Federation of Telephone Workers, a coalition of independent unions in the telephone industry. After the weak organization was defeated in a  strike against AT&T that brought federal intervention, Beirne was prominent in the federation’s reorganization as the Communications Workers of America (CWA), which affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in . Beirne was elected the first president of the CWA, an office he occupied for twentyseven years. The leader of the rapidly growing CWA maintained a high public profile. He was active in the liberal wing of the Democratic party and wrote books envisioning labor’s place in an automated environment that protected workers’ interests. At the same time, he led his union in two more dramatic strikes against AT&T, in  and , which led to improved wage packages for workers. In June  Beirne retired, having welded America’s telephone workers into one of the nation’s strongest labor unions. Barbash, Jack. Unions and Telephones: The Story of the Communications Workers of America. New York: Harper, . Beirne, Joseph A. Challenge to Labor: New Roles for American Trade Unions. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall, . Brooks, Thomas R. Communications Workers of America: The Story of A Union. New York: Mason/ Charter, .

See also labor movement

Clayton Sinyai

Belarusians.

Belarusians first immigrated in large numbers to New Jersey in the nineteenth century and settled in cities such as Jersey City, Hoboken, and Passaic and farming communities such as Vineland. Although there is no accurate information— most Belarusians were entered into census rolls as “Russian’’—it is estimated that more than , New Jerseyans are of Belarusian descent.

Belleville Life in New Jersey for the early Belarusian immigrants centered around their church and social clubs, such as the Russian National Society of Mutual Aid. A second wave of Belarusians, many of them professionals, took up residence in New Jersey after World War II. The Belarusian-Community Center, located in South Fork, serves the Belarusian population, as do churches affiliated with the Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.

ANB.

Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

Belcher Mosaic Glass Company.

See also ethnicity

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Belcher, Jonathan

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Colonial governor. Born into

a wealthy and politically important family in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Jonathan Belcher graduated from Harvard in  and married Mary Partridge (d. ), the daughter of New Hampshire’s lieutenant governor, in . He traveled back and forth to London for thirty years and in  was appointed governor of New Hampshire and Massachusetts. Belcher, unable to handle the liberty-loving colonists, retired in . While in England he became friendly with a group of Quakers, who, in , supported his appointment to succeed Lewis Morris as governor of New Jersey. In September  he arrived in Burlington, where he soon married Mrs. Louise Teale, a London widow. A Puritan New Englander, Belcher thought New Jersey lacked religion and culture. A friend of Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, he supported the Great Awakening and the creation of a college in New Jersey. Wrangling between local Quakers and Anglicans put the latter project in suspension until “New Light’’ Presbyterians, unhappy with the religious orientation of the “Old Light’’ Yale College, held a lottery to raise funds. Belcher offered his own collection of  books and some portraits to start the library, and the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) was formed. The new school wanted to name its building after Belcher, but he declined and suggested instead that it be named after the royal house of Nassau. As governor, Belcher confronted riots in Newark and the Elizabeth area over land tenure questions that interfered with the court system. The incidents did not sit well with the board of trade. In addition, from  to  the colonial legislature balked at appropriating funds. By  the French and Indian War loomed, and New Jersey was asked to assist in blocking French fortification of Lake Erie. There was later talk of buttressing the Delaware River with a series of forts. Belcher was caught between the East Jersey proprietors and local landowners, the council and assembly. In the end he was unable to satisfy the contending factions. War brought additional disagreements, and his health declined until his death of palsy in .

Batinski, Michael. Jonathan Belcher, Colonial Governor. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, . DAB. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Charles Belcher had begun making ornamental window glass in Newark by . On August , , Henry F. Belcher (whether a son or a brother is not known) received a patent on a new technique to make stained-glass windows, which he called “metallo mosaics.’’ The mosaic process involved sandwiching pieces of colored glass between two layers of asbestos and then pouring a molten lead alloy into the sandwich. The result was a distinctive kind of window consisting of thousands of small, triangular pieces of glass. The business, which had been located in Newark, disappeared after . See also glassmaking

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Belcher-Ogden

Mansion. This eighteenth-century house in Elizabeth is named for two New Jersey governors who lived there. The  smaller kitchen section was the home of John Ogden, one of Elizabethtown’s original settlers. Jonathan Belcher (–), royal governor of the colony from  to , moved into the house in  and lived there until his death. He enlarged it with a two-and-a-half-story, five-bay section built of brick laid in Flemish checker bond and decorated in high Georgian style. Although frustrated by provincial politics, Belcher was

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instrumental in the establishment of the College of New Jersey, later known as Princeton University. The house was occupied in  by Gov. Aaron Ogden, a Federalist party leader and a litigant in the landmark  Supreme Court case Gibbons v. Ogden, which asserted the power of the federal government over the states in regulating commerce. In  the Elizabethtown Historical Foundation purchased the mansion, which it operates as a museum. See also historic sites

Marlene Craig

Bell Atlantic. Belle Mead.

See Verizon.

See Montgomery.

Belleville.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. Originally the Second River section of Newark, Belleville was settled by the Dutch in the mid-seventeenth century and was the scene of a Revolutionary War skirmish in . It was part of Bloomfield from  to . The first steam engine in America was built in Belleville for John Stevens in . The Soho Copper Rolling Mill was an important early industry, as was the quarrying of brownstone. One of the first Chinese communities on the East Coast was established there to work in the Passaic Steam Laundry. Theodore Weld ´ sisters also lived in Belleville and the Grimke for a time, making it an abolitionist headquarters. Since , the section of Branch Brook Park bordering the Second River has been famous for its cherry blossoms, and a cherry blossom festival is held annually. Industries currently operating in Belleville include water purification systems, pharmaceuticals, and adhesives and polyurethanes. A cancer research facility recently opened. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent

Bennets Mills, Belleville.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

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Bellewood Park

black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Augustine J. Curley

Bellewood Park.

Owned by the Lehigh Valley Railroad, Bellewood Park was an amusement park that operated from  to  near the village of Pattenburg. It was built to promote passenger travel on a primarily coalhauling rail line that ran from Jersey City to Allentown, Pennsylvania. The beautiful rolling hills of Hunterdon County provided an ideal setting for numerous park attractions like the steam-driven roller coaster, beer garden, and dining and dancing pavilions. Diverse groups and individuals from as far as New York enjoyed the facilities. Some locals, unhappy with the drinking and dancing, increasingly pressured officials to curtail park activities. This pressure, coupled with changing socioeconomic conditions, contributed to the park’s closing in .

Mary Anne Adams

Bell Labs. Bell Telephone Laboratories has long been regarded as one of the preeminent industrial research laboratories in the world. American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) formed Bell Labs in  from what had been the Engineering Department of the Western Electric Company, an AT&T subsidiary. Although it was based in New York until the early s, Bell Labs had several facilities in New Jersey almost from the first, including radio research stations in Whippany and Holmdel. From Whippany came the first experimental television broadcast in the United States (). In Holmdel, scientist Karl Jansky invented a new discipline, radio astronomy (). Bell Labs opened its first large New Jersey facility in November , when  scientists, engineers, and support personnel moved into a new research campus in the Murray Hill section of New Providence. Most of the work done there over the next few years was war-related, but immediately after , Murray Hill became the center of Bell Labs’ work in solidstate physics and electronics. The most prominent of many achievements was the invention of the transistor in December  by Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley. Most of the development work that turned the transistor from a laboratory curiosity to the fundamental device of modern technology took place in Murray Hill, as did symposia in  and  in which Bell Labs shared the invention with other interested companies. Other ideas that came from research at Murray Hill included the laser, communications satellites, and solar cells. AT&T enlarged Murray Hill several times. By  the campus housed , employees, and was both the headquarters of Bell Labs and the largest industrial research center in the United States. Besides the fundamental

research that brought it fame, Murray Hill housed development efforts—from customer dialing of long-distance calls to improved transmission techniques to touch-tone service—that kept the U.S. telephone system the best in the world. Bell Labs undertook a wide range of government research projects throughout the cold war, including communications systems for early-warning antimissile systems and the development of advanced radar and missile tracking systems. Much of this work took place at expanded facilities in Whippany. Some work begun for the military, such as the development of computer modems in , later had wide civilian use. In , Bell Labs opened a new major facility in Holmdel. By the s Holmdel housed over six thousand employees largely dedicated to research on telephone switching systems. Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson invented the Unix computer operating system, the underlying language of the Internet, at Holmdel. With the breakup of the Bell System monopoly in , Bell Labs became officially AT&T Bell Laboratories and gradually focused its efforts on providing the technological innovations needed to keep AT&T at the forefront of the now competitive telecommunications equipment and long-distance industries. And with the spin-off of AT&T’s manufacturing businesses such as Lucent Technologies in , Bell Labs itself split into a new AT&T Labs, based in Middletown and Florham Park, and the research and development arm of Lucent, which retained the Bell Labs name. Bernstein, Jeremy. Three Degrees above Zero: Bell Labs in the Information Age. New York: Scribner’s, . Fagan, M. D., et al., ed. A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System.  vols. Murray Hill: AT&T Laboratories, –. Mabon, Prescott C. Mission Communications: The Story of Bell Laboratories. Murray Hill: Bell Laboratories, .

See also AT&T Corporation; Lucent Technologies; transistor

Sheldon Hochheiser

Bellmawr.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Incorporated in , Bellmawr was once part of Union Township and then Centre Township. The borough was originally part of a large estate that John Hugg established in the latter part of the seventeenth century near the intersection of Big and Little Timber creeks. “Guinea Town,’’ a black settlement, grew up here about , around the homes belonging to former slaves of the Hugg family, but it was largely abandoned after the Civil War. The name of Bellmawr, known as Heddings in the post–Civil War period, is associated with the Bell family, which owned a large portion of the Hugg estate and was famous for breeding Percherons, fine draught horses. In , Bellmawr Park, a village of five hundred units within the borough, was built by the federal government and based on the Camden

Plan, a program financed by the Federal Works Agency for union members working for the defense industry. Residents neither rented nor owned their homes but bought stock in the nonprofit mutual company that owned the project. Bellmawr is today in the heart of a major road network and houses a large industrial park within its borders. Privately owned Bellmawr Lake, opened in , is still a popular attraction. In  the total population of the predominantly residential community was ,. Ninety-three percent of the population was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hodges, Delores. “History and Government of Bellmawr.’’ N.d. Camden County Pamphlet File. Camden County Library, Voorhees. Leap, William W. The History of Runnemede, New Jersey, –. Runnemede: Borough of Runnemede, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

Gail Greenberg

Bellows, George Wesley

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Jan. , ).

Painter. George Bellows was born in Columbus, Ohio, to George and Anna Smith Bellows. He attended Ohio State University where he fostered his interest in art by illustrating the university yearbook. In  Bellows left OSU to study at the New York School of Art. On September , , he married Emma Louise Story of Montclair, New Jersey. The couple had two daughters. Bellows was associated with the Ashcan school. His paintings depict modern urban scenes in the American realist style. He made several study trips to New Jersey, which resulted in large-scale paintings, including three works depicting polo matches in Lakewood. Doezema, Marianne. George Bellows and Urban America. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Quick, Michael, et al. Paintings of George Bellows. Fort Worth, TX: Amon Carter Museum; New York: Harry N. Abrams, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Bell Telephone. Belmar.

See AT&T Corporation.

Borough in Monmouth County, consisting of . square miles of land and . square miles of water. Originally visited by Lenape Indians and first settled by Europeans around , Belmar lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Shark River. In its early days the area was occupied mainly by farmers and fishermen. In  a group of businessmen from New York and Philadelphia, who felt that Ocean Grove was getting too crowded, organized the Ocean Beach Association and incorporated on March , . The new resort, called Ocean Beach, was divided into desirable building lots

Benedictines

George Wesley Bellows, Polo at Lakewood, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Columbus Museum of Art, Ohio. Columbus Art Association Purchase.

that quickly sold for summer cottages and hotels. In , after a bitter debate, the name was officially changed to Belmar. There were several additions of land, most notably in , , and . Previously part of Wall Township, Belmar first incorporated with independent borough in  and reincorporated in . During the twentieth century, Belmar gradually developed as a year-round residential community but continues to lure thousands of summer visitors. The many attractions include beaches, a boardwalk, Silver Lake, and the Belmar Marina. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income

in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Schnitzspahn, Karen L. Belmar. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . ———, and Sandra G. Epstein. Belmar. Vol. . Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Belvidere. .-square-mile town and seat of Warren County government. Located where Pequest Creek meets the Delaware River, Belvidere was the site of Fort Reading, part of a line of defensive fortifications used during the French and Indian War. Maj. Robert Hoops, who supplied the Continental Army during the American Revolution, later planned a

69

village north of the Pequest. The property to the south, named Belvidere for the beautiful view, was first owned by Robert Morris, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and then Garret Wall, a state senator. Wall deeded parcels for public use, including a square that became a park. Belvidere was separated from Oxford Township and incorporated in . Early in the nineteenth century the town’s location made it a center for transportation and manufacturing as the Pequest provided waterpower for sawmills and gristmills; in the twentieth century the Pequest became the source of electric power for other uses. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the Delaware River and several railroads connected Belvidere to markets in Trenton and Philadelphia. Lumber and flour mills were later replaced by woodworking and welding companies. As automobiles displaced trains, the town became largely residential. Today it is known for the Victorian architecture that has given it a place on the State and National Registers of Historic Places. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hicks, Roger. Life in Belvidere: A History of Belvidere, New Jersey, and the Belvidere Ambulance Corps. Belvidere: N.p., . Richards, Jay C. Penn, Patriots, and the Pequest. Belvidere: Great Northern Commercial Services, . Snell, James. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Benedictines

Bemmels, Cyrus W.

(b. ; d. ).

Inventor. Working for Permacel Tape, once a division of Johnson & Johnson, Cyrus Bemmels secured twelve patents relating to tape-making processes. His greatest achievement was discovering how to make maximumstrength tape by embedding parallel strands of filament in the tape’s adhesive, resulting in a product five to ten times stronger than conventional tape without being thicker or less flexible. Bemmels’s tape found ready acceptance in the packing industry. Bemmels’s reinforced strapping tapes at one time generated more revenue for Johnson & Johnson than any other product except the Band-Aid.

E. Richard McKinstry

Benedictines.

Flowerbed at Silver Lake, Belmar, .

Courtesy Karen L. Schnitzspahn.

A Roman Catholic religious order composed of independent monasteries of men or women, the Benedictines follow the Rule for Monks written by Benedict of Nursia, Italy (c. –c. ). Benedictines in New Jersey trace their history to Saint Mary’s Priory, founded in Newark in , when Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley asked Archabbot Boniface Wimmer of Saint Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, to take

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Benezet, Anthony

over the care of Saint Mary’s Parish. In  the community opened Saint Benedict’s College (now Saint Benedict’s Prep). The community was granted abbatial status in . In  it purchased the Luther Kountz estate (Delbarton) in Morristown and established a priory there. A boarding school for boys was opened on the site in . In  the title “Saint Mary’s Abbey’’ was transferred to the house in Morristown, and the community in Newark resumed the title “Saint Mary’s Priory.’’ In , the Newark community was given abbatial status and took the name “Newark Abbey.’’ A monastery for women was established on Shipman Street, near Saint Mary’s Priory, in . Sisters continued to reside in Newark until . A second monastery of women, founded in Elizabeth in , sponsored a secondary school for women, Benedictine Academy. The Ottilien branch of the Benedictines opened Little Flower Monastery (now Saint Paul’s Abbey) in Newton in , and the Sylvestrine branch opened Holy Face Monastery in Clifton in . Campbell, Stephanie. Chosen for Peace: The History of the Benedictine Sisters of Elizabeth, New Jersey. Paterson: Saint Anthony Guild Press, . McPadden, Malachy, ed. The Benedictines in Newark, –. Newark: Newark Abbey, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

Benezet, Anthony

(b. Jan. , ; d.

May , ). Quaker educator and reformer.

Benezet was born in San Quentin, in Picardy, France. His Huegenot parents, Jean Etienne Benezet and Judith de la Mejenelle, fled persecution after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and eventually settled in Philadelphia. Benezet joined the Society of Friends and spent most of his career teaching at the English Friends Public School, now known as William Penn’s Charter School. In  he married Joyce Marriott of Burlington, New Jersey. Much of his life was spent propagating Quakerism and working to free slaves. One of his more famous antislavery works, A Caution and Warning to Great Britain and Her Colonies on the Calamitous State of the Enslaved Negroes (), was written in Burlington during a brief hiatus from teaching. He became an important figure in a transatlantic antislavery movement and corresponded regularly with its leaders, including Wilbur Wilberforce, John Woolman, and Benjamin Rush. Brookes, George S. Friend Anthony Benezet. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Vaux, Roberts. Memoirs of the Life of Anthony Benezet. Philadelphia: James P. Parke, .

See also abolition; Quakers

John Fea

Benjamin Franklin Bridge.

Crossing the Delaware River between Camden and

Philadelphia, the Benjamin Franklin Bridge was engineered by Ralph Modjeski (engineer of the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge) and designed by the Philadelphia architect Paul Philippe Cret. With its ,-foot main span, the longest suspension bridge in the world when completed in  after four years of construction, it was originally named the Delaware River Bridge and charged a twenty-five-cent toll. Among its distinguishing features are its ornate anchorages (including the seals of Philadelphia, Camden, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey) and deep stiffening trusses above the main roadway deck. Modjeski chose lighter and cheaper steel, as opposed to concrete, for the two -foot towers. Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Plowden, David. Bridges: The Spans of North America. New York: Viking Press, . Steinman, David B., and Sara Ruth Watson. Bridges and Their Builders. New York: Putnam, .

See also bridges

Steven M. Richman

Morris “Moe’’ Berg at the Centennial of Baseball game in Cooperstown, New York, .

Courtesy Estate of Morris Berg.

Berg, Morris “Moe’’

(b. Mar. , ;

d. May , ). Major league baseball player,

lawyer, and OSS agent. Born in New York City, Moe Berg was the son of Ukrainian immigrants Bernard and Rose Tasker Berg. In  the family moved to Newark, where Bernard bought and operated a drugstore. Moe graduated from Barringer High School in Newark in , Princeton University in , and Columbia University Law School in . His baseball career began in  with the Brooklyn Dodgers and included stints with the Chicago White Sox, the Cleveland Indians, the Washington Senators, and, finally, the Boston Red Sox. Berg played his final game in . Berg joined the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) in . His foreign language skills and legal knowledge led to his recruitment for undercover work. His first assignment, in , was in Yugoslavia working behind Nazi lines. Later in the war he joined Project Larson, which required a second undercover operation in Europe to determine the progress of German scientists’attempts to build an atomic weapon. After the war he returned to a civilian career as a lawyer, but worked occasionally for the CIA, the OSS’s successor organization, in the s. Moe Berg never married and spent the final years of his life at his sister Ethel’s home in Newark. Andryszewski, Tricia. The Amazing Life of Moe Berg: Catcher, Scholar, Spy. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, . Dawidoff, Nicholas. The Catcher Was a Spy: The Mysterious Life of Moe Berg. New York: Pantheon, . Kaufman, Louis. Moe Berg: Athlete, Scholar, Spy. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Edward T. Skipworth

Bergel case. In the spring of  a young German instructor named Lienhard Bergel claimed he was fired from his position at the New Jersey College for Women (later Douglass College) for opposing the pro-Nazi views of his department chairman, Friedrich Hauptmann. Bergel’s account of the events, which portrayed Hauptmann as a surrogate for Adolf Hitler, generated enormous press coverage. In response, Rutgers University President Robert A. Clothier appointed a committee of five trustees to look into the controversy. After one of the longest investigations in academic history—involving twenty-one sessions,  witnesses, and more than a million words of testimony—the trustees issued a final report that debunked Bergel’s charge of political bias and upheld his dismissal. The matter quickly faded from public view. The case resurfaced dramatically in , owing largely to the efforts of Alan Silver, a Rutgers alumnus who had been one of Bergel’s key student supporters fifty years before. Silver insisted it was time to “exonerate’’Bergel and “right a terrible wrong.’’ With remarkable persistence—and the editorial backing of the Home News, the region’s largest newspaper—he persuaded President Edward Bloustein to appoint a panel of Rutgers historians to review the Bergel case and publish its findings. No one was more surprised by this turnabout than Bergel himself, then eighty years old and living in retirement. “I’m an old man. I don’t need vindication,’’ he said. “It is Rutgers that needs vindication. They have dirty linen to air.’’ The panel interviewed the surviving participants, including Bergel, Silver, and retired members of the Rutgers faculty. It studied documents from the Federal Bureau of

Bergen County Investigation, U.S. Army Intelligence, and the Federal German Republic. The panel concluded that Hauptmann had disseminated pro-Nazi propaganda to his students, that he despised Bergel’s anti-Hitler views, and that his political bias played a role in the decision to terminate Bergel’s employment in . It added, however, that other factors, including budget cuts, declining enrollments, and Bergel’s status as the department’s junior member also worked against his retention. The panel then noted the unsavory behavior of Rutgers officials in the years following the trustees’ report of . They refused to write recommendations for Bergel, who desperately needed a job. They also concealed the fact that Hauptmann fled to Germany in , leaving behind a string of unpaid bills. Records show that Hauptmann joined the Nazi party a year later and worked as a minor functionary in Slovakia during World War II. Jailed and interrogated, but never prosecuted by the Allies, he died in Austria in . Bergel went on to a long teaching career at Queens College in New York City. He was struck and killed by an automobile in . Some of his supporters were disappointed that the panel’s report did not lead to a formal apology by Rutgers University. Others viewed the report as a judicious ending to an emotional and complicated case. Oshinsky, David M., Richard P. McCormick, and Daniel Horn. The Case of the Nazi Professor. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Report on the Bergel-Hauptmann Case. New Brunswick: Rutgers University, .

See also Rutgers, the State University

Bergen Community College.

This accredited, public two-year college, located in Paramus, offers associate degrees in arts, science, and applied science as well as oneyear certificate programs and general education courses. It was established by the Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders as the county’s first public two-year college on October , . Classes began in temporary buildings on the -acre site of the Orchard Hills Country Club in September . Construction of permanent facilities totaling , square feet began in  and was completed in . Student enrollment in  was ,. A second phase of construction added classrooms, a library, a theater arts laboratory, and a student center, and was finished in the fall of . See also higher education

Robert D. Griffin

Bergen

County. .-square-mile county located in the northeast corner of the state. Bergen County is bounded on the north by New York State, on the east by the Hudson River, on the south by Hudson County, and on the west by Essex and Passaic counties. It was originally part of the New Netherland colony. At the time of European contact, the area was inhabited by numerous small family groups of Lenape Indians, notably the Manatthans (Manhattans), Achkinkeshacky (Hackensacks), and Tappaan (Tappan). After failed attempts to settle at Achter Col (Bogota), Pavonia (lower Jersey

David M. Oshinsky

Bergen. New Jersey’s first municipality, now

BERGEN COUNTY

part of Jersey City, was established by the Dutch in . The village of Bergen was laid out in a square with eight-hundred-foot palisades, tall fences of pointed wooden stakes. The land inside the palisades was drawn up around two intersecting main streets (present-day Bergen Avenue and Academy Street), creating four quarters. Eight plots were then drawn out in each of the quarters. The village’s palisade lines are still visible on contemporary maps of Jersey City by locating Bergen Square and following the configuration created by Tuers Avenue, Newkirk Street, Van Reypen Street, and Vroom Street. New Jersey’s first church and first school were organized at Bergen in . The first local government, a Court of Inferior Justice, was established in . In  Jersey City consolidated a number of towns, including Bergen, to form its present-day boundaries.

Hackensack

Fiske, John. The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. Vol. . New York: Houghton Mifflin, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. New York: Viking, .

William J. La Rosa

0

15 miles

county seat

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City), and Vriessendael (Edgewater), Europeans made their first permanent settlement the village of Bergen (Jersey City) in , now in Hudson County. The first permanent settlement in present-day Bergen County was at New Barbado[e]s Neck (Lyndhurst) in . Other major settlements were at New Milford () and at the Indian villages of Acquackanonk (Passaic) (about ) and Hackensack (before ). Bergen County was established as one of four counties in New Jersey in , bounded by the Hudson and Hackensack rivers from the New York province line to Newark Bay. It was enlarged in  to include territories west to the Pequonnock and Passaic rivers, at which time Hackensack was made the county seat. European immigrants, predominantly Dutch with some English, French Huguenot, German, Scandinavian, and Polish families, practiced Dutch customs, worshiped in the Dutch Reformed Church, and spoke a unique Jersey Dutch dialect. They developed a distinctive style of Jersey Dutch architecture with south-facing homes constructed of well-dressed red sandstone, often with gambrel roofs and sweeping porch overhangs. Contested land titles and religious controversy dominated the period leading to the Revolutionary War. On the morning of November , , British forces under the command of Lord Cornwallis invaded New Jersey, landing at the base of the Palisades along the western shore of the Hudson River at Lower Closter Landing (Alpine) and marched on colonial forces at Fort Lee. Gen. George Washington led a retreat across the Hackensack River at New Bridge (Teaneck/River Edge/New Milford) and on to Newark the following day. Referred to as the Neutral Ground because of the divided loyalties of local inhabitants and the backand-forth control by both British and American forces, the county saw significant military action throughout the war. Major historic sites exist at New Bridge Landing (River Edge), the Hermitage (Ho-Ho-Kus), and Fort Lee, as well as at the Baylor Massacre site (River Vale). In the years following the Revolutionary War, the conservative Jersey Dutch citizenry largely returned to the prewar lifestyle. The county’s population grew slowly from , in , when the figure included , slaves (nearly  percent of the county’s total population) and  free blacks, to , in . The county seat, Hackensack, had , inhabitants and  dwellings in . Farm produce was transported to New York City via the Hackensack River, as well as by country roads and turnpikes. Railroads, introduced in , gradually replaced river transportation, especially after . In  Passaic County was formed from parts of Bergen and Essex counties, and in  Hudson County was likewise split off from Bergen County, causing a loss of nearly

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Bergen County Historical Society

, inhabitants within a three-year period. The large increases in immigration that occurred elsewhere in the region during much of the nineteenth century did not occur in Bergen County. As the Civil War approached, voters favored conservative issues and candidates and were sometimes viewed as proslavery, though many men served in the Union Army. Until the middle s, the county was divided into large townships well suited for governing its predominantly rural population. As railroads brought new industries and people into the county, the population began to soar. The newer communities grew resentful of having to support expensive schools, roads, and other needs of outlying regions in the large townships. In early  the legislature passed an act making it easier to establish new boroughs, and twenty-six new municipalities were formed the first year. The splitting up of townships continued until , when the number of municipalities reached seventy— fifty-six boroughs, three cities, two villages, and nine townships. With urban development came improved public services. Electric street lighting was introduced in Hackensack in ; water mains and a public water supply in Hackensack in ; telephones in ; electricity for homes in Englewood in ; hospitals in ; and electric trolleys in . Added services resulted in further population growth— from , to , between  and . New industries sprang up, including motion picture studios at Fort Lee and surrounding communities along the Palisades. Kuhnert’s Aerodrome in Teterboro promoted interest in aviation and associated businesses; innovations in water filtration and pumping, especially after the construction of reservoirs at Woodcliff Lake and Oradell in  and , respectively, spurred new growth and dramatic physical changes to the landscape. Camp Merritt was built on  acres of Bergenfield, Tenafly, Cresskill, and Dumont. It served from  until  as a debarkation and receiving post for more than one million U.S. military forces during and after World War I. Troops marched through local towns and down the Palisades to ferries waiting along the Hudson River that transported them to larger troopships in the harbor, or they traveled by train to the ferry terminal at Hoboken. Following the war, barracks and other buildings were dismantled and much of the building material was sold for reuse in residential housing throughout the area. The completion of the George Washington Bridge in  encouraged the growing use of automobiles for commuting to work and shopping. Growth in the county halted briefly during the Depression but sprang anew during the s as jobs and income increased from wartime industries such as Curtis Wright in Wood-Ridge and Bendix in Teterboro. Return-

ing veterans caused an even greater explosion of development, and by  Bergen County’s population was second only to Essex County’s in the state. Beginning in the mid-s, major shopping malls and commercial centers have contributed to the local economy as well as to congestion and sprawl. County government is operated by a county executive and a seven-member board of chosen freeholders responsible to the local population. In , Bergen was the largest and most densely populated county in the state. The population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be any race). Median household income in  was $,. Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Works Progress Administration. Bergen County Panorama. Hackensack: Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders, .

Robert D. Griffin

Bergen County Historical Society. Bergen County’s historical society was established on March , , in Hackensack for the purpose of collecting and preserving documents and data that relate to the county. One of its principal early activities was sponsoring and erecting monuments at significant historical sites, including the locations of the Revolutionary War Fort Lee and the World War I Camp Merritt in Cresskill. This tradition continues with the distinctive blue-andsilver cast-aluminum signs that grace more than  sites throughout the county. The society also sponsors a winter lecture series, colonial Christmas concerts, and a library and rare manuscript collection (at Felician College in Lodi). Its priceless collection of colonial Dutch artifacts is exhibited at its headquarters, the state-owned Zabriskie-Steuben House, at New Bridge Landing (now River Edge). See also historical societies; New Bridge

remains predominantly residential. The commercial hub, along Washington Avenue, has long been one of the most vibrant in Bergen County. Since  the ethnic diversification has accelerated and Bergenfield has become a fully integrated community. The  census showed a total population of ,, of which approximately  percent was white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Birkner, Michael J. A Country Place No More: The Transformation of Bergenfield, New Jersey, – . Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Leiby, Adrian C. The Huguenot Settlement of Schraalenburgh: A History of Bergenfield, New Jersey. Bergenfield: Bergenfield Public Library, .

Michael J. Birkner

Berkeley, Lord John

(b. ; d. ).

Lord Proprietor of New Jersey. Lord John Berkeley, baron of Straton, served as a commander during the English Civil War and, while in exile, became a confidant of young James, duke of York (later King James II). Upon the Restoration in , Berkeley was given a commission in the naval office, where he served with the duke, Carteret, and William Penn. Early in  he headed a royal commission whose objective was to recover England’s colonial dominance in North America from the Dutch. In June of , the duke of York drafted an “indenture of bargain and sale,’’ granting the lands between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Lord John Berkeley hoped to profit from the duke’s gift by encouraging colonial settlement; to

Robert D. Griffin

Bergenfield.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First settled by the Dutch and French Huguenots in the seventeenth century, Bergenfield remained a quiet farming village until the arrival of the railroad after the Civil War. As the village of Schraalenburgh, it originally encompassed present-day Dumont and Bergenfield. Bergenfield was incorporated as a borough in . Its proximity to New York City made steady growth and urbanization inevitable, with population surges during World War I, as nearby Camp Merritt sought skilled tradespeople to build and maintain its facilities, and after World War II. The community

Lord John Berkeley.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Berlin Township further this goal he and Carteret permitted a large degree of religious tolerance for potential settlers. However, a number of time-consuming political and legal squabbles foiled Berkeley’s success in the province, and in  he liquidated his share of the New Jersey proprietorship by selling what would later become West Jersey to Quaker John Fenwick (in trust for Edward Byllynge) for one thousand pounds. Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribners’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Kristen Block

hundred national and international students study at three Berkeley campuses in New Jersey (West Paterson/Little Falls, Paramus, and Woodbridge) and two in New York State (White Plains and Manhattan). Most students commute. Subject matter focuses on skills that are required in the business world. Berkeley students also prepare for their future careers through internships, and there is a placement program for graduates. Students can select from among ten majors, including traditional business competencies as well as fashion marketing, interior design, paralegal studies, and international business. See also higher education

Maureen Dillon

Berkeley.

.-square-mile township along Barnegat Bay in Ocean County. When Berkeley separated from Dover Township in , the township was named for Britain’s original East Jersey landowner, Lord John Berkeley. Originally, the chief pursuits of its citizens were fishing and farming. Today many people live in the township’s several adult communities. The main section of the township is Bayville, originally known as Potters Creek. Because of the abundance of trees, this area had sizable lumber operations, which supplied wood for homes and ships; the most famous was the Double Trouble Saw Mill. Early in the twentieth century, the seven-story Pinewald Hotel and golf course attracted many visitors, including the prizefighter Jack Dempsey, flamboyant New York mayor Jimmy Walker, and, reputedly, gangster Al Capone. A landmark sight in the Bayville meadows at Holly Park is the cluster of antennas that once represented a high-power radio transmission system. It was installed in the s to facilitate long-distance communication with overseas points and ships at sea. The system was deactivated in the s when space-based satellite operations were introduced. Suburban development spurred population growth in the s, from , to ,. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book.  ed. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

Berkeley College.

Established by Alyea Brick in East Orange in  to offer business education to women, Berkeley College has evolved and expanded in the intervening seventy-plus years. It is now a multicampus coeducational institution offering associate and bachelor’s degrees as well as professional certification. Approximately forty-five

Berkeley Heights.

.-square-mile township in Union County. Berkeley Heights, along the Passaic River in the Watchung Mountains, is possibly named for the English proprietor Lord John Berkeley. The highest point in Union County,  feet above sea level, is located here. The earliest inhabitants were the Lenape Indians. After the English founded Elizabethtown in , many towns, including New Providence Township (originally Turkey), branched out in the area. The township’s western section was Berkeley Heights, a rural community slowly settled by English, German, French, and later Italian immigrants. In , New Providence Borough was formed and separated from the township. In  New Providence Township was officially renamed the township of Berkeley Heights. In  the Bell Telephone System established a research center, Bell Laboratories, now Lucent Technologies, in the Murray Hill section. In  three Bell Labs scientists invented the transistor, which revolutionized the telecommunications world. During the s the Connell Company began developing a multitenanted office complex along Valley Road. Part of this property was previously occupied by Runnells Hospital, the county tuberculosis sanitarium. A new Runnells Specialized Hospital opened nearby in . After World War II the community experienced a building boom of single-family homes. By  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Desmond, Helen E., ed. From the Passaiack to the Wach Unks: A History of the Township of Berkeley Heights, New Jersey. Berkeley Heights: Historical Society of Berkeley Heights, . Troeger, Virginia B. Berkeley Heights. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Virginia Bergen Troeger

Berlin Borough.

.-square-mile borough in central Camden County. Berlin shares antecedents with Berlin Township, known for

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more than one hundred years as Long-AComing, probably from the Indian lonaconing, “where many paths or waters meet.’’ The Great Egg Harbor River, one of the important early transportation routes, runs through the borough. Farming, lumbering, and charcoal burning were major occupations. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and until the advent of the Atlantic City Expressway, the White Horse Pike, the borough’s main street, served as the major route between Atlantic City, Camden, and Philadelphia. The arrival of the Camden and Atlantic Railroad in  provided the area with its greatest population growth. In  arguments over appropriations for schools, street lighting, and road improvements ignited a separation movement from Berlin Township, led by Dr. Frank O. Stem, later the borough’s first mayor. The Berlin Canning Company, –; the Berlin Ink and Color Works, –; the Onlibest Hosiery Mill, established in ; and Baccelleri Brothers, manufacturers of fruit presses, established in , were early industries. Today the borough is home to dozens of small businesses, including sheet metal and machine shop works, printing and computer services, asphalt and concrete companies, and distributors of a variety of materials, such as industrial equipment, waste paper, and janitorial supplies, all with less than one million dollars in annual revenue. The residential community was about  percent white. The  population was ,. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Chalmers, Kathryn. Down the Long-A-Coming. Moorestown: News Chronicle, . Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Berlin

Township. .-square-mile township in central Camden County. Originally known as Long-A-Coming, probably from the Indian lonaconing, “where many paths or waters meet,’’ Berlin Township is situated on the major route from Absecon to Philadelphia and became an important stage stop. Farming, lumbering, and charcoal burning provided good livings. Taverns, inns, and a sugar mill contributed sources of employment. Berlin’s growth began after the Camden and Atlantic Railroad arrived in . A station was erected, and a real estate company sold lots at auction. In , the post office named the town Magnolia, but a new postmaster renamed it Berlin that same year. The reason for the choice of name is unknown. Berlin was the county seat during the early years of Camden County’s existence and was incorporated as a separate entity from Waterford Township in . Berlin Borough

Bernard, Francis

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broke off from it in , following a political dispute over funding. The township remains largely rural, although there is an extensive strip of commercial and retail development along its Route  corridor. The population in  was ,, approximately  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Chalmers, Kathryn. Down the Long-A-Coming. Moorestown: News Chronicle, . Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Bernard, Francis

(b. July , ; d. June

, ).

Colonial governor. The son of the Rev. Francis Bernard and Margery (Winslow) Bernard of Brightwell, Oxfordshire, England, Francis Bernard received a master’s degree from Christ Church in  and married Amelia Offley in . He was appointed governor of New Jersey in  and spent much of his energy trying to provide for his numerous children (at least twelve). Bernard arrived in the colony in the midst of the French and Indian War, at a point when an Indian raid had killed approximately two dozen colonists. He stepped up security and attended a peace conference at Easton, Pennsylvania, with Indian and British representatives. Bernard was the royal governor who took relations with the Indians most seriously. He was transferred to Massachusetts in , where he became caught up in the Stamp Act crisis and other disputes. Increasingly unpopular, he returned to England in . ANB. DAB. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey,  to : Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Bernards Township.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Settled circa  by the Scots-Irish, the township’s focus is Basking Ridge, so named when flocks of wild turkeys were observed sunning themselves. The Presbyterian Church at the head of Finley Avenue, the main shopping district, dates from about  but was rebuilt in . Under the six-hundred-year-old oak are buried thirty-five veterans of the Revolutionary War. Nearby is the Brick Academy, now a museum, built in  to house a school that prepared young men for Princeton. New Jersey governor Samuel Southard, U.S. senators William L. Dayton and Theodore Frelinghuysen, and Commodore Robert F. Stockton studied there. William Alexander, Lord Stirling of Revolutionary War fame, lived on

a splendid estate a mile from town (traces of which can be seen in Lord Stirling Park, Somerset County’s Environmental Center). Formed by royal charter as Bernardston Township in , the township was incorporated on February , . Predominantly single-family residential, with considerable office development (including the former world headquarters of AT&T, now Lucent Technology) within the last two decades, Bernards includes Stone House, Mine Brook, Lyons (location of the thirteenhundred-bed Veterans Affairs Medical Center), and Liberty Corner, settled . In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Bernardsville.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. First settled circa , the borough was known as Vealtown until , when it was renamed for Sir Francis Bernard, who had been the state’s royal governor from  to . A burst of activity in the s saw the construction of impressive stone commercial buildings—Van Dorn’s Mill in , now the centerpiece of the Franklin Corners Historic District in Bernards Township; Bunn’s Mill in , now the borough hall; and the Old Stone Hotel in , now a restaurant near Olcutt Square. When the railroad reached Bernardsville from Summit in , the quiet countryside was again transformed, this time by well-heeled Manhattanites who found it a perfect spot for their country estates. “Millionaires’ Mountain’’ was a world of palatial residences that by  was reputed to be the second-wealthiest enclave in the nation. In the village itself lived a substantial foreignborn population that provided the chambermaids, gardeners, horse trainers, and kennel masters for the rich. The borough, which broke from Bernards Township on April , , remains primarily residential today, with handsome estates, substantial homes, two country clubs, and a thriving business district clustered around Route . The population in  of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Berra, Lawrence Peter “Yogi’’ (b. May , ). Baseball player. A longtime Montclair resident, Yogi Berra was one of baseball’s greatest catchers as a member of the New York Yankees from the late s to the early s. His accomplishments are legendary: during his eighteen-year tenure with the Yankees, he was a fifteen-time All-Star, a fourteen-time pennant winner, a three-time American League Most Valuable Player selection, and a record-setting ten-time World Series champion. Berra went on to serve as manager of both the New York Mets and the Yankees, and he was the first man in more than forty years to win pennants in different leagues (Yankees in , Mets in ). Berra was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in , the same year the Yankees retired his number  jersey, and he is a member of Major League Baseball’s All-Century Team. He currently serves on the Hall of Fame Veterans Committee and has collaborated on several books. Berra has become celebrated for ´ ja ` vu all over wacky aphorisms, such as “It’s de again’’ and “Ninety percent of the game is half mental.’’ In  Berra received an honorary doctorate from Montclair State University, and two years later the school named a baseball stadium after him. The campus now houses the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center, open since December . See also baseball

Lisa M. Gillard Hanson

Bertholf, Guiliam

(b. ; d. c. ).

Reformed Dutch minister. Born in Sluis in the Dutch province of Zeeland, Guiliam Bertholf immigrated to New Jersey in , where he settled in Acquackanonk (Passaic), joined the Reformed Dutch Church at Bergen (Jersey City), and took up the trade of cooper or barrelmaker. In  he became voorleser (lay reader) and schoolmaster in Hackensack, performing the duties of voorleser also in Bergen, Acquackanonk, and elsewhere. His spiritual gifts were so remarkable that he was encouraged to return to the Netherlands for ordination. In  he was ordained by the Classis of Walcheren in Middelburg, Zeeland, and was subsequently assigned to Hackensack and Acquackanonk. Known to history as the “itinerating apostle of New Jersey,’’ he organized at least nine churches in New York and New Jersey and served in the pulpit of several of them over the course of his thirty-year ministry. Bertholf was a Pietist whose main influence was the Dutch preacher Jacobus Koelman. A pivotal figure in the religious history of New York and New Jersey, he bridged the theologies and religious culture of Reformation Europe

bicycling and the Great Awakening in America. In politics, he sided, as did many Pietists, with the Leislerians in Leisler’s Rebellion (–). ANB. Corwin, E. T., ed. Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York. Vol. .  vols. Albany: J. B. Lyon, – .

See also Dutch Reformed Church

Firth Haring Fabend

Bertrand Island.

Bertrand Island was a beloved amusement park on Lake Hopatcong in Mount Arlington. In , Newark schoolteacher Louis Kraus gambled that people would take the long trip to Lake Hopatcong, way off in northwestern New Jersey, for a summer vacation or a day at the beach. He bought a small triangle-shaped island named for former owner Charles Bertrand and began assembling a complex that would include a hotel, dance hall, beach, concessions, and amusements. Soon trolley service was available from as far away as Elizabeth, and Kraus’s family resort was booming. A waterside roller coaster, built in , cemented Bertrand Island’s reputation as one of the great state amusement parks, and even though it never had more than two dozen rides, the park thrived on mostly local business for the next half century. Kraus sold Bertrand Island to Lorenzo D’Agostino in  and his family ran it until , when competition from megaparks and soaring land values forced Ray D’Agostino to shut it down. It left at least two lasting memories: Woody Allen used it for scenes in his  film, The Purple Rose of Cairo, and in  New Jersey’s only Miss America, Bette Cooper, started out as Miss Bertrand Island.

David Hinckley

Bessemer Trust.

An asset management firm, Bessemer Trust was founded in  by Henry Phipps, an associate of Andrew Carnegie, to handle the proceeds of Phipps’s $ million share of the sale of Carnegie Steel. Phipps named the trust for the steelmaking process that created his wealth. Bessemer Trust for years handled the money of the Phippses and related families and first began taking nonfamily clients in . An overhaul of the company in the s resulted in impressive growth. The company requires a minimum investment of $ million. Bessemer Trust is a subsidiary of the Bessemer Group, which is headquartered in Woodbridge.

David A. Norris

Beth Israel Hospital. See Newark Beth Israel Medical Center.

Bethlehem.

.-square-mile township in northwestern Hunterdon County. Bethlehem may have been surveyed as early as . The first European pioneers were Dutch,

followed by Germans. Initially, the township covered one-third of Hunterdon County, an area that included Kingwood, Alexandria, Holland, Franklin, and Union townships and the boroughs of Bloomsbury, Milford, and Frenchtown, as well as portions of Clinton and Hampton Township. The Musconetcong River forms the township’s northern border and the river valley makes an exceptionally beautiful setting for farms. As early as the mid-s iron was mined in the forested hills of southern Bethlehem, which also furnished wood for nearby iron furnaces. This Musconetcong Mountain area became known as Jugtown Mountain because of its concentration of distilleries that produced the applejack known as Jersey Lightning. The nearly mile-long railroad tunnel constructed under Musconetcong Mountain in the s was a significant engineering success. Near the end of the twentieth century, construction of Interstate Route  made Bethlehem an attractive location for commuters. When a large housing development threatened the beauty of the Musconetcong Valley in the late s, Bethlehem residents responded forcefully and innovatively. They successfully blocked the project, laying the groundwork for farmland and open space preservation. In ,  percent of the population of , was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Herdan, Andrew C. Union Township Rural Recollections. Flemington: Bradford Press, .

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Beverly.

.-square-mile city in Burlington County. Located along the Delaware River about three miles south of Burlington City, Beverly was originally known as Dunk’s Ferry. George Washington is believed to have planned several Continental Army engagements there during . The earliest settlers were members of the Van Sciver, Perkins, Wilmerton, and Adams families. Originally part of larger Beverly Township, Beverly was incorporated as a borough in  and as a city in . Numerous elegant homes were erected along Warren and Cooper streets, most of which still stand today. The early economy was largely mercantile, augmented in the s by a major rope works and a hosiery manufacturer. The city has remained largely residential throughout its more recent history. During the s, traditional rope, wire, and textile concerns left the city, leaving it economically distressed. Large homes, many dating back to the s, make up the bulk of the housing stock. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Greco, Frank. A People’s Parish: Saint Joseph’s, Beverly, New Jersey: Its First One Hundred Years. Bryn Mawr, PA: Saint Joseph’s Church, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Riddle, Charles H. Colonial and Revolutionary Bethlehem Township. Flemington: Bradford Press, .

Jim Donnelly

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

bicycling. Before , bicycling in New Jersey was a hazardous, acrobatic sport that featured a cycle with a five-foot-high front wheel and a foot-high rear wheel. The vehicle was difficult to mount, precarious to operate, and dangerous for inexperienced riders. Featured at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in , the cycle gained limited popularity among daring young men in “wheelmen’s’’ clubs, particularly in Essex County. By  the high-wheeler had extended into rural areas. The Hezekiah B. Smith Machine Company of Mount Holly edged the high-wheeler closer to general ridership in  when it began making a modified version that enabled its rider to sit over rear-wheel pedals, with a front wheel about half the size of the propelling wheel. The two-wheeled “safety’’ bicycle revolutionized cycling. Introduced in , it featured two wheels each about thirty inches in diameter and was operated by pedals linked by chain to the rear wheel. Pneumatic tires replaced the solid rubber tires of old cycles, and a drop frame made the cycle feasible for long-skirted women. In appearance and basic operation the vehicle was in essence the same bicycle that is popular today. In addition to creating a broad-based sport, the bicycle became the primary means of transportation

Wacker, Peter O. The Musconetcong Valley of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Mary Anne Adams

Beth

Medrash Govoha. Beth Medrash Govoha, a religious college, was founded during World War II in Lakewood by rabbinical scholar Aaron Kotler (–). Kotler, a leader of the Orthodox branch of Judaism, modeled the school after the yeshivas (academies for the study of the Torah) of Europe. The students concentrated solely on the study of the Talmud and other religious writings. Accredited by the Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools, the college is today one of the best-known yeshivas in the world. Beth Medrash Govoha is popularly known as the “Lakewood Yeshiva’’ and has branches in other cities. Axel-Lute, Paul. Lakewood-in-the-Pines: A History of Lakewood, New Jersey. South Orange: By the author, .

See also higher education; Jews

David A. Norris

Bevans.

See Sandyston.

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bird counts

bird counts.

Since  the National Audubon Society has counted the number and species of birds during the Christmas season. This Christmas Bird Count (CBC) was started by Englewood ornithologist Frank M. Chapman as an alternative to the Christmas “Side Hunt,’’ when hunters would compete to see who could shoot the most birds. During the st CBC () there were twenty-seven -square-mile CBC circles in New Jersey. The National Audubon Society collaborates with BirdSource and with the Great Backyard Bird Count project at the Cornell University Ornithology Laboratory. The nonaffiliated New Jersey Audubon Society also sponsors bird counts and publishes the results in its journal, Records of New Jersey Birds.

Boyle, William J., Jr. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Rutgers University Bicycle Club, c. .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Graham, Frank. The Audubon Ark: A History of the National Audubon Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Robert Egan until the advent of the automobile. America went bicycle mad. By  more than three hundred manufacturers were making safety bicycles and more than a million Americans owned them. The roads and lanes of  scarcely permitted horses to gallop, much less bicycle riders to speed. Ruts caught the wheels and rocks imperiled every rider. Cyclists fell victim to mud and sand alike and they let their legislators know it. Spurred by cyclist rage, New Jersey lawmakers appropriated seventyfive thousand dollars in  to start rebuilding the state’s roads—the first acknowledgment that the state was responsible for at least connecting roads. The Cape May Bicycle Road Improvement Association spent thousands of dollars of its own money in the s building bicycle paths beside the wretched roads. These extended first from Cape May to Goshen on the northwestern edge of town, then were quickly pushed through to Millville via Tuckerton. Because of traffic created by speeding visitors, Cape May imposed an eight-mile-per-hour speed limit. Young women cyclists, exulting in the freedom given them by bicycles, shed heavy corsets and wore shorter skirts. Shocked Cape May matrons formed the Anti-Bicycle Club to warn out-of-town girls that Cape May would not permit such immodesty. The female bike riders struck back in letters to the editor. They scoffed at the old-fashioned “antis’’ who affected “wasp waists, high necks, and trailing skirts.’’ A Cape May physician sided with the cyclers by declaring in a letter that “corsets fill more graves than whiskey.’’ Young men inevitably raced with one another, earning the nickname “scorchers.’’ They raced initially in sanctioned events at county fairs, then competed in long over-theroad contests. New Jersey’s main race, and in cycling’s early years the nation’s premier

cycling event, was the annual IrvingtonMillburn race on Memorial Day. The course measured twenty-five miles. This annual contest ended in . New Jersey’s longest-running cycling event is the Somerville tour, so called because laws forbade cycle racing on town streets but permitted “tours’’ of a town. Somerville’s, begun in  (but suspended during World War II), is run every year over a fifty-mile course. It is the oldest continuously run bicycle race in the country. Inevitably, many racers became professionals, thanks to competitions at such places as the wooden track velodromes in Newark (opened in ) and Nutley (opened in the early s). Both of the velodromes faded as World War II approached. The feats of New Jersey’s great bicycling professionals are highlighted in the United States Bicycling Hall of Fame, opened in Somerville in . Among New Jersey’s featured cyclists is Frank Kramer of Newark. He won his first national sprint championship in , was world sprint champion in , and holds eighteen United States championships. Kramer is believed by many to have been the greatest bicycle racer in history. Newspaper accounts reveal that in the s cyclists were among the most revered, and best paid, professional athletes in the world. Today New Jersey has over a dozen bicycle clubs that organize group rides and lobby for bike paths, which a number of towns have built. Detwiler, Kurt B. Coasting Along: A Bicycling Guide to the New Jersey Shore, Pine Barrens, and Delaware Bay Region. McLean, VA: EPM Publications, . New Jersey Bicycle Advisory Council. New Jersey Bicycle Advisory Council Report on Bicycling in New Jersey: Findings and Recommendations. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, .

John T. Cunningham

birds.

New Jersey avifauna includes about  species of birds that nest in the state and roughly  more species that occur here only as migrants each year. When the tally of bird life includes other species that are rarities or accidentals, the New Jersey total approaches , truly an impressive richness. From north to south the physiographic provinces provide an overview of nesting species. The Kittatinny Mountains have such northern birds as the dark-eyed junco, magnolia warbler, and common raven. The Kittatinny Valley, with its wet meadows, provides breeding territory for American coot, common snipe, and sora rail. The elevations of the Highlands sustain populations of winter wren, northern goshawk, and yellow-bellied sapsucker. Southward, the Piedmont is particularly noted for such grassland birds as the bobolink, Savannah sparrow, and ring-necked pheasant (a very important game species). On the Coastal Plain, a myriad of shore species include the laughing gull, snowy egret, and willet. The Pinelands have relatively few nesting species, such as the pine warbler and common nighthawk. Most of the common breeding birds of New Jersey are widely distributed: American robin, gray catbird, mourning dove, and northern cardinal, for example. True city dwellers include the starling, pigeon, and house sparrow. For many New Jersey observers, migration seasons are the highlights of the year, and the state has many spectacular concentration spots. At the Cape May peninsula, the fall migration of hawks, eagles, and falcons can total some fifty thousand birds of prey. There are also outstanding hawk flights along the state’s inland “mountains’’ (e.g., Montclair Hawk Watch on the first ridge of the Watchung Mountains and Sunrise Mountain Hawk Lookout on the Kittatinny ridge). Seabird migrations concentrate along our near shore zone,

birth control with hundreds of thousands of ocean birds passing. Counts are highest in autumn, and prime observation spots include Island Beach State Park and the shore at Avalon. The many ocean migrants include various sea ducks, cormorants, and loons. Songbird migrations are enjoyed throughout the state, spring and fall. Some of the best locations for landbird concentrations are suburban and urban forested parks and other wooded preserves (e.g., the Princeton Institute Woods). During early May, the migration waves of brightly colored warbler species are especially exciting. Waterfowl movements are most significant in the fall, with many game species among the ducks, swans, and mergansers. These birds are attracted to numerous marshes, lakes, and swamps throughout the state. Ornithological conservation concerns for New Jersey include rare and endangered species, grassland and wetland birds that are suffering habitat loss, and migrant species that are showing long-term population declines. The last group includes numerous deep-forested species (e.g., wood thrush), some of our wintering waterfowl, and many migrant sandpipers. New Jersey is fortunate in having many organizations involved in bird conservation and recreational uses, from birdwatching to hunting. An important umbrella group is the New Jersey Audubon Society and its affiliates. Contacts for fieldtrips can be found in most newspapers’ weekend sections, year-round. There are also many special birding festivals during migration periods, particularly in coastal counties. Boyle, William J., Jr. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Leck, Charles F. The Status and Distribution of New Jersey’s Birds. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds, colonial; shorebirds

Charles F. Leck

birds, colonial.

Colonial birds are birds that nest in breeding colonies of a few to several hundred pairs. Breeding colonies may be composed of one species or of many species. Colonial waterbirds include herons, egrets, ibises, gulls, terns, and skimmers, which normally nest along the coasts on barrier beaches, on salt-marsh islands, or in trees. Great blue herons (Ardea herodias) nest in trees near marshes and lakes throughout the state. In addition, some smaller species, such as boat-tailed grackles (Cassidix major) and red-winged blackbirds (Ageliaus phoeniceus), nest in marshes in emergent vegetation or shrubs. New Jersey has some of the most diverse and healthy populations of colonial birds nesting along the Atlantic coast, and it is the center of the breeding distribution of laughing gull (Larus atricilla). Birds nesting in

colonies derive advantages because they can have early warning of predators and group defense whereby members of the colony mob and attack predators. Usually, colonial birds nest in places, such as on islands and in trees, that are inaccessible to mammalian predators that approach on the ground. In addition to being threatened by predators, colonial birds nesting on the ground are vulnerable to flooding from heavy rains, tides, and storms. Those that nest on sandy beaches and salt-marsh islands are vulnerable to disturbance from people walking, jogging, and boating too close to their colonies. Partly for that reason, the number of colonial birds of several species has dwindled, and several are now threatened or endangered in New Jersey. Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist Along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also birds

Joanna Burger

Birds Eye.

Clarence Birdseye, the father of frozen food, created the Birds Eye brand and trademark out of two words, because a name cannot become a trademark. Birdseye demonstrated his interest in food preparation as a student at Montclair High School, when he enrolled in a cooking course. He developed a fast-freezing process after living in Labrador and observing the results of quickly freezing a freshly caught fish. At the time, frozen food did not taste very good, but Birdseye discovered that a fish frozen immediately after it was caught in the icy Arctic retained its flavor when defrosted months later. Hoping to perfect a fast-freezing process for commercial food preparation, Birdseye returned to New Jersey and used the corner of an icehouse owned by a friend in which to experiment. He continued his work at the Clothel Refrigerating Company of Bayonne, where he observed the impact of quick-freezing on a variety of foods. In , with a group of investors, Birdseye formed Birdseye Seafoods in New York. After filing for bankruptcy in , the firm became General Seafoods and moved to Gloucester, Massachusetts, the next year. Through its Birds Eye brand, General Foods (the holding company that owned General Seafoods) became a leader in the frozenfoods industry. As early as , General Foods was lending plate freezers to such firms as Seabrook Farms, in Upper Deerfield, to enable them to freeze their produce. However, it took until World War II for Birds Eye to overcome consumer resistance to frozen foods and attract a national following. In , Birds Eye became part of Philip Morris. In , after Kraft was acquired by the conglomerate, Birds Eye became part of Philip Morris’s Kraft General Foods subsidiary. In , Birds Eye was sold to Dean Foods Company. Birds Eye’s current owner is Agrilink Foods, a subsidiary of Pro-Fac Cooperative, which purchased Birds Eye in .

77

Shephard, Sue. Pickled, Potted and Canned. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

See also Seabrook Farms

Elaine L. Schwartz

bird-watching. New Jersey’s small size and varied habitat make it one of the best states for bird-watching (or birding, as enthusiasts call it) in the eastern United States. Over three hundred species of birds are spotted in the state annually. New Jersey is fortunate in having a large percentage of its land preserved in private, county, state, and federal parks, forests, and wildlife refuges— all excellent bird-watching venues. Coastal Cape May State Park and nearby Higbee Beach Wildlife Management Area, Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge near Atlantic City, and the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area are the most popular spots. Inland locations such as High Point State Park, Garret Mountain Reservation (Passaic County), Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge (Morris County), Lebanon State Forest, Parvin State Park (Salem County), and many others also offer good birding. Bird-watching in New Jersey originated with the scientific studies of pioneering ornithologists John James Audubon and Alexander Wilson, who were active in the state in the early nineteenth century. As a hobby, however, bird-watching began in earnest with the fieldwork of Witmer Stone and the Philadelphia-based Delaware Valley Ornithological Club. Together they discovered the wonders of Cape May and southern New Jersey in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Since the s, Charles Urner of Elizabeth and his friends (in what is now the Urner Club) explored the northern marshes and highlands of the state. Today, these clubs have been joined by the twenty-thousandmember New Jersey Audubon Society and numerous local organizations to provide and promote birding opportunities statewide. Boyle, William J., Jr. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stone, Witmer. Bird Studies at Old Cape May. . Reprint. New York: Stackpole Books, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

William J. Boyle, Jr.

birth control.

Since ancient times, women have attempted to control reproduction with various contraceptive elixirs and barriers. The diaphragm was developed during the nineteenth century, but many women lacked access to and education about using this device. The  Comstock Laws relegated contraceptive literature to the category of obscenity, so distributing birth control information could be considered unlawful. Margaret Sanger, a visiting nurse who served the poor

78

Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis

in New York City, defied the laws and started publishing information on contraception in . The American Birth Control League was founded in  in New York City, where Sanger opened the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau, the first permanent birth control clinic in the United States, in . During the s, birth control organizations were created throughout the United States. In the Greater Camden area, a group of physicians’ wives arranged health services for women. A  study demonstrated that over  percent of the clients at a birth control clinic in Newark had already used some type of birth control. The Maternal Health League sponsored a birth control clinic that opened in Camden in . The Birth Control Federation of America was formed in ; the name was changed to Planned Parenthood Federation of America, in . Today there are five Planned Parenthood agencies in New Jersey, which operate thirty-three health centers that serve , women, men, and teenagers annually, with education and a wide range of birth control services. In  Gregory Goodwin Pincus developed the first oral contraceptive, using estrogen and progestin in a series of tablets that prevented ovulation. The birth control pill was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on May , , and within two years was used by . million American women. In , the Supreme Court ruling on Roe v. Wade ended state laws that made abortion a crime, giving women the option of ending a pregnancy safely. New Jersey’s pharmaceutical companies played an important role in family planning. During the s, Johnson & Johnson, in New Brunswick, developed the nation’s first contraceptive jelly. Ortho Pharmaceutical, in Raritan, brought out its first birth control pill in  and continued to improve the product, introducing effective pills with lower levels of hormones, pills that more closely match the natural hormonal rhythm, and a progestinonly pill for women unable to tolerate estrogen. In , Ortho-McNeil initiated the Ortho Annual Birth Control Study, tracking women’s attitudes toward contraceptives, as well as usage and effectiveness. In May , Ortho-McNeil commemorated the fortieth anniversary of the birth control pill by donating an original Ortho Dialpak Tablet Dispenser and advertising literature to the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History, which accepted the items for its Science, Medicine, and Society collection. Berlex Laboratories, in Wayne, another producer of contraceptives, established the Berlex Foundation in  to encourage education and research in reproductive medicine. Organon, in West Orange, is researching new types of contraceptives, including new compounds for birth control pills and more convenient methods of delivering contraceptive medications.

Diczfalusy, Egon. The Contraceptive Revolution: An Era of Scientific and Social Development. New York: Parthenon, . Dreifus, Claudia, ed. Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics of Women’s Health. New York: Vintage Books, . Gordon, Linda. Woman’s Body, Woman’s Right: A Social History of Birth Control in America. New York: Grossman, .

Pamela Cooper

Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis

(b.

Dec. , ; d. Apr. , ). Sculptor. Born in Vienna, Karl Bitter studied at the School of Applied Arts from  to , and beginning in  at the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts. He immigrated to New York City in . After establishing a studio on East Thirteenth Street, Bitter began his career in public sculpture on projects for major architects, including Richard Morris Hunt and George B. Post. Within a short time, his work began to adorn the residences of the Vanderbilts, Astors, and Rockefellers. He designed the bronze gates of Trinity Church in lower Manhattan (–), the ornament for Hunt’s Administration Building at the  World’s Columbian Exhibition in Chicago, and the sculptural decoration for Post’s Wisconsin State Capitol (–). He also created important full-length sculpture; a major example is the famous Pomona, the centerpiece of the fountain in front of New York’s Plaza Hotel (). His most significant New Jersey commission is Faded Flowers, a relief on the Prehn Mausoleum at Cedar Lawn Cemetery in Paterson (–). In  Bitter built a house and studio in Weehawken, where, in , he brought his bride, Marie Schevill. In  the Bitters and

their children moved back to New York, but retained the Weehawken studio. In  Bitter became chief of the Sculpture Department at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, the same year that he was tragically killed by an automobile as he crossed a Manhattan street. Bzdak, Meredith Arms. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Dennis, James M. Karl Bitter: Architectural Sculptor, –. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Bivalve.

See Commercial Township.

Bivalve Research Station. In  Dr. Julius Nelson, the first biologist of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, founded the New Jersey Oyster Investigations Laboratory. Research stations were established in Monmouth Beach, Barnegat, Tuckerton, Green Creek, and Bivalve. The laboratory is now part of the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers, with a main laboratory at Bivalve (now the Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory) on the Maurice River in Cumberland County, and a research hatchery (Cape Shore Facility) on the Delaware Bayshore in Cape May County. The laboratory’s principal mission is to conduct practical and basic research in support of shellfisheries. See also oysters Susan E. Ford

black bear. The American black bear (Ursus americanus) inhabits the forested regions of northern New Jersey. Never extirpated,

Black bears reside in the northern forests of the state.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger

Blackwell, Antoinette Brown black bear numbers have been increasing and their range expanding since the s. Today, it is estimated that around , black bears live in the state. Prime habitat consists of mixed hardwood forests, dense swamps, and forested wetlands. Bears are highly adaptable, living in and among human developments. Home-range sizes can range up to sixty square miles for males and ten square miles for females. Bears can live more than twenty years. Although classified as carnivores, black bears are omnivorous, eating plant and animal matter. Bears are opportunistic feeders dependent on a seasonally abundant food supply. Approximately  percent of their diet consists of plant material, including skunk cabbage, grasses, forbs, tubers and bulbs, soft mast (blueberries, huckleberries, raspberries, blackberries, wild cherries) and hard mast (acorns, beechnuts, hickory nuts). Animal matter includes bees and other insects (adults, larvae, and eggs), small mammals, white-tailed deer fawns, and road-killed deer and other carrion. Their diet is supplemented with scavenged human-derived food. Adult females average  pounds; adult males average  pounds. Breeding season runs from late May until August, peaking in June and July. Both sexes are promiscuous. The fertilized egg implants on the uterus in November or December. Cubs are born in January, weigh about eight ounces, are blind, and are covered with thin hair. Average litter size is three, ranging from one to six. Cubs travel with the female until she breeds again, sixteen to eighteen months later. Black bears den for the winter, becoming dormant to avoid periods of food shortages and severe weather. Bears do not eat, drink, urinate, or defecate while denning. Den sites include rock cavities, brush piles, open nests, and hollow trees. Chapman, J. A. and G. A. Feldhamer, eds. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Economics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

Patrick C. Carr

Black People’s Unity Movement. The most potent manifestation of black power in Camden, the Black People’s Unity Movement (BPUM) combined a program of militancy and self-help with the ability to affect policy. Founded in  by Charles “Poppy’’ Sharp after he was inspired by the appearance in the city of activist H. Rap Brown, BPUM quickly moved beyond passive civil rights tactics to confrontation. In addressing discrimination in public housing, displacement by urban renewal, and harassment from the police, BPUM disrupted meetings, marched in the streets, and occupied buildings to dramatize its agenda. Although the organization gained the support of a number of white clergy, the city’s government fought it bitterly, even attempting to discredit Sharp by planting heroin in his office. (Subsequent police

testimony prompted dismissal of the charges.) BPUM’s tone changed in the early s, as its emphasis shifted to economic development and as some of its members, including Sharp, were appointed to city positions. One leader, Melvin Primas, became the city’s first African American mayor in . By the s, much of BPUM’s energy had dissipated. Most of its business enterprises, with the exception of day care centers, had shut down, and its influence had waned. Although still in existence at the time of Poppy Sharp’s death in , the organization was but a shell of its former self. See also African Americans

Howard Gillette, Jr.

Black Tom. At : a.m. on July , , a tremendous explosion destroyed a depot known as Black Tom that jutted out from Jersey City into the Hudson River. The explosion smashed windows on both sides of the Hudson, and shrapnel from the blast pierced the Statue of Liberty. Although the loss of life was minimal, property damage was estimated at $ million, including the total destruction of the Black Tom depot. It was not surprising that Black Tom could explode, since it was a place where ammunition and armaments were removed from freight trains and loaded onto ships. The munitions were shipped by companies in the neutral United States to the Allied armies who were fighting against the Germans on the Western Front. There was much speculation about what touched off the explosion (a careless fire set by a workman was one theory), but the real cause was no accident; it was deliberate sabotage. Count Johann-Heinrich von Bernstorff, the German ambassador to the United States, had been funded by the German government to set up a network of saboteurs to destroy the war supplies that the Allied powers were able to purchase. Germany was prevented from buying them by the British Navy’s blockade of the continent. Saboteurs in the pay of von Bernstorff probably sneaked onto Black Tom at night and set fires that ignited the ammunition. Black Tom was only one of the targets. Less than six months later, another explosion occurred at a factory in Bergen County that manufactured artillery shells for the Russian army. Other cases of sabotage occurred on ships, docks, and trains. The United States subsequently entered World War I on the side of the Allies. After the war, the owners of Black Tom and other properties brought their claims for damage before a joint German-American commission. It was not until  that the commission determined that Germany was indeed responsible for the sabotage. By that time, another war had begun in Europe. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Witcover, Jules. Sabotage at Black Tom: Imperial Germany’s Secret War against America, –.

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Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, .

See also World War I

Marc Mappen

Blackwell, Antoinette Brown

(b.

May , ; d. Nov. , ). Minister, reformer,

writer, and lecturer. Born to farming parents in Upstate New York, Antoinette Brown experienced a religious conversion at the unusually young age of nine. In  she received her degree from Oberlin College’s Ladies Literary Course, but was denied subsequent graduation with male theological students. However, Oberlin granted her an honorary A.M. in  and an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree in . Despite family objections, Blackwell lectured on behalf of women’s rights, antislavery, and temperance and served as guest preacher in New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. She attended women’s rights and temperance conventions. Although an accredited delegate to the  World’s Temperance Convention, she was shouted down on two successive days by delegates opposed to public speaking by women. On September , , Blackwell was ordained for the service of the Congregational Church in Butler, New York, the first woman known to be formally ordained in the United States. Already controversial, Blackwell stirred strong criticism by such actions as conducting a funeral for an illegitimate infant and refusing to frighten a dying boy into conversion, issues of great importance among members of her Calvinist congregation. In  she resigned her pastorate to work on behalf of immigrants, the poor, the disabled, and the imprisoned in New York City. Her essays about these experiences appeared in the New York Tribune.

Antoinette Brown Blackwell.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

80

Blackwood

She married Samuel C. Blackwell, who was in the hardware business and also invested in real estate, in . Each of the children born to the couple received the double name Brown Blackwell, most unusual in a nineteenth-century family. After the birth of their third daughter, the couple moved to Millburn, New Jersey, and then in , to Somerville. Blackwell combined homemaking with three hours daily of research and writing about religion, philosophy, and science. In  Blackwell and her close friend, Lucy Stone, petitioned the New Jersey legislature to have the words “white male’’ stricken from voting qualifications in the state constitution. Also in , Blackwell helped to found the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association and served as vice president from  to . In , she helped to found the American Woman Suffrage Association, was elected vice president from New Jersey, and wrote for the association’s journal. That same year Blackwell published Studies in General Science, and in this work as well as in The Physical Basis of Immortality (), she tried to reconcile the beliefs of science and religion. She published further metaphysical reflections in The Philosophy of Individuality or the One and the Many (). In Sexes Throughout Nature (), Blackwell challenged both Darwin and Herbert Spencer, arguing that women and men contributed equally to the evolutionary process. She also wrote a novel, The Island Neighbors (), and a book of poetry, Sea Drift or Tribute to the Ocean (). Blackwell was elected a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in . As vice president of the Association for the Advancement of Women, she worked with the astronomer Maria Mitchell to encourage women to study science. Blackwell was president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association from  to . She also served as the first vice president of the New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs. After her husband died in , Blackwell moved to Elizabeth, where she helped to found All Souls Unitarian Church, and, as pastor emeritus, she preached there until ; she was recognized as one who opened the ministry up as a vocation for women in this country. She published two more books, The Making of the Universe () and The Social Side of Mind and Action (). She continued preaching and writing into her nineties, and lived to see the passage of the woman’s suffrage amendment and to vote in the presidential election of . Cazden, Elizabeth. Antoinette Brown Blackwell: A Biography. Old Westbury, NY: Feminist Press, . Merrill, Marlene Deahl, and Carol Lasser, eds. Friends and Sisters: Letters between Lucy Stone and Antoinette Brown Blackwell, –. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Barbara Hilkert Andolsen

John Blair.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Blackwood.

See Gloucester Township.

Blair, John Insley (b. Aug. , ; d. Dec. , ). Railroad magnate and philanthropist.

John Blair was born near Belvidere in Sussex County, the son of James and Rachel Insley Blair. At the age of eleven, he went to work in a country store and by  was a partner in a store in Gravel Hill. Blair began to invest in ironworks, mills, and other industries before buying a railroad to serve his Lackawanna Iron and Coal Company. His railroad became the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad in . Blair increasingly invested in railroads in the Midwest and the West, including the Union Pacific. The community of Gravel Hill, where Blair lived, was named Blairstown in his honor when it incorporated in . In  he set up the Blair Presbyterian Academy there. Over the years, he donated money to construct churches and public buildings in Blairstown, as well as Blair Hall at Princeton University. He was said to have contributed generously to more than one hundred churches established in the eighty towns he laid out along his railroads. Besides Blairstown, New Jersey, towns in Iowa, Nebraska, Nevada, and Wisconsin were likewise named for Blair. Blair served as a delegate to several Republican conventions and ran unsuccessfully for governor of New Jersey in . DAB.

David A. Norris

Blairstown. .-square-mile township in Warren County. Blairstown, located along the eastern slope of Kittatinny Mountain and in

the Paulinskill Valley, was set off from Knowlton Township in . The region was settled by Europeans in the early eighteenth century, with farming and milling its primary occupations. The village of Blairstown is located on the Paulinskill River. The Paulinskill powered a number of mills, and the village included stores, a tavern, and a hotel. Originally Smith’s Mills, it became Blairstown in , as did the township six years later. Both were named in honor of John I. Blair, the industrious local merchant whose business interests expanded into milling, iron mines, and the iron and coal business. Blair’s empire ultimately included massive railroad holdings, including the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad, making him a wealthy magnate. Blair founded Blair Academy, still a notable preparatory school, in . In the late nineteenth century lakes in the region attracted summer vacationers, fall and winter hunters, and fishermen. Today the community is largely residential, although farms remain. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bertholf, Kenneth Jr. Blairstown. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Gleason, June Benore. Historical Paulinskill Valley, New Jersey: Blairstown’s Neighbors. Blairstown: Blairstown Press, . Snell, James P. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, N.J. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Blakelock, Ralph Albert ; d. Aug. , ).

(b. Oct. ,

Painter. Ralph Albert Blakelock was born to Caroline Olinarg Carry and Dr. Ralph B. Blakelock, a homeopathic physician, in New York City, where he attended the public schools. In  he enrolled at the Free Academy of the City of New York, but withdrew after only three years. On February , , he married Cora Rebecca Bailey, with whom he had nine children. For much of their lives, the family lived in various towns outside of Newark. A sense of mysticism characterizes Blakelock’s work, especially his moonlit images painted mostly in the s, which emphasize mood rather than the specifics of the landscape he depicts. In these landscapes, the details become obscured by the heavy application of paint, and the moon provides a sense of pulsating light, creating a supernatural world. Native Americans, whom he encountered during his various trips to the West, often inhabit this mystical world. Feeling a personal sympathy toward them, seeing them as a vanishing race, he often depicted them as if they were receding into the background. Beginning in the early s, Blakelock spent time in and out of asylums and eventually was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He died in the Adirondacks in .

Bloomfield College Davidson, Abraham A. Ralph Albert Blakelock. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Blank and Company. See Henry Blank and Company.

Blauvelt House and Art Museum. An outstanding example of late nineteenthcentury domestic architecture, the imposing Shingle style Atwood-Blauvelt mansion () and its carriage house were built for Kimball C. Atwood, a New York businessman; Freed W. Wentworth was the architect. The house, on a slope west of Kinderkamack Road in Oradell, has exceptional views over the Hackensack to the Palisades beyond. Purchased in  by Mr. and Mrs. Elmer Blauvelt and christened Bluefield (the English translation of the Dutch family name), it was bequeathed by Hiram Bellis Demarest Blauvelt to the Blauvelt Demarest Foundation. The foundation carried out a sensitive renovation of the carriage house, which is now the Hiram Blauvelt Art Museum, a leading center for wildlife art. See also museums

product. Polident denture cleanser and its offshoots, such as Smokers’ Polident, are among Block’s major sellers. The company produces a number of denture adhesives—including Poli-Grip and Super Poli-Grip—as well as the many varieties of Sensodyne toothpaste. Block Drug incorporated in  and went public in . In  Block acquired some of the assets of Mynol, which supplied dentists with guttapercha, a latex substance used in dental procedures. Block is now a leader in selling such professional items as dental instruments, X-ray film mounts, and sterilization systems directly to dentists. The acquisition of Flushco brought Block into the toilet cleanser industry, where it achieved a substantial portion of the market with the  Flushes family of products, including  Flushes Blue and  Flushes Powder Foam. Block is also known for therapeutic shampoos such as Tegrin and Kwell as well as a range of dermatological products. In  Block Drug was a $ million company. GlaxoSmithKline acquired Block in January . Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

David C. Major and John S. Major

Blauwenburg. Blish, James

See Montgomery. (b. May , ; d. July ,

). Science fiction writer and critic. Born

in East Orange, Blish graduated from Rutgers University and studied zoology at Columbia University. While still a student, he published work in pulp magazines and developed a distinctively literary style. Blish was among the first to employ ideas from biology in science fiction and to apply principles of literary criticism to the field. Several of his works, such as A Case of Conscience (), “Surface Tension’’ (), and the Cities in Flight tetralogy, have achieved classic status. Author of more than thirty books, Blish gained popular renown only after he wrote novelizations of the Star Trek television episodes. He died in Harpsden, England. Blish, James. The Best of James Blish. Ed. Robert A. W. Lowndes. New York, Ballantine, . Ketterer, David. Imprisoned in a Tesseract: The Life and Work of James Blish. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, .

See also literature

Henry Wessells

Block Drug Company.

Started by Alexander Block as a small drugstore in Jersey City in , this company became a drug wholesaler in  and a drug manufacturer by . In the s the company made a number of acquisitions, including Pycopay toothbrushes and Romilar cough syrup, and developed a dental powder, the first Polident

Bloomfield, Joseph

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Governor, politician, military

officer, and lawyer. Born in Woodbridge to Sarah Ogden and Moses Bloomfield, Joseph Bloomfield was educated at the Rev. Enoch Green’s classical school in Deerfield and later studied law with Cortland T. Skinner, colonial attorney general in Perth Amboy. Just as he started practice as an attorney in Bridgeton in  the Revolution broke out, and in February  he obtained a commission as a captain in the New Jersey militia. He was stationed in New York’s Mohawk Valley and Fort Ticonderoga and saw action at Brandywine and Monmouth. Bloomfield was promoted to major and then judge advocate of the Army of the North. Illness forced his resignation in , and in December of that year he married Mary McIlvane. In  he was elected attorney general of New Jersey, reelected in , and resigned in . In  he commanded a brigade to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion. Initially a Federalist, he became a Republican in the late s out of opposition to the foreign and domestic policies of President John Adams. Elected governor in , he cemented Republican domination of New Jersey politics during the first decade of the nineteenth century. Bloomfield pushed for the passage of legislation in  for the gradual abolition of slavery. Except during the deadlocked  legislature, Bloomfield was reelected as governor until June , when he resigned to become a brigadier general in the War of .

81

After the war, he ran for Congress in  and won a second term in  before retiring in March . While in Congress he led a campaign for benefits for Revolutionary War veterans. His first wife died in , and he married Isabella Macomb in . Three years later Bloomfield died in Burlington from injuries sustained in a carriage accident. ANB. Prince, Carl E. New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans: the Genesis of an Early Party Machine, – . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Harvey Strum

Bloomfield.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. European immigrants first settled the area in  as Wardesson, one of the three wards of Newark. The waterpower provided by the Second River, Third River, and Toney’s Brook attracted settlers who built sawmills, gristmills, and later paper mills and tanneries. In addition, large deposits of sandstone led to quarry operations that provided building material for New York City brownstones as early as . The Revolutionary War affected the area mostly through foraging raids by British and Hessian troops. After the war the town was renamed for Revolutionary War general Joseph Bloomfield. A major textile industry expansion centered on the production of cottons and fine woolens followed incorporation in . Current industrial operations produce aluminum aerosol cans, collapsible tubes, flags, and pet supplies. In addition to the historic green, used as a parade and military training ground since  and designated a National Historic Landmark in , there are extensive outdoor recreation areas, including  acres of municipal parks,  acres of county parks, and three private golf courses. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Diamond, Rachel F. One Hundred Fifty Years around the Green: A Brief History of Bloomfield, New Jersey, –. Bloomfield: Bloomfield’s th Anniversary Committee, . Free Public Library of Bloomfield. Bloomfield, New Jersey. Bloomfield: Independent Press, .

James A. Kaser

Bloomfield College.

Throughout its history, Bloomfield College has focused, and refocused, its mission on students who were not from the American mainstream. The college began in Bloomfield in  as the German Theological School. Its mission

Bloomingdale

Taylor, Harry T. Bloomfield College: The First Century, –. Bloomfield: Bloomfield College, .

See also higher education

Steve Golin

Bloomingdale. .-square-mile borough on the north side of the Pequannock River in central Passaic County. Bloomingdale was set off from Pompton Township as a separate borough in . Bloomingdale Furnace, built here circa , relied on waterpower from the Pequannock. It was followed by Ryerson’s Forge, as well as a gristmill and a sawmill, which operated into the nineteenth century. In the winter of , Continental troops quartered here protested their conditions in the Pompton Mutiny. In the nineteenth century the village continued to rely on industry, with paper, wood, and rubber mills operating through the early twentieth century. The New Jersey Midland Railroad arrived in . There are a number of lake communities and older village centers in the southern portion of the borough, while the northern portion includes Norvin Green State Forest. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Salvini, Emil R. Historic Bloomingdale. Lyndhurst: Colorama Historical Publications, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Bloomsbury. .-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. Bloomsbury was once part of Bethlehem Township; it became a separate political entity on March , . The

borough is surrounded on three sides by Bethlehem Township. The fourth and longest side lies along the Musconetcong River, which separates Hunterdon County from Warren County. Passing through the borough is the road once known as the New Jersey Turnpike, which was the main road from New Brunswick, New Jersey, to Easton, Pennsylvania. The borough name was derived from the prominent early settlers, the Bloom family. High schoolers attend school in Phillipsburg, Warren County, because it is considerably closer than the nearest high school in Hunterdon County. According to the  census, this residential community had a population of , of which  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Bloor, Ella Reeve “Mother’’

(b.

July , ; d. Aug. , ).

Political radical, labor organizer, and public speaker. Ella Bloor was raised in Bridgeton, where her father was a pharmacist. When she was nineteen, she married Lucien Ware and moved to Haddonfield, and later lived with her family in Woodstown and Woodbury. At first active locally in the woman’s suffrage and temperance movements, Bloor went on to become a labor organizer, a contributor to socialist newspapers, and a Socialist candidate for lieutenant governor of New York. Following the Russian Revolution, she was a founding member of the American Communist Party. During the s and s, Bloor acted as a Communist Party spokesperson, an advocate for labor and civil rights, and an outspoken opponent of fascism. Her autobiography, We Are Many, was published in . She was married three times and had eight children. Bloor, Ella Reeve. We Are Many. New York: International Publishers, .

See also labor movement

Alan Singer

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CULTIVATED BLUBERRY PRODUCTION 150

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1998 1999 2000 2001

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was to train German immigrants for the Presbyterian ministry. Two of the initial four faculty taught in German, the others in English. When the number of German students declined, the college accepted other immigrants, especially Hungarians, and in  became the Bloomfield Theological Seminary. When the seminary itself began to decline, the institution redefined itself as Bloomfield College and Seminary in , then Bloomfield College in . Lacking a large endowment, the college periodically suffered financial crises. In , claiming financial exigency, President Merle Allshouse abolished tenure. The faculty formed a union, which took the college to court and won. Forced to reestablish tenure, Allshouse declared Chapter  bankruptcy. The college overcame the crisis of the s as it had overcome crises in the s, s, and s. Today the college is a four-year, private institution, enrolling approximately two thousand students, with a nonwhite majority and representing more than fifty nationalities. Under President John Noonan, Bloomfield College rediscovered its urban mission, winning national recognition in the s for its embrace of diversity.

millions of pounds

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in Whitesbog, Burlington County, who domesticated the wild blueberry. Elizabeth White, after whose father the town of Whitesbog was named, recognized the potentially widespread commercial value of the fruit. In  a botanist named Frederick V. Coville joined forces with White. Together they selected plants from the wild and made thousands of crosses between the plants they had in their collection. Many of the highbush blueberry varieties that we have today are either their selections or are direct descendants from their crosses. The New Jersey highbush blueberry industry is thriving; eight thousand acres of cultivated blueberries are evenly divided between Atlantic and Burlington counties. New Jersey growers produce  million pounds of blueberries annually, worth in excess of $ million. Current blueberry research is based at Chatsworth at the Phillip E. Marucci Center for Blueberry/Cranberry Research and Extension. United States Department of Agriculture and Rutgers University researchers continue plant breeding and selection for insect and disease control, fertility, and the beneficial medicinal components of blueberries. Eck, Paul. Blueberry Science. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also agriculture

Gary C. Pavlis

blueberries.

Commercial blueberries belong to the Vaccinium genus. Of major economic importance are three species: the highbush blueberry, V. corymbosum L; the lowbush blueberry, V. angustifolium Aiton; and the rabbiteye blueberry, V. ashei Reade. Most of the worldwide blueberry production comes from the highbush blueberry, although lowbush and rabbiteye types are important in the northeastern and southwestern regions of North America. The highbush blueberry was “invented’’ here in New Jersey. Though native Indians used the prolific fruit as a dye, enjoyed it in stew, combined it with venison in a dish they called pemmican, and dried it, it was a woman

blue crab.

Callinectes sapidus is a member of the family Portunidae, distinguished by having the ends of its fifth pair of legs modified into paddles; its scientific name means “beautiful swimmer.’’ Blue crabs have an olive or bluish green back, which tapers to a thick spine on the left and right sides, bright blue on the bottom and inside “elbow’’ of their claws, and mature females have red claw tips. They can grow to nine inches from spine to spine and are found in bays and estuaries from Uruguay to Cape Cod, but move into ocean and fresh water. All brackish water systems in New Jersey host populations, but the population size varies from year to year.

boats

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Males produce a chemical to attract females for mating; females carry eggs on their abdomens that appear as a yellow-orange mass called sponge. Females move toward the ocean to release tiny larvae that spend approximately thirty days swimming in the surface waters before settling down to the bottom as a “first crab.’’ Blue crabs must shed their shells (molt) in order to grow. During the time it takes for the new shell to harden (thirty-six to forty-eight hours), they are commercially prized as soft-shelled crabs. New Jersey has a commercial and a large recreational fishery for hard- and soft-shelled crabs. Gosner, Kenneth L. A Field Guide to the Atlantic Seashore. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . MacKenzie, Clyde L. The Fisheries of Raritan Bay. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Warner, William W. Beautiful Swimmers. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Angela Cristini

Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey. See Horizon Blue Cross and

Strollers on the Boardwalk in Atlantic City, .

Courtesy Vicki Gold Levi.

Blue Shield of New Jersey.

bluefish.

Pomatomus saltatrix is a migratory species of fish found in oceanic and Atlantic coastal waters from Nova Scotia to Argentina, and in the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas. Bluefish are aggressive and have a voracious appetite, making them a popular game fish. Schools of young bluefish or “snappers’’ enter tidal bays and estuaries, following schools of smaller fish, where they feed as long as food is present and will even regurgitate if full to continue feeding. Bluefish are greenish blue and have a sturdy, compressed body, a large head, and prominent canine teeth. Mature by two years of age, they have been known to bite bathers. They are one of the most common fish in the waters off New Jersey from May until early November. See also fishes; fishing

Sue Bennett Canale

boardwalks. The world’s first permanent boardwalk, a structure of plank boards built on posts raised over the beach, is credited to Atlantic City in . Other places claim antecedents, typically portable wood planks laid directly on the sand. The idea of the boardwalk has been attributed to a desire to reduce the amount of sand tracked into railroad cars and hotels. Although conservative interests in Atlantic City opposed the boardwalk plan, its creation was the spark that turned the place into the nation’s premier coastal resort. The first boardwalk was a modest affair, only eight feet wide. The fifth boardwalk erected in – by the Phoenix Bridge Company stood twelve feet above the sand and was sixty feet wide near the big hotels. In time, it stretched for nearly ten miles from Absecon Inlet to Longport. Also known by other names, including

promenade and esplanade, the Atlantic City structure was officially designated Boardwalk with a capital “B’’ by municipal ordinance in . Erected in other Shore communities, boardwalks developed individual characters that often became the focal point of the town. William Nelson in his  The New Jersey Coast in Three Centuries described the Atlantic City Boardwalk as “the one great resort,’’ while Asbury Park’s was “the grand plaza for the entire populace, residential and visiting.’’ Boardwalks early assumed a raffish atmosphere, a quality inferred from the name of Cape May’s “Flirtation Walk.’’ Boardwalks permitted mingling of the sexes with an openness rare in nineteenth-century America. The presence or absence of business helped shape a boardwalk’s character. Some towns, such as Spring Lake, Sea Girt, and Avon, banned amusements. The best-remembered boardwalks, some of which have endured into the twenty-first century, are the fun places, which include Asbury Park, Point Pleasant Beach, Seaside Heights, and Wildwood. There, boardwalks, often with piers extending from them, became home to rides, games of chance and so-called skill, side shows, souvenir shops, popular entertainment of the moment, and food stands. One staple, saltwater taffy, became big business when marketed as a gift and take-home souvenir. Boardwalks are vulnerable to the elements and require regular off-season maintenance through replacement of planks, accomplished at times with nonwood materials, including plastic, or the rebuilding of sections with macadamized pavement. Storms have caused regular destruction, notably in  and , while fire claimed boardwalks in Ocean City in  and Seaside Heights in . The social and lifestyle costs of a boardwalk’s

presence resulted in some towns not rebuilding following destruction. Other towns have shortened their length, as in Long Branch, where the city’s character changed from resort to residential and the boardwalk from amusement to exercise. A broken network of boardwalks exists from Raritan Bay to Cape May. Some pieces are mere short strips of planking by the shore, while others are now primarily physical fitness trails. However, amusements, supported substantially by day-tripping crowds, continue their century-long tradition at stalwart resorts such as Point Pleasant Beach, Seaside Heights, and Wildwood. The boardwalk as a state of mind exists in Keansburg, where streetlevel pavement lined with traditional amusements is still known as “the boardwalk’’ long after storms obliterated the elevated plank walkway. Cunningham, John. The New Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Roberts, Russell, and Rich Youmans. Down the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Jersey Shore; Steel Pier

Randall Gabrielan

boats. Relatively small, usually open, watercraft, boats were adapted to local conditions and requirements for work. The earliest New Jersey boat type recorded is the Lenape canoe. Referred to as a dugout, the craft was made from the hollowed-out trunk of a tree and used by the Lenapes for fishing and transportation. One surviving dugout discovered near the Hackensack River measured sixteen feet by three feet; it was made from a single piece of white oak. During the seventeenth century, Dutch explorers sighted these long wooden crafts along the waterways of New Jersey.

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By the s, log rafts were used to move goods down the Delaware River. The oarsmen, positioned fore and aft, navigated these rafts through the rapids near Trenton to the end of their journey, where the raft would be broken up and the crew would walk home. Transportation of goods down the Delaware River was vital to the success of the colony; more practical boats eventually replaced these log rafts. The Durham boat was widely used to haul freight and had the advantage of moving both up and down the waterway. Robert Durham of the Durham Iron Works in Pennsylvania designed this flat-bottomed boat. Between fortyfive and sixty feet in length, the Durham boat could haul fifteen tons of iron downriver to Philadelphia. Although mostly used for commerce, Durham boats carried General George Washington and his army across the Delaware to attack Trenton in . The Durham boat was pointed at both ends, with a forward cabin for shelter. A large rudder was used to steer the craft, and it could be fastened to either end. Oars and small square sails were used to navigate downriver and through rapids. For moving upriver, crews planted long poles, called setting poles, into the riverbed to push the boat ahead. The Durham boat was used for commerce and river transportation for a hundred years, from approximately  until . With the construction of canals in the s, river routes and the Durham boat were no longer necessary for freight transport in New Jersey. On Delaware Bay, Dutch settlers in the seventeenth century used an open workboat, known as the shallop, for whaling. The shallop was pointed at both ends and had a shallow draft, which allowed maneuverability inshore. Large rudder and tiller handles were used to steer this workboat on the bay. The shallop varied in length from eighteen to twenty-four feet and was generally made from pine, readily available in the area. The shallop was also used in the early days of oystering on Delaware Bay. The Delaware sloop was used in the colonial period for local commerce and coastal trading. The larger sloops were as much as forty-five feet in length, with a single mast. During the s, sloops were built on the upper reaches of the Maurice River. They were originally equipped with tongs and rakes, later with a dredge, for harvesting the oysters of Delaware Bay—a boat equipped with a dredge could scrape large quantities of oysters off the bottom. With the success of the dredge, the old Delaware Bay sloops were dismantled and refitted with fore and aft rigs to create schooners. The schooner had been used during the colonial period for coastal trading. The oyster boom of the late nineteenth century and the use of the dredge established the schooner as an integral part of the Delaware Bay economy. The schooner required a smaller crew yet was able to move as large a harvest as other rigs,

making this craft an excellent workboat. A schooner had a wide, stable, working platform and could easily maneuver in shallow waters; this suited it perfectly to Delaware Bay and oystering. Later schooners, often called shallop rigs, were built to handle a larger dredge and had two masts of nearly the same height. Many later schooners were built from local white oak, but the tall masts were shipped from the western United States or constructed of steel. By the s, schooners were equipped with diesel engines. With the elimination of the need for sails, the nature of dredge boats on Delaware Bay changed forever. The oyster boats on Raritan Bay were similar to those found to the north in New York Bay. The Raritan oyster skiff had full and round sides, with a V-shaped stern. Generally the skiff had a mast with two small sails fore and aft. The frames were constructed of white oak and the planks of white cedar or pine. This vessel harvested oysters in the waters between Sandy Hook and Perth Amboy during the oyster boom of the middle to late nineteenth century. The garvey, a versatile boat used in many waterways of New Jersey, was typically constructed with a white oak frame and white cedar planks. This flat-bottomed boat could be equipped with sails or oars. Rowing garveys were used in narrow streams, bays, and creeks for transportation of farm produce and for freight, fishing, and tong oystering. Sailing garveys were used in marshland and narrow creeks for hunting and fishing. The garvey’s shallow draft and flat bottom allowed it to pass through low waters and be pulled over mudflats. The length of garvey boats varied greatly in relation to their purposes: hunting skiffs were as short as twelve feet, while river garveys were as long as thirty-five feet. The Barnegat Bay sneakbox could also maneuver through the marshlands of eastern New Jersey. This lightweight, closed-deck, flatbottomed boat was recognized as an excellent hunting skiff. Originally called the “devil’s coffin,’’ the name was changed by duck hunters to reflect its ability to sneak up on resting ducks. Built from local white cedar, the sneakbox is typically twelve feet long, with a spoon-shaped bow. With only a small open cockpit, the boat could easily be camouflaged by covering the deck with meadow grass. The deck could be equipped with removable racks for storing decoys. Weighing between  and  pounds, the sneakbox could navigate in as little as four inches of water. In the winter, oak strips could be fastened to the bottom to enable ice fishing. The larger variation of the sneakbox, called the melon seed, was used for sailing on the wider, choppy waters of New Jersey bays. The quick, rough waters of the Delaware River called for a hunting skiff modeled to meet these demands. The Delaware ducker, a double-ended hunting skiff, was used for duck hunting along the river. Made from white

cedar, this half-decked boat was about sixteen feet long and could carry two hunters. The boat was rowed upriver, then sculled back down. Like the sneakbox, the half deck of the ducker could be covered with local grasses for camouflage. Along the Shrewsbury River, a specialized skiff was developed for harvesting the blue crabs from the bottom of the river, in nearby inlets, bays, and creeks. The flat-bottomed Shrewsbury crab skiff was about fifteen feet in length, with white oak frames and white cedar planks equipped with wet wells for crabs. Choppy seas, fog, and few inlets mark the northern coastal waters of New Jersey near Sandy Hook. Under these conditions, the Sea Bright skiff was safely landed and launched through the surf. Constructed from local white cedar, this boat ranged in length from eighteen to thirty-six feet and had a U-shaped transom. In the s, the Life-Saving Service began using a longer version of the vessel to tend to the many shipwrecks from the increasing New York Harbor traffic off the New Jersey coast. In the s, pound fishing became common along the shores from Long Branch to Sandy Hook, where the beach skiff was modified to accommodate the large nets used in pound fishers. The pound boat was typically twenty to twenty-four feet in length. When equipped with engines, boat length could reach up to thirty feet; a skiff of this size could handle twelve to fifteen tons of fish, depending on weather conditions. Horses were used to haul these heavy boats up the inclined shore. During Prohibition, bootleggers recognized the speed and carrying capacity of the Sea Bright skiff. Skiffs known as rumrunners could safely and quickly reach New York Harbor from the New Jersey coast. In policing efforts, the Coast Guard also utilized the beach skiff to chase down bootleggers. The demand for larger, faster boats sometimes brought both the Coast Guard and the bootleggers to the same local builders. Versions of the Sea Bright skiff are still widely used along the Jersey Shore for recreational fishing and as speedboats. New Jersey lifeguard stations still keep the beach skiffs in use as rescue boats. Chapelle, Howard I. American Small Sailing Craft. New York: W. W. Norton, . Cohen, David Steven. The Folklore and Folklife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Guthorn, Peter J. The Sea Bright Skiff and Other Jersey Shore Boats. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rolfs, Donald H. Under Sail: The Dredgeboats of Delaware Bay. Millville: Wheaton Historical Association, .

Lora Bottinelli

bobcat.

Also known as the red lynx (Lynx rufus), the bobcat is an elusive eleven-to-sixtysix-pound cat with a reddish brown coat that is barred and has black spots; its underside

Bogota is white. Its coloring is suitable for its rocky and dense vegetation habitat. The ears and tail are short (“bobbed’’), the latter with a black tip. The bobcat feeds on rodents and ground birds. Its geographic range is southern Canada to southern Mexico. In New Jersey, it was once broadly distributed and common, but its number is now greatly reduced. In  it was declared to be endangered. Recently, bobcats have been observed in various counties, and a radio telemetry program was established by the Division of Fish, Game and Wildlife to monitor them. Bean, Bruce E., and Larry Niles, eds. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Frank F. Katz

Boehm

Porcelain Studio. The Boehm Porcelain Studio in Trenton designs and makes porcelain sculpture and collectibles, examples of which are found throughout the world in museums and official residences of leaders in government, religion, the arts, and industry. These porcelain pieces are available as open stock, limited edition, or special commissions. Among the most famous commissioned sculptures is the life-size Mute Swans group called Birds of Peace, presented to Chairman Mao Tse-tung of China by U.S. president Richard Nixon in  (a duplicate is in the Smithsonian Institution). Edward Marshall Boehm (–) was a naturalist by vocation, who later became interested in making porcelain sculptures. In , he established a small studio in the basement of his Trenton home. Flowers, birds, and animals arranged in elaborate, yet delicate porcelain sculptures are the hallmark of Boehm’s work. His first sculptures, Percheron Horse and Hereford Bull, were acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

Boehm’s Sea to Shining Sea porcelain eagle.

Courtesy Boehm Porcelain, Trenton.

Aggressive marketing by Helen Boehm, his wife, and early recognition led to rapid expansion of the studio into larger quarters. The acquisitions by the Metropolitan Museum in  were important to the company’s initial success. European patronage was also key to Boehm’s public recognition. In , President and Mrs. Dwight Eisenhower presented the sculpture Prince Philip on His Polo Pony to Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip. By , Boehm porcelain sculptures had been added to the collections of a dozen museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New ´e York), Buckingham Palace (London), Elyse Palace (Paris), and the Vatican (Rome). Today, more than one hundred museums, botanical gardens, and institutions around the world display single works or large collections of Boehm porcelain sculpture. Mrs. Boehm’s  gift to the citizens of Russia, the American Bald Eagle, was placed on exhibit in the Hermitage in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). Although Edward Boehm died in , the company continues under Mrs. Boehm’s direction. Staff artists create new designs, and the company thrives by drawing on the craft skills of ceramic artisans who have remained in Trenton, which was a leading city for ceramic production in the early twentieth century. Many of the highly skilled artisans at Boehm are descendants of Trenton’s early potters. A second studio was established in Malvern, England, in , but this operation has recently closed. In , a wing of the Vatican Museum was named in memory of Edward Boehm. See also ceramic art

Ellen Paul Denker

bog iron.

Bog iron is the sedimentary deposit formed by the precipitation of dissolved iron from groundwater, especially where the porosity of sedimentary layers change. This process of iron precipitation is often mediated by the presence of bacteria. The biogeochemical process usually involves the deposition by chemical reaction of limonite or a related iron hydroxide, hardening the material into which the iron is precipitated into a rusty indurated crust. The result is a dark orange to yellowish brown sandstone that may crop out as an erosionally resistant layer in softer sediments. Bog iron was extensively mined in the Pinelands region of southern New Jersey starting in the eighteenth century. Here it was found around the edges of cedar swamps and bogs, where the iron-charged, dark brown cedar water of the Pinelands streams and rivers percolated through the bog muds and into the surrounding sands, creating a rusty encrustation. The bog iron was mined in hand-dug pits and heated in furnaces fueled by charcoal obtained by partially burning wood from the surrounding forest. Seashells were used as a source of lime for smelting the ore.

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Major centers of bog-iron smelting were at Batsto, Allaire, Martha, and other locations in the Pine Barrens. Villages and towns grew up around these operations. Some thirty of these settlements operated in the Pinelands area. A typical bog-iron smelting village contained a lime kiln, a sawmill, a charcoal production building, stamping mill, store, and housing for workers. The active period of bogiron mining was from the early s until about . Armaments for the Revolutionary War were manufactured out of smelted bog iron, but the usual products were common household items such as cooking pots, tools, and utensils. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the more concentrated iron ores of Pennsylvania and the upper Midwest put the New Jersey bog-iron industry out of business. Bog iron is not a particularly rich ore and is difficult to process, especially in large quantities, since the ore itself is of limited occurrence. The Pennsylvania iron-making industry enjoyed the advantages of larger, richer ores in close proximity to anthracite coal resources and abundant limestone deposits; these advantages made the Pennsylvania industry much more profitable. Many of the old iron furnaces switched over to making glass, but in time these operations also ceased, and today most of the old bog-iron towns are crumbling ruins in the pine forest. The exceptions are the preserved villages at Batsto and Allaire, which today attract numerous visitors. Although not of commercial quality, bogiron deposits can be found elsewhere in the state. These deposits are usually thin, localized, crusty layers at the contacts between unconsolidated sedimentary formations. Bog iron is also found precipitated as nodules, concretions, tubes, and irregular masses in a number of sedimentary environments. Sometimes these limonitic masses preserve fossils inside them, or else they form around some other seed, such as a plant root or clay ball. McPhee, John. The Pine Barrens. New York: Ballantine Books, . Pierce, Arthur D. Iron in the Pines. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also iron industry

William B. Gallagher

Bogota.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Bogota, bordered on the west by the Hackensack River, was originally a fur-trading post. Its first permanent European settlers, the Bogert and Banta families, were Dutch farmers. Development was first spurred by the two railroads and a trolley line that established stations in Bogota in the late s. The population grew from fewer than two hundred people in  to nearly four thousand by . Originally part of Hackensack Township (–), and later of Ridgefield Township (c. –), Bogota was incorporated as a borough in . Earlier names include Achter Col Colony, from the Dutch name for

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Boheme Opera

the Hackensack River, and Winckelman, after early settler Joannes Winckelman. The area began to be known as Bogota, after the Bogert family, in the s. Paper mills and paperboard manufacturing companies, located along the Hackensack River, dominated early industry. The last paper mill closed in . Bogota is now primarily residential. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . McMahon, Reginald. “The Achter Col Colony on the Hackensack.’’ New Jersey History  (winter ): –.

Susan Chore

Boheme Opera.

Founded in Trenton in  by Sandra and Joseph Pucciatti, this small opera company offers mainstream Italian and French repertoire with a homegrown feeling. It grew from a cultural cabaret group started by the Pucciattis and dubbed the “Boheme Club’’ after a favorite opera by Giacomo Puccini; eventually, the club’s shows grew to full-scale operas presented in high school auditoriums. Since , Boheme Opera’s most regular venue is the Trenton War Memorial, where it presents two mainstage productions each season. See also opera

Willa Conrad

Boiardo, Ruggiero d. Oct. , ).

(b. Dec. , ;

Organized crime boss. A gangland figure who rose to prominence during the Prohibition era, Ruggiero (“Richie the Boot’’) Boiardo outlived his contemporaries and emerged as a patriarch of organized crime in northern New Jersey. Born in Italy, Boiardo immigrated to Chicago at the turn of the century and settled in Newark around . During the s he gained control of a gambling and bootlegging syndicate in Newark’s First Ward while simultaneously establishing a reputation as a public benefactor and a figure who wielded considerable political influence. In  he waged a brief, bloody feud with rival gang leader Abner (“Longey’’) Zwillman. He survived an assassination attempt but was imprisoned for two years on weapons charges. He avoided further controversy until  when mob informant Joe Valachi identified him as a “captain’’ in the Genovese crime family. His son and alleged lieutenant, Anthony (“Tony Boy’’) Boiardo, was indicted in  with Newark mayor Hugh Addonizio on charges of bribery and corruption. A year later, the elder Boiardo was imprisoned for violating state gambling laws. In  he faced charges of murder and conspiracy in the “Great Mob Trial,’’ which for the first time sought to prove the existence of a criminal organization called La Cosa Nostra. Wiretapped

conversations portrayed Boiardo as a powerful mob boss, but failing health enabled him to escape trial. He died in  at the age of ninety-three. Immerso, Michael. Newark’s Little Italy: The Vanished First Ward. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Nash, Jay Robert. World Encyclopedia of Organized Crime. New York: Paragon House, . Rudolph, Robert C. The Boys from New Jersey: How the Mob Beat the Feds. New York: William Morrow, .

Michael Immerso

Bonaparte, Charlotte

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Mar. , ).

Artist. Charlotte Bonaparte, known as the countess de Survilliers, was the younger daughter of Joseph Bonaparte and his wife, Julie Clary. Charlotte was born at Mortefontaine, France. After the French defeat at Waterloo in , Charlotte, her older sister ´na¨ıde, and her mother moved to Brussels, Ze where Charlotte received drawing instructions from the exiled French painter Jacques-Louis David. Bonaparte remained in Europe until late , when she joined her father at his estate in Bordentown, New Jersey. She remained in Bordentown until July , when she returned to Europe to marry her first cousin, Napoleon Louis, eldest surviving son of Louis Bonaparte, former king of Holland. While living in New Jersey, Bonaparte produced numerous portraits and landscapes in pastel, watercolor, and oil. Examples of her work are at the Philadelphia Athenaeum and the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Her most important aesthetic achievement was a series of twelve landscape drawings, including several New Jersey scenes, lithographed by Michael

Jacques-Louis David, The Sisters Z´ena¨ıde and Charlotte Bonaparte, . Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.Photo copyright J. Paul Getty Museum.

Adolphe Mailliard (attributed), Joseph Bonaparte, c. . Graphite on wove paper,  ×  in. framed.

Courtesy Athenaeum of Philadelphia. Gift of Emily G. Hopkinson, 1973.

Stapleaux and published in France as Vues pittoresques de l’Am´erique (). Bonaparte died in Sarzana, Italy. Cowdrey, Mary B. “Charlotte Bonaparte, Draftsman.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (): –. Falk, Peter Hastings, ed. Annual Exhibition Record of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, – . Madison, CT: Sound View Press, .

See also art

Kenneth John Myers

Bonaparte, Joseph (b. Jan. , ; d. July , ). King of Naples and Spain and political exile. The elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, Joseph Bonaparte was the most prominent of the Napoleonic exiles who settled in the United States after the French defeat at Waterloo in . Born in Corsica and trained as a lawyer, with his brother he rose to power, serving as king of both Naples (– ) and Spain (–). When Bonaparte immigrated to the United States in August , he adopted the title count de Survilliers. In early  he moved to Bordentown, New Jersey, where he maintained a large estate overlooking the Delaware River. Known as Point Breeze, Bonaparte’s home was readily accessible from both New York and Philadelphia, and he quickly assumed an active role in the cultural life of the nation. Like a civic-minded English country gentleman, he opened Point Breeze to thousands of visitors and lent paintings and sculptures from his extensive collection of European art to numerous exhibitions. In public and private, he represented himself as having reluctantly accepted political responsibilities when they were thrust upon him but preferring the life of philosophical retirement he had found in rural America. Except for two extended trips to Europe in the s, Bonaparte lived in Bordentown until his final return to Europe in November .

book publishing Benisovich, Michel. “Sales of French Collections of Paintings in the United States during the First Half of the Nineteenth Century.’’ Art Quarterly  (): –. Connelly, Owen. The Gentle Bonaparte: A Biography of Joseph, Napoleon’s Elder Brother. New York: Macmillan, . Woodward, E. M. Bonaparte’s Park, and the Murats. Trenton: MacCrellish and Quigley, .

Kenneth John Myers

Bonfield, George Robert

(b. Feb. ,

; d. July , ).

Marine artist. George Bonfield was the son of Robert and Lydia Bonfield of Portsmouth, England. As a child he demonstrated an interest in art by sketching ships in the local harbor. In  the family immigrated to Philadelphia, where the father worked as a stone cutter. The son studied and exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and caught the attention of local artists. Bonfield also spent time copying European works at Point Breeze, the New Jersey estate of the exiled Joseph Bonaparte. The painter divided his time between Philadelphia and New Jersey, living in Burlington, Bordentown, and Beverly, the site of his Delaware River scenes. At the time of his death in  Bonfield had fallen out of prominence, but his works experienced renewed recognition in the mid-twentieth century.

Falk, Peter Hastings, ed. Who Was Who in American Art, –:  Years of Artists in America. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, . George Robert Bonfield: Philadelphia Marine Painter, –. Philadelphia: Philadelphia Maritime Museum, .

See also art

Jon Bon Jovi, Asbury Park, .

Photo: John C. Cavanaugh.

well-received album Crush and subsequent tour. Jon Bon Jovi has also released solo albums (in , Blaze of Glory and in , Destination Anywhere) and acted in such movies as U-, Moonlight and Valentino, and The Leading Man. Dome, Malcolm, and Mick Wall. Bon Jovi: In Their Own Words. New York: Omnibus Press, . Jeffries, Neil. Bon Jovi. London: Macmillan, . Wall, Mick. All Night Long . . . the True Story of Bon Jovi. New York: Omnibus Press, .

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York markets. In New Brunswick, Abraham Blauvelt (–) and later Terhune and Letson were active until about . In Morristown Jacob Mann and in Trenton Daniel Fenton operated during the same period. The typical publishing production at that time consisted of reprints of English popular literature and schoolbooks, almanacs, and religious texts. When American publishing became a national rather than a regional venture—by the s with New York as its capital—New Jersey publishers no longer played an important role. In , the first of several New York publishers to move to New Jersey was Fleming H. Revell, a large and successful evangelical and trade publishing house founded in . The company initially settled in Westwood and later moved to Old Tappan. After several ownership changes, the company is now based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In , the textbook and business publisher Prentice-Hall made the move from New York to Englewood Cliffs. Now a unit of Pearson International, the company still maintains an important New Jersey presence as does its parent company and several divisions. Other migrant companies included legal publishers Matthew Bender (Newark), business reference publishers Dun and Bradstreet (Murray Hill), Hammond World Atlas Corporation (Union), reference publishers R. R. Bowker and Marquis Who’s Who (both in New Providence), and the major Judaica publisher KTAV (Hoboken). The IEEE Press of the Society of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

See also pop music

Patrice M. Kane Jay Lustig

Bon Jovi, Jon

(b. Mar. , ). Singer, songwriter, guitarist, and actor. Jon Bon Jovi was born John Bongiovi, Jr. in Sayreville to Carol and John Bongiovi, Sr. He was educated in local public schools and married Dorothea Hurley on April , . Inspired by Shore-based acts like Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band and Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, Jon Bon Jovi played in local bands like Atlantic City Expressway, the Wild Ones, and the Rest before forming the group Bon Jovi in  with guitarist Ritchie Sambora, keyboardist David Bryan, drummer Tico Torres, and bassist Alec John Such. With its hook-filled songs, teenidol looks, and lively crowd-pleasing concerts, the band was at the forefront of the popmetal movement of the s. Its most successful album was ’s Slippery When Wet, which yielded hits like “You Give Love a Bad Name,’’ “Livin’ on a Prayer,’’ and “Wanted Dead or Alive.’’ A follow-up album, affectionately named New Jersey, was also hugely successful, led by singles “Bad Medicine,’’ “Lay Your Hands on Me,’’ and “I’ll Be There for You.’’ Although its popularity declined in the s, the band came back strong in  with the

book publishing. New Jersey is home to some  book publishers. They range widely in size and subject specialization. Although many of them are recent migrants from New York, New Jersey also counts some major original players, particularly in the scholarly and scientific fields. In its early history, book publishing in New Jersey followed the development pattern of the other mid-Atlantic states. Book publishers were either printers or booksellers by origin. The first printing presses operated under government contract to print laws and other official publications, as well as money. William Bradford, who was also the first official printer in Pennsylvania and New York, operated from Perth Amboy as early as . Among his successors was the very successful printer and publisher Benjamin Franklin. James Parker produced and sold books from  until  in Woodbridge and Burlington. After the Revolution, several important publishers emerged. Isaac Collins of Trenton published one of the first quarto Bibles in . Shepard Kollock operated in Chatham, New Brunswick, and Elizabeth, where John Woods also plied the New Jersey and the New

The first book printed in New Jersey published the Acts Adopted by the General Assembly of the Colony of New Jersey, Perth Amboy, .

Photo: Steve Andrascik. Courtesy The Star-Ledger

88

Boone, Thomas

in Piscataway and Engineering Information in Hoboken are other fairly recent transplants. In response to a sharply increased centralization of the New York publishing industry, many small new trade publishers sprang up around the country. A good New Jersey example in is New Horizon in Far Hills (). The tremendous growth of academic libraries between the s and the s spawned a new international publishing line of reprints of standard and classic texts in many scholarly fields. In New Jersey, major players were Augustus Kelley (in Clifton), specializing in economic history, Rothman (in Hackensack) in law, and Patterson Smith (in Montclair) in criminology. But scholarly and scientific publishing are the New Jersey publishing community’s original and enduring specialties. Princeton University Press was founded in  as a printing service for the university. With considerable material support from New York publisher and alumnus Charles Scribner, the press developed a substantial list of scholarly publications, including the papers of Thomas Jefferson, Woodrow Wilson, and Albert Einstein. Also on its list is the prestigious Bollingen Series, which includes the Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Rutgers University Press was founded in New Brunswick in . It had an eclectic list in the early years under the directorship of Earl Schenck Miers and former New York trade publisher William Sloane. The latter added a publishing program on New Jersey, which is still one of the press’s specialties. During the past twenty-five years, the press has built a strong list of scholarly books in the humanities and social sciences. As a by-product of the many scholarly activities at Rutgers, two other presses came to life. Scarecrow Press in neighboring Metuchen was founded in  and specializes in bibliographical and library-related texts. It recently merged with the University Presses of America and moved to Lanham, Maryland. Sociologist Irving Louis Horowitz came to Rutgers from Washington University in . He began editing the journal Transaction, and founded Transaction Publishers—now in Piscataway– which has a strong list of scholarly books and periodicals in the social sciences. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press was established in  in Madison. Also specializing in the social sciences are the commercial publishers Lawrence Erlbaum Associates in Mahwah and Information Today in Medford.

Hendrik Edelman

Boone, Thomas

(b. c. ; d. Sept. ,

). Colonial governor. Son of Charles and

Elizabeth (Garth) Boone, Thomas Boone was born at Lee Place in Kent. His father was a member of Parliament, and the son graduated from first Eton and later Trinity College. In  he was appointed governor of New Jersey. During his short term in office he persuaded

the assembly to send  soldiers to fight with Gen. Jeffrey Amherst in the Seven Years’ War. Boone owned land in South Carolina and was appointed governor of that colony in , but he returned to England in , where he spent the rest of his life. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Boonton. .-square-mile town in Morris County. The Rockaway River bisects this former iron town, which was carved out of Hanover and Pequannock townships in . Incorporated in , it was named after Thomas Boone, the royal governor of New Jersey in –. It is the second settlement called Boonton. Old Boonton, one and one-half miles downstream, was settled in , but the Morris Canal, the transportation corridor of the nineteenth century, bypassed the settlement, which declined and is now under the Jersey City Reservoir. Water running through a four-hundred-foot drop in the river between Rockaway and Montville powered early nail, nut, and other mills that manufactured objects made of iron. Original settlers were British ironworkers, mainly from Staffordshire, who were brought to Boonton to work in the many forges fueled by charcoal brought on the Morris Canal. The oldest part of town rises above the river and is called the Hill. It is known for beautiful nineteenth-century homes, and the most important architectural landmark is the Richard Upjohn Saint John’s Episcopal Church, built in . Only twenty miles from Newark and thirty from New York, Boonton was nonetheless somewhat isolated until the highway construction of the s brought an interstate highway exit virtually to its Main Street. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lyons, Isaac S. Historical Discourse on Boonton. . Centennial reprint edition. Boonton: Boonton Historical Society, .

Jane R. Primerano

Boonton Township.

-square-mile township in Morris County. Formerly part of Pequannock Township, Boonton was incorporated as a separate township in , one year after the Town of Boonton. One of the smallest Morris County municipalities, it is located in the Rockaway River Valley. The landscape is rolling and generally bucolic. There is little arable land, and in the nineteenth century agriculture was largely limited to livestock grazing. Iron mining, forges, and milling were historically important to Boonton’s economy. The Morris Canal passed through the town,

aiding its industries and farms. Among the notable villages in the municipality is Powerville. In the twentieth century, aviation electronics became an important industry. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race), and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . History of Morris County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Bordentown.

.-square-mile city in Burlington County. It is located at the confluence of the Delaware River and Crosswicks Creek; the latter divides Burlington and Mercer counties. Bordentown was first settled in  as Farnsworth Landing, and the site was purchased in  by Freehold farmer Joseph Borden. It was incorporated as a borough in  and as a city in . A Revolutionary War engagement in  saw two Continental frigates burned in Crosswicks Creek as British attackers approached and briefly shelled the city. The city later became a hub for north-south stagecoach travel. The Clara Barton School, established by the Civil War nurse and American Red Cross founder, was the first successful tax-supported school in New Jersey. Famous residents included Declaration of Independence signer Francis Hopkinson, Napoleon Bonaparte’s brother Joseph, and Persian Gulf War hero H. Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., who attended Bordentown Military Institute, which closed in . The city is known for its numerous Colonial, Georgian, and Greek revival structures, which it has, since the s, undertaken to restore and preserve. Larger commercial businesses are located along U.S. Routes  and . Throughout its history, Bordentown has been primarily residential, with a downtown commercial district. In , the city’s population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Bordentown Township.

.-squaremile township in Burlington County. Bordentown was incorporated as a township in , when it was divided from neighboring Chesterfield, and it now partially surrounds both the city of Bordentown and Fieldsboro. Originally settled by farmers, Bordentown Township remained largely agrarian well into

Boudinot, Elias the twentieth century. Dairy farms were supported by operations that grew field crops, including field corn and soybeans. The farmto-market road bisecting the community was eventually designated as U.S. . Farmland predominated into the s, with commercial and light industrial development along Routes  and . Residential neighborhoods grew between Bordentown City and the White Horse section of Hamilton Township in Mercer County. The Alfred C. Wagner Correctional Facility is located within the township. Commercial development and new residential construction accelerated rapidly with completion of a New Jersey Turnpike interchange in the s. In the late s, Interstate  was extended north through the county to the then-terminus at U.S. . Heavy truck traffic between the turnpike and the interstate led to the creation of a transportation hub with fueling, service, and warehouse facilities. The s saw a new acceleration of housing construction on former farm sites that led to a  ballot question approving a farm- and open-space preservation program. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

borders.

See boundaries

Borg, John

(b. May , ; d. May , ).

Businessman, public servant, and newspaper publisher. Raised in Union Hill in a large and struggling family, John Borg sought employment on Wall Street as a teenager and quickly earned a reputation as a savvy trader, especially of mining stocks. By his twenties Borg had earned a substantial fortune. He married Hazel Gowan, a minister’s daughter, in . In  Borg and his family moved into a mansion in Hackensack. A year later, as a civic gesture, Borg invested $, in a flagging paper in his hometown, the Bergen Evening Record. Through the s Borg gradually grew more involved in the paper’s operations and divested his interests on Wall Street. By  he was the Evening Record’s sole owner. Aggressive civic journalism, expansive sports reporting, and promotions helped fuel the growth of the Evening Record through the Depression and war years. By the time Borg handed over the publisher’s role to his son Donald in , the Evening Record had emerged as a powerful force in both Bergen County and statewide politics. Borg took satisfaction in his paper’s reputation as a crusader for good government and his close connections with state political leaders, and relished his service for three

89

(nonconsecutive) terms on the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Sherlock, Patricia. On and Off The Record. Hackensack: Bergen Record Corporation, .

See also Record, The

Michael J. Birkner

Borglum, Gutzon (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ). Sculptor. Gutzon Borglum was born John Gutzon de la Mothe Borglum in Idaho. He claimed to have grown up on the prairies sculpting animals in the mud for the amusement of his fellow cowboys. Cowboy artist or not, Borglum first earned real notice for his statues of Abraham Lincoln—one is in the rotunda of the Capitol in Washington, D.C., and another sits on a stone slab outside the Essex County Courthouse in downtown Newark. Borglum was, in fact, one of the most prolific of Lincoln sculptors, prized for his very emotional portrayals. The Essex County Lincoln, who sits on a bench and invites the visitor to do the same, is an excellent example. Borglum ramped up to the monumental sculptures that absorbed the last fifth of his life by making increasingly massive works in his New York studio. His largest bronze work by far is the Wars of America in Military Park in downtown Newark, still the largest single public statue in the state of New Jersey. Wars includes two life-size horses and forty-two fullsize human figures in a nearly fifty-foot-long composition; it is one of the largest bronzes ever cast in the United States. In the early s, Borglum conceived the massive relief of Confederate military heroes for the face of Stone Mountain, Georgia, just outside of Atlanta, but he abandoned the project. In  he began work on Mount Rushmore but he died before it was entirely realized. His son, Lincoln, brought it to a rough completion after his death. Gutzon’s younger brother, Solon, sculpted the two buffaloes and two grizzly bears in Jersey City’s Leonard J. Gordon Park. Sited in  without pedestals on the park’s grassy lawns, they are still sitting there today under a thick shell of institutional paint. They have been childhood favorites for generations. Bzdak, Meredith Arms. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Price, Willadene. Gutzon Borglum: Artist and Patriot. Chicago: Rand McNally, .

See also sculpture

Dan Bischoff

Botto House National Landmark. See American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark.

Boudinot, Elias

(b. May , ; d. Oct.

, ). Congressman, politician, military of-

ficer, and philanthropist. Elias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia, the son of Elias Boudinot III, silversmith and postmaster, and Catherine Williams. He attended the Academy of

Thomas Sully, Elias Boudinot, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Pennsylvania, studied law, and became a practicing attorney in . As a lawyer involved in mercantilist and real estate ventures, he acquired great wealth. In  Boudinot married Hannah Stockton. On the eve of the Revolutionary War Boudinot served on the New Jersey Committee of Correspondence and as chairman of the Committee of Safety. He sat in the New Jersey Provincial Congress in . Briefly in  he was aide-de-camp to William Livingston, who commanded the New Jersey militia. On January , , he was named a colonel and the commissary of prisoners; and during his year’s service, he negotiated prisoner exchanges and worked to improve conditions of American prisoners. From  to  and  to , Boudinot was a delegate to the Continental Congress and president of the Congress from  to . In  he served as interim secretary for foreign affairs. Boudinot served three terms in the House of Representatives, from  to , where he supported Alexander Hamilton’s fiscal program. In  Boudinot became the director of the U.S. Mint. Retiring from public service in , Boudinot devoted himself to biblical studies. He published four books with religious themes, including one in which he claimed American Indians were descended from Jews of the Diaspora. Boudinot was a trustee of the College of New Jersey (–) and founded and endowed the American Bible Society (), serving as its first president. Boudinot donated considerable sums to charity. He founded and endowed the Indian School at Cornwall, Connecticut. A future Cherokee Indian chief who attended the Indian School changed his own

Boudinot, Rachel Bradford

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name to that of Elias Boudinot. Having resided at Elizabethtown and Basking Ridge, Boudinot died at his last house in Burlington. Respected as an able statesman, Boudinot had two foremost traits, acquisitiveness and piety.

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Boudinot, Elias. The Life, Public Services, Addresses, and Letters of Elias Boudinot. Edited by J. J. Boudinot.  vols. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

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Boyd, George A. Elias Boudinot: Patriot and Statesman, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

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Schwarz, Philip J. The Jarring Interests: New York’s Boundary Markers, –. Albany: State University of New York Press, .

DAB.

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See also American Revolution

Harry M. Ward

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Constance Killian Escher and Claire Meyer

boundaries. New Jersey, like many of the American colonies, experienced discord and a number of longstanding controversies concerning the exact location of its boundaries. Confusion over a border often benefited one colony over another, and this was certainly true of the conflict between New York and New Jersey. From the granting of the charter for New Jersey in , the leaders of New York were conscious of the loss of very valuable territory. Unfortunately for New Jersey, the charter had been granted based on an inaccurate map created by the Dutch cartographer Nicholas Visscher in . The charter established the northern border of New Jersey at the northernmost branch of the Delaware River, at  degrees  minutes north latitude, even though no branch of the Delaware existed there. Politically powerful New York tried to benefit until a royal commission established the border farther south, at its modern location, in , although it was not until  that the first comprehensive and accurate survey was completed. The lack of a confirmed northern border also affected the positioning of the border between East Jersey and West Jersey, causing more controversy and confusion within the colony.

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Philanthropist. The daughter of the patrician Bradfords of Philadelphia, Rachel married Elisha Boudinot of Newark and raised his six children from a previous marriage. She was her extended family’s nurse, tending members through yellow fever. Seeing the need for care in the larger community, Boudinot founded a private welfare agency, the Female Society for the Relief of Poor and Distressed Persons in the Village of Newark, which numbered , members by . Renamed the Newark Female Charitable Society, it celebrated its centennial in  and continues to serve as the Newark Day Center for Older People, at the corner of Hill and Halsey streets.

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d. June , ).

Matthew J. Weismantel

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Boudinot, Rachel Bradford (b. ;

PENNSYLVANIA

connected to the New Jersey shoreline, and New Jersey argued that this land was now under its jurisdiction. A Supreme Court review in the s established that the original charter clearly showed that New Jersey had no title to any portion of the bed or bay of the Delaware River, including any islands. Thus these former islands were judged to be under the jurisdiction of the state of Delaware, and continue to create several interesting anomalies on New Jersey state maps.

WEST JERSEY

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@Rutgers, The State University

Settlement continued in the disputed areas during this time of controversy and resulted in violence as property owners attempted to clarify conflicting claims. Contributing greatly to this tension was New York’s aggressive granting of lands in the disputed area in the hope of establishing a de facto border. The northern border was not the only area in which New York and New Jersey came into conflict. The New Jersey charter had also transferred lands west of Long Island and Manhattan Island “bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by the Hudson’s river.’’ New York expected control over the entire Hudson River, but New Jersey argued, as a coequal colony and later as a state, that the middle of the river should represent the border. An  agreement drew the border down the middle of the river, with New York controlling all islands and New Jersey having control of all underwater rights. This issue would resurface with the controversy over Ellis Island. The case was decided in  by the U.S. Supreme Court in New Jersey’s favor, ruling that only the . acres of the original Ellis Island falls under New York’s jurisdiction, while the remainder of approximately  acres of landfill belongs to New Jersey. A similar border conflict between the states of New Jersey and Delaware also concerned jurisdiction over river islands close to New Jersey’s shore. With changing tides and water levels, some of these islands had become

Bound Brook. .-square-mile borough in Somerset County. The land on which Bound Brook now stands was purchased from the Lenape tribe for £ worth of goods in . At the time of the American Revolution, when troops under Gen. George Washington camped in the municipality, Bound Brook was home to only thirty-five families. The construction of five railroad lines in the nineteenth century allowed Bound Brook industries to prosper, and the population swelled to , by . Incorporated as a borough in , Bound Brook is now a predominantly residential community with a central shopping district located near the train station and brook. In September , fourteen-foot floodwaters, spawned by Hurricane Floyd, damaged  businesses and more than  homes, causing $ million worth of damage. Called “a cataclysmic event’’ by New Jersey’s governor Christie Whitman, the flood left hundreds displaced and two people dead before its waters receded. In  the town’s , residents were  percent white,  percent other, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Stratford, Dorothy, and Margaret McKay. Bound Brook. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Nicholas Turse

Bourke-White, Margaret

(b. June ,

; d. Aug. , ). Photojournalist. Named

one of the ten most prominent women in the United States in , Margaret Bourke-White spent her childhood in Bound Brook, where she graduated from high school. Her photographs of industry, people, and history in the making around the world filled the pages of Fortune and Life magazines from the s to the s, when Parkinson’s disease forced her retirement. Her photographic work in New Jersey included a series on Frank “Boss’’ Hague, Jersey City’s mayor, which appeared in Life on February , . Bourke-White also produced ten books, three coauthored by her second husband, Erskine Caldwell. Her most influential book, You Have Seen Their Faces (), is about southern tenant farmers.

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Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Opitz, Glenn B., ed. Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, .

See also art

Lorraine Ash

boxing.

Margaret Bourke-White (attributed), Margaret Bourke-White atop the Chrysler Building, New York, . Gelatin silver print.

Courtesy Estate of Margaret Bourke-White. Margaret-BourkeWhite Papers, Syracuse University Library, Special Collections Research Center.

Callahan, Sean, ed. The Photographs of Margaret Bourke-White. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, . Goldberg, Vicki. Margaret Bourke-White: A Biography. New York: Harper and Row, . Silverman, Jonathan. For the World to See: The Life of Margaret Bourke-White. New York: Viking, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Boutelle, DeWitt Clinton , ; d. Nov. , ).

(b. Apr.

Painter. DeWitt Clinton Boutelle, named for the father of the Erie Canal, was born in Troy, New York, and painted portraits and landscapes in New York City as early as the s. He had no formal art education, but came under the influence of Asher Brown Durand and Thomas Cole. During his career he painted along the Hudson River, in the Catskills, in New Jersey, and on the Susquehanna River, depicting

the press of European civilization against the wilderness, usually represented by a Native American. The Indian Hunter of , typical of his work, shows a native atop a hill surveying an Anglo-Saxon settlement in a valley. In  and  Boutelle lived in Basking Ridge, where he sketched natural landscapes, including Winter on the Passaic, which were later exhibited. He spent the second half of his life in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design in  and a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in . Boutelle is best known for finishing one painted set in Cole’s series The Voyage of Life. Boime, Albert. The Magisterial Gaze: Manifest Destiny and American Landscape Painting, c. –. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

Fighting sports in colonial New Jersey were largely imported by British soldiers and sailors. One of the earliest accounts of a match in America dates from , when two seamen in Perth Amboy boxed outside a tavern, one of them suffering fatal injuries. As street life and a working class developed in New York City in the early s, bare-knuckle boxing became a spectator sport, often featuring the favored fighters of rival ethnic groups and neighborhood gangs. Boxers would cross the Hudson River to hold their matches in still-rural New Jersey, where they could avoid the authorities. The first prizefight on record in New Jersey was fought near Belleville in  between “The American Phenomenon,’’ Jim Sanford, and Ned Hammond, an Englishman; a sheriff’s posse broke it up. A bout in Weehawken in  ended in a melee, prompting the New Jersey legislature to ban “the degrading practice of prize fighting’’ a month later. It was the nation’s first antiboxing legislation. Despite the official prohibition, boxing continued surreptitiously. The adoption of the Marquis of Queensbury rules in the late s (padded gloves, three-minute rounds, a tensecond count before a knockout was declared) led to a less gory, more respectable fight game. Legal “sparring exhibitions’’ gained a wide audience, and boxers learned their craft in local gymnasiums. In , Thomas A. Edison’s laboratory in West Orange was the site of the first sporting event recorded on film, an exhibition bout won by heavyweight champion “Gentleman Jim’’ Corbett. Prizefighting was legalized in  and placed under the supervision of a state athletic board. In  heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey knocked out French challenger Georges Carpentier in Jersey City. Promoted by the legendary Tex Rickard, the fight was the first heavyweight bout to be broadcast on radio and the first to earn a million-dollar gate. Jersey City, Paterson, Trenton, Atlantic City, and Newark (the site of middleweight title bouts in  and ) were important cities for arena matches. Champions emerged from New Jersey’s ethnic neighborhoods: Irish Americans Freddie Cochrane and James Braddock (heavyweight champion from  to ), Italian Americans Tony Zale and “Two-Ton’’ Tony Galento, and African Americans Ike Williams and Jersey Joe Walcott (heavyweight champion from  to  and later state athletic commissioner). More recent New Jersey–born boxers have included Chuck “the Bayonne Bleeder’’ Wepner, “Marvelous’’ Marvin Hagler, and Bobby Czyz.

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Boxwood Hall a member of the New Jersey delegation to the Constitutional Convention and later Speaker of the House and a U.S. senator, lived in the house from  to . In  Boxwood Hall was deeded to the state. It was designated a National Historic Landmark and a New Jersey State Historic Site in . The New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry maintains and operates the property. Boyd, George Adams. Elias Boudinot: Patriot and Statesman, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Thayer, Theodore. As We Were: The Story of Old Elizabethtown. Elizabeth: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also historic sites

Evelyn Stryker Lewis

Boyden, Seth , ).

DeWitt Clinton Boutelle, Waterfall, th century. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1967 The Edward F. Assmus Fund. Photo: Armen, 1975.

Television and urban decay were blamed for declining attendance at matches during the s. However, the arrival of gambling casinos in Atlantic City in  lured multimillion-dollar prizefights back to New Jersey. Heavyweight champions Mike Tyson, Evander Holyfield, and Lennox Lewis have all defended their titles at Atlantic City, and through the s only Las Vegas was the site of more professional boxing bouts. Revelations of mob influence, as well as suspected rigging of boxers’ rankings, have periodically bruised the sport’s reputation. In , the State Commission of Investigation urged that boxing be banned because of the scandals and the medical danger. Its recommendation was turned down, but the state established a new Athletic Control Board and instituted fitness rules for boxers that are recognized as the strictest in the nation. New Jersey State Commission of Investigation. Organized Crime in Boxing: Final Boxing Report of the State

of New Jersey Commission of Investigation. Trenton: the Commission, .

See also sports

Jon Blackwell

Boxwood Hall.

Built c.  by Elizabethtown mayor Samuel Woodruff, Boxwood Hall is associated with numerous persons and events of the Revolutionary War and early Republic. Just before the Revolution, Alexander Hamilton boarded at Boxwood Hall while attending school in Elizabethtown. From  to  it was the home of American statesman Elias Boudinot, who delivered a eulogy for James Caldwell, slain pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, from its steps in . In – Boudinot served as president of the Continental Congress when it ratified the treaty of peace with England. On April , , Boxwood Hall hosted George Washington as he departed New Jersey for his presidential inauguration in New York City. Jonathan Dayton,

(b. Nov. , ; d. Mar.

Inventor. Boyden was a native of Foxborough, Massachusetts. His father, also called Seth, a farmer and the proprietor of a forge and machine shop, invented a leathersplitting machine and received many awards for contributing to advances in agriculture. Tradition has it that Boyden’s maternal grandfather, Uriah Atherton, had cast the first cannon in America. Boyden’s younger brother, Uriah, was an inventor as well and eventually worked as an engineer for the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company, developing the firm’s hydraulic works in Manchester, New Hampshire. Boyden had little formal education. Even so, in his youth he became an adept mechanic and was held in high regard as a repairer of timepieces and guns. By the time Boyden was twenty-one, he had designed machines for making nails and cutting files. In  Boyden left Foxborough for Newark, taking a leather-splitting machine with him and providing sheepskins and leather to bookbinders in the city. In the following years he drew on his mechanical and creative background to take advantage of opportunities created by increasing industrialization in Newark. After studying how Europeans made ornamental leather, Boyden, in , established the first factory in the United States for making patent leather. His first year’s sales amounted to $,; five years later they had more than doubled to $,. He then focused on the manufacture of malleable cast iron. In  the Franklin Institute gave him an award for its production, and three years later he secured the first patent for the material. He then sold his patent leather factory and turned his attention to the commercial production of malleable iron. Boyden continued his multifaceted career as a manufacturer and businessman by making locomotives, though he built only three. He then turned his attention to stationary steam engines and perfected a method whereby steam was used more efficiently. In  Boyden produced “Russia’’ sheet-iron. Later in life, he invented a hat-forming machine, and in  he published an article on

Braddock, James J. new fabric (a forerunner of spandex), and sold his patents and mill in  to the Jantzen swimwear company. By the s Boyer was devoting much of his time to recording and preserving Camden history. He wrote more than a dozen pamphlets, monographs, and books, including the five-volume Annals of Camden (–) and Early Forges and Furnaces of New Jersey (). Boyer served as longtime president of the Camden County Historical Society and with his wife, Anna DeRousse Boyer, donated much of the society’s rare books and collections. He died in Moorestown. Boyer, Charles S. The Span of a Century: A Chronological History of the City of Camden. Camden: Centennial Anniversary Committee, .

Jon Blackwell

Boy Scouts of America.

Seth Boyden.

Courtesy Newark Public Library.

atmospheric electricity. In addition, Boyden developed oroide, an alloy comprised of copper, zinc, and tin used in imitation gold jewelry. Curiously enough, this endeavor followed an unsuccessful venture to the California gold fields that had recently been discovered by New Jersey native James W. Marshall. In other very different areas, Boyden was instrumental in developing the well-known Hilton strawberry, made the first daguerreotype in the United States, and helped Samuel F. B. Morse perfect the telegraph. Seth Boyden died in Irvington, New Jersey. His eulogist, the Rev. A. A. Thayer, observed that Boyden’s discoveries had lightened the labors of nearly every family in the country and that people everywhere felt the touch of his genius even though they may not have known him. Echoing those who held Boyden in high esteem, Thomas A. Edison once remarked that Boyden was one of America’s greatest inventors. In  Boyden’s friends erected a monument in his remembrance in Newark’s Washington Park, and thirty-five years later his admirers added a new bronze tablet to the site. Boyden, Seth. “Seth Boyden’s Days in California, –, Extracts from His Diary.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society, n.s.  (): –, –; n.s.  (): –. DAB. Shaw, William H. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

See also leather industry

E. Richard McKinstry

Boyer, Charles Shimer (b. May , ; d. Nov. , ).

Industrialist and historian. Born in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania, Charles Boyer worked in the family-owned B. F. Boyer Worsted Mill in Camden, New Jersey, before becoming company president. He combined elastic thread with woolen cloth to invent a

In the late nineteenth century, as England and the United States became more urban and industrial, concerns arose in both countries about youth gangs in the cities and “lost masculinity’’— the increase in desk jobs for men and the expansion of possible roles for women that the new economic order was bringing about. In England Lord Robert Baden-Powell, a Boer War hero concerned about the preparation of young men for the military, started the British Boy Scouts. In the United States, Canadian Ernest Thompson Seton began a group emphasizing the “woodcraft’’ skills of the American Indians, and Daniel Carter Beard started a group called the Sons of Daniel Boone. These movements coalesced in , when Boy Scout groups were created in the United States. Several of these were in New Jersey. By  the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) had a charter from Congress and the organization was spreading rapidly. Camping was a part of the Scout movement from the beginning. In  an experimental camp was created at Dudley Island in Sussex County, and by  a permanent site, Camp Glen Gray, had been established at Lake Vreeland. Campgrounds created in the state’s northern mountains during the following years have mostly disappeared as the state’s population has expanded. The national headquarters of the BSA, originally located in New York City, was moved to New Brunswick in . In  it moved to Irving, Texas, reflecting the shift of the organization’s center to the South and West. In the s the organization faced a number of suits by atheists, gays, and girls, who were all excluded from membership. The BSA insisted that as a private group it had the right to control its own membership. The New Jersey Supreme Court rejected this view, but the United States Supreme Court upheld it on appeal in BSA v. Dale (). In response some school districts in the state have refused to permit the Scouts to use their facilities. The number of Scouts, from Cubs to Eagles, has varied over time. In  there were seven Boy Scout councils in the state: Burlington

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County, Northern New Jersey, Patriot’s Path, Southern New Jersey, Jersey Shore, Monmouth, and Central New Jersey. The total membership in New Jersey was ,.

Maxine N. Lurie

Boy Scouts of America v. Dale. This controversial decision from the U.S. Supreme Court involved the efforts of a Rutgers graduate, James Dale, to gain reinstatement to the Boy Scouts after that organization expelled him from his position as an assistant scoutmaster because of Dale’s admitted homosexual orientation. Dale had gained a unanimous vote in his favor from the New Jersey Supreme Court in . That court ruled that Dale’s exclusion solely because of sexual orientation violated the New Jersey Law against Discrimination (LAD). By a vote of five to four the high court reversed. Chief Justice William Rehnquist held that as a private voluntary organization, the Boy Scouts possessed a First Amendment right of “expressive association’’ that protected it from being forced to “accept a member it does not desire.’’ The dissent emphasized that Dale was expelled for sexual orientation, not sexual conduct, and New Jersey law forbids discrimination based upon sexual orientation. Moreover, the minority argued, the majority erred by simply accepting the Boy Scouts’ contention without any further inquiry or analysis by the court. Such conduct, wrote Justice John Stevens in dissent, “is even more astonishing in the First Amendment area.’’ Flynn, Taylor. “Don’t Ask Us to Explain Ourselves, Don’t Tell Us What to Do: The Boy Scouts’ Exclusion of Gay Members and the Necessity of Independent Judicial Review.’’ Stanford Law and Policy Review  (winter ): –.

See also lesbians, gays, and bisexuals

Jonathan Lurie

Brackett, Cyrus Fogg

(b. Jun. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Physicist and physician. Born

on a farm in Parsonfield, Maine, Cyrus Brackett graduated from Bowdoin College () and the Bowdoin Medical School (). In  Brackett assumed the new chair in physics at Princeton University, named in Joseph Henry’s honor. While at Princeton, he founded the University’s electrical engineering department. Through his work, he formed close associations with Thomas A. Edison and Alexander Graham Bell. He is credited with installing the first telephone line in Princeton, and his lecture room was the first classroom in America with electric lighting. Condit, Kenneth H. Cyrus Fogg Brackett (–) of Princeton: Pioneer in Electrical Engineering Education. New York: Newcomen Society in North America, . Leitch, Alexander. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Kristine J. Marconi

Braddock, James J. d. Nov. , ).

(b. Dec. , ;

Heavyweight boxer. James Braddock grew up in North Bergen and was

94

Bradford, Cornelia Foster

amateur light heavyweight champion of New Jersey before turning professional at age twenty-one. After a series of defeats and injuries, Braddock gave up prizefighting in  to work as a longshoreman on the Hudson River docks. He came back the next year, however, and three surprise victories in a row made him a contender. His fifteen-round defeat of Max Baer on June , , gave him the heavyweight title and is ranked among the greatest upsets in boxing; Damon Runyon nicknamed him “Cinderella Man.’’ Braddock lost his crown to Joe Louis in . He died in North Bergen in . See also boxing

Jon Blackwell

Bradford, Cornelia Foster

(b. Dec.

, ; d. Jan. , ). Social worker and re-

former. The daughter of Benjamin and Mary Amory Bradford, whose New York State residences were stopping places for slaves escaping via the Underground Railroad, Cornelia Bradford was raised to believe that people were their brothers’ and sisters’ keepers. As a young woman, she was deeply affected by the plight of iron miners near Chester, New Jersey, where her father was pastor of the Congregational Church. Later she taught and lectured on history, literature, and travel while attending European universities and visiting England’s new settlement houses. When she returned to the United States, Bradford became an associate of Jane Addams at HullHouse in Chicago. Arriving in Jersey City in December , Bradford established New Jersey’s first settlement house on Grand Street in Jersey City; Whittier House was named after the Quaker poet John Greenleaf Whittier.

Whittier House rapidly became a success, particularly among immigrants, who would outnumber the native-born in Jersey City before . Bradford’s brother Amory, a noted Congregational minister in Montclair, provided financial assistance and later summer outings for children. Whittier House opened the first playground in Jersey City, sponsored classes, and started clubs, including the first women’s club in Jersey City, and established the first free kindergarten. Bradford’s legal aid society, the “poor man’s lawyer,’’ was based on English models. Bradford helped lead New Jersey to major reforms. Her  exploration of conditions in glass factories in southern New Jersey led to the formation of the Child Protective League, an attempt to pass a child labor bill, and the establishment of a watchdog child labor agency. Whittier House residents played key roles in the passing of a state tenement housing code. Bradford’s New Jersey Association of Neighborhood Workers, created in March , served as a clearinghouse for legislative lobbyists for the ten-hour workday for women, a juvenile court system, and woman suffrage. Whittier House Settlement, directed by Cornelia Bradford, sponsored many reforming groups, including the Hudson County Tuberculosis Association, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, the North American Civic League, and the New Jersey State Bureau of Immigration. In  Bradford served on Jersey City’s Board of Education. Bradford was honored at celebrations marking Whittier House’s twentieth and twenty-fifth anniversaries, and in  was awarded an honorary M.A. by the New Jersey College for Women, now Douglass College. James, Edward T., ed. Notable American Women, –: A Biographical Dictionary. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Whittier House

Ella Handen

Bradley, Joseph , ).

Cornelia Foster Bradford.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

(b. Mar. , ; d. Jan.

Attorney and U.S. Supreme Court justice. Born near Albany, New York, the eldest of twelve children, Joseph Bradley spent his early years as part of a typical, large, rural farm family, filled with “plowing . . . clearing land and burning wood . . . and peddling charcoal.’’ He abandoned his plans to become a grocer when a former teacher arranged for him to attend Rutgers College, from which he graduated in . Described as “a desperately serious young man,’’ Bradley decided to study law, largely with himself as the instructor. Rigorous in his preparation, he studied admiralty and Roman law, as well as the origins and contents of British common law. He passed the bar in , and for the next thirty years centered his life and legal career in Newark.

Joseph Bradley.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

He married Mary Hornblower, the daughter of the New Jersey Supreme Court’s chief justice, worked as an actuary and legislative correspondent, and slowly built up a successful law practice by specializing in patent, corporate, and commercial law. As was true of Abraham Lincoln and many other members of the newly formed Republican party, Bradley saw no inconsistency in supporting the demise of slavery and the survival of the federal Union, while at the same time contemplating little change in racial attitudes toward blacks. By –, Bradley had gathered support from a broad spectrum of state politicians for nomination to the U.S. Supreme Court. Although not one of U. S. Grant’s original choices for the two seats open in , the president ultimately appointed him in February . He served for almost twenty-two years. Bradley had one of the strongest intellects on the Court. He brought added strength to his decisions through practical experience in the business world and his interests in math, natural science, and philosophy. But he was equally at home exploring the commerce clause, expounding on a fair rate of return for a railroad, or discussing the incredibly intricate issues of patent litigation, an area on which he often spoke for the Court. Bradley was an outstanding technician of the law, but in areas such as civil rights (areas that now seem more important than interstate commerce), with his own understandable but still unfortunate biases against women and blacks, on occasion he was unable to transcend the limits of his own time, something that a truly great jurist must be able to do. See, for example, his opinions in Bradwell v.

Branchville Illinois (), or his decision for the Court in the Civil Rights cases (). On the other hand, in Boyd v. United States, Bradley explored the scope of the Fourth and Fifth Amendments to the Constitution, arguing that “illegitimate and unconstitutional practices get their first footing . . . by slight deviations from legal modes of procedure.. . . It is the duty of courts to be watchful for the constitutional rights of the citizen, and against any stealthy encroachments thereon.’’ The second New Jersey resident to sit on the High Court, upon his death, Bradley was accurately described as “a man of profound and varied learning, legal acumen, and moral rectitude.’’ Whether that is sufficient to make him great depends on the perspective each generation takes on its legal past. ANB. DAB. Fairman, Charles. “The Education of a Justice: Justice Bradley and Some of His Colleagues.’’ Stanford Law Review  (): –. ———. “What Makes a Great Justice: Mr. Justice Bradley and the Supreme Court, –.’’ Boston University Law Review  (): –. Lurie, Jonathan. “Mr. Justice Bradley: A Reassessment.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): –.

See also law

Jonathan Lurie

Bradley Beach. .-square-mile borough located between Ocean Grove and Avon-bythe-Sea in Monmouth County. In  William Bradner and James A. Bradley purchased the seventy-four-acre Brown farm located south of Duck Pond (now Fletcher Lake). This purchase formed the nucleus of a community named in honor of Bradley, the founder of Asbury Park. Incorporated as a borough in  when it separated from Neptune Township, Bradley Beach was further enlarged in , when a special local election annexed a small eastern portion of Neptune City. As with other self-contained Shore communities, the beach is one of the major attractions for summer tourists. Bradley Beach has the reported distinction of having been, in the late s, the first resort in the nation to charge admission to fenced-in public beaches. Recent neighborhood renovations include the replacement of the wooden boardwalk with bricks, the construction of a Victorian-style band gazebo, and the restoration of an art deco water fountain. Other changes include Victorian streetlights and sidewalk bricks on Main Street and a refurbishing of the Borough Square. The borough has a mix of single-family houses, townhouses, and apartment complexes, with commercial and service buildings along State Highway . There are , housing units in the borough, with  (. percent) of them available for seasonal use. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in 

was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ayres, Shirley, and G. C. Crawford. Bradley Beach. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

Brainerd, David (b. Apr. , ; d. Oct. John Brainerd (b. Feb. ,

, ) and

; d. Mar. , ). Presbyterian clergymen

and Indian missionaries. David and John were born in Haddam, Connecticut, to Hezekiah and Dorothy Brainerd. They were orphaned in their teenage years. In  David enrolled at Yale College and was an active campus proponent of the evangelical spirit associated with the widespread revival known as the First Great Awakening. He was eventually expelled from the college for reputedly saying that a tutor had “no more grace than a chair.’’ David was eventually ordained by the Presbytery of New York and appointed as a missionary of the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge (SSPCK). He ministered to American Indians in several states, but his greatest achievement occurred in a community of Delaware Indians at Crossweeksung (Crosswicks), New Jersey. He led a religious revival there and baptized thirty-eight converts with whom he formed a community of Christians at Bethel, near Cranbury. David’s journal, which described his activities among the Indians, was published in  by his colleague and mentor, the Rev. Jonathan Edwards of Northampton, Massachusetts. One year later, he died of complications related to tuberculosis. John Brainerd, a  graduate of Yale, continued his brother’s ministry. He served as an SSPCK-appointed missionary to the Indians who resided on the newly formed Brotherton reservation in Burlington County. He preached regularly in Presbyterian churches throughout the state, served as a chaplain in the Seven Years’ War, and settled down as the minister of the Deerfield (New Jersey) Presbyterian Church, where he remained until his death. Brainerd, John. The Journal of the Rev. John Brainerd from January  to October . Toms River: New Jersey Courier, . Brainerd, Thomas. The Life of John Brainerd, the Brother of David Brainerd, and His Successor as Missionary to the Indians of New Jersey. New York: A.D.F. Randolph, . Edwards, Jonathan. The Life of David Brainerd. In The Works of Jonathan Edwards, ed. Norman Pettit, vol. . New Haven: Yale University Press, . Wynbeek, David. David Brainerd: Beloved Yankee. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, .

John Fea

Branchburg.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Bounded on three sides by the North and South branches of the Raritan River (whence its name), Branchburg was settled by the Dutch about . It remained part of Bridgewater Township until April , . Early communities in the township date

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back to the s. North Branch was laid out in ; the Dutch Reformed Church dates from . Neshanic Station, another early attempt at municipal planning, dates from the s. Across the South Branch from Neshanic in Hillsborough Township, Neshanic Station was a depot on the Central and Lehigh Valley railroads, which built passenger and freight stations there in the late nineteenth century. Half the village burned to the ground in a  fire. An unusual lenticular or parabolic truss bridge at Elm Street, built in , is one of only two in the state. Still semirural after decades of development, Branchburg is home to Raritan Valley Community College, a two-year college in North Branch. Farms stand cheek by jowl with housing developments and industrial parks astride the Raritan Valley Line of New Jersey Transit. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Somerset County. Somerville: Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Branchville.

.-square-mile borough in western Sussex County. Branchville was set off from Frankford Township in . Located on Culver Brook, a branch of the Paulinskill, by the early nineteenth century it became an important milling center for the surrounding agricultural district. Mills processed lumber, wool, and grain. The Sussex Railroad reached the village in , which led to the construction of creameries. In , one of the first hydroelectric generating plants in the state was constructed here; the plant now serves as an antiques shop. The Garris Center, operated by the Culver Brook Restoration Foundation, is a local museum and theater. Culver’s Lake, to the west, was a notable nineteenth-century summer resort and is now a major lake community. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hartman, Dorothy W., ed. Branchville, New Jersey, –. Branchville: Culver Brook Restoration Foundation, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

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Brandle, Theodore

Brandle, Theodore (b.; d. ).

Labor leader. Once the czar of construction labor in northern New Jersey, Theodore Brandle achieved his share of successes in union organizing and a great deal of unwelcome notoriety. He played a significant part in the development of downtown Jersey City, especially the Journal Square area, and in the building of the Pulaski Skyway. Brandle was a close friend and political ally of Jersey City’s mayor Frank Hague and owed much of his career to Hague’s patronage. In the end, however, Hague deserted Brandle. Brandle was an ironworker in , and because of his connections he rose quickly to become the business agent of Jersey City’s Iron Workers Local. In  he was made president of the Iron League of New Jersey (an employers and manufacturers group) and simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Building Trades Council (NJSBTC). His involvement on both the employee and employer sides of the construction business was tailor-made for the charges of collusion that eventually led to his downfall. In  Brandle was convicted of income tax fraud, among other charges, which led to a steady decline in his fortunes. Hague repudiated him, and the Iron Workers Union ousted him from its membership. He was also forced to resign from the NJSBTC. Although he vowed a comeback, his career was essentially finished by the mids.

Robert C. Nelson

Brattain, Walter H.

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Physicist and inventor. Walter H. Brattain was born in Amoy, China, the son of Ross R. and Ottilie Houser Brattain. He received a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Minnesota in . Brattain joined Bell Labs in  and transferred to its new Murray Hill campus in . Together with John Bardeen and William Shockley, Brattain invented the transistor, the fundamental device underlying all modern solid-state electronics, in . The three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in . Braun, Ernest, and Stuart MacDonald. Revolution in Miniature: The History and Impact of Semiconductor Electronics. d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also transistor

Sheldon Hochheiser

Brearly, David

(b. June , ; d. Aug. ,

). Lawyer, Revolutionary War officer, and

chief justice of New Jersey. David Brearly was the son of David Brearly, Sr., who farmed near Trenton, and Mary Clark. His early educational path is unknown. Upon completing legal studies, Brearly practiced in Allentown. He was appointed Monmouth County surrogate in  and .

Brearly entered active militia service as a captain on October , , and rose to the rank of colonel in less than a year. He joined the New Jersey Brigade of the Continental Army, was commissioned lieutenant colonel on November , , and fought in the battles and skirmishes of the New Jersey– Pennsylvania campaigns of –; he also served with his brigade in the Sullivan Indian expedition of . Brearly resigned from the army on August , , after the state legislature elected him chief justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey earlier that summer. He lost an election for governor the following year. As chief justice, Brearly delivered the court’s opinion in Holmes v. Walton () that overturned New Jersey laws requiring six-man juries on grounds that such laws contradicted the state constitution, which required jury trials, and state tradition, which held that there should be twelve jurymen. The case established the important precedent of judicial review, that organic law is superior to statute law, and influenced the shaping of U.S. constitutional law. A delegate to the Constitutional Convention in , Brearly helped to sponsor the New Jersey Plan; he opposed proportionate representation. He chaired the committee on postponed matters and overall had a moderating influence on the convention. He served as a boundary commissioner and a presidential elector. He died shortly after assuming an appointment to the U.S. District Court for New Jersey.

Joseph Jacobs

Brendan T. Byrne State Forest. Originally known as Lebanon State Forest, the forest was renamed in honor of former governor Byrne in . This ,-acre state forest in Burlington County surrounds the site of the former Lebanon Glass Works. Established in , the Glass Works was once a thriving industrial complex. It was abandoned in  after the surrounding forest (used to fuel the furnace) was depleted. State acquisition of the land began in , and many of the evergreen stands that remain today were planted during the Great Depression by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Also within the forest is Whitesbog Village, a former cranberry- and blueberry-producing company town founded in the s. Once one of the biggest cranberry farms in the state, Whitesbog was the birthplace of the commercial highbush blueberry. See also state forests

Fred J. Aun

Brennan, William J., Jr.

(b. Apr. ,

; d. July , ). Attorney, justice of the

DAB. McCormick, Richard P. Experiment in Independence: New Jersey in the Critical Period, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Scott, Austin. “Holmes v. Walton: The New Jersey Precedent.’’ American Historical Review  (– ): –.

Harry M. Ward

Brecht, George

rules. In –, George Maciunus appropriated many of Brecht’s ideas about art when he founded and named Fluxus—an art movement dedicated to deemphasizing art as a fine object and making it more conceptual and a function of everyday living. Brecht currently lives in Cologne, Germany. See also art

(b. ). Artist. New York City–born George Brecht is considered by many to be the father of American Conceptual art. While working as a chemist at Johnson & Johnson in New Brunswick and living in nearby Metuchen, he attended John Cage’s course in musical composition at the New School of Social Research. There, he conceived compositions to be performed by chance using automobiles (Motor Vehicle Sundown Event, ) and radios (Candle Piece for Radios, ) as instruments. These compositions were printed on cards, which Brecht mailed to friends and acquaintances with no explanation. Some recipients collected the cards, others executed the performances using personal interpretations. Also in the late s, Brecht made interactive artworks that were games: boxes with compartments filled with small, commonplace found objects that viewers could rearrange and even remove, and game cards on which the viewer made up the

New Jersey Supreme Court, and U.S. Supreme Court justice. An Irish emigrant, William J. Brennan’s father became an activist for organized labor in his adopted city of Newark, where later he was repeatedly elected to that city’s highest governing board. He encouraged his eldest son to gain a college education, and in  Brennan graduated from the Wharton School. Three years later, having had to rely on both odd jobs and a scholarship to acquire the necessary funds, he received a degree from Harvard Law School. Although his father died before Brennan completed law school, he had passed on to his son a strong sense of fairness as well as an abiding commitment to human dignity. Both traits would dominate Justice Brennan’s jurisprudence. As a young attorney, Brennan joined one of the more prominent Newark law firms, Pitney, Hardin, and Skinner. Within seven years () he had become a partner in the firm. During World War II, he served in the army and specialized in resolution of labor issues that resulted from the transformation to a wartime production economy. Upon his return to Newark, Brennan became a name partner in his law firm, just in time to join in supporting the efforts for constitutional reform that culminated in the adoption of New Jersey’s third—and still current—constitution.

breweries By , in spite of being a staunch Democrat, Brennan was appointed to a newly transformed Superior Court by Gov. Alfred Driscoll. As a judge, Brennan worked with the new chief justice of New Jersey, Alfred Vanderbilt. Indeed, he became a trusted associate of this well-known jurist, and after just one year on the bench, Brennan was elevated to the appellate division. By , again with Vanderbilt’s enthusiastic support, Brennan had joined him as a member of the state supreme court. Although Brennan occasionally disagreed with his chief, his considerable human warmth and personal charm always prevented any rupture between them. In  President Dwight D. Eisenhower indicated that he wanted to select a Democrat, preferably one on a state’s highest court, as well as a Roman Catholic to the U.S. Supreme Court. Brennan, who had already come to the attention of the Justice Department, was the candidate from the right party with the right background at the right time. Appointed by President Eisenhower in October , he finally received Senate confirmation in March . “I suspect,’’ observed New Jersey governor Robert Meyner who, like Vanderbilt, strongly supported Brennan’s appointment, that “his opinions will not be quite as middle of the road as some Republicans seem to think.’’ Brennan served on the High Court for more than thirty-four years, and his judicial output well demonstrated the accuracy of Meyner’s prediction. With remarkable consistency, he interpreted the Constitution as a charter reflecting the “sparkling vision of the human dignity of every individual.’’ Perhaps his chief and dear friend Earl Warren best described New Jersey’s greatest contribution to the U.S. Supreme Court when he noted that Brennan’s “belief in the dignity of human beings—all human beings—is unbounded. He also believes that without such dignity men cannot be free.’’ ANB. De Grazia, Edward. “Reason, Passion, and Justice Brennan: A Symposium.’’ Cardozo Law Review  (). Schwartz, Bernard. Super Chief: Earl Warren and His Supreme Court. New York: New York University Press, .

See also law

Jonathan Lurie

Bresci, Gaetano

(b. Nov. , ; d. May

, ). Silk mill worker and anarchist. Born

in Coiano, a village in Tuscany, Gaetano Bresci, at age eleven, was apprenticed to a silk textile mill in nearby Prato where rapid industrialization had transformed cottage artisans into a turbulent proletariat. Many of these workers espoused anarchism, earning the enmity of the increasingly repressive Italian state. Bresci, too, was drawn to the ideology. In  he was arrested in a sweep of anarchists and imprisoned without a trial. After his release in , he found no lasting employment and emigrated to Paterson, New Jersey,

arriving on January , . Paterson was no random choice. As the largest producer of silk textiles in the United States, it harbored many Italian immigrants, and anarchists, among its polyglot workforce. About  to  Italians were dues-paying members of several anar` per chist clubs. The largest was the Societa il Diritto all’Esistenza (Society for the Right to Existence). It published a newspaper, and its members debated, sometimes bitterly, how to achieve a society regulated only by humanity’s unfettered goodness. The moderates backed a policy of persuasion, but a violent minority believed only in the gun: Italian anarchists between  and  assassinated three European heads of state. Bresci found work at the Hamil and Booth silk mill, for $ a week, and he took a room at Bertoldi’s Hotel, on Straight Street, for eighty cents a day, full board. A week later he joined the Society for the Right to Existence. Bresci was a handsome man, always elegantly dressed. By June  he was living with Sophie Knieland (or Neil). Their daughter, Maddalena, was born in March . His seemed the ideal immigrant experience, but inwardly he nursed a mounting anger. In May  Gen. Bava Beccaris had ordered his troops in Milan to fire upon a peaceful workers’ demonstration, killing  and wounding . When the king decorated Beccaris for his action, Bresci decided on revenge. He withdrew from anarchist activities, bought a gun, and practiced firing it. He departed for Italy on May , , and by July  he was in the city of Monza, where King Umberto was to attend an athletic competition in the city stadium. That afternoon, when the king’s carriage approached the grandstand, Bresci dashed forth and shot him dead. He was sentenced to life imprisonment on August , . On May , , he was found dead in his cell, an apparent suicide. Clearly, Bresci’s activities in Paterson left little mark in New Jersey history. His bold, quixotic act was the high point of the anarchist movement in Paterson, and also its death knell. Anarchism withered away, its adherents clinging to outdated memories of exclusion in Italy, where, in fact, by  leftist parties had gained  seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In Paterson, the anarchists were isolated by language and philosophy from American workers who were embracing unionism, not a utopian transformation of society. Carey, George W. “The Vessel, the Deed, and the Idea: Anarchists in Paterson, –.’’ Manuscript, Rutgers University Library, Special Collections, .

Charles Perrone

Brewer, Prosper

(b. Jan. , ; d. ).

Politician, labor leader, detective. Prosper Brewer was the first African American ward chairman in Newark. In , in response to the exclusion of blacks from organized labor, he led a strike of black dockworkers at Port

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Newark that ended with a wage increase. Later a detective in the Essex County prosecutor’s office in Newark, Brewer served as the powerful chairman of the Republican Third Ward Club from  to . Wright, Giles R. Afro-Americans in New Jersey: A Short History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also labor movement

Ethel M. Washington

breweries.

The earliest breweries in New Jersey were established by the Dutch in the s. During the colonial era ale, porter, and stout were imported from Britain, but malt liquor was produced locally to save the cost of transatlantic transport. Colonial mansions often incorporated brewhouses within their compounds. Cider and applejack were produced as agricultural products by cider mills throughout the countryside, and Newark became a producer of both as well. The Newark brewery of John N. Cumming, established in  and taken over in  by Thomas Morton, was subsequently bought out by the Scottish malt seller Peter Ballantine, together with Erastus Paterson, in . Ballantine, who was born in Ayrshire, had moved to Newark from Albany, New York, where he had established a brewery in . The plant was relocated along the Passaic River at Front Street in , and became P. Ballantine and Son in . After Prohibition, the Ballantine brewery was sold to Badenhausen Brothers, who kept the Ballantine name and concentrated on producing light ale—one million barrels per year. The influx of German immigrants into Newark, Jersey City, and Hoboken by the middle of the nineteenth century increased the demand for beer of fine quality and variety. Several German immigrants established breweries in Newark. In addition to P. Ballantine and Son, numbering among the five largest breweries were those of Joseph Hensler, who began working for Lorenz and Jacquillard in  and founded his own brewery in ; Christian Feigenspan, who founded a brewery in  and was the originator of the trademark initials “P.O.N.,’’ or “Pride of Newark’’; Gottfried Krueger (whose brewery became the first to market beer in aluminum cans in June ); and the Keidermeyer Brewery. By , Ballantine had absorbed the Feigenspan brewery. Outside of Newark, the Peter Breidt City Brewery occupied a plant built in  on Pearl Street in Elizabeth, which produced beer, ale, and porter. In Hudson County, many breweries were located along the Palisades ridge in Jersey City Heights, overlooking Hoboken, where beer gardens were plentiful. The William Peter Brewery Company in Union City, built in , replaced the former Peter’s Palisade Brewery, by  the largest brewer of lager beer in the area. It encompassed six buildings, including the  brewhouse, a two-story refrigeration

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building, two stockhouses, a bottling department, and stables. Also part of the complex were workers’ dwellings and a plant supervisor’s house. During the years of national Prohibition (–), this and other breweries that were able to remain in business sustained themselves by making – beer (. percent alcohol) as well as other, nonalcoholic beverages. Beer was traditionally sold on draught from barrels, delivered by horse-drawn carts, and later on trucks, when it was packaged in bottles and cans. The brewing industry in New Jersey had a distinctly German cultural influence, with the proceedings of the trade association conducted in German for many years, and beer gardens flourishing, especially in the Hudson County area. New Jersey’s output of malt liquors rose steadily, as the following figures indicate: from a value of $,, in  to $,, in , $,, in , $,, in , to $,, on the eve of Prohibition. It had become the fourth-largest industry in Newark, and made New Jersey’s the seventh-largest output in the nation. By , when Anheuser-Busch opened a brewery in Newark, many of the city’s breweries had gone out of business. Three decades later there were only three major breweries in the state: Anheuser-Busch, Rheingold, and Pabst. This triumvirate, however, was shortlived. In  the Rheingold Brewery in Orange closed down, followed one year later by the Pabst Brewery in Newark. The Anheuser-Busch plant is still active today, producing ten million barrels of beer a year, including Budweiser and Bud Lite, the two most popular beers in the United States. In the s, microbreweries (breweries producing fewer than , barrels of beer annually) and brewpubs (restaurants or bars brewing beer for their patrons’ consumption) began to appear throughout the state. Today New Jersey has over a dozen brewpubs and about half a dozen microbreweries. Baron, Stanley. Brewed in America: A History of Beer and Ale in the United States. Boston: Little, Brown, . Cunningham, John T. Newark. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Weiss, Harry B. The Early Breweries of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

Patricia F. Colrick

Brick.

.-square-mile township in Ocean County. The early history of Brick dates back to the American Indians who camped along the shores of the Manasquan and Metedeconk rivers, Barnegat Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean. Attracted by the virgin woodlands, the first European settlers arrived around  to develop the charcoal and iron industries as well as commercial centers. On February , , the New Jersey state legislature created Brick

Township from sections of Howell and Dover townships. It is named for Joseph W. Brick, owner of Bergen Iron Works. The township was then sparsely populated and made up of several small villages, with an economy based on agriculture, fishing, and commerce. In the s land developers arrived and created resort communities like Riviera Beach, Breton Woods, Shore Acres, and Normandy Beach. Today Brick Township is a bedroom community and commercial center. There are fiftythree miles of waterfront property including three ocean beaches, a river beach, several private community beaches, and twenty-six marinas supporting a resort industry. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Brick Township Changing Scenes. Brick: Brick Township Historical Society, . Donatiello, Eugene E., and John G. Leavey. Brick Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Eugene E. Donatiello

brickmaking. Brick was first produced in New Jersey in the late seventeenth century. Woodbridge and Burlington were two early centers for its manufacture. Although many colonial brick houses in New Jersey are said to be made from Dutch or English brick imported to the colonies, this is generally unsubstantiated. In the eighteenth century, southwestern New Jersey was home to an unusual brickbuilding tradition. Prominent local Quakers built patterned brick houses, which sported gable ends decorated with glazed brick, sometimes recording the initials of the couple who built the house or the year it was completed. New Jersey manufacturers made all major varieties of brick: common, face, enameled, glazed, firebrick, and paving. Clays suitable for the manufacture of brick are found at many locations in the state. Nineteen of twentyone counties had brickworks in . Major centers of brick production included Little Ferry, Sayreville, South River, Trenton, and Woodbridge. In the first decade of the twentieth century, there were over ninety brick manufacturers in the state. The largest producer was the Sayre and Fisher Company, established in . The Sayre and Fisher plant, located in Sayreville, ran along two miles of the Raritan River. It remained in operation until  and at its height produced  million bricks per year. Suburbanization and rising property values led to the demise of New Jersey’s brickmaking industry in the mid-twentieth century. Weiss, Harry Bischoff, and Grace M. Weiss. Early Brickmaking in New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

See also ceramics industry; patterned brickwork

Richard F. Veit

bridges. New Jersey, as a peninsular state, is by necessity home to some of the most historically and technologically significant bridges in the world. All three of the basic types of bridges—beam, arch, and suspension—are represented. Beam bridges consist of a horizontal beam supported by piers at each end. To increase the support for the beam, a truss is often used, based upon a geometric framework, primarily of triangles, that strengthen the beam and add rigidity. Beam bridges generally span smaller distances and in New Jersey are often found over small creeks or rivers. The Sergeant Green Covered Bridge in Sergeantsville is a truss beam covered bridge made of wood; it is the oldest remaining covered bridge in the state. The Calhoun Street Bridge () in Trenton is one of the longer truss bridges and is the second oldest bridge across the Delaware River. Trusses use different materials (wood, iron, steel) and configurations to handle the forces of compression and tension on the bridge. Many of the Delaware River crossings are truss bridges, including the Lower Trenton Bridge—the “Trenton Makes’’ bridge—() and the Washington Crossing Bridge (). Trusses also come in different patterns; for example, a lens-type shape is found with the two-span lenticular truss in Neshanic Station (). Well-known examples of cast-iron and wrought-iron bridges in New Jersey include the West Main Street Bridge () over the South Branch Raritan River in Clinton, the Musconetcong River Bridge () in New Hampton, and the School Street Bridge () over Spruce Run in Glen Gardner. A variation of the beam and truss bridge is the cantilever bridge, in which the beam is anchored near one end with the other end suspended. The Commodore Barry Bridge () linking Bridgeport to Chester, Pennsylvania, across the lower Delaware is the third longest steel truss cantilever bridge in the world. Both the Outerbridge Crossing () and the Goethals Bridge (), connecting New Jersey to Staten Island, are also steel truss cantilever bridges. The Pulaski Skyway () between Newark and Jersey City is a combined cantilever and truss that crosses both the Passaic and Hackensack rivers. A movable bridge is one whose span can be lifted or rotated so as to allow transportation to pass beneath. An example of a movable bridge called the bascule, or seesaw drawbridge, is the Strauss bascule bridge (–), which carries Dorset Avenue in Ventnor across water. Two of New Jersey’s vertical lift railroad bridges, the Arthur Kill () near Staten Island and the Delair () in South Jersey, are among the largest, spanning over  feet. A second type of bridge, the arch bridge, traces its roots back to Roman engineering. Arch bridges are generally able to span somewhat greater distances than beam bridges. The principle behind arch bridges is a diffusion of

Bridgewater force along the arch to the pier. The Bayonne Bridge (), connecting Bayonne to Staten Island, is the second largest steel arch bridge in the world, slightly larger than its counterpart in Sydney, Australia. Stone arch bridges may vary from single to several arches. Hunterdon County claims its concentration of more than two hundred stone arch bridges is more than any other single place. The Nicholson Bridge () across the Delaware near the Water Gap is a magnificent concrete arch railroad bridge, built in – by the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad. Other railroad arch bridges include the Amtrak Railroad Bridge () over the Delaware River at Trenton. A stone arch bridge now stands over the Millstone River at Kingston where Gen. George Washington destroyed the bridge in  following the battle of Princeton. The third major category of bridge, capable of spanning the greatest distances, is the suspension bridge. In this bridge, the roadway is supported by cables (ideally, steel) that are anchored at each end and carried over towers that support them. A variation on this is the cable-stayed bridge, in which the cables are attached directly to the tower. Although there are no cable-stayed bridges entirely in New Jersey, several of the most important suspension bridges in engineering history have one foot in the state. The Benjamin Franklin Bridge () between Camden and Philadelphia was designed by one of the preeminent engineers of the twentieth century, Ralph Modjeski, and Paul Philippe Cret, architect of Philadelphia’s Ben Franklin Parkway. At the time of its construction it was the longest suspension bridge in the world, and President Calvin Coolidge attended its dedication. Thirty years later the Walt Whitman Bridge (), another suspension bridge between Camden and Philadelphia, was completed. At the other end of the state, the George Washington Bridge () between Fort Lee and Manhattan is among the longest suspension bridges in the world. It was designed by Othmar H. Ammann, whose consulting engineering firm, Ammann and Whitney, maintained an office on West State Street in Trenton. Other notable suspension bridges in New Jersey include the Delaware Memorial Bridge (original bridge, ; parallel, ) between New Jersey and Delaware, also designed by Ammann, and the Riegelsville Bridge () along the northern Delaware River, a Roebling bridge. The Roebling engineering firm is most well known for the Brooklyn Bridge. John Roebling (–), one of America’s foremost engineers, established his wire-rope factory and residence in Trenton; his son, Washington Roebling, oversaw completion of the Brooklyn Bridge while bedridden in Trenton. In addition to their engineering and aesthetic functions, in some instances bridges become political symbols. For example, two of New Jersey’s bridges—the Burlington-Bristol

() and Tacony-Palmyra ()—gave rise to a famous court battle that resulted in judicial reaffirmation of the fiduciary obligations of public officials. Other New Jersey bridges of note include the Northampton Street Bridge () linking Phillipsburg to Easton, Pennsylvania; the Betsy Ross Bridge () between Pennsauken and Philadelphia (the first major bridge in the United States named for a woman); and the Dingman’s Ferry Bridge (), New Jersey’s northernmost bridge, across the Delaware River, and one of the nation’s few remaining private toll bridges. Bennett, David. The Creation of Bridges. London: Booksales, . Browne, Lionel. Bridges: Masterpieces of Architecture. New York: Todtri Productions, . Dupre, Judith. Bridges: A History of the World’s Most Famous and Important Spans. New York: Black Dog and Leventhal, . Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Steven M. Richman

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Bridgeton and Millville Traction Company. One of America’s pioneer interurbans, the Bridgeton and Millville Traction Company (B&MTCo.) opened in the early s between the towns of its corporate name. Although an intercity operation, the firm resembled an urban trolley, with lightweight rolling stock and rail. In  the company expanded, opening a branch from Bridgeton to the small port community of Bivalve. Typical of traction roads, the thirtyseven-mile-long B&MTCo. owned and operated an amusement park—Tumbling Dam Park—designed to generate traffic, especially during summer weekends. In  the company reorganized and leased the Millville Traction Company, which linked Millville and Vineland. A year later this appendage closed, and remaining service ended in , victim of increased automobile ownership. “Electric Railways of New Jersey.’’ Street Railway Journal.  (Apr. , ): –. “New Methods Save a Small Town Railway.’’ Electric Railway Journal.  (Jan. , ): –.

See also transportation

Bridgeton.

.-square-mile city in northwestern Cumberland County. Bridgeton has been the county seat since . Variously called Cohansey Bridge or the Bridge (about ), Bridgetown (about ), and, finally, Bridgeton (about ), it was formed from Bridgeton and Cohansey townships in ; parts were annexed to Deerfield and Fairfield townships in . By the Civil War period, Bridgeton’s iron forges and glass furnaces, regular steamboat service to Philadelphia, and railroad service to Camden made it a bustling city. It was also home to three important private schools: West Jersey Academy, Ivy Hall Seminary, and the South Jersey Institute. At the end of the twentieth century, competition from western states caused industry consolidation. OwensIllinois, the last major glass manufacturer and the city’s largest employer, closed its doors in . One of the earliest newspapers in New Jersey, the Plain Dealer, appeared for a short time in  and . It was handwritten and hung up in Potter’s Tavern on Broad Street. The tavern, now one of the city’s historic landmarks, is part of an extensive historic district that includes more than twenty-two hundred homes and other buildings on the National Register of Historic Places. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Chestnut, Bill. Bridgeton: In and Around the Old Country Town. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Historic Bridgeton, –. Bridgeton: Evening News, .

Gail Greenberg

H. Roger Grant

Bridgeton News. This daily newspaper was established in Bridgeton, the seat of Cumberland County, in January . It was the inspiration of J. Ward Richardson, who oversaw the business end, J.H.C. Applegate, who handled editorial content, and printer Paul J. Davis. The three men pooled their resources, totaling fifty-one dollars, and founded the Bridgeton Evening News, the first daily newspaper in the region. By , the newspaper had forty-two hundred subscribers and boasted the largest circulation in New Jersey south of Camden. The newspaper was sold to the Schofield family, which maintained control until selling the newspaper in  to the American Publishing Company. South Jersey Newspapers, part of the MediaNews Group, bought the newspaper in . Four years later, the newspaper was bought by the Newhouse media group’s Advance Publications. The newspaper, now published in the morning Monday through Saturday, changed its name to the Bridgeton News. See also newspapers Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Bridgeville.

See White Township.

Bridgewater.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Sprawling Bridgewater slopes from the Watchung Mountains south to the Raritan River and includes Martinsville, Sunset Lake, Finderne, Bradley Gardens, Green Knoll, and Hobbstown. Formed by royal charter in  from the Northern Precinct, Bridgewater was incorporated on February , . It was settled by Dutch, English, and Scots-Irish in the s and was chiefly agricultural until the early years of the

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twentieth century, when population growth in Raritan, Bound Brook, and Somerville prompted those communities to become independent. Housing developments, industrial parks (among them the eighty-acre Central Jersey Industrial Park on Route ), and research centers blossomed after World War II, culminating in the  opening of Bridgewater Commons, one of the state’s largest shopping malls. The minor-league Somerset Patriots moved into their six-thousandseat baseball stadium in . Historic sites include Chimney Rock, overlooking a large traprock quarry; the Van Veghten House in Finderne, home of Somerset County’s historical society; and the Middlebrook Encampment, above Route , where the Continental Army camped in  and in the winter of – . Near the township is the headquarters of the Courier-News, one of central New Jersey’s largest dailies. The population in  of , residents was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Know Your Township, Bridgewater. Bridgewater Township: League of Women Voters, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Somerset County. Somerville: Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Brielle.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Prior to becoming an independent borough in , Brielle existed under the jurisdiction of the townships of Shrewsbury, Howell, and Wall, respectively. Before adopting its final name, it was known as Landing, Union, and Union Landing. It was named Brielle after a town in Holland with similar geographic features and because area farmers used windmills to drive pumps. During the American Revolution, Brielle was the site of an important coastal saltworks. It remained a farming community until , when several Jersey City businessmen purchased the local farms with the intention of turning the community into a seaside resort. Located on the Manasquan River one mile from the ocean, Brielle never became as popular a resort as surrounding towns with ocean frontage. However, with its protected harbor on the river leading to the sea, it has become well known for its pleasure and sportfishing, and it is the northern terminus of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway, which extends to Florida. The community is composed mainly of single-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in

 was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gardner, Judy. The History of Brielle, Union Landing Revisited. Point Pleasant Beach: Valente Publishing, . “Surprises Await You in Brielle.’’ Supplement, Wall Township Herald, June , .

Carol Fisher Megill

Brigantine.

.-square-mile city on Brigantine Island in Atlantic County next to Atlantic City. Brigantine was incorporated in  as a real estate speculation, when a hotel and one hundred houses were built. The  stock market crash put an end to plans for further development, and it was not until after World War II, and then again with the arrival of the Atlantic City casinos in the s, that they were taken up again. During the s, , condominium units and , multifamily apartments were built. With new casinos currently being constructed, the planning and building of more housing is an ongoing project. The north end of the island, a government-owned shore preserve, remains undeveloped. The Marine Mammal Stranding Center, devoted to the rescue and rehabilitation of stranded or distressed marine animals, is located in Brigantine. During the summer, Brigantine’s population nearly doubles as a result of the influx of vacationers. In , the permanent population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Jerome E. Klein

Brigham, Carl Campbell

(b. May ,

; d. Jan. , ). Carl Brigham was born

in Marlboro, Massachusetts, and earned his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees at Princeton University. An educational psychologist, Brigham helped Robert Yerkes introduce intelligence tests for officer selection during World War I. Later, as a professor of psychology at Princeton University (–), he dramatically recanted his earlier racist views on the inheritability of intelligence and devised the College Board’s Scholastic Aptitude Test (), an innovative college admission test not based on a specific school curriculum. Brigham’s work in testing methodology and interpretation have had a lasting impact on college and graduate school admissions testing. More than  million college applicants have taken the SAT, now administered for the College Board by the Educational Testing Service in Princeton. Brigham, Carl Campbell. A Study of American Intelligence. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ———. A Study of Error. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, .

Downey, Matthew T. Carl Campbell Brigham: Scientist and Educator. Princeton: Educational Testing Service, .

Gary D. Saretzky

Bristol-Myers Squibb.

Bristol-Myers Squibb, a pharmaceutical company with facilities in Hopewell Township, Plainsboro, and Princeton, employs about eight thousand people in eleven New Jersey locations. The company is a leader in consumer products, pharmaceutical research and development, and humanitarian aid. Bristol-Myers began when William McLaren Bristol and John Ripley Myers bought a pharmaceutical firm in Clinton, New York. The company achieved success in the early s with Sal Hepatica, a laxative mineral salt, and Ipana, the first toothpaste with disinfectant properties. By the mid-s, Bristol-Myers consumer products were sold in twenty-six countries, but the pharmaceutical side of the business flourished only with the mass production of penicillin during World War II. Edward Robinson Squibb founded a pharmaceutical concern in Brooklyn in , and the company prospered during the Civil War. In  E. R. Squibb and Sons bought land to build an ether production plant in New Brunswick. The city became the home of the Squibb Institute for Medical Research in , and the site of the largest penicillinproduction facility in the world, which Squibb opened in . In  the company expanded the Squibb Institute to facilities in Princeton. A  merger created Bristol-Myers Squibb, which established the Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research Institute headquarters in Princeton in . In , the company signed an agreement with the National Cancer Institute to research and develop a new drug, Taxol (paclitaxel), which became one of the most widely prescribed cancer drugs in the world. The company has also launched Videx (didanosime, also known as ddI), a medication for treating HIV infection; Pravachol (pravastatin sodium), for individuals with elevated cholesterol or chronic heart disease; and Excedrin Migraine, the first nonprescription medication for migraine headaches. In  Bristol-Myers Squibb joined other drug companies and international agencies in the UNAIDS Drug ACCESS Initiative, providing medications to assist African countries in combating AIDS. Yale University and BristolMyers Squibb own the patent for the AIDS drug Zerit, a thymidine nucleoside analog. Zerit is now available at no cost in sub-Saharan Africa.

Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, . Swann, John P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in TwentiethCentury America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Brooks, Van Wyck

Britton, Nathaniel Lord

(b. Jan. ,

; d. June , ). Botanist. Born on Staten

Island, New York, Nathaniel Britton studied geology at Columbia College’s School of Mines in the s. Employed by the New Jersey Geological Survey to draw up the first comprehensive portrait of the state’s plant life, he published A Preliminary Catalogue of the Flora of New Jersey, which was accepted as his doctoral dissertation by Columbia in . As an officer of New York’s Torrey Botanical Club, Britton led weekend excursions of botany enthusiasts to New Jersey’s Pine Barrens and the Delaware Valley. In the s, he helped establish the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx. Named its first director in , Britton held the post until . Merrill, E. D. “Nathaniel Lord Britton.’’ National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs  (): –. Mickulas, Peter. “Giving, Getting, and Growing: Philanthropy, Science, and the New York Botanical Garden, –.’’ Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, .

Peter Mickulas

Broad Seal War. A contested election between the Whig and Democratic parties for the six New Jersey seats in the U.S. House of Representatives resulted in the Broad Seal War of . Because the election took place on October –, before New Jersey was organized into congressional districts, all the seats were chosen at large by voters from the entire state. Gov. William Pennington, a Whig, and the Privy Council had the obligation of totaling the votes received from the county clerks and issuing to the victors certificates stamped with the “broad seal’’of the state. The governor and council announced that all five incumbent Whig candidates were reelected by extremely narrow margins. Only the sixth Whig candidate, Joseph Fitz Randolph, collected significantly more votes than his Democratic opponents. Controversy broke out when it was discovered that the votes from Millville and South Amboy were not included with the returns from Cumberland and Middlesex counties, respectively. The Cumberland County clerk, a Whig, claimed that the Millville returns lacked the seal of the township clerk, another Whig; moreover, the returns appeared to have been opened and were incompletely made out. In Middlesex, the county clerk also cited several irregularities, which, he claimed, invalidated the South Amboy returns. If the Middlesex and South Amboy returns had been counted, five of the six Whig candidates would have been defeated. Nevertheless, all six Whigs received commissions of election on November ,  (for terms beginning December ), to which were affixed the official state seal signed by Governor Pennington. Thirteen months later, on December , , the U.S. House of Representatives met to organize. When the clerk reached New Jersey in the roll call, he read only the name of Joseph

Fitz Randolph and passed over the names of the other claimants. A raging two-week debate followed, during which the House remained unorganized and without a Speaker. When the debate ended, the House Democratic majority voted to leave the five contested seats vacant. (Not counting those five seats, the Democrats held a – edge.) Thus New Jersey was left without five-sixths of its legal representation in the House, marking the first time in U.S. history that a state was denied full representation. The entire matter was presented to the House Committee on Elections, which had a – Democratic majority. The committee began working on the case on January , . Meanwhile, the legislatures of numerous states passed resolutions for and against the actions of the House, many claiming that the House had no legal authority to conduct business without full representation from New Jersey. In March  the House accepted the committee’s preliminary report and resolution to seat the five Democratic claimants. The committee continued its work, however, interviewing hundreds of voters and investigating allegations of fraud. Its final report, issued on July , , resolved that the five Democrats should retain their seats. The House concurred and thus closed the door on one of the most bitterly contested elections in the nation’s history. McCormick, Richard P. The History of Voting in New Jersey: A Study of the Development of Election Machinery, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also voting

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Brooklawn.

.-square-mile borough on the Delaware River in northwest Camden County. Brooklawn is bordered by the Little Timber Creek on the north and the Big Timber Creek on the south. It was through this area that the “Irish Road’’ connected with the Salem Road, the first highway through West Jersey. Both were built in  and followed Indian trails, connecting settlements throughout the wide area. Thus, tavern keeping became an important early industry. The first license was granted to Enoch Ellison in , and in  Desire Sparks, known as Aunty High Cap for her headgear, was granted a license for the Two Tuns Tavern. In  the U.S. Shipping Board built medium-income housing here, on the Camden Plan, a program financed by the Federal Works Agency that provided for the cooperative ownership of homes for sixty-five hundred workers in the shipyards of Pusey and Jones, located near Gloucester City. The town that arose was originally called Noreg Village. In ,  “beautiful frame and stucco dwellings including stores, business properties and vacant lots’’ were auctioned off in the community, which was described as an “ideal place of residence,’’ attracting “the highest type of men and their families.’’The borough was originally formed in  from Centre Township and was reincorporated in . The  population of , was  percent white. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M., and Philip Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Ronald Becker Gail Greenberg

Brookdale Community College.

Brooks, Van Wyck

The county college of Monmouth, this fully accredited institution was established in  and in  had an enrollment of approximately thirteen thousand students. In addition to the main -acre campus in Lincroft, the two-year college administers education centers at several extension sites. The academic division maintains partnerships with several upper-level universities in New Jersey. Associate degrees are offered in career and transfer programs in over thirty areas, and there are courses in over seventy disciplines. The Business and Community Development Division offers noncredit courses. There are twenty-five buildings on campus, including a modern library, a performing arts center, and a gymnasium.

d. May , ). Literary critic, cultural histo-

Northern Monmouth County Branch of the American Association of University Women. A Triangle of Land—A History of the Site and the Founding of Brookdale Community College. Lincroft: Brookdale Community College, .

See also higher education

Michael Fowler

(b. Feb. , ;

rian, editor, and biographer. Van Wyck Brooks, the son of Charles Edward Brooks and Sarah Bailey Ames, was born and raised in Plainfield. Due to his father’s business failure, Brooks spent his early years in the home of his wealthy maternal grandparents and attended the Plainfield public schools. (The town has since named a historical district after him.) In  Brooks entered Harvard, graduated early, and was a member of Phi Beta Kappa. His first major publication was The Wine of the Puritans (), which examines materialism and the corruption of American culture. In  Brooks married Eleanor Kenyon Stimson, an old friend from Plainfield. The marriage produced two sons. Brooks wrote several influential works in subsequent years: America’s Coming-of-Age (), The Ordeal of Mark Twain (), and The Pilgrimage of Henry James (). He also coedited Seven Arts (–), a little magazine seeking to elevate American culture. His greatest scholarly undertaking was the five-volume Makers and Finders. The first volume, The Flowering of New England

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Broome, Isaac

(), received the Pulitzer Prize in history. After Eleanor Brooks’s death in , Brooks married Gladys Rice Billings in . He continued writing until his death in Bridgewater, Connecticut.

New Jersey. He continued to work for potteries in Trenton and in Ohio, including the Trent Tile Company, Providential Tile Company, and Lenox China, producing significant work until .

Hoopes, James. Van Wyck Brooks: In Search of American Culture. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, .

Frelinghuysen, Alice C. American Porcelain, – . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, .

Nelson, Raymond. Van Wyck Brooks: A Writer’s Life. New York: E. P. Dutton, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Wasserstrom, William, ed. Van Wyck Brooks: The Critic and His Critics. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, .

See also literature

Paul R. Cappucci

Broome, Isaac

(b. May , ; d. May

, ). Sculptor and ceramics modeler. Ed-

ucated at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Isaac Broome assisted Thomas Crawford with statues for the pediment of the U.S. Capitol’s Senate wing in Washington, D.C., in . Beginning in , he modeled for Ott and Brewer of Trenton the parian porcelain statuary shown at the Centennial International Exhibition, Philadelphia, in , and in  at the Exposition Universelle, Paris, for which he was a special commissioner from the United States and

Ellen Paul Denker

Brotherton Indian Reservation. Brotherton, New Jersey’s sole Indian reservation, existed for just forty-three years. During the French and Indian War, the Lenape Indians had sided with the French, but in  they sued for peace, relinquishing land ownership claims elsewhere in the colony in exchange for a reservation on the edge of the Pine Barrens. That summer the colony paid Benjamin Springer £ sterling for three thousand acres with a farmhouse and two mills on the Mullica River at Edgepillock in Burlington County, near present-day Indian Mills. The new settlement was named Brotherton by Gov. Francis Bernard, whose administration decreed that “all Indians that . . . reside in this Province . . . must resort to that tract of land.’’ John Brainerd, a Presbyterian missionary, settled at Brotherton early in . Ten houses and a meetinghouse were constructed, and Stephen Calvin, an Indian interpreter at the peace negotiations, became the schoolmaster. (He was succeeded by his son Bartholomew, an alumnus of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University.) There were never more than a hundred Indians at Brotherton, and the group never became self-sufficient. Their sawmill burned; they vainly petitioned the legislature for relief; their population fell as conditions worsened. The remaining Indians left the reservation in  and joined the Oneidas in New York. In , the Brotherton Indians relocated once more, this time to Wisconsin, where their descendants still live today. New Jersey sold the Brotherton tract, paying the last of the proceeds to tribal representatives (including a now aged Bartholomew Calvin) in . Kraft, Herbert C. The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . ———. The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage: , B.C. to A.D. . Union: Lenape Books, .

See also American Indians

Nick Humez

Brown, Harvey Winfield ; d. Sept. , ).

Isaac Broome, Ott and Brewer, Trenton, Baseball Vase, . Parian bisque porcelain, h.  in., w.  / in.

Courtesy New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. The Brewer Collection, CH354.22.

(b. Oct. ,

Labor leader. Born in Dow, Pennsylvania, Harvey Brown took up the trade of machinist in  and worked as such until . In  he joined the International Association of Machinists (IAM) and served as business agent for the Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, local. In  he married Emma C. Abbott. By  he had become an

international organizer for the IAM and later the business agent for the Newark local. He was a delegate to the American Federation of Labor’s (AFL) convention in  and . In  he became a vice president of the IAM, and by  he was the union’s president. During the same period he was a member of the AFL’s executive council. Under his leadership the IAM transformed itself from a railroad machinists union into a union heavily vested in the aircraft and general manufacturing industries. His regime, however, was marked by a constant fight with the AFL for control of the IAM. He also participated in a disastrous struggle with the carpenters’ and operating engineers’ unions and finally completely withdrew the IAM from the AFL. In  he was forced by the National Labor Relations Board to remove a racially oriented exclusion clause from the IAM’s secret ritual. He left union administration in  and became a vice president of the Union Labor Bank and Trust Company in Indianapolis, Indiana. Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

Brown, William Mason d. Sept. , ).

(b. ;

Painter. Born in Troy, New York, William Mason Brown began his art studies in the late s with Abel Buel Moore, Troy’s leading portrait painter. From  to , Brown’s residence was Newark. There he turned his attention to painting landscapes reflecting the tight forms and vivid colors typical of the Romantic tradition developed earlier in the century by Thomas Cole, a pioneer of the American Hudson River School. On December , , Brown’s paintings were included in a public exhibition and sale organized by the New Jersey Art-Union, a subscription organization that commissioned paintings and engravings mainly by New Jersey artists in order to award the works by lottery to its members. Indeed, the Art-Union’s purchase of five of Brown’s landscapes for prizes at that exhibition, including at least one New Jersey subject, Evening Scene in New Jersey (location unknown), indicates his popularity there. This early success was followed on June , , when Newark portrait painter George Gates Ross arranged for Brown to exhibit in Library Hall, Ross’s painting rooms, where he held a lottery drawing of a group of twelve of Brown’s landscapes and seascapes; Ross himself won one of the paintings. Despite his success in Newark, Brown moved to Brooklyn in  and lived there for the rest of his life. Within two years, he began to specialize in still-life paintings containing bountiful arrangements mainly of fruit (especially peaches), a radical departure from his previous subject matter. Symbolic of American pre–Civil War optimism, these

Buccleuch Mansion precisely drawn and photographic works, often containing drapery and bric-a-brac in addition to fruit, caught the attention of critics and dealers alike, with the result that Brown became one of the period’s most important still-life painters. He also is known to have worked for the New York lithography firm of Currier & Ives and for art dealer William Schaus; both purchased his works to provide sources for lithographs of still lifes intended for the decoration of dining rooms. After , Brown regularly exhibited at the National Academy of Design, the Brooklyn Art Association, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and other venues. He became so prominent in Brooklyn art circles that he was included within the select group of artists that established the Brooklyn Academy of Design in December . Today, both his landscapes and still lifes can be found in major museums and private collections. Gerdts, William H. Painters of the Humble Truth: Masterpieces of American Still Life, –. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, . ———. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Mitnick, Barbara J. Nineteenth-Century American Still Lifes from New Jersey Collections. Morristown: Morris Museum of Arts and Sciences, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

brownfields.

New Jersey was at the heart of the industrial revolution that began over a century ago at the Great Falls in

Paterson. Hundreds of thousands worked in factories, freight yards, electricity-generating facilities, and other production facilities located along the railroads, roads, rivers, and estuaries around the state. But many factories closed, leaving rusted and contaminated hulks and lands called brownfields. New Jersey has about one thousand brownfields that are abandoned or underutilized. Not only are they no longer a source of employment and economic wealth, but they also undermine the very areas they once helped build. People do not want to live near eyesores, and businesses do not want to invest in them, especially if the land is contaminated. For over fifteen years, redevelopment of brownfields in New Jersey and the rest of the United States was hindered by laws that threatened liability to potential redevelopers. In the mid-s the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began a brownfields redevelopment program, providing small grants to three hundred cities and counties, including Trenton, Elizabeth, Camden, and Perth Amboy. The state of New Jersey changed the liability laws so that redevelopment was feasible. United States government agencies and the New Jersey Departments of Community Affairs, Environmental Protection, and Transportation have begun providing financial and administrative assistance in support of brownfields redevelopment. The extent of risk to the public is a major concern and remediation may include soil removal, placement of a concrete slab on top of the

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land, and restrictions placed on future use of the land. Many brownfield sites are located in poverty-stricken, minority neighborhoods, and so brownfields redevelopment is an important issue to be addressed as part of environmental justice policies. It is also an essential part of efforts to redirect some growth back to cities and, hence, to reduce the negative effects of sprawled development. Bartsch, Charles, and Elizabeth Collaton. Brownfields: Cleaning and Reusing Contaminated Properties. Westport, CT: Praeger, . Simons, Robert. Turning Brownfields into Greenbacks: Developing and Financing Environmentally Contaminated Urban Real Estate. Washington, DC: Urban Land Institute, .

See also hazardous wastes; pollution

Michael R. Greenberg

Browns Mills. See Pemberton Township. Brownson, Orestes Augustus

(b.

Sept. , ; d. Apr. , ). Writer. Orestes

Brownson was originally a Presbyterian; he then became, in succession, a Universalist minister, a Unitarian minister, and founder of his own religious organization, the Society for Christian Union and Progress. In  he converted to Roman Catholicism. He lived and worked in Elizabeth, New Jersey, from  to . Before his conversion to Catholicism, Brownson questioned the legitimacy of established Christianity and was influenced by the views of European socialists such as Robert Owen and the Saint-Simonians. After his conversion he rejected liberalism and argued against Protestantism, but he retained his sympathy for labor and criticized Catholic political apathy. In The American Republic (), he argued that democracy depended on moral and ethical principles. He published, from  to  in Boston, and from  to  in New York, Brownson’s Quarterly Review (its publication was suspended in  due to the death of Brownson’s two sons and resumed briefly from  to ). He also wrote The Spirit Rapper: An Autobiography (), The Convert (), and many other articles and essays in leading publications of the time. Brownson, Orestes Augustus. The Works of Orestes A. Brownson. New York: AMS Press, . Ryan, Thomas R. Orestes A. Brownson. Huntington, IN: Our Sunday Visitor, . Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. Orestes A. Brownson: a Pilgrim’s Progress. . Reprint. New York: Octagon, .

Elizabeth A. Milliken

Brunson Instrument Company. See Keuffel and Esser.

A -foot-wide, ,-foot-long storm water drainage ditch bisected this brownfields site in Elizabeth, making it a daunting development task in . The ditch was piped out to the bay, the site filled, and the Jersey Gardens Mall constructed in .

Courtesy OENJ Cherokee Corporation, Brownfields Project, Elizabeth.

Buccleuch Mansion. Built in , this estate residence in New Brunswick was originally known as the White House, after its first owner, Anthony White (who married Elizabeth Morris, daughter of Gov. Lewis Morris). Owned

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Buchanan, Joseph Ray

by British general William Burton when the American Revolution began, it housed British soldiers. Later, it was confiscated by the state of New Jersey. The owner in , J. W. Scott, renamed the place Buccleuch (pronounced Buck-loo) after an ancestor’s estate in Scotland. In  the building and land around it were donated by descendant Anthony Day to the city of New Brunswick for a park. The city continues to maintain the park, while the Jersey Blue Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution manages the house as a museum. See also historic sites

Maxine N. Lurie

Buchanan, Joseph Ray (b. Dec. , ; d. Sept. , ). Labor leader. Joseph Ray Buchanan was born in Hannibal, Missouri, and began his long association with the union movement there as a typesetter in . Buchanan’s first brush with labor organization and a major strike occurred in  when a mining action in Leadville, Colorado, led to his fleeing town closely followed by a vigilante committee. He subsequently lived in Denver and then Chicago, where he remained active in labor causes, including the Knights of Labor and the newly emerging American Federation of Labor. In  he moved to New York City and later to Montclair, New Jersey. In the s he helped establish the Populist party and twice ran unsuccessfully for Congress. From  to  he was the labor editor for the New York Evening Journal and served as a member of the Conciliation Council of the U.S. Department of Labor from  to . Throughout his career, Buchanan was noted for his eloquence and integrity. He died in Montclair in . Buchanan, Joseph Ray. The Story of a Labor Agitator. New York: Outlook Press, .

See also Knights of Labor; labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

Buddhism.

Buddhism centers on the teachings of a sixth-century b.c.e. wandering prince from north India named Siddhartha Gautama. Upon his enlightenment, he became known as the Buddha, the “Enlightened One.’’ The Buddha spoke of the Four Noble Truths, the Middle Path, and anatta (nosoul) aimed at guiding his listeners to a life free from frustration. The Buddha’s teachings, known as dharma (truth), were recorded in numerous sutras, each containing the subtleties of Buddhist philosophy. Various interpretations of these subtleties spawned a multitude of Buddhist schools, including Mahayana, Theravada, Pure Land, Tibetan, and Zen Buddhism. The Buddha is probably best known for teaching a method of meditation for calming the mind, and this method forms the core of most current Buddhist practice.

Choephel-Ling, a Buddhist Temple in Howell, .

Courtesy Monmouth County Historic Sites Inventory, Monmouth County Park System.

There are between  and  million Buddhists in the United States. Less than one percent of New Jersey’s population is Buddhist— roughly ,. Such estimates are difficult to make because there is no central Buddhist organization that tracks American Buddhists, and not all people who practice Buddhist meditation identify themselves as Buddhists. New Jersey Buddhists include Asian American immigrant communities of ethnic Buddhists such as the Japanese American families that in  founded the original Seabrook Buddhist Temple in Bridgeton, one of the oldest temples in the state. In the s and s, immigration from Korea, China, Vietnam, Tibet, and other Asian countries resulted in new Buddhist communities. In the same period, many non–Asian Americans became involved in the study of Buddhist meditation and philosophy, and they form the majority of many Buddhist groups. There has been a rapid expansion of Buddhist groups in the last decade, and there are currently more than thirty in New Jersey. Prebish, Charles S., and Kenneth K. Tanaka, eds. The Faces of Buddhism in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, . Seagar, Richard H. Buddhism in America. New York: Columbia University Press, .

See also religion

Steve Trout

Buell, Murray Fife (b. Oct. , ; d. July , ). Ecologist. Murray Fife Buell grew up in New England and was educated at Cornell University and the University of Minnesota. Afterward he moved to North Carolina, where he conducted research in palynology (the study

of pollins and pollination), paleoecology, and vegetation analysis. In  he moved to Rutgers University, where he spent the remainder of his professional career, and where he developed a major center of ecology. Beginning in the s, Buell pioneered ecological research in several areas, including the effects of humans on public park ecosystems, hydrobiology, prescribed forest burning, and the effects on ecosystems of industrial pollution and urbanization. During his professional career Buell served in many of the Ecological Society of America’s higher offices. In  he received the Eminent Ecologist Award. His efforts and accomplishments in ecology have had a major influence on the field; many laboratories today employ his former students. See also ecology

Edmund Stiles

Buena. .-square-mile borough in Atlantic County. Buena Borough is named not only for its good views but also in part for the Mexican town of Buena Vista, which was the site of a major battle in  during the war between Mexico and the United States. The borough was formed from Buena Vista Township in . The Buena Vista School District was established in , one year before Buena Vista Township was created. The borough’s children now attend the Buena Regional School District, which serves students from Buena Vista and Buena Borough as well as those from Estell Manor, Weymouth, and Newfield. The community is predominantly residential, although some of the land is still farmed.

Burlington County Buena’s population in  of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The borough’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

Buena Vista.

.-square-mile township located in Atlantic County, predominantly in the Pinelands. Once part of Gloucester County, Buena Vista Township was initially called Great Egg Harbor or New Weymouth. The area was part of Weymouth Township from  until , when it became part of Hamilton Township. It was renamed Buena Vista (“good view’’) in  by hotel owner George B. Cake. Buena Vista Township was established in  and included what are today Folsom and Buena Borough. These two communities were separated from Buena Vista Township in  and , respectively. The first settlers were attracted to the area because of the fertile soil, which was tilled for farming, and for the sand, which encouraged the development of sand-mining operations and glass-manufacturing plants. These industries continue to be important, and today the area is also noted for its tomatoes, corn, peppers, and other vegetables. Buena Vista is home to laborers and farmers as well as casino employees, who commute to nearby Atlantic City. Along with the glass industry, the plastics industry thrives in the township. The sprawling community is served by ten post offices. In , Buena Vista’s population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The township’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

Bunnell, Peter C.

(b. Oct. , ).

Teacher, photography curator, and historian. Peter C. Bunnell became the first David H. McAlpin Professor of the History of Photography and Modern Art at Princeton University in , where he also has served as curator of the Photography Collection and twice as director of the Art Museum. While conducting one of the nation’s important doctoral programs in the history of photography, Bunnell has published extensively; served on the boards of the Society for Photographic Education, the Friends of Photography, and numerous other organizations; and curated major exhibitions, including “Harry Callahan’’ (Venice Biennale, ) and the Minor White retrospective (). Bunnell, Peter C. Degrees of Guidance: Essays on Twentieth-Century American Photography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . ———. Minor White: The Eye That Shapes. Boston: Bulfinch Press, .

———. ed. A Photographic Vision: Pictorial Photography, –. Salt Lake City: Peregrine Smith, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Burlington City.

.-square-mile city in Burlington County on the Delaware River. Burlington City was founded in  by English Quakers seeking religious freedom; prior settlements on the site included those of the Lenape, Dutch Walloons, and northern Europeans. Just four years after its inception, Burlington became the capital of the Province of West New Jersey and the province’s official port of entry. In  the first colonial assembly convened and framed a government based on the democratic precepts set forth in a document by the West Jersey proprietors. Burlington was described in  as “the chieftest town in that countrey; and a fine Market Town.... [T]hey freight several Vessels and send them to Barbadoes and other Islands.’’ At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Burlington rivaled the other eastern port cities, but the rapidly growing port at Philadelphia, which was closer to the sea, soon eclipsed the West Jersey capital. Still, Burlington continued for a time to be a shipbuilding center and port. It was a home of the last royal governor, William Franklin, and the site of the Constitutional Convention held July , , when the independence of New Jersey was declared and a new state constitution adopted. It was also home to Elias Boudinot, president of the Continental Congress when the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Revolutionary War, was signed. John Fitch launched the first successful steamboat from Burlington in , nineteen years before Robert Fulton. Capt. James Lawrence, famous for exhorting his sailors “Don’t give up the ship’’ during the War of , and novelist James Fenimore Cooper were born in Burlington. By the close of the eighteenth century, Burlington’s regional importance had diminished, the shipbuilding industry had declined, and the Burlington County seat moved from Burlington City to Mount Holly in . In the nineteenth century there was a short-lived silkworm industry, which was replaced by an influx of shoe factories, industries such as the James H. Birch Carriage factory, and, toward the end of the century and throughout the next, the U.S. Pipe and Foundry Company. Burlington’s factories attracted immigrants from Italy, Ireland, and Poland and other eastern European countries, as well as blacks from the South. There had been Africans, many of them enslaved, in Burlington from its inception. Having emancipated their slaves by the end of the eighteenth century, Quakers in Burlington and elsewhere criticized the institution of slavery and urged members of the Society of Friends to grant slaves their freedom and to put an end to slavery.

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Despite some real estate development from World War II, red brick two- and threestory houses from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries dominate. Plentiful labor supported a munitions factory during World War II, as well as J. Chein metal toy manufacturing, two dress factories, a stump sock factory, ribbon and trim manufacturing, and an envelope factory. Both the Burlington Coat Factory, begun as Mode Craft Coats, and Mother’s Kitchen, famous for its cheesecakes, call Burlington home. At the beginning of the twentieth century the city’s population hovered around ,, nearly doubling by the middle of the century, and declining to , by the year . Sixtyeight percent of its population was white,  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete  census figures, see chart, . DeCou, George. Burlington: A Provincial Capital. Burlington: Library Company of Burlington, . Shea, Martha Esposito, and Mike Mathis. Burlington. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Rhett Pernot

Burlington County.

.-squaremile county organized in ; it has forty municipalities. In  a group of Quakers, which included William Penn, obtained title to West Jersey under the terms of the Quintipartite Deed. The liberal provisions of the Concessions and Agreements issued by the West Jersey proprietors encouraged settlement. In  the first English Quakers from Yorkshire and London arrived aboard the vessel Kent. The arrivals named their settlement New Beverly, later renamed Burlington. In  Burlington became the capital of West Jersey, and when the Crown reunited the two Jerseys in , Burlington and Perth Amboy shared the distinction as capital cities. New towns continued to be organized, and in  the assembly created Burlington County. William Penn’s enlightened views toward Indians led to relatively peaceful relations between the Quakers and the Lenape. In the s David Brainerd, a Presbyterian missionary, gathered Indians together at Crosswicks to provide education as well as to teach them trades. In , during the French and Indian War, however, the colonial assembly established an Indian reservation in the county. The Brotherton Reservation was the fifth reservation established in the colonies, not the first as some writers maintain. (There were two reservations in Pennsylvania and two in Maryland between  and .) In moving to Brotherton, the Lenape had to relinquish all claims, except hunting and fishing rights, to New Jersey lands. During the s Burlington County began to experience growing tensions between the Crown and the colonies. Burlington City generally held a pro-British position. Not only

Burlington County College

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BURLINGTON COUNTY

Mount Holly

0

15

county seat

miles

were the Quakers there opposed to war for religious reasons, but they were also leading merchants, politicians, bureaucrats, and large landowners with much to lose. As early as , Quaker residents of Mansfield Township issued a manifesto urging the maintenance of peace and good order and reaffirming of allegiance to the Crown, but also supporting a boycott of British goods. Mount Holly, now the county seat, was a center of Patriot support. During the Revolution, the county served as a crossroads for British, Hessian, and American troops. The British and Hessians from time to time occupied Burlington City, Mount Holly, Black Horse (now Columbus), Bordentown, and Crosswicks. Military activities, however, seemed limited to both sides moving troops north or south through the county. Agriculture has always been important to the Burlington County economy. Charles Newbold of Mansfield Township and Browns Mills advanced agriculture after he patented the first cast-iron plow in . Elizabeth White of Whitesbog experimented with and successfully hybridized the commercial blueberry, dispatching the first shipment in . County farmers today raise fruits such as apples, peaches, pears, cranberries, and blueberries. Vegetables grown include tomatoes, corn, peas, and beans. The poultry and dairy industries are also important to Burlington County. Industry too is an important segment of the county’s economy. During the colonial

period the bog iron industry was developed at Batsto, Andover, Taunton Furnace, Etna (Aetna), and Atsion. Medford workers engaged in iron production as well as in the making of glass, both for windows and bottles. As early as , Burlington City began pottery manufacturing, utilizing the rich clay deposits at Palmyra and Florence. Maple Shade and Crosswicks manufactured bricks. In the s Hezekiah Smith manufactured bicycles, including the noted Star model. He established a bicycle railway between Mount Holly and Smithville to enable workers to pedal to work. The James Birch Company in Burlington City manufactured rickshaws, which had a wide market in North Africa and the Far East. In  Charles George Roebling transformed the town of Roebling from its modest origins as Kinkora (so named at first) into a company town for workers at the Roebling Steel Company. Efficient means of transportation were essential to bring the products of industry and agriculture to market. During the colonial period residents relied on roads and on the Delaware River. In  John Fitch, a Bordentown resident, began regular steamboat service between Philadelphia and Burlington City, but passengers were few. Another Bordentown entrepreneur, Isaac Dripps, assembled the John Bull locomotive for a trial run in  and helped inaugurate the age of railroad building. The Delaware and Raritan Canal connected Bordentown and New Brunswick. Eventually, competition from railroads reduced the importance of the canal, but the Delaware and Raritan continued to serve the area until . Even before the county was officially organized, its leaders were concerned with public education. In  the colonial assembly set aside revenue for development from Burlington Island to be used for instruction. George W. Doane established Saint Mary’s Hall for girls in  and Burlington College for boys in  in Burlington City. In Bordentown, Clara Barton opened the first free school in New Jersey in , the same year that Mrs. William Middleton opened the first school for black children. The Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth began operating in Bordentown in . Point Breeze, the estate built for Joseph Bonaparte, the exiled king of Spain, later became the home for the Divine Work Seminary. The Bordentown Military Institute for Boys opened in the s. Burlington County College in Pemberton admitted its first students in , and today it has an enrollment of more than seven thousand full- and part-time students. The county has two military installations. The federal government commissioned Camp Dix, now Fort Dix, in  as a training base for soldiers who would be sent to fight in Europe during World War I. Between the world wars, Fort Dix became a processing center for the Civilian Conservation Corps. It also

served as an air base until , when McGuire Air Force Base became a separate entity. Both bases have performed humanitarian services as well, most notably during the Hungarian refugee airlift in  and the rescue of Kosovo refugees in . Among the notable individuals who lived in Burlington County are Isaac Collins, who established the first continuously published newspaper, the New-Jersey Gazette, in New Jersey; Francis Hopkinson, one of the five New Jersey signers of the Declaration of Independence; John Woolman, the Quaker antislavery leader; Thomas Paine; James Fenimore Cooper; James Lawrence of “Don’t give up the ship’’ fame; Patience Lovell Wright, the first female American sculptor; James Still, the “Black Doctor of the Pines’’; and Alice Paul, the suffragist. In , the county’s population was ,. The residents were  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. Griscom, Lloyd E. Burlington County and the American Revolution. Mount Holly: Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . ———. The Historic County of Burlington. Mount Holly: Burlington County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Norman V. Blantz

Burlington County College.

A twoyear community college serving Burlington County, Burlington County College was founded in  at Lenape High School in Medford. A main campus in Pemberton Township opened in ; its main building, named for founding board chairman Lewis M. Parker, was dedicated the following year. The college began offering degree programs to military personnel at Fort Dix and McGuire Air Force Base in the s and expanded during that decade to offer courses at satellite campuses. In  a partnership with the New Jersey Institute of Technology led to a high-tech second campus in Mount Laurel. By  the campus had expanded to seven buildings, including an on-line library, a teleconferencing center, and classrooms for business sciences. Combined  enrollment at the two campuses was more than ,. See also higher education

Jim Donnelly

Burlington County Historical Society. Founded in , Burlington County’s historical society manages three historic sites, a library, a museum, and an educational center, all located in the historic city of Burlington. The society’s mission is to preserve the history of Burlington County and environs, to collect relevant artifacts and buildings, and to

Burr, Aaron educate the public by means of pertinent programs, exhibitions, publications, and tours. De Cou, George. Burlington: A Provincial Capital. Philadelphia: Harris and Partridge, .

Rhett Pernot

Burlington County Times.

Calkins Newspapers, publisher of the Bucks County (Pa.) Courier Times, formerly the Levittown (Pa.) Times, founded this Willingboro Township newspaper as the Levittown (N.J.) Times in , when William J. Levitt began building Levittown on Willingboro farmland. The newspaper’s name was changed to the Burlington County Times in . Today it serves fortyfour municipalities six days a week (Sunday– Friday). In addition to local news, sports, entertainment, special features, lifestyle, and commentary, it offers a full complement of state, regional, and national news. In  the circulation was forty-two thousand. See also newspapers

Carol J. Suplee

Burlington Island.

The -acre island located in the Delaware River in Burlington County has also been called Mattinecunck and Tenneconck. Burlington Island was the site of one of the first European settlements in New Jersey. A Dutch trading post established there in  was used by Swedes in the mid-seventeenth century for the same purpose. Their tenure was brief. In  Alexander d’Hinoyossia, vice director of New Netherland, established a farm on the island. The British claimed it following their conquest of New Netherland in . Since  all revenues from the use of the island have funded education in the city of Burlington. Income came from farming and later an amusement park on the island. During the twentieth century, part of the island was dredged away during sand-mining operations. Today the island is uninhabited.

BURLINGTON ISLAND

Burlington Island

N

Bisbee, Henry. Burlington Island: The Best and Largest on the South River, –. Burlington: Heidelberg Press, .

Richard F. Veit

Burlington Township.

.-squaremile township located in Burlington County. The township forms a semicircle around the outskirts of the City of Burlington with river frontage on the Delaware along its northern and southern borders. Created by the legislature in , it originally included Burlington City within its limits. The two governmental entities were separated in , ending nearly one hundred years of dual jurisdiction. The farmlands of the township, which fed Burlington City and fueled its commerce, are giving way to community playing fields, numerous shopping centers, and new housing. Modern development is spurred by easy access to the New Jersey Turnpike and Interstate . In  the population jumped  percent from the previous decade, reaching ,;  percent was white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . DeCou, George. Burlington: A Provincial Capital. Burlington: Library Company of Burlington, . Shea, Martha Esposito, and Mike Mathis. Burlington. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Burnet, William

(b. Mar. ; d. Sept. ,

). Colonial governor. William Burnet was

born in the Netherlands, son of Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury and chaplain to Charles II, and Mary Scott. The family supported William and Mary during the Glorious Revolution and was politically important afterward. Burnet obtained the dual governorship of New York and New Jersey in  and spent most of his term (from  to ) trying to resolve currency and land title problems, the second a consequence of a longstanding dispute between residents and New Jersey’s Proprietors. He became the governor of Massachusetts in  and died in Boston the next year after a carriage accident. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey,  to : Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

John David Healy

Burns, Robert E.

(b. ; d. June ,

). Chain gang fugitive. After military ser-

10 miles @Rutgers, The State University

four months, he escaped to Chicago, where he started a new life. But seven years later he was recaptured and sent back to Georgia. For a second time he was able to slip out of his chains and escape. This time he traveled to New Jersey to be near his brother, a Unitarian minister in Palisades. It was in New Jersey that he wrote a book about his experience. Published in , the melodramatic I Am a Fugitive from a Georgia Chain Gang was a best seller, and was made into a popular movie. Burns became a celebrity, which enabled the Georgia authorities to track him down and petition New Jersey for his extradition. To consider the request, the governor of New Jersey, A. Harry Moore, held a public hearing in the state capitol on December , , that was a headline-grabbing event. By this time Burns was acclaimed for having exposed the inhuman abuses of southern prisons, and much of the testimony concerned whether conditions were as bad as he claimed. At the conclusion of the hearing, Governor Moore denied Georgia’s extradition request, and Burns no longer had to live as a fugitive. He remained in New Jersey and seemed to enjoy his status as a celebrity, which included appearances on the vaudeville stage. A reform governor of Georgia granted Burns a pardon in . Critics alleged that Burns exaggerated the severity of his life on the chain gang, but the book and the movie based on his life helped the cause of prison reform in America.

Rhett Pernot

See also governor

0

107

vice in World War I, Brooklyn-born Robert Elliott Burns became a drifter. In  he participated in the armed robbery of a grocery store in Atlanta and was sentenced to a prison chain gang. According to Burns, life on the chain gang was brutal, with backbreaking labor under the heel of sadistic guards. After

Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Burr, Aaron

(b. Feb. , ; d. Sept. ,

). Revolutionary War officer, lawyer, U.S.

senator, and vice president. Burr was born in Newark, the son of the Rev. Aaron Burr and Esther Edwards Burr and the grandson of Jonathan Edwards, the major voice in the Great Awakening in British North America. Aaron Burr, Senior, was a founder and the second president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton). By the age of two the young Aaron Burr had lost his parents and grandparents to fever and smallpox. For a time he and his sister, Sarah, were taken into the home of Dr. William Shippen in Philadelphia. They then were moved to Elizabethtown, where they were brought up by an uncle, Timothy Edwards, a merchant, and his wife, Rhoda, a member of the influential Ogden family. Burr studied at the Presbyterian Academy in Elizabethtown and was admitted to the College of New Jersey at age thirteen. At school he associated with William Paterson, Henry Lee, Brochholst Livingston, and James Madison. He graduated at age sixteen in . After studying some law, he joined the Continental Army. Burr participated in the invasion of Canada, was on the staff of Gen. Israel

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Burr, Esther Edwards

Putnam in the Hudson Highlands, and, as chief officer of Malcolm’s Regiment, he led an attack on the British outside of Hackensack; later he was active in the Battle of Monmouth. During the war he met and then in  married Theodosia Prevost at the Hermitage in Bergen County. After completing his law studies, he opened an office in Albany and then New York City. Influenced by the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft, they determined their daughter, Theodosia, would be educated as well as any man in the new country. He also took his wife’s two sons by a previous marriage into his law firm. Theodosia Prevost Burr died of cancer in . In New York, Burr became involved in politics, was elected to the New York State Assembly, was appointed state attorney general, and, in , was appointed to the U.S. Senate. He became a leader in the new DemocraticRepublican party and was a founder of the Manhattan Company, a water supply and banking firm. He also had legal and economic involvement in western lands. Although he had a personal slave, he espoused the cause of emancipation in New York. In  Burr was elected vice president. However, before his term was completed, a longstanding, increasingly acrimonious rivalry with Alexander Hamilton resulted in a duel in Weehawken during which Burr shot and killed Hamilton. This effectively ended Burr’s political career. After an ill-defined western venture and a number of years in Europe, Burr settled into a law practice in New York. He died on Staten Island at the age of eighty in  and was buried with his parents in Princeton. Kennedy, Roger G. Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character. New York: Oxford University Press, . Lomask, Milton. Aaron Burr.  vols. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, , . Rogow, Arnold. A Fatal Friendship: Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr. New York: Hill and Wang, .

See also Hamilton-Burr duel

Henry Bischoff

Burr, Esther Edwards ; d. Apr. , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Diarist. Esther Edwards Burr’s historical importance lies in her detailed records of the daily lives of women in pre-Revolutionary America. The daughter of Jonathan Edwards, the leader of the Great Awakening, an evangelical resurgence in the Presbyterian and Congregationalist churches, she lived with her family in the frontier settlement at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where Edwards ministered to an Indian mission. On June , , Esther Edwards married the Rev. Aaron Burr, pastor of the Presbyterian Church in Newark. Despite the seventeen-year difference in their ages, the couple shared a spiritual commitment and expressed their affection for each other in letters. Being the wife of a prominent minister was not easy.

Their children, Sarah () and Aaron (), were often sick, and Reverend Burr traveled constantly, particularly after he was appointed president of the College of New Jersey. As a college president’s wife, Burr hosted community leaders of the region and lodged a stream of visiting clergy and students. Records of the lives of women of this time are extremely rare; nevertheless, her journal has survived. On April , , Burr wrote, “For about a Month past there has not been above  or  nights except on the Sabbath but I have had Travellers to Lodge.’’ “All the Women in Princeton to see me and my Sister; hurried a preparing for Company that is to come tomorrow to the synod’’ ( Journal, , ). Burr complained in her journal, actually a series of letters mailed to Sarah Prince in Boston beginning in late  and containing almost daily entries, that she “could not get one vacant moment for my Life’’ ( Journal, ). Burr and Prince maintained a close friendship through their letters, which contained practical advice, spiritual confessions, and news of friends and kin, as well as discussions of the role of women in culture and opinions of books such as Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa. Esther Burr died at age twenty-six, in , shortly after her husband. Her daughter, Sarah, married Tapping Reeve, founder of America’s first law school, and her son, Aaron, became the third vice president of the United States, under Thomas Jefferson. Burr, Esther Edwards. The Journal of Esther Edwards Burr, –. Ed. Carol F. Karlsen and Laurie Crumpacker. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Patricia J. Tracy

Burr, Theodosia Bartow Prevost (b. ; d. May , ). Wife of Aaron Burr.

Born in Shrewsbury, Theodosia Bartow was a fifth-generation American. During the Revolution, while her first husband, a British officer, fought against the rebels in the South, Theodosia took care of her family’s property, the Hermitage, and five children in heavily contested Bergen County, in part by making welcome George Washington, Aaron Burr, and other Continental officers and influential state officials. After the death of her husband, she married Aaron Burr in . They moved to New York City where she helped oversee Burr’s law office while he traveled and rose in politics. They both spoke strongly on behalf of women’s rights and gave much attention to the education of their daughter. Theodosia died of cancer in . Lomask, Milton. Aaron Burr. Vol. , The Years from Princeton to Vice President, –. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, .

Henry Bischoff

bus companies. Intercity bus lines in the strictest sense—routes with major cities at either end—currently serve very few cities and towns in New Jersey. Trailways affiliates connect New York City with Upstate New York and the Pocono Mountains, making stops at Ridgewood, Newark, and Somerville in the east and Hackettstown in the west. Greyhound serves Newark, Trenton, and Atlantic City with connections for points south and west through Philadelphia and Baltimore, and to the north and east through midtown Manhattan’s Port Authority Bus Terminal. But commuter bus lines to the Port Authority’s terminals at Forty-second Street (opened in ) and the George Washington Bridge (opened in ) have served to connect New Jersey’s smaller municipalities with New York City for much of the last century, starting with the Paterson–New York Transit Company in the early s. By  commuters from the western suburbs rode eleven interstate bus lines to Manhattan, with some buses crossing the river by ferry prior to the opening of the Holland Tunnel in . Today over , passengers pass through the two Port Authority bus terminals on a typical weekday, the majority of them commuters from New Jersey suburbs. Whether a former stagecoach line over  years old (DeCamp) or an express bus service founded by disgruntled rail commuters in the s (Lakeland), almost all of New Jersey’s commuter bus companies grew by acquiring operating rights formerly held by Public Service Railway Company, the gas and electric utility’s trolley division. In  Suburban Transit, which today carries , passengers daily along the Route  corridor, began by buying a Public Service franchise between Princeton and Dunellen, then got a major boost during World War II by shuttling army personnel between Camp Kilmer in Piscataway and Edison and the New Brunswick train station. (It added through service to Manhattan in .) New Jersey’s independent bus companies faced several challenges at the end of the century. The vigorous postwar growth of outer suburbs, initially a ridership bonanza for public transport, also led to an explosion in private automobile ownership, a trend unlikely to be stalled barring dramatic curtailments or price hikes in the gasoline supply (such as the Middle East oil embargo of the early s). Moreover, in the early s Public Service’s successor, Transit of New Jersey, became the quasi-governmental New Jersey Transit, whose service upgrades and subsidized low fairs often offer stiff competition to private carriers operating parallel service. Charter bus operations are one answer: as many as thirty of Lakeland’s weekday commuter buses double as charter coaches on weekends. Another solution has been consolidation: Suburban Transit merged with five other carriers in  to form Coach USA, which now has  affiliates serving major cities nationwide. But

Buttersworth, James Edward a third strategy is sticking to the niche market a company knows best: DeCamp continues to serve the Oranges and other Essex County towns from its base in Montclair, remaining a family-owned enterprise under the leadership of two great-great-grandchildren of its founder. DeCamp, Suzanne, et al. DeCamp Bus Lines: Celebrating  Years, –. Montclair: DeCamp Bus Lines, . Gillespie, Angus. Twin Towers. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . New Jersey Department of Transportation.The Development of Transportation in New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, .

See also transportation

Nick Humez

Bustill, Cyrus

(b. Feb. , ; d. ).

Great-great-grandfather of Paul Robeson. Born a slave in Burlington, Cyrus Bustill was the son of an English-born lawyer and an African slave. After learning the trade of baker, Bustill purchased his freedom and later won a commendation for supplying bread to the Continental Army during the American Revolution. On April , , he married Elizabeth Morrey, daughter of an Englishman and a Lenape woman. Eight children were born to the couple. They eventually moved to Philadelphia, where Cyrus became a founding member of the abolitionist Free African Society. Brown, Lloyd L. The Young Paul Robeson: On My Journey Now. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, . Smith, Anna Bustill. “The Bustill Family.’’ Journal of Negro History , no.  (Oct. ): –.

See also abolition

Lloyd L. Brown

Butler. .-square-mile borough in Morris County. The earliest European settlers, who arrived around , were Dutch farmers and possibly some ironworkers. In the later years of the eighteenth century, the area became a haven for Hessian soldiers who wished to remain in America after the Revolution. Manufacturing began to take root in  with the establishment of a paper mill, and as the nineteenth century progressed, the area became steadily more industrial. In  Richard Butler bought an interest in a local rubber factory and several acres of surrounding farmland. There he began laying out streets that became the basis of Butler’s present arrangement. West Bloomingdale, as the area was then called, became a model company town. In  the site was renamed in honor of its founder. Twenty years later the town seceded from Pequannock Township and incorporated under the borough form of government. Currently, the township is residential in character. In  the population of , was  percent white. The borough’s household median income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Historic Highlights of Butler. Morristown: Morris County Historical Commission, .

New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Robert C. Nelson

butterflies. The butterfly fauna of New Jersey includes about  species,  of which can reasonably be expected to appear every year. Several species are former residents that disappeared, mainly between the s and s, due to excessive pesticide use to control mosquitoes and gypsy moths. The regal fritillary disappeared from New Jersey and most of the northeastern United States in the s for unknown reasons. The now federally endangered Mitchell’s satyr disappeared from its last known New Jersey site in the late s due, in part, to overharvesting by butterfly collectors. Meanwhile, the common ringlet colonized New Jersey in the mid-s. An additional thirty-five species are of rare or accidental occurrence in the state and are not a regular part of the fauna. The North American Butterfly Association has its origin and headquarters in New Jersey. Many community and county parks have developed butterfly gardening for aesthetic, educational, and conservation purposes. Butterflies are warm-weather, diurnal creatures with a complete four-stage life cycle (egg, larva, pupa, adult). The season for Cape May butterflies begins several weeks earlier and lasts several weeks longer than in Warren County. In New Jersey the earliest species emerging in March are the mourning cloak and spring azure. In April there are several species in the Pine Barrens, including elfins and duskywings that are univoltine, flying for a few weeks in spring and laying eggs that will not produce adults until the following year. Most of New Jersey’s butterflies are multivoltine—that is, the spring adults lay eggs to complete the life cycle and produce a summer brood. Other species such as the cabbage white and pearl crescent breed continuously, producing multiple broods until cold weather comes. A few species such as the orange and clouded sulfurs, commas, and buckeyes may be seen flying on warm sunny December days, but by the end of October, most species are represented only by their over-wintering form, which is usually the larva or chyrsalid (pupa). A few species such as commas and mourning cloaks winter as adults, seeking cracks in tree bark or buildings, where they become dormant. A number of species such as the little yellow and cloudless sulfur do not survive the winter in New Jersey. They are primarily southern species, with a tendency to move northward, and they enter New Jersey almost every year in late summer. The most famous butterfly is the monarch, a long-lived species and a conspicuous autumn migrant along the New Jersey coast. Huge numbers congregate at Cape May for fall migration; an active tagging program there

109

documents their migration route. These butterflies fly to the mountains of central Mexico, where they winter by the millions in highaltitude, coniferous forests. In spring they migrate northward to the southern United States, where they breed, producing offspring that move northward, eventually reaching New Jersey. The harvesting of the fir trees in Mexico for firewood and timber jeopardizes this species, although ecotourism to see the spectacle of thirty million sleeping monarchs offers an alternative income to the Indians of Michoacan. Gochfeld, Michael, and Joanna Burger. Butterflies of New Jersey: A Guide to Their Status, Distribution, Conservation, and Appreciation. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Michael Gochfeld

Buttersworth, James Edward ; d. ).

(b.

Painter. James Buttersworth was born in London, England. His father and grandfather were both marine painters, and many other family members were artisans. Around , Buttersworth immigrated with his family to New York City. Two years later, he moved to West Hoboken (now Union City). Probably trained by his father, Buttersworth’s early paintings mimic the elder’s style and attention to formal details. Obsessed with details and with the effects of light, clouds, and weather, Buttersworth’s realism is steeped both in the American tradition of marine painting and in the tradition of Dutch and English painting, which he may have studied. This interest in minutia made his depictions of ships very accurate—an important attribute for his patrons. In the case of his commissioned works, Buttersworth often suppressed more romantic, atmospheric details and manipulated dimensions, making monumental ships wholly visible even in stormy weather. New York Harbor is the background that appears most frequently in Buttersworth’s works. Underscoring the magnificence of the larger ships he depicted, the artist painted them with their sails fully extended, proudly bearing their weighty forms across the water. In more complex scenes, he was careful to paint even the smallest boats with painstaking detail. As the artist’s career progressed, he paid increasing attention to the effects of light in his work, introducing the play of light over the bodies of his vessels and attempting to show the effects of atmospheric perspective. Filling his skies with gray, green, and blue, Buttersworth became most romantic when he painted shafts of light breaking through clouds. Buttersworth’s talents stayed in demand, even when the need for portraits of warships diminished toward the end of the nineteenth century. He began to paint portraits of yachts for private patrons. After his death, lithographs of Buttersworth’s works were published by Currier & Ives, adding to his legacy.

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Button, Stephen Decatur

Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Grassby, Richard B. “The Marine Paintings of James Edward Buttersworth.’’ Art and Antiques (Apr. ): . Zellman, Michael David, comp. Three Hundred Years of American Art. Secaucus: Wellfleet Press, .

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . West Jersey Concessions and Agreements of /: A Roundtable of Historians. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

See also art

Maxine N. Lurie

Roc´ıo Aranda-Alvarado

Button, Stephen Decatur

(b. June ,

; d. Jan. , ). Architect. Born in Preston,

Connecticut, Stephen Decatur Button served an apprenticeship with his uncle, a carpenter. He moved frequently, first to New York City, then to Hoboken (although nothing is known of his activities there), Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, before establishing an office in the Philadelphia area in . Button lived across the Delaware River in Camden, and his architectural commissions in that growing city were almost as extensive as in its larger neighbor: seventeen churches, two ferry houses, a bank, and thirteen public schools. The majority of his Camden buildings have been demolished. Another major locus for Button’s later work was Cape May, where he was responsible for some forty buildings, of which many survive, including Jackson’s Clubhouse (the Mainstay Inn) and a row of cottages on Stockton Place. Tatman, Sandra L., and Roger W. Moss, Jr. Biographical Dictionary of Philadelphia Architects, –. Boston: G. K. Hall, . Thomas, George E., Carl Doebley. Cape May, Queen of the Seaside Resorts: Its History and Architecture. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, .

See also architecture

Constance M. Greiff

Byllynge, Edward

(b. date unknown; d.

Jan. ). Quaker proprietor of West Jersey. An

early convert to Quakerism, brewer, and resident of London, Edward Byllynge purchased John, Lord Berkeley’s half share of New Jersey in . Legally bankrupt, he was represented in the purchase first by John Fenwick and then a group of Quaker trustees, who divided West Jersey into one hundred proprietary shares. Byllynge initially kept ninety shares and prepared, with help, the liberal Concessions and Agreements of West Jersey, a framework for the government of the colony. However, Byllynge quarreled with Fenwick and residents of the colony over ownership of proprietary shares and his claim to sole ownership of the government. The English government recognized his claims, but in  the colonial assembly protested. By the following year Byllynge was dead, and his heirs had sold his proprietary shares plus the right to the government to Dr. Daniel Coxe, a land speculator. Pomfret, John E. The Province of West New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Byram. .-square-mile township in southern Sussex County. Incorporated in , Byram was previously part of Newton Township. It was named for the Byram family, settler Jephthah Byram in particular. Early European settlement arose around local iron mines, with forges erected at Stanhope, Waterloo, Roseville, and Columbia. Byram also served as a center of charcoal production in the s before the use of anthracite coal for fuel became widespread. The township’s iron mines declined over the course of the nineteenth century as open-pit mines in Michigan and Minnesota were established, and railroad lines brought this midwestern ore to the Northeast. Byram is the site of fifteen lakes. Of these, the largest, Lake Mohawk, is artificial. Another, Cranberry Lake, was a popular resort during the early s. Hopatcong and Stanhope were part of Byram at one time. Byram is also home to the historic Waterloo Village on Morris Canal. The township celebrated its bicentennial in . The  population of Byram was ,, and of these residents,  percent was white. The median household income for  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Johnson, Carl O., and Elspeth Hart. A History of Byram. Newton: New Jersey Herald, . Lee, Cindy. Waterloo and Byram Township. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Cynthia Hammell

Byrne, Brendan T.

(b. Apr. , ).

Lawyer, judge, and governor. Brendan T. Byrne was born in West Orange to Francis and Genevieve Byrne. He graduated from West Orange High School in  and attended Seton Hall University until , when he enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Corps to fight in World War II. During his service, Byrne was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. He was honorably discharged in . Upon his return, Byrne enrolled at Princeton University and graduated in  from its School of Public and International Affairs. He then went to Harvard Law School and received an L.L.B. degree in . Byrne practiced law in New Jersey until , when he was appointed assistant counsel to Gov. Robert B. Meyner. From  to , Byrne served as Meyner’s

acting executive secretary. Governor Meyner named Byrne as the Essex County prosecutor in ; Gov. Richard J. Hughes reappointed him to this position in . Byrne’s public service during the Hughes administration continued when the governor tapped Byrne to serve as president of the New Jersey Public Utility Commission, a position he held for two years. In  Gov. William T. Cahill appointed Byrne to the Superior Court. Byrne became the assignment judge for the vicinage of Morris, Sussex, and Warren Counties. Announcing that he was seeking the Democratic nomination for governor, Byrne resigned from the bench in . He defeated Charles Sandman, Jr., who had beaten the incumbent, Cahill, in the Republican primary. Byrne won the general election with the highest margin of victory, more than , votes, in New Jersey history. As governor, Byrne signed legislation creating the Department of the Public Advocate and the Department of Energy in . Both were the first such state agencies to be created in the country. New Jersey also led the nation in early campaign finance reform when Byrne signed a bill to provide state funding for gubernatorial elections. He authorized the law permitting gambling in Atlantic City in  and led the campaign to preserve the Pinelands. Byrne’s first term was also marked by controversy. Byrne was forced to order gasoline rationing during the  energy crisis. Prior to this, in  the State Supreme Court ruled in Robinson v. Cahill that funding public education through the property tax was unconstitutional. Byrne proposed instituting an income tax to meet the court’s order. The legislature, knowing that such a tax would be very unpopular, refused to act until July , when the court ordered all public schools closed until an alternative funding source was devised. Byrne immediately signed the state’s first progressive income tax law. The income tax became a central issue in the  gubernatorial election. In spite of the tax’s unpopularity, Byrne defeated State Senator Raymond H. Bateman in the general election by nearly , votes. This victory vindicated Byrne and his support of the income tax. After leaving office in , Governor Byrne was made a senior partner in the law firm Carella, Byrne, Bain, Gilfillan, Cecchi, Stewart, and Olstein. He is married to Ruthi Zinn Byrne and is the father of seven children from a previous marriage. Salmore, Barbara G., and Stephen A. Salmore. New Jersey Politics and Government: Suburban Politics Comes of Age. d ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, .

See also governor

Joseph R. Marbach

C Cahill, William T. d. July , ).

(b. June , ;

Governor and congressman. William Cahill was the son of William and Rose (Golden) Cahill. He received a bachelor’s degree from Saint Joseph’s (Philadelphia) College in  and an LL.B. from South Jersey (Rutgers) Law School in . He was married to Elizabeth Myrtetus in ; the couple had eight children. Cahill was elected to the General Assembly from Camden County in , serving one term. In , he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he remained for eleven years. During his Washington career, Cahill’s principal assignment was to the Judiciary Committee. His policy focus included crime prevention, consumer protection, and civil rights legislation. As a moderate Republican, Cahill usually secured the support of organized labor, politically important in Camden County. His moderate policy approach and forthright personality helped Cahill win the  gubernatorial nomination over a more conservative South Jersey congressman, Charles Sandman. In the general election, Cahill faced former Democratic governor Robert Meyner (–), who was attempting a political comeback. It was no contest: the Democratic stronghold of Hudson County was hostile to Meyner, and the GOP was riding the crest of Richard Nixon’s popularity. Cahill swept twenty counties, and helped carry his party to strong majorities in both houses of the legislature. The new governor pledged to continue along the policy lines marked out by the Democrats in the s, providing better education, law enforcement, environmental protection, transportation, and housing for New Jersey. He also promised to restore the state’s public image by rooting out government corruption. Cahill’s ambitious agenda demanded increased revenue, and a cooperative legislature raised the sales tax from  to  percent. Negative reaction from a traditionally antitax state provided a portent of Cahill’s future troubles. The governor believed that New Jersey’s administrative and tax systems required major overhaul if his programs were to be cost effective. Studies were initiated in both areas by blue-ribbon committees. Outside the field of law enforcement, an area of special Cahill interest, the management study produced disappointing results. The tax committee boldly recommended a reversal of the traditional state-local fiscal relationship, with new state property and income taxes making the state

government the major player. Support came from the courts in the  case of Robinson v. Cahill, in which the Superior Court called for a new approach to school finance. In a special summer session that year, Cahill’s tax proposals were soundly defeated in the General Assembly. This setback appeared to be countered by the Nixon landslide that autumn, and a confident governor announced his candidacy for renomination. Developments in the spring of , however, brought an end to Cahill’s political career. A wave of investigations and indictments of his political supporters and colleagues severely compromised Cahill’s image and reputation, enabling his nemesis, Charles Sandman, to defeat him in the June primary. Cahill conscientiously carried out his gubernatorial duties in the succeeding months, and in  returned to the private practice of law in Camden County. (Sandman lost the general election.) Cahill did not run for public office again. His administration is noted for its work to improve New Jersey’s environment, including establishing a Department of Environmental Protection in  and passage of the Coastal Areas Facilities Review Act (CAFRA) in . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard J. Connors

Cain, Richard Harvey

(b. Apr. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Clergyman, bishop, and U.S.

representative. Born in Greenbriar County, in what would become West Virginia, Richard Cain moved with the family to Ohio in , where he grew to maturity. Ohio River steamboat employment was followed by service as a Methodist Episcopal preacher, studies at Wilberforce University, and ordination as an African Methodist Episcopal (AME) minister in Brooklyn, New York. Following the Civil War, the AME Church assigned Cain to South Carolina. Becoming active in the Republican party, he served as a state senator and, between  and , was elected to two nonconsecutive terms in Congress. He was elected an AME bishop in , and assigned to Louisiana and Texas. In Waco, Texas, he helped found, and served as the second president of, Paul Quinn College. Later in , he resumed his duties as an AME bishop and presided over the First Episcopal District, which includes New Jersey. He remained in this position until he died, in Washington, D.C., in . Salzman, Jack, David Lionel Smith, and Cornel West, eds. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. Vol. . New York: Macmillan, .

See also African Church

Methodist

Episcopal

Giles R. Wright

Caldwell, James (b. Apr. , ; d. Hannah Ogden Caldwell (b. Sept. , ; d. June , ).

Nov. , ), and

Clergyman and Revolutionary War patriot and wife. James Caldwell was born in what is now Charlotte County, Virginia, the son of John and Margaret Phillips Caldwell, Scotch-Irish Presbyterians who had immigrated to America from Ulster. James graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in , and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in . He became minister of the Presbyterian Church in Elizabethtown in , and in the following year married Hannah Ogden, daughter of John and Hannah Sayre Ogden, a prominent family. The minister and his wife eventually had nine children. The Caldwells began their married life just as the storm of protest against England burst forth in the American colonies. Like most of New Jersey’s Presbyterians, James was a supporter of the American cause, and was active in rebel committees. After the war began, he served for a time in  as chaplain of the Third New Jersey Brigade on the New York frontier. In , he began service in the commissary department of the Continental Army, working to find supplies, which he often paid for out of his own pocket, for the ever needy troops. At the same time he continued to minister to his congregation. When an enemy raid on Elizabethtown burned his church to the ground, the Reverend Mr. Caldwell held services in a nearby storehouse. A traditional tale about New Jersey in the Revolution concerns Caldwell at the Battle of Springfield in . According to this story, when the American troops ran low on the paper wadding needed to fire their muskets, the Reverend Caldwell gathered up hymnbooks (known as Watts Hymnals, after the English author Isaac Watts) from a nearby church and tore out pages to give to the soldiers as wadding, shouting as he did so, “Give them Watts, boys.’’ Neither James nor Hannah survived the war. On June , , Hannah was at the parsonage at Connecticut Farms (now Union Township) while a skirmish raged nearby. A shot came through the window from the musket of a British soldier outside the house, killing Hannah. On November , , while at the Elizabethtown harbor, John was shot and killed by an American sentry. The killings of the Reverend and Mrs. Caldwell, a year and a half apart, have often been interpreted as assassinations committed by the enemy. James was convinced that his wife had been marked for death by the British command, and he published a pamphlet marshaling the evidence for that conclusion. After James’s death, it was believed that the American sentry had been bribed by the Tories to commit the deed. The sentry was subsequently tried and executed for murder. It is not implausible that the Caldwells were targets of a deliberate plot—given the 111

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prominence of the minister in the American cause—but it is equally possible that the deaths of the husband and wife were accidents of war. The British soldier who shot Hannah appears to have been a picket on the edge of the battle. He may have fired when he spied a sudden movement at the window. Regarding the sentry, there is some evidence that he thought Caldwell was in possession of contraband from a British ship that had come into the harbor under a flag of truce. There have been many tributes to the “Fighting Parson’’ and his wife. An image of the shooting of Hannah (although quite inaccurate) adorns the official seal of Union County. The borough of Caldwell, in Essex County, is named for James. A monument in memory of the husband and wife mark their graves in the cemetery of the Presbyterian church at which they both worshiped. Brydon, Norman F. Reverend James Caldwell, Patriot, –. Caldwell: Caldwell Bicentennial Committee, . DNB. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Marc Mappen

Lockward, Lynn G. A Puritan Heritage: The First Presbyterian Church in Horse-Neck (Caldwell, N.J.). Caldwell: Privately published, .

Richard Cummings

Caldwell College. Caldwell College is a coeducational, four-year liberal arts institution located on a seventy-acre campus in suburban Caldwell, Essex County. The Sisters of Saint Dominic founded this Catholic women’s college in ; it was fully accredited in . In , the college became coeducational, and the first male students enrolled in . In  Caldwell College became the first in New Jersey to award the bachelor of fine arts degree. Today Caldwell College offers B.A., B.S., and B.F.A. degrees in twenty-seven majors in the arts and sciences, business, fine arts, computer science, and medical technology. The school’s expanding graduate program offers seven master’s degrees, three postmaster’s programs, and a post-baccalaureate teacher certificate program. Of the , students enrolled at the college, approximately half are pursuing degrees part-time. The growing number of corporations in the county offers students a diversity of internships and job opportunities. See also higher education Michele Gisbert

Caldwell.

.-square-mile borough in the western part of Essex County, twenty miles west of New York City, settled in the s by pioneers from Newark. The borough was named for James Caldwell, the “Fighting Parson’’ of Revolutionary War fame. It became the business and trading hub for the larger area, known as Caldwell Township from . Caldwell incorporated as a separate borough in , with Lewis Lockward as first mayor. The borough is celebrated as the birthplace () of Grover Cleveland, the only U.S. president born in New Jersey. The site is preserved as a museum by the state of New Jersey. The landmark First Presbyterian Church dates from ; its congregation first organized in . The borough is home to Caldwell College, founded in  as a Catholic institution of higher learning for women, now coeducational. The bucolic Grover Cleveland County Park, with its recreational facilities, walking paths, and pond for fishing and ice skating, is a popular haven. Today Caldwell is a mostly white residential community, with a small minority presence. Industry is minimal. It continues to maintain an active commercial district on Bloomfield Avenue, the main traffic artery. The  population of , was  percent white. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Claire, Sr. Loretta, and N. Brydon. Caldwell, Yesterday, Today, –. Caldwell: Bicentennial Committee, . Collins, J. J. Remembering the Caldwells. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Califon. .-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. Originally the town was named California in honor of resident Jacob Neighbor, who made his fortune in the California gold rush and returned to Califon around . According to legend, California became Califon when residents painted the train station and could not fit all of the letters in “California’’ on its sign. The settlement that would be Califon grew up along the South Branch of the Raritan River about  near the second of two gristmills built by local entrepreneurs. Califon developed its own logging industry when sawmills were later built, although logging in the area died out as the industry spread south. Many of Califon’s early residents were farmers or were employed either by the nearby Taylor Iron and Steel Works, which began operating around the time of the American Revolution, or at nearby limestone quarries, which opened about . Califon was incorporated in  when it broke off from Lebanon, Tewksbury, and High Bridge townships. Today the borough, with many of its structures dating back to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, retains the feel of a small country village. The population of Califon in  was ,;  percent of the residents were white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Geist, Helen Haggerty. The Califon Story. Califon: Califon Historical Society, .

Christine A. Lutz

Camden. .-square-mile city in Camden County. The area that was to become the city was first settled by William Cooper in . When Cooper took over the operation of a ferry between what later was known as Camden and Philadelphia, the region became known as Cooper’s Ferries. A few others took up large plots of land, but the area did not begin to grow substantially until one of William Cooper’s descendents, Jacob Cooper, laid out a forty-acre town site, which he named for Charles Pratt, the earl of Camden, an English sympathizer with the movement for American independence. British occupation of Camden during the Revolution, however, retarded immediate development. The city incorporated in , as an effort to establish its independence from Newton Township. Real growth followed six years later when the Camden and Amboy Railroad, then the longest line in the country, made Camden its terminus. As a testament to its growing importance, the town became the county seat in . Although it remained very much in Philadelphia’s shadow through the Civil War era, with peace Camden attracted both the immigrant workforce and the capital to establish its own industrial base. Plants in Camden produced carriages, woolen goods, and lumber, and Richard Esterbrook’s steel pen company was established there as well. In  the modest canning business Joseph Campbell had started in  incorporated as Campbell Soup. Eight years later the New York Ship Building Company opened yards, which soon employed as many as five thousand workers. In  Eldridge Johnson, who had begun work on a “talking machine’’ two years earlier, formed the Victor Talking Machine Company, which later merged with RCA. By  Camden’s board of trade could assert that the city had finally broken free of Philadelphia’s dominance. A  report listed  industries employing , people. Camden thus emerged as a classic industrial town. Factories and railroads, most notably the Pennsylvania Railroad, preempted primary sites. Workers formed tight neighborhood clusters nearby, settling around parishes that reinforced their ethnic solidarity. African Americans, who had been a significant presence in the city since the settlement of the Fettersville section of South Camden in the s, remained largely confined to their own neighborhood, attending schools that were segregated by practice if not by law. The prosperous s appeared to signal unlimited possibilities for Camden, highlighted by the opening in  of the first suspension bridge linking the city to Philadelphia. By supplementing ferry traffic between the two cities, boosters envisioned a “Greater Camden’’ that would ultimately incorporate surrounding suburban communities. Such aspirations appeared confirmed by the opening of the city’s first luxury hotel, the Walt Whitman, in ; a twelve-story office building

Camden Churches Organized for People across the street; and the dedication of a towering new city hall in . Indeed, over the next quarter-century Camden maintained its position as the hub of South Jersey. The Great Depression dampened but did not kill Camden’s economic development, and World War II boosted production to new highs, with as many as , employed at New York Ship Building alone. Postwar developments, however, unraveled that prosperity. With peace, veterans seeking homes in which to start families found superior options in suburban locations. As growth shifted outward, institutions followed. In , Jewish leaders reconsidered an earlier decision to build a new community center in East Camden, choosing instead to locate in Delaware Township, subsequently renamed Cherry Hill. The Courier-Post followed two years later. The location there in  of the area’s first regional shopping mall signaled a dramatic shift in retail activity away from Camden. These factors, when combined with industrial layoffs, made the city a less desirable location. A number of the city’s shipyards began to close after the war, and although New York Shipbuilding received a temporary reprieve, it too closed, in . RCA-Victor shifted its operations elsewhere after the war, and Campbell reduced its presence in the city, shutting down its manufacturing operation in . The larger retail stores, Litts and Sears, both abandoned Camden locations in the early s. None of the city’s thirteen movie theaters survived into the s. The city’s population, which peaked at , in , declined to , in  and fell to , in . Camden’s population changed dramatically not just in number but in composition. Attracted by wartime opportunities, African Americans and Puerto Ricans flooded the city. Limited by strong traditions of segregation both in housing and employment, these newcomers struggled to establish themselves. By the time a full civil rights movement was in place in the mid-s, blue-collar employment had already declined precipitously. The four days of civil disorders that followed a police shooting of a Puerto Rican man in  only accelerated the flight of human and financial capital. Because so many current residents arrived too late to benefit from the peak industrial employment, the city is disproportionately poor. In  Camden’s median income was $,, well below both county and national averages. More than a third of its population was living in poverty. The threat of economic decline prompted a number of responses. In the s, the city launched an ambitious program for redevelopment, which sought to upgrade the downtown and to retain industry by expanding sites and improving highway access. But the rebuilding process both sparked further social upheaval through forced relocation of minorities and failed to keep pace with nearby investments in suburban Pennsauken and Cherry

Hill. A development corporation, named after the original Cooper’s Ferries, had some success along the waterfront, building an aquarium () and a premier entertainment facility (). But failed efforts to lure professional basketball and hockey teams from Philadelphia to the waterfront, and Campbell Soup’s decision not to build a new world headquarters there, slowed the city’s recovery. Neighborhoods, in the meantime, besieged by abandonment and high incidences of drug use, continued to deteriorate. Only the magnificent efforts of a few community development corporations managed to keep the situation from getting worse. As the city entered a new century, it was still very much in the process of trying to reinvent itself. According to the  census,  percent of Camden’s population of , was black,  percent was white, and  percent was Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery, and Philip English. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Kirp, David L., John P. Dwyer, and Larry A. Rosenthal. Our Town: Race, Housing, and the Soul of Suburbia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Howard Gillette, Jr.

Camden and Amboy Railroad. One of the pioneering railroads in New Jersey and the United States was the Camden and Amboy Railroad. By the time the mighty Pennsylvania Railroad acquired this New Jersey carrier in , it owned a strategic route from the Delaware River at Camden, opposite Philadelphia, to South Amboy and Raritan Bay, an arm of New York Bay. The company also had a line from Trenton to New Brunswick, along with several branches, and it ran trains to Jersey City in conjunction with the New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company. The Camden and Amboy also provided steamboat service between South Amboy and New York City, and ferry, lighter, and car-float service in New York Harbor. Although the idea of a railroad that would link the Delaware and Raritan Rivers appeared

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as early as , problems of technology precluded any serious efforts to turn dream into reality until the late s when the British demonstrated the feasibility of this form of intercity transport. In  backers of the railroad conducted a survey and held public meetings along the projected route. After considerable political posturing, in early  the New Jersey legislature gave proponents an attractive charter for their Camden and Amboy Rail Road and Transportation Company. Before the railroad pushed ahead, however, the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company joined forces; this relationship became known as the Joint Companies. Construction of the railroad soon began, and in late  the segment between Amboy and Bordentown opened; two years later the Bordentown-toCamden portion saw service. Significantly, the railroad’s owners demonstrated a proclivity for innovation and left an enormous legacy to the industry during its demonstration period. The president, Robert L. Stevens, is generally credited with inventing the T rail that by  became widely used. The company also introduced prototypes of modern ties, spikes, and rail connectors. Moreover, its purchase of the steam locomotive John Bull from Robert Stephenson in Great Britain became the impetus for major modifications and innovations. An important one involved introduction of pilot trucks, resulting in safer operations over spindly tracks. When in  the forty-four-mile-long canal opened, traffic was divided between the two units, with passengers using the railroad and heavy freight moving by canalboat. To protect its monopoly—a sore point with some New Jerseyans—the Camden and Amboy acquired stock control of a potential rival, the Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad. Later the Camden and Amboy took over another early state carrier, the New Jersey Rail Road and Transportation Company, which served Jersey City, Newark, and New Brunswick. And the Camden and Amboy continued to expand. By  the company had inaugurated through service between Philadelphia and Jersey City on what was to become the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Further improvements continued, including the double-tracking of the core route in . Until the Camden and Amboy entered the orbit of the Pennsylvania, it made money and contributed greatly to the development of its service territory. Drury, George H. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Books, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

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H. Roger Grant

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Camden Churches Organized for People. Established in , when clergy recognized the need to organize their

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communities to deal more effectively with the effects of disinvestment, Camden Churches Organized for People (CCOP) became the city’s most active and effective citywide civic organization. Affiliated with the Pacific Institute for Community Organization, a national network of faith-based community organizations, CCOP assisted clergy and lay leaders in forming committees to identify the issues of most immediate concern to their parishioners. Through citywide assemblies, those issues were given priority and subsequently taken to public officials for action. At a time when civic action, including voting, was declining, it was not unusual for CCOP to muster as many as a thousand people for a meeting. A successful four-year campaign to compensate Camden residents for accepting a regional sewage treatment plant in their midst established CCOP’s reputation in the region. Subsequently, CCOP managed to persuade city officials to put more police on the street and to accelerate the demolition of abandoned buildings that were being used as crack houses. In , when the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs wanted citizen input regarding its plan to take political as well as fiscal control of the city, it sought and publicly accepted CCOP’s proposals for school reform, economic development, and tax reduction.

Howard Gillette, Jr.

Camden County.

.-square-mile county. Comprising thirty-seven municipalities, Camden County is the most densely populated county in southwestern New Jersey. Part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area, it is bounded on the west by the Delaware River and Gloucester County; Atlantic County is to the southeast, and Burlington County is to the northeast. It encompasses inner-city, suburban, and rural sectors with diverse levels of income. The urbanized areas of Camden and Gloucester cities and Pennsauken Township are home to approximately  percent of the county’s total population; another  percent reside in the rapidly growing townships of Cherry Hill and Voorhees. The borough of Lawnside, settled by local freed slaves and others migrating from Maryland before the Civil War, remains predominantly African American. Lured by the Concessions and Agreements—a document written in  by William Penn and other West Jersey landowners, which included assurances of religious freedom, equitable taxation, and representative government—persecuted Quakers were the first colonists in what was to become Camden County. In  they settled along the Delaware River and then spread eastward, between Newton and Cooper’s creeks, to portions of today’s Camden City, Collingswood, Haddonfield, and Haddon Township. Because they sailed from the port of Dublin, Ireland,

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they were called Irish Quakers and their plot of land, a Tenth (the third Tenth allotted) of the divided West Jersey lands, was dubbed the Third or Irish Tenth. Economic activity first centered on the Delaware River and the easily navigable portions of the rivers feeding it. Ferrying passengers and agricultural products from the countryside was an early industry and bustling Philadelphia, founded in , an important market. In , Gloucester County was formed from a union of the Third Tenth and the adjoining Fourth Tenth; the combined area swept from the Delaware River to the Atlantic Ocean. In  Camden County separated from Gloucester County and included Camden City, the county seat, Delaware, Gloucester, Newton, Union, Washington, and Waterford townships. Early settlers are memorialized in place names such as Cooper Hospital, founded by descendants of William Cooper, an original settler. Hoping to establish a town in proximity to Philadelphia, Jacob Cooper arranged streets and lots on his land in , naming it “Camdentowne,’’ for Charles Pratt, the earl of Camden, an English sympathizer with the American cause of independence. Skirmishes between British and American forces occurred often during the Revolutionary War in what would later become Camden County. Gen. “Mad’’ Anthony Wayne, Count Casimir Pulaski, and the young marquis de Lafayette were active in the Haddonfield area. The disruptions caused by patrons of rowdy taverns, beer halls, and “pleasure

gardens,’’ which served food and drink to passengers awaiting the ferries, threatened to increase with time. The need for police and a court system to maintain law and order in the city resulted in the incorporation of Camden City in . The city was merely a collection of neighborhoods until the arrival of the Camden and Amboy Railroad in  spurred population growth. After the events at Fort Sumter in , Camdenites rallied to the Union cause. The first volunteer company to apply for service in state regiments was the Zouaves, which served with the New Jersey Fourth Regiment throughout the Civil War. Commanding the Second New Jersey Brigade at Chancellorsville was Gen. William Joyce Sewell, who won the Congressional Medal of Honor for his bravery. He later had an active business and political career, serving in the state senate and the U.S. Senate. Walt Whitman visited his ailing mother in Camden City after the war, stayed on at the home of his brother George, then moved into his own dwelling at  Mickle Street, where he prepared the last, “deathbed,’’ edition of Leaves of Grass. He is buried in Harleigh Cemetery, Camden City, in a tomb of his own design. At the end of the nineteenth century, Camden City emerged as an industrial and commercial leader. Eldridge Johnson established a machine shop, which became the Victor Talking Machine Company, that later merged with RCA. Joseph Campbell and Abraham Anderson started a canning and preserving business, later known as the Campbell Soup Company. The once-famous Esterbrook Pen Company and the New York Shipbuilding Company were established in Camden City prior to World War I, as were knitting mills; lace, leather, and cigar factories; the Van Sciver Furniture Company; and numerous banks. A popular slogan at the time was “On Camden’s supplies, the world relies.’’ The Delaware River Bridge, renamed for Benjamin Franklin and dedicated by President Calvin Coolidge in , established a commuters’ route between center city Philadelphia and Camden County. Within the next fifty years, six additional bridges—the TaconyPalmyra, the Burlington-Bristol, the Delaware Memorial, the Walt Whitman, the Commodore John Barry, and the Betsy Ross— increased automobile access to the region. The High-Speed Line, a rail line opened in , is another important transportation link with Philadelphia. By the s, excellent interstate highways, a skilled labor pool, and an abundant number of industrial parks expanded the county job market. But due to an exodus of white, middle-class residents and the decline of the city’s manufacturing industries, Camden City, with an unemployment rate almost four times higher than the county average, was one of the poorest cities in the nation, dependent on state aid to balance its budget.

Campbell, Milton Gray To encourage growth, the county’s largest private-sector employers are based in Camden City: Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center, Virtua Health System, Lockheed Martin Corporation, Campbell Company, and Our Lady of Lourdes Medical Center. Additional federal, state, and county government offices located there currently make the city the second-largest employment center in South Jersey, after Cherry Hill Township. Scores of historic sites in the county have been placed on the National Register of Historic Places, including fourteen historic districts, five of which are in Camden City. A cultural renaissance along the Camden City waterfront began with the opening of the State Aquarium in ; the waterfront area now includes a children’s garden and a regional performing arts center. Nearby, on the campus of Rutgers University, are the Stedman Art Gallery and the Walt Whitman Cultural Center. In addition, the county is home to a children’s museum, two community orchestras, two local theatrical venues, and dozens of organizations devoted to the visual and performing arts. Camden County has a population of ,, according to the  census; the population is  percent white,  percent black. Median household income was $,. Corotis, A. Charles, and James M. O’Neill. Camden County Centennial, –. Camden: Camden Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———, and Philip English. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gail Greenberg

Camden County College.

In  Camden County purchased a former seminary in Blackwood, including  surrounding acres, for the creation of a community college. Classes began on September , . Over the years, the college has experienced impressive growth in physical size, enrollment, and academic offerings. In  a branch of the college opened in Camden City, and in  a campus opened in Cherry Hill. Today, with an enrollment of approximately twelve thousand students, the school is one of the largest community colleges in New Jersey. Academic offerings have expanded over the years to include not only traditional offerings but also well-regarded programs in robotics, computer-integrated manufacturing, nursing, and laser technology.

Retrospect—A Chronicle of Camden County College, –. Blackwood: Camden County College, .

See also higher education

Brian Stokes

Camden Courier-Post. See Courier-Post.

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The Camden Riversharks, a minor league professional baseball team, compete in the Atlantic League and have no Major League affiliation. The Riversharks play at Campbell’s Field, which opened in May . The stadium, owned by Rutgers University, is also home to the Rutgers–Camden college baseball team. Situated near the Ben Franklin Bridge, the stadium seats , people and offers various amenities, including a picnic area and a ,-square-foot playground for children. The Riversharks play  regular season games from May through September. See also baseball

foiling the scheme. When the company reorganized, Campbell was made a vice president. Ten years later, he and his sons founded J. B. Campbell Manufacturing Company, renamed Mannington Mills in . When the demand for floor coverings dwindled during the Depression, Campbell kept his factory running and his workers employed by printing racing forms. During the various expansions of the plant, Campbell insisted on using Mannington workers and local residents for construction, declining outside contractors. Still privately held, Mannington is now one of the largest flooring manufacturing companies in the country.

Brian McGonigle

The History of Mannington Mills, –: Our First Eighty-five Years. Privately printed, .

Established on a temporary basis in June  to train Signal Corps soldiers for service in World War I, the “Signal Corps Camp at Little Silver’’ was located in what is now the Borough of Oceanport on  acres of the defunct Monmouth Park Race Track Association. It was designated a semi-permanent installation and renamed in honor of New Jersey inventor Alfred E. Vail on September , . By the end of , the camp had processed , enlisted men and  officers for service in Europe, including the st and th Field Service Battalions, the th Reserve Telegraph Battalion, the d, th, and th Telegraph Battalions, and the th Aero Construction Squadron. The Signal Corps Pigeon Breeding and Training Section was established at Camp Alfred Vail in November , and the Signal Corps Radio Laboratory in January . To the latter, the chief signal officer assigned the men and airplanes of the d Aero Squadron for experiments in airto-ground communications and radio direction finding. The Signal Corps School moved to Camp Alfred Vail from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, in September . On August , , the War Department declared Camp Alfred Vail “a permanent military post,’’ and renamed it Fort Monmouth. See also World War I

Deborah S. Greenhut

Camden Riversharks.

Camp Alfred Vail.

Richard B. Bingham

Campbell, John Boston d. Jan. , ).

(b. ;

Industrialist. John Boston Campbell was born in Dumbartonshire, Scotland, near the birthplace of linoleum. He immigrated in  to Brooklyn, New York, where he married Mary S. Lunt and fathered three children. In  he began a five-year assignment to reopen, manage, and expand the American Oil Cloth Company plant in Salem. Shortly after the plant reopened in , Alexander and Louis Bomberg, brothers who together owned  percent of the company, conspired to burn down the plant to collect the insurance money. They attempted to involve Campbell, but he notified his superiors, who alerted the authorities—thus

Campbell, Joseph (b. May , ; d. Mar. , ). Industrial canner. Joseph Campbell

was born in Bridgeton, the son of Presbyterian fruit-farmers. His marriage to Sarah Boyd Foster in  produced three daughters and a son. In , Campbell partnered with Abraham Anderson to form the Camden fruit and vegetable canning firm Anderson and Campbell. After buying out Anderson in , Campbell expanded his product line. He also added partners—a son-in-law, William S. Spackman, and an investor, Arthur Dorrance. Dorrance acquired controlling interest in the Joseph Campbell Preserve Company in , and became president in . Campbell remained devoted to the company, which became the Campbell Soup Company in . Sim, Mary B. Commercial Canning in New Jersey: History and Early Development. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, . Smith, Andrew F. Souper Tomatoes: The Story of America’s Favorite Food. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

Campbell, Milton Gray ).

(b. Dec. ,

Athlete, educator, and motivational speaker. Milt Campbell grew up in Plainfield, where he participated on the football, swimming, and track and field teams at Plainfield High School. Although he made All-American in freestyle swimming and won a football scholarship to Indiana University, Campbell’s high school athletic career was most noteworthy for his performance at the  Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) Championships/ Olympic Trials, where he finished second in the decathlon, qualifying for the Olympic team. In the  Helsinki Olympic Games decathlon, Campbell took second place. After returning to Plainfield for his senior year of high school, Campbell won the  AAU Championships decathlon with a score that was third on the all-time list. Campbell played football and ran high hurdles in college. At the  AAU Championships/Olympic Trials, he again finished second in the decathlon. At the

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Campbell, Lord Neil

 Melbourne Olympic Games, Campbell became the first African American to win the Olympic decathlon, with an Olympic record score. In , Campbell was drafted by the Cleveland Browns and later played in the Canadian Football League. In , he founded the Chad School in Newark, with a program based around African American culture. He later had a career as a motivational speaker. Milt Campbell was elected to the United States Olympic Committee Hall of Fame in . Zarnowski, Frank. The Decathlon: A Colorful History of Track and Field’s Most Challenging Event. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press, .

Pamela Cooper

Campbell,

Lord

Neil

(fl. s).

Scottish proprietor of East Jersey. In the s a significant number of Scots became involved in colonizing East Jersey both as investors in the proprietorship and as settlers. Important among them was Lord Neil Campbell, member of a prominent family that included a brother, Archibald, earl of Argylle, executed for leading a rebellion in . Under suspicion, Lord Neil was required to post bond and stay in the Edinburgh area. Instead, he requested and received permission to emigrate, taking with him fifty-four settlers, most of whom were servants. While in the colony he served as deputy governor, established an eight thousand-acre estate on the Raritan River, and tried (unsuccessfully) to settle the boundary dispute with West Jersey. He returned to Scotland in . Landsman, Ned. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Pomfret, John. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

produce a new catalog. Winterthur began exhibiting the soup items in  in the Dorrance Gallery.

Maxine N. Lurie

Campbell Soup Company.

Joseph Campbell, who had been born in Bridgeton, and Abraham Anderson, from Mount Holly, joined as partners in a Camden tomato canning and preserving firm in . They publicized their Beefsteak Tomatoes widely, using the trademarked image of a gigantic tomato hoisted upon two men’s shoulders. In  Anderson and Campbell received a medal for their work at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. When difficulties arose, Campbell bought Anderson out and acquired new partners, including Arthur Dorrance of Bristol, Pennsylvania. In , Dorrance and Campbell incorporated in New Jersey under the name of the Joseph Campbell Preserve Company. Ready-to-serve tomato soup was one among the two hundred products the company manufactured. Arthur Dorrance’s son, John T. Dorrance, a chemist trained in Germany, joined Campbell’s Camden laboratory in , concentrating on the manufacture of condensed soups. Five of them—tomato, ´— chicken, oxtail, vegetable, and consomme were released in . The following year, the company adopted the now famous red-andwhite soup-can design that was later celebrated by Pop artist Andy Warhol. Condensed soups were extremely successful, and John T. Dorrance became a director and vice president of the company and finally its president. Other products were phased out, and the company changed its name to the Campbell Soup Company. During the s Campbell began marketing tomato juice, and by  it was the leading tomato juice manufacturer in America. It has consistently promoted new product development ever since.

The most important of many reasons for this rapid and consistent growth was the company’s skill at advertising and marketing its products. Its major advertising image was the Campbell Kids, created by Grace Drayton in . Campbell’s marketing strategy has continued to be successful. Since , the company has regularly published cookbooks promoting its other products. It also relied extensively on newspaper, magazine, radio, and television advertising. In  the Campbell Soup Company was inducted into the Marketing Hall of Fame. Today it is one of the leading advertisers in the United States. Campbell has also made important acquisitions. First it acquired the Franco-American Soup Company in Jersey City. After World War II it acquired V juice, a blend of eight vegetables along with several flavor enhancers. Since then Campbell has bought many other food producers, including Pepperidge Farm, Pace Foods, Prego, Swanson, and Godiva chocolates. Campbell stopped making soup in Camden in , and all other manufacturing operations at that site ceased ten years later. Its main tomato processing operations are now located in California, but the company has kept its world headquarters in Camden. Its soups are sold in almost every country, and it remains the largest tomato soup manufacturer in the world. Collins, Douglas. America’s Favorite Food: The Story of Campbell Soup Company. New York: Harry N. Abrams, .

See also canning industry

Andrew F. Smith

Camp Kilmer.

The U.S. Army camp located two miles east of New Brunswick was named for Sgt. Alfred Joyce Kilmer, a native of New Brunswick killed during World War I and a poet best known for “Trees.’’ Activated

Campbell Museum.

The Campbell Museum originated in  when John T. Dorrance, Jr., chairman, and W. B. Murphy, president, of the Campbell Soup Company started collecting soup-related decorative arts. Chartered as a nonprofit organization by the state of New Jersey, the museum opened in  in Camden, at the headquarters of the Campbell Soup Company. It included exhibit space, along with a theater for films and lectures. The museum housed an extensive and unique collection of utensils, including tureens, bowls, spoons, and ladles, that were connected to the company’s main product—soup. While most of the items were old and historic, the collection also contained contemporary examples designed by modern craftspersons. By the s declining attendance led to the decision to close the museum. In , the collection was transferred to the Winterthur Museum and Gardens in Delaware with an agreement that it would show the collection in a single gallery and

The main gate of Camp Kilmer, c. .

Courtesy Metuchen-Edison Historical Society.

Canada goose in , Camp Kilmer was the nation’s first army camp built specifically for the staging of troops. Covering more than fifteen hundred acres, the base contained more than twelve hundred buildings, including accommodations for fifty thousand troops at one time. Its general arrangement, particularly the innovative use of camouflaged buildings, was designed to confuse enemy bombardiers during an air attack. More than one thousand German and Italian prisoners of war were interned at the camp during World War II. Deactivated in , the base was reopened during the Korean War and remained operational through . It served as a reception center for thirty thousand Hungarian refugees who fled the Soviet invasion of their country in . A regional maintenance and support facility for U.S. Army Nike missile batteries was constructed at the base during . Camp Kilmer was permanently closed in . The majority of its land and infrastructure became the Kilmer Campus of Rutgers University, including Livingston College. The only remaining vestige of the base’s military past is the Joyce Kilmer Army Reserve Center, headquarters of the th Division. See also World War II

Donald E. Bender

camp meetings.

The Cumberland Revival, which swept the Southeast in the late s, marked the beginning of camp meetings in America. By the summer of  the phenomenon had emerged as a successful tool of Protestant evangelism among Presbyterians, Baptists, and Methodists, and it spread to their northeastern brethren. The growing popularity of camp meetings reached New Jersey in the mid-s. Multitudes escaped from growing industrialized cities for revivalist preaching and healthful retreat in seaside, forested, and mountain settings throughout the state. Regardless of locale, camp meeting sites had a common physical layout: a central square or park with preacher’s pulpit, firebox, and wooden benches, surrounded by canvas tents in concentric rows and separated by narrow passageways. The Great Prayer Revival of the s produced a boom in attendance and more formal camp meeting opportunities. People of all denominations nationwide, suffering from severe economic hardship brought on by the financial crash of , found comfort in noonday prayer and other spiritual pursuits. Churches turned again to camp meetings as an outreach tool. In New Jersey, the newly formed Newark Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church established a Conference Camp Meeting that attracted more than fifteen thousand people, necessitating simultaneous preaching by three ministers to address the crowd. Later, in preparation for the Centenary of American Methodism, a committee that included the Reverend Jonathan T. Crane

(father of author Stephen Crane) was chosen to locate a permanent camp meeting site. On March , , the New Jersey legislature granted a charter to the Newark Annual Conference establishing the Mount Tabor Camp Meeting, and the first camp meeting was held there from August  to September , . The charter enabled Mount Tabor to set up municipal services, even though it was located within the boundaries of a larger township. That same year a similar charter was granted to the Ocean Grove Camp Meeting Association of the United Methodist Church. As the fervent religious spirit of most camp meetings declined in the late s, many associations were transformed by the building of cottages, tabernacles, and hotels. While religious services were maintained, offerings were expanded to include recreational and social activities, as well as lectures on the arts, sciences, and humanities. After World War II, many people found affordable housing at the Mount Tabor and Ocean Grove Camp Meetings, winterizing the cottages for year-round use and enclosing open porches once covered with gingerbread trim to accommodate growing families. Other camp meetings in the state languished. In , in response to concerns about maintaining a clear separation of church and state, the state legislature invalidated the  statute that had established camp meetings as quasi municipalities. The local municipalities, Parsippany–Troy Hills and Neptune, assumed municipal services previously provided by the camp meetings in Mount Tabor and Ocean Grove. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Mount Tabor continues as a strictly secular community. Ocean Grove, on the other hand, offers a popular schedule of religious services alongside secular programs, and its residents proudly preserve and promote their unique architectural and camp meeting heritage. Brown, Kenneth O. Holy Ground, Too: The Camp Meeting Family Tree. Rev. ed. Hazelton, PA: Holiness Archives, . Messenger, Troy W. Holy Leisure: Recreation and Religion in God’s Square Mile. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, . Norris, Mary Harriott. Camp Tabor: A Story of Camp Meeting. . Reprint, with an introduction by Robert D. Simpson and Megan D. Simpson. Raritan: Raritan Valley Press, .

Susan Akers, Emily W. B. Russell, and Beth Shaw

Camp Merritt. The -acre World War I embarkation camp that spanned the towns of Cresskill, Dumont, Tenafly, Bergenfield, Demarest, and Haworth in Bergen County was named for Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt of the Civil and Spanish-American wars. More than ,, soldiers were quartered there between  and , principally for brief periods before assignment to, or after return from, Europe. The base was situated between

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Camp Merritt Monument, Cresskill.

Courtesy David R. Wall. two railroads and within marching distance of the Hudson River at Alpine, north of the port of Hoboken. The camp closed in . In  Gen. John J. Pershing dedicated a sixtyfive-foot granite obelisk engraved with the names of  individuals who died at the camp. Rose, Howard W. Camp Merritt: A Documentary. Harrington Park: Harrington Park Historical Society, . Westervelt, Frances A., ed. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Company, .

See also World War I

David R. Wall

Canada goose.

Branta canadensis is New Jersey’s most common goose, characterized by a black neck, white cheek patch, and sonorous honk. Prior to the s it was seen only as a spring and fall migrant, as none bred locally and few overwintered. Today, along with migrant geese, a large breeding Canada goose population also exists in the state. Originating from nonmigrant geese transplanted from the Midwest, New Jersey currently has the highest density of resident Canada geese in the United States, approximately one hundred thousand birds during the breeding season. Resident geese also lure migrant geese to “short-stop,’’ and winter counts now exceed two hundred thousand. Resident geese breed at an earlier age than migrants and they have high survival and reproduction rates, all of which contribute to their rapid population growth. After the first few weeks of life, the only significant predators of Canada geese are humans via sport hunting. The New Jersey harvest of Canada geese averages twenty thousand birds annually.

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cancer

Canada geese spend considerable time feeding on land in harvested crops and lawns. Although valued for aesthetic, harvest, and scientific purposes, high populations utilizing the same areas as humans results in problems of crop and lawn damage, soiling of parks, lawns, and ball fields, aircraft collisions, and disease. Control methods include noise, flags, taste repellents, herding dogs, egg addling, and flock removal. Van Wormer, J. The World of the Canada Goose. Philadelphia: Lippincott, .

See also birds

Paul M. Castelli

cancer.

During the period –, the state of New Jersey had the highest cancer mortality rates in the United States, and these high rates were not explained by the fact that New Jersey’s population was older than the populations of most states. The explanation for the existence of a so-called cancer alley has been hotly debated. Some facts were indisputable. One was that cigarette smoking rates were higher in cities than in rural areas of the United States, and New Jersey, the most urbanized state, had high rates of smoking and lung cancer. Second, many of New Jersey’s residents were born in Europe, and we know from studying cancer rates in European countries and in the United States that these populations had certain habits, especially nutritional, that predisposed them to higher rates of digestive and urinary tract cancers. Third, New Jersey was a heavily industrialized state, and many New Jersey residents worked at jobs that increased their chances of contracting cancer, such as working with asbestos in the construction of ships during World War II. We also know that workers exposed to certain dyes and other products in chemical plants had higher cancer rates. In New Jersey, the most debatable cause of cancer is general environmental contamination. Some argue that air pollution and water pollution have contributed to high cancer rates; others have disputed this assertion. Scientists by and large have not found much evidence to support a relationship between cancer and outdoor pollution. However, these debates recur in the investigation of so-called cancer clusters, for example, in Rutherford and Toms River, where residents were convinced that environmental contamination caused excess cancers. There is evidence from molecular studies that genetic composition predisposes some people to higher rates of some forms of cancer, such as breast cancer. The interaction of genetics and exposure to carcinogens in food, at work, and as a result of other personal behaviors is not well understood. At this time, we have no way of attributing certain cancers to genetic factors. Whereas most chronic causes of death have decreased in the United States during the last decade, cancer rates have stabilized and in some places they have slightly increased.

Beginning in the s, the differences in cancer rates between New Jersey and the rest of the United States clearly declined, especially among residents aged thirty-five to sixty-four, implying that the unique characteristics of New Jersey and its residents that labeled the state “cancer alley’’ have been disappearing. The majority of cancers—for example, of the lung, colon, and cervix—are believed to be preventable by proactive public health practices. Some require the development of culturally sensitive health education programs about the value of Pap smears for early detection of cervical cancer. Other efforts, such as suing tobacco companies over the cost of tobacco-related deaths, aim at reducing the supply of the agent on the market and making the culpable parties pay for some of the ills their products cause. The effectiveness of fiber, ascorbic acid, retinoids, vegetables, and other products in reducing the probability of contracting cancer is not clear and requires additional evidence before they can be said to help prevent cancer. Some forms of cancer have been decreasing (e.g., gastric) without explicit prevention programs. Many types of cancer, especially in children, can be effectively treated and some can be cured if detected early. Surgery and chemotherapy (e.g., chemical, radiological) and immunotherapy are used in concert and have increased the survival rates for some kinds of cancer patients. The U.S. National Institutes of Health estimate the annual cost of cancer diagnosis and treatment at almost $ billion. Another $ billion is attributed to lost worker productivity and premature death. The physiological cost of cancer is also extremely high. Because cancer can be such a fearsome disease for patients and their families, those who work with cancer patients must exercise the utmost care and sensitivity.

Analysis of differences and causes of cancer among populations, or epidemiology, is difficult because cancer has a long latency rate, typically twenty to forty years. Before a cancer is detected, many people have moved, died, or been subjected to other diseasepromoting and -retarding factors. Yet New Jersey has among the most diverse populations in the Untied States, with people from many nations and cultures, which makes it an important place to study the factors that contribute to cancer. In fact, concerns about high cancer rates have led to the establishment of strong environmental protection programs and to cancer monitoring and research efforts in New Jersey. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, . Greenberg, Michael. Urbanization and Cancer Mortality. New York: Oxford University Press, . Greenwald, Peter, Barnett S. Kramer, and Douglas L. Weeds, eds. Cancer Prevention and Control. New York: Marcel Dekker, . Murphy, Gerald, Walter Lawrence, and Raymond Lenhard, Jr., eds. Clinical Oncology. d ed. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, .

See also medicine and public health

Michael R. Greenberg

Cancer Institute of New Jersey. The Cancer Institute of New Jersey (CINJ), established in  and located in New Brunswick, is the state’s only National Cancer Institute–designated cancer center. It has programs in breast, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, gynecological, respiratory, and pediatric cancers, and in melanoma/sarcoma, leukemia/lymphoma, and bone marrow transplants. The  scientists at the CINJ are experts in pharmacology, carcinogenesis, chemoprevention, cytokines, growth factors, signal transduction, molecular mechanisms, gene transcription, and cancer control. Every effective standard therapy, including

Plant No.  of Cranberry Canners, Inc., New Egypt, c. .

Courtesy Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc., Corporate Archives, Lakeville-Middleboro, MA.

Cape May NCI-approved clinical trials, is available to patients at CINJ. In addition, discoveries made in the laboratories of the CINJ are used to treat patients. Partner institutions of the Cancer Institute of New Jersey include the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ), the UMDNJ–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, the Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, Saint Peter’s University Hospital, the Atlantic Health System, and New Brunswick Affiliated Hospitals.

Linda Barker

service by black physicians. Active in Hudson County and national Republican politics, Cannon was elected president of the National Colored Republican Conference in  and seconded the nomination of Calvin Coolidge at the  Republican National Convention. Nelson, William, ed. Nelson’s Biographical Cyclopedia of New Jersey. New York: Eastern Historical Publishing Society, . Richardson, Clement, ed. The National Cyclopedia of the Colored Race. Montgomery, AL: National Publishing Company, .

See also North Jersey Medical Society

Sandra Moss

canning industry.

During the nineteenth century, the rise of tomato production, coupled with strategic innovations in the technology of food processing, paved the way for the successful development of the canning industry in New Jersey, which continues to thrive to this day. Sometime between  and , Rowland Dutton of Burlington launched a short-lived venture in tinning herring roe, but Harrison Woodhull Crosby of Jamesburg is generally credited with being the first successful commercial canner of tomatoes in . Also in , the North American Phalanx Colony—a social experiment in community cooperation—built a canning factory in Red Bank that operated for over a century. Shortly after the factory was established, it was taken over by the Bucklin family, innovators of the pulping and filling process. That plant was purchased by Walter Rathbun, Inc., in , but closed in . Certainly among the most notable events in the industry’s history was the founding of Anderson and Campbell in  in Camden, which, in , became the Campbell Soup Company. The original Camden manufacturing plant operated until . Processed food ranks among the state’s significant exports. Many well-known companies are listed among the top one hundred firms in New Jersey, and Campbell Soup ranks among the premier research and development firms in the state.

Cape May. .-square-mile city in Cape May County. Summer visitors started coming to Cape Island before the American Revolution, and by the s the town was the nation’s most famous seaside resort. Huge, sprawling hotels were built to accommodate the influx of summer visitors. Incorporated as

the City of Cape May in , the resort gained a big boost from the West Jersey Railroad (). In  a huge fire destroyed thirty-five acres in the center of town. The residents rebuilt in the prevailing Victorian style and the resort continued to be a fashionable vacation spot. The town was host to several U.S. presidents during the s. After a long period of decline following World War II that threatened many of the resort’s historic structures, the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts was formed to preserve and encourage restoration of beautiful Victorian-era homes, including the Emlen Physick Estate on Washington Street. In  Cape May was named a National Historic Landmark, and today the seaside town is a year-round resort, drawing hundreds of thousands of visitors every year. Cape May is home to the U.S. Coast Guard Training Center, the only training center in the country, and the Port of Cape May is one of the largest fishing ports on the East Coast.

Sim, Mary B. Commercial Canning in New Jersey: History and Early Development. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

Cannon, George Epps

(b. July , ;

d. Apr. , ). Physician and politician. Born in

Carlisle, South Carolina, George Cannon graduated from Lincoln University in Pennsylvania and New York Homeopathic College (). He entered practice in Jersey City, becoming a highly successful and popular clinician with a biracial practice. Cannon was president of the North Jersey Medical Society and the Northeastern Interstate Medical Association; he was the influential chairman of the executive board of the National Medical Association for many years. During World War I, he served in the state militia and was critical of national policies limiting military medical

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The Emlen Physick Estate in Cape May, built c. , is a true Stick-style Victorian showplace.

Courtesy Chamber of Commerce of Commerce of Greater Cape May.

Cape May County

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According to the  census, the population of , is  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also illustration, color section

Barbara St. Clair

Cape May County.

.-square-mile county with sixteen municipalities. Cape May County is a peninsula at the southernmost tip of New Jersey, with beaches washed by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and Delaware Bay to the west. Seventeenth-century European explorers most likely landed there in , and Dutch Capt. Cornelius Jacobsen Mey (Cape May’s namesake) explored the region between  and . Settlement came slowly, however. Treacherous surf off the oceanside barrier islands and dangerous bayside sandbars and shallows made landings difficult. Dutch, Swedish, and British traders and settlers sought better sites up the Delaware River. Possibly a small whaling colony built cabins at Town Bank on the lower bayside in the s, and several decades later British town planner and entrepreneur Dr. Daniel Coxe established an agricultural, fishing, and shipbuilding settlement nearby. By the end of the seventeenth century, Coxe’s enterprise and Quaker land speculators had brought several hundred British whaling and farming families to the Cape from New England, Long Island, and East Jersey, along with some French Huguenots and African

CAPE MAY COUNTY

Cape May Court House

0

15 miles

county seat

Americans. Most settled bayside along creeks, on Cape Island at the tip of the peninsula (later Cape May City), and up the mainland along well-worn trails made by the Lenape Indians, who either resided permanently on the Cape or visited seasonally to fish and make shell-bead money belts called wampum. Enough freeholders (office holders/landed estate owners who are not limited by social class or inheritance rights) resided on the isolated peninsula by  to establish county government, and in  the county was divided into precincts (later townships) that reflected their inhabitants’ religious affiliations. Quakers settled the Upper Precinct, Baptists the Middle Precinct, and Presbyterians the Lower Precinct. Settlement was slower than in most other New Jersey counties during the eighteenth century because the Cape was cut off from the outside world by deep tidal creeks, inhospitable landing places, and few passable dry pathways leading north into West Jersey. Despite this remoteness, wealthy Cape May gentry leaders Jacob Spicer and Aaron Leaming, Jr., played major roles in New Jersey political and economic affairs before the Revolution, and they authored the first collection of laws, The Grants, Concessions, and Original Constitutions of the Province of New Jersey. Cape May County began to attract new settlers to farm, fish, build boats, and mine cedar logs that had fallen into swamps so that they could be made into shingles for Philadelphia and South Jersey carpenters. The shipbuilding and shingle mining community along Dennis Creek, bayside, in the middle of the peninsula became so prosperous and active that residents formed Dennis Township in . Meantime, Cape Island to the south grew as a fishing village, as home for Delaware Bay pilots, and as one of America’s earliest seaside resorts. Cape May entrepreneurs advertised the area for ocean bathing and vacationing before the Revolution, and by the s a regular stagecoach line connected Cape Island inns and taverns during the summer months to Philadelphia and Gloucester County. Regular steamboat ferry service was established by the s. No railroad entered Cape May until , when the Cape May and Millville Railroad reached Cape Island. The growth of population and business after the Civil War reflected the extension of railroad service into the county. The railroad contributed directly to establishment of the Jewish agricultural and industrial community of Woodbine, and to the African American community of Whitesboro in Middle Township. However, the chain of oceanfront barrier islands, separated from the mainland by deep tidal inlets and wide mud flats, remained inaccessible to the railroad. Gradually, during the nineteenth century, urban entrepreneurs and real estate developers anxious to provide vacation escapes for the middle class from the growing industrial cities speculated in barrier island properties, developed towns, and

eventually built electric street railways, hotels, and boardwalks along the oceanfront. They connected the barrier islands to the mainland over railroad trestles and raised causeways. In  Methodist business and religious leaders built Ocean City on the county’s northernmost barrier island beach. New Jersey and Philadelphia developers built up the Wildwoods to the south, while Cumberland County town builder Charles Kline Landis, fresh from founding Vineland, established Sea Isle City. Cape May County entered the twentieth century as two distinct communities. Woodbine and the new barrier island towns attracted Italian, Russian, and other recent immigrants. The businesspeople who brought these newcomers to the Cape tended to be progressive in politics and outlook. Meantime, the older, historic mainland community continued to pursue traditional and conservative values and politics. World War I brought additional changes to the county population and greater contact with the outside world, particularly the federal government, which established naval training centers and a naval base on Cape Island. Bethlehem Steel Company, under the direction of Cape May County native and company president Eugene G. Grace, developed ammunition testing ranges bayside and in Upper Township. The wartime county saw an increase in outsiders, expansion of Shore resort towns, and wild speculation in real estate. The boom continued after the war as county business leaders encouraged expansion of barrier islands, Cape Island, and mainland towns. Outside labor, attracted by building jobs, settled permanently on a peninsula that could only support seasonal work. When the building boom ended with the Great Depression of , year-round work ended, too. County social services collapsed, the school system went bankrupt, and seashore communities deprived of revenues defaulted on taxes. Prohibition-era crime and scandal rocked the county, with a grand jury indicting the entire county Board of Chosen Freeholders for misuse of public funds. New Deal monies helped Cape May County survive the Depression. Civilian Conservation Corps camps fought mosquitoes and built forest and beach recreation centers. The Works Progress Administration and Public Works Administration developed parks, highways, bridges, and public buildings. World War II pulled the county fully out of economic crisis. Local residents found wartime shipbuilding jobs upriver in Camden, New Jersey; Wilmington, Delaware; and Chester, Pennsylvania. Local firms in Ocean City and Cape May City built small craft for the U.S. Navy. Woodbine’s struggling textile mills manufactured uniforms for the armed services. The government developed a large naval station at the Coast Guard base in Cape May City, and an aircraft carrier training field in Rio Grande (called Naval Air Station, Wildwood). The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers cut the Cape May Canal from

Cape May peninsula bayside near Town Bank to Cold Spring Harbor oceanside. Big industry came to the peninsula for the first time as the Magnesite Chemical Company built a factory in a bird sanctuary at Cape May Point. The Cape May Canal, burgeoning industry, and increased population during wartime threatened Cape May’s fragile seashore ecology. Federal, state, and county governments had to spend millions of dollars each season to replenish beaches altered by changing currents created by the canal. The pollutionplagued Magnesite plant was eventually closed by environmentalists, who also blocked the proposed construction of a nuclear-power plant bayside. Several generations of local officials worried about disappearing freshwater marine life. Cape May’s economy and very existence depended on protecting fishing, bathing, and the tourist trade that swelled the county population every summer from Memorial Day to Labor Day, and every socioeconomic development during the last quarter of the twentieth century reflected Cape May’s efforts to maintain New Jersey’s southernmost county as a seashore resort community. By the end of the century, a billion-dollar tourist industry supported  percent of the , permanent county residents, while  percent worked in nearby counties, particularly Atlantic County, using Cape May County as a bedroom community. Ninety-one percent of county residents in  was white and  percent black. Median household income in  was $,. Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Salvini, Emil R. The Summer City by the Sea: Cape May, New Jersey, An Illustrated History. Belleville: WhealGrace Publications, . Thomas, George E., and Doebley, Carl. Cape May, Queen of the Seaside Resorts: Its History and Architecture. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, .

Zoological Parks and Aquariums accredits the Cape May County Zoo.

Jeffrey A. Margolis

Cape May Court House. .-squaremile town, one of the fifteen communities that make up Middle Township in Cape May County. First settled at the close of the seventeenth century, Cape May Court House gained importance as a judicial center when a jail was built in , followed by a courthouse in . It was originally known as Middletown; the name was changed to reflect the prominence of the courthouse and the fact that there was another Middletown in the state. In  Cape May Court House became the county seat and has been ever since. By the early twentieth century, several glass factories were established as the area’s leading industry. Burdette Tomlin Memorial Hospital, the only hospital in the county, is located there, as is the Cape May County Park and Zoo. The community lies along the Garden State Parkway close to Cape May County’s seaside resorts. Boyer, George F., and J. Pearson Cunningham. Cape May County Story. Egg Harbor City: Laureate Press, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Middle Township

Jeffrey A. Margolis

Cape May diamonds. The quartz pebbles known locally as “Cape May diamonds’’ are found on beaches of Cape May County from the Delaware Bay to Cape May Point. Derived from Pleistocene Delaware River alluvial gravels, these quartz rocks and pebbles often are covered with a yellowish material called limonite. Colorless Cape May diamonds are produced when natural abrasive forces

remove the limonite. Most of these quartz pebbles are quite small, but in the nineteenth century one weighing more than three pounds was displayed in Cape May. Cape May diamonds can be cut and polished like gemstones and set in gold or silver to make jewelry. See also minerals

Andrea C. Dragon

Cape May peninsula. Eight miles wide by sixteen miles long, Cape May peninsula is the southernmost part of New Jersey, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the east and by Delaware Bay on the south and west. As part of the state’s Coastal Plain, it is underlain by unconsolidated sediments of relatively recent geologic age (Quaternary, Tertiary, and Cretaceous). The seaward-dipping beds consist of sand, silt, and clay. Thus, the much older (Paleozoic or Precambrian) crystalline rocks, called the “basement complex,’’ vary in depth from about four thousand feet below sea level in the northwestern part of Cape May County to about six thousand feet near the southern tip. The topography of the peninsula is relatively flat, with elevations ranging from sea level in the tidal marshes to low interior rises of ten to twenty feet. The area has been a fashionable resort for many years, based on its many beaches and relatively mild climate. However, serious saline intrusion has occurred in the aquifers of the Kirkwood and Cohansey Formations as increasing groundwater withdrawals have allowed the salt front to advance landward. Recent research by federal and state agencies has focused on water-supply development alternatives, such as artificial recharge of ground water by well injection and desalinization. Storm surges and rising sea levels have also caused coastal erosion.

Jeffery M. Dorwart

Cape May County Zoo.

Located in Cape May Court House, the eighty-five-acre zoo is part of the Cape May County Park system. It is the only free zoo in New Jersey. First opened in , the zoo hosts approximately one half million visitors each year. The Cape May County Zoo has between  and  species of animals. The most popular are the zebras and the giraffes, which are located in the African Savanna exhibit. The river otters are also a favorite attraction. The zoo, funded by the Cape May County Board of Chosen Freeholders and by private donations, has an operating budget of $ million per year. One of the very popular and unique programs offered by the zoo is the annual summer Zoo Camp. The camp is a six-week program open to young people between the ages of four and fifteen. The zoo also offers an outreach program for area school students through its educational director. The American Association of

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Searching for “Cape May diamonds.’’

Courtesy Pike Archives.

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Cape May Point

Biggs, Michael, and Tom Carroll. Cape May: Images of a Seaside Resort. Wilmington, DE: Jared Co., . Gill, Harold E. Ground-Water Resources of Cape May County, N.J.: Salt Water Invasion of Principal Aquifers. Trenton: State of New Jersey, Department of Conservation and Economic Development, Special Report , . Salvini, Emil R. The Summer City by the Sea: Cape May, New Jersey, an Illustrated History. Belleville: WhealGrace Publications, .

through a succession of owners and names until it became the Cape May Star and Wave in  and was purchased by the Hand family. It remained in that family for generations until it was sold to David Nahan in . In  the paper had a weekly circulation of more than seventy-one hundred. See also newspapers

See also coast; geography

Barbara St. Clair

Robert M. Hordon

Cape May Point. .-square-mile borough in Cape May County. Located at the southernmost tip of New Jersey, Cape May Point, the site of a lighthouse built in , became a Presbyterian retreat in . Originally established by the Sea Grove Association, which supported a ban on all liquor and amusements, Sea Grove was incorporated in  as the borough of Cape May Point. John Wanamaker summered at the Point when he was postmaster general in President Benjamin Harrison’s Cabinet, and he invited President and Mrs. Harrison to visit Cape May Point and use Congress Hall in Cape May as the Summer White House. During the War of  British sailors came ashore for fresh water until local Patriots dug a trench from Lake Lily to the ocean, contaminating the drinking water with salt water. One of the British ships that guarded the bay, the sloop Martin, was uncovered during a storm in  and its skeletal remains are part of the Point’s history. The concrete freighter S.S. Atlantus, one of four concrete ships built during World War I, ran aground at the end of Sunset Boulevard in Cape May Point and, although little remains of the ship, the wreckage continues to attract visitors. The  population of  was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Seibold, David J., and Charles J. Adams. Shipwrecks and Legends ’Round Cape May. Reading, PA: Exter House Books, . Stevens, Lewis Townsend. History of Cape May County, New Jersey. Cape May City: Lewis T. Stevens, .

Carey, James Barron

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Sept. , ).

Labor leader. The son of a Glassboro postmaster, James Carey pioneered industrial unionism among electrical workers. At age twenty-three, he founded a union at the Philadelphia-based Philco Company and organized independent radio and machinery locals into the United Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers of America (UE), which he headed from  to . The victorious RCA strike in Camden in  cemented Carey’s reputation as a militant labor leader, resulting in his elevation to secretary-treasurer of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in —a post he held until . In , the UE’s left-wing leadership ousted Carey. After the CIO expelled the UE in , Carey headed the rival International Union of Electrical Workers (IUE). He held the IUE presidency from  until , when he was removed from office after election irregularities and voting fraud were uncovered. Combative and mercurial, Carey clashed with AFL-CIO officers on jurisdictional matters, civil rights, and foreign policy. He presided over a union of , members that achieved organizational dominance in the electrical manufacturing sector, waged national strikes against the electrical giants Westinghouse (–) and General Electric (), and had a significant social, economic, and political impact in New Jersey. Cochran, Bert. Labor and Communism: The Conflict That Shaped American Unions. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Filippelli, Ronald L., and Mark D. McColloch. Cold War in the Working Class: The Rise and Decline of the United Electrical Workers. Albany: State University of New York Press, . Zieger, Robert H. The CIO, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also labor movement

James P. Quigel, Jr., and Clayton Sinyai

Barbara St. Clair

Cape May Star and Wave. Cape May County’s first newspaper, the Ocean Wave, was established in Cape Island in . Within a few months, Joseph Leach bought the newspaper and renamed it the Cape May County Ocean Wave. His editorials promoted railroad construction and his speeches supported the Union before the outbreak of the Civil War. He sold the newspaper to Samuel Magonagle in . Magonagle died in  and the newspaper was purchased by Christopher Magrath and Aaron Garretson, Sr., in . It passed

Carlstadt. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First settled by Europeans in the seventeenth century, the community developed further in , when German political refugees from the  revolution organized the German Democratic Land Association and bought  acres in Lodi Township from the Berry family, one of the earliest families in the region. Named for Carl Klein, the association’s president, Carlstadt soon became known for its German turnvereins, singing societies, beer gardens, and village schools that taught in both English and German. In

February  Carlstadt, along with WoodRidge, Moonachie, and Wallington, became part of newly created Bergen Township, but soon after, in June , it incorporated as a borough. Most residents live on the high ridge west of Route  in a dense residential zone that merges seamlessly with East Rutherford, Wallington, and Wood-Ridge. East of Route  are industrial sites, retail outlets, the New Jersey Turnpike, and the Hackensack Meadowlands Conservation and Wildlife Area. Carlstadt retained its German character until the s and reached its peak population of , in . In , its population of , was  percent white, primarily of Italian, German, and Irish ancestry. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Carmel.

See Deerfield.

Carmelites. The Carmelites are members of a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church founded on Mount Carmel in Palestine in the middle of the twelfth century. There are two main branches of the order— the Ancient Order of Carmel, and the Discalced Carmelites—as well as some smaller branches and men’s and women’s branches. A community of Discalced Carmelite women made a foundation in New Jersey in , but it was abandoned a year later. Another women’s community was founded in Morristown in , and in  the Morristown community made a foundation in New Brunswick. In  the New Brunswick community moved to the outskirts of Flemington, to a hill that, coincidentally, had been called Mount Carmel by the early Protestant settlers in the s. This property was sold to the Little Sisters of the Poor in , and a smaller tract was acquired on Harmony School Road, where the sisters continue their life of prayer and have a small farm. Male Carmelites of the Ancient Observance arrived in New Jersey in  to staff Saint Cecilia’s Church in Englewood. They continue to serve that parish, as well as four others in Bergen County. Individual male Carmelites are engaged in retreat work, seminary teaching, and writing. The Catholic Church in Englewood: A History of Saint Cecilia’s Parish, –. Englewood: Saint Cecilia’s Church, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

Carney, William Jennings ; d. Nov. , ).

(b. July ,

Labor leader. William Jennings Carney was born in Frostburg, Maryland, a mining region with Irish immigrant roots, to William and Florence (Parker)

Carteret, Sir George ´ ge ´ of John L. Lewis, the Carney. He was a prote United Mine Workers Union strongman who battled fiercely against corporate America and sought to bring as many workers as possible into one big labor grouping. Carney was a union organizer at the Goodyear Rubber plant in Akron, Ohio. He was active in labor efforts, which sometimes turned violent, in steel and auto operations in Erie, Pennsylvania, and Flint and Detroit, Michigan. After moving to New Jersey in , Carney headed the ,member Industrial Union Council, based in Newark. This was the twenty-fourth affiliate set up by Lewis’s militant new Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). Carney tangled with Frank Hague, the powerful mayor of Jersey City who ordered his police to suppress the CIO’s “un-American’’ activities and “deport’’ the leaders of its “Red invasion.’’ Hague believed the CIO was aiming to overthrow the American government and destroy all forms of religion. The mayor was ordered by a federal judge in Newark to cease and desist his harassment. Carney headed the union until his untimely death from a heart attack in . Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

Edward A. Jardin

Carneys Point.

.-square-mile township on the Delaware River in Salem County. The area that was to become Carneys Point was first settled by Swedes and the Dutch, but the English followed quickly and named it Penn’s Neck. It became Upper Penn’s Neck Township in . Farming and fishing were the first industries; working farms are still a part of the township. During World War I, the DuPont Company built Plant No. , the Smokeless Powder Works, in the township; the plant was in operation until . To accommodate the sudden influx of workers, DuPont built uniform housing; this development was called Carneys Point Village by some. In  the name of the township was changed to Carneys Point. Conectiv and PG&E Generating are located in the township, which is also home to Salem Community College. The main road of the township is still known as Shell Road, so named because it was originally paved with oyster shells. Basically rural in character, the Census  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, .

Patricia W. Blakely

Carranza, Emilio

(b. Dec. , ;

d. July , ). Aviator. Youthful and daring,

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Wampler, Cloud. Dr. Willis H. Carrier: Father of Air Conditioning. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Charles A. Poekel, Jr.

Carter, Rubin “Hurricane’’ (b. May ,

Capt. Emilio Carranza.

Courtesy the Carranza family.

Emilio Carranza was dubbed the “Mexican Lindbergh.’’ Carranza was a twenty-three-year old captain in the Mexican air force when, on July , , at the conclusion of a goodwill tour of the United States, he took off from a Long Island airport in an attempt to reach Mexico City. If successful it would have been the second longest airplane flight, after Lindbergh’s New York–to–Paris journey. Carranza’s flight ended in tragedy; he died when his plane crashed in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. A monument was erected at the crash site, and every July a ceremony is held there by American Legion Post  in memory of this courageous aviation pioneer. Bzdak, Meredith. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Carrier, Willis Haviland

(b. Nov. ,

; d. Oct. , ). Engineer, manufacturer,

and inventor. Born in Angola, New York, Willis Carrier attended Cornell University on scholarship and graduated in . In , he took out the first of eighty patents on air conditioning while working at the Buffalo Forge Company. In  he unveiled his “Rational Psychrometric Formulae’’ to the American Society of Engineers. These formulae are the basis for all calculations in the air conditioning industry. In  he founded, with several other engineers and $, capital, the Carrier Engineering Corporation. Carrier spent the s and s living in Essex Fells, New Jersey. He died in Syracuse, New York. Ingels, Margaret. Willis Haviland Carrier, Father of Air Conditioning. Garden City, NY: Country Lane Press, .

). Professional boxer and prisoner rights advocate. The son of Lloyd and Bertha Carter, Rubin “Hurricane’’ Carter was born in Dellawanna, but spent nearly all of his life in Paterson. Carter became a professional boxer in . His career in the ring involved  fights, of which he won , with  knockouts. The highlight of his boxing career was his unsuccessful attempt to win the World Middleweight Championship, losing a fifteenround decision to Joey Giardello on December , . In October of  he was arrested, with John Artis, for the shootings of four persons, three fatally, in a Paterson bar. Carter was convicted twice and sentenced to life imprisonment. In , following numerous appeals, a Federal District Court reversed Carter’s conviction, citing the prosecution’s appeals to racism and the withholding of evidence. In  Carter moved to Toronto, Canada, where he currently heads the Association in Defense of the Wrongly Accused. Chaiton, Sam, and Terry Swinton. Lazarus and the Hurricane. Toronto: Penguin Books, . Hirsch, James S. Hurricane. New York: Houghton Mifflin, . Wice, Paul B. Rubin “Hurricane’’ Carter and the American Justice System. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Paul B. Wice

Carteret, Elizabeth

(b. ; d. ).

Proprietor. In January of , upon the death of her husband, Sir George Carteret, the proprietor of East Jersey, Lady Elizabeth Carteret became the executor of his estate in trust for their grandson George. In that capacity, Lady Elizabeth, for whom Elizabethtown was named, reappointed Philip Carteret as proprietary governor of East Jersey and ordered him to double the settlers’ quitrents and to lay claim to Staten Island. Resistance from the settlers and the New York governor led Lady Elizabeth to petition the duke of York to allow the proprietary colony to be sold. In February , East Jersey was purchased by twelve Quakers, ending the Carteret connection with the colony. Neither Lady Elizabeth nor her husband, Sir George Carteret, ever visited the colony. Cunningham, John. The East of Jersey: A History of the General Board of Proprietors of the Eastern Division of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Claribel F. Young

Carteret, George (b. ; d. Jan. , ). Colonial governor, lord proprietor. Sir George Carteret was first granted a charter to lands in North America in – when Charles II honored him for his staunch support of the

124

Carteret, Philip in , becoming the first proprietary governor of New Jersey under Sir George Carteret and Lord John Berkeley. He was removed by unhappy settlers in May , temporarily replaced by James Carteret (son of Sir George) and then by the Dutch when they recaptured the region. He returned to New Jersey from England in  and resumed his office, only to be challenged in  by Sir Edmund Andros, governor of New York, who questioned New Jersey’s right to a separate governor. At one point, Carteret’s dispute with Andros over the right to collect customs duties led to Carteret being arrested, dragged off, and tried in New York City. He returned to New Jersey after the matter was resolved in England, but resigned in . Johnson, Willis Fletcher. “The Story of the Carterets.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

Sir George Carteret.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Maxine N. Lurie Crown during the English Civil War. However, having been banished from France by antiroyalist forces, Carteret was unable to claim this honor. At the Restoration, Carteret was made treasurer of the navy, and he and fellow commissioner Lord John Berkeley were awarded joint proprietorship of the lands between the Hudson and Delaware rivers by the duke of York in . Carteret was specially honored by the naming of the territory after the English Isle of Jersey, where he had served as governor. Sir George sent his cousin Philip Carteret to serve as New Jersey’s governor. As Sir George and Berkeley struggled in their absentee management of New Jersey, Carteret faced his own financial scandals in England. Accused of mismanaging navy funds, he was expelled from the House of Commons in . Samuel Pepys, famed English diarist and clerk of the naval office during Carteret’s tenure, described his impression of Sir George’s financial acumen in : “But Lord, how fretfully Sir G. Carteret doth discourse with Mr. Wayth about his accounts, like a man that understands them not one word. I held my tongue, and let him go on like a passionate fool.’’ Sir George died in , and in February of  his widow and trustees sold New Jersey to twelve Quakers led by William Penn. Boyd, Julian P., ed. Fundamental Laws and Constitutions of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Kristen Block

Carteret,

Philip

(b. ; d. ).

Colonial governor. Philip Carteret, a relative of Sir George Carteret, settled in Elizabethtown

Carteret.

.-square-mile borough in Middlesex County on the Arthur Kill. Named for New Jersey’s first colonial governor, Philip Carteret, the area was known to the Lenape as Smokey Point. The Blazing Star Trail, the best route from New York to Philadelphia, passed through the borough. In the eighteenth century it abounded in orchards, farms, meandering streams, and a clean beach. American Indian burial grounds were near the shore in what is now known as the Chrome area, named for the Chrome Steel Works. Originally part of Woodbridge Township, Roosevelt, named for President Theodore Roosevelt, seceded in . Since the borough had always been called Carteret and had several industries identified as being in Carteret, an election was held on November , , and Roosevelt was renamed Carteret. Once the home of great industry (the Koch Erecting Company supplied girders for the skyscrapers in New York City; Liebig’s provided much of the fertilizer for the East Coast; Foster Wheeler made the boiler for the USS Nautilus), the town has become a storage area with warehouse companies. The borough is split in half by the New Jersey Turnpike and comprises West Carteret, the Hill section, Shore Crest, and Parkview. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race), and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

hold exhibitions. Twenty-three imprints followed, many of which have become prized by bibliophiles. Club membership ranged from a high of eighty in  to a low of fortynine in  and included prominent lawyers, authors, ministers, physicians, and educators from northern New Jersey. By  interest in the club had declined to a minimum, forcing club officials to surrender its charter of incorporation.

E. Richard McKinstry

Carter-Wallace.

A pharmaceutical firm located in Cranbury, Carter-Wallace traces its origins to the s when Dr. John Samuel Carter developed a pill to relieve his patients’ digestive problems. By  “Carter’s Little Liver Pills’’ were so popular that Carter built a four-story plant to manufacture them. The pills achieved nationwide distribution through a merger with New York businessman Brent Good, creating the Carter Medicine Company in . In  the company introduced Arrid, the first cream antiperspirant that would not stain clothes or irritate skin, developed by Princeton research chemist John H. Wallace. Sales surpassed $ million that year, and a new plant was built in New Brunswick. In  Carter Products introduced Miltown (meprobamate), a tranquilizer and muscle relaxant. In  the company name was changed to Carter-Wallace to reflect the contributions of the Wallace Laboratory division. In  Carter acquired the maker of Trojan condoms, a product that soared in profitability as a result of the AIDS epidemic. With Sea & Ski suntan lotion, Carter was a presence in another growth industry. Home pregnancy tests Answer and First Response marked a third significant consumer trend that Carter identified in the s. New Jersey–based MedPointe purchased Carter-Wallace on September , , and the consumer products divisions were sold in a separate transaction. Wallace Pharmaceuticals became MedPointe’s prescription pharmaceuticals division. Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, . Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Swann, John P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in TwentiethCentury America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Francis T. Tomczuk

Case, Clifford Philip Carteret Book Club.

Established in Newark in  by John Cotton Dana and James E. Howell, the Carteret Book Club was founded to promote the study of book production, to publish on the book arts, and to

(b. Apr. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Attorney, congressman, foun-

dation executive, and U.S. senator. Clifford Case attended the public schools of Poughkeepsie, New York, and graduated from Rutgers College in . He received his law

Catholic Charismatic Renewal movement

Sen. Clifford Case (R–NJ) confers with Assemblyman Thomas Kean (R–Essex) during a floor session at the Republican National Convention in Kansas City, Missouri, August , .

Photo: Tom Herde. Courtesy The Star-Ledger. degree from Columbia University Law School in  and subsequently practiced law in New York City. His career as an elected official began in  when he won a seat on the Common Council of Rahway, New Jersey, the city that would be his home for the next forty years. His five years of service on the Common Council ended when he became a state assemblyman in . In , Case was elected as a Republican to the U.S. House of Representatives to serve in the Seventy-ninth Congress. He was appointed to the Judiciary Committee. He served in the House until his resignation on August , . After a brief period as president for the Fund for the Republic, he was elected to the U.S. Senate in  after defeating a much more conservative candidate in the Republican primary. His victory in the general election was aided materially by Vice President Richard Nixon, who dismissed complaints that Case was too liberal and campaigned actively for him. In the Senate, Case was assigned to the two least desirable committees—District of Columbia and Post Office and Civil Service— a reflection not only of his lack of seniority but of his liberalism. He was reelected easily in  and by , at the beginning of his second term, Case’s committee assignments improved. He took a seat on the Labor and Public Welfare Committee, a favorite of Senate liberals. At the same time, he was also assigned the Committee on Aeronautics and Space Science, a panel that provided an opening for Case to pursue an area of public policy that had long interested him: international relations. He had served briefly as a delegate to the Twenty-first General Assembly of the United Nations, and his interest in world affairs set him on a path that would lead to his

being assigned to the Committee on Foreign Relations in . By  he was the ranking minority member of that committee as well as vice chairman of the Select Intelligence Committee and a member of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy. It was on Foreign Relations that Clifford Case came to national attention as a critic of the policies of both the Johnson and the Nixon administrations in Southeast Asia. He sponsored a number of resolutions to curtail U.S. military operations in Vietnam and Cambodia. Despite Richard Nixon’s efforts on Case’s behalf in , he opposed Nixon’s nomination at the Republican convention of  and backed instead New York governor Nelson A. Rockefeller. After Nixon’s election, Case was critical not only of Nixon’s foreign policy but also of the harshness of the rhetoric of Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. As New Jersey’s senior Republican senator, Case was able to influence the appointment of three U.S. attorneys who aggressively pursued corrupt public officials in the state. While avoiding a primary challenge from conservatives in  and defeating a weak challenge from the right in , Case was defeated in the  GOP primary by Jeffrey Bell, who went on to be beaten by Bill Bradley. After his defeat, Case practiced law and became a lecturer at the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University. Bailey, Christopher, J. The Republican Party in the U.S. Senate, –. New York: St. Martin’s, . Barone, Michael, Grant Ujifusa, and Douglas Matthews. The Almanac of American Politics, . New York: Dutton, . Nixon, Richard M. RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, . U.S. Congress. Senate. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress: th Congress, d session. Washington, DC: GPO, .

Ross K. Baker

Casino Reinvestment Development Authority. The Casino Reinvestment Development Authority (CRDA) was created in  to administer the provisions of the Casino Control Act that require casino licensees to pay . percent of their gross revenues as an additional tax or to reinvest . percent of their gross revenues in public bonds issued by the agency. The CRDA is located in Atlantic City, and its members are appointed by the governor. Its revenues finance projects designed primarily to redevelop blighted areas in Atlantic City and throughout the state. By , the CRDA had assisted in financing more than $. billion worth of housing, commercial, and neighborhood development projects with revenues generated by the casinos.

Steven P. Perskie

Casio.

A wholly owned U.S. subsidiary of Casio Computer Company, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, Casio markets such consumer

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electronics products as keyboards, digital cameras, and timepieces, and business products that include cash registers for its parent company. The first firm to mass-produce electronic calculators in , Casio Computer was founded in  in Tokyo by the four Kashio brothers. In , Casio moved its U.S. executive headquarters to Dover (Morris County) from Fairfield. Today, Dover is the site of Casio’s executive offices and Casio Corporation of America, an administrative subsidiary. A warehouse and service facility is located in Little Ferry. Casio employs approximately  people in New Jersey. It also has facilities in Illinois and Oregon and retail stores in several states.

Elaine L. Schwartz

Cassville.

See Jackson.

Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart. The seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark was begun in  and completed in . Designed by Jeremiah O’Rourke of Newark and Isaac E. Ditmars in the French Gothic style, the cathedral is constructed of Vermont granite (exterior walls) and Indiana limestone (interior walls). It measures  feet long and  feet wide, with towers  feet high. The interior was designed and executed by Gonippo Raggi of Orange. Given landmark status by the New Jersey Historic Preservation Office and designated a National Historic Site, the cathedral was declared a minor basilica by Pope John Paul II during his visit in . Brady, Joseph H. “The Cathedral of the Sacred Heart.’’ Manuscript, n.d. Archives of the Archdiocese of Newark. Seton Hall University, South Orange. Flynn, Joseph M. The Catholic Church in New Jersey. Morristown: n.p., . Gubernat, Michael E. The Histories of Sacred Heart Cathedral. d ed. Newark: M. E. Gubernat, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Robert J. Wister

Catholic Charismatic Renewal movement. A popular tendency within Roman Catholicism, the Charismatic Renewal movement emphasized such traditionally Pentecostal teachings as speaking in tongues and cultivated a decidedly evangelical worship style. Most scholars trace its American beginnings to Duquesne University in . By , New Jersey congregations in Northvale, Red Bank, Metuchen, and elsewhere embraced the movement. Charismatic renewal peaked in popularity during the late s, when services in such places as Convent Station and Rutherford attracted extraordinary crowds, and large worship events filled the New Jersey Meadowlands. Considered controversial by some traditional Catholics, the movement continues to attract a strong core of loyal adherents. See also Roman Catholic Church

Peter J. Wosh

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Catholic Community Services

Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Newark.

Courtesy Archdiocese of Newark.

Catholic Community Services. Catholic Community Services (CCS) is a social services agency sponsored by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark. It is the largest nonprofit, faith-based community development organization in New Jersey. Incorporated in , CCS serves as an umbrella organization for the Mount Carmel Guild, founded in  to meet the needs created by the Great Depression; New Jersey Boystown, founded as the Saint Francis Protectory for Boys in Denville in  and moved to its present site in Kearny in ; and Associated Catholic Charities, successor to the original Catholic Charities founded in . In , CCS served , clients at more than sixty program sites throughout the archdiocese. “Centennial Research.’’ Sacred Heart Union B:  (Spring ): –. Kern, Edward Joseph. “Catholic Child Welfare in the Diocese of Newark.’’ Ph.D. diss., Fordham University, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

cedar, Atlantic white.

Atlantic white cedar (southern white cedar, “juniper’’ locally in the Carolinas), Chamaecyparis thyoides, belongs to the redwood or cypress family, Cupressaceae. There are seven species of this genus, with C. thyoides along the East Coast of North America, two along the West Coast, two in Japan, and two in Taiwan. Atlantic white cedar is a slow-growing evergreen tree usually sixty to seventy feet high. It occurs in dense, pure stands or in mixture with hardwoods in swamps along rivers and streams, mainly near

the coast. In New Jersey, it is the only obligate wetland tree species. It is found mainly in the Pine Barrens, but also occurs in isolated locations in the northern part of the state. Good specimens can be seen along North Lemon Road, south of park headquarters in Lebanon State Forest, and at Cheesequake State Park, where a boardwalk traverses the cedar swamp. There is an isolated stand at High Point State Park, the farthest inland and highest elevation site in the United States where the species occurs. Nationally, Atlantic white cedar ranges from Appleton Bog, Maine, to Ocala National Forest, Florida, and westward to southern Mississippi. It is estimated that in colonial times, cedar occupied as much as , acres here, ranking our state second only to North Carolina, which had about , acres. There were extensive cedar forests in the Meadowlands; construction along the New Jersey Turnpike in  unearthed many cedar stumps, of which the largest measured over five feet across. Today New Jersey’s largest two specimens, both approximately ten feet in circumference, grow in swamps near Nixon Branch and Muskee Creek in Cumberland County. The national champion, thirteen feet around, is near Brewton, Alabama. Atlantic white cedar was prized for its decay-resistant wood, which was used for shingles, siding, boats, buckets, and channel markers. Many houses in Philadelphia and Baltimore were roofed with cedar shakes. The wood is used less extensively today because its supply is very limited. Over the last two hundred years there has been a significant

decline in the area occupied by the species. Cedar swamps are valued now because of their ecological functions: they filter and purify water, mitigate flood and drought, and provide habitat for diverse bird, reptile, and amphibian species and several rare plant species. Efforts underway today to restore cedar swamps are being led by foresters and ecologists at Rutgers University, Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, and the New Jersey Forest Service. Restoration has been most successful on sites formerly occupied by cedar, which grows best on muck soils underlain by sand or gravel. Both natural seeding and hand planting are used for restoration; natural regeneration depends on an adequate seed bank in the soil or presence of mature, cone-bearing cedars within one hundred yards upwind. Planting can be done either with seedlings, which are difficult to produce, or with stecklings (rooted cuttings), which are relatively easy. The State Forest Tree Nursery at Jackson produces ten thousand to twenty thousand of these a year, using parent material from Lebanon State Forest. In restoration efforts, great care must be taken to protect the young cedars from destruction by white-tailed deer; the most widely used devices are electric fences, which can be moved to new locations after the trees have grown above browse height.

John E. Kuser

cedar, eastern red. Juniperus virginiana, a native American tree, is common to young woodlands and fallow farmland across New Jersey, but particularly abundant in red shale soils of the Piedmont, limestone outcroppings of the Kittatinny Valley, and coastal dune forests. It has reddish bark and needlelike, blue-green, evergreen foliage. Its small, berrylike cones smell like gin (which is flavored with various Juniperus species). The wood is used for fence posts and pencils and has a characteristic “cedar’’ scent arising from antimicrobial compounds that make it decayresistant and repulsive to clothes moths. It is also used for wedding chests and as mothballs.

David W. MacFarlane

Cedar Grove. .-square-mile township in Essex County, located between the first and second chains of the Watchung Mountains. English and Dutch colonists settled in the area in the s. Thomas Jacobus purchased the entire valley from the Lenape Indians in the early s and Jacobus, along with the Van Ripers, the Personnettes, the Canfields, and the Bowdens, developed large farms. Several homes date back to the Revolutionary period. Originally part of Caldwell Township, Verona and Cedar Grove seceded in  to create Verona Township. Cedar Grove was incorporated as a separate township in . Throughout the nineteenth century and the early part of the twentieth century, Cedar Grove’s economy was primarily based on farming and dairy

cemeteries production. Due to rapid community development after World War II, Cedar Grove is mainly residential in character. Morgan’s Farm, the last in Cedar Grove, was bequeathed to the township by J. Courtenay Morgan in . The Cedar Grove Historical Society is restoring the nineteenth-century farmhouse and the township has turned the .-acre farm into a park. The Essex County Hospital Center and the police academy are among many Essex County facilities located in Cedar Grove. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Linda J. Barth

cement industry.

The production of cement goes back nearly  years. Portland cement is a calcium silicate prepared by a controlled combination of calcium (from limestone, shells, or chalk), silicon (from shale, clay, or sand), aluminum, and iron. When subjected to high temperatures, the raw materials yield a fused product (dubbed “clinker’’), which is ground to a fine powder and to which gypsum is added. The result is portland cement, which, when further mixed with water, hardens into concrete. Initially imported from Europe, natural cement was first produced in this country in  in Copley, Pennsylvania. But that cement did not have the strength or hardness of portland cement. Thomas A. Edison started manufacturing portland cement in Stewartsville in . Using equipment from his closed-oreconcentrating plant in Ogdensburg, Edison improved the technology and fuel economy of the manufacturing process. The excellent quality of the Edison cement outsold the imported product as well as the lower-cost domestic natural cement. Edison’s Stewartsville plant subsequently became one of the country’s largest producers of cement. In  Edison also investigated the possibility of fabricating cast-concrete homes by pouring concrete mixtures into large wooden molds. Several cast-concrete homes were constructed in West Orange and Union. Edison also conducted research at his West Orange laboratories on the manufacture of lightweight cellular or foam concrete for possible application in housing and furniture manufacture. Neither of these ventures proved commercially successful. Production of portland cement reached , barrels by , but by the s, the high-quality limestone deposits in neighboring Oxford were being depleted. Underground deposits could be reached only through shaft mining, which simply could not compete economically with an open-pit quarry. The Edison Portland Cement Company was closed in  and sold in , at which time it was dismantled. Today there is no cement production in New Jersey and all of the cement used in the

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state is supplied by neighboring New York and Pennsylvania. Israel, Paul. Edison: A Life of Invention. New York: John Wiley, . Vanderbilt, Byron M. Thomas Edison, Chemist. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, .

Herwart C. Vogt

cemeteries. More than eight hundred cemeteries are known to exist throughout New Jersey. They range from small family plots to enormous urban necropolises. Settlers established the first formal cemeteries in New Jersey during the late seventeenth century. Public or community burial grounds, family graveyards, and churchyards were all employed during the first decades of settlement. Most contained simple wooden or fieldstone gravemarkers. Today, gravemarkers from the seventeenth century can be found in only a handful of cemeteries in Elizabeth, Woodbridge, Piscataway, and Edison. New Jersey’s early cemeteries highlight the colony’s cultural diversity. In northeastern and central New Jersey, beautifully carved sandstone gravemarkers, many decorated with winged skulls and cherubs, reflect the religious beliefs of the region’s first settlers. Skilled local artisans, such as Ebenezer Price of Elizabethtown, Uzal Ward of Newark, and John Frazee of Rahway, carved many of these markers. Especially important colonial cemeteries are located in Ridgewood, Morristown, Madison, Westfield, Shrewsbury, and Middletown. Noteworthy colonial graveyards in Scotch Plains, Rahway, and New Providence contain early African American gravemarkers. In the northwestern corner of the state, a handful of eighteenth-century cemeteries have associations with German settlers. The Moravian Cemetery in Hope, Warren County, contains several dozen flat marble tablets erected for members of this German Protestant sect. The Stillwater and Yellow Frame Presbyterian cemeteries hold finely carved German-language markers. Southern New Jersey’s colonial cemeteries display little of the imagery found in the northern portion of the state. Instead, their stones reflect the influence of Quaker settlers and their neighbors, who preferred plain, unornamented white marble markers. Notable early cemeteries are located in Burlington, Salem, and Cape May Courthouse. During the mid-nineteenth century, the “rural cemetery movement’’ reshaped New Jersey’s burial places. Well-landscaped, parklike cemeteries reflecting the Victorian romanticization of death were established in or near most major cities. Noteworthy examples include Riverview Cemetery, Trenton; Harleigh Cemetery, Camden (resting place of Walt Whitman); Mount Pleasant and Fairmount cemeteries, Newark (filled with elaborate mausoleums for the city’s nineteenthcentury industrial barons); Alpine Cemetery,

Gravestone of the Rev. Samuel Kenneday, on the grounds of the Basking Ridge Presbyterian Church.

Photo: Steve Andrascik. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Perth Amboy; and Hillside Cemetery, Plainfield. The enormous marble and granite memorials that fill these cemeteries provided a medium for status-conscious Victorians to display a permanent record of their achievements. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, new immigrants once again transformed the state’s cemeteries. A small plot at Willow Grove Cemetery in New Brunswick contains several somber white marble obelisks inscribed with Japanese characters. They mark the graves of Japanese students, sent by their nation to study in the United States in the s and s. In cemeteries in Perth Amboy and Woodbridge, colorful terra-cotta gravemarkers were erected for Danish, German, ´migre ´s. Cemeteries Hungarian, and Italian e associated with Jewish immigrants who settled in the Pinelands survive at Brotmanville and Mizpah. The Ukrainian Cemetery at Saint Andrew’s Ukrainian Orthodox Church in South Bound Brook boasts a spectacular collection of funerary art, including a life-sized bronze Cossack. Similarly, Rosedale Cemetery in Linden contains the colorfully painted gravemarkers of Chinese immigrants and a unique full-size granite Mercedes-Benz. National cemeteries devoted to veterans include Finn’s Point and Arneytown. The former contains the graves of Confederate prisoners of war, who died while interned at nearby Fort Delaware. New Jersey’s cemeteries are important repositories of the state’s heritage. The gravemarkers they contain hold valuable information for genealogists, historians, art historians, and anthropologists.

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cemeteries, national

Sarapin, Janice Kohl. Old Burial Grounds of New Jersey: A Guide. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wasserman, Tamara E. Gravestone Designs: Rubbings and Photographs from Early New York and New Jersey. New York: Dover, .

Richard F. Veit

The Beverly National Cemetery was established in August  to inter veterans who died of battle wounds in the Civil War. Although no battles were fought in the Beverly area during the war, the city on the Delaware River had a convalescent hospital in a former rope factory, which received the wounded

cemeteries, national.

Two national cemeteries are maintained in New Jersey: the Beverly National Cemetery in Burlington County’s Edgewater Park, and Finns Point National Cemetery in Salem, Salem County. They are administered by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs.

CENSUS: TOTAL POPULATION, 1800 2000 1800

20 Miles

THOUSANDS 0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 21.1 - 25.0

1950

1900

THOUSANDS 5.0 - 15.0 15.1 - 25.0 25.1 - 35.0 35.1 - 45.0 74.0

THOUSANDS 10.0 - 50.0 50.1 - 90.0 90.1 - 130.0 130.1 - 170.0 350.0 - 390.0

2000

1800 1820 1840 1860

Census Year

0

1850

1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 0

THOUSANDS 30.0 - 150.0 150.1 - 300.0 300.1 - 450.0 450.1 - 650.0 900.0

THOUSANDS 50.0 - 200.0 200.1 - 350.0 400.1 - 550.0 600.1 - 750.0 750.1 - 900.0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

State Population (millions)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov @Rutgers, The State University

census from overcrowded Philadelphia area hospitals. These patients were transferred on the river steamer John A. Warner, which always announced its arrival at the dock with a whistle blast. Hearing the signal, residents would assemble at the wharf with refreshments for the soldiers and wagons to transport them to the hospital a mile away. According to local tradition, limbs amputated at the hospital were taken for burial in a .-acre plot owned by Christian Weyman at the site of the present cemetery. Those who died at the hospital were also given temporary burial in the same plot, which Weyman conveyed to the United States by deed on August , , with the condition that it be used as a burial place for those who died as the result of battle. The original plot grew with the addition of . acres in ,  in , and  in . Interred in Beverly National Cemetery are the remains of , veterans of every war and branch of service, including four Medal of Honor recipients. Finns Point National Cemetery, by contrast, occupies only . acres and is the resting place of , Confederate soldiers, many captured at Gettysburg, July –, . They died as prisoners of war at Fort Delaware on Pea Patch Island in the Delaware River, . miles away. Crowded conditions on the small island, combined with a high water table, made it unsuitable as a burial place. Accordingly, the

bodies of prisoners, as well as the  Union soldiers who died guarding them, were transferred across the river for interment at Finns Point, the site of a military reservation owned by the United States since . The name derives from a Swedish colony established about , which was said to have included some of Sweden’s Finnish subjects. Finns Point, which became a national cemetery on October , , has separate monuments for soldiers of the North and the South. The Union monument bears the names of  of the  dead who could be identified. The Confederate monument bears all , names. The cemetery also contains the graves of some veterans of the Spanish-American War and World War I, along with the remains of thirteen German prisoners of World War II who died while in custody at Fort Dix. Holt, Dean W. American Military Cemeteries: A Comprehensive Illustrated Guide to the Hallowed Grounds of the United States, Including Cemeteries Overseas. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, .

See also Civil War

William M. Gordon

census. The U.S. Constitution requires that a census of the nation’s population be taken every ten years. Its population figures are the basis for proportional representation in the House of Representatives, which in turn is used to calculate the number of presidential

129

electors from each state. More recently the census has also been used to allocate federal money. Over time there have been changes in what is counted (no cars before ), and how (in  an individual could report being of more than one race). Although a census has been taken in New Jersey since , some of the records have not survived. There are no state records for , , , or  (with the exception of Cumberland County in ). The records for  are missing the population schedules (except for part of Jersey City), which were lost in a fire in . Individual names and records are closed to general researchers for seventytwo years, but aggregate information is available from recent returns. While researchers look for individuals in the older records, recent returns are of interest because they show shifting population patterns and income levels. At one time New Jersey also had a state census, but it was only taken (at ten-year intervals) from  to . In several cases returns from counties are missing or incomplete, but they do provide additional information for this brief period. Barker, Bette M., Daniel P. Jones, and Karl J. Niederer. Guide to Family History Sources in the New Jersey State Archives. Trenton: Division of Archives and Records Management, .

See also demography; ethnicity

Maxine N. Lurie

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Aberdeen Township Absecon City Alexandria Township

17,454 7,638 4,698

78.82% 83.31% 97.02%

12.02% 6.01% 0.79%

0.14% 0.17% 0.11%

5.52% 7.46% 0.77%

1.75% 1.54% 0.87%

1.75% 1.51% 0.45%

7.02% 3.77% 1.72%

Allamuchy Township Allendale Boro Allenhurst Boro

3,877 6,699 718

95.49% 92.48% 97.35%

0.93% 0.39% 0.84%

0.05% 0.06% 0.28%

1.86% 6.09% 0.42%

0.98% 0.52% 0.97%

0.70% 0.46% 0.14%

2.68% 2.54% 2.51%

Allentown Boro Alloway Township Alpha Boro Alpine Boro

1,882 2,774 2,482 2,183

90.65% 90.70% 97.06% 77.37%

6.43%

0.58%

0.64%

6.89% 0.28% 1.51%

0.54% 0.04% 0.23%

0.43% 1.21% 19.15%

1.12% 1.05% 0.77% 1.42%

0.58% 0.40% 0.64% 0.32%

2.38% 1.89% 2.52%

Andover Boro Andover Township

658 6,033

92.71% 94.45%

2.28% 1.86%

0.76% 0.08%

2.43% 2.34%

0.61% 0.68%

1.22% 0.60%

2.58% 2.25%

16,930 40,517 4,705

24.77% 26.68% 94.37%

62.11% 44.16% 2.30%

0.32% 0.48% 0.06%

0.77% 10.46% 1.23%

5.53% 4.47% 1.02%

6.49% 13.76% 1.02%

15.58% 24.95% 3.51%

Audubon Boro Audubon Park Boro Avalon Boro Avon-by-the-Sea Boro Barnegat Light Boro

9,182 1,102 2,143 2,244 764

97.34% 98.91% 98.69% 97.15% 98.30%

0.52% 0.36% 0.14% 0.53% 0.52%

0.11% 0.09% 0.00% 0.45% 0.00%

0.90% 0.18% 0.61% 0.89% 0.52%

0.64% 0.36% 0.51% 0.36% 0.26%

0.48% 0.09% 0.05% 0.62% 0.39%

1.51% 0.64% 0.56% 2.41% 0.79%

Barnegat Township Barrington Boro Bass River Township

15,270 7,084 1,510

94.75% 91.61% 98.87%

2.21% 4.16% 0.07%

0.09% 0.24% 0.07%

1.00% 1.48% 0.13%

1.25% 1.43% 0.73%

0.70% 1.07% 0.13%

3.86% 2.84% 2.19%

Bay Head Boro Bayonne City

1,238 61,842

97.98% 78.64%

0.16% 5.52%

0.08% 0.17%

0.57% 4.19%

0.73% 4.02%

0.48% 7.46%

1.29% 17.81%

Beach Haven Boro Beachwood Boro Bedminster Township

1,278 10,375 8,302

98.83% 95.66% 90.05%

0.08% 0.97% 1.75%

0.00% 0.13% 0.11%

0.55% 1.19% 6.43%

0.47% 0.94% 0.83%

0.08% 1.11% 0.83%

4.69% 4.22% 3.84%

Belleville Township Bellmawr Boro

35,928 11,262

69.44% 92.79%

5.36% 1.18%

0.17% 0.06%

11.38% 3.07%

3.82% 1.36%

9.83% 1.54%

23.68% 3.50%

Asbury Park City Atlantic City Atlantic Highlands Boro

Other

Hispanic

1.91%

(continued)

130

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Belmar Boro Belvidere Town Bergenfield Boro

6,045 2,771 26,247

91.53% 98.02% 62.90%

Berkeley Heights Township Berkeley Township Berlin Boro Berlin Township Bernards Township Bernardsville Boro

13,407 39,991 6,149 5,290 24,575 7,345

Bethlehem Township Beverly City Blairstown Township Bloomfield Township Bloomingdale Boro

3.46% 0.51% 6.90%

0.18% 0.04% 0.24%

1.03% 0.51% 20.43%

1.82% 0.69% 3.06%

1.99% 0.25% 6.47%

6.85% 2.31% 17.05%

89.65% 97.10% 94.06% 82.46% 89.20% 93.94%

1.11% 1.30% 2.18% 11.87% 1.44% 0.25%

0.08% 0.04% 0.21% 0.17% 0.05% 0.15%

7.87% 0.46% 1.76% 2.78% 7.86% 2.64%

0.68% 0.66% 1.30% 1.51% 1.05% 1.47%

0.61% 0.43% 0.49% 1.21% 0.40% 1.55%

3.68% 2.33% 2.11% 4.80% 2.63% 5.98%

3,820 2,661 5,747 47,683 7,610

97.51% 64.67% 98.17% 70.09% 95.55%

0.86% 28.75% 0.26% 11.69% 0.42%

0.10% 0.11% 0.14% 0.19% 0.12%

1.07% 0.90% 0.57% 8.45% 2.19%

0.42% 4.13% 0.57% 3.16% 1.05%

0.03% 1.43% 0.28% 6.42% 0.67%

1.62% 4.58% 1.98% 14.47% 4.36%

886 8,249 8,496 4,287 3,969

98.19% 75.72% 83.00% 93.00% 81.25%

0.34% 5.73% 3.97% 1.19% 13.08%

0.23% 0.15% 0.21% 0.05% 0.05%

0.34% 7.81% 7.78% 4.08% 1.94%

0.79% 3.83% 2.84% 1.05% 2.87%

0.11% 6.76% 2.20% 0.63% 0.81%

1.47% 21.32% 6.85% 2.15% 2.82%

Bordentown Township Bound Brook Boro Bradley Beach Boro

8,380 10,155 4,793

89.33% 82.57% 88.15%

5.02% 2.52% 3.86%

0.20% 0.31% 0.17%

3.32% 2.94% 1.48%

1.44% 2.99% 2.34%

0.68% 8.67% 4.01%

3.03% 34.87% 12.83%

Branchburg Township Branchville Boro Brick Township Bridgeton City Bridgewater Township

14,566 845 76,119 22,771 42,940

90.44% 98.46% 95.81% 38.88% 85.07%

1.95% 0.12% 0.99% 41.84% 2.17%

0.10% 0.36% 0.10% 1.19% 0.08%

6.19% 0.36% 1.20% 0.79% 10.55%

0.92% 0.59% 1.04% 3.63% 1.25%

0.39% 0.12% 0.85% 13.67% 0.89%

2.69% 1.30% 3.85% 24.49% 4.79%

Brielle Boro Brigantine City Brooklawn Boro

4,893 12,594 2,354

93.05% 83.15% 90.27%

3.52% 3.94% 4.29%

0.06% 0.18% 0.08%

0.67% 5.76% 1.06%

1.08% 2.29% 1.91%

1.61% 4.67% 2.38%

3.31% 9.41% 4.72%

Buena Boro Buena Vista Township

3,873 7,436

77.28% 77.34%

7.64% 15.69%

0.52% 0.22%

0.46% 0.24%

3.56% 2.43%

10.53% 4.07%

23.65% 9.27%

Burlington City Burlington Township Butler Boro

9,736 20,294 7,420

68.18% 67.71% 94.89%

26.62% 24.49% 0.62%

0.27% 0.16% 0.20%

1.29% 3.76% 1.86%

2.34% 2.41% 0.94%

1.29% 1.46% 1.48%

3.41% 4.01% 5.11%

8,254 7,584 1,055

95.77% 91.22% 98.67%

0.97% 2.27% 0.00%

0.06% 0.11% 0.00%

1.47% 4.13% 0.76%

1.09% 1.08% 0.57%

0.64% 1.20% 0.00%

2.94% 4.64% 0.47%

Camden City Cape May City Cape May Point Boro Carlstadt Boro Carneys Point Township Carteret Boro Cedar Grove Township

79,904 4,034 241 5,917 7,684 20,709 12,300

16.84% 91.32% 95.02% 88.90% 78.53% 68.76% 90.05%

53.35% 5.26% 2.07% 1.37% 16.27% 9.54% 2.99%

0.54% 0.20% 0.00% 0.08% 0.27% 0.24% 0.05%

2.52% 0.45% 0.41% 6.20% 0.95% 8.35% 5.45%

3.92% 1.51% 2.49% 1.32% 1.89% 3.86% 1.00%

22.83% 1.26% 0.00% 2.13% 2.10% 9.26% 0.46%

38.82% 3.79% 1.66% 7.99% 3.98% 23.37% 3.20%

Chatham Boro Chatham Township

8,460 10,086

95.79% 93.71%

0.14% 0.45%

0.06% 0.06%

2.83% 4.82%

0.69% 0.81%

0.50% 0.15%

2.64% 1.95%

Cherry Hill Township Chesilhurst Boro Chester Boro

69,965 1,520 1,635

84.67% 37.37% 94.68%

4.46% 55.99% 0.80%

0.10% 0.20% 0.00%

8.90% 0.33% 1.71%

1.16% 3.22% 0.80%

0.70% 2.89% 2.02%

2.54% 4.08% 6.85%

Chester Township Chesterfield Township Cinnaminson Township Clark Township

7,282 5,955 14,595 14,597

95.12% 49.71% 91.36% 95.61%

1.15% 37.36% 5.08% 0.30%

0.01% 0.67% 0.16% 0.01%

2.44% 0.72% 1.88% 2.75%

1.00% 3.09% 1.01% 0.69%

0.26% 8.45% 0.49% 0.63%

2.58% 12.34% 1.53% 3.67%

Clayton Boro Clementon Boro Cliffside Park Boro Clifton City

7,139 4,986 23,007 78,672

79.23% 82.23% 77.85% 76.22%

16.05% 11.57% 1.83% 2.89%

0.42% 0.22% 0.25% 0.24%

0.69% 1.10% 12.07% 6.47%

2.66% 2.53% 3.02% 4.57%

0.95% 2.35% 4.97% 9.60%

3.28% 4.13% 18.16% 19.84%

Clinton Town Clinton Township Closter Boro Collingswood Boro Colts Neck Township

2,632 12,957 8,383 14,326 12,331

92.06% 87.71% 75.32% 86.47% 85.51%

1.33% 6.96% 0.93% 6.67% 7.89%

0.46% 0.20% 0.10% 0.34% 0.23%

3.72% 2.42% 21.56% 2.78% 3.63%

1.06% 1.12% 1.29% 1.33% 1.29%

1.37% 1.59% 0.81% 2.42% 1.45%

4.10% 3.91% 4.09% 5.67% 4.22%

Bloomsbury Boro Bogota Boro Boonton Town Boonton Township Bordentown City

Byram Township Caldwell Boro Califon Boro

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

census

131

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

5,259 468 3,227

82.98% 94.02% 88.78%

13.42% 2.78% 2.26%

0.42% 0.85% 0.00%

0.25% 1.28% 7.41%

1.92% 0.43% 1.33%

1.01% 0.64% 0.22%

3.86% 2.99% 1.70%

Cranford Township Cresskill Boro Deal Boro Deerfield Township Delanco Township Delaware Township

22,578 7,746 1,070 2,927 3,237 4,478

93.70% 78.05% 94.39% 78.20% 95.89% 97.70%

2.58% 0.92% 1.21% 13.05% 1.92% 0.40%

0.04% 0.04% 0.09% 1.54% 0.25% 0.04%

2.17% 18.64% 0.28% 1.02% 0.40% 1.05%

0.84% 1.70% 1.31% 3.14% 1.14% 0.56%

0.67% 0.65% 2.71% 3.04% 0.40% 0.25%

3.89% 3.99% 5.05% 5.94% 1.95% 1.14%

Delran Township Demarest Township Dennis Township Denville Township Deptford Township

15,536 4,845 6,492 15,824 26,763

82.87% 77.28% 97.43% 92.64% 83.44%

9.42% 0.50% 0.96% 1.14% 12.38%

0.17% 0.02% 0.09% 0.08% 0.21%

2.96% 20.27% 0.45% 4.67% 1.57%

2.94% 1.47% 0.46% 1.03% 1.41%

1.63% 0.47% 0.62% 0.44% 0.99%

3.25% 3.45% 1.51% 2.64% 2.86%

Dover Town, Morris Dover Township, Ocean Downe Township Dumont Boro Dunellen Boro

18,188 89,706 1,631 17,503 6,823

69.45% 93.57% 91.05% 83.77% 84.07%

6.83% 1.75% 4.84% 1.49% 3.66%

0.34% 0.13% 1.47% 0.10% 0.25%

2.50% 2.48% 0.18% 10.96% 3.58%

4.89% 1.12% 1.47% 1.74% 2.07%

15.99% 0.95% 0.98% 1.94% 6.38%

57.94% 4.54% 3.37% 8.36% 14.80%

1,441 6,202 4,455

98.96% 78.25% 96.97%

0.07% 11.77% 0.72%

0.28% 0.23% 0.13%

0.21% 5.42% 0.94%

0.49% 2.90% 0.76%

0.00% 1.44% 0.47%

1.11% 4.72% 1.53%

East Brunswick Township East Greenwich Township East Hanover Township East Newark Boro East Orange City

46,756 5,430 11,393 2,377 69,824

77.56% 94.68% 87.08% 67.02% 3.84%

2.83% 3.26% 0.58% 1.68% 89.46%

0.09% 0.13% 0.03% 0.50% 0.25%

16.28% 0.64% 11.14% 2.57% 0.51%

2.12% 1.05% 0.94% 7.24% 3.80%

1.12% 0.24% 0.24% 20.99% 2.14%

4.19% 1.40% 2.74% 47.54% 4.70%

East Rutherford Boro East Windsor Township Eatontown Boro

8,716 24,919 14,008

79.68% 74.42% 73.29%

3.72% 8.90% 11.61%

0.11% 0.20% 0.34%

10.74% 9.68% 9.35%

2.54% 2.20% 3.10%

3.21% 4.61% 2.31%

10.65% 14.28% 6.62%

7,677 7,864

67.12% 68.07%

3.52% 21.40%

0.21% 0.17%

23.16% 3.27%

3.05% 3.89%

2.94% 3.20%

10.45% 6.60%

97,687 4,545 30,726

59.49% 66.80% 79.42%

6.89% 14.19% 10.37%

0.14% 0.37% 0.21%

29.31% 1.34% 5.10%

2.15% 3.81% 2.07%

2.02% 13.49% 2.82%

6.37% 24.55% 6.76%

120,568 3,514 1,384

55.78% 82.07% 97.25%

19.98% 14.26% 0.65%

0.48% 0.57% 0.00%

2.39% 0.43% 0.51%

5.86% 1.31% 0.87%

15.51% 1.37% 0.72%

49.46% 2.93% 1.52%

Elmwood Park Boro Elsinboro Township Emerson Boro Englewood City Englewood Cliffs Boro Englishtown Boro Essex Fells Township

18,925 1,092 7,197 26,203 5,322 1,764 2,162

82.53% 95.05% 89.62% 42.49% 66.84% 88.38% 96.95%

2.16% 3.57% 0.85% 38.98% 1.37% 4.14% 0.46%

0.11% 0.18% 0.06% 0.27% 0.04% 0.11% 0.19%

7.81% 0.00% 7.89% 5.26% 29.69% 4.48% 1.02%

2.94% 0.92% 0.71% 4.50% 1.35% 1.25% 1.25%

4.44% 0.27% 0.88% 8.50% 0.71% 1.64% 0.14%

13.39% 0.64% 4.61% 21.76% 4.89% 6.24% 1.20%

Estell Manor City Evesham Township

1,585 42,275

94.20% 91.26%

3.60% 3.11%

0.44% 0.07%

0.32% 4.09%

1.32% 0.99%

0.13% 0.48%

0.95% 1.96%

Ewing Township Fairfield Township, Cumberland Fairfield Township, Essex

35,707 6,283 7,063

69.02% 41.41% 95.63%

24.82% 47.43% 0.52%

0.15% 5.08% 0.10%

2.33% 0.59% 2.82%

1.84% 3.10% 0.54%

1.83% 2.39% 0.40%

4.44% 8.87% 3.45%

Fair Haven Boro Fair Lawn Boro Fairview Boro Fanwood Boro

5,937 31,637 13,255 7,174

93.87% 91.54% 72.46% 88.30%

4.09% 0.74% 1.71% 5.14%

0.03% 0.04% 0.38% 0.10%

0.98% 4.93% 5.00% 4.42%

0.81% 1.38% 7.53% 1.24%

0.22% 1.37% 12.92% 0.79%

1.33% 5.51% 37.05% 3.74%

859 1,587 522 4,200

96.04% 93.64% 81.61% 87.71%

0.81% 1.13% 15.90% 3.19%

0.12% 0.00% 0.19% 0.31%

2.10% 2.33% 0.00% 3.29%

0.93% 0.82% 1.92% 2.36%

0.00% 2.08% 0.38% 3.14%

3.61% 3.84% 2.49% 10.98%

10,746 8,857 1,972 35,461 5,420

85.52% 94.00% 91.73% 62.75% 98.15%

9.74% 0.99% 4.41% 1.73% 0.39%

0.18% 0.01% 0.15% 0.07% 0.06%

2.36% 3.93% 1.01% 31.49% 0.39%

1.54% 0.68% 1.12% 2.26% 0.52%

0.65% 0.38% 1.57% 1.69% 0.50%

2.35% 2.15% 3.45% 7.87% 1.77%

Commercial Township Corbin City Cranbury Township

Eagleswood Township Eastampton Township East Amwell Township

Edgewater Boro Edgewater Park Township Edison Township Egg Harbor City Egg Harbor Township Elizabeth City Elk Township Elmer Boro

Far Hills Boro Farmingdale Boro Fieldsboro Boro Flemington Boro Florence Township Florham Park Boro Folsom Boro Fort Lee Boro Frankford Township

Total

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

132

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Franklin Boro Franklin Lakes Boro Franklin Township, Gloucester

5,160 10,422 15,466

95.10% 91.35% 90.22%

Franklin Township, Hunterdon Franklin Township, Somerset Franklin Township, Warren Fredon Township Freehold Boro Freehold Township

2,990 50,903 2,768 2,860 10,976 31,537

Frelinghuysen Township Frenchtown Boro Galloway Township Garfield City Garwood Boro

Other

Hispanic

0.62% 0.92% 6.66%

0.35% 0.11% 0.31%

1.47% 6.34% 0.42%

1.24% 0.86% 1.14%

1.22% 0.41% 1.25%

4.42% 2.74% 3.51%

97.53% 55.11% 97.04% 97.17% 71.02% 87.09%

0.40% 25.98% 0.83% 0.52% 15.83% 5.12%

0.23% 0.18% 0.07% 0.24% 0.55% 0.14%

0.77% 12.78% 0.87% 0.84% 2.47% 5.16%

0.74% 2.39% 1.08% 0.66% 3.49% 1.30%

0.33% 3.56% 0.11% 0.56% 6.64% 1.19%

2.24% 8.11% 1.99% 2.17% 28.07% 5.19%

2,083 1,488 31,209 29,786 4,153

97.79% 95.97% 77.16% 82.11% 95.91%

0.34% 0.40% 9.80% 2.98% 0.36%

0.05% 0.20% 0.24% 0.33% 0.00%

0.58% 1.21% 8.05% 2.69% 1.32%

0.77% 0.87% 2.16% 3.79% 0.87%

0.48% 1.34% 2.59% 8.10% 1.54%

2.64% 2.62% 6.16% 20.11% 4.98%

Gibbsboro Boro Glassboro Boro Glen Gardner Boro Glen Ridge Township Glen Rock Boro

2,435 19,068 1,902 7,271 11,546

94.00% 74.53% 95.69% 89.18% 90.07%

2.79% 19.47% 0.89% 4.98% 1.81%

0.41% 0.17% 0.11% 0.15% 0.16%

1.07% 2.40% 1.58% 3.34% 6.50%

0.99% 1.95% 1.16% 1.36% 0.86%

0.74% 1.48% 0.58% 0.99% 0.61%

2.38% 3.82% 3.42% 3.45% 2.72%

Gloucester City Gloucester Township Green Brook Township

11,484 64,350 5,654

97.14% 83.11% 88.43%

0.69% 11.55% 1.68%

0.18% 0.16% 0.07%

0.71% 2.65% 8.03%

0.64% 1.42% 1.08%

0.64% 1.11% 0.71%

1.88% 1.49% 4.09%

Green Township Greenwich Township, Cumberland Greenwich Township, Gloucester Greenwich Township, Warren Guttenberg Town

3,220 4,879 847 4,365 10,807

96.49% 94.55% 89.96% 93.26% 64.98%

0.93% 3.32% 5.08% 2.47% 3.81%

0.03% 0.10% 2.60% 0.27% 0.38%

0.96% 0.70% 0.24% 2.29% 7.31%

1.30% 1.07% 2.01% 1.12% 7.10%

0.28% 0.27% 0.12% 0.57% 16.42%

3.20% 1.54% 1.53% 3.80% 54.33%

Hackensack City Hackettstown Town Haddonfield Boro

42,677 10,403 11,659

52.61% 90.25% 96.47%

24.65% 2.18% 1.27%

0.45% 0.12% 0.13%

7.51% 2.97% 1.15%

5.08% 2.47% 0.67%

9.71% 2.00% 0.32%

25.92% 8.01% 1.46%

Haddon Heights Boro Haddon Township

7,547 14,651

97.97% 95.42%

0.40% 1.18%

0.11% 0.05%

0.69% 2.05%

0.57% 0.74%

0.27% 0.56%

1.05% 1.54%

Hainesport Township Haledon Boro Hamburg Boro

4,126 8,252 3,105

94.09% 73.59% 93.14%

2.67% 7.09% 0.74%

0.10% 0.17% 0.29%

1.70% 4.59% 2.29%

0.95% 4.46% 1.87%

0.51% 10.09% 1.67%

2.13% 22.60% 4.22%

Hamilton Township, Atlantic Hamilton Township, Mercer Hammonton Town

20,499 87,109 12,604

71.45% 85.15% 87.85%

19.26% 8.16% 1.74%

0.29% 0.14% 0.14%

3.34% 2.60% 1.17%

2.33% 1.76% 1.27%

3.33% 2.19% 7.83%

7.91% 5.13% 14.88%

Hampton Boro Hampton Township Hanover Township Harding Township Hardwick Township Hardyston Township Harmony Township

1,546 4,943 12,898 3,180 1,464 6,171 2,729

91.01% 97.29% 88.79% 97.20% 97.06% 95.56% 97.91%

4.98% 0.97% 1.09% 0.41% 0.61% 0.84% 0.70%

0.39% 0.02% 0.05% 0.00% 0.07% 0.16% 0.07%

0.97% 0.69% 8.71% 1.10% 0.41% 1.57% 0.40%

1.88% 0.73% 0.77% 1.07% 0.96% 1.38% 0.73%

0.78% 0.30% 0.59% 0.22% 0.89% 0.49% 0.18%

2.85% 1.90% 3.50% 1.79% 2.32% 3.22% 1.28%

Harrington Park Boro Harrison Town

4,740 14,424

83.52% 66.10%

0.68% 0.98%

0.04% 0.40%

14.66% 11.92%

0.46% 4.65%

0.63% 15.96%

2.57% 36.97%

Harrison Township Harvey Ceders Boro Hasbrouck Heights Boro

8,788 359 11,662

95.16% 96.94% 87.87%

2.96% 0.56% 1.71%

0.13% 0.28% 0.04%

0.73% 0.28% 6.66%

0.61% 0.00% 1.53%

0.41% 1.95% 2.19%

1.78% 3.62% 8.27%

Haworth Boro Hawthorne Boro Hazlet Township Helmetta Boro

3,390 18,218 21,378 1,825

87.94% 93.75% 93.17% 93.15%

1.21% 0.75% 1.10% 2.41%

0.00% 0.14% 0.06% 0.22%

9.20% 1.90% 3.40% 2.47%

0.91% 1.88% 1.15% 0.88%

0.74% 1.58% 1.13% 0.88%

2.71% 7.43% 5.87% 5.32%

High Bridge Boro Highland Park Boro Highlands Boro Hightstown Boro

3,776 13,999 5,097 5,216

96.24% 72.06% 95.10% 76.53%

0.79% 7.94% 1.59% 8.51%

0.34% 0.11% 0.33% 0.36%

1.46% 13.72% 1.00% 2.36%

0.72% 2.59% 1.39% 2.59%

0.45% 3.59% 0.59% 9.64%

2.12% 8.18% 4.06% 20.05%

Hillsborough Township Hillsdale Boro Hillside Township Hi-Nella Boro Hoboken City

36,634 10,087 21,747 1,029 38,577

85.96% 92.41% 40.03% 71.04% 80.82%

3.76% 0.85% 46.54% 19.24% 4.26%

0.09% 0.07% 0.23% 0.00% 0.16%

7.38% 5.12% 3.53% 3.11% 4.36%

1.53% 0.69% 4.41% 2.24% 2.78%

1.28% 0.86% 5.26% 4.37% 7.63%

4.75% 4.25% 14.50% 6.90% 20.18% (continued)

census

133

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Ho-Ho-Kus Boro Holland Township Holmdel Township

4,060 5,124 15,781

92.66% 98.09% 80.20%

Hopatcong Boro Hope Township Hopewell Boro Hopewell Township, Cumberland Hopewell Township, Mercer Howell Township

15,888 1,891 2,035 4,434 16,105 48,903

Independence Township Interlaken Boro Irvington Township Island Heights Boro Jackson Township

0.59% 0.43% 0.65%

0.10% 0.04% 0.03%

5.42% 0.43% 17.45%

0.86% 0.62% 1.15%

0.37% 0.39% 0.52%

1.97% 1.70% 2.45%

93.10% 98.25% 95.43% 87.10% 88.30% 89.99%

1.95% 0.42% 1.08% 6.90% 5.83% 3.56%

0.11% 0.00% 0.49% 2.32% 0.12% 0.12%

1.80% 0.42% 0.98% 0.59% 3.99% 3.59%

1.61% 0.85% 0.79% 1.65% 1.09% 1.45%

1.42% 0.05% 1.23% 1.44% 0.66% 1.29%

5.99% 1.48% 2.31% 3.59% 2.45% 5.34%

5,603 900 60,695 1,751 42,816

94.98% 98.67% 8.97% 97.77% 91.26%

1.16% 0.00% 81.66% 0.11% 3.90%

0.05% 0.00% 0.24% 0.46% 0.13%

1.73% 0.33% 1.20% 0.63% 2.07%

1.29% 1.00% 4.24% 0.97% 1.67%

0.79% 0.00% 3.68% 0.06% 0.97%

3.77% 1.11% 8.38% 1.37% 5.78%

6,025 19,717 240,055 10,732 40,513

82.82% 96.14% 34.01% 93.31% 75.75%

8.83% 0.83% 28.32% 2.13% 3.97%

0.20% 0.16% 0.45% 0.10% 0.37%

2.22% 1.12% 16.27% 1.30% 5.57%

2.12% 1.14% 5.84% 1.42% 4.31%

3.80% 0.62% 15.11% 1.74% 10.04%

10.06% 3.41% 28.31% 7.95% 27.34%

Kenilworth Boro Keyport Boro Kingwood Township

7,675 7,568 3,782

91.30% 85.19% 97.62%

2.40% 7.02% 0.61%

0.25% 0.12% 0.08%

2.88% 2.26% 0.77%

1.38% 2.46% 0.74%

1.80% 2.96% 0.19%

8.64% 11.09% 1.85%

Kinnelon Boro Knowlton Township Lacey Township Lafayette Township Lakehurst Boro

9,365 2,977 25,346 2,300 2,522

95.60% 97.45% 97.85% 97.04% 84.22%

0.58% 0.40% 0.36% 1.04% 7.85%

0.04% 0.07% 0.15% 0.09% 0.63%

2.94% 0.64% 0.56% 0.78% 2.42%

0.61% 0.97% 0.68% 0.70% 2.14%

0.23% 0.47% 0.41% 0.35% 2.74%

2.33% 1.85% 2.15% 2.35% 7.97%

Lakewood Township Lambertville City Laurel Springs Boro

60,352 3,868 1,970

78.77% 94.65% 94.37%

12.05% 1.94% 2.74%

0.17% 0.34% 0.25%

1.42% 1.11% 0.96%

2.98% 1.06% 0.96%

4.61% 0.90% 0.71%

14.80% 3.10% 1.62%

2,665 2,692

98.12% 1.75%

0.26% 93.61%

0.11% 1.00%

0.15% 0.59%

0.71% 2.56%

0.64% 0.48%

1.61% 2.38%

29,159 2,721 1,065

79.22% 81.88% 95.40%

9.28% 10.40% 0.66%

0.08% 1.07% 0.19%

8.01% 0.44% 3.10%

1.60% 2.79% 0.28%

1.79% 3.42% 0.38%

4.61% 7.02% 2.07%

5,816 8,914 2,765

96.97% 65.74% 97.40%

0.81% 2.27% 0.36%

0.10% 0.09% 0.11%

0.95% 26.07% 0.58%

0.79% 2.64% 1.01%

0.38% 3.20% 0.54%

1.72% 12.73% 2.68%

Lincoln Park Boro Linden City Lindenwold Boro Linwood City Little Egg Harbor Township Little Falls Township Little Ferry Boro

10,930 39,394 17,414 7,172 15,945 10,855 10,800

90.07% 66.08% 61.42% 95.20% 96.22% 92.13% 68.76%

1.75% 22.80% 28.22% 1.06% 0.79% 0.65% 4.71%

0.12% 0.14% 0.48% 0.11% 0.26% 0.06% 0.15%

5.30% 2.39% 3.58% 2.41% 0.61% 4.22% 17.16%

1.46% 3.71% 3.06% 0.99% 1.15% 1.60% 3.47%

1.30% 4.88% 3.24% 0.22% 0.98% 1.33% 5.75%

5.69% 14.40% 7.56% 1.81% 3.26% 5.33% 15.19%

Little Silver Boro Livingston Township

6,170 27,391

97.15% 82.64%

0.31% 1.20%

0.16% 0.05%

1.52% 14.55%

0.66% 0.87%

0.19% 0.69%

1.31% 2.54%

Loch Arbour Village Lodi Boro Logan Township

280 23,971 6,032

95.00% 78.16% 82.00%

2.14% 3.55% 13.51%

0.00% 0.17% 0.13%

0.71% 8.89% 1.79%

1.79% 2.97% 1.36%

0.36% 6.25% 1.21%

0.71% 17.98% 2.74%

Long Beach Township Long Branch City Long Hill Township Longport Boro

3,329 31,340 8,777 1,054

98.53% 68.03% 92.75% 98.58%

0.24% 18.66% 0.39% 0.09%

0.03% 0.36% 0.17% 0.00%

0.36% 1.68% 4.82% 1.14%

0.51% 4.19% 1.31% 0.19%

0.33% 7.08% 0.56% 0.00%

2.10% 20.67% 3.45% 0.47%

Lopatcong Township Lower Alloways Creek Township Lower Township Lumberton Township

5,765 1,851 22,945 10,461

96.27% 96.38% 96.26% 78.31%

1.13% 2.16% 1.39% 13.75%

0.07% 0.11% 0.23% 0.23%

1.63% 0.65% 0.55% 3.40%

0.42% 0.54% 0.92% 2.41%

0.49% 0.16% 0.65% 1.90%

1.99% 0.49% 1.88% 5.15%

Lyndhurst Township Madison Boro Magnolia Boro Mahwah Township Manalapan Township

19,383 16,530 4,409 24,062 33,423

89.94% 89.69% 77.00% 87.93% 91.81%

0.61% 3.00% 17.80% 2.16% 1.99%

0.05% 0.13% 0.23% 0.70% 0.03%

5.40% 4.00% 0.95% 6.34% 4.54%

1.95% 1.63% 2.47% 1.38% 1.10%

2.05% 1.55% 1.54% 1.50% 0.53%

9.00% 5.97% 3.86% 4.27% 3.54%

Jamesburg Boro Jefferson Township Jersey City Keansburg Boro Kearny Town

Lavallete Boro Lawnside Boro Lawrence Township, Cumberland Lawrence Township, Mercer Lebanon Boro Lebanon Township Leonia Boro Liberty Township

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

134

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Manasquan Boro Manchester Township Mannington Township

6,310 38,928 1,559

97.89% 94.34% 75.63%

0.41% 3.06% 20.91%

0.11% 0.12% 0.51%

0.44% 0.89% 0.38%

0.67% 0.91% 0.83%

0.48% 0.69% 1.73%

4.48% 2.63% 3.34%

Mansfield Township, Burlington Mansfield Township, Warren Mantoloking Boro Mantua Township Manville Boro Maple Shade Township

5,090 6,653 423 14,217 10,343 19,079

95.42% 90.91% 97.64% 95.81% 95.99% 83.17%

1.91% 4.51% 1.65% 2.07% 0.45% 7.21%

0.18% 0.24% 0.00% 0.20% 0.07% 0.16%

1.53% 1.22% 0.47% 0.86% 1.34% 6.14%

0.75% 1.53% 0.00% 0.78% 1.01% 1.62%

0.22% 1.59% 0.24% 0.28% 1.14% 1.69%

1.83% 4.37% 0.71% 1.26% 5.40% 4.46%

Maplewood Township Margate City Marlboro Township Matawan Boro Maurice River Township

23,868 8,193 36,398 8,910 6,928

58.78% 95.73% 83.76% 82.35% 58.63%

32.63% 0.87% 2.07% 6.53% 32.98%

0.13% 0.02% 0.05% 0.02% 0.78%

2.89% 1.64% 12.68% 8.01% 0.29%

4.01% 0.83% 0.97% 1.85% 2.89%

1.56% 0.92% 0.47% 1.23% 4.43%

5.23% 2.71% 2.89% 6.45% 9.15%

Maywood Boro Medford Township Medford Lakes Boro Mendham Boro Mendham Township

9,523 22,253 4,173 5,097 5,400

84.57% 96.74% 98.32% 97.14% 95.91%

2.79% 0.76% 0.43% 0.45% 0.93%

0.07% 0.12% 0.12% 0.02% 0.09%

7.17% 1.51% 0.48% 1.47% 2.02%

2.08% 0.59% 0.55% 0.65% 0.70%

3.31% 0.28% 0.10% 0.27% 0.35%

11.71% 1.13% 0.98% 2.45% 1.52%

Merchantville Boro Metuchen Boro Middlesex Boro

3,801 12,840 13,717

85.90% 84.38% 87.26%

7.42% 5.30% 3.36%

0.29% 0.10% 0.13%

2.10% 7.23% 4.18%

1.45% 1.86% 1.86%

2.84% 1.12% 3.21%

5.47% 3.96% 9.00%

Middletown Township Middle Township Midland Park Boro Milford Boro Millburn Township

66,327 16,405 6,947 1,195 19,765

94.71% 85.21% 95.81% 97.57% 88.91%

1.21% 10.86% 0.43% 0.17% 1.10%

0.07% 0.23% 0.06% 0.17% 0.05%

2.61% 1.46% 2.23% 0.75% 8.43%

0.86% 1.58% 0.71% 1.26% 1.08%

0.53% 0.66% 0.76% 0.08% 0.43%

3.41% 2.12% 3.69% 2.01% 2.04%

Millstone Boro Millstone Township Milltown Boro

410 8,970 7,000

97.56% 91.83% 93.86%

0.98% 3.05% 0.76%

0.00% 0.10% 0.16%

0.98% 3.47% 3.07%

0.49% 0.94% 1.00%

0.00% 0.61% 1.16%

3.17% 3.51% 3.73%

Millville City Mine Hill Township

26,847 3,679

76.13% 90.41%

14.99% 3.42%

0.52% 0.11%

0.83% 2.58%

2.37% 1.69%

5.16% 1.79%

11.17% 8.67%

Monmouth Beach Boro Monroe Township, Gloucester Monroe Township, Middlesex

3,595 28,967 27,999

97.66% 84.83% 93.31%

0.53% 11.15% 2.93%

0.00% 0.25% 0.06%

0.86% 1.26% 2.43%

0.61% 1.52% 0.60%

0.33% 0.99% 0.68%

1.89% 2.71% 2.38%

Montague Township Montclair Township Montgomery Township

3,412 38,977 17,481

95.25% 59.77% 84.55%

1.79% 32.06% 2.07%

0.18% 0.19% 0.09%

0.67% 3.19% 11.52%

1.03% 3.03% 1.32%

1.08% 1.77% 0.46%

3.28% 5.12% 2.21%

Montvale Boro Montville Township Moonachie Boro Moorestown Township Morris Plains Boro Morristown Town Morris Township

7,034 20,839 2,754 19,017 5,236 18,544 21,796

92.79% 84.95% 85.66% 89.19% 92.91% 67.15% 88.63%

0.44% 0.93% 0.94% 5.69% 1.34% 16.95% 5.46%

0.09% 0.04% 0.11% 0.16% 0.06% 0.22% 0.15%

5.36% 12.59% 6.64% 3.27% 4.41% 3.84% 3.91%

0.70% 1.14% 3.70% 1.26% 0.88% 3.36% 0.95%

0.63% 0.36% 2.94% 0.43% 0.40% 8.48% 0.91%

3.09% 2.55% 12.67% 1.75% 2.69% 27.15% 3.81%

4,256 6,602

93.05% 95.09%

0.38% 0.94%

0.00% 0.09%

5.24% 2.86%

0.82% 0.74%

0.52% 0.27%

1.69% 3.01%

Mount Arlington Boro Mount Ephraim Boro Mount Holly Township

4,663 4,495 10,728

91.42% 97.51% 68.68%

1.82% 0.40% 21.57%

0.19% 0.07% 0.42%

3.86% 0.65% 1.44%

1.44% 0.73% 3.12%

1.27% 0.65% 4.77%

4.55% 1.98% 8.78%

Mount Laurel Township Mount Olive Township Mullica Township National Park Boro

40,221 24,193 5,912 3,205

87.10% 86.69% 80.58% 98.35%

6.92% 3.79% 6.28% 0.09%

0.09% 0.17% 0.27% 0.25%

3.83% 6.01% 0.95% 0.28%

1.41% 1.81% 3.32% 0.50%

0.64% 1.53% 8.61% 0.53%

2.24% 5.97% 16.49% 1.44%

5,218 27,690 2,580 273,546

83.38% 55.92% 94.30% 26.52%

9.52% 38.16% 1.20% 53.46%

0.23% 0.17% 0.04% 0.37%

2.72% 1.22% 1.67% 1.24%

2.03% 2.56% 1.36% 4.36%

2.11% 1.98% 1.43% 14.05%

5.31% 5.55% 7.13% 29.47%

48,573 1,616 9,744 16,400 11,907

48.79% 95.11% 64.13% 78.59% 89.77%

23.03% 1.30% 28.90% 2.62% 0.88%

0.46% 0.68% 0.42% 0.12% 0.03%

5.40% 0.56% 1.55% 14.78% 7.63%

4.24% 1.30% 2.34% 2.04% 1.01%

18.08% 1.05% 2.66% 1.86% 0.68%

39.01% 3.84% 19.40% 8.09% 3.50%

Mountain Lakes Boro Mountainside Boro

Neptune City Boro Neptune Township Netcong Boro Newark City New Brunswick City Newfield Boro New Hanover Township New Milford Boro New Providence Boro

Other

Hispanic

(continued)

census

135

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Other

Hispanic

Newton Town North Arlington Boro North Bergen Township

8,244 15,181 58,092

91.97% 89.61% 67.36%

3.41% 0.46% 2.72%

0.13% 0.14% 0.40%

1.98% 5.63% 6.51%

1.35% 1.87% 7.47%

1.16% 2.29% 15.53%

3.80% 10.57% 57.25%

North Brunswick Township North Caldwell Boro Northfield City North Haledon Boro North Hanover Township North Plainfield Boro

36,287 7,375 7,725 7,920 7,347 21,103

62.73% 79.63% 91.52% 95.03% 80.63% 63.06%

15.27% 14.51% 2.65% 1.44% 10.96% 13.38%

0.17% 0.03% 0.10% 0.06% 0.48% 0.28%

14.23% 4.71% 2.58% 1.00% 2.18% 5.12%

2.89% 0.87% 1.33% 1.53% 3.58% 4.48%

4.70% 0.26% 1.81% 0.95% 2.18% 13.68%

10.40% 2.16% 4.38% 3.89% 5.76% 32.77%

Northvale Boro North Wildwood City Norwood Boro Nutley Township Oakland Boro

4,460 4,935 5,751 27,362 12,466

82.91% 96.62% 77.86% 87.95% 94.76%

0.76% 0.81% 0.83% 1.87% 0.78%

0.07% 0.08% 0.02% 0.05% 0.06%

14.06% 0.59% 18.99% 7.14% 2.71%

1.03% 1.13% 1.36% 1.24% 0.99%

1.17% 0.77% 0.94% 1.75% 0.70%

4.73% 1.95% 2.99% 6.69% 3.87%

Oaklyn Boro Ocean City Ocean Gate Boro Oceanport Boro Ocean Township, Monmouth

4,188 15,378 2,076 5,807 26,959

95.92% 93.57% 96.53% 95.71% 84.34%

1.15% 4.31% 0.96% 1.96% 5.67%

0.21% 0.12% 0.14% 0.07% 0.15%

0.98% 0.62% 0.96% 0.81% 6.34%

0.91% 0.86% 0.87% 0.90% 1.92%

0.84% 0.52% 0.53% 0.55% 1.58%

2.32% 1.99% 2.36% 2.07% 4.51%

Ocean Township, Ocean Ogdensburg Boro Old Bridge Township

6,450 2,638 60,456

97.33% 97.54% 79.48%

0.74% 0.15% 5.30%

0.16% 0.04% 0.16%

0.45% 0.72% 10.87%

0.96% 1.29% 2.32%

0.36% 0.27% 1.87%

3.10% 4.17% 7.57%

Oldmans Township Old Tappen Boro Oradell Boro Orange Township Oxford Township

1,798 5,482 8,047 32,868 2,307

86.82% 82.69% 90.07% 13.20% 96.58%

9.62% 0.60% 0.48% 75.10% 1.21%

0.28% 0.05% 0.04% 0.34% 0.22%

0.17% 15.63% 8.10% 1.36% 0.52%

1.11% 0.58% 0.98% 4.79% 0.82%

2.00% 0.44% 0.32% 5.21% 0.65%

4.17% 2.75% 3.09% 12.47% 3.47%

Palisades Park Boro Palmyra Boro Paramus Boro

17,073 7,091 25,737

48.27% 80.99% 79.19%

1.38% 14.34% 1.13%

0.19% 0.30% 0.05%

41.12% 1.44% 17.24%

3.24% 1.52% 1.51%

5.80% 1.41% 0.89%

16.48% 3.23% 4.87%

Park Ridge Boro Parsippany–Troy Hills Township

8,708 50,649

93.48% 74.28%

0.86% 3.11%

0.14% 0.12%

3.88% 18.11%

0.91% 2.48%

0.73% 1.90%

5.32% 6.98%

67,861 149,222 6,160

35.43% 30.77% 63.56%

13.83% 32.90% 31.64%

0.78% 0.60% 0.24%

5.55% 1.95% 0.42%

5.04% 6.17% 2.82%

39.36% 27.60% 1.31%

62.46% 50.11% 4.35%

Peapack-Gladstone Boro Pemberton Boro Pemberton Township

2,433 1,210 28,691

94.45% 78.43% 66.03%

3.12% 12.73% 23.12%

0.08% 0.66% 0.46%

1.23% 2.40% 3.26%

0.41% 3.06% 4.24%

0.70% 2.73% 2.89%

3.78% 8.60% 8.63%

Pennington Boro Pennsauken Township Penns Grove Boro Pennsville Township Pequannock Township Perth Amboy City Phillipsburg Town

2,696 35,737 4,886 13,194 13,888 47,303 15,166

94.96% 60.10% 48.85% 96.68% 96.60% 46.41% 91.84%

2.63% 24.18% 39.75% 0.96% 0.30% 10.04% 3.47%

0.00% 0.35% 0.37% 0.16% 0.12% 0.70% 0.12%

1.00% 4.60% 0.45% 0.98% 1.91% 1.66% 0.84%

1.00% 2.51% 2.46% 0.83% 0.58% 5.61% 1.71%

0.41% 8.27% 8.13% 0.39% 0.50% 35.59% 2.02%

1.19% 14.34% 17.29% 1.60% 2.94% 69.83% 5.38%

Pilesgrove Township Pine Beach Boro

3,923 1,950

84.63% 98.41%

12.18% 0.26%

0.28% 0.05%

0.97% 0.62%

0.87% 0.46%

1.07% 0.21%

2.98% 2.36%

Pine Hill Boro Pine Valley Boro Piscataway Township

10,880 20 50,482

76.79% 100.00% 48.81%

18.35% 0.00% 20.31%

0.28% 0.00% 0.21%

1.42% 0.00% 24.82%

1.95% 0.00% 2.77%

1.21% 0.00% 3.08%

3.64% 0.00% 7.93%

Pitman Boro Pittsgrove Township Plainfield City Plainsboro Township

9,331 8,893 47,829 20,215

97.16% 88.14% 21.45% 58.20%

0.91% 8.04% 61.78% 7.58%

0.12% 0.38% 0.41% 0.10%

0.63% 0.63% 1.03% 30.52%

0.95% 1.52% 4.55% 2.24%

0.23% 1.29% 10.78% 1.36%

1.41% 3.41% 25.16% 4.64%

Pleasantville City Plumstead Township Pohatcong Township Point Pleasant Boro

19,012 7,275 3,416 19,306

25.01% 93.90% 98.01% 97.83%

57.70% 2.30% 0.44% 0.29%

0.28% 0.14% 0.03% 0.14%

1.98% 0.74% 0.29% 0.55%

4.07% 1.57% 0.59% 0.69%

10.96% 1.36% 0.64% 0.50%

21.87% 3.85% 2.02% 2.41%

Point Pleasant Beach Boro Pompton Lakes Boro Port Republic City Princeton Boro Princeton Township

5,314 10,640 1,037 14,203 16,027

95.94% 93.01% 95.08% 80.26% 79.91%

0.53% 1.21% 1.64% 6.39% 5.32%

0.34% 0.19% 0.39% 0.28% 0.12%

1.04% 3.04% 0.58% 7.60% 10.03%

0.70% 0.99% 1.64% 2.96% 2.51%

1.47% 1.57% 0.68% 2.50% 2.11%

4.40% 5.74% 1.06% 7.10% 5.28%

Passaic City Paterson City Paulsboro Boro

(continued)

136

census

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Other

Hispanic

Prospect Park Boro Quinton Township Rahway City

5,779 2,786 26,500

61.17% 82.05% 60.19%

13.65% 14.47% 27.07%

0.42% 1.08% 0.16%

3.22% 0.32% 3.64%

7.84% 1.36% 3.33%

13.70% 0.72% 5.62%

38.26% 1.51% 13.87%

Ramsey Boro Randolph Township Raritan Boro Raritan Township Readington Township Red Bank Boro

14,351 24,847 6,338 19,809 15,803 11,844

91.62% 85.70% 87.74% 93.22% 95.14% 68.19%

0.78% 2.30% 0.93% 1.23% 0.76% 20.05%

0.10% 0.06% 0.08% 0.09% 0.06% 0.35%

5.86% 9.16% 8.33% 3.51% 2.56% 2.27%

1.10% 1.46% 1.28% 1.27% 0.94% 2.41%

0.54% 1.31% 1.64% 0.68% 0.53% 6.73%

2.93% 4.84% 8.41% 2.79% 2.05% 17.11%

Ridgefield Boro Ridgefield Park Village Ridgewood Village Ringwood Boro Riverdale Boro

10,830 12,873 24,936 12,396 2,498

75.87% 78.20% 87.82% 93.87% 93.39%

0.77% 4.10% 1.64% 1.61% 1.08%

0.08% 0.22% 0.04% 1.44% 0.04%

17.46% 7.88% 8.67% 1.20% 2.72%

2.32% 3.09% 1.23% 1.21% 1.16%

3.50% 6.50% 0.59% 0.67% 1.60%

13.80% 22.24% 3.78% 4.25% 4.40%

River Edge Boro Riverside Township Riverton Boro River Vale Township Rochelle Park Township

10,946 7,911 2,759 9,449 5,528

84.12% 90.22% 95.83% 92.33% 90.09%

1.06% 4.44% 1.78% 0.58% 0.45%

0.08% 0.14% 0.11% 0.00% 0.04%

12.61% 0.43% 0.83% 5.92% 6.02%

1.32% 2.50% 1.16% 0.74% 1.37%

0.81% 2.28% 0.29% 0.43% 2.03%

5.31% 4.11% 1.09% 3.22% 8.57%

Rockaway Boro Rockaway Township Rockleigh Boro

6,473 22,930 391

87.75% 88.86% 89.77%

1.41% 2.46% 3.32%

0.20% 0.10% 0.26%

6.40% 5.67% 3.84%

1.27% 1.31% 1.79%

2.98% 1.60% 1.02%

9.39% 6.28% 4.86%

Rocky Hill Boro Roosevelt Boro Roseland Boro Roselle Boro Roselle Park Boro

662 933 5,298 21,274 13,281

95.17% 88.96% 93.43% 35.58% 80.87%

1.36% 2.57% 0.72% 51.32% 2.42%

0.00% 0.00% 0.04% 0.31% 0.11%

1.06% 2.14% 4.72% 2.78% 9.16%

1.51% 4.07% 0.66% 3.93% 2.55%

0.91% 2.25% 0.43% 6.07% 4.89%

3.93% 4.50% 2.28% 17.11% 16.34%

Roxbury Township Rumson Boro Runnemede Boro

23,883 7,137 8,533

92.58% 97.77% 91.77%

1.91% 0.24% 3.76%

0.15% 0.06% 0.11%

3.65% 1.06% 1.56%

1.04% 0.50% 1.58%

0.68% 0.36% 1.22%

4.83% 1.39% 3.59%

Rutherford Boro Saddle Brook Township

18,110 13,155

81.99% 90.73%

2.70% 1.39%

0.04% 0.04%

11.37% 4.74%

2.03% 1.41%

1.86% 1.70%

8.59% 6.27%

3,201 5,857 1,825

89.85% 37.46% 97.86%

0.75% 56.77% 0.38%

0.00% 0.60% 0.16%

7.19% 0.24% 0.55%

1.41% 3.55% 0.99%

0.81% 1.38% 0.05%

2.56% 4.88% 1.32%

Sayerville Boro Scotch Plains Township Sea Bright Boro

40,377 22,732 1,818

76.47% 78.88% 94.39%

8.62% 11.30% 1.76%

0.13% 0.09% 0.00%

10.58% 7.26% 2.26%

2.08% 1.52% 0.72%

2.12% 0.95% 0.88%

7.29% 3.94% 4.51%

Sea Girt Boro Sea Isle City Seaside Heights Boro Seaside Park Boro Secaucus Town Shamong Township Shiloh Boro

2,148 2,835 3,155 2,263 15,931 6,462 534

99.12% 97.88% 89.95% 97.79% 78.54% 97.25% 95.13%

0.09% 0.28% 4.03% 0.27% 4.45% 0.82% 2.62%

0.00% 0.39% 0.63% 0.35% 0.11% 0.11% 0.56%

0.28% 0.39% 0.86% 0.71% 11.84% 0.67% 0.00%

0.47% 0.99% 3.36% 0.71% 2.26% 0.85% 1.69%

0.05% 0.07% 1.17% 0.18% 2.79% 0.31% 0.00%

1.40% 1.06% 9.70% 2.30% 12.26% 1.05% 3.00%

1,384 3,590

96.32% 96.60%

0.29% 0.53%

0.72% 0.00%

0.87% 1.67%

0.72% 0.84%

1.08% 0.36%

5.78% 1.92%

Shrewsbury Township Somerdale Boro Somers Point City

1,098 5,192 11,614

66.76% 75.35% 85.66%

16.67% 17.66% 7.01%

0.00% 0.21% 0.25%

10.02% 3.26% 3.20%

3.73% 2.45% 1.64%

2.82% 1.08% 2.25%

6.65% 3.89% 5.99%

Somerville Boro South Amboy City Southampton Township South Belmar Boro

12,423 7,913 10,388 1,806

71.21% 94.22% 97.09% 82.17%

12.93% 0.86% 1.20% 7.75%

0.19% 0.19% 0.28% 0.44%

7.37% 1.40% 0.63% 1.33%

3.20% 1.62% 0.50% 2.44%

5.10% 1.71% 0.30% 5.87%

17.00% 6.75% 1.30% 10.13%

South Bound Brook Boro South Brunswick Township South Hackensack Township South Harrison Township

4,492 37,734 2,249 2,417

78.01% 70.49% 82.93% 93.09%

7.77% 7.88% 2.18% 3.76%

0.27% 0.13% 0.22% 0.04%

4.14% 18.08% 6.05% 0.33%

3.25% 2.04% 2.31% 0.58%

6.57% 1.37% 6.31% 2.19%

22.89% 5.08% 15.07% 3.43%

South Orange Village South Plainfield Boro South River Boro South Toms River Boro Sparta Township

16,964 21,810 15,322 3,634 18,080

60.41% 77.74% 83.55% 72.56% 96.69%

31.30% 8.56% 6.06% 21.16% 0.29%

0.09% 0.22% 0.12% 0.14% 0.07%

3.92% 7.58% 3.59% 0.69% 1.42%

2.71% 2.42% 2.85% 2.94% 1.09%

1.57% 3.48% 3.83% 2.50% 0.45%

4.93% 8.66% 9.66% 9.27% 2.54%

Saddle River Boro Salem City Sandyston Township

Ship Bottom Boro Shrewsbury Boro

(continued)

census

137

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

Spotswood Boro Springfield Township, Burlington Springfield Township, Union

7,880 3,227 14,429

93.79% 91.94% 89.72%

Spring Lake Boro Spring Lake Heights Boro Stafford Township Stanhope Boro Stillwater Township Stockton Boro

3,567 5,227 22,532 3,584 4,267 560

Stone Harbor Boro Stow Creek Township Stratford Boro Summit City Surf City Boro

Other

Hispanic

1.55% 3.22% 3.72%

0.08% 0.31% 0.02%

2.93% 2.63% 4.69%

0.91% 1.67% 0.89%

0.74% 0.22% 0.96%

4.38% 1.77% 4.14%

98.77% 97.28% 96.79% 93.55% 97.96% 98.57%

0.34% 1.11% 0.74% 1.34% 0.16% 0.00%

0.00% 0.02% 0.09% 0.06% 0.21% 0.00%

0.28% 0.38% 0.99% 1.62% 0.47% 0.89%

0.50% 0.54% 0.88% 2.04% 0.96% 0.54%

0.11% 0.67% 0.51% 1.40% 0.23% 0.00%

0.73% 2.12% 2.41% 4.05% 2.09% 0.54%

1,128 1,429 7,271 21,131 1,442

98.76% 93.42% 88.56% 87.77% 98.06%

0.80% 3.50% 6.60% 4.33% 0.14%

0.00% 1.61% 0.12% 0.09% 0.21%

0.00% 0.21% 2.39% 4.47% 0.76%

0.27% 0.42% 1.46% 1.65% 0.28%

0.18% 0.84% 0.87% 1.70% 0.55%

0.44% 1.68% 3.81% 10.17% 1.94%

Sussex Boro Swedesboro Boro Tabernacle Township Tavistock Boro Teaneck Township

2,145 2,055 7,170 24 39,260

96.32% 76.93% 96.29% 91.67% 56.25%

1.12% 16.50% 2.09% 8.33% 28.78%

0.09% 0.05% 0.10% 0.00% 0.15%

1.21% 0.34% 0.73% 0.00% 7.15%

0.89% 2.82% 0.49% 0.00% 3.51%

0.37% 3.36% 0.31% 0.00% 4.16%

2.56% 8.52% 1.48% 0.00% 10.45%

Tenafly Boro Teterboro Boro Tewksbury Township

13,806 18 5,541

76.79% 83.33% 96.82%

0.96% 0.00% 0.52%

0.09% 0.00% 0.00%

19.10% 0.00% 1.88%

1.67% 16.67% 0.51%

1.40% 0.00% 0.27%

4.65% 0.00% 1.53%

Tinton Falls Boro Totowa Boro Trenton City Tuckerton Boro Union City

15,053 9,892 85,403 3,517 67,088

78.80% 93.40% 32.55% 96.90% 58.38%

13.04% 1.12% 52.06% 0.40% 3.64%

0.24% 0.02% 0.35% 0.28% 0.70%

4.98% 2.26% 1.07% 0.54% 2.23%

1.90% 1.22% 3.20% 1.34% 6.87%

1.04% 1.97% 10.76% 0.54% 28.19%

4.70% 6.37% 21.53% 3.10% 82.32%

Union Beach Boro Union Township, Hunterdon Union Township, Union

6,649 6,160 54,405

94.45% 81.83% 67.66%

0.87% 13.36% 19.76%

0.20% 0.18% 0.15%

1.23% 1.61% 7.75%

1.90% 1.43% 2.24%

1.35% 1.59% 2.44%

8.09% 5.13% 8.93%

Upper Deerfield Township Upper Freehold Township

7,556 4,282

75.77% 94.70%

16.41% 1.05%

0.81% 0.14%

3.07% 1.40%

2.12% 1.87%

1.83% 0.84%

4.54% 3.53%

Upper Pittsgrove Township Upper Saddle River Boro Upper Township

3,468 7,741 12,115

94.84% 91.24% 97.59%

2.16% 0.93% 0.69%

0.52% 0.03% 0.12%

0.32% 6.29% 0.67%

0.87% 0.99% 0.74%

1.30% 0.52% 0.19%

3.14% 2.18% 1.28%

Ventnor City Vernon Township Verona Township

12,910 24,686 13,533

77.10% 96.56% 92.99%

2.94% 0.76% 1.53%

0.19% 0.09% 0.02%

7.48% 0.73% 3.47%

2.93% 1.07% 1.27%

9.37% 0.79% 0.71%

17.14% 3.60% 3.45%

Victory Gardens Boro Vineland City Voorhees Township Waldwick Boro Wall Township Wallington Boro Walpack Township

1,546 56,271 28,126 9,622 25,261 11,583 41

51.36% 67.47% 78.26% 92.68% 97.09% 87.60% 100.00%

21.41% 13.62% 8.00% 0.59% 0.61% 2.67% 0.00%

0.06% 0.54% 0.14% 0.04% 0.10% 0.09% 0.00%

5.43% 1.24% 11.47% 4.52% 1.30% 5.00% 0.00%

6.47% 3.13% 1.59% 0.85% 0.58% 2.31% 0.00%

15.27% 14.01% 0.55% 1.31% 0.32% 2.32% 0.00%

50.65% 30.00% 2.47% 5.31% 1.55% 6.70% 0.00%

Wanaque Boro Wantage Township

10,266 10,387

90.67% 97.10%

1.51% 0.65%

0.34% 0.06%

3.65% 0.68%

1.77% 1.10%

2.06% 0.41%

5.40% 2.89%

Warren Township Washington Boro Washington Township, Bergen

14,259 6,712 8,938

86.28% 91.45% 92.07%

1.26% 3.89% 0.98%

0.04% 0.12% 0.04%

10.72% 1.46% 5.57%

1.28% 1.47% 0.90%

0.41% 1.61% 0.44%

3.19% 4.17% 3.35%

Washington Township, Burlington Washington Township, Gloucester Washington Township, Mercer Washington Township, Morris

621 47,114 10,275 17,592

83.57% 90.20% 91.00% 96.16%

2.90% 4.85% 2.89% 0.83%

0.00% 0.08% 0.14% 0.09%

0.32% 3.32% 4.31% 1.92%

1.13% 1.01% 1.11% 0.65%

12.08% 0.53% 0.55% 0.35%

17.07% 2.03% 2.72% 2.21%

Washington Township, Warren Watchung Boro Waterford Township Wayne Township

6,248 5,613 10,494 54,069

95.98% 84.30% 92.75% 90.05%

1.71% 3.37% 4.18% 1.66%

0.06% 0.09% 0.21% 0.10%

0.94% 9.94% 0.91% 5.69%

0.80% 1.59% 1.29% 1.34%

0.50% 0.71% 0.67% 1.17%

2.16% 2.99% 2.07% 5.09%

Weehawkin Township Wenonah Boro Westhampton Township West Amwell Township West Caldwell Township

13,501 2,317 7,217 2,383 11,233

73.05% 97.54% 70.81% 98.07% 93.84%

3.58% 1.08% 21.27% 0.63% 0.89%

0.20% 0.09% 0.28% 0.08% 0.04%

4.77% 0.65% 3.08% 0.71% 3.88%

4.47% 0.65% 2.74% 0.46% 0.75%

13.94% 0.00% 1.83% 0.04% 0.61%

40.64% 0.73% 6.21% 0.71% 2.80% (continued)

138

Centenary College

New Jersey Population and Ethnicity, U.S. Census 2000 (continued) Town

Total

White

Black

Native American

Asian

Multiracial

West Cape May Boro West Deptford Township Westfield Town

1,095 19,368 29,644

84.11% 92.29% 89.98%

14.52% 5.08% 3.88%

0.37% 0.23% 0.09%

0.00% 1.15% 4.09%

0.46% 0.82% 1.33%

0.55% 0.42% 0.62%

1.83% 1.76% 2.82%

West Long Branch Boro West Milford Township West New York Town West Orange Township

8,258 26,410 45,768 44,943

94.22% 95.08% 60.09% 67.55%

2.23% 1.23% 3.55% 17.46%

0.07% 0.60% 0.67% 0.14%

1.25% 1.03% 2.96% 8.13%

1.73% 1.45% 7.57% 3.20%

0.50% 0.61% 25.16% 3.52%

2.92% 3.38% 78.74% 10.04%

West Paterson Boro Westville Boro West Wildwood Boro West Windsor Township

10,987 4,500 448 21,907

86.53% 93.47% 95.76% 71.53%

3.16% 2.71% 0.00% 2.76%

0.08% 0.13% 0.00% 0.08%

3.87% 1.02% 0.22% 22.77%

3.19% 1.38% 1.79% 1.78%

3.17% 1.29% 2.23% 1.08%

10.06% 2.96% 3.79% 4.07%

Westwood Boro Weymouth Township Wharton Boro White Township Wildwood City

10,999 2,257 6,298 4,196 5,436

86.60% 91.98% 82.09% 97.47% 70.55%

5.72% 4.79% 4.40% 1.22% 16.65%

0.14% 0.40% 0.44% 0.19% 0.39%

4.40% 0.80% 3.14% 0.67% 0.63%

1.47% 1.02% 2.72% 0.12% 2.94%

1.67% 1.02% 7.21% 0.33% 8.85%

6.00% 3.81% 23.21% 2.14% 17.62%

Wildwood Crest Boro Willingboro Township Winfield Township

3,980 33,008 1,514

94.87% 24.67% 96.96%

1.23% 66.71% 0.33%

0.10% 0.30% 0.20%

0.48% 1.74% 0.20%

1.11% 3.95% 1.65%

2.21% 2.62% 0.66%

4.22% 6.05% 2.44%

Winslow Township Woodbine Boro Woodbridge Township Woodbury City Woodbury Heights Boro

34,611 2,716 97,203 10,307 2,988

65.50% 53.39% 70.83% 72.45% 96.35%

29.34% 32.40% 8.75% 22.83% 1.54%

0.30% 0.22% 0.17% 0.22% 0.27%

1.33% 0.11% 14.48% 1.13% 1.00%

1.96% 2.87% 2.46% 2.10% 0.37%

1.58% 11.01% 3.30% 1.28% 0.47%

4.31% 21.24% 9.21% 3.94% 1.24%

Woodcliff Lake Boro Woodland Township Woodlynne Boro

5,745 1,170 2,796

93.84% 98.03% 48.43%

0.87% 0.60% 22.71%

0.03% 0.09% 0.57%

4.47% 0.34% 12.27%

0.59% 0.77% 4.43%

0.19% 0.17% 11.59%

2.33% 1.20% 20.60%

Wood-Ridge Boro Woodstown Boro

7,644 3,136

91.01% 85.04%

0.84% 12.91%

0.08% 0.19%

5.04% 0.73%

1.27% 0.86%

1.77% 0.26%

7.27% 1.56%

3,032 748 16,508

91.13% 49.87% 94.54%

4.55% 30.21% 0.47%

0.00% 0.53% 0.15%

1.12% 7.22% 3.71%

1.25% 4.95% 0.68%

1.95% 7.22% 0.45%

3.89% 11.23% 2.28%

8,414,350

72.55%

13.57%

0.23%

5.75%

2.53%

5.36%

13.27%

Woolwich Township Wrightstown Boro Wyckoff Township state total

Centenary

College. Founded by the Newark Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Centenary College in Hackettstown was the first institution of higher education in New Jersey to grant degrees to women. An  charter issued by the New Jersey legislature established Centenary Collegiate Institute, a coeducational preparatory school. The college was named in commemoration of the anniversary of the first century of Methodism in America. In  the coed preparatory school was discontinued in favor of a select preparatory school for women. Later, junior college courses were offered, and Centenary Junior College was formed in . Centenary College for Women, a four-year institution granting bachelor’s and associate’s degrees, was established in . In the fall of , men were again admitted to Centenary as full-time students. In  the college introduced its first graduate degree program. The forty-two-acre campus is highlighted by the historic gold-domed Edward W. Seay Administration Building, completed in  after a devastating fire destroyed the original structure in . Eight miles from campus, on Schooley’s Mountain, is the college’s sixty-five-acre equestrian center, where students study the care, management, and riding

of horses. The college also has an FM radio station, WNTI, which can be heard in three states. Custard, Leila R. Through Golden Years, –: A History of Centenary, Published for the Seventy-fifth Anniversary. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

See also higher education

Raymond Frey

Center for Turfgrass Science.

The Center for Turfgrass Science was established in  to generate and disseminate knowledge, and to provide training and education in the turfgrass sciences by fostering research, undergraduate, graduate, and continuing professional education, and service programs in support of the turfgrass industry. It consists of twenty-five faculty members, who are based in several academic units throughout Rutgers University and share a common interest in turfgrass biology, culture, and management. The principal focuses of the center’s programs are germplasm enhancement and turfgrass management. See also Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

Chartered in , the Central Railroad of New

Hispanic

Jersey spanned the northern part of the state from Elizabeth to Phillipsburg, with the aim of moving Pennsylvania anthracite to market. In the s, the CNJ embarked on a program of expansion. Newark Bay was bridged to reach Jersey City, where an extensive waterfront terminal was built. Seashore resorts were reached by a part ownership of the New York and Long Branch; the New Jersey Southern extended to Delaware Bay; a branch tapped the iron mines of Long Valley; and a lease of the Lehigh and Susquehanna gave direct access to the Pennsylvania coalfields. A connection with the Reading at Bound Brook made the CNJ part of a through route from Philadelphia, Baltimore,

CENTRAL RAILROAD OF NEW JERSEY

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HIGH BRIDGE ELIZABETH

Bruce Clarke

Central Railroad of New Jersey.

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Edward Lamson Henry, The : Accommodation, Stratford, Connecticut, . Oil on canvas,  ×  / in. This painting depicts a Central Railroad of New Jersey station just before the departure of a train.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Bequest of Moses Tanenbaum, 1937 (39.47.1). Photo copyright Metropolitan Museum of Art. and Washington. For most of its life, the CNJ was tied closely to the Reading, which leased it twice and after  controlled it through stock ownership. With a route mileage of , the CNJ experienced brief periods of prosperity and several bankruptcies. By the s, decline was underway, caused by the Depression, the decrease in coal consumption, short hauls, costly commuter service, excessive taxes, and high terminal costs. Passenger trains were curtailed, the Jersey City terminal closed, and the Pennsylvania trackage was abandoned. In  the CNJ was absorbed into the new Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). Anderson, Elaine. The Central Railroad of New Jersey’s First Hundred Years, –: A Historical Survey. Easton, PA: Center for Canal History and Technology, . Baer, Christopher T., William J. Coxey, and Paul W. Schopp. The Trail of the Blue Comet: A History of the Jersey Central’s New Jersey Division. Palmyra: West Jersey Chapter, National Railway Historical Society, . Rosenbaum, Joel, and Tom Gallo. Iron Horses across the Garden State. Piscataway: Railpace Company, .

See also railroads; transportation

James N. J. Henwood

ceramic art.

Ceramic art was not of concern to New Jersey’s earliest potters, who were interested in providing the basic necessities for their communities. Utilitarian ware was a niche in the local market that New Jersey potters could easily fill. Thus, New Jersey’s potters tended to make red earthenware dishes, bowls, milk pans, and the like, as well as stoneware jugs and jars. Some of the early wares made by the American Pottery Manu-

facturing Company, however, are remarkably artful. The large Toby jugs and pitchers with relief decoration are collected today as art, though the potters who made them would not have thought of their own work in that way. The first ceramics made as art in New Jersey were produced in Trenton’s industrial potteries. William Bloor, an English potter who worked in both Trenton and East Liverpool, Ohio, introduced the methods for making parian porcelain to Trenton about . Intended to mimic the marble taken from Paros in Greece, parian porcelain has a glowing translucency. This type of ceramic body was first developed in the English potteries during the early s and was made only in England and the United States. In Trenton, Bloor made small portrait busts of important contemporary persons, such as Ulysses Grant. Bloor was among the first partners of the firm that became Ott and Brewer. The potters working with him learned the formula for the body and continued to make it after he left Trenton in . In , Ott and Brewer hired sculptor Isaac Broome to develop and model several monumental works for the company’s display at the Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia in . Broome created the famous Baseball Vase, bust of Cleopatra, Fashion Vase, Pastoral Vase, and others. Jennie Young, a ceramics historian and contemporary critic, remarked in her volume Ceramic Art () that she had discovered the “first glimmerings of what may be called an art, in the studio of Mr. Isaac Broome.’’ Two copies of the Baseball Vase flanked Ott and Brewer’s display at the Centennial Exhibit in Philadelphia, but shortly

after the fair opened, one was removed to the Art Building for the sculpture display. Thus, Broome’s Baseball Vase for Ott and Brewer became the first American clay object to be officially classified as art. After the Centennial Exhibit, Broome was appointed a special commissioner to the Paris Exposition of . His Cleopatra won a medal in Paris as it had in Philadelphia two years earlier. Not content with the Philadelphia honors, John Hart Brewer, a principal of Ott and Brewer, looked for something new. In Ireland, the pottery at Belleek was making a fine ivorycolored porcelain with a pearly glaze. Like parian, this Belleek ware was also used for statuary as well as other ornamental forms, such as tea sets, baskets, vases, and the like. Efforts to make a similar body at Ott and Brewer failed repeatedly. After Walter Scott Lenox joined the staff in the fall of , trials began anew. In , Lenox and Brewer finally sent for the workers at the Belleek pottery who had perfected the ware with Irish materials. William Bromley, Sr., and several assistants arrived in Trenton and produced the desired results in short order. The decorating department at Ott and Brewer was reorganized the following year to accommodate the influx of artists needed to make and decorate the new American Belleek. The very earliest items made followed closely the Irish original, and examples preserved at the New Jersey State Museum from Brewer’s own collection are indistinguishable from Irish work. Lenox quickly changed this, however. Retaining the eggshellthin, ivory-colored body, he had it decorated in a very different style, using the highly

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ornamental manner characteristic of porcelain made at England’s Minton factory. Thus, Lenox married the Irish body with surface decoration reminiscent of the English Aesthetic movement to create a completely new art product in America. The Willets brothers who owned and operated the nearby Willets Manufacturing Company no doubt envied the press attention lavished on Lenox’s triumph for Ott and Brewer. By January , Lenox was working for Willets as the head of the design department. And by , Lenox and Jonathan Coxon, a practical potter in charge of production at Willets, had been able to duplicate the success at Ott and Brewer. The ornamental Belleek wares made at Ott and Brewer and Willets were exquisite, dainty, jeweled, and precious, but Lenox did not consider them art. As a boy in Trenton, he had vowed to become an artist. The arrival of Broome in , however, showed him the value of applying art to industry. In , disillusioned with the progress toward art at Willets, Lenox resigned. He took what little money he had saved and pooled it with Coxon’s cash and investments from two of Trenton’s many venture capitalists, Joseph Rice and William Hancock. Lenox was intent to prove that a pottery could survive with art as its only product. At Ott and Brewer and Willets, the Belleek studios existed within large industrial potteries that made white ironstone tableware and sanitary products (wash sets) for the burgeoning American market. These common wares supported the art effort at the two earlier potteries. The Ceramic Art Company, founded in , did not make common goods. At the Ceramic Art Company (Lenox China), Lenox continued to employ the expert gilders and enamelers who had worked for him previously. In addition, he hired European decorators to paint choice flowers, landscapes, and idealized female heads on the large vases and special service plates made to order. The same Belleek body used earlier was now completely covered with delicate painting, extravagant gold tracery, and brilliant enamel colors. The Ceramic Art Company prospered and Lenox was proved correct. Denker, Ellen Paul. Lenox China: Celebrating a Century of Quality, –. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum and Lenox China, . Frelinghuysen, Alice C. American Porcelain, – . New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, .

Ellen Paul Denker

ceramic tile.

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, decorative ceramic tiles were extremely popular. Tiles were used on walls, floors, and exteriors of homes, shops, churches, and public buildings; they were also used on fireplaces, stoves, furniture, hot plates, flowerpots, and were even displayed as pictures. Their widespread use was made possible by mass production

Molded ceramic portrait tile of a boy. Trent Tile Company, Trenton, c. . Translucent colored glaze,  ×  in.

Courtesy Michael A. Zaccaria. manufacturing techniques developed in the mid-nineteenth century in England, where the industry was centered in Staffordshire. Between the s and  over fifty tile manufacturers were established in the United States, with New Jersey and Ohio as the major centers. Of the sixteen in New Jersey, five were in Trenton and nine in the Perth Amboy– Matawan–Old Bridge area. As its ceramic production increased, Trenton became known as the Staffordshire of America. The Trent Tile Company (–) and the Providential Tile Works (–) of Trenton were the largest New Jersey tile manufacturers. Although Providential did not become as large as Trent, it was recognized for its high-quality tiles. Its years in business coincided with the period of the greatest popularity of decorative ceramic tiles. By  simpler tastes were taking hold, and the fashion for decorative ceramic tiles declined. Karlson, Norman. American Art Tile, –. New York: Rizzoli, .

See also ceramics industry

Michael A. Zaccaria

ceramics industry.

The ceramics industry in New Jersey is among the most significant in the United States because of its diversity and longevity. From the daintiest teacup

to the sturdiest toilet, New Jersey’s ceramics industry has contributed substantially to the state’s economy during the past three hundred years and continues today to lead the nation in the manufacture of tableware and fine porcelain figurines. This enviable position is only partly based on the state’s clay resources. Although there are substantial clay deposits in the northeastern quadrant of the state, these deposits have supplied clay for only a small number of the industry’s products—in particular, utilitarian stoneware vessels and industrial products such as crucibles. Most of the finer clays required for whiteware and porcelain have been imported from other U.S. locations and abroad. The success of New Jersey’s clay industries was primarily based on geographic location and the availability of capital. Located between the two largest urban markets on the East Coast, New Jersey’s potters could attract financial investment with relative ease. As a consequence, potteries in New Jersey were among the earliest to be organized on industrial models. Although from colonial times New Jersey could boast a number of small traditional potteries making red earthenware and stoneware vessels for homes and dairies, many of its potteries were comparatively large. They employed division of labor and

ceramics industry

Kiln setters at Lenox carry saggers to the kiln for placement prior to firing, Trenton, c. .

Courtesy Lenox Brands Archives, Lawrenceville. efficient methods of handling of raw and finished materials. For example, during the early s, when most American potteries employed one to six people, the American Pottery Manufacturing Company in Jersey City had nearly ninety workers. The earliest documented operation in the colony was Daniel Coxe’s delftware pottery in Burlington, chartered in  to make “white and painted earthenware and pottery vessels.’’ Coxe, a West Jersey proprietor, hired John DeWilde, a London potter, to make the ware, but the pottery closed in , and no unquestionable examples of its products survive. Red earthenware vessels, including sturdy plates, milk pans, and jugs made of local clays, were produced throughout New Jersey from the earliest European occupation to fill common household and dairy needs. Sites of significant production include Elizabeth, Rahway, Hackensack, and Trenton. During the early s the potteries of John Mann in Rahway and Edward Griffith in Elizabeth were particularly important. They specialized in making black- and red-glazed teapots by pressing clay into molds. In Trenton, Joseph McCully and his nephew, also Joseph McCully, operated a redware pottery from the late eighteenth century until . Stoneware clays found in significant deposits in and around the Amboys have been exploited since the mid-s. James Morgan, Sr., mined clay and operated a stoneware pottery in Cheesequake beginning about . Several other stoneware potteries clustered in this area during the first half of the nineteenth century: Thomas Warne and Joshua Letts at Cheesequake; Jacob Van Wickle, James Morgan, Jr., and Branch Green on one bank of the South River and Evert Bissett on the opposite bank at Old Bridge; several generations of the Pruden family at Elizabeth; Van Schoik and Dunn (later Dunn, Dunlop, and Company)

at Middletown Point (now Matawan); Jacob Eaton and Samuel Stout at Washington (now South River); and Xerxes Price at South Amboy, to name a few. Most of these potteries employed several skilled workers year-round and distributed their ware at a distance by wagon and boat. Beyond this region, stoneware potteries at Ringoes, Trenton, Flemington, and Haddonfield were also important in New Jersey’s clay history. At Ringoes, two generations of the Kemple family made redware and stoneware from  to . Although documents of the period describe John Peter Kemple and his son, Phillip, as yeomen, their probate inventories list not only grains, livestock, and farm equipment but also pottery equipment. At Trenton, a wealthy merchant and entrepreneur named William Richards operated a pottery making stoneware vessels and earthenware sugar molds from  to . At Flemington, Abraham Fulper worked in the stoneware pottery of Samuel Hill and took it over in . The Fulper family continued to make stoneware containers until about . At Haddonfield, the Wingender brothers arrived from Germany in the late nineteenth century and made stoneware in traditional Germanic style into the s. Stoneware clays were also used in the manufacture of brown-glazed and rockinghamglazed vessels, especially pitchers. These were produced in Jersey City, Woodbridge, Swan Hill, Matawan, and Trenton. The earliest of these potteries was established in  by two brothers, David and James Henderson. They employed skilled English potters to design, model, and produce elaborate pitchers with hunt scenes and other decor. In  the operation was reorganized as the American Pottery Manufacturing Company. Several other potteries of interest made press-molded brownglazed and/or rockingham-glazed ware. They

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included the Salamander Works of Michel Lefoulon and Henry DeCasse at Woodbridge; the Swan Hill Pottery, operated by Charles Fish and worked by several different potters; the works of John L. Rue, a Swan Hill potter who later moved to Matawan; and potteries operated at Trenton by James Taylor and Henry Speeler (beginning ) and William Young (beginning ). These latter two potteries pioneered the development of industrial ceramics at Trenton. In addition to making common rockingham and yellow wares for kitchen use, they produced a type of whiteware commonly referred to as ironstone. They were also the first potteries in Trenton to use coal as a fuel. Most of this coal came from the great coalfields at Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, via the Pennsylvania Canal and the Delaware and Raritan Canal. Thanks to the success of these two industrial potteries, the city attracted other entrepreneurs, who established many more whiteware potteries. With canals to bring in fuel and heavy clays, and railroads to export finished ware, the pottery industry burgeoned at Trenton. More than two hundred potteries had been established by , and most employed between seventy-five and three hundred workers. Among the most significant were Glasgow Pottery, Greenwood Pottery, Trenton China Company, Etruria Pottery, New Jersey Pottery Company, Mercer Pottery Company, Cook Pottery Company, American Crockery Company, Willets Manufacturing Company, and Millington, Astbury, and Poulson. All made standard tableware and sanitary ware. Before  few homes had plumbing, and people still depended on washbasins, ewers, and chamber pots for their personal hygiene. Thomas Maddock, who first worked as a salesman for Millington, Astbury, and Poulson, pushed the company toward the production of toilets in the early s. Sinks and bathtubs followed. In , Thomas Maddock & Sons Company built a large factory in Hamilton Township. It was sold to American Standard in , which continued to operate it until . In addition to founding his own lucrative sanitary pottery, Maddock also set in motion the development of a vast sanitary industry in Trenton. Denker, Ellen Paul, and Bert R. Denker. “The Staffordshire of America.’’ In A Capital Place: The Story of Trenton, ed. M. A. Quigley and D. E. Collier. Woodland Hills, CA: Windsor Publications, . Stern, Marc Jeffrey. The Pottery Industry of Trenton: A Skilled Trade in Transition, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also sanitary ware industry

Ellen Paul Denker Ceramics Companies in New Jersey Abial Price, Middletown Point (now Matawan), c. – American Pottery Manufacturing Company, Jersey City, –c. 

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CERAMICS INDUSTRY

Hackensack

Newark Pohatcong Flemington

Elizabeth Rahway Woodbridge Perth Amboy

Jersey City

South Amboy

South River

Ringoes

Matawan Old Bridge Lawrenceville Cheesequake Trenton Hamilton Herbertsville Burlington

Haddonfield

Bridgeton

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10 miles

© Rutgers, The State University

Boehm Porcelain Studio, Trenton, – present Ceramic Art Company (later Lenox China), Trenton, – City Pottery (Rhodes and Yates), Trenton, – Columbian Art Pottery (Morris and Willmore), Trenton, – Congress Pottery, South Amboy, –c.  Coxe-DeWilde Pottery, Burlington, – 

Crescent Pottery Company (Cook and Hancock), Trenton, – Cybis Porcelains, Trenton, –present D. and J. Henderson, Jersey City, – Dunn, Dunlap, and Company, Matawan, –  East Lake Pottery, Bridgeton, c. –c.  Eaton and Stout, Washington (now South River), – Etruria Pottery Works (various partnerships), Trenton, –

Excelsior Pottery (William Young and Company, William Young’s Sons), Trenton, –  Fulper Pottery Company, Flemington, –  George Wolfkiel (also Wolfkill), Barbadoes Neck (now Hackensack), – Glasgow Pottery (John Moses), Trenton, –c.  Greenwood Pottery Company, Trenton, –  Hall and Sons, Perth Amboy, –s? Henry Speeler’s Pottery, Henry Speeler and Sons, Trenton, – Hill Pottery, Flemington, – Humiston Pottery (with several partners), South Amboy, c. –c.  International Pottery Company (Burgess and Campbell), Trenton, –s James Morgan and Company, South River Bridge (now Old Bridge), – James Morgan, Sr., Cheesequake (now Old Bridge), – Jersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company, Jersey City, – J. L. Rue Pottery Company, Matawan, –  J. M. Pruden, Jr., Elizabeth, – John Mann, Rahway, c. – Joshua Letts, Cheesequake (now Old Bridge), – Kempell (or Kemple) Pottery, Ringoes, c. –  Lamberton China (Maddock Pottery Company), Trenton, – Lenox China, Trenton and Lawrenceville, –present McCully Pottery, Trenton, – Mercer Pottery, Trenton, – Millington, Astbury, and Poulson, Trenton, – Nicholas Van Wickle, Herbertsville (now Brick Township), – Noah Furman, South Amboy, – Ott and Brewer, Trenton, – Perlee, Inc., Trenton, – Peter Peregrine Sanford, Barbadoes Neck (now Hackensack), c.  Phillip Durell, Elizabeth, –c.  Rahway Pottery, Rahway, c. – Salamander Works, Woodbridge, – Scammell China Company (Lamberton China), Trenton, – Seigle Pottery, Seigletown (now Pohatcong), – Speeler, Taylor, and Bloor, Trenton, – Stangl Pottery Company, Trenton, – Stephens, Tams, and Company (later Greenwood Pottery Company), Trenton, – Swan Hill Pottery, South Amboy, –s Taylor and Speeler, Trenton, – Thomas Maddock & Sons Company, Hamilton, – Thomas Warne, Cheesequake (now Old Bridge), c. – Trenton China Company, Trenton, –

charcoal making Trenton Potteries Company, Trenton, –  Trenton Pottery Company (various partnerships), Trenton, – Union Pottery (Haidle and Company, Haidle and Zipf), Newark, –c.  Van Schoick and Dunn, Matawan, – Warne and Letts, Cheesequake (now Old Bridge), – Willets Manufacturing Company, Trenton, – William Richards, Trenton, –? Wingender Pottery, Haddonfield, – Xerxes Price, South Amboy, –?

Ellen Paul Denker

Chamber of Commerce.

The New Jersey Chamber of Commerce was founded in  to represent members’ interests on legislative issues at the grassroots level across the state, in the State House in Trenton, and in the U.S. Congress. The membership has grown to about two thousand, including  local chambers and affiliated industry organizations. Since , the chamber has organized an annual train trip to Washington to attend dinner with the New Jersey congressional delegation. This event serves as a networking opportunity for New Jersey businesspeople from enterprises ranging in size from family-owned small businesses to Fortune  companies. Other highlights on the chamber’s calendar are a Legislative Awards Reception and an array of seminars. In addition to the educational offerings directed at members through its publications and Web site, the chamber has embarked on an outreach project to educators with the goal of ensuring a continuing stream of quality workers to fill New Jersey’s jobs.

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In , he married Jane M. Emott, with whom he had six children. A year later, Chandler went to England and was ordained a minister. From  to  he served as the rector of Saint John’s, Elizabethtown. A staunch Loyalist, Chandler wrote several important pamphlets, including “A Friendly Address to All Reasonable Americans’’ () and “What Think Ye of Congress Now?’’ (). He advocated for the establishment of an American bishopric, defended the actions of the Crown, and attacked the Patriot cause as misguided and unlawful. In April , Chandler left Elizabethtown and fled to England. After the American Revolution, he returned to his family and parish in Elizabethtown, where he lived out the rest of his life in quiet semiretirement. Brown, Wallace. The King’s Friends: The Composition and Motives of the American Loyalist Claimants. Providence: Brown University Press, . Palmer, Gregory. Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution. Westport, CT: Meckler, . Ryan, Dennis P. New Jersey’s Loyalists. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Phillip Papas

Chapman, Cyrus Durand

(b. Sept.

, ; Apr. , ). Painter, illustrator, pho-

tographer, and architect. Born in Irvington, Cyrus Chapman was tutored by his father, the Rev. John L. Chapman. His art career began in  and developed in Paris, where

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he studied with Benjamin Constant. In , Chapman opened a studio in Newark, where he painted The Wedding Bonnet. It drew media attention and cinched his career as a genre painter of charming scenes showing typical people. Chapman married Caroline A. F. Holbrook in . They had one son. The Chapmans moved to Washington, D.C., in . He died while visiting friends in Irvington. Gerdts, William H. Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Siegel, Alan A. Out of Our Past: A History of Irvington, New Jersey. Irvington: Irvington Centennial Committee, .

See also art

Lorraine Ash

charcoal making. Charcoal is produced through a controlled burning process that converts wood into a cleaner- and hotterburning almost pure carbon fuel. Discovered some , years ago, charcoal is an allpurpose fuel and an essential ingredient in the smelting of bronze and iron ore. It is also used to forge the resultant metals into tools and weapons. Large-scale charcoal production in New Jersey was intertwined with local iron production. Early New Jersey furnaces fired a mixture of charcoal, oyster- or clamshell flux, and iron ore. The intense heat of burning charcoal, fanned by “cold blast’’ air infusions, burned out impurities and produced molten iron.

Maureen Dillon

chancellor and vice-chancellor. From the colonial era until the  constitution, the chancellor was New Jersey’s highest judicial officer. Prior to the state’s  constitution, the governor was also the chancellor. The chancellor alone was the court of chancery and presided over the court of errors and appeals. The chancellor also appointed court officials, including vice-chancellors, who heard chancery cases. The positions of chancellor and vice-chancellor were abolished by the  constitution; their responsibilities were transferred to other divisions of the judicial system. Wolfman, S., ed. Chancery Procedure in New Jersey. Newark: Associated Lawyers Publishing, .

See also law

Martin L. Haines

Chandler,

Thomas

Bradbury

(b. Apr. , ; d. June , ). Clergyman and

writer. A native of Woodstock, Connecticut, Thomas Chandler graduated from Yale () and then moved to Elizabethtown, New Jersey, where he became a catechist for the Anglican

Cyrus Durand Chapman, The Wedding Bonnet, c. –. Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Mrs. Eleanor Ballantyne, 1979, 79.3. Photo: Armen, Feb. 1979.

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charter schools

Iron furnaces were usually located in rural areas, with forest land attached as a source of charcoal. Beginning with Shrewsbury in , iron furnaces were scattered across New Jersey by the early nineteenth century. As a rule, northern furnaces processed conventionally mined ore and southern ones processed bog ore raised from Pineland rivers and swamps. During the coaling season, colliers and their assistants lived in the forest in temporary huts, tending the charcoal pits. Charcoal was made by creating a level, circular area and erecting a domed structure of wood layered around a central wooden chimney, then turfing the woodpile with sod and leaves or sand to make it relatively airtight. A fire was ignited at the base of the chimney; smaller holes poked around the circumference of the pit controlled airflow to adjust the burning rate, determined by the color of the smoke escaping from the top. A slow rate was necessary to produce proper carbonization, and pits smoldered for eight to ten days. When the process was complete, the pit was broken down and the charcoal raked out and loaded in firebox wagons for transportation to a storage area. In the mid-s the Pinelands bog iron business entered a rapid decline, disappearing within a decade. Although some northern New Jersey furnaces remained active, the center of the iron and steel industry moved west to areas with greater supplies of iron ore, anthracite coal, and coke. A local secondary market for charcoal persisted, however. It was preferred for certain types of iron production and blacksmithing, domestic and restaurant fuel, artists’ drawing material, and in ground form as a filter for whiskey distillers, among other uses. Charcoal making remained a viable business in New Jersey in the late nineteenth century, with the product shipped from Landisville to Philadelphia and Toms River to New York in the s. Charcoal grinding mills were still in business at Cross Keys and Berlin into the s, with one noted at East Clementon as late as . Although coaling survived longer in the Pinelands than it did in the north of the state, John Nicoletti of Andover was still making charcoal in the early s. The last known attempt at commercial charcoal making in northern New Jersey was a  state-sponsored effort to find a profitable disposal method for Dutch elm–diseased trees. A charcoal maker from Ocean County was hired to supervise the experiment, which took place at Great Piece Meadows in Essex County. Although satisfactory charcoal was produced, cost exceeded potential sale price and the program was abandoned. Still, there was at least one traditional collier active in Whiting in the early s, and a company in Mays Landing was making charcoal in brick kilns during the same period. One account notes that artisanal production continued into the s in Ocean County.

Moonsammy, Rita Zorn, David Steven Cohen, and Lorraine E. Williams, eds. Pinelands Folklife. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Joseph G. Bilby

charter schools. Charter schools are hybrids of public and private schools. They are similar to public schools in that they are open to all students and funded from the public funds raised and/or allocated to the district where the school is located. Charter schools are similar to private schools in that they are independent and self-governing. A New Jersey charter school is established through a contract that must comply with rigorous statutory procedures and administrative regulations. Pursuant to the provisions of the Charter School Program Act of , charter schools are accountable to the state commissioner of education, who is responsible for approving and granting charters based on clearly defined objectives. Charter schools may be established by members of the teaching staff, parents with children attending the schools of the district, or a combination of both. A charter school may also be established by an in-state institution of higher education or a private entity in conjunction with teachers and parents of children attending the district schools. The Charter School Program Act also permits an existing public school to become a charter school if at least  percent of the teaching staff and at least  percent of the parents or guardians of pupils attending the school have signed a petition in support of the school becoming a charter school. Common characteristics of charter schools in New Jersey are independence, accountability, innovation, and size. Charter schools are independently governed by the trustees of a nonprofit corporation. Their charters are based on clearly defined objectives, and if students at a school do not perform up to an agreed-upon level, the school can be shut down. Charter schools involve many innovative practices, including individual learning plans for each student and high levels of parental and community involvement. The Charter School Program Act places a cap on enrollment at any one school, that being the lesser of five hundred students or  percent of the school district’s total student body. The court was compelled to address the establishment of charter schools when three local boards of education brought an action challenging the state board of education’s grants of charters to newly created schools within their respective school districts. The local boards asked the court to declare the Charter School Program Act unconstitutional because it violated principles of equal protection and due process, contravened the prohibition against the donation of public funds for private purposes, and constituted an improper delegation of legislative power to a private body. The court rejected the boards’ challenge.

In October  the commissioner of education issued the Charter School Evaluation Report. The report found that students in charter schools were outperforming their comparable districts of residence in some areas of statewide assessment. They also had smaller class size, lower student-faculty ratios, longer school days and academic years, and more instructional time than their districts. Additionally, the study noted that parental and student demand for and satisfaction with charter schools were extremely high. In , approximately , students were attending  charter schools, and more than , students were on waiting lists. In , thirty-seven states and the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico allowed for the founding of charter schools. Although legislation differs in each state, most states allow charter schools to be established by public, private, or civic organizations. Finn, C. E., B. V. Manno, and G. Vanourek. Charter Schools in Action: Renewing Public Education. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also education; “thorough and efficient’’ clause

Peter F. Bariso, Jr.

Chase, Harry

(b. ; d. ). Marine painter. Harry Chase was born in Woodstock, Vermont. He studied art abroad, most notably in France and Holland, and became one of the American proponents of the Hague school of Dutch impressionism. When he returned from Europe he moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, and then to New York City, where he opened a studio. One of the early residents in the art colony in Nutley, Chase lived there for several years. His principal works, such as The Harbor of New York, are widely collected. He died in Suwanee, Tennessee.

Blasdale, Mary Jean. Artists of New Bedford: A Biographical Dictionary. New Bedford, MA: Old Dartmouth Historical Society—New Bedford Whaling Museum, . Gerdts, William H. Jr. Art across America: Two Centuries of Regional Painting –. New York: Abbeville Press, . ———. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Opitz, Glenn B., ed. Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, .

See also art

Lorraine Ash

Chatham Borough.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. The borough began as Day’s Bridge, named for the span that an early settler, John Day, built across the Passaic River sometime before . Residents of the town announced in November  through advertisements that they had changed the name to Chatham, honoring William Pitt, earl of Chatham. Pitt had been friendly to American interests as the American Revolution approached. When a new township surrounding Chatham Village was established in ,

chemical industry it took the name of its most important center. As the gateway to Morris County, in case of attack from the British stationed in New York, Chatham became an important Revolutionary War outpost. The strategic location also made it a logical place for a turnpike and railroad transportation junction in the early nineteenth century. The Morris Turnpike was built in  and the Morris and Essex Railroad was built in . Several mills along the Passaic River generated income, and after the Civil War a number of hotels were built for summer tourists. The community broke away from Chatham Township in  and became a borough in . The new borough was essentially a commuters’ haven after . Many prominent Newark and New York City executives built houses in Chatham because of the convenient railroad transportation. Today, Main Street is lined with small shops that have persevered despite major competition from nearby malls. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cunningham, John T. Chatham: At the Crossing of the Fiahawack. Chatham: Chatham Historical Society, . Vanderpoel, Ambrose Ely. History of Chatham, New Jersey. New York: Charles Francis Press, .

John T. Cunningham

Chatham Township.

.-square-mile township in the southeastern area of Morris County. Chatham is only about one-third the size it was when it was first established in . It was named Chatham to honor William Pitt, earl of Chatham. When the Morris Turnpike () and the Morris and Essex Railroad () adopted routes through Madison and Chatham villages to the north, the southern portion (the township) lapsed into a period of slow growth. The township lost about three-fourths of its land between  and  when Chatham, Madison, and Florham Park seceded to become independent boroughs. Far from major means of transportation, the township became a prime area of rose-growing greenhouses during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. From the early s until after World War II, the township was home to the renowned training camp for prizefighters run by Madame Bey, wife of an Armenian Turkish diplomat. Neither roses nor prizefighters ennobled Chatham Township: roses were linked to Madison, the point of shipment, and sports reporters placed boxers in Chatham Borough. In the s, the township became the center of a bitter, nationally publicized ecological fight to prevent the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey from building a jetport in the Great Swamp on the township’s western border. As a result, the swamp area became a protected National Wildlife Refuge.

The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cunningham, John T. Chatham: At the Crossing of the Fiahawack. Chatham: Chatham Historical Society, . Vanderpoel, Ambrose Ely. History of Chatham, New Jersey. New York: Charles Francis Press, .

John T. Cunningham

Chatsworth.

See Woodland.

chemical industry. New Jersey’s chemical industry is a major contributor to the economic well-being of the state and the nation as a whole. In , the latest year for which relevant statistics are available from the U.S. Census Bureau, the chemical industry in New Jersey numbered  firms, which employed nearly , people (. percent of total manufacturing jobs in New Jersey) and recorded a manufacturing output valued at more than $ billion (nearly  percent of the state’s total manufacturing output). New Jersey ranked number two in the United States in the value of chemical manufacturing output, after Texas. Among the seven key chemical product categories listed by the Census Bureau, pharmaceuticals was by far the largest, with a  product value totaling $. billion, or nearly  percent of total chemical manufacturing in the state, and employment of nearly ,, or  percent of chemical industry employment in New Jersey. Soap and cleaning products ranked second, with products valued at $. billion ( percent) and nearly , employees ( percent); and basic chemical manufacturing products (which include industrial gases, dyes and pigments, and “all other’’) ranked third, with a  output valued at $. billion ( percent) and approximately , employees ( percent). The remaining broad product categories cover paints, coatings, and adhesives, with output valued at $. billion; resins, synthetic rubber, and fibers totaling $. billion; and a catchall “other’’ group, with product output valued at $. billion. At the very bottom of this list now is the category “pesticides and agricultural products,’’ valued at a still-impressive $. billion in output, but with only  employees, a revealing indicator of the diminished importance of the agricultural economy in New Jersey relative to other manufacturing sectors. The chemical industry has deep roots in the state of New Jersey, extending back to the first half of the nineteenth century. The pre– Civil War manufacture of chemical fertilizers was one of the earliest such endeavors in the state, and reflected the importance and needs of the agrarian economy that prevailed during that early period. The next major boost to the chemical industry in New Jersey was associated with the introduction and growth of petroleum refining plants in the state in the

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s. These refineries were heavy consumers of sulfuric acid, and that need spurred the development of local producers that could supply the acid cheaply and with low transportation costs. At the same time petroleum refining by-products were gradually finding uses as starting materials for other chemical products. By the end of the s New Jersey was home to a variety of chemical plants serving a spectrum of industries that included agricultural materials, ceramic products, cosmetics, dyes, explosives, food processing, paint, pharmaceuticals, and others. World War I served as the watershed event that catapulted New Jersey into preeminence as a manufacturer of chemical products: the wartime interruption of normal supply channels from established European chemical producers spurred local entrepreneurs to fill the gap, especially for products that were most closely associated with the war effort, such as textile dyes, explosives, and pharmaceuticals. Most important, the New Jersey chemical industry surmounted the competitive challenges posed by the post–World War I recovery of the European producers and, later, the economic contraction experienced during the Great Depression of the s, and continued on a growth path that made the state the second-largest producer of chemical products in the nation by . Some of the factors that favored the development of the chemical industry in New Jersey included its proximity to major markets, a skilled labor force, an excellent transportation system (road, rail, and water transport), and an abundant water supply. Massive capital investment is a defining characteristic of the chemical industry: economies of scale encourage and reward the construction of the largest manufacturing plants that can be market-justified in terms of product demand, and the related capital expenditures ripple through the state’s economy to bestow the added benefit of job creation in many diverse areas. In , such capital investment totaled over $ billion, or nearly one-third of all manufacturing capital investment in New Jersey that year, and these expenditures helped fund a host of construction, equipment, distribution, and other service businesses in the state. As the chemical industry in New Jersey has matured, it has come to be dominated by ever-larger operations and facilities. Of the  New Jersey companies identified as chemical manufacturing firms in , , or  percent, had fewer than twenty employees. Using yet another set of criteria, Dunn and Bradstreet’s Million Dollar Database listed only  New Jersey chemical manufacturing companies that had sales greater than $ million per year or more than  employees. These firms were responsible for the major share of the state’s $ billion chemical manufacturing output. The size and nature of chemical industry operations in a state as small and as densely

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Cherry Hill

populated as New Jersey has also resulted in pollution problems. In the early years of the industry, little consideration was given to the effects of air pollution or the routine disposal of unwanted by-products or even toxic wastes on local land sites, waterways, or the nearby ocean. However, with the advent of the Environmental Protection Agency and the imposition of strict air- and water-quality standards, the chemical industry has made notable progress in mitigating the volume of potentially harmful effluents generated, and the American Chemistry Council reported pollution abatement expenditures of $ million by chemical enterprises in the state of New Jersey in . Some of the largest and most important chemical manufacturing firms located or headquartered in New Jersey include wellknown pharmaceutical companies such as Merck, Pfizer, Wyeth, and Aventis. Less well known to the general public, despite their huge size and diverse product roster, are BASF, Celanese, Degussa, General Chemical, ICI America, Lonza, and National Starch and Chemical. In addition to consumer products such as pharmaceuticals, innumerable chemical industry products serve the needs of other industries as intermediaries or starting materials. Some particularly heavy users of chemical industry products in New Jersey include the chemical industry itself, the computer and electronic products industry, the plastics and rubber industry, the petroleum refining industry, and the health care industry. Chemical plants and research facilities are liberally distributed throughout the state, with particularly heavy concentrations in the northeastern section around Newark and the Raritan Bay area. Another smaller cluster of chemical facilities is located in the southwestern portion of the state, in the general vicinity of the Camden–Philadelphia–Delaware River region. Pharmaceutical industry plants and research laboratories tend to be located more centrally, extending in a broad band stretching roughly from Teaneck in the north down through New Brunswick in central New Jersey and past Somerville to the southwest.

Howard M. Dess

Cherry Hill.

.-square-mile township in Camden County, first settled by Western Europeans in the seventeenth century. Gristmills and small hamlets thrived in the area because of its location on the Pennsauken Creek and the Cooper River. The township was originally known as Waterford in old Gloucester County and then Delaware Township when Camden County was created in . The area was known primarily for its farms, which provided produce for sale in Camden, Philadelphia, and to the Campbell Soup Company. In , residents voted to change the township’s name to Cherry Hill after a farm that occupied the highest

point in the township. That same year, the Cherry Hill Mall opened as one of the first enclosed shopping centers in the eastern United States. The township was a popular entertainment center in the s and s with destinations such as the Garden State Park racetrack, the Latin Casino nightclub, and the Cherry Hill Inn. Cherry Hill is the corporate headquarters for Subaru of America and Vlasic Foods International. The largest suburban municipality in South Jersey, Cherry Hill’s  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M., and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey: A Narrative History, – . Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Mathis, Mike. Cherry Hill, New Jersey. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Mike Mathis

Chesilhurst. .-square-mile borough located in southeastern Camden County. Situated on high lands between Waterford and Winslow townships, along the old Camden and Atlantic Railroad line, Chesilhurst was laid out in  as a real estate development and advertised as a healthy place to live. Brickmaking became an early industry after native clay was discovered. In  the community separated from Waterford Township and incorporated as a borough. A railroad station was erected and a building and loan association was begun to encourage its development as a suburban housing center as early as , but the plans never came to fruition. During the pre–World War II period, Chesilhurst was the center of a small truck-farming area and contained a cranberry bog. A few nineteenth-century houses remain near the old railroad line but most are from the post–World War II period. There is no distinct historic character to the borough, which today remains largely rural and lies on the edge of the protected New Jersey Pinelands. The  population of , was  percent black and  percent white. A significant black community has been present here since the founding of Grant African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church on Fourth Avenue in . The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

Gail Greenberg

Chester Borough. .-square-mile borough in Morris County. First settled in the s and known as Roxbury, then as Black River, Chester was given its current name when it broke off from Roxbury and incorporated in . In , the borough split from the township and was incorporated as its own

entity, partly because of a difference of opinion on a new water system. The first settlers came from Suffolk County, Long Island, and made their living at farming, mining, and running the mills, taverns, and shops. Distilleries also did a thriving business in applejack and apple brandy (known as “Jersey Lightning’’), produced from apples grown in the many orchards. Mining accounted for Chester’s heyday during the s with over thirty-five mines producing around , tons of ore. However, near the end of the nineteenth century, mining dwindled in importance and Chester returned to its agricultural roots and remained a quiet village until the mid-s, when it became a suburban bedroom community. Today, many of the historic buildings have been restored and turned into shops, galleries, and restaurants. The population in  was ,, of which  percent as white. The median household income for this residential, single-family-home community was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Case, Joan S. Chester. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Greenidge, Frances. Chester, New Jersey—A Scrapbook of History, –. Chester: Chester Historical Society, . Lowenthal, Larry. Chester’s Iron Heyday. Chester: Chester Historical Society, .

Joan S. Case

Chesterfield. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. One of the county’s original townships, Chesterfield was established in  and is located in the northeastern corner of the county, bordering Hamilton Township in Mercer County. The major geographic feature is Crosswicks Creek, named for the village of Crosswicks, which was the township’s first major settlement. The Lenape Indians, who named Crosswicks, were followed by English Quakers. The township was originally called Recklesstown, but in the late s local embarrassment led to its renaming as Chesterfield, after one of its founding families. A Revolutionary War skirmish was fought along the Crosswicks Creek, and a cannonball is still lodged in a wall of the Crosswicks Friends Meeting House. Some of the homes in the township are more than two hundred years old. Many others, especially in Crosswicks and part of Chesterfield’s farm district, date from the s. The township maintained its rural character until the s. Chesterfield remains home to working dairy and feed crop farms and also boasts sprawling facilities for raising both thoroughbred and standardbred horses. The landscape’s physical beauty has attracted builders of custom homes in recent years, and a desire to preserve its remaining rural character made it the earliest focus of Burlington County’s farmland-preservation efforts. In addition to farms Chesterfield is the site of two major state correctional facilities: the Albert C. Wagner and Garden State

chief justice of the supreme court Youth Complexes. While inmates are included in the federal census, the township is otherwise sparsely populated. Its residents are mostly white. The  population of ,, including the prisoners, was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Jim Donnelly

Chester Township.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. The area that was to become Chester Township was first settled in the s. Because of trails that crisscrossed the area, the Minisink Indians called it “Alamatunk,’’ which meant “black earth bottom,’’ for Black River, which was the original name for Chester. The first band of European settlers came from Easthampton and Southold, Long Island, and a small group of Rogerenes, an obscure religious sect, came from Connecticut, but did not stay long in the area. Chester was a part of Roxbury Township when the latter incorporated in . It broke off from Roxbury and became incorporated on January , . During the settlement years, agriculture was the mainstay of the area. Farming, such as dairy, sheep, and orchards, were prevalent in Chester, but it also had its share of taverns, inns, blacksmith shops, and other travel-related businesses. The Civil War transformed Chester from a farming community to a small industrial town. Iron mines predominated, with over thirty-five working mines, which also attracted both the Delaware, Lackawana, and Western Railroad and the Central Railroad. Of the , acres that comprise the township, less than  percent is zoned for commercial use. Over  percent is devoted to permanent open space,  percent is residential, and the remaining  percent is in agricultural use. The population in  was ,, of which  percent was white. The median household income for this residential, single-familyhome community was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Case, Joan S. Chester. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Greenidge, Frances. Chester, New Jersey—A Scrapbook of History. Chester: Chester Historical Society, . Lowenthal, Larry. Chester’s Iron Heyday. Chester: Chester Historical Society, .

Joan S. Case

chestnut.

The American chestnut (Castanea dentata L.) was second only to oak in the precolonial forests of New Jersey. Native Americans and European settlers valued its nutritious nuts. Because chestnut trees sprout readily when cut, their importance in forests increased from  to . In  a chestnut tree imported into New York carried a fungus, Endothia parasitica, which was deadly to the American chestnut. This

disease spread rapidly from New York, killing all chestnut trees, which persist only as small sprouts that die young. The fate of resistant varieties experimentally planted in the state is not yet known.

Emily W. B. Russell

chief justice of the supreme court. Under the original constitution of New Jersey, based on colonial precedents, there was both a chief justice and a chancellor at the head of a complex judicial system. When the New Jersey constitution of 

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created the New Jersey supreme court, it also created the modern office of chief justice. Many states rotate the office among members of the supreme court or permit those judges to elect the chief justice; in New Jersey, however, the governor appoints the chief justice with the advice and consent of the senate. The chief justice serves for seven years and, upon reappointment, to the retirement age of seventy. This extended tenure, together with the powers conferred by the constitution, has made the office a formidable one. Also important has been the quality of the persons

Chief Justices of New Jersey Chancellors Prior to the Establishment of the Constitution of 1947 Edward, Lord Cornbury 1705–1708

Abraham O. Zabriskie 1866–1873 Theodore Runyon 1873–1887 Alexander T. McGill 1887–1900

John, Lord Lovelace 1708–1709 Richard Ingoldsby 1709–1710 Robert Hunter 1710–1719 Lewis Morris 1719–1720

William J. Magie 1900–1908 Mahlon Pitney 1908–1912 Edwin Robert Walker 1912–1932 Luther A. Campbell 1932–1946

William Burnet 1720–1728 John Montgomery 1728–1731 Lewis Morris 1731–1732 William Cosby 1732–1736 John Anderson 1736 John Hamilton 1736–1738 Lewis Morris 1738–1746 John Hamilton 1746–1747 John Reading 1747

A. Dayton Oliphant 1946–1948

Jonathan Belcher 1747–1757 John Reading 1757 Thomas Pownall 1757 John Reading 1757–1758 Francis Bernard 1758–1760 Thomas Boone 1760–1761 Josiah Hardy 1761–1763 William Franklin 1763–1776 William Livingston 1776–1790 Elisha Lawrence 1790 William Paterson 1790–1793 Richard Howell 1793–1794 Thomas Henderson 1794 Richard Howell 1794–1801 Joseph Bloomfield 1801–1802 John Lambert 1802–1803 Joseph Bloomfield 1803–1812 Charles Clark 1812 Aaron Ogden 1812–1813 William S. Pennington 1813–1815 William Kennedy 1815 Mahlon Dickerson 1815–1817 Isaac H. Williamson 1817–1829 Peter D. Vroom 1829–1832 Samuel L. Southard 1832–1833 Elias P. Seeley 1833

Chief Justices Prior to the Establishment of the Constitution of 1947 Roger Mompesson 1704–1709 Thomas Gordon 1709–1710 David Jamison 1710–1723 William Trent 1723–1724 Robert Lettice Cooper 1729–1738 Robert Hunter Morris 1738–1758 William Aynsley 1758–1761 Robert Hunter Morris 1761–1764 Charles Read 1764 Frederick Smyth 1764–1776 Richard Stockton (declined) 1776 John De Hart (declined) 1776 Robert Morris 1777–1779 David Brearley 1779–1789 James Kinsey 1789–1803 Andrew Kirkpatrick 1803–1824 Charles Ewing 1824–1832 Joseph C. Hornblower 1832–1846 Henry W. Green 1846–1853 Peter D. Vroom (declined) 1853 Alexander Wurts (declined) 1853 Henry W. Green 1853–1860 vacancy 1860–1861 Edward W. Whelpley 1861–1864 Mercer Beasley 1864–1897 William J. Magie 1897–1900 David A. Depew 1900–1901 William S. Gummere 1901–1933 Thomas J. Brogan 1933–1946 Clarence E. Case 1946–1948 Chief Justices of the Supreme Court under

Peter D. Vroom 1833–1836 Philemon Dickerson 1836–1837

the Constitution of 1947 Arthur J. Vanderbilt 1948–1957

William Pennington 1837–1843 Daniel Haines 1843–1845 Oliver S. Halstead 1845–1852

Joseph Weintraub 1957–1973 Pierre P. Garven 1973 Richard J. Hughes 1973–1979

Benjamin Williamson 1852–1859 vacancy 1859–1860 Henry W. Green 1860–1866

Robert N. Wilentz 1979–1996 Deborah T. Poritz 1996–

Richard L. Lurie

148

children’s welfare

that the office has attracted, including the architect of the constitution’s judiciary article (Arthur Vanderbilt, –), a former governor (Richard Hughes, –), and distinguished jurists such as Joseph Weintraub (–), Robert Wilentz (–), and Deborah Poritz (– ). The New Jersey chief justice presides over the supreme court and assigns who will write the opinions of the court in cases in which he or she is in the majority. In controversial cases—such as those involving school finance, exclusionary zoning, and the right to die—the chief justice has typically assigned the opinion to him- or herself and used his or her influence to persuade the other justices to present a united front. In addition to deciding cases, the chief justice is also responsible for the overall operation of New Jersey’s courts. The  constitution designates the chief justice as “the administrative head of all the courts in the State,’’ and the state’s first chief justice, Arthur Vanderbilt, likened his position “to that of chairman of the board and president of a business concern.’’ His successors have likewise devoted a substantial portion of their energies to supervising the administration of justice in New Jersey. Bello, Carla Vivian, and Arthur T. Vanderbilt II. Jersey Justice: Three Hundred Years of the New Jersey Judiciary. Newark: Institute for Continuing Legal Education, . Kensby, Edward Q. Courts and Lawyers of New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Tarr, G. Alan, and Mary Cornelia Aldis Porter. State Supreme Courts in State and Nation. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also law; supreme court

G. Alan Tarr

children’s welfare.

Historically, help for poor and otherwise needy children in New Jersey was part of the state’s efforts to provide assistance to the family. Indoor (institutional) and outdoor (noninstitutional) relief was provided to poor families under the Poor Law of . Indoor relief took three forms. First, younger children were placed in foster homes with families who were paid a small stipend by the state in return for providing care; second, older children were placed in almshouses with adults who, for various reasons, could not provide for themselves; or third, they were indentured to tradespeople who provided the physical necessities of life and apprenticeships in a trade in exchange for the profits of the children’s labor. The state of New Jersey, according to the  census, was fourth in the nation in the proportion of its children in almshouses. This method of providing for poor children was commonly thought to be the least desirable. In contrast, New Jersey was a pioneer in the provision of outdoor relief—minimal financial assistance to dependent children in their own homes. In , New Jersey created the Board

of Children’s Guardians. This was the first state agency to have as its exclusive mandate the care of children. Initially the board promulgated the policy of placing needy children in foster care rather than in almshouses. In , the Board of Children’s Guardians, which had become the state’s most progressive agency, persuaded the legislature to establish a program for boarding a poor child with its own mother. Thus, the child’s mother, rather than a foster family, was provided with the stipend to provide for the child’s support. This anticipated a nationwide movement—Mother’s Aid—designed to keep families together. Mother’s Aid was a precursor to the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program. AFDC was established as part of the Social Security Act of , the New Deal legislation designed to assist families suffering the ravages of the Great Depression. Better known as welfare, it evolved into the largest federal program serving children and families. The massive welfare reform legislation enacted by the U.S. Congress in  resulted in the Temporary Assistance to Needy Families program, the present form of outdoor relief in all fifty states. In addition to the financial assistance designed to meet poor children’s physical needs through public welfare programs, New Jersey has historically attempted to meet their psychological and social needs as well. The Board of Children’s Guardians, called the Board of Child Welfare after , became the Division of Child Welfare under the Department of Institutions and Agencies. In , the Division of Youth was created under the Department of Community Affairs. The present-day Division of Youth and Family Services (DYFS), while attempting to preserve and support the family, has as its primary mission the protection of emotionally, physically, and/or sexually abused and neglected children. Foster care and adoption remain two of its major programs. Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Whitelaw Downs, Susan, Ernestine Moore, Emily Jean McFadden, and Lela B. Costin. Child Welfare and Family Services. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, .

Sunday Di Palma

Chinese. The settlement of Chinese in New Jersey began on September , , when sixty-five Chinese workers were brought in secret from California to work in James B. Hervey’s Passaic Steam Laundry, located in Belleville. Protests began almost immediately and not surprisingly, given the tide of anti-Chinese discrimination raging throughout the country in the s and s. Despite these protests, however, the number of Chinese working in Hervey’s laundry increased to  by . In  many moved to Newark, where the Chinese population peaked at , between  and . From  on, this

population declined, owing to intense police raids and a generally hostile attitude toward the Chinese. By , only about  Chinese remained. The Chinese population in New Jersey began to increase again after the abolition in  of federal quotas based on national origins. In the s and s large numbers of Chinese from Taiwan came to the United States to study and eventually found employment with the many technology, telecommunications, and pharmaceutical companies in New Jersey. In the s and s, after the United States formally recognized the People’s Republic of China (PRC), large numbers of Chinese from mainland China came to study and often stayed in America, particularly in New Jersey. With the growth of the Chinese community, weekend Chinese schools were established; by , there were twenty-nine community heritage schools in New Jersey and more than fifty affiliated Chinese community organizations. Chinese-operated businesses, such as banks, beauty salons, food markets, and restaurants, are flourishing in central Jersey as the population grows. The same is true of Catholic, Protestant, and Buddhist religious organizations for the Chinese community. Among the twenty-three churches and temples serving Chinese Americans in New Jersey, the Tzu Chi Buddhist association is the most recent and vigorous. With approximately half a million Asians and Asian Americans, New Jersey has the fifth largest Asian population in the nation, about one-fifth of whom (approximately ,) are Chinese or Chinese Americans. Municipalities with the highest Chinese population are Edison, East Brunswick, Fort Lee, Palisades Park, and Jersey City. Liestman, Daniel. “Chinese Labor at the Passaic Steam Laundry in Belleville.’’ New Jersey History , nos. – (Spring-Summer ): –.

See also ethnicity

Peter Li and Yoland Skeete

Christie, John Walter

(b. May , ;

d. Jan. , ). Inventor, auto racer, and man-

ufacturer known as the father of the modern tank. John Walter Christie was the son of Jacob Brinkerhoff and Elizabeth (Van Houten) Christie. His father was manager of Comfort Coal and Lumber Company. The son, known as J. Walter Christie, was born in the CampbellChristie house in New Milford, an early Dutch sandstone house and tavern that was later acquired by Bergen County and moved to Historic New Bridge Landing Park (River Edge) in . Christie attended night classes in drafting and engineering at Cooper Union College and developed an early expertise in marine engineering. In , he turned his attention to the development of a front-wheel-drive mechanism for horseless carriages. He built race

circuses cars and successfully competed in numerous auto-racing championships. In , under his direction, the Christie Iron Works in New York City and the Front-Wheel-Drive Motor Car Company in Hoboken turned out motorized fire wagons. His greatest accomplishment came with the development of military vehicles and his perfection of caterpillar tracks and wheels for use on armored tanks. Christie, J. Edward. Steel Steeds Christie. Manhattan, KS: Sunflower University Press, . Maszalec, Edward T. The Christie Families of Northern New Jersey. Baltimore: Gateway Press, .

Robert D. Griffin

Chubb Corporation.

Founded in  by Thomas Caldecot Chubb and his son, Percy, the New York City firm of Chubb and Son insured ships and cargoes. They opened the new firm with investments of $, each from  merchants. From its beginnings in the maritime insurance business, the firm expanded into the fields of commercial, property, casualty, and personal insurance, as well as financial services and real estate development. Chubb is noted for providing executive risk policies and for serving specialized niche markets such as owners of valuable collections, jewelry, vacation homes, and yachts, as well as multinational, high-tech, biotech, and emerging-technology companies. Its clients include over two-thirds of the Forbes  Richest People in America. In , the Chubb Corporation was organized, and it gained a seat on the New York Stock Exchange in . It serves as a parent company to a number of insurance companies and other affiliates. The headquarters of the Chubb Corporation moved to Warren in . Operating in North and South America, Europe, and the Pacific Rim, the Chubb Corporation has over , employees. The company was ranked th on the Fortune  for the year . French, Bruce H. Banking and Insurance in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also insurance industry

David A. Norris

Ciardi, John Anthony

(b. June , ;

d. Mar. , ). Poet, essayist, and translator.

Born of Italian immigrant parents in the Little Italy section of Boston, John Ciardi attended Bates College in Maine for a year and a half before transferring to Tufts College, from which he graduated in . The following year, he took a master’s degree at the University of Michigan and won the prestigious Hopwood Award for a manuscript of poems that would be published in  as Homeward to America. After graduation and until the outbreak of World War II, Ciardi taught at the University of Kansas City. During the war, Ciardi was a gunner on B-s in Saipan, flying sixteen missions over Japan before he was transferred to desk duty.

In January , Ciardi returned to the University of Kansas City and met a journalism instructor, Judith Hostetter, whom he married. The young couple moved back to Massachusetts, and the poet began teaching at Harvard. He spent the next seven years there, publishing three more books of poetry and editing an important anthology, Mid-Century American Poets (). In , Ciardi, a rising national literary figure who was about to publish his important verse translation of Dante’s Inferno, was hired by Rutgers University for its new creative writing program. Two years later, he was named director of the Bread Loaf Writer’s Conference (Middlebury, Vermont). Ciardi, a formalist poet who stressed literary skills and a learnable craft, was often at odds with the era’s rebellious free-verse conference attendees, but he continued to direct Bread Loaf with a spirited insistence on form and tradition throughout the tumultuous s. Under increasing pressure, he resigned in . In , Ciardi had begun a similarly long reign as poetry editor at Saturday Review. He became known as a blunt but honest critic-poet who was always willing to face a controversy—or create one. He thrilled as many with his daring and sharp tongue as he offended, and Saturday Review subscriptions more than tripled during his time there. At Rutgers Ciardi was a popular professor and enjoyed his position, but he was increasingly invited to give poetry lectures for high fees around the country. In , by then the father of two sons and a daughter, and the author of four more books of poetry and two children’s books, he resigned from the faculty, but remained living in Metuchen. From his various platforms, Ciardi had become so popular that he was given a CBS network television program of his own, Accent, in –, and made appearances on the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson as well. In the s, however, Ciardi suffered a decline in reputation and lost his positions at both Bread Loaf and Saturday Review. He began a weekly word history radio spot in  called “A Word in Your Ear’’ on NPR’s Morning Edition. Although a welcome new platform, the shift from television to radio was seen by some to reflect his falling national position. He continued with his etymological enterprises by writing the first volume of his Browser’s Dictionary in ; two more volumes were published in the next decade. The largest collection of Ciardi papers is at the Library of Congress. ANB. Cifelli, Edward M. John Ciardi: A Biography. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, . Krickel, Edward. John Ciardi. Boston: Twayne Publishers, .

See also poetry

Edward M. Cifelli

Ciba-Geigy. See Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation.

149

Cinnaminson.

.-square-mile township in Burlington County, bounded by the Delaware River, Pennsauken Creek, and the municipalities of Delran, Moorestown, Riverton, Palmyra, and Pennsauken, the latter located in Camden County. Cinnaminson was established in  after breaking away from the former Chester Township. In , it lost about half its original area when Delran became an independent township. The earliest settlers were American Indians, followed by Swedes and English Quakers who migrated to the British colony of West Jersey. The township originally included the villages of Riverton and Palmyra, both of which were later established as independent boroughs. Other early settlements in the town, which lasted into the early twentieth century, were Parry, Wrightsville, Fork Landing, and Westfield. Residential development began to replace agriculture starting in the late s. Cinnaminson remains largely residential today, although there is a bustling commercial zone along Route . A major retail and residential complex has been proposed for some of the last remaining vacant land along the highway. Commercial and light-industrial businesses also dot Route  as it approaches Philadelphia. The Delaware River shore is home to several large industrial concerns— including the manufacture of glass, powdered iron products, and the precision manufacture of hard disc actuator arms—especially in the East Riverton area. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Billetter, Jean R. Two Hundred Years of Religion in Cinnaminson, Palmyra, Riverton, New Jersey. Riverton: Cinnaminson-Palmyra-Riverton Council of Churches, . Griscom, Lloyd E. Tales of Three Towns: Cinnaminson, Palmyra, and Riverton. N.p.: Lloyd E. Griscom, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

CIO.

See Congress of Industrial Organiza-

tions.

circuses.

The roads and railroads of New Jersey run like spokes from New York City and Philadelphia, creating a crosshatched corridor for circuses and traveling shows. The state has long been a venue or home for show companies and performers, and a site of notable circus curiosa. John Bill Ricketts opened the first complete American circus in Philadelphia in , and took his show through New Jersey to its first New York City performance the same year. Circus wagons came to Newark as early as . At New Brunswick in , manager William C. Coup jump-started the great

150

Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries

The Ringling Brothers Circus parading through Trenton, late nineteenth century.

Courtesy the Trentoniana Collection, Trenton Public Library. railroad circus era, ramping up and endloading the wagons of the Barnum show onto sixty-one flat cars of the Pennsylvania Railroad for its trip south. The Hunt Brothers Circus, founded in  and the longest-running American circus under the same family management, had its winter quarters in Trenton and Florence. In sixty-five years of supervision, founder Charles T. Hunt never missed a single performance of the show. Shows that originated or once performed regularly in New Jersey included the popular Hamid-Morton Circus at the Steel Pier in Atlantic City, the Frank A. Robbins’s show of Jersey City, the Gorman Brothers’ show of Franklin Lakes, and Ozzie Schleentz’s Royal Ranch Wild West Circus of Hazlet. The Circus Fans Association of America, founded in , has twice held its annual convention in New Jersey: in  in Newark, hosted by the Hunt Brothers Circus, and in  in Atlantic City, featuring the Hoxie Brothers Circus. Some fifteen circuses continue to visit New Jersey each year: Alain Zerbini, BeattyCole, Bentley Brothers, Big Apple, Carson and Barnes, Circus Maximus, Jedlie’s Magic, Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey, Royal Hanneford, Royal Palace, Shrine, Sterling and Reid, Vidbel’s Olde Tyme, Ward Hall’s World of Wonders Side Show, and Yankee Doodle.

Timothy Jecko

Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries. Citizens United (CU), a volunteer nonprofit corporation founded in , is committed to the preservation and protection of the Maurice River watershed. CU focuses on the elimination of land and water uses that

damage the watershed by conducting cooperative conservation projects and watershed protection activities, increasing public awareness of the natural resources of the Maurice River watershed, involving groups and individuals in hands-on wildlife and habitat protection projects, and serving on numerous government advisory and policy-making boards. In  CU, along with the National Park Service, produced Down Jersey, a video documenting the cultural landscape of the New Jersey Delaware Bayshore, and a Down Jersey curriculum unit to teach students about the heritage of this region.

John A. Tiedemann

civil rights. The constitution adopted by New Jersey in , considered by many to be a model state constitution, greatly expanded civil rights protections by mandating equal rights for women and collective bargaining rights for labor unions, while broadening antidiscrimination provisions to include race, color, ancestry, and national origin. Federal statutory law was eventually expanded to mirror New Jersey’s constitutional protections, but New Jersey civil rights law continues to be generally more protective than federal law, in part because the state’s Law against Discrimination (LAD) is more extensive than its federal counterparts, and also because state courts have issued more expansive holdings than have federal courts. For example, federal law bars employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, age, disability, sex, or pregnancy, but the LAD also bars discrimination on the basis of affectional or sexual orientation, atypical hereditary cellular or blood trait, genetic information, and AIDS or HIV status. Similarly, federal law barring discrimination in public

accommodations is limited to those places specifically listed in Title  of the Civil Rights Act, while the LAD envisions a much broader definition of public accommodations. This definition was established by state courts and mandates: that whenever a proprietor opens his or her doors to any member of the public, access must be granted to all members. The use of this broadly defined public accommodations statute to bar sexual orientation discrimination by the Boy Scouts of America was recently rejected by the U.S. Supreme Court, which found that the state civil rights law could be superseded by federal constitutional claims. New Jersey’s more protective civil rights law has recently been highlighted in discussions about sexual orientation, genetic data collection and testing, and predatory lending practices. In recent years, one of the most contentious issues in the area of state civil rights law has been racial profiling. This issue first emerged in New Jersey in , when a state superior court ruled that the New Jersey State Police had been engaged in a pattern of pervasive racial profiling. In this case, State v. Soto, the court excluded evidence that had been uncovered in a traffic stop, finding that the State Police had violated the equal protection guarantee by singling out minority drivers for automobile stops on the New Jersey Turnpike. Moreover, the court found that the State Police had been falsifying data related to automobile searches on the turnpike in an attempt to conceal its policy of racial profiling. In , the New Jersey attorney general’s office issued a report that confirmed the police practice of racial profiling and criticized the poor training, lack of supervision, and unbridled discretion of State Police officers. The U.S. Department of Justice later issued a consent decree that aimed at eliminating racial disparities in police stops, and called for better training procedures and more extensive monitoring of police misconduct. In the wake of this decree, the State Police has reworked its guidelines for training and supervision, and has employed technologies like audio and video recorders and laptop computers in an attempt to ensure the accuracy of police reporting and record keeping. Unfortunately, there is evidence that racial profiling continues to be a problem among police officers. The  terrorist attacks heightened vigilance against terrorism, and the detaining of many Arabs, Arab Americans, and Muslims ultimately may place racial profiling back on the public agenda, both in New Jersey and throughout the nation. Garrett, Brandon. “Remedying Racial Profiling.’’ Columbia Human Rights Law Review  (fall ): –.

Suzanne U. Samuels

Civil Rights Congress.

Founded through a merger of various communist-led civil rights and civil liberties organizations,

Civil War the Civil Rights Congress (CRC) (–) engaged in militant defenses and mobilizations, publicizing controversial civil rights cases both here and abroad as it fought to survive attempts by the U.S. government, under the McCarran Act, to destroy it. New Jersey’s Paul Robeson, for example, sought to raise funds for the CRC at two Peekskill, New York, concerts in , braving policesupported racist mob violence in what was a major precursor of McCarthyism. The CRC’s most important achievement in New Jersey was its participation in the defense of the Trenton Six, African American men charged in the  murder of a secondhand furniture dealer, arrested without warrants, and sentenced to death at their first trial on the basis of confessions made while they were kept in isolation by the police. Although New Jersey courts, given the cold war atmosphere, ruled to remove CRC lawyers from drafting appeals, the CRC’s work exposed violations of due process, which brought the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), and Princeton-based civil libertarians into the case. What followed were two new trials. Although in a very different political atmosphere, the case of the Trenton Six and its resolution are reminiscent of the famous Scottsboro case of the s. In that case, a communist-led civil liberties group forced more conservative forces to involve themselves in the defense, if only to compete with communists, and, in the process, saved the lives of the accused. Horne, Gerald. Communist Front? The Civil Rights Congress, –. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

See also Trenton Six

Norman Markowitz

Civil War.

New Jersey’s role in the Civil War era has long been a contentious subject. Some historians have charged that the state was loyal to the South and supportive of slavery and state rights. In fact, however, New Jersey, unlike the slave states of the South, did not have a social system rooted in slavery or a high proportion of blacks in its population. Few of the state’s citizens were born in the South, its economic prosperity did not primarily depend on the slave states, and its interests and loyalties were northern in orientation. New Jersey did not sympathize with slavery or support its prewar expansion. New Jerseyans did not accept the southern version of states’ rights, believe in the right of secession, or repudiate free elections in a political democracy. During the conflict, antiwar forces failed to capture control of the state government or obstruct the state’s war effort. On the whole, New Jersey’s political and military experience paralleled that of other northern states and especially those states located in the lower part of the North.

Proclamation by Gov. Joel Parker for a National Day of Prayer, April , .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. Wartime politics in the state reflected the interplay of four forces: the competition between evenly divided parties, the jockeying of factions within each party, the long-standing rivalry between North Jersey and South Jersey, and the hurricane force of wartime emotions. With the breakup of the national political parties that preceded and facilitated the resort to war, two political coalitions, the Republicans and the Democrats, struggled for power in New Jersey. Each party had major sources of support in the state. Republicans were strongest in South Jersey. Their core constituencies consisted of small farmers in the lower third of the state and members of the upper and middle classes and also industrial workers in North Jersey’s cities and towns, particularly those in Passaic, Morris, and Essex counties. Most Republicans were native-born Protestants, but some were immigrant British and German Protestants. The Democrats, in contrast, were strongest in North Jersey, particularly in Hudson County. The Democratic party attracted poor immigrants, especially Irish and German Catholics, who were concentrated in the state’s northeastern cities. Other Democratic supporters were prosperous Dutch and German farmers in the northwestern counties of Sussex, Warren, and Hunterdon, and in the northeastern counties, including Bergen. In elections held in the s, New Jerseyans voted against candidates who championed the expansion of slavery in the western territories. Opposition (Republican) candidates won every congressional election in , with one exception, and every contest

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in , as well as the governorship in  and . In the  presidential election, the state’s voters backed two northern Unionist candidates, both from Illinois. Republican Abraham Lincoln received four electoral votes, and Democrat Stephen Douglas won three. In contrast, the border slave states selected John Bell of Tennessee, and the southern states supported John Breckinridge of Kentucky. In  the Democratic presidential candidate, George McClellan of Orange, won the state narrowly as a home favorite. In accepting his party’s nomination, McClellan repudiated its dovish national platform and pledged to seek reunion before peace. But if the state’s soldiers and sailors, who were serving in campaigns out of the state, had voted by absentee ballot, New Jersey would likely have chosen Lincoln by a razor-thin margin. New Jerseyans and their leaders strongly supported suppression of the southern rebellion and a vigorous prosecution of the war. Republican Charles Olden, who served twentyone months in the State House between April  and January , and Democrat Joel Parker, who served twenty-nine months between January  and the spring of , were outstanding war leaders and truly great war governors. They worked tirelessly, resourcefully, and effectively to back the Union cause and to recruit volunteers for the Union army and navy. New Jersey’s war governors received support from the legislature, which Democrats controlled in , , , and also when the parties shared control in  and . Prominent Democrats who backed the war effort and joined the Union Republican party were George Cobb, Joseph Crowell, and Martin Ryerson. Major Republican leaders included Horace Congar, William Dayton, Thomas Dudley, Richard Field, Frederick Frelinghuysen, and John Ten Eyck. Most Democrats in New Jersey rejected secession, remained loyal to the Union, and supported the war effort, but still took a partisan line. They criticized the way the war was conducted by Lincoln’s administration and by the Republicans in Congress. Major Democratic leaders who supported the war effort were George Middleton, Theodore Randolph, John Thomson, and Jacob Vanatta. A minority of the state’s Democrats formed the ranks of the antiwar copperheads. To be sure, at election time Democratic politicians of every faction in New Jersey, as elsewhere in the North, hoped to defeat Republican candidates and so exploited issues that might be useful. Democratic candidates attacked infringements of civil liberties, rising taxes, raging inflation, increasing conscription, mounting battle casualties, interminable military defeats, and recurring stalemate. Yet most Democrats in New Jersey still backed both the war and the war effort. This pattern was typical of politics in other northern states.

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New Jersey’s support of the war effort can be seen in the military role of the state’s troops. Thirty-seven regiments of infantry, three regiments of cavalry, and five artillery batteries were raised during the war, plus numerous militia units and a large number of black troops and naval personnel. The state’s total number of enlistments, according to a postwar study by Gen. William S. Stryker, was , men. This total, however, includes multiple enlistments by individual soldiers; the actual number who served was probably closer to ,. New Jersey responded quickly to President Lincoln’s April  call for , militia by sending four regiments to Washington for ninety days’ service. The next month, three regiments of three-year volunteers (st, d, and d regiments) were enlisted and also sent to Washington. These seven regiments were nearby but not engaged at the Battle of First Bull Run in July . After Bull Run the four militia regiments (later renumbered the th–th regiments) were sent home and discharged; many of their veterans reenlisted in units raised later in the war. The three-year regiments, joined by the th Regiment, then became the First New Jersey Brigade, the state’s most famous command in the war. Serving in the VI Corps, Army of the Potomac, the brigade saw serious fighting at Gaines’ Mill and Crampton’s Gap in  and later (reinforced by the th Regiment) at Salem Church, Spotsylvania, and the  Shenandoah Valley campaign. All together more than , men served in the First Brigade, of whom  were killed or died of wounds. The Second New Jersey Brigade, consisting of the th, th, th, and th regiments, was raised in the fall of . It served in the III Corps, Army of the Potomac, and saw heavy action at the Battles of Williamsburg, Second Bull Run, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, and the Wilderness. The th and th regiments were the last to be raised in . The th was the first New Jersey command to see combat, at Roanoke Island, North Carolina, on February , . The th Regiment had a checkered history and spent much of its career on guard duty. In the summer of  the state raised five new regiments, the th–th, all of which performed ably in the Virginia theater. In fact, the th Regiment lost  men killed or died of wounds during the war, the most of any regiment from the state. When three-year enlistments became harder to secure, the state was directed to raise eleven regiments of troops for nine months’ service. These regiments (st–st) took the field in the fall of  and fought at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville before being discharged in the early summer of . Three additional regiments of infantry were raised for three years’ service in 

New Jersey Civil War veteran Henry Hendrickson.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. New Jersey Civil War veteran John J. Cladik.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. (d, th, and th). Thereafter, enlistments were hard to obtain, so the th Regiment was enlisted for just  days’ service in mid-. The state’s final three regiments (th, th, and th) were raised in late  and early  for one year’s service. New Jersey’s three regiments of cavalry all saw distinguished service. The st Cavalry (th Regiment) was one of the top cavalry commands in the Virginia theater, where it served the entire length of the war under a series of strong commanders. The nd Cavalry (nd Regiment) was raised in , and the rd Cavalry (th Regiment) in . The latter became known as the “Butterflies’’ because of its ornately decorated uniforms. Batteries A and B of the artillery were raised in  and served the entire length of the war in the Army of the Potomac. The rd, th, and th batteries were raised in . Approximately , black soldiers from New Jersey fought in the war. They were enlisted in – and served in several regiments of the U.S. Colored Infantry that were organized and trained in Philadelphia, the most noted being the nd, nd, and rd regiments. The number of sailors and marines furnished by the state was about ,. In addition, between , and , New Jerseyans enlisted in units from other states, principally New York. Most, but not all, of the state’s commands served in the Virginia theater of the war. The th Regiment traveled the widest, from North Carolina and Virginia in , to Vicksburg, Mississippi, in  and back to Virginia in –. Three regiments, the th, rd and th, served in Tennessee and then marched

with Sherman through Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina in the war’s last year. The nd Cavalry fought several successful engagements against Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest in the Mississippi theater. Finally, the th Regiment closed the war by attacking Mobile, Alabama, in the spring of . To spur enlistments, bounties of $ and up were instituted in mid-. These bonuses grew to $ and more by war’s end—a significant amount, considering that a private’s base pay was only $ a month. As recruits became harder and harder to find, drafts had to be held to meet the state’s manpower quotas. Between May  and February  more than , New Jerseyans were drafted, of whom only  actually served. The rest failed their physicals, furnished a substitute, paid a commutation fee, or simply never reported for duty. About eighty generals and admirals served from the state or were closely connected with New Jersey units. The most memorable of them was Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, who was killed in action at Chantilly, Virginia, in September . Brigadier generals George Bayard, Charles Harker, and George Taylor also died in battle. Other New Jersey generals of note include cavalry commanders Judson Kilpatrick and Joseph Karge. Nineteen soldiers from New Jersey were awarded the Medal of Honor, including Col. William Sewell of the th Regiment and drummer William Magee of the rd. More than  battle flags of the Civil War era are preserved in the New Jersey State House Flag Collection in Trenton. Bilby, Joseph G., and William C. Goble. “Remember You Are Jerseymen!’’: A Military History of New Jersey’s Troops in the Civil War. Hightstown: Longstreet House, .

classical music Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Sinclair, Donald A. The Civil War and New Jersey: A Bibliography. New Brunswick: Friends of the Rutgers University Library, .

William Gillette and David G. Martin

clams. Three major varieties of edible clams land in the state of New Jersey, one from the coastal bays and two from the ocean. The hard clam or northern quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria, comes from the coastal estuaries; the ocean waters provide surf clams, Spissula solidissima, found near shore, and the ocean quahog, Artica islandica, which is farther offshore. Hard clams are harvested from skiffs with hand implements such as rakes or tongs. They come in four market sizes: littleneck, topneck, cherrystone, and chowder. In  about . million pounds of meat were harvested, worth $. million. The ocean clams, representing about  percent of the total U.S. catch of these species, are harvested with large vessels using hydraulic dredges. In  New Jersey landed over  million pounds of surf clams worth $ million, and almost  million pounds of ocean quahogs valued at $. million. These ocean clams are processed into chopped clams for chowder and clam strips for deep frying. MacKenzie, Clyde L. The Fisheries of the Raritan Bay. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishing

Joe Rizzo

Clark, Abraham (b. Feb. , ; d. Sept. , ). Surveyor, farmer, and politician. Born in

Elizabethtown, and known as the “Poor Man’s Counselor,’’ Abraham Clark had no formal legal training, but held local, state, and national office from  until his death. Clark

was a Whig supporterof the American Revolution, one of the New Jersey signers of the Declaration of Independence, and served in Congress under both the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. He supported popular causes (such as paper money in the s), was the closest thing the state had to an Anti-Federalist in , and became a Jeffersonian-Republican in the s. The introduction of a Bill of Rights and the protection of small-state interests assuaged his doubts about the federal Constitution. Throughout his life Clark was a “radical Republican’’ who fought for a measure of equality in the state and nation. ANB. Bogin, Ruth. Abraham Clark and the Quest for Equality in the Revolutionary Era, –. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Hart, Ann Clark. Abraham Clark, Signer of the Declaration of Independence. San Francisco: Pioneer Press, .

See also American Revolution

Maxine N. Lurie

Clark, William (b. ; d. ).

Industrialist. With his brother, George, William Clark founded the Passaic Thread Company, later called the Clark Thread Company, in Newark in . He was a native of Paisley, Scotland, where his family’s thread-making business had been established around . After George’s sudden death in , William became the sole head of the firm and doubled the size of its mills and vastly increased employment. Clark was civic-minded, serving on various local business, hospital, and library boards. His twenty-eight-room house at  Mount Prospect Avenue was considered one of the finest in the city of Newark.

Shaw, William H. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

E. Richard McKinstry

Clark.

James Read Lambdin, Abraham Clark, after John Trumbull, c. . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Independence National Historical Park, Philadelphia.

.-square-mile township in Union County. Clark was originally part of the village of Rahway, which incorporated itself as a city in . It was designated as the Fifth Ward of Rahway until , when the  residents of the ward declared their independence and established their own town. They took the name of Abraham Clark, one of the New Jersey signers of the Declaration of Independence. In its early years Clark was a small, quiet farm community; this changed in , when the Garden State Parkway cut the town in half, causing massive change. Many farmers sold their farms to meet the need for land to build homes on during the housing shortage of the post–World War II era. Clark changed from a rural community into a thriving suburban community. As the twenty-first century began, Clark, with  percent of its land occupied, was on the verge of changing into an urban community. In , the population of ,

153

was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Brian P. Toal

Clark House. See Abraham Clark House. classical music.

New Jersey has always sought grassroots alternatives to the musical meccas of New York and Philadelphia. By creating their own outlets of concert activity in small communities such as Bridgeton, Ocean City, Haddonfield, Cherry Hill, Plainfield, Summit, Montclair, Morristown, and Westfield, New Jersey’s classical music artists have consistently found receptive local audiences. Today New Jersey boasts more than three hundred venues for classical performances. Art music began shaping New Jersey’s cultural life between  and , a period that witnessed an explosion in concert activity. In , New Jersey opened its first concert hall (later the Newark Theatre). Music making frequently originated from the host of musical societies that flourished between  and . Performances typically featured works of European composers, though audiences also heard compositions by local musicians. In the twentieth century, several New Jersey composers developed international reputations, including George Rochberg, George Perle, and George Antheil. The first African American Pulitzer Prize–winner in music, George Walker, served on the Rutgers University faculty. The current promulgation of new music is the mission of the Composers Guild of New Jersey, founded in  and subsequently introducing over one thousand works. Today the potential for musical involvement in New Jersey is unparalleled in the nation on a per capita basis. In addition to its diverse choral groups, New Jersey has no less than five opera companies. Of the eighteen professional orchestras in the state, the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra (NJSO), formed in  as the Montclair Orchestra, has received the highest acclaim. In  the NJSO achieved distinction by ranking among the top twentyfive orchestras in the nation, and later that decade became the first major symphony orchestra to hire an African American music director. Individual New Jersey performers have also made their mark on the international scene, among them opera virtuosi Paul Plishka and Frederica von Stade, and violinists Nadia Solerno-Sonnenberg and Sarah Chang. In , New Jersey took an active lead in introducing children to classical music through the “Music Is Fun’’ series and concerts of the Little Orchestra Society, presented by the Griffith Foundation of Newark in the Mosque Theatre (later renamed Symphony Hall). Such events influenced the creation of youth orchestras and choirs. The American Boychoir School, one of the most distinguished

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vocal groups in the world, has its campus in Princeton. A perennial New Jersey attraction is its summer music festivals, notably Rutgers’s the SummerFest in New Brunswick, the Amadeus Festival of the NJSO, and the Cape May Music Festival. The Festival of the Atlantic and Ocean City Pops give concerts all summer. The latter is the only professional orchestra in the nation that is funded by a municipal budget. New Jersey’s universities have likewise played an active role in the promotion of classical music. Westminster Choir College established a national reputation in the s with choral performances with the Philadelphia and New York Philharmonic orchestras. In recent years, the music departments of Rutgers, Rowan, Montclair, Princeton, and others have taken a lead by engaging distinguished faculties and furnishing students with unlimited musical opportunities. In , a significant revitalization in the arts took place with the advent of ArtPRIDE, an organization founded “to encourage citizens and officials to endorse positions favorable to the arts.’’ ArtPRIDE’s assessment of New Jersey’s performing arts organizations not only revealed the need for a major arts center, but also sparked a general renewal in public music making throughout the state. The  inauguration of the New Jersey Performing Arts Center (NJPAC), a majestic complex housing two theaters, testifies to the success of ArtPRIDE and to New Jersey’s commitment to classical music. See also opera; orchestras

Thomas Koch and Paul Somers

Classical New Jersey.

This awardwinning weekly publication, established in  by Paul M. Somers, is known as “New Jersey’s Classical Music Weekly.’’ It covers hundreds of concerts across the state including symphony, opera, choral, solo, chamber music, and summer festivals. Along with the concert reviews, Classical New Jersey (CNJ) provides a preview calendar of classical music events and educationally oriented articles. In the autumn of , the Classical New Jersey Society, a not-for-profit educational corporation, was formed as a parent company to CNJ. The society supports and expands CNJ’s offerings to include lectures, preconcert events, and program notes to performers and music organizations.

brought more settlers to the area. In , a post office was established as Fislerville. A year later, the state legislature approved the organization of Clayton Township, which included Glassboro, Aura, and Fislerville. By , Clayton Township had built a railroad from Clayton to Millville, another area of glass production. By , the post office had changed its name to Clayton and the population had reached ,. Clayton, which became one of the most affluent towns in South Jersey, began to decline after . The glass industry moved westward with the invention of machine blowing, and the completion of the Benjamin Franklin Bridge brought people directly into the city of Philadelphia. Train service ended in . Today Clayton retains many small businesses and a few factories. More than onethird of the small borough encompasses wildlife management acres, lakes, and parks. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Simpson, Hazel B. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Woodbury: Board of Chosen Freeholders, Gloucester County, .

Melissa Schiavo

Clementon.

.-square-mile borough in south-central Camden County. Once essentially rural, Clementon drew such abundant waterpower from the north branch of the Big Timber Creek that many sawmills and gristmills were established here by . Some were operated by Samuel Clement, who also founded the Clementon Glass Works, which operated from about  to about , the area taking its name from him. The glassworks produced Pritkin flasks, richly colored ribbed

bottles, and household glass. In , Clement sold the entire village, including prime timberland, to Jonathan Haines. The Clementon Glass Works was eventually turned into a gristmill and later sold to real estate developer Theodore Gibbs in . During the same period, Rowand’s Dam powered charcoal pits producing charcoal used by metalsmiths throughout Europe and America. In , Theodore Gibbs established a summer amusement park along Lake Clementon, located at the end of a ferry line from Camden. The Clementon Amusement Park quickly became popular and continues so today, with , visitors recorded in . The Jack Rabbit, the oldest wooden roller coaster in the country, built in  and since updated, still thrills riders. Originally part of the now nonexistent township of Clementon, Clementon borough was one of seven boroughs to secede by , forming an independent government in , after the governing body of Clementon Township failed to pass a local funding improvement bill. In , the population of , in this small, residential community was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Pepper, Adeline. The Glass Gaffers of New Jersey. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, . Weygandt, Cornelius. Down Jersey. New York: Appleton-Century Company, .

Gail Greenberg

Cleveland, Grover

(b. Mar. , ;

d. June , ). Twenty-second (–)

and twenty-fourth (–) president of the United States. Grover Cleveland was born

Nan Childress Orchard

Clayton.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. Clayton became a borough in . The first European settler, Jacob Fisler, a native of Switzerland, owned a majority of the land and by  locals were calling the area Fislertown. Fisler and Benjamin Beckett began the first glass company in the region, which

Campaign medals from Grover Cleveland’s presidential campaign of . The middle button features Cleveland’s nickname, “Beef.’’

Photo: Jerry McCrea. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Clinton in Caldwell, but his residence there was brief. When he was four, his family moved to upstate New York. In the s, he launched a political career that led to his election as mayor of Buffalo, then governor of New York, and finally president of the nation. He spent his last eleven years in Princeton, where he died and is buried. Cleveland’s outstanding feature was his strong character. By rejecting spending measures, Cleveland was dubbed the veto mayor, the veto governor, and the veto president. Depicted as the heroic defender of honest government, independent conservative Cleveland in fact used his power to defend the status quo. He thus prevented government from assisting people who desperately needed help. Headstrong and high-handed, Cleveland mismanaged the severe economic depression from  to . He refused to aid farmers, crushed a strike, and had protesters arrested. His harsh policies cost him popular support. In  the Democratic party repudiated both Cleveland and his policies. To his credit, Cleveland strengthened presidential prerogative by battling congressional interference in executive functions at a time when the presidency had reached a low ebb. To his discredit, Cleveland’s arrogance and inflexibility destroyed his opportunities to influence legislation, wrecked his presidency, divided the Democratic party, and damaged the nation. DiSantis, Vincent. “Grover Cleveland.’’ In America’s Eleven Greatest Presidents, ed. Morton Borden. Chicago: Rand McNally, . Leitch, Alexander, A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ———. “Grover Cleveland—Another Look.’’ Hayes Historical Journal (Winter ): –. Nevins, Allan. Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage. New York: Dodd, Mead, . Welch, Richard E., Jr. The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, .

See also Grover Cleveland historic sites

William Gillette

Clevenger Brothers.

Tom, Reno, and Allie Clevenger were second-generation glassblowers who opened a small furnace in Clayton in . Their intent was to produce handblown reproductions of the kind of “early American’’ glass made in South Jersey in the nineteenth century. With the backing of several antique dealers, the Clevengers found a market for their products and by the s were quite successful. A larger plant was built in  and was sold in  to James Travis, who still manufactures reproductions and fills special orders. The glass made in the s and s, which is not marked, is often mistaken by inexperienced collectors for earlier glass. McKearin, Helen, and Kenneth M. Wilson. American Bottles and Flasks and Their Ancestry. New York: Crown, .

Palmer, Arlene. Glass in Early America: Selections from the Winterthur Collection. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also glassmaking

Jane Shadel Spillman

Cliffside Park.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County, located in southwestern Bergen County, atop the Palisades cliffs. The most densely populated borough in the county, its development was first spurred by train and trolley lines that ran to the West Shore Ferry in Weehawken, providing convenient transportation for commuters to New York City. Its population of approximately  in the late s grew to nearly , by . Its land is now completely developed. Originally part of Hackensack Township (–c. ), and later Ridgefield Township, Cliffside Park was incorporated as a borough in . The borough’s name developed in reference to its location on the cliff-side of the Palisades, as opposed to the under-cliff area (now Edgewater). With Fort Lee, it was the home of Palisades Amusement Park from  until , when the park was demolished to make way for the twin thirty-one-story Winston Towers apartment buildings. The borough is now primarily residential, with a combination of single- and multifamily homes, high-rise apartments, and condominium towers. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Becker, Lawrence W. A Chronological Outline History of Cliffside Park, N.J. Cliffside Park: Cliffside Park Historical Society, Tercentenary Committee, .

155

Clayton, W. Woodford, and William Nelson. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Hessler, Elvira, David L. Van Dillen, and William W. Wurst. A Clifton Sampler. Clifton: Clifton Public Library, . Scott, William W. History of Passaic and Its Environs. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Cline, Isaac (b. Jan. , ; d. ).

Labor leader. Born in Winslow Township, Camden County, Isaac Cline was an early champion of organized labor in the United States. At a young age he worked in a window glass factory and developed a deep respect for the working classes. During the s he traveled extensively between Ohio and Pennsylvania learning the glassblower’s trade and developing his organizational skills. The s saw him active in Wheeling, Virginia (later West Virginia), and in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he joined the first window glass blowers union. When the Civil War began Cline raised a company of volunteers, joined the th Pennsylvania Regiment, and served with distinction until the end of the war. In  Cline became the leading light of the Glass Blowers Union and later an official of the newly emergent Knights of Labor. In  he organized the window glass workers of Europe and formed the Universal Federation of Window Glass Workers. He died in office as the international union’s first president, too early to participate in the growing populist movement of the coming years. Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor Leaders. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . McNeill, George E. The Labor Movement: The Problem of To-day. New York: M. W. Hazen, .

See also glassmaking; labor movement

Susan Chore

Robert C. Nelson

.-square-mile city in southern Passaic County. Located to the east of the cliffs of Garret Mountain Reservation (whence its name), Clifton was formerly the southernmost and last surviving portion of old Acquackanonk Township (American Indian name for “fishing spot in a rapid stream’’), which originally included Clifton, Paterson, Passaic, Little Falls, and West Paterson. It was incorporated as the city of Clifton in . The locale was a tidewater sloop port on the Passaic River, and milling and manufacturing were important nineteenth-century industries. Today Clifton is traversed by major highway arteries, including Routes  and  and the Garden State Parkway, and saw heavy residential and commercial development in the twentieth century. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race), and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Clinton. .-square-mile town in Hunterdon County. First settled where the confluence of the South Branch of the Raritan River and the Spruce Run Reservoir afforded sufficient waterpower to operate two mills as early as , Clinton was incorporated out of Clinton Township on April , . Between  and , Daniel Hunt purchased and improved the mills, increasing their importance; the area subsequently became known as Hunt’s Mills. Hunt’s success attracted more businesses to the town, which grew into a major commercial center for the region’s farm community. When the mills passed from Hunt family ownership in , the hamlet was renamed for the New York governor and developer of the Erie Canal, DeWitt Clinton. In  an Irish family, the Mulligans, opened a limestone quarry on the west mill grounds, and became a commercial supplier of rock and slaked-lime. The family operated the site, adding coal to its inventory, for a century. In  a community group inaugurated efforts to save the mill and grounds, which

Clifton.

156

Clinton Historical Museum

The Clinton Mill serves as the centerpiece of the Clinton Historical Museum and Village.

Photo: Kevin Murtagh. Courtesy The Star-Ledger. was ultimately preserved as the Hunterdon Historical Museum and Village. The restored Red Mill is one of the state’s most recognized landmarks. Clinton Town remains a business, commercial, cultural, and tourist center, and, since stagecoach days, a geographic reference point, with a renown out of proportion to its size and population. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . The First  Years of Hunterdon County, –. Flemington: Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Jordan, Catherine Stewart. The Mulligans: A Legacy in Stone. Clinton: Hunterdon Historical Museum, . ———. The Red Mill: Failure and Fortune. Clinton: Hunterdon Historical Museum, .

Frank A. Curcio

Clinton Historical Museum.

See

Hunterdon Historical Museum

Clinton Township.

.-square-mile township in Hunterdon County. Thomas Jones opened a tavern and built a farmhouse along the Easton-Brunswick Road in Beaver Brook around . Jones Tavern became a center of revolutionary activity and a militia recruiting station, with Jones rising to the rank of captain. On March , , at a meeting held in that same tavern, which was then owned by John Wert, the township was carved out of the southern portion of Lebanon Township. It took its name, Clinton, from the largest settlement within its borders. When the Central Railroad of New Jersey pushed through the region in , the tracks had to bypass the population centers in order

to circumvent the hills to the west. As a result, the CRRNJ station for the Clinton settlement was built two miles east in Beaver Brook, which became Clinton Station, a depot for peaches, milk, and other farm products as well as passengers. It was renamed Annandale in . A severe drought in the mid-twentieth century revived a long-dormant proposal to use the naturally formed Round Valley as a reservoir. The farm community was moved out in , two earthen dams constructed, and the project completed in . Public access was provided in the Round Valley Recreation Area in . Although the sleepy township saw little development between  and , the opening of Interstate  resulted in a nearly  percent increase in population by the start of the twenty-first century, with housing the community’s main industry. Today the township consists of the following sections: Allerton, Annandale, Beaver Brook, Cedar Heights, Clinton Point, Cokesbury, Mariannes Corner, McPherson, Pierce Heights, Potterstown, Readingsburg, Round Valley, Stone Mill, and Sunnyside. Its  population was ,, of which  percent was white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . The First  Years of Hunterdon County, –. Flemington: Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Frank A. Curcio

clockmaking. New Jersey clocks were among the earliest made in the American colonies. Isaac Pearson, a resident of Burlington, was the colony’s pioneer tall-case-clockmaker, having previously been a metalsmith and proprietor of an iron forge. Sometime between  and , he crafted his first clock; today just five survive. Pearson’s clocks are recognized for their square dials, flat tops, and lunettes above the dials. Pearson willed his clockmaking tools to Joseph Hollinshead, his son-in-law, who had joined with him in partnership in . Hollinshead, in turn, made clocks with his sons, Joseph Jr. and John. Such family clockmaking enterprises were not uncommon; different generations of the Dod, Crane, and Brokaw families also made clocks in New Jersey. Attesting to the importance of clockmaking during the Revolutionary War, Isaac Brokaw won recognition from the Provincial Congress and the Council of Safety of the State of New Jersey when, due to the scarcity of raw materials, he was given “thirty pounds weight of lead’’ to carry on his trade in Hillsborough Township. Moving to Elizabethtown and then Bridgetown—now part of Rahway—Brokaw’s clockmaking activities included the complete fabrication of clockworks early in his career

as well as partial assemblage later on, as he mirrored the clock production practices of his fellow craftsmen by relying on imported parts from England. In addition, evidence suggests that Brokaw also had silversmithing skills, reflecting the practices of other clockmakers of his time. Not all clocks produced in New Jersey were tall case clocks. In addition, there were shelf and table clocks, calendar clocks, modestsized month clocks, and astronomical clocks. Unfortunately, the names of furniture makers who made the cases to house clock movements have largely been lost to history. Clockmakers most likely engaged local furniture makers, who drew from nearby supplies of wood, to produce them. Matthew Egerton, Sr., and Matthew Egerton, Jr., of New Brunswick both made cases for clockmakers Brokaw, William J. Leslie, and Benjamin Williams. In Flemington, John Tappen, a carpenter, cabinetmaker, and coffin maker, produced cases for Joakim Hill. Trade labels pasted into clocks by these craftspeople are informative primary sources for discovering when particular clocks were made, as well as other goods that they sold. New Jersey clockmakers influenced the development of clocks and their parts nationally. Henry S. Prentiss, born in Switzerland of American parents, who worked in Elizabeth, was granted nearly thirty patents beginning in ; three came posthumously in  and . Among other improvements, Prentiss developed a calendar clock, several electric synchronizers, a self-winding clock, a watchman’s time detector, a supplemental pendulum bob, and a special clock movement. Further, C. G. Gulenberg of Jersey City patented a stemwinding attachment in  and F. Fischlein a lighting attachment for an alarm clock in . Drost, William E. Clocks and Watches of New Jersey. Elizabeth: Engineering Publishers, .

E. Richard McKinstry

Closter.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Originally a rural farming community, the borough was a frequent victim of Tory raids during the Revolutionary War. It grew markedly after the Northern Railroad of New Jersey established a station in the borough in , turning the area into a popular bedroom community for commuters to New York City. First established as part of Hackensack Township (–), and then as part of Harrington Township, Closter was incorporated as a borough in . Prior to its incorporation, the borders of Closter ranged from what is now Englewood to Tappan. The origin of its name is uncertain. It may derive from the obsolete English word closter, meaning “an enclosed place,’’ or from the name of an early landowner, Frederick Closter. Its historic district includes almost  buildings in the downtown area, many from the s, and the borough is home to

coast the greatest number of houses built prior to  in Bergen County. It is now primarily a residential community of single-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Garbe-Morillo, Patricia. Closter and Alpine. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Gurnee, Jeanne, ed. Historic Homes in Closter. Closter: Environmental Commission, Borough of Closter, . Maples, Sophia Speake, ed. Closter: The First  Years: The Story of Closter’s Growth and Development Presented in Observance of Its Fiftieth Anniversary as a Borough. Closter: Fiftieth Anniversary Committee, .

Susan Chore

version. The cloverleaf is a highway interchange which, by means of curving ramps that form the outline of a four-leaf clover, permits traffic to move or turn in any of four directions with a minimum of interference or delay. The cloverleaf may be most prevalent in southern California, but it was born in New Jersey. The country’s first cloverleaf was the Route –Route  cloverleaf in Woodbridge, built in the late s. The Woodbridge cloverleaf merited front-page coverage in the November , , issue of Engineering NewsRecord. “New Jersey has a major highwayintersection problem,’’ according to the journal, which heralded the cloverleaf as an “outstanding example of New Jersey intersection practice.’’ See also highways

Peter Genovese

Clothier, Robert C.

(b. Jan. ; d. Mar.

, ). Educator. Robert Clothier, descended

from Quakers, graduated from the Haverford School in  and Princeton University in . After a short business career, and service in the army during World War I, he worked as an administrator at Haverford and then the University of Pittsburgh. In  Clothier became president of Rutgers University, where he remained until he retired in . During his term of office Rutgers outgrew its college status and became a state university with expanding campuses in New Brunswick, Newark, and Camden. Under his leadership, the university opened its doors to returning World War II veterans, doubling its enrollment. Clothier also played an important role in the effort to revise the state constitution. A supporter of modernization, he was asked by Gov. Alfred Driscoll to serve as president of the constitutional convention, and its sessions were convened in the gymnasium on the university’s College Avenue campus in New Brunswick—a both geographically central and politically neutral location. During the summer of  Clothier worked closely with Driscoll to obtain a new governmental charter, and that fall obtained overwhelming ratification from the voters. After retiring from Rutgers, Clothier moved back to Haverford, remaining in Pennsylvania until his death.

Coalition for Battered Women. A nonprofit organization, the Coalition for Battered Women was founded in  by a group of formerly abused women and women’s shelter workers. The coalition consists of agencies and shelters for women and children from each of the state’s twenty-one counties. Funding for staff and office space in Trenton was first provided by the state legislature in . The coalition’s mission is to serve as an advocate—along with legislators, private organizations, and the public—on behalf of abused women and their children. The coalition it also maintains an extensive library of books, manuals, and videotapes for use by the public.

Sunday Di Palma

coast.

New Jersey has  miles of Atlantic coastline from Sandy Hook to Cape May, and about  miles from Cape May to Salem. The

Atlantic coast from Montauk Point, Long Island, to Cape May is referred to as the New York Bight. Below Sandy Hook, which extends about  miles into Raritan Bay, there is a series of barrier islands that fringe and protect the mainland. Estuaries and bays behind the barrier islands provide important nursery habitat for fish and shellfish and other invertebrates, as well as recreational opportunities. The bays, estuaries, and mainland are fringed by salt marshes, many of which were ditched in the early s for mosquito control. The structure of coastal barrier islands and salt marshes is dynamic, with sand moving to create new beaches and sand spits, although human development and activities of the Army Corps of Engineers work diligently to maintain the current shoreline. Much of the New Jersey coastline is highly developed, with marinas, bathing beaches, hotels, motels, restaurants, and residential units. The Jersey Shore is one of the major tourist attractions of the state, and accounts for a significant part of New Jersey’s economy. In addition, there are commercial and recreational fisheries operating in all the major bays and inlets, as well as commercial and recreational crabbing. There are also protected undeveloped lands, including the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Seashore, Island Beach State Park, Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge, and several other smaller state and county parks. The parks and refuges, in addition to salt marsh islands, provide nesting habitat for a diverse community of herons, egrets, ibises, gulls, terns, skimmers, rails, ducks, and a diversity of passerines. These habitats, in addition to the open bays and estuaries, provide migrant and overwintering habitat for brant, geese, and several species of ducks, gulls, and other seabirds.

Constitutional Convention of .  vols. Trenton: State of New Jersey, –. Robert Clarkson Clothier. New Brunswick: Rutgers Board of Trustees, . McCormick, Richard P. Rutgers: A Bicentennial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

Maxine N. Lurie

cloverleafs.

The cultural critic Lewis Mumford once suggested that the national flower of the United States should be the cloverleaf. Not the plant version—the concrete

157

Cape May coastline.

Courtesy Highwing Aerial Photography.

Coastal Heritage Trail fleet of approximately thirty boats with a retail sales outlet and a restaurant. Double Trouble State Park, in Lacey Township, boasts a historic village set in the midst of the Pinelands. The visitor can explore its cedar swamps and peat and cultivated cranberry bogs. This ,acre park also features carnivorous plants and fire-dependent forests. The Greenwich Tea Burners Monument in Cumberland County commemorates an instance of patriotic fervor before the start of the Revolutionary War. In , a year after the Boston Tea Party, a local group burned East India Company tea in the town square as a protest against British taxes.

Launer, Donald C. A Cruising Guide to New Jersey Waters. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also geography

Joanna Burger

Coastal Heritage Trail.

A threehundred-mile automobile tour traces the shoreline of New Jersey from Deepwater on the Delaware River to Cape May, then north along the Jersey Shore to Sandy Hook, and continues along the banks of Raritan Bay to Perth Amboy. The Trail, a National Park Service program first suggested by U.S. senator Bill Bradley, takes the auto traveler over existing roads to five categories of sites: coastal habitats, scenes rich in maritime history, venues where wildlife might be seen, historical sites, and places to recreate or simply relax. Points of interest are named and explained with permanent signboards. There are three welcome centers: at Fort Mott State Park in Pennsville, in Cape May County; at mile marker . on the Garden State Parkway; and at Sandy Hook. Notable sites along the Trail include the Belford Seafood Co-Op, Double Trouble State Park, and the Greenwich Tea Burners Monument. Perhaps the oldest fishing community on the East Coast, Belford maintains a

Di Ionno, Mark. New Jersey’s Coastal Heritage: A Guide. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Jersey Shore

Mark McGarrity

coast defense.

New Jersey coast defenses primarily protected New York City and Philadelphia. In  a temporary fort defended Sandy Hook, along the main channel into New York Harbor. Construction of a massive granite fort there, begun in , was halted in , leaving the fort unfinished, but defensible. Early in the s, the defenses at Sandy Hook,

Belford Seafood Co-Op

COASTAL HERITAGE TRAIL

Perth Amboy

Future Sandy Hook Welcome Center

SANDY HOOK REGION

NP

IK

E

Trail Route Area Region Boundary Welcome Center

JE

Double Trouble State Park

Island Beach State Park

EN

S TA

TE

W NE

Deepwater Fort Mott State Park

GA

AT EX

LA N PR TIC C ES SW ITY AY

Greenwich Tea Burners Monument

RD

BARNEGAT BAY REGION ABSECON REGION

Atlantic City N

Oceanview Service Area

DELSEA REGION

CAPE MAY REGION

Delaware Bay

0

10 miles

Cape May

named Fort Hancock in , received some of the first new breech-loading seacoast artillery, along with controlled submarine mines to block the channel. During World War I, longrange batteries were added at Fort Hancock, and four mortars were temporarily moved to nearby Navesink Highlands. In World War II, modern six- and sixteen-inch batteries were built at Navesink. During the cold war, Nike antiaircraft missile batteries were emplaced at both Fort Hancock and Navesink. New Jersey forts also defended the Delaware River, along with forts in Delaware and Pennsylvania. During the Revolutionary War, earthwork batteries denied the use of the Delaware River to the British. The Billingsport Redoubt was abandoned, but Fort Mercer at Red Bank successfully repelled a determined British attack and held out until after the fall of Philadelphia and Fort Mifflin. Defenses were erected at Finns Point during the s, in conjunction with Forts Delaware and Du Pont, in Delaware. Extensive earthwork batteries for large smoothbore cannon and mortars were planned but not completed. Between  and , batteries for breech-loading guns were built at Finns Point, which was renamed Fort Mott in . During World War I, a six-inch gun was emplaced at Cape May, and in the s, railway artillery from Fort Hancock practiced at Cape May. During World War II, mobile guns were emplaced at Cape May, while modern six-inch and ninety-millimeter batteries were constructed, in conjunction with Fort Miles on Cape Henlopen. After World War II, New Jersey’s seacoast defenses were deactivated. Gaines, William C. “The Maritime Defenses of the Delaware, –.’’ Coast Defense Study Group Journal , no.  (Nov. ): –; , no.  (Feb. ): –; , no.  (May ): –; , no.  (Aug. ): –. Lewis, Emanuel Raymond. Seacoast Fortifications of the United States: An Introductory History. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

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More information: http://www.nps.gov/neje © Rutgers, The State University

Bolling Smith

Coast Guard.

See U.S. Coast Guard.

Cochran, John ).

(b. Sept. , ; d. Apr. ,

Physician and Revolutionary War patriot. The son of a Pennsylvania tavern owner, James Cochran, and his cousin, Isabella Cochran, John Cochran studied medicine under Dr. Robert Thompson. Through his marriage to Gertrude Schuyler (Gen. Philip Schuyler’s sister), Cochran had two stepchildren and three sons. While practicing medicine in New Brunswick, Cochran helped found the Medical Society of New Jersey in  and was its president in . A distinguished physician during the Revolutionary War who treated his friends George Washington and the marquis de Lafayette, Cochran became director general of military hospitals of the United States (that is, surgeon general) in .

Coit, Henry Leber situated in a natural setting in Bridgeton’s ,-acre city park with the Cohansey River winding through its paved pathways. The zoo was greatly expanded during the s and s with the addition of bears, lions, primates, and zebras. A walk-through aviary and exhibits of North and South American animals were added during the mids. A primate complex and educational center were added in . Reindeer, white tigers, peregrine falcons, golden eagles, Asiatic bears, white-headed gibbons, and a coatimundi are some of the featured animals. Two cougar cubs were acquired for a new habitat.

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Cohen, Julius Henry ).

John Cochran.

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark. Chard, Thornton, ed. “Excerpts from the Private Journal of Doctor John Cochran, Director of Military Hospitals during the Revolution and Close Friend of Washington and Lafayette.’’ New York History  (): –. Saffron, Morris H. Surgeon to Washington: John Cochran, –. New York: Columbia University Press, .

See also American Revolution; medicine and public health

Karen Reeds

cockroaches. These insects belong to the order Dictyoptera, which has survived with few physical changes for the past  million years. About five thousand different kinds of cockroaches have been identified worldwide, but the most familiar cockroaches are the twenty-five pest species. The most commonly found cockroaches in New Jersey, the German cockroach Blatella germanica and the American cockroach Periplaneta americana, are not actually from the United States but immigrated from northern Africa. The state’s reclusive endogenous species, the wood roach, genus Parcoblatta, lives outside in wooded or less disturbed areas. Sometimes wood roaches can be found in houses surrounded by trees or woodpiles.

(b. ; d. Oct. ,

Lawyer and counsel for the Port Authority. Julius Cohen was the son of Henry and Elizabeth Wolf Cohen. He graduated from New York University in  and was admitted to the bar a year later. In  he was made counsel to the New York–New Jersey Harbor Development Commission. The lack of cooperation between New York and New Jersey was hurting the business community, which urged Cohen to find a way to develop a unified port. Cohen conceived and wrote the legislation that led in  to the formation of the Port of New York Authority, the first interstate agency created under a clause of the Constitution permitting compacts between the states. Its area of jurisdiction was the “Port District,’’ a bistate region of fifteen hundred square miles centered on the Statue of Liberty. The authority could buy, build, lease, or operate transportation facilities in the region, including bridges, tunnels, seaports, and airports. It was allowed to issue bonds or charge user fees, but could not tax or pledge either state’s credit. Later, Cohen designed and defended the bond indentures of the agency, which enabled its work to be done.

Cohen, Julius H. They Builded Better Than They Knew. New York: J. Messner, . Doig, Jameson W. Empire on the Hudson: Political Power and Progress at the Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Fair, Marvin L. Port Administration in the United States. Cambridge, MD: Cornell Maritime Press, .

Angus Kress Gillespie

Coit, Henry Leber (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ). Pediatrician and public health advocate. Born in Peapack, Henry Coit was the son of John Summerfield Coit and Ellen Neafie. In  he graduated from the College of Pharmacy in New York, and in  he received his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons (associated with Columbia University). Also in  he married Emma Gwinnel of Newark, with whom he had five children. The death of his youngest son prompted him to specialize in the new field of pediatrics. In  he began a crusade to require that milk meet higher standards of purity. In , with the aid of Newark citizens, he founded the Babies Hospital of Newark, and in  he became the organizer and first president of the New Jersey Pediatric Society. In  the American Public Health Association honored Coit by naming him to their Master List of Pioneers of Public Health for his contributions to the improvement of milk sanitation. The Henry L. Coit Papers are in the National Library of Medicine in Maryland. ANB. Rogers, Fred B. Help-Bringers: Versatile Physicians of New Jersey. New York: Vantage Press, . Wasserman, Manfred J. “Henry L. Coit and the Certified Milk Movement in the Development of Modern Pediatrics.’’ Bulletin of the History of Medicine  (): –.

Sam Alewitz

Betty Faber

Cohanzick Zoo. Founded in  and located in Bridgeton, Cohanzick Zoo is the oldest zoo in New Jersey and the only one municipally owned. Citizens started the zoo because they wanted to exhibit their own herd of deer, which were wandering through the city. It has grown to include more than two hundred birds and animals. Named for the Cohanzick Indians who once lived in the area, the zoo is

159

Dr. Henry L. Coit at one of the “Baby Keep Well’’ stations he established to encourage mothers to bring healthy babies for periodic checkups, Newark.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

160

Colby, Everett

Colby, Everett

(b. Dec. , ; d. June ,

). Lawyer, political reformer, and business-

man. Everett Colby was born in Milwaukee and educated at the Browning School, Brown University, and New York Law School. Admitted to the bar, he practiced in New Jersey, and became active in Essex County politics. In  he was elected to the state assembly, where he served three years. Refused a party nomination to the state senate because of his independence, Colby fought a public campaign for the nomination and won it and then the office. His action stimulated the “New Idea’’ movement (for progressive reforms) in the GOP, which induced a similar reform strain in the Democratic party; the two developments paved the way for the election of Woodrow Wilson as governor. In the senate Colby supported Wilson’s reform legislation of , and in  he went with Theodore Roosevelt and the Bull Moose party. In  he campaigned unsuccessfully for governor on the Bull Moose ticket. Nobel, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Steffens, Lincoln. Upbuilders. . Reprint. Seattle: University of Washington Press, .

See also Progressive Era

Joseph Francis Mahoney

of the ,-member New Jersey Industrial Union Council. See also labor movement

James P. Quigel, Jr.

Cole, Schotz, Meisel, Forman, and Leonard. This law firm was founded in  by David Cole, noted labor arbitrator and mediator, and Mendon Morrill, one of New Jersey’s foremost trial attorneys. Today Cole Schotz has a staff of eighty-five lawyers and ranks among the largest firms in the state. Founding member David Cole served as director of the Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service and counseled every president from Harry S Truman to Gerald R. Ford regarding national labor issues. Cofounder Mendon Morrill served as a judge of the U.S. District Court. Former partner Leonard I. Garth also served on the U.S. District Court and currently serves on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. The firm’s national client base consists of private, public, and not-for-profit corporations, including Fortune  companies as well as partnerships and individuals. Having grown in size and diversity of practice in order to meet the changing needs of its clients, the firm is now organized into nine major departments: bankruptcy, corporate, corporate finance, employment, environmental, health care, litigation, real estate, and tax and estate planning.

Gayle Englert

Cold Spring Village.

See Historic Cold

Spring Village.

Cole, Archer

Colgate, William , ).

(b. ; d. June , ).

Labor leader and political activist. The son of a Brooklyn furrier, Archer Cole devoted fifty years to New Jersey’s labor movement. He attended Brooklyn public schools and graduated from City College in . Cole’s progressive political orientation led him into the leftist United Electrical Workers of America (UE) in the late s. He held several UE posts—shop steward, business representative, and organization director for New Jersey—during the s. Cole later married Phyllis Salvato and moved to Roselle, New Jersey. Cole joined the International Union of Electrical Workers (IUE) in  after the merger of UE District  with the IUE. He was blacklisted by then IUE President Jim Carey for refusing to incriminate UE members at the House of Un-American Activities Committee hearings held in Newark in . Returning to the IUE in , Cole served as international representative, secretary-treasurer, and president of IUE District  from  to . He was appointed to Gov. Brendan Byrne’s Economic Recovery Commission in  and framed New Jersey’s Unemployment Insurance Improvement Act of . Cole also taught courses on labor at Rutgers University. In  Cole was appointed IUE director of organization. From  to  Cole was the president

(b. Jan. , ; d. Mar.

Manufacturer and philanthropist. William Colgate was born in England, the son of Robert and Sarah (Bowles). The family emigrated to the United States, where he married Mary Gilbert in ; they had three children. Colgate learned soap and candle making, starting his own company in New York City in

. In , he moved the company to Jersey City. It survives today as Colgate-Palmolive, a $ billion household, oral, and personal care company with research and development facilities located in Piscataway and Morristown. Colgate, whose innovations transformed the soap industry, was a philanthropist and a devout Baptist, donating a tenth of his earnings to his church. ANB. Fucini, Joseph J., and Suzy Fucini. Entrepreneurs: The Men and Women behind Famous Brand Names and How They Made It. Boston: G. K. Hall, . Ingham, John N. Biographical Dictionary of American Business Leaders. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

Dona M. Amici

Colgate-Palmolive.

Founded in New York City in  by William Colgate, the household products manufacturing firm originally produced soap, starch, and candles at a factory on Dutch Street. In  the firm, then known as William Colgate and Company, expanded its manufacturing operation to Paulus Hook (now Jersey City). This facility, one of the largest of its type in the United States, produced the company’s two main products, Pearl starch and Windsor toilet soap. The Dutch Street manufacturing facilities were relocated to Jersey City in , and after the founder’s death in  the firm became known as Colgate and Company. Although the starch factory was destroyed by fire in  (ending production of that commodity), the company soon introduced new products, including perfumed soap, perfumes, and toothpaste in jars (). In  the first formal research laboratory opened in Jersey City, under the direction of Dr. Martin H. Ittner, a leading innovator in the field of industrial chemistry. During the same year the

Postcard showing the Colgate-Palmolive building in Jersey City, c. .

From Greeting from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike.

Collier, Peter Fenelon firm introduced Colgate Ribbon Dental Cream, which was packaged in a collapsible tube. By the company’s centennial in , it was producing  different types of toilet soap, over  varieties of perfume, and a host of different laundry soaps. In , a giant clock nearly forty feet in diameter made its appearance over the Jersey City factory. Octagonal in shape, the clock proved to be an effective advertisement for Octagon soap, one of the firm’s leading products. In  the clock was replaced by an even larger model, with Jersey City mayor Frank Hague officiating at the opening ceremony. The firm established overseas subsidiaries in Australia, Europe, Canada, and Latin America between  and , and a  merger with a former competitor resulted in the creation of Colgate-Palmolive-Peet, with headquarters in Jersey City. Although the new firm was originally run by the former Palmolive management, the Colgate family regained control following the  stock market crash. The company took its present name in , and in  opened a seventy-fiveacre Worldwide Research and Development Division (now the Global Technology Center) adjacent to Rutgers University’s Piscataway campus. In  the center expanded to include a corporate data center, and in recent years the corporation has continued to expand through acquisitions, including Vipont Pharmaceutical (makers of Viadent toothpaste and topical salves) in  and the MurphyPhoenix Company (makers of Murphy’s Oil Soap) in . The firm’s biggest acquisition came in  when it purchased the Mennen Company for $ million. Incorporated in , Mennen had been founded by pharmacist Gerhard Mennen in Newark in , and had a long history of manufacturing operations in both Newark (since ) and Morristown (beginning in ). Despite fierce competition from rivals such as Proctor and Gamble, the corporation continues to be the leading producer of a wide variety of household and personal care products and holds a major share of the market for these products both at home and abroad. See also pharmaceutical industry

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

College of New Jersey.

Trenton State College became the College of New Jersey in ,  years after it was founded in downtown Trenton with fifteen students as the New Jersey Normal School. The school moved several miles away to Ewing Township in the early s after changing its name to the State Teachers College and State Normal School at Trenton. It added a bachelor’s degree program at that time. The school grew steadily, offering secondary degree programs and dropping the “Normal School’’ from its name. By  the college campus had grown to  acres; today it encompasses  acres. In  the college

161

The College of Saint Elizabeth, Morristown.

Courtesy Pike Archives. became a multipurpose institution, no longer only training teachers. By that time, its master’s degree programs were twenty-one years old. In  it reorganized into seven schools: School of Art, Media, and Music; School of Education; School of Engineering; School of Business; School of Science; School of Culture and Society; and School of Nursing. In  the college had  full-time faculty members and just under , students in day and evening programs, and was involved in a major facilities building operation. See also higher education

an honors program, leadership program, Hispanic leadership program, the Riordan Volunteer Center, and campus ministry. Having graduated more than ten thousand students, the college celebrated its centennial in . Its present enrollment of , students is the largest in its history. Gleason, Mary Ellen, Carol-Marie Kiernan, and George Sirgiovanni. College of Saint Elizabeth. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, . McEniry, Blanche Marie. Three Score and Ten: A History of the College of Saint Elizabeth, –. Convent Station: College of Saint Elizabeth, .

See also higher education

Joseph V. Ellis Harriet Sepinwall

College of Saint Elizabeth.

In  the Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth founded the College of Saint Elizabeth in Morristown as New Jersey’s first permanent four-year liberal arts college for women. The founders included Mother Mary Xavier Mehegan and Sister Pauline Kelligar, the first president. The current president is Sister Francis Raftery. The campus features a Shakespeare Garden and a greenhouse, the Greek Theatre, tennis courts, indoor pool, and television production and distance learning studios. The continuing education program, begun in , today includes Weekend College, continuing studies, and nursing in the coeducational adult undergraduate degree programs. The coeducational graduate program, approved in , offers seven master’s degrees and various professional certificates. The college’s Center for Theological and Spiritual Development is a regional center for developing Catholic lay leadership. The Holocaust Education Resource Center trains teachers and holds Holocaust remembrance and education programs for students and the community. Special programs and activities for the undergraduate women’s college include

Collier, Peter Fenelon (b. Dec. , ; d. Apr. , ). Publisher and sportsman. Born in County Carlow, Ireland, the son of Robert Collier and Catherine Fenelon, Peter Collier emigrated to the United States with his parents in . He married Katherine Dunn in . Collier entered the business world as a salesman of Catholic books. In  he started his own business in New York, specializing in the publishing of Bibles and the classics. He sold them to the public on an installment plan. The business expanded, and he soon had branch offices all over the country. In  he started to publish a weekly magazine called Once A Week. In , as the circulation grew, he changed the name to Collier’s Weekly. Publication was suspended in . In  Collier bought a large tract of land in Marlboro Township, which he named Rest Hill and used as a summer residence. He was already well known in Monmouth County for having introduced the sport of foxhunting to the area. ANB.

Nathan Handlin

162

Collier, Robert J.

Collier, Robert J. (b. ; d. Nov. , ). Publisher, editor, and aviation pioneer. The son of publisher Peter Fenelon Collier, Robert Collier was a sport enthusiast who purchased a Wright biplane in , and turned the polo field at his Marlboro estate, Rest Hill, in Monmouth County into New Jersey’s first private airfield. As president of the Aero Club of America in , Collier donated a trophy (renamed for him after his death) that is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum and continues to be a distinguished aeronautical award. In , Collier’s widow, Sarah, donated Rest Hill to the Sisters of the Good Shepherd who opened the Collier School, later to become Collier Services. Reilly, H. V. Pat. From the Balloon to the Moon. Oradell: H.V. Publishers, .

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Collin, Nicholas

(b. Aug. , ; d. Oct. ,

). Clergyman. Born in Fundbo, Sweden, the

son of a Lutheran clergyman, Nicholas Collin graduated from the University of Uppsala with a theology degree in . He was ordained by the Lutheran Consistory in the same year and appointed as the assistant rector of the Swedish Lutheran church in Raccoon, New Jersey, a parish within the Swedish Lutheran mission to the Delaware Valley. Three years later, he became rector of this congregation and the neighboring Lutheran parish at Penns Neck, Salem County. He held this position until  when the mission ceased operations. Most of the Swedish churches affiliated with the newly formed Protestant Episcopal Church. Collin was then appointed pastor of the Gloria Dei Church in Philadelphia, where he spent the rest of his ministerial career. Though he never quite adjusted to the religiously diverse South Jersey countryside, Collin was influential in improving the rural congregations under his care. In , he presided over the construction of a magnificent new church structure at Raccoon (now Trinity Episcopal Church of Swedesboro), which still stands today. Collin also became an influential member of the Philadelphia scientific community. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in  and made several contributions in natural philosophy and botany.

nineteenth centuries. Proximity to Camden and Philadelphia and the completion of the Camden and Atlantic Railroad to Atlantic City spurred residential growth and led the community to split from Haddon Township and incorporate as a borough in . Philadelphia financier and philanthropist Edward Collings Knight, a descendant of the early family of settlers from which the community takes its name, fostered the rapid growth of the town by his gift of sixty-five acres for a landscaped park. Knight Park is still the picturesque hub of this predominantly residential borough’s recreational and cultural activities. A modern station on the Port Authority Transit Corporation (PATCO) rapid transit line provides an undeniable economic benefit in maintaining the borough’s mix of  percent residential,  percent commercial, and  percent apartments. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

he moved it to Trenton. With support from the state legislature, he established the first permanent newspaper in the state, the NewJersey Gazette, in , in which he staunchly defended freedom of the press. His most ambitious undertaking was the production of the King James Bible, the second quarto edition to have been published in America. Collins secured state contracts to print various editions of Votes and Proceedings of the General Assembly and other government publications. In addition, he issued almanacs, books, pamphlets, broadsides, and ephemera. In , Collins moved to New York City, where his printing career ended. Collins married twice: Rachel Budd in  and after her death, Deborah Smith, a widow, in .

Bancroft, Raymond Mitchell. Collingswood Story. Collingswood: R. Bancroft, .

in New Jersey grew significantly in the s. The Bergen County towns of Englewood and Hackensack are home to the state’s largest Colombian communities. Colombian businesses, including everything from music stores to restaurants, thrive there. Colombia Independence Day festivals in both towns draw thousands of visitors each summer. About five thousand people from the small Colombian coffee-producing town of Montenegro now live in Morristown. These enterprising immigrants have raised enough funds over the years to send fire trucks and ambulances to their former hometown. According to the  U.S. Census, , New Jersey residents reported Colombian ancestry, up from , in . Leaders of the ethnic community, however, estimate that well over , persons of Colombian descent reside in New Jersey, a number that includes many who have overstayed tourist visas and live in the United States illegally. Some come in pursuit of better job opportunities, but most have fled the four-decades-old civil war in Colombia. Members of the ColombianAmerican community who are more established in the United States are turning their attention to community involvement. Many municipal, county, and state Hispanic political and civic organizations are headed by Colombians. See also ethnicity

Clement, John. Sketches of the First Emigrant Settlers, Newton Township, Old Gloucester County, West New Jersey. Camden: Sinnickson Chew, . Collingswood—The First One Hundred Years, – . Collingswood: Centennial Committee, .

Peter B. Childs

Collins, Isaac

(b. Feb. , ; d. Mar.

, ). Printer. Isaac Collins was born near

Centreville, Delaware. He was the son of an English Quaker, Charles Collins, who had immigrated to America to start a new life as a farmer, and Sarah Hammond, a native of nearby Chester County, Pennsylvania. In , Collins apprenticed with James Adams of Wilmington, Delaware’s first printer, and in  with William Rind in Williamsburg, Virginia. As a master printer, Collins opened his own shop in Burlington in ; in ,

Bell, Whitfield J. “Nicholas Collin’s Appeal to American Scientists.’’ William and Mary Quarterly, d ser.,  (): –. Johnson, Amandus. The Journal and Biography of Nicholas Collin, –. Philadelphia: New Jersey Society of Pennsylvania, .

See also newspapers

E. Richard McKinstry

Colombians. The Colombian population

Elizabeth Llorente

See also Swedes

John Fea

Collingswood. .-square-mile borough in western Camden County, situated between the Cooper River and Newton Creek. Settled by Quakers in the seventeenth century, the community, which was primarily agrarian, grew slowly during the eighteenth and most of the

Hixson, Richard F. Isaac Collins: A Quaker Printer in Eighteenth-Century America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Isaac Collins.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

colonial wars. While under English rule, the colony of New Jersey faced little danger of foreign or Indian attack. On its frontiers were the colonies of New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. In view of the strong Quaker influence in government, it is not surprising that New Jersey was inclined to provide at best only minimal support to the government in times of war.

Colt, Peter

FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR BARRACKS, 1758

Elizabeth N

Perth Amboy New Brunswick

0

15

Trenton

miles

Burlington © Rutgers, The State University

The few subtribes of the Delaware Indians in New Jersey, such as the Hackensacks, Minisinks, and Raritans, caused almost no trouble, although in the mid-s there was a flare-up along the Delaware River in northwestern New Jersey. The Treaty of Easton in  brought lasting peace. The Indians of New Jersey sold their land claims in exchange for a reservation established for them at Brotherton in Burlington County. By , Native Americans in New Jersey had almost totally vanished. Although avoiding wars on its own soil, New Jersey gradually increased its contributions to intercolonial war efforts. During King William’s War (–), however, the colony offered no aid to New York and the New England colonies in their projected Canadian offensives. During Queen Anne’s War (– ), with a single governor overseeing New Jersey and New York, the colony was expected to aid in prosecuting the war on the New York frontier and in Canada. In  New Jersey provided about five hundred troops, who were mustered in New York City but not used. New Jersey volunteers joined a force collected near Albany under the command of Col. Francis Nicholson in  and , but failure of British assistance along the Saint Lawrence River resulted in cancellation of the Canadian invasions. With time, Great Britain’s rivalry with France and Spain for the North American empire intensified as ever-enlarging spheres of interest overlapped. New Jersey traders and land seekers joined colonists from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia in the westward advance. Gov. Lewis Morris prevailed upon the General Assembly in  to vote for raising volunteers for an American force to join a British expedition against the Spaniards in the West Indies and Caribbean. New Jersey contributed three companies of one hundred men each, under the commands of James Hooper, George Thomas, and Robert Farmar. Rampant disease and the disastrous assault on Cartagena on the Colombia coast in March  forfeited many

lives. Of the , Americans in the British expedition, only  percent returned home. Neither New Jersey nor other northern colonies gave any further assistance in the so-called War of Jenkin’s Ear (–). During the last two wars of the colonial period, New Jersey made a more determined commitment. The royal governors had instructions for their colonies to share in the burden of supplying men and provisions. In King George’s War (–) the legislature, although dominated by pacifist Quakers, appropriated £, toward financing the New England force that assisted in the capture of Louisbourg, on Cape Breton Island, on June , . For a planned attack on French-held Crown Point on Lake Champlain in , New Jersey raised five companies of one hundred men each. The Jersey Blues (as the volunteer militiamen were now called), commanded by Col. Peter Schuyler, arrived at Albany in September to link up with Gen. William Shirley’s army. Delays in pay, bad food, and defective weapons contributed to a heavy desertion rate and also a mutiny in May . Expected assistance from the Iroquois was mostly not forthcoming. The expedition was canceled, and the New Jersey troops returned home. Another New Jersey regiment was being raised at the time the war ended in . The colony rarely participated in intercolonial war and Indian conferences. New Jersey failed to send commissioners to the Albany Congress in , and the legislature rejected the Albany Plan of Union because it would “affect our Constitution in its very vitals.’’ From  to  the colony maintained blockhouses in Sussex County to ward off threatened Indian attacks. During the French and Indian War, the defeat of Gen. Edward Braddock, commanding regulars and Virginia, North Carolina, and Maryland militia in western Pennsylvania on July , , prompted the New Jersey legislature to vote funds (although less than requested by Gov. Jonathan Belcher) to raise troops for military campaigns against the French. New Jersey, however, was the only colony that failed to fill its assigned quota of troops, providing only half of the one thousand men requested. The reasons given were economic hard times and the contributions from other colonies, which were deemed sufficient for victory. New Jersey troops joined the force led by William Johnson directed against Crown Point. Col. Peter Schuyler commanded the Blues, half of whom were stationed at Oswego and half at Schenectady. A French army under the Marquis de Montcalm captured Oswego on August , , and Schuyler and the New Jerseyans became prisoners of war. The New Jersey regiment was revived in , when the colony voted to raise  troops, one-half of the quota assigned by the British commander-in-chief in America, Lord Loudoun. By early summer , the new levies from New Jersey, commanded by Col. John

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Parker, had taken post at Fort William Henry on the lower end of Lake George. Parker, with  men from his regiment and a few New York soldiers, set off in twenty-two whaleboats to scout along the lakeshore, hoping to apprehend some detached French soldiers or their Indian allies. Parker’s flotilla was ambushed by  Indians in canoes at Sabbath Day Point;  of Parker’s men were killed and  made prisoners. Those who made it back to Fort William Henry fared no better. The fort, under siege, surrendered on August , . Some of the captured New Jerseyans were among those slaughtered by Indians as the captives were marched toward Fort Edward. The surrendered New Jerseyans were allowed to go free on parole for eighteen months, after which time they could fight again. Most of the ,-man quota for  was raised. The troops, commanded by Col. John Johnston, joined Gen. James Abercromby’s army at the site of the former Fort William Henry, which had been demolished. On July , Abercromby’s army, in twelve hundred boats, moved twenty-five miles up Lake George, debarking on a narrow peninsula connecting Lakes George and Champlain, a few miles from Fort Ticonderoga. Successive assaults on Fort Ticonderoga met with withering fire and ended in disaster. The British army withdrew. The New Jersey troops, kept as a rear guard and involved only in the final assault, suffered few casualties. In the fall of  the New Jersey General Assembly reestablished the regiment at full strength, and also provided funds to build barracks in five towns for fifteen hundred soldiers (only the Old Barracks in Trenton survives today). The Jersey Blues, now commanded by Col. Peter Schuyler, who had been released as a prisoner of war, again did duty in the Lake Champlain area. Enlistments of troops were voted for  through , although quotas were only partially filled. Some New Jersey troops accompanied Gen. Jeffrey Amherst’s army in  in the taking of Montreal. During the French and Indian War the New Jersey legislature refused to levy any new taxes. Although Parliament reimbursed the colonies for one-third of their war expenses, New Jersey issued £, in unsecured paper money during the war. At war’s end, New Jersey had the largest indebtedness of any of the colonies. Fisher, Edgar J. New Jersey as a Royal Province,  to . . Reprint. New York: AMS Press, . Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . Ward, Harry M. “Unite or Die’’: Intercolony Relations, –. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, .

Harry M. Ward

Colt, Peter (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ). Businessman. Peter Colt was born in Connecticut, served as a deputy commissary general during the Revolution, and later as Connecticut’s state treasurer. In , he was hired by

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Colt, Samuel

the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures (SUM) as superintendent of the factory at the pay of $, a year. Colt was not trained as an engineer, but he was practical and efficient. He scaled down Pierre L’Enfant’s ambitious plans for a massive aqueduct, which did not take into consideration the limited finances and scarcity of skilled labor at the time. Colt dammed a ravine to create a reservoir that fed a single raceway for the mills. To begin production before the water mills were ready in , Colt set up a small, ox-powered mill that spun cotton. Economic troubles ended Colt’s term in , when the society temporarily ceased operations. He worked for the Western Land Lock Navigation Company in New York, but returned to New Jersey in , where he remained until his death. His sons, Roswell Colt (–) and John Colt (–), were instrumental in reviving the SUM in the nineteenth century. John Colt’s Paterson cotton mill made cotton duck used for the sails of the famed racing yacht America.

David A. Norris

Colt, Samuel

(b. July , ; d. Jan. ,

). Inventor and manufacturer. Samuel Colt

was born in Hartford, Connecticut, the son of Christopher and Sarah Caldwell Colt. Even at a very young age, he was brilliantly inventive at tinkering with guns and machinery. Colt went to sea at sixteen, and while sailing to Calcutta came up with an idea for a practical revolving pistol. The revolver concept itself was not new, but Colt was the first to make it work by incorporating a pawl-and-ratchet gear similar to that used to keep a ship’s capstan from sliding backward. This securely held the cylinder in place and minimized the misfires and accidents that plagued earlier repeating firearms. To raise money for prototype guns and patent

fees, Colt went on a lecture tour to demonstrate the effects of laughing gas to amused audiences. By , Colt had raised enough money for U.S., British, and French patents, and to set up a gun factory. The new firm, called the Patent Arms Manufacturing Company, was located in the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures industrial site along the Passaic River at Paterson. Colt demolished an old factory and replaced it with a new four-story gun mill dominated by a large central tower. A fence with pickets in the shape of guns surrounded the property. While in operation, the factory made handguns as well as rifles, carbines, and even revolving shotguns. All of these weapons used percussion caps and black powder cartridges; suitable metallic cartridges were years in the future. The most common guns were five-shot pistols. Many of these early Paterson Colt pistols are distinguished by a concealed trigger that appears when the gun is cocked, and by their lack of trigger guards. The guns were popular with individual buyers, but the large military contracts needed for profitable largescale production were slow in coming. U.S. Army administrators and ordnance officers resisted the new technology; indeed, for years they resisted switching from outmoded flintlocks to percussion-cap weapons. The lack of large government contracts and the lingering effects of the Panic of  bankrupted Colt’s Paterson operation, and it closed in  after manufacturing only a few thousand weapons. Although the Paterson factory closed, the weapons manufactured there eventually made Samuel Colt’s fortune. His revolvers began to catch on in the West, especially after the armed forces of the Republic of Texas bought some of the Paterson revolvers. Demand increased with glowing tales of the revolver’s

efficiency during the Mexican War. By this time, Colt had opened a new plant in Hartford, Connecticut. He asked many of his former workers from New Jersey to move to the new factory. When Colt died in , his gun was already a legend. Colt’s Paterson factory was converted into a textile mill. Subsequent owners altered the complex over the years. The remaining Colt buildings were vacant after  and were almost destroyed by a series of arson fires; restoration efforts are planned. Surviving Paterson Colt revolvers are desirable collectors’ items. Haven, Charles T., and Frank A. Belden. A History of the Colt Revolver. New York: Bonanza Books, . Hosley, William N. Colt: The Making of an American Legend. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, . Wilson, R. L. Colt: An American Legend. New York: Abbeville Press, . ———. Colt Heritage: The Official History of Colt Firearms. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

David A. Norris

Colts Neck.

.-square-mile township in Monmouth County. Incorporated as Atlantic Township in , it was renamed Colts Neck in . There are references to Colts Neck as early as . The derivation of the name is not positively known: it may have been because its location between Yellow Brook and Mine Brook forms a neck of land similar to that of a colt’s. Early settlers were from England and Scotland. One of its most memorable residents was Capt. Joshua Huddy of the New Jersey militia who was executed by Loyalists toward the end of the Revolutionary War. At that time, Colts Neck was mostly rural, with mills and horse farms the economic mainstays. Laird and Company operated a distillery until . From  to , the North American Phalanx, a cooperative community, prospered here. In the early s, water, telephone, and electricity services were established and a town hall was erected in . Residential development started in the s and escalated through the s. Today, Colts Neck is largely a residential area. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bill, Alfred Hoyt. New Jersey and the Revolutionary War. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Gabrielan, Randall. Colts Neck. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Pierce, Arthur D. Smuggler’s Woods: Jaunts and Journeys in Colonial and Revolutionary New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara Pepe

Combs, Moses Newell

(b. Jan. ,

Colt Paterson number  belt model . caliber revolver in case.

; d. Apr. , ). Manufacturer. Although

Courtesy Paterson Museum. Photo: Joseph Costa.

his standing in Newark economic history is

Commercial Township

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Commerce and Industry Association of New Jersey. A free enter-

Circa  drawing of the North American Phalanx, a commune located in Colts Neck during the mid–nineteenth century.

From Illustrated News, Apr. 25, 1853. Courtesy Randall Gabrielan.

outmatched by others, most notably the inventor Seth Boyden, Combs deserves notice as the first entrepreneur to sell his own leather product—shoes—beyond his city’s borders. In so doing he became the leading Newark industrialist of his time. Combs is believed to have been born in Newark in , possibly . As a young man he answered the call to arms on behalf of American independence in  and served in the Continental Army for a year, followed by another year or so as an artillery sergeant with the New Jersey militia. In  he married Mary Haynes, then in her late teens, and they had thirteen children. He has been depicted as a “little black-eyed man’’ of determined character. Around  he began tanning, using animal hides and tree bark to fashion leather articles. It was a Newark specialty dating almost as far back as the city’s settlement in . In those early colonial days, journeymen tanners periodically went from house to house to transform hide into shoes. Newark’s earliest known practitioner, in the seventeenth century, was Samuel Whitehead, originally of Elizabeth. Tanners congregated at a watering place on or near Market Street in central Newark, and Combs was undoubtedly among them. By the early years of the nineteenth century, about a third of Newark’s labor force worked at shoemaking and other leather industries. As the tanning business became firmly established, Combs focused his attention on shoe manufacturing, and he was the first to deal with customers beyond the local area, especially in the South. One particular order for two hundred pairs of shoes placed by a client from Savannah, Georgia, in  is regarded as a breakthrough for both Combs and

Newark. As the historian John T. Cunningham observed, “He made Newark aware that money could be made by serving distant regions.’’ A visiting French aristocrat in the early s estimated Combs’s workforce to be between three hundred and four hundred. Combs was an ordained preacher and temperance advocate whose inclination for separatism caused him to distance himself from the mainline Presbyterian congregation and for a time operate his own house of worship. He found himself at odds with a church discipline he regarded as “arbitrary and tyrannous,’’ in the words of a biographer, who said this same impulse caused Combs to set free a black man he owned. (The emancipated slave, Harry Lawrence, was hanged in  for poisoning his wife.) Aside from his business success, Combs is most noted for establishing a night school for his employees in — the first of its kind in America. Apprentices learned reading, writing, and other basic skills free of charge in a two-story building Combs erected on Market Street near Plane Street, where he also held worship services. Combs operated the school until , two years after his wife died. He was a cofounder and director of the Newark Fire Insurance Company and treasurer of the Springfield-Newark Turnpike Company. He moved to Randolph in Morris County, applied for a Revolutionary War pension in , and died two years later. Cunningham, John T. Newark. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Shaw, William H., comp. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. Vol.. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

See also shoemaking

Edward A. Jardim

prise advocacy organization established in , the Commerce and Industry Association of New Jersey (CIANJ) is made up of  companies, representing all areas of business and industry, for the purpose of promoting a favorable economic environment in New Jersey. The association’s board of directors includes members from businesses in northern New Jersey. CIANJ’s advocacy efforts include business–government networking sessions as well as legislative updates; educational programs, including roundtables for environmental and employment issues, breakfasts, and training programs; Commerce, a magazine launched in , with a current readership of ten thousand; social opportunities and affinity-program discounts for members; leadership awards; a business and industrial directory of nearly nine thousand firms; and the Private Enterprise Political Action Committee (PENPAC). CIANJ also sponsors the Foundation for Free Enterprise, an outreach program launched in  that provides numerous educational offerings at Ramapo College, such as the Learn about Business intensive seminar and the Free Market Study Conference for school students; a debate series for high school students; and a distinguished lecture series for college students. The foundation also offers an Understanding American Business seminar for teachers at New Jersey City University and a Making New Jersey Competitive seminar for public officials.

Deborah S. Greenhut

Commerce Bank. Founded in  by Vernon W. Hill II, Commerce Bank and its parent holding company, Commerce Bancorp, have grown quickly. With an aggressive expansion plan, Commerce has become the largest independent bank holding company in New Jersey in assets and deposits. Headquartered in Cherry Hill, Commerce’s retail strategy includes offering extended hours and opening offices seven days a week. Choosing to expand through the establishment of branches rather than through the acquisition of other banks, Commerce had  branches in New Jersey and  offices in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New York in . See also banking Ann Kessler

Commercial Township.

.-squaremile township in southern Cumberland County. Once a major oystering center, Commercial was formed from Downe Township in . Villages within the township include Bivalve, Laurel Lake, Port Norris, and Mauricetown. The area’s prosperity has long been tied to the water. Once, millions of oysters were harvested annually in Delaware Bay.

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Commonwealth Dental Society

When a rail line to Bivalve expanded the market for the Maurice River Cove oyster, Port Norris, the business center of the trade, became known as the oyster capital of the world. In  shucking and packing sheds were erected near the docks of Bivalve and Shellpile so that oysters could be shipped off the shell more cheaply. Mauricetown, once the home of sea captains, is today an engaging town of antique shops and lovely old homes. Laurel Lake, which began as a summer resort in the late s, now accounts for about half the township’s population. As a result of a parasite that caused the death of almost the entire Delaware Bay oyster population in  and the s outbreak of a new oyster disease, the local economy now includes crabbing, fishing, and heritage tourism. The Delaware Bay Museum and the A. J. Meerwald, a  Delaware Bay oyster schooner listed on the National Register of Historic Places, teach the traditions of the oystering and shipbuilding industries at Bivalve. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . MacKenzie, Clyde L., Jr. “The History of Oystering in the United States and Canada.’’ Marine Fisheries Review, Dec. , .

Gail Greenberg

Commonwealth Dental Society. The first African American dental school graduate in New Jersey was Dr. John Ballard, who set up practice in Orange in . Ballard and a dental colleague from Newark were among the eight black medical professionals who founded the North Jersey Medical Association in . By , New Jersey’s sixty black dentists recognized the need for a dental society independent of physicians. The Commonwealth Dental Association (initially named the New Jersey Dental Society) was formed in Orange in . Several members of the Commonwealth Dental Association helped found the National Dental Association at a meeting in Bordentown in  and others have served as president of the national organization. Today it is part of the National Dental Association. Kidd, Foster. Profile of the Negro in American Dentistry. Washington, DC: Howard University Press, .

Sandra Moss

Community

Theatre.

Built in Morristown by Walter Reade in , the Community Theatre was for decades the major place to go in northern New Jersey.

Back then, the Newark Evening News called this grand art deco theater “one of the finest in America.’’ So significant was the theater that it found its way into two Philip Roth novels. But, by the mid-s, it was closed and decaying. In , however, fortunes turned as the theater reopened, thanks to a remarkable grassroots effort from more than three hundred volunteers. Today, the Community Theatre, run by the South Street Theatre Company, a nonprofit organization, is a ,-seat performing arts center, drawing audiences from across the region. See also theater

Don Jay Smith

Compact of 1834. The compact of  between New York and New Jersey resolved a boundary dispute dating back to the seventeenth century. Ambiguous grants from James, duke of York, to two friends and supporters, Sir George Carteret and John, Lord Berkeley, contributed to often acrimonious counterclaims by the two colonies. New York claimed jurisdiction to the high-water mark on the Jersey shore and asserted its sovereignty over Staten Island. New Jersey rejected both claims. Throughout the eighteenth century, lackluster negotiations alternated with unneighborly behavior. Conflict continued into the nineteenth century, as New Jersey resisted New York’s grant of a steamboat monopoly to the Fulton-Livingston interest and on three occasions initiated commissions to resolve boundary disputes. New Jersey finally took its case to the U.S. Supreme Court, where its advocates anticipated a favorable ruling. As the Court deliberated in , a chance encounter between a New Jersey boundary commissioner, John Rutherford, and a leading New York politician, Benjamin Butler, led the state of New York to propose an out-of-court settlement. Commissioners subsequently appointed by New Jersey governor Peter D. Vroom and New York governor William L. Marcy hammered out an agreement in  that fully satisfied neither side but proved acceptable to both. New Jersey renounced its claims to Staten Island. New York retained its jurisdiction over Barlow’s and Ellis islands, but withdrew its claims to sovereignty beyond the midway point on waterways between the two states. Both state legislatures quickly ratified the agreement, as did the U.S. Congress. President Andrew Jackson signed the bill into law in . The compact resolved most but not all points of contention between the two states. Jurisdiction over Ellis Island, long claimed by New York and undisturbed by the compact of , remained unresolved for another  years. Schwarz, Philip J. The Jarring Interests: New York’s Boundary Makers, –. Albany: State University of New York Press, .

See also boundaries

Michael J. Birkner

Concessions and Agreements. Upon becoming proprietors of New Jersey in , George Carteret and John, Lord Berkeley, provided “The Concessions and Agreements of the Lords Proprietors’’—in effect, New Jersey’s first constitution—which created a government and provided rules for obtaining headrights (land grants) for settlers. The provisions reflected late seventeenth-century thoughts about government and concerns over rights and liberties, with concessions meant to attract settlers. It closely resembled the contemporary concessions written for the Carolina proprietorship, where Carteret and Berkeley were also involved. The Concessions provided for a governor appointed by the proprietors, a council appointed by the governor, and an assembly elected annually by the freeholders. The legislature could create courts, impose taxes, raise a militia, and establish local governments. The proprietors retained the right to veto laws. Also included was a provision for religious toleration, stating that no one should be “molested punished disquieted or called in Question for any difference in opinion or practice in matters of Religious concernments.’’ The Concessions were altered by the proprietors’ “Declaration of True Intent’’ (/), which increased the power of the governor at the expense of the assembly. Deputies in the assembly protested these changes several times without success. When Berkeley and Carteret were replaced by a consortium known as the East Jersey Proprietors, a new Fundamental Constitution () followed. This constitution was rejected by the assembly, and the Concessions remained the basis of government until the East Jersey Proprietors surrendered their rights to the Crown. In  the instructions to the royal governor became the basis of the government. Boyd, Julian P., ed. Fundamental Laws and Constitutions of New Jersey, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Pomfret, John E. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

condensite.

In  Jonas W. Aylsworth, an associate of Thomas A. Edison, received a patent for a new process for curing phenolic resins (a precursor to modern plastics), which were designed to replace shellac as a varnish for coating blank phonograph records. Because these resins were the result of chemical condensation, the company formed to produce them was called the Condensite Company of America, with its main production facility in Bloomfield. The General Bakelite Company, with production facilities in Perth Amboy, was also incorporated that same year. Because both companies utilized similar processes and produced similar products, protracted litigation ensued, ending with a merger of the two companies in  under

Congress of Industrial Organizations the Bakelite name. The original Condensite plant continued operations until . See also Bakelite

Andrea C. Dragon

Condict, Lewis

(b. Mar. , ; d. May

, ). Physician, state legislator, congress-

man, and railroad executive. The son of Anna Byram and Peter Condict, Lewis Condict was brought up by his uncle, Silas Condict. With his first wife Martha Woodhull, he had ten children; with second wife Martina Elmendorf, one. Condict (M.D, University of Pennsylvania, ) practiced medicine in Morristown, led the Medical Society of New Jersey (president, , ), chaired the reform of the national pharmacopoeia, and served on the Trenton State Lunatic Asylum’s commission. Condict’s dramatic  experiment of vaccinating his young daughter against smallpox convinced many of New Jersey’s doctors to adopt Edward Jenner’s new vaccine. Derived from the cowpox virus, Jenner’s vaccine had been controversial because there was little medical theory to account for its success. In this daring public experiment on his child, Condict simultaneously inoculated her in one arm (itself still a controversial procedure, since the inoculated became temporarily contagious smallpox agents) and vaccinated her in the other. When the vaccination prevented the onset of the mild smallpox that inoculations entailed, Condict’s experiment proved both successful and persuasive. See also medicine and public health

Karen Reeds

Congregationalism.

Strict Puritans, upset with relaxed membership standards prevalent throughout New England, carried Congregationalism to the Jerseys in the seventeenth century. Dissidents from the Connecticut towns of Milford and Branford moved to Newark and Elizabethtown, respectively, in , establishing congregations that adhered to a plain liturgy and sought a complete union of church and town. A third important congregation existed in Woodbridge (), and scattered communicants also worshiped in such places as Shrewsbury, Piscataway, Bloomfield, and Connecticut Farms. The ministers and meetinghouses in Newark, Elizabethtown, and Woodbridge were supported by an obligatory town tax, and Congregationalists there hoped to create tightly controlled corporate communal villages. East Jersey’s extraordinary heterogeneity soon doomed this vision. In  a Woodbridge Quaker refused to pay his portion of the local ministerial tax, and Congregationalists abandoned mandatory state support in favor of voluntary contributions. During the early eighteenth century, the relatively small number of Congregationalists in the Jerseys concentrated primarily in Morris, Essex, and Middlesex counties. They soon decided that some form of interchurch

cooperation appeared desirable. After the Philadelphia Presbytery formed in , most Jersey Congregationalists elected to affiliate with the Presbyterians and sacrifice this element of their autonomy. Only the Mountain Society Church in Orange () remained strictly separatist and outside the Presbytery until . Congregationalist sentiment in East Jersey thus virtually died out in the eighteenth century, although two independent churches formed in Chester () and Beemerville (), thereby maintaining some presence. A fiercely independent commitment to a purely local polity nevertheless continued in many churches that reclassified themselves as Presbyterian. A Hanover congregation, for example, led dissident localists out of the Philadelphia Presbytery in  to establish the Morris County Presbytery as a loose conclave of ministers with no central authority of any kind over individual congregations. Finally, however, especially after the Presbyterian Plan of Union of  allowed all Congregationalist churches to affiliate with the Presbyterians and basically retain their local autonomy, virtually all Congregationalists became absorbed within Presbyterianism. Congregationalism began to experience a modest renewal in New Jersey during the late s. Fierce disagreements within the Presbyterian churches concerning the revivalism associated with Charles G. Finney, abolitionism, and a broad range of other social and theological issues caused some to break with the denomination and establish their independence. Pro-abolitionist and pro-Finneyite secessionists formed strong Congregationalist churches in such places as Paterson, Newark, Elizabeth, Lodi, and Boonton. By , an adequate number of churches existed within the state to form the Newark Conference, and modest growth continued thereafter. Congregationalist strength in New Jersey drew on diverse and somewhat idiosyncratic sources. Scandinavian ethnic congregations, New Jersey Baptists seeking a more theologically liberal environment, and fiercely independent local churches constituted important elements in the church’s twentieth-century growth. By the time the Congregationalists merged with the Evangelical Reformed Church to form the United Church of Christ (UCC) in , many urban churches had died out, and the denomination tended to attract a wealthy, well-educated, suburban population. An estimated fifty-four churches throughout New Jersey were affiliated with the UCC in . Brown, William B. The Early History of Congregationalism in New Jersey and the Middle Provinces. Boston: Alfred Mudge and Son, . New Jersey Historical Records Survey Project. Inventory of the Church Archives of New Jersey: Congregational Christian Churches. Newark: Historical Records Survey, .

See also religion

Peter J. Wosh

167

Congress of Industrial Organizations. In  industrial union leaders John L. Lewis, David Dubinsky, and Sidney Hillman founded the Committee for Industrial Organization. From the start, it presented an alternative to the conservative labor practices of the older American Federation of Labor (AFL), which had long favored craft and trade unionism. Led by Lewis, the committee devoted itself to organizing workers in mass industrial production, and embraced direct action when that was deemed necessary. In  the group changed its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). It enjoyed such phenomenal success organizing diverse workers in a variety of industries— including those in automobiles, agriculture, meatpacking, rubber, clothing, printing, and steel—that it became the first group to seriously challenge the dominance of the AFL. The AFL responded by expelling unions associated with the dissident faction. Undeterred, the CIO emerged as a force to be reckoned with, as its affiliate, the United Auto Workers (UAW), proved in the victorious sit-down strike against General Motors in –. At first the CIO enjoyed limited success in New Jersey, where employers and public officials worked to resist its spread. In response, CIO organizers launched an organizational campaign in Jersey City in , whereupon local police confiscated their materials and arrested union leaders, and civil servants denied the union permits for assemblies. The ensuing court case went before the Supreme Court, which ruled that workers’ rights to assembly and free speech had been violated. Gov. Harold Hoffman announced that he would not permit CIO-led sit-down strikes in his state. Despite this warning, thousands of workers engaged in direct action, including walkouts and sit-down strikes. The CIO, while never representing the masses of New Jersey’s industrial workers, thus gained a substantial following in the textile and electrical trades by the end of the Second World War. By  the CIO’s membership numbered  million. Internal problems plagued the organization, however. Although militant and radical during the Great Depression, the CIO became decidedly more conformist in the cold war and moved to distance itself from some members’leftist politics. In  it barred communists from holding office, and the following year it drove out several allied unions purported to have communist ties, including the United Electrical Workers, which represented thousands of electrical workers in New Jersey. The FBI also took an interest in the political leanings of CIO members, and directly targeted leftists in the CIO in a number of congressional hearings, including those of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Under the leadership of George Meany and Walter Reuther, the AFL and the CIO merged in . The AFL-CIO has not had it easy since then. Whereas a third of all workers was

168

Connectiv

unionized in , less than  percent was by the end of the twentieth century. Recent president John Sweeney, elected in , has tackled the issues of labor legislation and representation as he has sought to redefine organized labor’s domain in today’s world. The New Jersey branch of the AFL-CIO now represents over a million people and reflects a far different demographic than in decades past. The union boasts that its “members today are just as likely to be skilled office personnel or health care professionals as they were to be longshoremen or contractors twenty years ago.’’ The face and character of the union have changed dramatically. Galenson, Walter. The CIO Challenge to the AFL: A History of the American Labor Movement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Gowaskie, Joseph. Workers in New Jersey History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

often retaliated against their employees who disclosed illegal or unethical activities going on in the workplace. Initially, the courts developed some legal remedies under such circumstances, but in  the New Jersey legislature enacted this statute to govern such controversies. The law applies to employees of both private and public enterprises, and prohibits either the firing, suspension, demotion, or any other “adverse employment action’’ taken by the employer in retaliation for the employee’s disclosure or threat to disclose illegal or unethical activities (including “improper quality of patient care’’) in the workplace. CEPA provides that a lawsuit may be filed in court within one year after retaliation by an employer, that a jury trial is available, and that a variety of legal remedies, including money damages and fines, may be awarded.

Robert F. Williams

Zieger, Robert H. The CIO, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also labor movement

constitution. Brigitte Koenig

Connectiv.

See Atlantic Energy.

Conrail.

Most railroads in the Northeast were bankrupt by . This was a serious crisis because so much industrial production took place in the region, and industry at that time depended upon railroads to move about half the country’s freight. Political pressure got the federal government involved, and Congress created the United States Railway Association to solve the problem. The outcome, Consolidated Rail Corporation, or Conrail, began operation in . Incorporated into Conrail were the Central Railroad Company of New Jersey, Erie Lackawanna, Lehigh and Hudson River, Lehigh Valley, Penn Central, and Reading—all of which had operated in New Jersey. At first financially unsuccessful, Conrail sought legislative and regulatory changes, which reinvigorated American freight railroads, and by  Conrail had become profitable. In , in the then-biggest-ever initial stock offering, it became a publicly traded company. With a lock on the metropolitan Northeastern market, in  Conrail was sought by two competitors, and after a bidding war, in  its ownership was split between Norfolk Southern Corporation and CSX Transportation. Most Conrail operations were taken over by those railroads in , although the bulk of its New Jersey network remains Conrail-operated to ensure the two owners equitable access to its markets. See also railroads; transportation

Larry A. DeYoung

Conscientious Employee Protection Act. This law (commonly referred to as CEPA) was passed in  to protect employees who engage in whistle-blowing. During the several decades prior to the enactment of this statute, it became clear that employers

A constitution is the highest governing document of a political entity. In addition to the U.S. Constitution, each of the fifty states has its own constitution. New Jersey has had three, adopted in , , and . The  constitution was adopted on July , without a vote of the people, having been drafted by a committee of the revolutionary Provincial Congress, which met in Burlington. It stated that, if the colonies resolved their differences with England, the constitution would be null and void. The  constitution did not contain a bill of rights, but it protected the right to vote, ensured trial by jury, and provided for limited religious freedom. There was little in the way of separation of powers or checks and balances in this constitution. According to the documents, the legislature—both houses of which were elected annually—dominated the government and appointed most officials, including the governor and judges. Despite its many recognized flaws, New Jersey’s first constitution remained in effect until , when the legislature submitted a call for a constitutional convention to the people. The new constitution included a complete bill of rights and adjusted some of the lopsided power exercised by the legislature (by, for example, providing for separate election of the governor and allowing a gubernatorial veto). The right to vote was limited to white males. The governor, rather than the legislature, appointed most officials. Adoption of the  constitution did not quiet calls for additional constitutional revisions. In  a constitutional commission was appointed, and it recommended to the legislature a package of amendments. The legislature debated these, and placed twenty-eight amendments on the ballot for popular ratification in . All were adopted, including the current “thorough and efficient’’ requirement for public education, the governor’s item veto, a ban on special

legislation, and a number of other changes still in force. In the s, pressures to amend the outmoded New Jersey constitution to address modern life led to the calling of a constitutional convention in . The convention proposed to the voters, and they adopted, New Jersey’s current constitution, which is considered by legal scholars to be the model of a modern, relatively brief state constitution. It provided for the strongest governor in the country, a unified judicial branch headed by a powerful supreme court and chief justice, and included new rights and protections for women, protections for union organizing, and a prohibition on segregation in public schools and in the militia. The  constitution has been amended numerous times over the years, but its central structure as a modern, streamlined governing document still prevails. Amendments are proposed to the people by legislative vote, and must be adopted by the voters at referenda. The only other way the New Jersey constitution can be amended is through the calling of a constitutional convention. Connors, Richard J. The Process of Constitutional Revision in New Jersey, –. New York: National Municipal League, . “Symposium: The New Jersey State Constitution at Fifty.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –. Williams, Robert F. The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also government; law

Robert F. Williams

Constitutional Courant. Published on September , , this one-issue publication appears at first examination to be New Jersey’s earliest newspaper title. In fact, it was really a political polemic published in the style of a news sheet and was probably written solely by New Yorkers. Historians suspect that its authors and printers were radical staffers on John Holt’s stridently antiroyalist New York Gazette; or, The Weekly Post-Boy. They printed it in New Jersey because that was a safer location for disseminating their scathing views against the Stamp Act. The Constitutional Courant denounced those who supported the Stamp Act as “blots and stains on America [and] vipers of human kind’’ and proclaimed that their “guilt . . . calls for heaven’s fiercest vengeance.’’ See also newspapers

Daniel P. Jones

Consumers League of Jersey. This state affiliate of the

New

National Consumers League was founded in  in East Orange. The small organization was originally made up of middle-class women who believed that consumers should be aware of the conditions under which the goods they bought were produced. Early campaigns addressed the working conditions of department

cookbooks store clerks and women who did piecework at home. In , Executive Secretary Elizabeth Butler found poor wages and low health standards among women home workers in Newark. In fact, Butler herself died of tuberculosis contracted during her investigations. Only in  did pressure from the Consumers League and other citizen groups lead to the passage of regulatory legislation. During this period, the league also investigated the working conditions of women and children in industry. At that time, the minimum employment age was twelve, which could be suspended if a family was poor. The league’s publicity campaign contributed to the passage of the  Child Labor Law. Like children, women were considered a class of workers whose health and safety required special protection. Partly in response to league pressure, a bill setting maximum hours for women factory workers was passed in . Under the leadership of President Juliet Cushing, the league campaigned successfully for the Night Work Bill (), and fought unsuccessfully for a minimum wage law for women workers. The league’s support for the restrictions on working hours and night work, which continued until their repeal in , eventually led to conflict with supporters of the Equal Rights Amendment. The Consumers League is best known for the fight to have radium necrosis recognized as a disease under the Workmen’s Compensation Act. In the early s, young women who had worked at the U.S. Radium Corporation in Orange were discovered to be dying of radium necrosis, which ate away their jawbones. Radium necrosis was not, however, one of the nine “compensable’’diseases recognized by the state Workmen’s Compensation Board. Led by Katherine Wiley, the league lobbied successfully to have radium necrosis added to the list of these diseases. Many of the measures advocated by the league became laws during the New Deal era. In , the state legislature created minimum wage boards, which set rates in specific industries. The comprehensive Child Labor Law of  was a direct result of lobbying led by Mary Dyckman of the Consumers League. In , a bill was finally passed that regulated wages and working conditions for home workers. In the postwar period, the league continued to campaign for broader workers’ compensation laws and became concerned with the plight of migrant workers. Dyckman prepared a brief on migrant conditions, which was one of the catalysts for the passage of the Migrant Labor Act of . In the s, the Consumers League’s agenda shifted toward issues related to personal consumption and the environment, such as the inspection of food, the use of pesticides and food additives, and consumer fraud. In , the league formed a special Consumer Credit Committee, led by President Susanna

Zwemer and her brother George A. Peirce. The committee campaigned successfully for legislation protecting consumers from creditors. In recent years, the Consumers League has focused on helping low-income consumers. It continues to fight against unfair interest rates, expose deceptive rent-to-own schemes, and defend the interests of those undergoing bankruptcies and foreclosures. Although the organization has suffered from the aging of its longtime members and the general decline of volunteerism, it continues its advocacy and educational work. Clark, Claudia. Radium Girls. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Gordon, Felice. After Winning: The Legacy of the New Jersey Suffragists, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Newman, Philip Charles. The Labor Legislation of New Jersey. Washington, DC: American Council on Public Affairs, .

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Continental Airlines.

A Houston, Texas–based carrier, founded in the early s, Continental Airlines augmented its longtime service at Newark International Airport with the February , , merger of Continental and PEOPLExpress Airlines, the latter carrier founded in . The merger created an operations hub at Newark, with New York Air as another key element. Creation of this hub made Continental the largest airline in the New York/New Jersey metropolitan area. The first major postmerger project was the expansion of Terminal C at Newark, which was started by PEOPLExpress and completed in  by Continental and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. A new $.-billion concourse project at Newark was unveiled in November , and will complement Continental’s U.S. and overseas gateway with direct rail service to New Jersey and Manhattan via New Jersey Transit and Amtrak. Continental has held the naming rights to the former Brendan Byrne Arena at the Meadowlands sports complex since . See also transportation

Jim Donnelly

Convention of Coloured Citizens of New Jersey. The first Convention of Coloured Citizens of New Jersey was held in Trenton on August  and , . Sixteen local black leaders from throughout the state assembled for the purpose of protesting slavery, the disfranchisement of free blacks, and the overall conditions of black citizens. The roots of the convention date back to the founding of an antislavery society in Newark in the s. The antislavery movement in New Jersey became more aggressive as black ministers and political activists focused on improving the status of free northern blacks and abolishing slavery.

169

Hagan, Lee, Larry A. Greene, Leonard Harris, and Clement A. Price. “New Jersey Afro-Americans: From Colonial Times to the Present.’’ In The New Jersey Ethnic Experience, edited by Barbara Cunningham. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also African Americans

Ethel M. Washington

Cook, George

(b. Jan. , ; d. Sept.

, ).

Geologist. George Cook, born in Hanover, studied surveying and then went to work for the railroads. He later enrolled in Rensselaer Institute, where he earned several degrees and then began a teaching career that took him to Rutgers College in . In  he was appointed state geologist and helped to produce detailed maps of New Jersey. Cook also played an important role in Rutgers’s designation as the land grant college of New Jersey in , and in the creation of the state Agricultural Experiment Station in . Cook College, the division of Rutgers University that concentrates on agriculture and environmental sciences, is named for him. Neilson, James. George H. Cook. Newark: Advertiser Printing Office, . Sidar, Jean W. George Hammell Cook: A Life in Agriculture and Geology. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

Maxine N. Lurie

cookbooks.

Cookbooks were published in America beginning in . Early New Jerseyans used these cookbooks and compiled cookery manuscripts of their own. Publishers in nearby New York City and Philadelphia became the most important early cookbook producers. As a consequence, New Jersey’s first cookbook, the anonymously authored Economical Cookery, was not published until , and few cookbooks were published in the state until well after the Civil War. However, by the late nineteenth century, New Jerseyans made up for their delayed start by publishing dozens of local community cookbooks from Passaic to Cape May. These works reflect New Jersey’s diversity and offer a snapshot of regional cookery patterns. A new type of cookbook published by food manufacturers swept the nation during the early twentieth century. New Jersey companies led the way. Among the first was Jersey City’s Franco-American Food Company, which published recipes that included the company’s products. Campbell’s in Camden followed suit with the publication of its Campbell’s Menu Book in . Campbell’s and many other New Jersey food companies continue to publish advertising cookbooks to this day. In addition to community and advertising booklets, New Jersey publishing companies have produced national cookbooks. Reflecting New Jersey’s diverse heritage, recently published cookbooks have included Recipes

Cooper, James Fenimore

170

from Italian Families () and Bea Sandler’s The African Cookbook (). Likewise, historical societies have produced works on cookery in New Jersey during different eras. These include Amy Hatrak’s Fanny Pierson Crane: Her Receipts,  (), published by the Montclair Historical Society; the Miller-Cory House Museum and the New Jersey Historical Society’s Pleasures of Colonial Cooking (); and Anne Bishop and Doris Simpson’s The Victorian Seaside Cookbook (), published by the New Jersey Historical Society.

Andrew F. Smith

Cooper, James Fenimore

(b. Sept. ,

; d. Sept. , ). Novelist. James Fenimore

Cooper was born in Burlington to William Cooper, a landowner, and Elizabeth Fenimore of Rancocas. In , when James was thirteen months old, the family moved to a large tract of land William purchased with other investors, including what became known as Cooperstown, New York. From  to  Cooper attended Yale College, from which he was expelled. In  he entered the navy, leaving after his marriage to Susan Augusta DeLancey in . His second novel, The Spy (), established his fame and was followed by a series of five novels, known as the Leatherstocking Tales, significant for their frontier American setting and the creation of Natty Bumppo, a pioneer scout. They include The Last of the Mohicans (), The Prairie (), and The Deerslayer (). Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Long, Robert Emmet. James Fenimore Cooper. New York: Continuum, . Lounsbury, Thomas R. James Fenimore Cooper. New York: Chelsea House, .

See also literature

Shirley J. Horner

Cooper, Peter

(b. Feb. , ; d. Apr. ,

).

Manufacturer, inventor, and philanthropist. A successful flue manufacturer in New York City, Peter Cooper later designed the first railroad steam engine. He entered the iron industry and focused on New Jersey in his search for more space and closer proximity to raw materials. Cooper owned a factory that produced wrought iron, wire, and railroad tracks in Trenton, an iron mine in Andover, and blast furnaces in Phillipsburg and Ringwood. Cooper later founded Cooper Union (), was associated with the first transatlantic cable (), and ran for president on the Greenback ticket in . Mack, Edward C. Peter Cooper: Citizen of New York. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, . Spaulding, C. Sumner. Peter Cooper: A Critical Biography of His Life and Works. New York: New York Public Library, .

See also iron industry

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Cooper University Hospital.

The idea of establishing a hospital in the Camden City community came from a family of Quakers who were descendants of William Cooper, an early settler. Dr. Richard M. Cooper, along with his siblings and nephew, donated money and land to build a hospital that would provide care for the city’s indigent population. Although the hospital was incorporated in , it did not open until  due to lack of funds. The original name of Camden Hospital was changed to Cooper Hospital in  to honor the family. Today, Cooper University Hospital, as it is now called, is a -bed teaching hospital of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey—Robert Wood Johnson Medical School. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Gail Greenberg

copper. Copper was first discovered in New Jersey in  near Belleville. During the colonial era, ore was shipped to England for refining, but after the Revolution it was processed in several New Jersey locations. Although local ores were soon depleted, industrial pioneers turned to imports, and by the end of the nineteenth century New Jersey led the nation in the production of copper ingots, wire, and bars. New Jersey’s production of copper soared during World War I, when the South Amboy region supplied half of the nation’s supply of copper. As late as  the Belleville Copper Rolling Works produced rod and rolled sheet copper, but by then the industry was disappearing in the state. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also minerals

Andrea C. Dragon

copperheads. During the Civil War, a minority within the Democratic party that favored immediate peace and recognition of the southern Confederacy became known as the copperheads. Opposed to the war and the war effort, they championed untrammeled individual and states’ rights even in wartime. The copperheads in New Jersey were noisy but not numerous, irritating but not powerful. Not one of the editors of New Jersey’s leading antiwar dailies was a native of the state: David Naar of the Trenton True American arrived from the West Indies; Andrew Mead of the Paterson Register hailed from Connecticut; Edward Fuller of the Newark Journal came from New Hampshire; and Eben Winton of the Hackensack Democrat emigrated from England. Also, Chauncey Burr of The Old Guard, a monthly published in Hackensack and New York, moved from New York. Copperhead members of Congress were James Wall of Bordentown, Nehemiah Perry of Newark, and Andrew J. Rogers of Newton. Rodman Price of Oakland, the former governor, was also active. Two Bergen County

politicians led the copperheads in the legislature: Senator Daniel Holsman, a former Philadelphian, and Assemblyman Thomas Dunn English, an ex–New Yorker. Copperhead assemblymen hailed from twelve counties, mainly rural areas and mostly Democratic strongholds in North Jersey. By , copperheads monopolized the delegations from Bergen, Warren, Union, and Salem, and accounted for two-thirds of the delegations from Hunterdon and Monmouth counties. The copperhead faction never seized control of the legislature or the governorship. It failed to sabotage the state’s war effort or stall military recruitment. A legislative resolution calling for a unilateral armistice, among other proposals, never passed. In January , during one of the low points of the war and only by chance political occurrences, New Jersey Democrats managed to elect James Wall as a U.S. senator for the short term of six weeks. Other northern states, however, elected prominent copperheads to Congress. New Jersey Democrats, unlike Democrats in New Hampshire, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, never nominated a copperhead as their gubernatorial candidate. Nor did the state’s Democratic legislators ever adopt an explicit antiwar resolution, as Delaware’s legislature did and as the Houses of Representatives of Pennsylvania and Illinois did. The violent protests that occurred in New York, Indiana, and other northern states in  and  were not seen in New Jersey. The influence of the state’s copperheads has been vastly exaggerated. Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Sinclair, Donald A. The Civil War and New Jersey: A Bibliography. New Brunswick: Friends of the Rutgers University Library, .

See also Civil War

William Gillette

Corbin City. .-square-mile city in Atlantic County, on the Tuckahoe River. Corbin City, also known as “The Little City,’’ separated from Weymouth Township in . It was also at one time called Champion’s Landing. The area was rich in bog iron, which was smelted at nearby Aetna Furnace. The material was then carted to Weymouth Furnace, where it was refined before it was sent to Batsto to be made into cannons for use during the Revolutionary War. Schooners were a common sight on the area’s waterways. Between  and , many two- and three-masted schooners were built and launched on the Tuckahoe River. The timber was cut from surrounding woodlands while Aetna Furnace supplied the iron. Aetna Furnace also supplied most of the nails used in Tuckahoe and the surrounding areas. The Aetna Furnace ceased operating in . The railroad came to the area in . The village of

Cornbury, Edward Hyde, Viscount Tuckahoe thrived on both sides of the river for more than a century until Corbin City was incorporated in . In the late twentieth century, the city was predominantly residential, with several businesses and farms, but no significant industry. Corbin City’s population of  in  was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

corn. The earliest corn remains have been dated to around  .. from pieces of cob found in Mexico near the site where cultivation for grain began at about the same time. It is now generally accepted that maize evolved from teosinte, Zea mays var. mexicana, a wild grain that still grows in Central America. Sweet corn is thought to be a mutation of grain corn and was grown in pre-Columbian times as a source for alcohol use in rituals. Commercial sweet corn production started in the United States only about two hundred years ago. New Jersey grain and silage production acreage peaked in  (, acres) and the Garden State has not been considered part of the Corn Belt for a very long time. In , , acres of corn were harvested, excluding corn used for popcorn and ornamental purposes. The  New Jersey Agricultural Statistics indicated Salem, Burlington, Monmouth, Cumberland, and Sussex counties lead the state’s sweet corn production, while Warren, Salem, Hunterdon, Burlington, and Monmouth counties were the leaders in grain acreage. Although available in yellow and bicolor varieties, the most popular type of sweet corn in New Jersey is white. Roadside markets

A young New Jersey farmer shows off his prize ears of corn, c. .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

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throughout the state attract their customers with signs of “Jersey White Corn.’’ Many signs of “Jersey Silver Queen,’’ the standard white variety of the s and s, remained until the early s, even though Silver Queen had been replaced by sweeter and longer shelf-life varieties a decade earlier. Two new uses may contribute to an increase in the state’s corn acreage. The first is the development of an ethanol production plant, led by the New Jersey Farm Bureau, which will utilize the state’s grain crop to fuel automobiles. The second is the latest corn craze sweeping New Jersey: the “maize maze.’’ Each fall, intricate mazes are carved into harvested cornfields, attracting potential customers to farm markets across the state. New Jersey Department of Agriculture.  New Jersey Agriculture Annual Report and Agricultural Statistics. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Agriculture, .

See also agriculture

Richard W. VanVranken

Cornbury, Edward Hyde, Viscount (b. Nov. , ; d. Mar. , ). Colonial governor. Lord Cornbury was the grandson and namesake of Edward Hyde, lord high chancellor of England under Charles II, and the son of Henry Hyde, second earl of Clarendon, and Theodosia Capel. He was a first cousin of Queen Mary II and Queen Anne. Edu´mie cated at Christ Church, Oxford, and l’Acade de Calvin in Geneva, Cornbury was commissioned a lieutenant colonel of the Royal Regiment of Dragoons in ; two years later, after valiant service at the Battle of Sedgemoor during Monmouth’s Rebellion, he was elevated to full colonel at the age of twentythree. In , he married Katherine O’Brien, heiress to the title Baroness Clifton of Leighton Bromswold, with whom he had two daughters and a son. In the Revolution of , which overthrew the Catholic king James II, Cornbury, a staunch Anglican, was the first English officer to defect to the invading Prince William of Orange. He was elected MP for Wiltshire (–, –) and for Christchurch (–). In , Viscount Cornbury became governor-general of the royal colony of New York. When later that year the proprietors of East Jersey and West Jersey surrendered their charters to the Crown, Queen Anne combined the two proprietaries into the single royal colony of New Jersey, and appointed Cornbury its governor as well. As the first royal governor of New Jersey, Lord Cornbury assumed office at a time of imperial reform focused on the consolidation of political and financial authority. New Jersey’s landed proprietors, led by gentleman-landholder Lewis Morris, believed, however, that they had retained control over land sales under the royal charter. Ambiguities in the charter and the governor’s instructions, as well as strife among a number of religious and ethnic

Anon., Unidentified Woman (formerly Gov. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury), early th century. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Collection of the New-York Historical Society. Accession number 1952.80, negative number 4260. factions in New Jersey, created a combustible political atmosphere. Governor Cornbury’s efforts to assert royal authority were supported by some New Jerseyans and resisted by others. In the second group was Lewis Morris, who resigned his seat on the governor’s council in  and was elected to the New Jersey assembly the next year. Cornbury urged the assembly to support his military preparations during Queen Anne’s War, arousing the ire of Assembly Speaker Samuel Jennings, a Quaker, who with Lewis Morris led a movement to have Cornbury removed from office. Charges leveled against the governor by his political opponents—in a campaign of rumor and anonymous print—included allegations of bribery and transvestitism. Neither could be proved; yet in the patriotic narrative written after the American Revolution, Lord Cornbury was often depicted as the prime example of the “bad’’ royal governor. Recent research challenges that assessment. In December , Cornbury was dismissed by the queen and succeeded by a new governor, John Lovelace. On the death of his father in , he became third earl of Clarendon; in  he returned to England, where he successfully defended his administration as royal governor. He was appointed to the Privy Council, and was a leader in the House of Lords from  to . Bonomi, Patricia U. The Lord Cornbury Scandal: The Politics of Reputation in British America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Rubincam, Milton. “The Formative Years of Lord Cornbury, the First Royal Governor of New York and New Jersey.’’ New York Genealogical and Biographical Record  (): –.

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Cornelius Low House

corn snake. Elaphe guttata guttata is a constrictor with a national range. In New Jersey, it inhabits Ocean, Atlantic, southeastern Burlington, and northeastern Cumberland counties. Mostly nocturnal and active from May through September, it prefers sandy pine and oak forests, low brush, and hollow logs and is a skilled climber. Adults range in length from thirty to forty-eight inches and are identified by boldly colored red markings with orange blotches outlined in black and white. Subsisting largely on mice, rats, birds, and lizards, corn snakes are listed as endangered in the state due to habitat loss and overcollection by dealers for the domestic pet market. Ernst, Carl H., and Roger W. Barbour. Snakes of Eastern North America. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University Press, . Trapido, Harold. The Snakes of New Jersey: A Guide. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also reptiles Cornelius Low House and Middlesex County Museum, Piscataway.

David Myers

Courtesy Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission. Photo: Kenneth M. Helsby.

Corrigan, Michael Augustine Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governers of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Patricia U. Bonomi

Cornelius Low House.

Built in  as the residence of Cornelius Low, Jr., a merchant of Dutch descent, the sandstone Cornelius Low House overlooks the Raritan River at the site of what was the eighteenthcentury port village of Raritan Landing. The impressive house has passed through five families: the Lows, the Pooles, the Metlars, the Voorhees, and the Strongs. Since  it has served as a museum of New Jersey history, administered by the Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission, which presents annually changing exhibitions. The Cornelius Low House/Middlesex County Museum retains most of its original Georgian architectural features and has been partially restored.

Anti-Slavery Society in , the Newark AntiSlavery Society in , and the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in . He moved to Belleville in , and then to Newark, where he served as pastor of the First African/Plane Street Presbyterian Church (–). Cornish died in Brooklyn, New York, in . Cornish, Samuel Eli, and Theodore S. Wright. The Colonization Scheme Considered, in Its Rejection by the Colored People. . . . Newark: A. Guest, . Price, Clement A. Freedom Not Far Distant. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also abolition

Scott D. Peters

Meuly, Walter C. History of Piscataway Township, –. Piscataway: Piscataway Bicentennial Commission, .

See also historic sites

Hillary Murtha

Cornish, Samuel Eli

(b. ; d. Nov.

, ).

Minister, editor, and abolitionist. Trained for the ministry in Philadelphia and ordained in , Samuel Cornish was pastor of New York City’s first African American Presbyterian church. In  he cofounded Freedom’s Journal, the first black-owned and operated newspaper in America. Cornish also edited the Rights of All () and the Colored American (–) and authored pamphlets protesting African colonization. He was vice president of the American Moral Reform Society (–) and helped form the American

Portrait of Samuel Cornish, pastor of the first African American Presbyterian church in New York City, n.d. Painted by J. Paradise, engraved by F. Kearny.

Courtesy Photographs and Prints Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

(b.

Aug. , ; d. May , ). Roman Catholic

bishop and college president. Michael Augustine Corrigan was born in Newark. His parents, Thomas Corrigan and Mary English, were Irish immigrants and reasonably well-off by the standards of the day. Educated at a local private school run by his godfather, Michael Corrigan subsequently enrolled at Saint Mary’s College, Wilmington, Delaware (–) and at Mount Saint Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Maryland (–). He studied for the priesthood at the North American College, Rome, Italy, was ordained in , and in , just shy of his twenty-fifth birthday, secured the degree of doctor of divinity. Returning to Newark, Corrigan was appointed to the staff of the small and struggling Seton Hall College. He was named president of the college in . In  Corrigan was nominated as Bishop James Bayley’s successor in Newark. He was consecrated bishop—at the age of thirtyfour, the youngest in the country—on May , . Corrigan’s episcopacy coincided with a period of exceptional growth in New Jersey Catholicism despite economic hardship, particularly the severe recession that followed “Black Friday’’ in September . Faced with these challenges, Corrigan showed superb administrative gifts. In  the diocese had  priests,  churches, and  missions; by  (when Corrigan left to become archbishop of New York) there were  priests,  churches, and  missions. In Newark and New York Corrigan showed himself to be the outstanding prelate of his generation. Curran, Robert Emmett. Michael Augustine Corrigan and the Shaping of Conservative Catholicism in America. New York: Arno Press, . Dougherty, John J., ed. The Bishops of Newark, – . South Orange: Seton Hall University Press, .

country houses Mahoney, Joseph F., and Peter Wosh, eds. The Diocesan Journal of Michael Augustine Corrigan, Bishop of Newark, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Dermot Quinn

Cosby, William

(b. c. ; d. Mar. ,

). Colonial governor of New York and New

Jersey. William Cosby was a military officer, appointed by the Crown to the governorship in  due to his wife’s noble English cousins. Once in America, Cosby lived in New York and rarely visited New Jersey. He met with the legislature only once and with the council but eight times. Apart from approving a paper money bill (that violated royal policy) and one to fix legal fees, and vetoing a triennial act, Cosby played little part in New Jersey politics. His tenure as governor lasted until his death in . Katz, Stanley N. Newcastle’s New York: AngloAmerican Politics, –. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Kemmerer, Donald L. Path to Freedom: The Struggle for Self-Government in Colonial New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Stanley N. Katz

Cosgrove, John Tam

(b. Sept. ,

; d. Nov. , ).

Labor leader. Born in Elizabeth, John Cosgrove remained a lifelong resident of that city. He began work as a carpenter in Elizabeth in  and joined Local  of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters. He was elected business agent for the local in  and remained in that capacity until . He was a principal organizer of the New Jersey Building and Construction Trade Council and served as its president from  to . He was also the first president of the New Jersey Federation of Labor (AFL). In  he was elected international vice president of the carpenters’ union and served in that office for twenty-four years. Progressive blindness cut short his union activities in , and by the time of this death in  he had completely lost his sight. Cosgrove was a favorite labor advisor of Woodrow Wilson during the latter’s years as governor of New Jersey. He assisted Wilson in drafting New Jersey’s Workmen’s Compensation Act, which later served as a model for the federal Workmen’s Compensation Act. Cosgrove died in Elizabeth in , a staunch labor supporter to the end, having voted for Harry S Truman on November . Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

cosmic background radiation. The Earth, and presumably the universe, are bathed in an ocean of radiation, which has the distribution of wavelengths characteristic of those emitted by a body at a temperature of about  degrees above absolute zero. This cosmic background radiation was discovered in  by Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson at the Bell Laboratories in Holmdel, and represents the most direct evidence that the universe as we know it had its origin in an explosion (the “big bang’’) from a minute beginning about  billion years ago. Penzias’s and Wilson’s aim had been to set up a particularly sensitive antenna for the detection of microwaves from stars and galaxies. They were disturbed that there seemed to be an irreducible amount of background “noise’’ regardless of where they aimed the antenna. It was suggested to them that they contact Robert H. Dicke at Princeton University. It so happened that Dicke and a group of his students and associates were in the process of setting up equipment precisely to look for this radiation, which Ralph A. Alpher and Robert Herman predicted in  to be the cooled remnant of the initial explosion. The call came to Dicke just as he was in a discussion with his colleagues. When he put down the phone he said, “Well, boys, we’ve been scooped!’’ Later in , two papers appeared side by side in the Astrophysical Journal: one, by Penzias and Wilson, that described the measurement; and one, by the Princeton group, that gave the interpretation. Penzias and Wilson shared the  Nobel Prize for their discovery. Because of its link to the creation of the universe, background radiation became the subject of close attention. David T. Wilkinson, a professor of physics at Princeton University and a member of Dicke’s original team, played a leading role in this research from its first days. The work of the group at Princeton continues, in cooperation with the National Space and Aeronautics Administration (NASA). Precise measurements were made by the COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite, which was launched in  and continued to take data for four years. It showed that the radiation conforms very closely to that expected to remain from a single explosion, and very accurately measured the temperature it corresponds to. Although the radiation first seemed to be the same regardless of the direction in which the antenna was aimed, the measurements eventually showed that there were indeed small variations depending on the direction. These findings give clues to the variations in the early universe that led to the present distribution of matter as stars and galaxies. A second satellite, called MAP (Microwave Anisotropy Probe) was launched in  to explore these variations with even greater precision. Its mission is to learn more about the way in which the universe evolved from the big bang to its present state.

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See also astronomy and astrophysics; Bell Labs

Peter Lindenfeld

Cosmos.

This professional soccer club, founded in  as the New York Cosmos, was affiliated with the North American Soccer League (NASL) and based at Giants Stadium at the Meadowlands in East Rutherford. After the  season its name was changed to the Cosmos. In  the team signed Brazilian soccer ´ (Edson Arantes do Nascimento), who star Pele brought record crowds of about forty thousand to soccer games at the Meadowlands. The Cosmos won the North American Soccer League championships in , , , , and . They first played indoor soccer in , and they left the NASL to join the Major Indoor Soccer League in . The team sold major players to make up a financial shortfall, and afterward began to sink in the standings. The Cosmos folded after playing thirty-three games of the – season. See also soccer; sports

Pamela Cooper

Count Basie Theatre.

Constructed in  to showcase “moving pictures and vaudeville,’’ this Red Bank theater was later renamed to honor native son Basie, who was born in Red Bank in . In , the theater was purchased by the Monmouth County Arts Council, which began a renovation of the original building in the late s. The original structure featured a sunburst dome and a marble staircase, and in the s the seats from the old Carnegie Hall were installed in the ,-seat auditorium. The theater offers a wide range of music, dance, and Broadwaystyle shows throughout the year. See also theater

James F. Broderick

country houses. The largest and most significant group of New Jersey houses designed by major American architects belongs to the period from  to , and consists of country houses. New Jersey’s prominence in the country place era derives from its proximity to New York as a social center and its early association with resorts and leisure activities. By the s the Shore resorts had what Henry James described as a “chain of villas’’ designed by the best American architects, from Bruce Price and Charles McKim to Lamb and Rich. Sadly, most of these gems of the high Shingle style, including the extraordinary Victor Newcomb house (McKim, Mead, and White, –) at Elberon, have disappeared. Henry James toured the northern Shore resorts in  and published his highly critical impressions in The American Scene a year later. By this time the Shingle style houses had become mere “superseded shabbiness,’’ just “brown wooden barracks’’ which receded into the background, the foreground now occupied by “great white boxes as standing there with

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County College of Morris

the silvered ghostliness (for all the silver involved) of a series of candid new moons.’’ If one shimmering white villa epitomizes these tendencies it is George Gould’s extraordinary Lakewood estate, Georgian Court. He purchased two hundred acres along the shore of Lake Carasaljo and in  engaged Bruce Price to design a house, gardens, and casino for the property. The estate impresses mainly by its scale: the casino ( feet by  feet) contains a ring the size of Madison Square Garden, a virtual hotel for guests, a motion picture theater, bowling alleys, squash courts, and a ballroom. Its Italian gardens were laid out on a vast axis from the lake and crowned by John Massey Rhind’s electrically powered Apollo fountain—Georgian Court’s generating facilities were marvels of their day. New Jersey had its fair share of such estates, and not just at Shore resorts. Madison has a splendid example at Fairleigh Dickinson University: McKim, Mead, and White’s gigantic Hamilton McK. Twombly estate (), called Florham, and designed in the fashionable Georgian style. Near Ramsey and Mahwah is Darlington (James Brite, –), the Jacobean country place of George T. Crocker. And Shadowlawn (Horace Trumbauer, – ), the Hubert T. Parsons house known for its appearance in the film Annie, is now part of Monmouth University. But undoubtedly the finest example of an intact stately home is found in the heart of the Somerset Hills near Peapack. `re and Thomas John Merven Carre Hastings, then the most fashionable architects of the rich man’s house, designed Blairsden, the country estate of C. Ledyard Blair, in . Trained at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in the s and apprenticed to McKim, Mead, and White, they helped to introduce classical models for the American country house at a time when patrons wanted European pomp and aristocratic trappings. `re and Hastings made a specialty of Carre “Modern French’’ houses, interior decoration ´gime, and formal reminiscent of the ancien re gardens evoking Italian and French models. In building a house with European pretensions, Blair was merely keeping in step with his Wall Street colleagues and competitors. He sought to build a house that would command, indeed possess, its hilltop site as no other American house had yet dared to do. In only two years, the architects and builders carefully graded the side of one of the highest of the Somerset Hills, constructing a broad lateral terrace and rampe douce as a platform for the house. Above, on the summit of the hill, the stables were screened from the approach drive and ´e runthe house itself. The plunging axial alle ning from the terrace southward for nearly a mile opened to an artificial lake created on the Raritan River. From his unique porch, or “outdoor lounging room,’’ Blair commanded one of the most spectacular prospects in America. With the onset of the First World War and the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment

authorizing a federal tax on income, the era of elaborate palace building on the scale of Georgian Court and Blairsden came to an end. But country life in New Jersey was hardly on the wane. Several of the excellent gentlemenarchitects of the s, designers who gave the Gatsby era its suavity and panache, were associated with New Jersey in either practice or patrimony. First among these was Harrie Thomas Lindeberg, who was born to Swedish parents near Bayonne in . Following the death of his mentors, Stanford White and Charles McKim, Lindeberg emerged on the national front as the most successful country house architect of the postwar decades. Beginning with Shadow Brook Farm, built in  for Dr. Ernest Fahnestock near Shrewsbury, Lindeberg designed a number of distinguished country places for New Jersey patrons prior to the Second World War. These included houses for George Davidson (Madison, ), Herbert Coppell (Tenafly, ), Joseph Kahrs (Llewellyn Park, ), Seth Thomas (Morristown, ), and Paul Moore (Convent Station, ). He also designed several smaller houses in the planned suburb of Short Hills. Most typical of his abstracted, English vernacular style with the characteristic Lindeberg roof is the Thomas Vietor house (– ) in Rumson, still maintained as a private home. The most prominent of Lindeberg’s New Jersey clients was Gerard Barnes Lambert, one of the nation’s most successful corporate executives and a housing advisor to Theodore Roosevelt’s administration, who commissioned a splendid Mount Vernon–type colonial country house, built in Princeton in . Lindeberg was in good company with other prominent New York architects designing in Monmouth County, the Princeton area, and other upper-class communities. William Adams Delano designed one of his largest country houses in Middletown for Thatcher M. Brown of the Brown Brothers Harriman Company. Built in – on the Navesink River, Red Gables, with its vast, over-draped tile roofs and abstracted brick, surfaces, evokes Lindeberg’s style. The firm of Delano and Aldrich also designed country houses for Charles A. Lindbergh at Hopewell (where the famous kidnapping occurred), and for his father-in-law, Dwight Morrow, in Englewood. Mott B. Schmidt, a New York architect famed for his minimalist Georgian residences, designed a country house for Clarence Dillon at Far Hills () and a beautiful English Georgian manor near Princeton for Bernard Peyton (), among other New Jersey commissions. Alfred Hopkins, an architect known for his expertise in both farm and prison design, had an English-inspired country house in Princeton, and designed several superbly picturesque farm complexes in the Middletown area, notably the estate of Macy’s president Herbert N. Straus (–). But the architect who made the greatest mark on the New Jersey estate landscape

during the post–World War I years was undoubtedly John Russell Pope. He is represented in Monmouth County by two fine Colonial Revival designs: the Andrew Varrick Stout house (–) at Red Bank, and the Robert J. Collier house (c. –) at Wickatunk. One is in private hands; the other, now in Marlboro Township, belongs to the Sisters of the Good Shepherd. New Jerseyans are most familiar with two of Pope’s country houses built in the midst of the s stock market boom by brokers with a flair for the dramatic. Clarence McKenzie Lewis, also a noted horticulturalist, commissioned Pope to design a new house at Skylands Farm, his vast mountaintop estate near Ringwood in Passaic County. Built in  in the Tudor style, Skylands Manor is now the centerpiece of the New Jersey State Botanical Garden. The architect designed one of his most compelling picturesque houses, planned to connect at several oblique angles to the landscape scheme. The house is now a catering facility and conference center. An equally creative reuse was found for Pope’s elegant Thomas Frothingham residence (–) in Far Hills. The United States Golf Association purchased the estate in  and remodeled the house in – for use as a museum. New Jersey’s architectural identity is surely bound up with the story of the country house during the Progressive and Jazz eras. One cannot appreciate “the New Jersey house’’ without understanding these lavish displays of wealth, leisure, and pastoral gentility. Hewitt, Mark Alan. The Architect and the American Country House, –. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Surdam, Charles Everson, and William Gardner Osgoodby. Beautiful Homes of Morris County and Northern New Jersey. Morristown: Pierson and Surdam, n.d.

See also architecture

Mark Alan Hewitt

County College of Morris. This comprehensive community college is fully accredited and has served northwest New Jersey since . Its campus occupies  acres of scenic and wooded terrain in Randolph. Approximately eight thousand students are enrolled in sixty-nine different programs. The County College of Morris (CCM) offers four associate degrees that prepare students both for transfer to four-year colleges and universities and for career entry. Traditionally, most students have majored in liberal arts and sciences or business. Of CCM’s entering students,  percent earn associate degrees or transfer to four-year colleges. County College of Morris draws strength from its location in Morris County, where  percent of Fortune  companies are headquartered. Through CCM’s Office of Career Services and Cooperative Education, students can gain job experience with area employers. See also higher education

Rita Rubinstein Heller

county government

county government. The predecessor of the county was the shire, a unit that served during the early Anglo-Saxon period in England for administration of the king’s justice and for the enforcement of his criminal law. Before , when the English united two provinces into the Province of New Jersey, five counties were established in East Jersey (Bergen, Essex, Middlesex, Monmouth, and Somerset) and four in West Jersey (Burlington, Salem, Gloucester, and Cape May). Only four more (Hunterdon, Morris, Cumberland, and Sussex) were created before the American Revolution. Several circumstances explain why, after seventy-one years with no new counties, the remaining eight were established in the thirtythree-year span from  to : Warren (), Atlantic (), Passaic (), Mercer (), Hudson (), Camden (), Ocean (), and Union (). The sizable areas of some counties and their numerous inhabitants were creating delays and inconveniences to jurors and witnesses in remote locations who were obliged to attend county courts. Rivalry for the location of a new county seat was a matter of increasing commerce as well as pride. But the foremost incentive was political party aggrandizement. Unlike a borough or township, each county elected representatives

who joined with others similarly elected to the legislature. The more counties, the more opportunities to increase a party’s control of state affairs. The only officer continuously chosen by the entire county electorate since  is the sheriff. In that year the first state constitution provided for that post and for that of the coroner. The second constitution () added the county clerk and the surrogate; and the third constitution () omitted mention of the coroner; that office was abolished by statute twenty years later. Although originally serving single-county constituencies, assemblymen were elected by districts within single counties between  and , and since  they and state senators have been elected by legislative districts that transcend county boundaries. Since  the prosecutor has been a constitutional officer appointed by the governor and confirmed by the state senate. In order to circumvent the special legislation prohibited by an  amendment to the state constitution, an  statute divided counties into four classes by population. Today there are six classes: the first based on population and density and the others on population and whether the county borders the Atlantic Ocean. The third constitution increased the powers of the county. Previously the state would

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not issue a charter to a county because the latter was considered a quasi corporation with only a few of the privileges of a corporate body (such as owning property and making contracts). The  constitution allows the governing body to petition the legislature to pass, by a two-thirds vote of each house, a private, special, or local law that regulates that county’s internal affairs. Such a statute becomes operative only upon adoption by the freeholder board or by the county voters. More significant is that provisions of the constitution and laws concerning counties are to be liberally construed in their favor and are to have those powers “of necessary or fair implication, or incident to the powers expressly conferred, or essential thereto, and not inconsistent with or prohibited by this Constitution or by law.’’ This flexibility has been enhanced by the Optional County Charter Law of , as amended and supplemented, which offers four organizational plans to alter present government. To date six counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson, Mercer, and Union) have done so. New Jersey counties began as casually regarded agencies with limited functions. Maintenance of bridges, one of the most important duties of the freeholder board throughout most of the nineteenth century, was not

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originally a concern of the counties but of the townships. Two  laws instituted county control of bridges. A  act authorized counties to build almshouses; a  statute, workhouses. In  crowded conditions at the New Jersey State Lunatic Asylum in Trenton forced the counties to construct asylums. The first asylum was built in  by Essex, which had no asylums of its own and therefore was relying on municipal institutions. Before the Revolution, forerunners of the present freeholder boards had shared the responsibility but not the expense of maintaining county roads. After New Jersey became a state, participation of the newly constituted freeholder boards was largely limited to confirming the performance of others. Not until , twenty years after the first county road board was established in Essex, was every freeholder board authorized to “acquire, improve, maintain and assume full and exclusive control of any public road or parts thereof’’ in the county without a referendum. By  most of the counties were in the road-building business, and control of this function had been recaptured by the freeholder boards from separate and special road boards. In  Essex began official action toward establishing the first county park system in the nation, though such control would elude most freeholder boards for many years. By the end of the nineteenth century, county governing bodies were no longer simply bridge builders. The present number and scope of county services vary: all counties are required to perform certain functions; other functions are optional. In every county constitutional officers, rather than freeholders, administer certain programs. Law enforcement is among the oldest, and the state supreme court declared in  that the prosecutor is the chief authority in this field. The sheriff, whose preeminence the prosecutor replaced, is still the officer of the court who manages juries, but is in control of the county jail in only ten counties. The county clerk maintains official county archives, and the surrogate oversees matters concerning wills, orphans, and legally incompetent persons. Freeholders are generally assigned as liaisons to specific government agencies. Since colonial times in New Jersey, the individual has paid no tax directly to the county, but rather to the municipality, which passes it on. The resulting simplicity has contributed to a national lack of interest and knowledge concerning county government that gave rise to its designation in  as “the dark continent of American politics.’’ Effross, Harris I. County Governing Bodies in New Jersey: Reorganization and Reform of Boards of Chosen Freeholders, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Rich, Bennett M. The Government and Administration of New Jersey. American Commonwealth Series. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, .

See also freeholders

Harris I. Effross

county parks.

Through development of its county park system, New Jersey played a leadership role in the public parks movement in the late nineteenth century as the “City Beautiful’’ movement spread across the country. With the passage of seminal enabling legislation, New Jersey created the framework for developing parks on a countywide basis. In  New Jersey became home to America’s first county park system when the Essex County Park Commission began construction of Branch Brook Park in Newark. During the following century, seventeen additional counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Burlington, Camden, Cape May, Cumberland, Gloucester, Hudson, Hunterdon, Mercer, Middlesex, Monmouth, Morris, Ocean, Passaic, Somerset, and Union) established county park systems either under the County Park Commission law or as direct departments/agencies of county government. One county (Warren), through its Board of Recreation commissioners, acquires open space throughout the county pursuant to its  Open Space plan. Only Salem and Sussex counties do not operate a county park system. The concept for developing Branch Brook Park, which became America’s first county park, can be traced to . In that year the Board of Commissioners of the Newark Park hired Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux to recommend a suitable location for a “Park at Newark.’’ After completing a site visit, Olmsted and Vaux recommended acquiring almost seven hundred acres in the northern sector of Newark. Newark’s business leaders prepared to purchase the suggested acreage at a cost of more than $ million, but such a large expenditure required the approval of the New Jersey state legislature, which was not readily forthcoming. Not until twenty-seven years later, in , did the state legislature give its approval and create a preliminary board to “consider the advisability of laying out ample open spaces for the use of the public in such counties’’ where the population exceeded , residents. The board’s report included proposed language for a bill to establish a permanent County Park Commission with “full powers of purchase, planning, and programming.’’ Their recommendations were incorporated into legislation, which was passed by the state legislature and signed into law by Gov. George T. Werts on May , . This legislation was challenged in court, but its constitutionality was upheld by the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (predecessor of the New Jersey Supreme Court) in the decision of James P. Ross v. The Board of Chosen Freeholders of Essex County, handed down in the March term of .

The  act created a commission with power to establish parks and reservations throughout a county. The Metropolitan Park Commission of the City of Boston was then the only existing entity of similar scope, but its jurisdiction was limited to only one municipality. The  New Jersey act created a commission with jurisdiction extending across all municipal boundaries within any given county. Since it had initiated the concept, Essex County created the first county park commission. In  Union County’s population finally exceeded , and the Union County Park Commission was established, becoming the second county park commission in the country. The Essex and Union county park commissions are also distinguished since both retained the nationally recognized Olmsted Brothers firm to design their system of parks and reservations. Today, these Olmsted landscapes in the Essex and Union park systems have matured, proving their value as well-designed public spaces. Schuyler, David, and Jane Turner Censer, eds. The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted. Vol. , The Years of Olmsted, Vaux & Company, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also illustration, color section; nature centers; state parks

Kathleen P. Galop

county prosecutor.

The county prosecutor is the attorney who represents the state in the prosecution of alleged criminals. In other states, the equivalent official is called the district attorney. In New Jersey, there are twenty-one county prosecutors, one in each county. The county prosecutor is generally responsible for the prosecution of felonies and misdemeanors, which are heard in the superior court, law division, criminal part. Prosecution of motor vehicle violations, disorderly persons’ offenses (such as shoplifting, trespassing, and simple assault), and violations of municipal ordinances are generally handled by the municipal prosecutor, who is appointed locally by the governing body of the municipality in which the court is located. County prosecutors are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the senate. They serve five-year terms; however, at the end of the five-year term they are generally retained on an interim basis until a new prosecutor is appointed and confirmed. There is no limit on the number of terms a county prosecutor may serve. Each county also employs a staff of assistant prosecutors, who serve at the discretion of the county prosecutor. The assistant prosecutors actually attend sessions of court and prosecute defendants at trial in most cases, while the county prosecutors generally serve in an administrative and managerial capacity. The county prosecutor’s office is often viewed as a stepping-stone to higher office, as many prosecutors and assistant prosecutors are later appointed to judicial

courthouses positions. Among such recent appointees to judgeships are Superior Court Judges John B. Dangler (Morris County); Stephen B. Rubin (Hunterdon County); E. David Millard (Ocean County); Roger Mahon (Hunterdon County); Thomas J. Critchley, Jr. (Morris County); and Marilyn C. Clark (Bergen County). Anne E. Thompson, former chief judge of the U.S. District Court, District of New Jersey, is a former Mercer County prosecutor. Alan A. Rockoff served as Middlesex County prosecutor, was appointed a judge in superior court, later resigned his judgeship to serve a second time as Middlesex County prosecutor, and was ultimately appointed to a second term as a superior court judge. The most controversial county prosecutor in recent times was probably Nicholas Bissell, the former Somerset County prosecutor (–). Bissell was noted for frequent exercise of civil forfeiture statutes, in which persons charged with crime are forced to surrender personal property or real estate, often as a condition of a plea bargain. In , Bissell was indicted and ultimately convicted of federal charges involving fraud and misappropriation of funds in personal business transactions. While awaiting sentencing, Bissell escaped from home confinement by removing an electronic monitor, and then fled the state. He committed suicide on November , , in Laughlin, Nevada, when surrounded by marshals attempting to take him into custody. Klein, Albert J. Criminal Law in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . New Jersey Lawyers Diary and Manual. Newark: Skinder-Strauss Associates, annual.

See also law

Richard L. Lurie

Couper, William

(b. Sept. , ; d.

June , ). Sculptor. William Couper was

born in Norfolk, Virginia, the son of John Couper, a descendant of an old Virginia family. He attended the Cooper Institute in New York and spent twenty-two years in Florence, Italy. While in Europe he studied with Thomas Ball and eventually married Ball’s daughter in . In the early s he was active in the ´mie Julian in Paris. He returned to the Acade United States in , opened a studio in New York City, and became a resident of Montclair. In  he received a bronze medal at the PanAmerican Exposition in Buffalo, New York. By  he had retired. Couper has had an enduring legacy, having specialized in statues and busts of leaders in various fields. Still in existence are statues of John D. Rockefeller, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and John Roebling. One of his most beautiful pieces, Crown for the Victor (), is on display at the Montclair Art Museum. His works are in the Smithsonian American Art Museum and the American Museum of Natural History (where his heroic

busts of thirteen famous scientists can be found), while his statue of Captain John Smith sculpted in  still graces Jamestown Park in Virginia. Couper died at the age of eighty-eight in Baltimore, Maryland. Obituary, New York Times, June , . Opitz, Glen B., ed. Mantle Fielding’s Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. Poughkeepsie, NY: Apollo, . Who Was Who in American Art, –. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, .

See also art

Robert C. Nelson

Courier News.

A daily and Sunday newspaper based in Bridgewater, the Courier News is owned by Gannett and serves Hunterdon, Middlesex, Morris, Somerset, and Union counties. It was launched as the Evening News of Plainfield in June  by Thomas W. Morrison, and called itself “The Only Daily Paper in Plainfield.’’ Within eight years, two competing Plainfield daily papers were launched, the Daily Press and the Plainfield Courier. In , Morrison sold the newspaper to the Plainfield Courier and the combined paper became the Plainfield Courier News. The Courier News bought the Daily Press in . The paper introduced zoned editions in the s, highlighting regional news through separate inserts. A group of newspapermen, including Frank Gannet, purchased the paper in . The newspaper was reorganized to cover eighty towns in five counties in . In  the paper removed “Plainfield’’ from its title, reflecting its broader area coverage but sparking local criticism. To improve distribution, the newspaper moved in  to expanded, modernized offices and a printing plant in Bridgewater, near Routes  and . With the opening of the Bridgewater Commons Mall in , advertising revenue grew significantly. See also newspapers

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Courier-Post. A content analysis of the state’s dailies concluded that the Courier-Post was the best overall newspaper in the state, ranking at the top in number of news pages, quantity of longer stories, and number of photographs. At the same time, editorial writing, which had been exceedingly bland, became forthright enough to offer election-day picks, though it was careful to recommend Democrat and Republican candidates in roughly equal proportions. In , the paper had a circulation of , issues daily and , on Sundays. Sachsman, David B., and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, . Wright, William C., and Paul Stellhorn, eds. Directory of New Jersey Newspapers, –. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also newspapers

Daniel P. Jones

courthouses.

The New Jersey Superior Court is divided geographically into fifteen districts. Judges of that court sit in the courthouses of each of the state’s twenty-one counties, hearing cases involving criminal, civil, and family law. Courthouses (or buildings and complexes associated with them) also house meeting rooms for the county freeholders; a jail; the clerk’s office, which deals with property transactions; the surrogate’s office, which handles wills and records of the administration of estates; as well as various other county functions. The following list includes the location of each courthouse, the date of its initial construction, and its architectural style. As New Jersey’s population has increased, many courthouses have been enlarged, and some have been replaced by new complexes, with the old courthouse surviving, but largely relegated to ceremonial functions or to housing special trials. An asterisk indicates those courthouses where this has occurred.

Harry Glazer

Courier-Post. The Courier-Post was formed in  by the merger of the Morning Post and Evening Courier under the ownership of Harold A. Stretch. The Morning Post began in  as the Camden Daily Post, which (after a few name changes) became the Camden Post/ Telegram through merger in  and the Morning Post in . The Evening Courier was previously the Camden Daily Courier, originating in . Originally both strongly favored the Republican party, but by the mid-s, they had become strictly nonpartisan dailies. Under Stretch, and then his widow, the Courier-Post became the top-selling newspaper in South Jersey and for decades has ranked third or fourth in circulation among all New Jersey dailies. The Gannett chain purchased it in , and in the mid-s transferred improved publishing and editorial talent to the

Atlantic County Courthouse, Mays Landing, , Greek Revival. Thomas U. Walter, the architect of the dome of the U.S. Capitol, designed the stone jail at the rear of the complex. Bergen County Courthouse, Hackensack, , Beaux Arts. The courthouse and accompanying Gothic Revival jail were designed by James Riely Gordon, the architect of the Arizona State House. Burlington County Courthouse,* Mount Holly, , Georgian/Federal. Samuel Lewis of Philadelphia designed it as a copy of the Philadelphia County Courthouse, now known as Congress Hall. Camden County Hall of Justice, Camden, . The courthouse is a modern structure, constructed as part of the redevelopment effort in Camden in the s and s. Cape May County Courthouse,* Village of Cape May (Middle Township), , late Georgian/Greek Revival.

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Burlington County Courthouse, Mount Holly.

Courtesy Burlington County Historical Society, Burlington.

Cumberland County Courthouse, Bridgeton, , Classical Revival. This two-story limestone structure, designed by Watson and Huckel, is topped by a three-stage clock tower. Essex County Courthouse, Newark, , Beaux Arts. Architect Cass Gilbert’s lavish marble building is enhanced by Tiffany stainedglass domes, and murals by Blashfield, Pyle, Cox, and other leaders of the American Mural movement. Gloucester County Courthouse, Woodbury, , Richardsonian Romanesque. This building was designed by Hazelhurst and Huckel of Philadelphia. Hudson County Courthouse,* Jersey City, , Beaux Arts. Designed by Hugh Roberts, it is decorated with murals by Blashfield, Millet, Turner, Pyle, and Cox. Hunterdon County Courthouse,* Flemington, , Greek Revival. This building became famous as the venue for the Lindbergh kidnapping trial. Mercer County Courthouse, Trenton, , Beaux Arts. Middlesex County Courthouse, New Brunswick, , International style. Monmouth County Courthouse,* Freehold, . Replaced by a newer building and now used as the Hall of Records, the  courthouse was heavily damaged by fire and largely reconstructed in Colonial Revival style in . Morris County Courthouse, Morristown, , Federal. Designed by Lewis Carter of Chatham, the original building is still visible, but has been engulfed by later additions. Passaic County Courthouse, Paterson, , Classical Revival. Salem County Courthouse,* Salem City, , Federal. Somerset County Courthouse, Somerville, , Classical Revival. The courthouse was designed by James Riely Gordon in collaboration with Swartout and Tracy. Sussex County Courthouse, Newton, , Greek Revival. Designed by Amos A. Harrison, the building was renovated after a  fire in the cupola, but retains much of its original appearance. Union County Courthouse, Elizabeth, . The original section was designed by Ackerman and Rose, but the  addition of a sevenstory annex and  addition of a seventeenstory terra cotta tower give the building an art deco character. Warren County Courthouse,* Belvidere, . Originally Federal in style, it was remodeled in the mid-nineteenth century in Italianate mode. See also architecture

Constance M. Greiff and Anne E. Weber

court of errors and appeals. When Hudson County Courthouse, Jersey City.

From Greetings from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chatal Pike.

the court of errors and appeals was created by the New Jersey constitution of , it replaced the legislative council, the upper house

Cozzens, James Gould

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proprietor of East and West Jersey, he served as governor in absentia of West Jersey from  to . Coxe never came to North America but established a pottery to make “white and chiney ware’’ in Burlington in . His chief potter was the London-born son of Dutch immigrants, John De Wilde. Although no examples survive today, it is fairly certain that the Coxe pottery produced both white and blue-and-white tin-glazed pottery, generically known today as delftware. The pottery marketed its wares both to local consumers (New York and Philadelphia) and also to Barbados and Jamaica. Coxe sold out his interests in New Jersey and in the pottery in . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Ulysses Grant Dietz

The Essex County Courthouse in Newark was designed by noted architect Cass Gilbert in .

Courtesy Newark Public Library. of the state legislature, as the state’s court of last resort. It continued to serve as New Jersey’s highest court until the reform of the state’s judiciary and the creation of the current supreme court in the constitution of . Although arguably an improvement over what preceded it, the court of errors and appeals suffered from severe defects that prevented it from keeping abreast of its work and acting cohesively. One problem was its unwieldy size: the court had sixteen members, leading commentators to describe it as “a little larger than a jury, a little smaller than a mob.’’ Another problem was its composition: the court consisted of the chancellor of the chancery court (the state’s intermediate appellate court for equity cases), the chief justice and eight associate justices of the supreme court (the intermediate appellate court for law cases), and six “lay’’ members, usually lawyers, for whom service on the court was only a part-time responsibility. Because members of the court of errors and appeals did not sit on appeals of their own decisions, the composition of the court varied from case to case. In addition, because the court drew its membership from other courts and from busy practitioners, the judges could not devote full attention to their responsibilities on the state’s highest court. As a result, both the speed and quality of the court’s work suffered, and its replacement by the New Jersey Supreme Court produced a major improvement in the administration of justice in New Jersey. Bello, Carla Vivian, and Arthur T. Vanderbilt II. New Jersey’s Judicial Revolution: A Political Miracle. New Brunswick: New Jersey Institute for Continuing Legal Education, .

Tarr, G. Alan, and Mary Cornelia Aldis Porter. State Supreme Courts in State and Nation. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also law

G. Alan Tarr

courts. See superior court; supreme court; tax court

Coxe, Daniel

(b. c. ; d. Jan. , ).

Physician and entrepreneur. Daniel Coxe was the royal physician to Charles II and to Queen Anne. A speculator in colonial lands and a

Daniel Coxe.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

coyote. Canis latrans is a wild canine that migrated to the eastern United States from the west and from Canada in the early s and now occupies all twenty-one New Jersey counties. Most coyotes are doglike in appearance and weigh thirty to forty pounds. Coyotes usually have mottled gray fur, but coloration varies from blond to charcoal. Coyotes mate in February, producing five to ten young in April. They have excellent sight, smell, and hearing. Chiefly nocturnal, they are opportunistic predators, feeding on rodents, birds, fawns, and occasionally domestic animals. They also eat fruits, berries, insects, and carrion. Coyotes are very adaptable and often live in close proximity to humans. Parker, Gerry. Eastern Coyote—The Story of Its Success. Halifax, Canada: Nimbus Publishing, .

David Burke

Cozzens, James Gould (b. Aug. , ; d. Aug. , ). Novelist. James Gould Cozzens was the son of Henry Williams Cozzens and Bertha Wood. He was born in Chicago, Illinois, and raised in Staten Island, New York. After attending the prestigious Kent School in Connecticut, Cozzens entered Harvard University in . He left without his degree in , the same year he published his first novel, Confusion. (Later, he received an honorary doctorate from Harvard.) On December , , Cozzens married Sylvia Bernice Baumgarten, a literary agent for Brandt and Brandt. The couple had no children. In  they moved to Carrs Farm outside Lambertville. While he lived there, Cozzens published several novels: Castaway (), Men and Brethren (), Ask Me Tomorrow (), and The Just and the Unjust (). During World War II, Cozzens served with the air force in the Training Aids Directorate and the Office of Technical Information; he left the service in  with the rank of major. His next novel, Guard of Honor (), received the Pulitzer Prize and gained a reputation as one of America’s best novels about the war. By Love Possessed () was his greatest

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commercial success. In  Cozzens left Carrs Farm for Belle Haven, Virginia. He published his final novel, Morning, Noon, and Night () ten years before his death in Stuart, Florida. Bruccoli, Matthew J. James Gould Cozzens: A Life Apart. New York: Harcourt, Brace, . Michel, Pierre. James Gould Cozzens. New York: Twayne, .

Paul R. Cappucci

crab.

See blue crab.

Crabtree, Lotta

(b. Nov. , ; d. Sept.

, ). Actress and celebrity. Lotta Crabtree

was born in New York, daughter of a bookseller, John Ashworth Crabtree, and Mary Ann (Liveley) Crabtree. Lotta moved with her parents to California during the gold rush. At age eight she began her stage career by performing at mining camps. By age twelve she was singing, dancing, and reciting at variety halls in San Francisco. She gained nationwide recognition in , at age twenty, during a series of appearances in various New York stage comedies and vaudeville productions. Her career lasted until the early s. On stage Lotta conveyed a sense of playfulness and spontaneity, often ad-libbing her lines. Offstage she was known for her kindness, generosity, and eccentric behavior that included cigar smoking. Her exuberant personality is expressed in her flamboyant Queen Anne, Shingle-style mansion, Attol Tryst, located on Lake Hopatcong at Mount Arlington in Morris County, which she inhabited summers from  to . Crabtree accumulated much wealth during her lifetime, most of which she left to charity when she died.

David Mitros

crafts, contemporary.

Amid the growing industrialization of the post–World War II era, the contemporary crafts movement developed at a point when the tradition of artisan as supplier of utilitarian objects had ebbed. The movement helped develop the notion of a craftsperson as a fine artist, who seized opportunities to explore new directions in craft techniques. The contemporary craftsperson experimented with new materials and ancient techniques, in some cases adapting cultural traditions to modern technology. The ensuing marriage of traditions and techniques created a flourishing craft movement of continuing importance to New Jersey’s cultural and economic vitality. During the decades of the s and s, public appreciation lagged behind growing excitement and enthusiasm among craft artists. To promote excellence in crafts, the New Jersey Designer Craftsman (NJDC) organization was formed in . For several decades NJDC functioned as a center for the exchange of ideas and expertise among craftspersons and provided opportunities for New Jersey residents to exhibit their work. NJDC also

published a newsletter, Craftfront, containing information on craft activities throughout the state. Among government entities, the New Jersey State Council on the Arts, Department of State (Arts Council), was a pioneer in promoting contemporary crafts as a fine art form. In , the Arts Council awarded the first craft fellowship to fiber artist Adela Akers, which was followed by more than one hundred awards to craft artists in subsequent years. In  the Arts Council created the position of crafts coordinator, the first of its kind in the country. Hortense Green, the first appointee to this position, worked with great tenacity to bring contemporary crafts to the public forefront, focusing national attention on contemporary crafts produced in New Jersey. Beginning in , the Arts Council once again attracted national attention by sponsoring a series of conferences entitled “Making Connections.’’ Held at Montclair State University and Kean University, these conferences brought together a broad cross-section of people representing all facets of the crafts movement. As the contemporary crafts movement gained momentum, the New York Times established a regular column in  devoted exclusively to the subject of crafts in the New Jersey section under the direction of editor Richard Roberts, with columnists Patricia Malarcher and Betty Freudenheim, both fiber artists. Writing for the Star-Ledger, columnists Shirley Friedman and Joan Babbage also focused on New Jersey’s craft community. In October , under the aegis of the Arts Council, Green organized a massive monthlong celebration of more than seventy major craft events throughout the state, entitled “All Join Hands—A Celebration of Crafts in New Jersey.’’ Highlighting the state’s more than five thousand professional craftspeople, craft organizations, museums, galleries, and art organizations, these events raised public awareness of the high quality of crafts made by professional artists in New Jersey. “All Join Hands’’ was immensely successful and was the inspiration for a nationwide campaign, “The Year of American Craft: A Celebration of the Creative Work of the Hand, ,’’ which focused media and public attention on the American craft movement and resulted in the establishment of a contemporary craft collection in the White House. Sustained support for contemporary crafts in New Jersey can also be attributed to private and public art and cultural institutions that have featured the works of talented craft artists in their collections, exhibitions, and public programs. October , , marked the beginning of the landmark annual exhibition series, New Jersey Arts Annual, in which one exhibition per year is devoted exclusively to crafts. Six sponsoring museums (Jersey City Museum, Montclair Art Museum, Morris Museum, Newark Museum, New Jersey State Museum, and Noyes Museum) joined with the

Arts Council to create this important visual arts series to showcase New Jersey artists through exhibitions at the participating museums on a rotating basis. The Newark Museum was also the first museum in the state to establish a gallery devoted to contemporary crafts. Other organizations that contributed to a creative crafts environment include the Northwest Bergen Craft Guild, First Mountain Crafters, Southern New Jersey Artists and Craftsmen, and the Montclair Craft Guild. The latter organization continues to serve craft professionals and hobbyists through publication of the Showcase newsletter and a biannual calendar of craft shows, promotion of an annual juried craft show, and ongoing education, business, and public programs. Craft facilities that offer physical space as well as educational enrichment include Peters Valley Craft Education Center, located in Sussex County, which provides interactive workshops, a juried craft fair, and a store gallery; Wheaton Village, located in Cumberland County, an eighty-eight-acre complex featuring educational, historical, and cultural programs; and Riker Hill Art Park located in Essex County, providing studio space to artists working in various mediums. Using clay, glass, fiber, wood, metal, and a variety of other materials, New Jersey’s craft artists have made valuable contributions to the creative process as well as to the growth and understanding of contemporary crafts. Bennet Bean, Peter Callas, Susan Eisen, Albert Green, Coco Schoenberg, and Toshiko Takaezu have demonstrated exceptional talent working in clay. Notable glass artisans include Leonard DiNardo, Don Manuel Gonzalez, David Lewin, Art Reed, and Paul Joseph Stankard. Fiber artists Jeanie Eberhardt, Ina Golub, Debbie S. L. Lee, Lore Lindenfeld, Patricia Malarcher, Christine Martens, Soyoo Hyunjoo Park, Linda S. Pote, Joy Saville, Lincoln Seitzman, Glendora Simonson, and the late Suellen Glashausser have demonstrated expertise and creativity through needlework, stitchery, beadwork, weaving, basketry, and tapestry. Artists Edgar and Joyce Anderson, John E. Hein, Steven B. Levine, Carol Rosen, Harry Shourds, Peter R. Tischler, and Marcia Wilson have worked with wood to stretch the boundaries of furniture making and the creation of decorative and sculptural objects. By creating jewelry, sculpture, and utilitarian objects, the following artists have achieved distinction through their work in metal: Carroll Bassett, Robert Browning, Christopher Darway, Marilyn Druin, Richard Kyle, Kenneth Calum MacBain, Amy Roper, Susan Sacks, and Debra Stark. Ongoing high-quality exhibitions have generated great interest and appreciation for the excellence and innovation in technique, design, and vision that distinguish New Jersey’s contemporary craft artists.

Linda S. Moore

cranberries

Craftsman Farms.

A museum belonging to the town of Parsippany–Troy Hills and operated by a private foundation, Craftsman Farms is a National Historic Landmark. When Gustav Stickley planned Craftsman Farms, he was at the height of his career as a manufacturer and purveyor of furnishings and decorative arts. His magazine, The Craftsman, also was successful, promoting designs for houses, landscapes, furnishings, and a philosophy of living based on principles of the Arts and Crafts movement: natural materials, fine craftsmanship, and simplicity of form. By  or , Stickley moved his headquarters from Syracuse to New York City. In June , he made his first purchases in Morris County, although not of the land where he eventually built Craftsman Farms. He began publishing ideas for the property’s development, first as a “Craftsman Village,’’ a resort and summer school, where craftsmen would pass on their skills to students. It would also serve as his country estate. In October, he published a design for a house for himself and, in December, for a log clubhouse, which combined the functions of dining hall and space for meetings and entertainment. It was this design, with modifications, that he adopted for the log house at Craftsman Farms. In March , Stickley purchased a acre parcel on the north side of what is now Route . This was the heart of what eventually became a property of  acres. A year later, Stickley completed the first two buildings of what became the Craftsman Farms complex— a pair of wooden cottages near the site where the log house would rise. Soon afterward he completed a third stucco-covered cottage on a hillside above the others. At this time, he was also thinking of building a furniture factory, a school, and a craftsman’s colony. Over the next

five years he published a number of concepts for developing Craftsman Farms: as a resort, progressive school, community of small selfsustaining farms, and a cottage colony. None came to fruition. In the summer of , Stickley began construction of the log house. He still thought of it as a clubhouse, but by the time the building was completed in the summer of , it had become a home for his family. Stickley published the log house in The Craftsman in November . By this time, the property had become a working farm, supplying produce, dairy products, and meat to a restaurant in the twelve-story Craftsman Building he had opened in New York City. True to Arts and Crafts principles, the log house is constructed of natural, locally available materials. The walls are chestnut logs, plentiful and cheap because of the blight then devastating the trees, while the foundation, veranda walls, and massive chimneys are fieldstone from the site. Although adapted for family use, the building reflects its conception as a clubhouse. The major spaces on the first floor are all suitable for the accommodation of large groups. A screened veranda, later enclosed, stretches across the entire front. Behind it is a large reception or sitting room with copperhooded fireplaces at either end. The dining room beyond also extends the full width of the house. The kitchen at the rear could serve as a commissary for one hundred people. In contrast to the log walls, the staircase and upstairs woodwork are finished with the simple but fine attention to detail that characterizes Stickley’s furniture. The complex also included farm outbuildings, another house, and a garage. Stickley devoted attention to the landscaping, cultivating a sunken garden below the house and a

181

woodland glen between the garden and the road. But popular interest in the Arts and Crafts movement was fading. Less than four years after completing the log house, an overextended Stickley was forced into bankruptcy. He and his family probably remained on the property until it was sold in . The new owners were Maj. George W. Farny, a distinguished Russian-born engineer, and his wife, the former Sylvia Wurlitzer. They made few alterations to the buildings and their heirs continued to occupy the property until after World War II. By , however, they had sold all but twenty-seven acres. In , a successful citizen campaign led Parsippany– Troy Hills to acquire the core of the property, assisted by state Green Acres funds. Cathers, David, ed. Gustav Stickley’s Craftsman Farms: A Pictorial History. Morris Plains: Turn of the Century Editions, . Hewitt, Mark. Gustav Stickley’s Craftsman Farms. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also furniture making

Constance M. Greiff

Craig, Thomas Bigelow

(b. ; d.

Sept. , ).

Painter. Born in Philadelphia, Thomas Bigelow Craig moved to New York City in  and ten years later to Rutherford. He is primarily known for his Hudson River– style paintings—typically cows and occasionally sheep grazing within summer landscapes. Early in his career, the animals were smaller than the surrounding landscapes; in his later years, they generally increased in size and importance, while the landscapes became the subordinated elements of his compositions. Although largely self-taught, Craig studied for a period of time at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where he exhibited his work in  and from  to . In  and , and from  to , his paintings were shown at New York’s National Academy of Design (NAD), where he was elected to associate membership in . During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, he also participated in exhibitions at other galleries and museums, including the  Cincinnati Industrial Exposition, the Brooklyn Art Association, and the Boston Art Club. Today his works are found in private and public collections, including the Pennsylvania Academy as well as the Newark Museum, which houses his Mill Pond, Rutherford (n.d.), noted for its local color. Gerdts, William. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

cranberries.

Living room of Gustav Stickley’s former home in Parsippany, now part of Craftsman Farms.

Photo: Richard Raska. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

The American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) is produced commercially in five states in the following order of acreage and production: Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New Jersey, Oregon, and Washington. Third-ranked New Jersey averages , barrels on , acres valued

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600 500

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400

1999

300

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decimated cranberry production, and New Jersey was never to regain its dominant position in the industry. From the wreckage wrought by this malady arose the cultivated highbush blueberry industry, with much impetus coming from the pioneering efforts of cranberry grower Elizabeth White of Whitesbog. Today, some twenty scientists from the New Jersey Agriculture Experiment Station and the United States Department of Agriculture work at the Phillip E. Marucci Center for Cranberry and Blueberry Research and Extension, developing new cultivars through genetic engineering, detecting yield loss utilizing GPS technology, and establishing new food and health benefits of cranberries and blueberries. Eck, Paul. The American Cranberry. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also agriculture

Paul Eck at $. million annually. Major production areas in the state are located, in order of acreage and production, in Burlington, Atlantic, and Ocean Counties. Cranberries are primarily grown in the Pinelands region of these counties, where perched water tables result in wetlands that support extensive cedar swamps and peat bogs. The tannin and organic acids leached from these swamps and bogs produce acidic coffee-colored water that results in the acid soils that are essential for cranberry production. Initially, cranberries were harvested from the wild in natural bogs and along stream banks. In  the first cranberry plants were planted by Barclay White in prepared bogs that were established by controlling water levels through an elaborate system of dams, reservoirs, and water control structures. By the s, with the establishment of Whitesbog, New Jersey became the leading producer of cranberries in the nation. At the turn of the century, however, false blossom disease

Cranbury.

.-square-mile township in southern Middlesex County. Cranbury’s level terrain encompasses a historic village center, more than , acres of farmland (of which nearly  percent is permanently preserved), woodlands, and over . million square feet of factories, offices, and warehouses, drawn by the township’s proximity to the New Jersey Turnpike and its location midway between New York and Philadelphia. Among the state’s oldest towns, Cranbury celebrated its tercentennial in . Originally known as Cranberry and Cranberry Town, it was renamed shortly before its incorporation on March , , consisting of the village and parts of South Brunswick and Monroe townships. Cranbury is regarded as the county’s best-preserved nineteenth-century village, remarkable for its intact and cohesive domestic and commercial architecture, a status recognized when most of the village was placed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places. Here David Brainerd preached to the Lenape Indians (–), and Washington, Lafayette, and Hamilton were headquartered in June , before the Battle of Monmouth. Single-family detached houses predominate. The population in  was ,, of which  percent was white and  percent was Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Clayton, W. Woodford, ed. History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Walsh, Ruth Berg. Cranbury Past and Present. N.p.: Privately printed, .

See also illustration, color section

Betty Wagner During the early years of commercial production, cranberries were packed in barrels and labeled with slogans and artwork.

Courtesy Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc., Corporate Archives, Lakeville-Middleboro, MA.

Crane, Israel , ).

(b. Mar. , ; d. Mar.

Entrepreneur and road builder. Israel Crane was born in Cranetown (afterward called West Bloomfield and now Montclair),

the only son of Matthias and Elizabeth Crane. In , he married Frances (Fanny) Pierson, with whom he had six children. Crane studied theology at Princeton with a view to becoming a minister, but because of poor health he could not continue his studies. Instead, Crane turned his attention to business and through his entrepreneurial pursuits did much to develop Essex County. He owned a general store and large brownstone quarry in Newark as well as two textile mills, a cider mill, and distillery. Crane is perhaps best known, however, for his active promotion of and involvement in the construction of the Newark and Pompton Turnpike. In , the government of New Jersey incorporated the Newark and Pompton Turnpike Company of which Crane served as president. By , the turnpike (which is today’s Bloomfield Avenue) reached Caldwell and linked the rural regions to the west with the markets of Newark. Crane eventually acquired sole possession of the toll road from its other investors. Because of his many business pursuits and particularly because of his exclusive control of the turnpike, he was often derisively called “King Crane.’’ Whittemore, Henry. History of Montclair Township, State of New Jersey, Including the History of the Families Who Have Been Identified with Its Growth and Prosperity. New York: Suburban Publishing, .

Phillip Papas

Crane, Stephen

(b. Nov. , ; d. June ,

). Novelist, poet, and journalist. Although

he lived only twenty-eight years, Stephen Crane produced a large volume of writing with great intensity and made a tremendous impact on American literature. Crane’s best-known work, The Red Badge of Courage (), established the New Jersey native as a pioneer of the American psychological novel. Born at  Mulberry Street in Newark, he was the fourteenth and last child of a Methodist minister, Jonathan Townley Crane, and Mary Helen Peck Crane. The family moved to Port Jervis, New York, in . After the Reverend Dr. Crane’s death in , young Stephen and his strong-willed mother moved to Asbury Park, where his sister Agnes was a teacher, and his older brother Townley operated the New York Tribune’s local news agency. The family lived at  Fourth Avenue in a house that still stands today. Stephen, who fared better in baseball than academics, attended a prep school and made several unsuccessful attempts at college. In , Townley turned his column, “On the Jersey Coast,’’over to Stephen. Vivid details about boardwalk amusements added interest to Stephen’s articles, but his main focus was on the people. He described the frivolity of the summer vacationers but also included disparaging remarks about Asbury Park’s founding father, James A. Bradley. In , Stephen criticized a patriotic labor group that marched in Asbury Park annually. Both Stephen and

Cree, David

183

outlying portions of Cranford were given to Garwood (), Kenilworth (), and Winfield (). Today, Cranford is the home of Union County College’s main campus. It remains a predominantly residential community of single-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bragdon, William B. Cranford, An Outline History. Cranford: Cranford Historical Society, . Hall, Homer J. Three Hundred Years at Crane’s Ford. Cranford: Cranford Historical Society, . Know Your Town, Cranford. Cranford: League of Women Voters, .

Robert Fridlington

Cranford Historical Society Museum. Established soon after the historical

Stephen Crane, .

Stephen Crane Collection (#5505), Clifton Waller Barrett Library, Special Collections, University of Virginia Library, Charlottesville.

Townley were subsequently fired. Stephen left Asbury Park to experience the bohemian life in New York and to write about the squalor of the Bowery. Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (), a novel that Crane initially wrote under a pseudonym and paid to have published, eventually became one of his most famous works. Crane sold articles to the New York Press, including two ghost stories set at the Jersey Shore that appeared without bylines. Crane’s adventurous nature led him to tour the American West and Mexico as a roving reporter. Even though Crane had not yet seen a battle, his gripping Civil War tale, The Red Badge of Courage, about Union recruit Henry Fleming soon became the most popular war novel both at home and abroad. His success led him to work as a war correspondent during the GrecoTurkish and the Spanish-American conflicts. On the way to Cuba in , Crane survived the sinking of a filibuster ship off the coast of Florida, an experience that served as the catalyst for perhaps his finest short story, “The Open Boat.’’ While in Jacksonville, Florida, he met a bordello owner, Cora Stewart. Crane and Stewart moved to England and lived together in high style, but disease and debt soon plagued the author. Weakened from his strenuous lifestyle and suffering from tuberculosis, he went to a spa in Badenweiler, Germany, to regain his health but died there on June , . Crane’s life was brief, but he is recognized as one of the first American authors to use the naturalistic style of writing. He left a

remarkable legacy of novels, short stories, and poems. He is buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Colvert, James B. Stephen Crane. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, . Stallman, R. W. Stephen Crane. New York: Braziller, .

See also literature

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Crane House.

See Israel Crane House.

Cranford. .-square-mile township centrally located in Union County. Settlers from Elizabethtown (Elizabeth) moved into the area in the early eighteenth century, and several mills were built along the Rahway River. By the time of the American Revolution the area was known as Crane’s Mills, after two mills operated by John Crane. In  Crane’s Mills served briefly as the headquarters of the forward element of George Washington’s army encamped at Morristown. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the village was called Craneville, and in  it was renamed Cranford. In the late s the Elizabethtown and Somerville Rail Road (later the Central Railroad of New Jersey) was built through the area, and after the Civil War it brought an influx of new residents into the community. On March , , the township of Cranford was incorporated from land taken from Westfield, Springfield, Union, Linden, and Clark. Later,

society was founded in , this museum has been located since  in the Crane-Phillips House, built by Josiah Crane circa . Leased from Union County and maintained as a living history museum, the house reflects family life in , the year Cranford was incorporated as a township. The museum also offers school programs and changing exhibitions of local and regional history from the society’s collections. The Crane-Phillips House is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places and in  was designated a Save America’s Treasures site. See also museums

Robert Fridlington

Craven, John J.

(b. Sept. , ; d. Feb.

, ). Inventor and physician. Newark-born

John Craven, inventor of a telegraph cable insulation process in his youth, later became a doctor, served as an army surgeon in the Civil War, and was detailed as captured Confederate president Jefferson Davis’s personal physician from May through December of . In , Craven was credited as author of a memoir, The Prison Life of Jefferson Davis. Most scholars maintain that the book (which, not entirely accurately, portrayed Davis as inhumanely treated by his jailers) was actually largely written by Craven’s friend, the journalist Charles G. Halpine. The book created a groundswell of northern sympathy for Davis’s plight and played a part in gaining his eventual release. Eckert, Edward K. Fiction Distorting Fact: The Prison Life, Annotated by Jefferson Davis. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, . Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Civil War

Joseph G. Bilby

Cree, David (fl. s).

Printer. David Cree worked in northern New Jersey during the s. Evidence suggests that he was a journeyman in Chatham for Shepard Kollock before

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striking out on his own in Morristown, where he printed the Morristown Gazette and New Jersey Advertiser in , and then in Springfield, where he issued the Morning Herald and Weekly Advertiser one year later. A fragmentary copy of the second title is all that survives of Cree’s work. He then found employment in Philadelphia as a journeyman and while there took part in a strike over wages. He disappeared from view in . McKinstry, E. Richard. “The Press in EighteenthCentury Morristown, New Jersey.’’ Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries  (): –.

See also newspapers

E. Richard McKinstry

Cresskill. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County, located on the western slope of the Palisades. Named for the watercress that grew along Tenakill Brook, Cresskill was known as Lower Closter until the mid-s. Originally part of Hackensack Township, it broke off as part of Palisades Township in  and later joined Harrington Township. In , Cresskill was incorporated; its name was changed to the borough of Cresskill in . It ceded its waterfront land to Alpine in , losing Huyler’s Landing, the site where Lord Charles Cornwallis and his British troops landed on November , , on the way to capture Fort Lee. Cresskill was the site of frequent Tory raids during the Revolutionary War. In the late s, the world’s largest chicken hatchery was located in the borough. During World War I, Cresskill, with three other communities, was home to Camp Merritt, the largest army embarkation camp in the nation. The borough was also the site of a base hospital during the Second World War. Between  and , Cresskill’s population increased from  to over ,. In , Cresskill’s Robert Bruce Merrifield, a professor at Rockefeller University, won the Nobel Prize in chemistry. Today Cresskill is a residential community of predominantly single-family homes; its land is almost completely developed. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cresskill Centennial Committee. A Town Called Cresskill. Cresskill: Borough of Cresskill, .

Susan Chore

criminal code. New Jersey’s comprehensive body of criminal law is officially known as the Code of Criminal Justice and is often referred to as “C,’’ in recognition of the statutory title in which the code is embodied. The code was first enacted in , and went into effect in . Prior to its enactment, penal law in New Jersey had emerged largely through evolution of the common law and remained primarily dependent upon the judiciary as the

government entity that most shaped its development. In enacting the code, the New Jersey legislature abolished all common-law crimes; thereafter conduct could no longer constitute an offense unless it was defined in the code or in another statute. The purpose of codification was essentially threefold: to provide a single source of reference with regard to criminal law; to revise, clarify, and modernize elements of offenses and defenses; and to provide a uniform scheme of sentencing and corrections. The movement to adopt a code had begun during the s under Gov. Richard J. Hughes’s administration. In  the Criminal Law Revision Commission proposed the initial draft, which drew significantly on the Model Penal Code compiled by the American Law Institute. Both the original and subsequent drafts borrowed from codes previously adopted in other states, including New York, California, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Connecticut. The effort to secure enactment of the full code provoked significant opposition, especially to those sections that threatened to prevent counties from continuing to prohibit Sunday shopping and to abolish penalties for certain sexual acts committed by consenting individuals. To win passage, Gov. Brendan Byrne and the legislature adopted a series of amendments prior to September , , the scheduled effective date, removing several of the most controversial provisions. Enactment of the code enabled the state to establish explicit definitions for various legal principles affecting criminal liability, such as duress, entrapment, self-defense, and the use of force by law enforcement officials. The code also led to decriminalization of certain activities, including social gambling. And it permitted incorporation of a system of rational grading for sentencing, in an attempt to relate punishment more realistically to the moral culpability of the offender. In the years following initial adoption of the code, the legislature made numerous revisions to reflect a prevailing concern with crime prevention. It substantially increased the number of offenses subject to mandatory imprisonment. In  it reenacted the death penalty as a potential sentence for persons who commit a purposeful or knowing murder. It also adopted a new chapter of the code related to domestic violence to enable victims to receive greater protection from abuse. In , the legislature enacted a Comprehensive Drug Reform Act, revising and expanding the laws related to controlled dangerous substances. The trend toward stronger law enforcement and harsher sanctions continued during the s. The code was expanded by establishing as crimes carjacking and the use of assault weapons. In  New Jersey became the first state to adopt Megan’s Law, requiring prior community notification of the release of highrisk sexual offenders from confinement. The legislature further revised the code to place

significant limitations on the parole eligibility of certain violent offenders and to increase the degree and mandatory sentence for offenses causing serious injury to victims. Grossman, Daniel Louis. “The New Jersey Code of Criminal Justice: Analysis and Overview.’’ Seton Hall Legislative Journal  (): –. Miller, Gerald D. New Jersey Practice A: Criminal Law. d ed. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, ; supp. .

See also law

Robert J. Martin

Cromwell, Oliver

(b. May , ; d. Jan.

, ). Revolutionary War soldier. Believed

to have been born free in Columbus, New Jersey, Oliver Cromwell was a farmer prior to the Revolutionary War. He served with the Continental Army, enlisting in a company attached to the Second New Jersey Regiment. His reminiscences, when he was one hundred years old, indicate that he crossed the Delaware River on December , , with Gen. George Washington and engaged in the Battle of Trenton and the later key battles of Princeton, Brandywine, Monmouth, and Yorktown. Washington signed his honorable discharge papers. On returning to civilian life, he resumed working as a farmer. By  he had moved to the Burlington City house in which he was living at the time of his death; it still stands. Kaplan, Sidney. The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution, –. Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society, .

See also African Americans; Revolutionary War

Giles R. Wright

Cropsey, Jasper Francis ; d. June , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Artist and architect. Born at Rossville, on Staten Island, New York, Jasper F. Cropsey was the eldest of the eight children of Jacob Cropsey, a Dutch farmer. In , he began a five-year architectural apprenticeship with Joseph Trench in New York, but by , he had turned to landscape painting. Although he ultimately became a leading second-generation Hudson River school artist, he continued his interest in architecture. Surviving Cropsey structures include the  station for the Sixth Avenue Elevated Railroad in New York City and the  studio at Ever Rest, his Gothic-style home at Hastings-onHudson, New York. In , Cropsey began to exhibit at New York’s National Academy of Design and also visited Greenwood Lake in New Jersey, “a beautiful sheet of water surrounded by hills,’’ where he later maintained a summer studio. At nearby West Milford, he met and on May , , married Maria Cooley, with whom he had four daughters. The newlyweds immediately left for Europe, where they visited London, toured the British Isles, France, and Switzerland, and then settled in Rome where

cross country Cropsey rented the former studio of a founder of the Hudson River school, Thomas Cole. There Cropsey painted Italian landscapes, but by the time he returned to the United States in , he began to focus on scenes of autumn, which exhibited the compositional forms typical of America’s burgeoning Hudson River school along with precise drawing and brilliant color. Indeed, so famous did he become for his autumnal scenes that by the mid-s, he was dubbed “America’s Painter of Autumn.’’ In , Cropsey was elected an associate member and, in , a full academician in the National Academy of Design, where he continued to exhibit until . In , he sold the contents of his studio in order to finance a second trip to London the following year. There he painted his famous Autumn on the Hudson River (). After returning to the United States in , Cropsey executed one of his most important New Jersey scenes, Greenwood Lake (c. ), along with other local views, including Janetta Falls, Passaic County, and scenes of Lake Wawayanda. By the late s, he became interested in the atmospheric effects of luminism, a poetic and light-filled style of painting, and in watercolor, which led to his participation in the founding of the American Watercolor Society in . During this period, he began to exhibit at the American Art Union, the Brooklyn Art Association, the Boston Athenaeum, and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where he was also an honorary member. In addition, he held memberships in the Century, Union League, and Lotos clubs. In , he suffered a stroke that brought about a decline in the quality of his work and ultimately caused his death in . Today his paintings are found in major museums and private collections throughout New Jersey and the nation.

Smith, Andrew F. Souper Tomatoes: The Story of America’s Favorite Food. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also canning industry; tomato

Andrew F. Smith

Cross, Dorothy

(b. Oct. , ; d. Feb.

, ). Archaeologist and educator. Dorothy

Cross was born in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania. She received her B.S. in education in  and a doctorate in oriental studies and anthropology in , both from the University of Pennsylvania. At the outbreak of World War II, she returned from the Middle East and went to work on what would become her main interest: the archaeology of the Delaware Valley. During the time when most professional archaeologists were men, Dorothy Cross was an influential figure in the archaeology of New Jersey. She began her career at the New Jersey State Museum in , arranging collections of archaeological and ethnographic materials. She supervised the Indian Site Survey of New Jersey (–), a WPA-sponsored program. The result of those surveys and the later excavation and publication of the famous Abbott Farm site () helped fill New Jersey’s spotty prehistoric record. She held the title of New Jersey’s state archaeologist and curator of archaeology when she retired from the New Jersey State Museum in . Dorothy Cross was also a full professor at Hunter College, serving as chairman of the anthropology department and on the committee that founded the graduate program at the City University of New York. Claassen, Cheryl, ed. Women in Archaeology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

Cross, Dorothy. New Jersey’s Indians. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum, . Mounier, R. Alan. Looking beneath the Surface: The Story of Archaeology in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also archaeology

Gregory D. Lattanzi

cross country. The sport of cross country was imported into the state in the late nineteenth century from England. It was derived from “Hare and Hounds’’ games in which one team chased another; therefore cross country runners are often called “harriers.’’ Princeton University formed a Hare and Hounds club in . In , the New Jersey Athletic Club’s W. D. Day won the first Amateur Athletic Union national championship. Princeton placed fourth in a six-mile race with Cornell, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania in the  championship meet of the Intercollegiate Cross Country Association of Amateur Athletics of America. Princeton hosted the first collegiate title competition in . Rutgers University organized its team in . Today’s collegians run a ten-thousandmeter course. Although high schools fielded teams before , New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association championships did not begin until that year. Early scholastic powerhouses included Saint Benedict’s Prep (Newark) and Passaic High School. In recent years, Christian Brothers Academy (Lincroft) boys and North Hunterdon girls are leaders on the .-mile (five-thousand-meter) course. Girls’ teams emerged in the early s, with Red Bank Catholic hosting unofficial state championships until the NJSIAA sanctioned them in . Two teams have won

Bermingham, Peter. Jasper F. Cropsey, –: A Retrospective View of America’s Painter of Autumn. College Park: University of Maryland Art Gallery, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Talbot, William S. Jasper F. Cropsey, –. New York: Garland, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Barbara J. Mitnick

Crosby, Harrison W.

(b. ; d. ).

Inventor. Harrison Crosby, of Jamesburg, is credited with being the first successful tomato canner. While serving as the steward of Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, Crosby filled six tin pails with tomatoes in . He expanded his operation during the following years. The canned goods were sold to restaurateurs, hotel proprietors, and saloonkeepers in New York and Washington, D.C. In the fall of , to gain exposure for his products, Crosby sent samples to newspaper editors, Queen Victoria, and President James K. Polk.

185

Dr. Dorothy Cross (front center) at the Fairy Hole Rock Shelter, Jenny Jump Mountain, .

Courtesy Bureau of Archaeology and Ethnology, New Jersey State Museum, Trenton.

186

Crossroads Theatre Company

girls’ and boys’ championships in the same year: Bernards in Far Hills () and North Hunterdon (). National individual championships started in , and the state has produced two winners: John P. Stevens’s (Edison) Janet Smith () and North Hunterdon’s Brendan Heffernan (). Newark’s Branch Brook and Weequahic parks hosted several early national championships, and the  world championships were held at the Meadowlands. See also sports; track and field

Dona M. Amici

Crossroads Theatre Company. Crossroads Theatre in New Brunswick is the nation’s leading African American theater. Founded in  by Ricardo Khan and L. Kenneth Richardson in New Brunswick, it produces and tours new works from the African diaspora and displays positive images of African American life, history, and culture. Crossroads Theatre Company was the recipient of the  Tony Award for Outstanding Regional Theatre in America. Noteworthy authors such as August Wilson, Mbongeni Ngema, and Rita Dove have had works premiered there, and actors such as Ruby Dee, Ossie Davis, and Avery Brooks have appeared on its stage. The theater closed in  due to financial problems, but reopened with limited productions in . See also theater

Paul Somers

Crosswicks.

See Chesterfield.

CSX.

Along with Norfolk Southern, CSX is one of the two principal private freight railroads currently operating in New Jersey. When Conrail was broken up on August , , CSX acquired routes of the former New York Central on the west shore of the Hudson River, and assumed operation jointly with Norfolk Southern of trackage in the New Jersey waterfront terminals. CSX stands for Chessie and Seaboard Systems. It blankets all of the United States east of the Mississippi River and is comprised of railroads that had very little historic presence in New Jersey except for the waterfront properties of the Baltimore and Ohio. As railroads merged in the s, the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, which had acquired the B & O and would later serve as the cornerstone of what would become CSX, snubbed New Jersey because of high taxes and unprofitable commuter operations. The C & O let the Reading and Jersey Central Lines (then controlled by the B & O) slip into bankruptcy. Conrail, which acquired the bankrupt lines, was successful in part because the state took responsibility for commuters. It was successful enough to become the object of a bidding war between CSX and Norfolk Southern in . Drury, George, comp. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads:  Lines Abandoned or Merged

since . Milwaukee: Kalmbach Publishing, . ———. The Train-Watcher’s Guide to North American Railroads. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Publishing, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

Cubans. Prior to the Cuban Revolution in , New Jersey had a small Cuban population concentrated in Union City and West New York. Most of these Cuban families came to the United States in search of economic opportunity. Those who came after the revolution generally sought to escape a hostile political system. Following their departure from Cuba, most political refugees arrived in Miami-Dade County, Florida. When in  the U.S. government established a resettlement program to relieve the economic strain and community tensions that developed from the constant flow of Cubans to Miami, New Jersey accepted ´migre ´s. The a large concentration of Cuban e presence of family and friends, as well as a strong and growing Cuban community in the state, encouraged further settlement. It is impossible to identify Cubans as being part of one socioeconomic or political group. New Jersey Cubans span the economic scale from poor to wealthy, and they have varied political beliefs regarding the government of Fidel Castro and United States–Cuba relations. Although many in the Cuban exile community have a shared past, they have widely varying values, opinions, and acculturation experiences, due in part to why and when they left their homeland and to their reception in the United States. Since , Cuban immigration has occurred in waves. Between  and , the majority of exiles were white, middle- or upper-class business people who had contacts in the United States prior to their arrival. Many were skilled, educated professionals, which facilitated their acculturation process. At the same time, many of these Cubans retained a strong hold on their language and culture, based in part on the expectation that they would someday return to Cuba. This selfimposed cultural marginality facilitated the creation of a self-sustaining Cuban enclave in Union City. In the second wave, from the mids through the mid-s, Cubans emigrated to the United States for political and economic reasons. These emigrants tended to be more diverse and ideologically different from their predecessors. They were generally younger, and included Afro-Cubans. The disintegration of the Soviet Union, a longtime ally to the Castro government, sparked a third wave of Cuban immigration in the early and mid-s, as the Cuban economy suffered from the loss of one of its principal trading partners. Although Cubans and Hispanics in general tend to be underrepresented in politics, some have made significant political strides. Of

particular note is Robert Menendez, who has been elected to the House of Representatives five times with the overwhelming support of voters in the Thirteenth District. The Democratic members of the House elected him vice chairman of the Democratic Caucus, making Menendez the first New Jerseyan to hold this post and the highest-ranking Hispanic in Congress. Additionally, the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF), a powerful economic and political force representing the Cuban exile community, has one of its seven branches in New Jersey. New Jersey boasts the second largest Cuban population in the United States after Florida, but the number of Cubans in the state has declined in the past two decades. Between  and , the Cuban population decreased by , (.%), making the total New Jersey Cuban population ,. Union County had the greatest number of Cubans in , ,, and Bergen County followed close behind with a population of ,. Gonzalez-Pando, Miguel. The Cuban Americans. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Haskins, James. The New Americans: Cuban Boat People. Hillside: Enslow Publishers, . Prieto, Yolanda. “Cuban Women in New Jersey: Gender Relations and Change.’’ In Seeking Common Ground: Multidisciplinary Studies of Immigrant Women in the United States, ed. Donna Gabaccia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Rogg, Eleanor Meyer. The Assimilation of Cuban Exiles: The Role of Community and Class. New York: Aberdeen Press, .

See also ethnicity; Latinas/os

Michele M. Gisbert

Cuff, Ruben (b. ; d. date unknown).

Religious leader. Born in Elsinboro near Salem, Ruben Cuff was the son of the slave Cuff Cuff from Ghana and the widow of his master. Little is known of Cuff’s life until the s when, after a conversion to Methodism at a revival, he began a ministry among slaves, “free Negroes,’’ and whites. Reportedly he built a church, which mysteriously burned down in . With the help of the founder of African American Methodism, Richard Allen, Cuff continued his ministry, which in  led to the founding of the Mount Pisgah African Methodist Episcopal congregation, the oldest black church in New Jersey and one of the oldest in the nation. See also African Methodist Episcopal Church

Gary Hunter

Culver’s Gap.

Kittatinny Mountain in Sussex County is underlain by the very resistant Shawangunk conglomerate and High Falls sandstone formation. This ridge extends thirty-six miles from the New York border to the Delaware Water Gap, and contains the highest point in New Jersey (High Point, at , feet). The ridge is broken by a wind gap called Culver’s Gap, which is  feet lower than the crest. Route  goes through the gap

curly-grass fern to get over Kittatinny Mountain. Wind gaps are usually at a higher elevation than water gaps in the same formation. For example, the water level at the Delaware Water Gap is at an elevation of  feet, which is approximately , feet lower than the average crest elevation of Kittatinny Mountain (, feet). Subitzky, Seymour, ed. Geology of Selected Areas in New Jersey and Eastern Pennsylvania. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wolfe, Peter E. Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also Kittatinny Region

Robert M. Hordon

Cumberland County.

.-squaremile county, encompassing fourteen municipalities. The first to settle in the area were the Nanticoke Lenape Indians; the first European settlers were English Quakers. The county was officially established on January , , when it broke away from Salem County. It was named after the English duke of Cumberland. Cumberland County was founded on a firm agricultural base, which continues to flourish today, but progress has brought glass, canning, oystering, and clothing industries to the county as well. The city of Bridgeton is the county seat and houses the Cumberland County Courthouse. Cumberland County’s own liberty bell and one of New Jersey’s earliest newspapers, the Plain Dealer, are located in Bridgeton, as is New Jersey’s first municipal zoo, the Cohanzick Zoo. The city of Millville, known as the “Holly City’’ because it housed one of the country’s largest

CUMBERLAND COUNTY

Bridgeton

0

15 miles

county seat

holly farms, has long been recognized for its glassmaking industry. The world-renowned Museum of American Glass can be found at Wheaton Village in Millville. Dedicated by the U.S. War Department in , “America’s First Defense Airport,’’ the Millville Army Air Field Museum, and the Wall of Remembrance, commemorating the fourteen fallen pilots from this area who gallantly served this country in World War II, are also located in the city of Millville. The city of Vineland, the largest city in New Jersey in land area, is home to the Jersey Fresh Festival, celebrating the strong agricultural base of Cumberland County and of New Jersey overall. Cumberland County is also home to the village of Fortescue, the “Weakfish Capital of the World,’’ located on the Delaware Bay. Fortescue has one of the largest fleets of charter and party boats in New Jersey. Hundreds of thousands of visitors flock to Fortescue annually to enjoy recreational boating and fishing. The designation of the Maurice River and its principal tributaries in  as part of the National Wild and Scenic River system was made in conjunction with the implementation of a river plan. This plan, developed locally and implemented through local zoning and land use regulations, is the foundation for managing the resources of the river corridor. The Maurice River system supports some of the most important wildlife habitats in the region. It has been estimated that more than  percent of New Jersey’s threatened and endangered plant and animal species can be found in the Maurice River watershed. Shorebirds, bald eagles, rail birds, hawks, and songbirds of various types are found here. The Maurice River is one of only three rivers in the state where striped bass still spawn and overwinter. The Manumuskin Creek, the largest tributary of the Maurice, has been classified as “pristine’’ by the state. This outstanding water quality is the principal reason for the diversity of aquatic plant life in the region. Many small fishing villages can be found along the Delaware Bay. Port Norris, located in Commercial Township, was the “Oyster Capital of the World’’ during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. From the early eighteenth century, settlers recognized the rich source of oysters that could be found in the Delaware Bay. Today, the oyster harvest is sporadic. The parasites MSX and dermo have virtually destroyed oyster fishing in the Delaware Bay. The Harold Haskins Research Lab, affiliated with Rutgers University and located in Bivalve, has been trying to develop a strain of oyster resistant to the MSX virus. Recently developed techniques for planting and harvesting oysters indicate a comeback of the county’s oyster industry. Despite the decline in the oyster harvest, the Port Norris region still contains the cultural and historic remnants of this once-prosperous industry. Many active seafood businesses remain in the area, processing clams, fish,

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crabs, and other seafood products. The Commercial Township Seafood Festival, an annual event held every fall in Mauricetown, and Bay Day, an organized activity sponsored by the Bayshore Discovery Project, have drawn new attention to the importance of the Delaware Bay. The Bayshore Discovery Project was founded in  as the Delaware Bay Schooner Project. This organization restored a  oyster schooner, the A. J. Meerwald, which has been designated through legislation as New Jersey’s Official Tall Ship. Commonly called a sailing classroom, the Meerwald is a frequent destination for school trips—plus public and private charters—for children and adults who are interested not only in sailing, but also in learning more about the importance of the Delaware Bay and its habitat. The East Point Lighthouse, erected in , still serves as a beacon guiding ships into and out of the mouth of Maurice River. East Point is the last land-based lighthouse remaining on the Delaware Bay in New Jersey. It stands as a symbol of Cumberland County’s continuing importance as a center of commercial maritime activity. That, and agriculture, remain central to the county’s economy. Cumberland County’s fourteen municipalities include three cities, ten townships, and a borough. The three cities—Bridgeton, Millville, and Vineland—are home to  percent of the county’s , people ( census). The county population was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median family income was $,. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of Gloucester, Salem and Cumberland Counties. . Reprint. Woodbury: Gloucester County Historical Society, .

Kimberly Wood

Cumberland County College.

The college was founded in , two years after the New Jersey state legislature authorized the creation of county colleges in New Jersey to broaden access to higher education for state residents. Opened in  on a hundred acres in Vineland, Cumberland County College was the first community college in New Jersey to have its own campus. This twoyear state and locally supported institution offers certificates, associate degree programs, and transfer programs to four-year colleges. Cumberland County College currently enrolls more than twenty-four hundred students; approximately half attend fulltime. See also higher education

Tracy L. Smith

curly-grass fern.

Schizaea pusilla, a fern only a few inches tall, is the best-known native plant of New Jersey. It grows on edges of moss hummocks in cedar swamps and bogs

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Curtiss-Wright Corporation

in the Pine Barrens, and in Delaware (at one place) and New York (also one place). It is also found rarely in eastern Canada and Peru. It was first discovered in the Pine Barrens in . This fern has two types of leaves: one with spores, brown, upright, and comblike, and the other shorter, green, grasslike, and curly. This species belongs to a very ancient and mostly tropical fern family, the Schizaeaceae. Montgomery, James D., and David E. Fairbrothers. New Jersey Ferns and Fern Allies. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Pine Barrens

Lena Struwe

Curtiss-Wright Corporation. Based in Lyndhurst, Curtiss-Wright was founded in  by the merger of two of the nation’s foremost aeronautical companies, the Wright Aeronautical Company and the Curtiss Airplane and Motor Company. The Wright Aeronautical Division in Paterson was the nation’s leading supplier of aircraft engines during World War II. Engine manufacturing continued at Wood-Ridge after . Propeller manufacturing was undertaken at the company’s Caldwell facility. After World War II, the company diversified its aeronautical products to include parts for nuclear submarines, rockets, and nuclear power plants. Employing nearly , people, Curtiss-Wright is an international supplier of products and services in the areas of motion control, flow control, and metal treatment. Sales in  were over $ million. See also aviation industry

Eagar, Irene. Margaret Anna Cusack: One Woman’s Campaign for Women’s Rights: A Biography. Dublin: The Women’s Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also religious communities of women

Rosalie McQuaide and Janet Davis Richardson

Cushing, Juliet Clannon

(b. Sept. ,

; d. Sept. , ).

Progressive reformer. Born in New York City, the daughter of Simon and Sarah (Olmstead) Clannon, Juliet Cushing was educated at the best private schools in Manhattan. In , she married George Wade Brooks Cushing and moved to East Orange; the couple had five children before his death in . In , with Cornelia Foster Bradford, Cushing organized the Consumers League of New Jersey, of which she served as president for thirty years. Under Cushing’s leadership, the league lobbied for better working conditions for women and children in New Jersey’s factories, farms, and stores. Particularly concerned with migrant worker children, Cushing founded and chaired the New Jersey Child Labor Committee in . During World War I, she served the state monitoring working conditions in the war industries. Cushing died at her daughter’s home in Short Hills. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Consumers League of New Jersey

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Donald E. Bender

Cusack, Margaret Anna

(b. May ,

; d. June , ). Roman Catholic nun and

founder of the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Peace. Born in Dublin, when her parents separated Margaret Cusack moved with her mother and siblings to England. There she came under the influence of the Oxford Movement, and at age twenty-nine she converted to Catholicism and became Sister Mary Frances Clare of the Poor Clares. She organized a famine relief fund for Ireland in , addressing land reform in journal articles and letters to the press. In , Cusack came to the United States to establish residences for poor immigrants. The Sisters of Saint Joseph of Peace, the order of nuns Cusack founded, opened a home for immigrant girls in Englewood Cliffs. Cusack described the sisters’ work in a newsletter and also published three dozen books. Involvement in a political campaign in New York City drew so much controversy that Cusack moved back to England in .

Juliet Cushing, founder of the Consumers League of New Jersey, c. .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Cybis. Located in Trenton, the oldest porcelain art studio in New Jersey still in operation was founded by Polish artist Boleslaw Cybis (–). Cybis came to the United States in  to paint two frescoes in the Polish Pavilion at the New York World’s Fair; however, the German invasion of his homeland in that year prevented his return. By , he had established a new home in Princeton and founded an art studio nearby in Trenton. Before his death, Cybis established the style that continues to be identified by consumers with the company today. Although the company employs a team of artists to create new sculpture, many contemporary pieces are based on drawings and paintings executed by the founder. For example, The Bride of the early s was based on a  oil painting of the same title by Boleslaw Cybis. Today Joseph Chorlton directs the company (his wife, Marylin Kozuch Chorlton, worked as an artist for Boleslaw Cybis), and Cybis porcelain sculpture may be found in many public and private collections located in New Jersey and around the world. See also ceramic art Ellen Paul Denker

Czechs.

The first Czechs settled in New Jersey in , but it was not until the late nineteenth century that they began to emigrate in large numbers to the state. Many new arrivals were laborers and farmers who left their homeland for economic reasons. Others were members of the intelligentsia opposed to the repressive policies of the Hapsburg Empire. Those who came to the East Coast largely found jobs in manufacturing. They brought with them their social organizations (such as the Sokol, an institution that promoted physical fitness), religion (predominantly Roman Catholic), music, foods, and customs. Three subsequent waves of Czech migration to the United States occurred later in the twentieth century: during World War II; after a Communist regime was established in Czechoslovakia in ; and in , when the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia. The early Czech immigrants established themselves in industrial areas of New Jersey, like Passaic, where they continue to have a presence today. For example, the Slovak Catholic Sokol, founded in , is still an integral part of the Passaic community. Laska, Vera, ed. and comp. The Czechs in America, –: A Chronology and Fact Book. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, .

See also ethnicity

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

D Daily Journal. The Daily Journal of Vineland has a convoluted history. In  W. E. Cansdell founded the paper’s ancestor, also known as the Daily Journal. On December , , it changed to the Evening Journal (–). In  Max Leuchter (–) established the competing Vineland Times, which in  absorbed its rival to form the Vineland Times Journal. For almost half a century this was the town’s newspaper; then in  it consolidated with the Millville Daily Republican (traceable in turn back to John W. Newlin’s  Millville Republican). The current publication (six days a week, no Sunday edition) has returned full circle to the name the Daily Journal. With a circulation of ,, it is a major southern New Jersey regional newspaper covering four counties: Atlantic, Cumberland, Gloucester, and Salem. See also newspapers Robert L. Schuyler

Daily Record.

Morristown’s first newspaper, the Gazette, dates to , but most enduring was The Jerseyman, founded in  as a weekly and still going strong in  when a onetime Pennsylvania farmboy turned Trenton journalist came to town with the daring intention of starting a daily. He was Ernest Hibbs Tomlinson, and he promised a “bright, newsy sheet,’’ prohibited liquor advertisements, and dubbed his new publication the Daily Record. It made its debut on June , . The Jerseyman editorialized that daily publication was imprudent when readers had easy access to the Newark and New York papers. Nonetheless, the Daily Record “quickly sprang into public favor,’’as a scribe later observed. By the time of Tomlinson’s death from influenza in  his two-cent journal was selling about four thousand copies a day. The Jerseyman tried to keep up by going daily itself, but it was drained by the Depression, bought out in  by Tomlinson’s son, and allowed to expire in its th year. The son, Norman B. Tomlinson, Sr., guided the Record through generally moderate growth until the suburban boom of the s, when Morris County’s population spiraled upward and the paper’s horizons expanded accordingly. This was signified by a shift in titles—the Morristown Daily Record, then Morris County’s Daily Record, then back to the original name in . The paper’s fortunes surged dramatically under the astute leadership of the founder’s

grandson, Norman B. Tomlinson, Jr., educated at Princeton and Harvard Law. Circulation went from less than seventeen thousand in  to forty-five thousand in a decade. Operations were shifted from cramped quarters on the picturesque Morristown Green to a larger plant in Parsippany; offset printing and computerized typesetting were initiated; and a small army of youths was enlisted to deliver the product throughout Morris County and beyond. When the Newark Evening News folded in , “Junior’’ Tomlinson decided to launch a Sunday edition of the Record. In  he opted for morning delivery of the Daily Record to meet the challenge posed by the Star-Ledger. The Daily Record’s weekday circulation approached sixty thousand, but then began slipping, in line with a downward trend for the newspaper industry. Tomlinson sold out to a group headed by Ralph Ingersoll II in , ending three generations of family ownership for a reported sum of $ million. Ingersoll, financially beset, quickly offered the newspaper to a group founded by his onetime partners Mark Goodson and Bill Todman, which sold it in  to the Gannett chain. Tomlinson devoted his managerial abilities to his magazine group, including most prominently New Jersey Monthly, acquired in  and headed by his daughter, Kate. Among notable events of local concern reported by the Daily Record over the years were fatal explosions at the army’s Picatinny Arsenal () and the Hercules Powder Company (), and the  court petition by a couple that their comatose daughter, Karen Ann Quinlan, be removed from respirator support; the latter case generated worldwide interest. The newspaper advocated various local innovations, including an early trolley system and establishment of a county college, and fueled community resistance to a giant jetport proposed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey; the land was preserved as the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey: A History of Somerset, Morris, Hunterdon, Warren, and Sussex Counties. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Sachsman, David and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Edward A. Jardim

dams. New Jersey contains , dams currently under the jurisdiction of the Department of Environmental Protection and under state jurisdiction since . Most are constructed of earth fill and can be found scattered all over the state. They store drinking water for over half the population, supply water for agriculture, and provide many recreational opportunities. Merrill Creek Dam at  feet is New Jersey’s highest. Lake Hopatcong is the

largest lake in the area, covering , acres, containing . billion gallons, but with a dam only  feet high. Round Valley, formed by the North and South Dams at  and  feet high, respectively, and capable of holding  billion gallons, is the largest reservoir by volume. Dams have existed in New Jersey since before Europeans settled and have always been controversial. American Indians built the earliest dams, or weirs, in order to catch fish. Remains of some are still visible, such as on the Passaic River between Paterson and Fairlawn. In the seventeenth century European settlers built dams mostly associated with mills of various types. In , John Ogden of Elizabethtown built a dam for his sawmill and later had a corn mill on the Elizabeth River. Oliphant’s gristmill and sawmill in Medford Township was built in . By the end of the nineteenth century  waterpowered mills still operated, meaning that a similar number of small dams existed, remnants of which are often visible and a few still exist in their entirety. One is the Clinton Mill Dam on the South Branch of the Raritan River in Clinton Township, New Jersey’s most photographed dam, originally built in . Other early dams were designed to control tidal action on coastal streams, such as at Woodbury Creek where dams on both the headwaters and the estuary were the occasion of a seventy-five-year conflict over the relative benefits of drained lands, navigation, and rights of upstream and downstream landowners. Disputes over dams on the Passaic River began at least as early as  (when angry farmers destroyed James Gray’s dam at Little Falls), and continued through the nineteenth century (as over Robert Beattie’s  dam for his carpet mill and over activities associated with the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures, which built several dams just above the Great Falls). Constructing the Morris Canal occasioned more struggles, particularly with dams at Greenwood Lake and Lake Hopatcong to supply water for the canal. In the s these were taken over by the state, with both lakes serving as emergency reservoirs. From the s to the present, the most important and largest dams have been for water supply. Newark’s Pequannock system (begun in ) consists of six major dams and reservoirs in that watershed. New Jersey’s most important dam is Raymond Dam, one of eight that form the North Jersey District Water Supply Commission’s Wanaque Reservoir, which opened in . Water supply has driven the construction of virtually every major dam in the last century, including dams at Spruce Run and Round Valley reservoirs (completed by ) and dams forming the Merrill Creek, Monksville, and Manasquan reservoirs (in the s). Literally dozens of dams have been planned but never built, including the  plan for a dam at Little Falls, which would have created Great Lake Passaic. Most controversial of all was the decades-long struggle over Tocks Island Dam on the Delaware River, 189

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Dana, John Cotton

which ended in the s, when the plan was scrapped. Albert, Richard C. Damming the Delaware: The Rise and Fall of Tocks Island Dam. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, . New Jersey Statutes, Annotated. Title  (Waters and Water Supply). Vermeule, Cornelius Clarkson. Report on Water Supply, Water-Power, the Flow of Streams, and Attendant Phenomena. Trenton: J. L. Murphy Publishing, .

See also water

Mark Bishop Newell

Dana, John Cotton

(b. Aug. , ;

d. July , ). Librarian and museum direc-

tor. After graduating from Dartmouth College in , John Cotton Dana went West, where he took a number of odd jobs before becoming the director of the Denver Public Library in . In  he came to Newark and served as the director of the Newark Public Library until his death in . Out of a series of exhibitions in the arts and sciences, he founded the Newark Museum in  and provided it its intellectual leadership for the next twenty years. On the national level, he served as the president of the American Library Association, founded the Special Libraries Association, and participated in the American Association of Museums. His innovative ideas, such as open access to the public and service to the community, had a tremendous impact upon the cultural development of Newark, New Jersey, and the United States. Hanson, Carl A., ed. Librarian at Large: Selected Writings of John Cotton Dana. Washington, DC: Special Libraries Association, . Kingdon, Frank. John Cotton Dana: A Life. Newark: Newark Public Library and Museum, . Peniston, William A., ed. The New Museum: Selected Writings by John Cotton Dana. Washington,

John Cotton Dana, director of the Newark Public Library and the Newark Museum, c. .

Courtesy Newark Museum. Portrait Photo: Koenig, May 1926.

DC: The Association of American Museums, .

See also libraries

William A. Peniston

dance.

Although it has been difficult to establish resident professional dance companies in New Jersey because of the proximity of New York City, a stable professional dance community developed after the New Jersey State Council on the Arts was established in . Dance New Jersey, an organization promoting eight companies funded by the state arts council, reflects a spectrum of dance interest and cultural diversity. The Denishawn Repertory Dancers reconstructs work from the original Denishawn Dancers, a touring vaudeville dance company formed in  in Los Angeles by Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn. Born in Somerville, New Jersey, circa , St. Denis performed professionally in New York before founding her famous school and company. Dance pioneers Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey, and Charles Weidman began to develop modern dance as a distinctly American art form while members of Denishawn. The New Jersey Ballet, founded in  by Carolyn Clark and George Tomal, has grown from two performances that year to a thirtyweek season with performances in residence at the Paper Mill Playhouse, and throughout New Jersey, the nation, and abroad. ´ Estey formed the Princeton ReAudree gional Ballet Company in . It became the professional Princeton Ballet Company in . The company established a national reputation by  when it was renamed the American Repertory Ballet. Later strengthened by merging with the Garden State Ballet, the company is in residence at the New Brunswick Cultural Center and McCarter Theatre in Princeton. The company tours throughout New Jersey, the nation, and internationally. Carolyn Dorfman formed her nationally recognized modern dance company in . Her vision as a choreographer and her work in the artist-in-the-schools program provides an extensive touring season. Modern dance choreographer Nai-Ni Chen fuses her Chinese heritage with elements of modern dance to create her unique style. Her dance company, founded in , has been a Principal Affiliate of the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, performs extensively in New Jersey, and has been presented in major arts venues throughout the United States. Since its inception in , Randy James Dance Works, a modern dance company, has maintained an active performing schedule throughout New Jersey and the eastern region of the United States. The company toured Europe in  and . The Seventh Principle, an African dance company founded by Candace Hundley in

, combines traditional African dance with modern dance and other forms of contemporary movement. The company performs in New Jersey and New York. The New Jersey Tap Ensemble, formed in  by Deborah Mitchell, has been a Principal Affiliate of the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. The company performs primarily in New Jersey. Dance training is available throughout the state in private dance studios and at a limited number of public and private elementary and secondary schools. Most colleges have limited coursework in dance. The County College of Morris offers associate and associate of fine arts degrees in dance. Montclair State University offers the professional bachelor of fine arts degree through the Department of Theater Arts and Dance. Students in the Department of Dance at Rutgers University may major in the liberal arts (B.A.) or study toward the professional B.F.A. degree in dance. A professional graduate degree program is pending at Rutgers.

Patricia Mayer

Danckaerts, Jasper

(b. ; d. date un-

Religious leader and travel writer. Accompanied by Peter Sluyter, this Dutch quietist traveled to America in – to seek a hospitable location for a Labadist colony. His account of this trip to New York, then to Maryland and back, is one of the most important records of the region and its diverse peoples from that time. Danckaerts described life among Dutch, Swedish, and early English Quakers who made up much of the European settlers. The data from New Jersey makes up only a small part of this record, but the  edition includes important information on the native population, including a drawing of an Indian woman with four species of fish. In  Danckaerts returned to America and, after some difficulties, secured a grant of , acres from Augustin Heermans, owner of the vast Bohemia Manor in Maryland. The small colony enjoyed great success until about . known).

Danckaerts, Jasper, and Peter Sluyter. Journal of a Voyage to New York, –. Translated and edited by Henry C. Murphy. Brooklyn: Long Island Historical Society, .

See also travel accounts

Marshall J. Becker

Davis, Alexander Jackson

(b. July

, ; d. Jan. , ). Architect. A. J. Davis

was born in New York City to Cornelius and Julia Jackson Davis. He spent part of his childhood in Newark, though he lived most of his life in New York City. Davis is best known for his romantic designs of cottage villas and his adaptation of the picturesque aesthetic to American architecture. His designs broke from the traditional box-style house to incorporate dormers and Gothic and Greek Revival elements. In addition to designing

Davis, Stuart

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several homes throughout New Jersey, he designed the Llewellyn Park development in West Orange, including several residences and ornamental structures (known as fillies) throughout the park. He died in the Wilmont residence, his family home overlooking the park. Davis, A. J. Rural Residences, etc., Consisting of Designs, Original and Selected, for Cottages, Farmhouses, Villas, and Village Churches. New York, . Peck, Amelia, ed. Alexander Jackson Davis: American Architect, –. New York: Rizzoli, .

See also illustration, Llewellyn Park

color

section;

Ashley L. Atkins

Davis, Robert

(b. Mar. , ; d. Jan.

, ).

Politician. Born in Carlow, Ireland, Robert Davis immigrated to the United States as a young man and in , married Margaret O’Rourke, sister of a Tammany politico. Originally a plumber, then a gas meter inspector, he entered local politics. Davis won election as a Jersey City alderman in , became Hudson County sheriff in , and supervisor of the county jail in . Through the first decade of the twentieth century he contested control of the state Democratic party with former senator James Smith, Jr. Davis was a consummate political boss, adept at winning elections and rewarding the party faithful. As reform sentiment grew, Davis ran some young reformers for the state assembly and, in , joined belatedly with Smith to endorse Woodrow Wilson for governor. He died in Jersey City almost immediately after the election.

Link, Arthur S. Wilson: The Road to the White House. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Nobel, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Joseph Francis Mahoney

Stuart Davis, Hoboken, . Watercolor. Published in the Liberator (August ).

Collection of the Downtown Gallery, New York. Courtesy Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Copyright Estate of Stuart Davis/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.

Davis, Stuart ).

Robert Davis.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

(b. Dec. , ; d. June ,

Painter. Born in Philadelphia, Stuart Davis moved to East Orange, New Jersey, in  when his father, F. Edward Wyatt Davis, former art director of the Philadelphia Press, became art editor of the Newark Evening News. His mother, Helen Stuart Foulke, was also involved in art as a sculptor. In , Davis left high school to study at the New York studio of Robert Henri, a leading exponent of the urban realism of the Ashcan school. He was invited to show five watercolors in the famous  Armory Show in New York. Intrigued by the work of European artists exhibited there, Davis began using bright colors and turning commonplace objects into abstracted forms in a cubistic collage style. He was also influenced by the jazz he heard in Hoboken and New York City. Davis said he “spent much time

listening to the Negro piano players in Newark dives’’ and found that the tonality and rhythms of jazz had a counterpoint in his paintings. The Eggbeater Series, painted in the late twenties, is an early example of his defining style. Using typography and images of popular culture, like cigarette cartons, he was a forerunner of s Pop art movement. He married Bessie Chosak in  (d. ) and Roselle Springer in . From  to , he worked for the WPA, painting murals for federal and municipal governments, and he taught at the New School for Social Research from  to . A prolific writer and critic of other artists, he was called “the American painter most representative of the first half of the twentieth century’’ because his work, while rooted in America, was international in its outlook and

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Day, Horace H.

interest in political causes. His work has been shown in over fifty solo exhibitions, including the Museum of Modern Art, the Newark Museum, and the Smithsonian, as well as being in the collection of most of the major museums in this country. Baigell, Matthew. A History of American Painting. New York: Praeger, . Kelder, Diane, ed. Stuart Davis. Documentary Monographs in Modern Art. New York: Praeger, . Sims, Lowery Stokes. Stuart Davis, American Painter. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Harry N. Abrams, .

See also art

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

Day, Horace H.

(b. ; d. Aug. , ).

Inventor and industrialist. In the late s in New Brunswick, Horace H. Day established one of the first American rubber factories. Sued by Charles Goodyear for infringement of his vulcanization patent, Day claimed the process was used by himself and other rubber pioneers before Goodyear sought patent protection. Ruinous litigation dragged on for nearly two decades, bankrupting both Day and Goodyear. In his later years, Day planned mammoth industrial projects in New Jersey and Niagara Falls, but none were successful. See also rubber

connections, secured him a place in the wealthy and politically powerful “Junto’’ of eastern New Jersey. After the war Dayton became a lawyer. He served in the legislature (–), the Continental Congress (), and the New Jersey Council (). At age twenty-six he was the youngest member of the Constitutional Convention () where he advocated states’ rights, although he supported the final Constitution. Dayton served in the U.S. House of Representatives from  to  (as Speaker, December , –March , ) and for one term as U.S. senator, – . In Congress Dayton was a staunch Federalist, supporting the Hamiltonian program, a permanent military establishment, and the Sedition Act. He veered from the party line, however, in voting for the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory. Dayton backed measures in Congress that benefited his own large-scale land speculation and involved himself substantially in Aaron Burr’s western empire schemes. Indicted for treason along with Burr, Dayton’s case was dismissed upon his co-conspirator’s acquittal. This affair blighted Dayton’s political career, although as a Republican he served in the state legislature, –. Dayton went through several fortunes and left an estate worth only $, upon his death.

Andrea C. Dragon

Dayton, Jonathan (b. Oct. , ; d. Oct. , ). Soldier, lawyer, congressman, and U.S.

senator. Jonathan Dayton was the son of Elias Dayton, a wealthy merchant and Revolutionary War general, and Hannah Rolfe. He was raised in Elizabethtown. Graduating from the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in  after two years of study, Dayton entered the Continental Army where he served throughout the war in his father’s regiments, rising from ensign to captain; he was Gen. John Sullivan’s aide-de-camp during the Indian expedition of . Dayton married Susannah Williamson, and the union, along with other family

Charles B. J. Fevret de Saint-Memin, Jonathan Dayton, c. . Engraving.

Courtesy National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

ANB. DNB. Harrison, Richard A. “Jonathan Dayton.’’ In Princetonians, –: A Biographical Dictionary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Kline, Mary-Jo, ed. Political Correspondence and Public Papers of Aaron Burr.  vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Pasler, Rudolph J., and Margaret C. Pasler. The New Jersey Federalists. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

Harry M. Ward

Dayton, William Lewis ; d. Dec. , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Lawyer, politician, and diplomat. William Lewis Dayton was born in Basking Ridge. After graduating from Princeton in , he taught school and studied law in Somerville until admitted to the New Jersey Bar in . He married Margaret Elemendorf Van Der Veer in , and they had seven children. Dayton began his political career in the New Jersey legislature in  where he served before accepting an appointment to the New Jersey Supreme Court. In  he resigned to practice law in Trenton. William Pennington, the governor of New Jersey, appointed him to complete the unexpired term of Samuel Lewis Southard in the U.S. Senate, where he served until March . In , Dayton was nominated to run for vice president on the Republican ticket. Although defeated, Dayton became a prominent national political figure and supported Abraham Lincoln in both the nominating convention and presidential campaign of . Because of his loyalty, Lincoln appointed Dayton U.S. minister to France. Despite

Napoleon III’s outspoken sympathy for the Confederacy, Dayton implemented successful diplomatic strategies that prevented French recognition of the Confederate States of America. By the time of his death in  from an apparent stroke, Dayton could see the impending collapse of the Confederacy. ANB. Case, Lynn M., and Warren F. Spencer. The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Dayton, William L., Papers. Manuscript Division, Princeton University Library, Princeton.

See also Civil War

Charles M. Hubbard

Deal. .-square-mile borough lying along the Atlantic Ocean in Monmouth County. The Hogswamp Creek branch of Deal Lake borders the borough to the west. The area was settled as far back as  by Thomas Potter from Deale, England, and was designated on early maps as Deal Beach, encompassing land south of Lake Deal. Other landowners of the tract prior to  include Whyte (White), Jeffries, Drummond, and Tucker. In early  the Long Branch/Deal Turnpike cut through the tract and later became Norwood Avenue. In , U.S. Lifesaving Station No.  was established on property donated by Abner Allen. Major residential development of the tract began in  when Theodore S. Darling purchased a boardinghouse along with another large portion of land south of it. The Darlington Train Station was built in . In , Darling sold his property to the Atlantic Coast Realty Company. Many of America’s wealthiest and most prominent entrepreneurs built mansions along the ocean. In , Deal seceded from Ocean Township to form a separate borough. The borough is predominantly made up of large, singlefamily homes with a small business district. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Edelson, Marjorie, and Kay Zimmerer. An Historic Perspective of the Township of Ocean. Ocean Township: Township of Ocean Historical Society, . Sylvester, Marie A. Around Deal Lake. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Marie A. Sylvester

Deborah Heart and Lung Center. The Deborah Heart and Lung Center, a -bed hospital, is located in Browns Mills, Burlington County. Philanthropist Dora Moness Shapiro established Deborah Hospital in  as a tuberculosis sanatorium that would treat all patients, regardless of their ability to pay. After antibiotics controlled tuberculosis, Deborah changed its focus to include cardiovascular disease, and Charles Bailey, M.D., one of the pioneers of open-heart surgery in the s, became director of cardiovascular surgery at

decorative arts Deborah. Today the only hospital in New Jersey devoted exclusively to the cardiac and pulmonary specialties, Deborah offers a range of surgical and nonsurgical options, as well as a full-service ambulatory care center. The Deborah Hospital Foundation, a network of , volunteers, raises funds to support research and treatment. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Pamela Cooper

decorative arts. “Decorative arts,’’ shrouded in the mystery of museum jargon, are nothing more than household objects, made by human hand and used in the furnishing of dwellings. These household items can be very plain or very fancy, depending on their purpose, and the geographic situation, aesthetic inclination, and financial condition of the householder. The difficult part in understanding New Jersey’s decorative arts has been documenting objects that were made here versus those that were imported from elsewhere. In colonial times, pinioned between two major economic and cultural centers, New Jersey seems not to have produced a distinctive regional aesthetic. German, English, and Dutch influences seeped through different parts of the state, depending on the region and the period. The styles favored in Dutch-dominated upstate New York and the Delaware Valley region north of Philadelphia both strongly influenced the home furnishings of preindustrial New Jerseyans. New Jersey was not isolated enough to produce quirky vernaculars like those of Hadley, Connecticut, or Pennsylvania’s Mahantongo Valley. Indeed, New Jersey was so much in the middle of what was going on in New York and Philadelphia, in addition to being a major trade route between the two cities, that it is probable that everything made in New Jersey showed some degree of influence from one or the other—or both. Still, New Jersey has always been a place where decorative arts were made. As early as the s there was an active delftware manufactory in Burlington, managed in absentia by Dr. Daniel Coxe of London. Perhaps the most important pottery in seventeenthcentury America, the Coxe pottery apparently produced both white and blue-and-white tinglazed earthenware. Unfortunately, none of this work survives today. Although there was extensive production of utilitarian redware and stoneware in eighteenth-century New Jersey, few documented examples are known. A single splendid sgrafitto plate, dated , demonstrates the work of Phillip Durell, a redware potter in Elizabeth. More is known about James Morgan, owner of the earliest New Jersey stoneware pottery, which operated in Cheesequake (South Amboy), beginning in about . On the other hand, very few surviving artifacts can be proven to be from the Morgan pottery.

Phillip Durell, pie plate, . Pottery with slip and sgraffito decoration, d.  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Photo: Sarah Wells, Feb. 1989. Glassmaking in New Jersey was influenced both by English and German entrepreneurs, as well as by Philadelphia’s proximity to the southern flatlands of the state. Owing to its huge stands of wood and plentiful sand—two essentials in glassmaking—by the early eighteenth century South Jersey was a center of American glass production. Producers of luxury goods such as stylish furniture and silver wares found themselves in a double bind in colonial and federal New Jersey. The most affluent families typically looked to New York in the northern part of the state, and to Philadelphia in the south, for their finest household goods. Hence, documented cabinetmakers and silversmiths from before  are scarce. Abraham Dubois was a silversmith born in  in Salem County. His career is archetypal, in that he probably trained in Philadelphia, and worked in New Jersey until . At this point he completed the migration, finishing out his career as a silversmith in New York. One of the few families who seemed to stay put was the Lupp family of New Brunswick. Peter Lupp and his son Henry, as well as other relatives, William and Lawrence Lupp, were all silversmiths in New Brunswick in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Likewise, furniture making in preindustrial New Jersey was made more difficult by the closeness of two of colonial America’s most important style centers. New Jersey furniture makers are difficult to identify, but documented examples provide clues to the many furniture makers who thrived here. Probably the earliest chairmaker in New Jersey history was Lawrence Pierson, from New Haven, who was among the first settlers of Newark in . He made the so-called Yale President’s Chair, which was brought to Newark in  and subsequently returned to New Haven. However, Pierson stayed behind, and he must have produced furniture for the Newark colony during the last quarter of the seventeenth century. Not a single piece is known today. Similarly, a single chair, made by Robert Rhea of Freehold

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in , survives as the earliest known New Jersey chair. Rhea must have made other examples, but they are either lost, unknown, or misattributed. Oddly enough, the richest body of documented New Jersey furniture is tall-case clocks. A surprising number of clockmakers left behind pieces that have survived to the present, but this is probably attributable to their habit of signing the clock faces. The casemakers remain as elusive as ever, with some exceptions. Linked to the clockmakers are the Matthew Egertons, Jr. and Sr., who produced some of the finest clock cases and federal-style furniture known from New Jersey in their New Brunswick shop between the s and the s. Vernacular chairs, such as Windsors, were known to have been made at local shops in the eighteenth century in New Jersey. The bestknown producer of distinctive ladder-back chairs was Maskell Ware (b. ) of Roadstown. Likewise, the many Dutch-descended chairmakers in Bergen County in northern New Jersey are known only through a fairly small number of simple pieces that bear the initial stamps of their makers. The industrial revolution did a great deal to enhance New Jersey’s position as a producer of household goods. However, the first quarter of the nineteenth century followed the pattern established in the eighteenth century. Some goods were produced for local customers, while others, mostly at the high end, were brought in from New York and Philadelphia. This would remain essentially true until railroads and other improvements in transportation made the exportation of New Jersey–made goods profitable. As the industrial revolution transformed American manufacturing, four distinct New Jersey regions rose up as giants in decorative arts production. Southern New Jersey, centered around Vineland and Millville, became a major center for industrially produced glass, while Trenton became the “Staffordshire of the New World’’ with its vast output of pottery and porcelain. Northern New Jersey, centered in and around Newark, became the leading center for work in silver and gold, while Paterson and Union City became the major producers of domestic textiles, especially silk and machine embroideries. The first attempt to introduce stylish tablewares on the English model was by David Henderson (d. ), an entrepreneur who established the D. and J. Henderson Pottery in Jersey City in . The Amboys continued to be a pottery center throughout the nineteenth century. Like Jersey City, the various, often short-lived potteries produced molded yellow stonewares and English-style brown-glazed or Rockingham wares. Porcelain was only briefly attempted in New Jersey before the s. The Jersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company was the earliest producer of porcelain in New Jersey, operating only between  and . A single

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decorative arts

small bowl survives to document this littleknown firm’s output. It was in Trenton in the early s that potters like William Young and William Bloor began the first successful experiments in porcelain production that would establish Trenton as the ceramics center of the eastern states. New Jersey’s glass industry continued to develop in the southern region. The Bridgeton Glass Works, a bottle-making factory established in , was celebrated for its historical flasks, and both continued and confirmed a pattern of commercial-use glass that would dominate the nineteenth century. The one notable exception was the Jersey Glass Company, a Jersey City glass firm established by brothers Phineas and George Dummer, which produced both cut and pressed glass from  to . The Jersey City site was clearly chosen because of its proximity to New York, just across the Hudson River. Ironically, while the firm was a success for a long time, very few of its wares have been documented. New Jersey’s textile history is equally rich and complex. The Rutgers Factory, an early Paterson textile mill, was operated by Col. Henry Rutgers in the s and employed one hundred workers. The Eagle Print Works, a textile printing firm, was established in Belleville by . More typically, small-scale textile producers ruled localized markets in the first half of the century. The celebrated New Jersey coverlet weavers, using imported jacquard technology, produced their deep blue and white or red and white coverlets all over New Jersey from the s to the s. There were many mostly anonymous cabinetmakers in New Jersey’s major towns and young cities, whose work today is unknown but for the occasional labeled example. Lemuel and Daniel Crane of Newark hold a special place in New Jersey furniture history, because of their  apprenticing of a young Connecticut boy by the name of John Jelliff. Jelliff and Company would go on to become New Jersey’s largest furniture maker, operating in Newark from  until . Other firms known to have produced significant amounts of furniture, such as Newark’s Douglas and Company and Kirk and Jacobus, are all but unknown save for documentary evidence. The furniture industry in New Jersey began to wane as industrialization and transportation made the American market bigger and more interconnected. On the other hand, the ceramics and textile industries began to grow because of this interstate development, as did the precious metal industry. Electroplating silver was an early industry in Newark, and in fact the related technique of silver deposit on glass and ceramics was perfected by the Alvin Manufacturing Company of Newark and Irvington in . Newark’s most famous plating operation was established in the s by Thomas Shaw, who had worked at Elkington and Company in Birmingham, England. Shaw’s factory was built to produce plated wares exclusively for Tiffany and Company.

South Jersey’s glassworks, Newark’s gold and silver factories, and Paterson’s silk and textile mills were all going strong. The Arts and Crafts movement, flourishing in America in the decades before World War I, produced its own New Jersey progeny, in small-scale operations such as the Clifton Art Pottery in Newark and the celebrated Fulper Pottery Company in Flemington. In Vineland, Victor Durand established an art-glasshouse in the s that rivaled his contemporary Louis C. Tiffany’s Queens’ glasshouse. At the turn of the twenty-first century, the production of household furnishings in New Jersey is a shadow of what it once was. In this way New Jersey’s history parallels the nation at large. There are more New Jerseyans than ever before, and they are still buying decorative arts to fill their homes. But, more often than not, what they buy comes from somewhere else. Clement, Arthur W., and Edith Bishop. The Pottery and Porcelain of New Jersey. Newark: Newark Museum, . Dietz, Ulysses Grant, et al. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

Alvin Manufacturing Company, Irvington, Moorish-style wine ewer, c. –. Glass with silver overlay, h.  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Ulysses G. Dietz in memory of Edith R. and Edward J. Dietz, 1981, 81.15. Photo: Armen, Mar. 1982.

By the end of the nineteenth century Newark would become one of the major sterling silver production centers, including the enormous Tiffany and Company works in the Forest Hill neighborhood. At the same time that Newark’s silver industry was burgeoning, its production of gold jewelry was also on the rise. Tracing its roots to a six-man shop on Broad Street, opened in  by Epaphras Hinsdale, the firm of Taylor and Baldwin is considered to be the first of Newark’s major industrial producers of gold jewelry. Profiting from an influx of skilled German jewelry workers in the s, scores of Newark goldsmiths would dominate the American jewelry marketplace by the end of the century. English names such as Aaron Carter and Enos Richardson were joined, starting in the s, by German jewelry makers such as Ferdinand G. Herpers and George Krementz, who would become legends in America’s jewelry industry. Although the first experiments in porcelain making predate the Civil War, it was not until the late s that New Jersey ceramic tablewares seriously entered the competitive arena with English and French products. An Irishman, William Bromley, Sr., worked at Ott and Brewer in Trenton with Walter Scott Lenox. When Lenox branched out on his own in  with the Ceramic Art Company, he began a tradition of fine china production in New Jersey that survives to this day. Through the first quarter of the twentieth century, New Jersey remained a national powerhouse of decorative arts production.

Drost, William E. The Clocks and Watches of New Jersey. Elizabeth: Engineering Publishers, . Hopkins, Thomas Smith, and Walter Scott Cox. Colonial Furniture of West New Jersey. Haddonfield: Historical Society of Haddonfield, . White, Margaret E. The Decorative Arts of Early New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . ———. Early Furniture Made in New Jersey. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also folklore

Ulysses Grant Dietz

WPA Glass Works, vase with amethyst looping, c. –. Blown, colorless and amethyst glass, h.  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Allocated by WPA, 1943, 43.31. Photo: Armen, July 1993.

deer, white-tailed

decoys.

The coastal waters and rivers of New Jersey are the resting area for a variety of migratory ducks that feed on the grasses and wild rice native to the state. Hunters use hand-carved wooden decoys (artificial birds) to attract and hold the attention of resting ducks and to entice game within shooting range. Duck hunting in New Jersey peaked in the nineteenth century when the demand for game food was high; this period is referred to as the golden age of decoys. The Federal Migratory Bird Act of  ended unrestricted commercial bird hunting, allowing duck hunting only as a sport. The new regulation indirectly lowered the demand for decoys throughout New Jersey; yet they are still used by hunters and valued by collectors. The decoy, also called a stool, is made of two pieces—the head and the body. The body, typically of white cedar, is made of halves, using either a gouge or an adz to hollow the wood. The carved head, made from pine or cedar, is attached with a dowel, nail, or screw. In the case of a broken head, a different carver often constructs a replacement. The bottoms of decoys are frequently branded with the owner’s name, to ensure return. Decoys are designed to mimic the species of ducks present within the region and to perform best under local water conditions. In New Jersey, the two distinct classifications of duck decoys are Delaware River and Barnegat Bay decoys. Decoys of the Delaware River have rounded bottoms and a linear shape for increased visibility on the rough river water. These decoys have a full extended breast and carefully detailed feather painting and carving. John English (–), of Florence, New Jersey, is the most renowned decoy carver on the upper part of the Delaware River. His decoys were carved with raised wings and incised details. On the Lower Delaware River, John Blair (–) of Philadelphia was carving sleeker stools with detailed feather painting. Through the work of these men, the upper river became known for feather carving, and the lower river for feather painting. Neither of these men was from a carving tradition, but their work is highly valued and collected. Through collectors, the decoy has surpassed its utilitarian function and is valued for its composition and stylistic appeal. The black duck, the mallard, and the pintail are commonly represented as Delaware River decoys. The decoys of this region tended to remain in excellent condition since they were used on fresh water. Used on the Delaware ducker, a two-man hunting skiff, the decoys were released in groups of thirty to forty-five stools. The hunters could then row upriver and wait for ducks to arrive, at which time they would scull quietly toward the resting birds. By the s and s, the dredging of the Delaware River had deepened and straightened the river, causing the water to flow faster. A flat-bottomed decoy began to be used

on the Delaware to accommodate this fast water. The effect of dredging, shoreline development, pollution, and the  Migratory Bird Act has been the steady decline of duck hunting on the Delaware River. Most decoys used for coastal hunting throughout the state are similar to the decoys being carved around Barnegat Bay. The marked differences between the Barnegat Bay decoy and the Delaware River decoy are its flat bottom and simplistic details. Sometimes called “dugouts,’’ these decoys tended to be small in size and extremely lightweight. Some of the bay decoy heads are tucked to the side of the body. Durable white cedar construction kept the decoys in shape for years of hunting use. Henry Van Nuckson Shourds (–), of Tuckerton, is highly praised for the quality and quantity of decoys he carved in his lifetime. Over a forty-year period, he is said to have carved an average of , decoys a year. Two types of ballast are used to weight the Barnegat Bay decoy body. Carvers from the Tuckerton area poured molten lead into a rectangular carving within the base of the stool—this maintained a clean line on the exterior of the body—while carvers from the head of the bay nailed a rectangular lead pad into the bottom of the stool. With five ounces of lead ballast, the decoy could flip itself upright in the water. A leather anchor cord was fastened to the bottom of the stool, and the flock of decoys could be anchored in the bay. Hunters normally used a skiff called the Barnegat Bay sneakbox to conceal themselves close by their floating decoys to await their targets. With the decline of waterfowl hunting in New Jersey, more decoys are found on collectors’ shelves than in the water. During the s, private collections of decoys began to form. Now valued as folk art, the work of the nineteenth-century New Jersey carvers is

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displayed in museums across the state. Many contemporary carvers no longer create decoys for utilitarian purposes, but instead for artistic competitions and decorative display. Gosner, Kenneth. Working Decoys of the Jersey Coast and the Delaware Valley. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, . Huster, H. Harrison, and Doug Knight. Floating Sculpture: The Decoys of the Delaware River. Spanish Fork, UT: Hillcrest Publications, .

Lora Bottinelli

Deep Cut Park.

Located on fifty-two acres in Middletown Township, Deep Cut Park is named for a narrow gorge carved by a stream. Originally consisting of one hundred acres, this property has had several owners, including organized crime boss Vito Genovese. Beginning in , Genovese constructed stone walls, formal gardens, ornamental pools, and a working model of Mount Vesuvius. Subsequent owners added exotic trees, greenhouses filled with succulents and orchids, and more extensive gardens. In  the owner, Marjorie Sperry Wihtol, willed half her property to the Park System, which then purchased additional acreage. The park was opened to the public in . Deep Cut Park also includes a rose garden, honored as one of the twentyfive official All-American Rose Selection Trial gardens, and has one of the largest horticultural libraries on the East Coast.

Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens : A FourSeason Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT : Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Daniel J. Lurie

deer, white-tailed. Odocoileus virginianus, with its brownish coat and white belly, throat, and tail, is perhaps the most recognizable wild mammal in New Jersey.

White-tailed doe in snowy Jockey Hollow National Park, Mendham.

Photo: Kevin Murtagh. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

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Most adult deer weigh between fifty and two hundred pounds and can grow up to . feet tall at the shoulder. Deer are known as an edge species because they frequent the areas where forests border meadows, farm fields, parks, gardens, and backyards. Deer are herbivores, with leaves, stems, fruits, seeds, and the buds of woody plants being an important part of their diet. Though nearly eliminated from New Jersey by the early s due to market hunting and habitat loss, white-tailed deer are now a common sight along roadsides and even in the backyards of many suburban residents. As of , New Jersey’s deer herd was estimated at about two hundred thousand animals. While many New Jersey residents delight in viewing, photographing, and hunting deer, the increased number of deer have resulted in damage to agricultural crops, as well as commercial and residential landscaping, deer-vehicle collisions, and potential negative impacts on plant and animal species. Halls, Lowell K., ed. White-Tailed Deer : Ecology and Management. Harrisburg, PA : Stackpole Books, .

Charles R. Colvard, Jr.

Deerfield.

.-square-mile township in Cumberland County. Deerfield was one of six original townships to form Cumberland County in , when it divided from Salem County. The first residents had spilled over from nearby Fairfield Township twenty years earlier, referring to their new neighborhood as Deerfield Street. After many boundary alterations, Deerfield was incorporated in its present form in . It was once an important marketing center focused around the potato crop; today about half the land use is residential, close to  percent is agricultural, and the rest is open land. The villages of Carmel and Rosenhayn were planned communities originally founded in  by a handful of immigrant Jewish families who were fleeing religious persecution and poor economic conditions in Eastern Europe. Financially supported by Hebrew agricultural and fraternal societies, the settlers engaged in farming and industrial efforts. Temple Beth Hillel, Carmel, established by the new Americans, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. It is believed to be the only Orthodox synagogue in South Jersey that continues to be regularly used throughout the year for religious worship. Deerfield’s  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Eisenberg, Ellen. Jewish Agricultural Colonies in New Jersey, –. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

De Forest, Lee

(b. Aug. , ; d. June

, ). Inventor and businessman. Lee De

Forest was born in Council Bluffs, Iowa, and graduated from Yale in . His most important invention was the Audion or triode (three-element) vacuum tube, patented in . The Audion, based on an earlier invention by John Ambrose Fleming, amplified incoming radio waves, allowing for more sensitive reception; this sensitivity played a major role in the ability of radio to transmit voice and music (as opposed to dots and dashes). In , De Forest sold the rights to the Audion to AT&T for use in telephone transmission. Vacuum tubes based on De Forest’s Audion were important components of radio, television, and sound motion pictures technology until being largely superseded by the transistor in the s. De Forest defended, and brought, numerous patent violation suits. His most bitter legal battle was with Edwin Armstrong, inventor of FM radio, over priority in the matter of discovery of the regenerative properties of the Audion, the process of repeatedly feeding a signal through circuitry to strengthen it. De Forest eventually won in court, although scientific opinion sided with Armstrong. De Forest owned radio manufacturing companies including the De Forest Radio Company in Jersey City. He settled permanently in Hollywood, California, in . Douglas, Susan J. Inventing American Broadcasting, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Lewis, Tom. Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio. New York: HarperCollins, .

See also radio

David A. Black

deforestation.

To the early European settlers in New Jersey, the forests presented both a resource and a hindrance. Trees, especially tall, straight white pines in some areas along the Delaware River, could be harvested and sold. Pines in the Pine Barrens and hardwoods in the rest of the state represented a valuable resource. Very early, the government established laws to prevent the cutting of trees, essentially to reserve them for the government itself. In the succeeding centuries, almost all of the forests of New Jersey were cut down at least once, either to clear land for fields or for fuel. Where the land was planned for farming, the wood was mostly cut for lumber or burned locally for fuel. Ashes served as fertilizer by being either placed directly on the field or made into potash that was later sold for fertilizer. Clearing spread from the coasts inland along major rivers such as the Delaware and the Raritan, starting earliest along the Delaware River in the far south of the state, then spreading west from Camden, east from the vicinity of Newark, and to the northwest corner of the state. By the American Revolution, clearing had spread west into Morris County. In the

first half of the nineteenth century the pace of clearing was rapid, so that by about  the extent of farm fields was at a maximum. After that, for a variety of economic and climatic reasons, a slow process of field abandonment began, accelerating in the twentieth century. Most of the abandoned fields grew back to forest over fifty years or so. The other widespread kind of deforestation in the state was repeated cutting to produce charcoal, especially to fuel iron furnaces and forges. In the northern part of the state iron was found as magnetite, usually in the hilly areas on rocky, unproductive soils, which were not put into agriculture after the first cutting for charcoal. In the Pine Barrens, bog iron fed furnaces that were fueled with charcoal produced by burning both hard and soft woods. In forests that have regenerated after abandonment of charcoaling, many round, flat areas that served as charcoal hearths, where the wood was burned to make charcoal, still remain. In the second half of the twentieth century, most deforestation took place to make space for construction of roads and buildings. This kind of deforestation has affected the entire state. Between  and , forest area in the state increased, especially in the formerly agricultural counties. Larger contiguous patches of forestland developed, with associated fauna. However, the current trend is leading to renewed fragmentation of the forest except where it is protected as land held publicly or privately for conservation. This kind of deforestation has more permanent consequences than former cutting, since the soil surface is covered with impermeable materials such as macadam and concrete. It is projected to continue into the foreseeable future unless checked by regulations. Schmidt, Hubert G. Agriculture in New Jersey. New Brunswick : Rutgers University Press, . Wacker, Peter O., and Paul G. E. Clemens. Land Use in Early New Jersey : A Historical Geography. Newark : New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also forests

Emily W. B. Russell

Delanco. .-square-mile township in Burlington County, formed in  from the former Beverly Township. Delanco is located on the east shore of Rancocas Creek at its confluence with the Delaware River. Hawk Island, located in the Delaware, is within the township’s borders. The town was originally known as Delranco. The first settlers included members of the Marter, Van Sciver, and Wilmerton families. Farming was the economic mainstay in the town’s early days, as a village area sprang up alongside the Rancocas Creek. A residential neighborhood developed adjacent to the town center, which leads into the Delaware riverbank. Numerous stately mansions were erected beside the Delaware by wealthy merchants around the turn of the nineteenth century. The

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Forests cover 2.1 million acres, or 44.9 percent of New Jersey. This is an increase of 143,900 acres since the previous forest inventory in 1987. Most of this increase is the result of a more inclusive definition of forest land. Small forested areas in rights of ways and in some urban areas that previously were classified as nonforest have been reclassified as forest. There was no significant change in the area considered timberland. Timberland area represents 88 percent of total forest land area. The average annual harvest plus other removals has averaged 33.9 million cubic feet (source: USDA Forest Service). More information: http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/fia/states/nj/nj.html

Thousands of acres at each forest inventory Timberland Other forest land Total forest land Percent forested Total land area*

1956 2,120 109 2,229 46.3% 4,814

1972 1,857 71 1,928 40.0% 4,820

1987+ 1,874 114 1,988 41.9% 4,748

1999 1,876 256 2,132 44.9% 4,748

* Estimates of the total land area have changed because of new measurement techniques and refinements in the classification of small bodies of water and streams. + Based on reprocessing of 1987 data. @Rutgers, The State University

remaining farmland, most of which also lies along the Rancocas Creek, is primarily earmarked for residential development. The area along Coopertown Road was the site of industries, and this industrial zone has been extended in recent years to include other light industry and several major trucking and warehouse facilities. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Delaware and Raritan Canal.

The Delaware and Raritan Canal, a forty-fourmile-long waterway in use from  to , crossed the narrow waist of New Jersey, connecting Philadelphia and New York. To avoid the longer ocean voyage around Cape May, boats entered the canal near Bordentown on the Delaware River. Traveling north through seven locks, they were lifted fifty-eight feet to the summit in Trenton. Seven more locks lowered the vessels to tidewater at New Brunswick, on the Raritan River. The canal’s main water source was the Delaware River. Water was diverted at Bull’s Island, northwest of Stockton, into a twenty-two-mile-long canal feeder, which delivered water to the summit in Trenton.

In  the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company was incorporated. In , by an act of the legislature, the canal company and the Camden and Amboy Railroad were combined as the Joint Companies. Digging began in  under chief engineer Canvass White. When White died shortly before the canal opened in , Ashbel Welch, of Lambertville, replaced him. Thousands of workmen, both local and foreign-born, were employed to dig the canal, using picks, shovels, and horse-drawn scoops. Twenty years later, the banks were lined with stone, called riprap, to prevent erosion caused by the wake of steam canalboats and tugs. A huge variety of craft used the waterway: steam and mule-drawn canalboats, sailboats,

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tugboats, and yachts. Pennsylvania’s anthracite coal was the main cargo shipped on the D & R, but it was also used to move such agricultural products as flour, cornmeal, grain, and feed. In , its most prosperous year, the D & R carried more cargo than the more famous Erie Canal ever carried in any single year. As part of the Intracoastal Waterway, the D & R transported many other products between the Chesapeake Bay region and New England. The unique A-frame swing bridges allowed vessels of all heights to utilize the waterway. In  the Pennsylvania Railroad leased the Joint Companies, providing the railroad with vital waterfront access to New York Harbor. The railroad, manipulating rates in its favor and being more efficient, gradually took over more of the shipping, and the canal’s business declined. After , the canal was never profitable. In the s, as commercial traffic lessened, pleasure-boat traffic nearly doubled. Unfortunately, this was not sufficient to overcome the loss of freight traffic, and the canal closed at the end of . A portion of the Trenton section was filled in in  as a WPA project. In  the state assumed control of the waterway and in  began rehabilitating it to better serve as a water conduit. The New Jersey Water Supply Authority now oversees the canal as a water supply system and sells the water to public and private entities. The canal and its buildings were included on the National Register of Historic Places in , and the next year the legislature established the D & R Canal State Park.

Canal Society of New Jersey. Canals of New Jersey. Brochure. Morristown: Canal Society of New Jersey, n.d. McKelvey, William J. Champlain to Chesapeake: A Canal Era Pictorial Cruise. Exton, PA: Canal Press, . ———. The Delaware and Raritan Canal: A Pictorial History. York, PA: Canal Press, .

See also transportation

Linda J. Barth

Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park. In , responding to pressure from concerned citizens, the state legislature created the Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park. Owned and operated by the Division of Parks and Forestry, Department of Environmental Protection, the seventy-mile linear park along the route of the old canal provides open space in which the citizens of central New Jersey can hike, jog, canoe, ride horses, cross-country ski, bike, or fish. The law creating the park also established the Delaware and Raritan Canal Commission, which oversees development within the park and adjacent to it. The D & R Canal Commission is headquartered in the historic Prallsville Mill complex in Stockton, along the canal feeder.

Dove, Louise E., and Robert M. Nyman, eds. Living Resources of the Delaware Estuary. Philadelphia: Delaware Estuary Program, . Majumdar, S. K., E. W. Miller, and L. E. Sage, eds. Ecology and Restoration of the Delaware River Basin. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Academy of Science, .

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Barth, Linda J. The Delaware and Raritan Canal. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

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Linda J. Barth

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of New Jersey and Delaware. The bay extends  miles from Salem southeast to Cape May, with a maximum width of  miles and narrowing to  miles at its mouth at the ocean. Strategically located on the Eastern Seaboard, Delaware Bay is the second-busiest port in the nation. Its geography has helped to craft vast tidal salt marshes, coarse sand and sod beaches, and unique assemblages of fish and wildlife. The shoreline has subdued wave action, ideal for foraging shorebirds and wading birds and nesting diamondback terrapins. Each spring the bay shore hosts the secondlargest shorebird concentration in the nation, supported by the largest concentration of spawning horseshoe crabs in the world. The adjacent vast tidal salt marshes contain a mix of grasses: smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), regularly flooded by tides, and salt hay (Spartina patens), covered by tides once or twice a month, with monocultures of Phragmites in some areas. The marshes include mudflats, tidal creeks, and grassy marsh spotted with small woody islands, and are a significant nursery area for newly spawned fish. The vegetation reflects a history of agriculture: many marshes were impounded in the mids, creating ground suitable for growing salt hay, used commercially as a packing material. Since  old impoundments have broken down, restoring tidal flow. The marshes also retain the pattern of grid-ditching built in the mid-s to reduce the wetland area that bred mosquitoes; more recent mosquito control modifies marshes using methods that create a more natural appearance and maintain ecological values. The major tributaries on the New Jersey shore include the Maurice and Cohansey rivers, whose lower extents fluctuate with the tide, but include a rich diversity of brackish and freshwater marshes and forest.

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Delaware River and Bay Authority ultimately failed and was folded into the federally sponsored Conrail in . Most lines west of Binghamton and the Slateford Cutoff in New Jersey were abandoned. What remained of Lackawanna’s freight operations in New Jersey were bought by Norfolk Southern in . The suburban commuter routes became the core of New Jersey Transit, created in .

Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad. The Morris and Essex Railroad began operation in  between Morristown and Newark. By  it reached westward to Phillipsburg, and by , eastward to Hoboken. In  it was leased by the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, a combination of short lines serving the anthracite coal district of northeastern Pennsylvania. The Lackawanna began the development of extensive port facilities at Hoboken. In  it built a new line from Binghamton, New York, to Buffalo, thus positioning itself for both anthracite and other traffic from the Great Lakes to the sea. After  it began a radical reengineering of its lines. Of particular interest on the New Jersey portions of the railroad was the Slateford Cutoff for high-speed, grade-free operation in western New Jersey marked by such engineering masterpieces as the Paulins Kill Viaduct at Hainesburg and the Pequest Fill west of Andover. In  the new Hoboken Terminal replaced an older terminal destroyed by fire in . In this era, the railroad gained national fame through its “Phoebe Snow’’ advertising campaign about a mythical traveler “whose gown stays white, from morn to night, upon the Road of Anthracite.’’ It was in these years that Lackawanna built new stations in the suburbs west of Newark and began fast, frequent suburban service that for the first time made it both feasible and attractive to work in Manhattan and live in the New Jersey Highlands. Private investment in the commuter service peaked with the electrification of the lines from Hoboken to Dover in . After World War II, anthracite coal was replaced by more convenient fuels, and traffic from the Great Lakes to the sea was siphoned off by the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Commercial development in the suburbs turned the commuter service into a money-losing, rush-hour-only operation. In  it merged with a longtime rival, the Erie Railroad, to form the Erie Lackawanna. Erie Lackawanna

Saunders, Richard, Jr. Merging Lines: The American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, . Taber, Thomas T., and Thomas Taber III. Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad in the Twentieth Century.  vols. Muncy, PA: T. T. Taber III, – .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

Delaware River.

The Delaware River forms the western boundary of New Jersey— the state’s “other coast.’’ It has a watershed of , square miles, shared among Delaware, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. About . million people live in the river’s drainage area. The Delaware River begins near Hancock, New York, with the joining of its East and West branches. The river flows  miles to the Atlantic Ocean via Delaware Bay. At Trenton,  miles from the ocean, the river becomes tidal. Some of the  tributaries entering the Delaware River include the Pequest, Musconetcong, Cooper, and Maurice rivers in New Jersey. Henry Hudson discovered the Delaware River in  while sailing for the Dutch. A year later, Samuel Argall claimed the river for England and named what is now Cape Henlopen for Virginia’s governor, Lord De La Warre. After the English wrested control of the region from the Dutch in , this name was applied to the whole river. The Delaware River region was important in both the American Revolution and the U.S. industrial revolution. Washington’s crossing of the Delaware River with his army in  is

BRANCHVILLE

MCAFEE FRANKLIN

HAINESBURG JUNCTION

DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & WESTERN RAILROAD

one of the most famous events in American history. Beginning in the mid-eighteenth century, industrial development along the tidal Delaware estuary (Trenton-PhiladelphiaCamden-Wilmington) made the region one of the largest urban-industrial complexes in the world. It remains the second largest concentration of petrochemical plants in the United States. Seventy percent of oil delivered to the East Coast goes to Delaware River refineries. Although it represents only . percent of the U.S. land area, the Delaware River watershed provides water to almost  percent of the country’s population. U.S. Supreme Court decisions in  and  allow New York City and central New Jersey to divert water out of the basin. The Delaware, thus, provides water to almost  million people and the economy they represent. The Delaware is more than work, however. Recreational use is dramatic. Over two dozen canoe liveries, three dozen fishing guide services, and two dozen marinas are among the businesses servicing Delaware River recreation. The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area is the eighth-busiest unit in the entire National Park system. Bird-watching is a rapidly growing activity, with  bird species migrating along the Delaware River each spring and fall. In spite of intense human use, the Delaware River is one of the last undammed major U.S. rivers, and one of the most scenic. Of the -mile nontidal Delaware,  miles have been placed in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. The Delaware is not freeflowing, however. During times of low flow, reservoirs owned by New York City and various power companies contribute the majority of the water seen at Trenton and elsewhere. The huge urban, industrial, and recreational demands on the Delaware have meant facing and overcoming major water supply and water pollution problems. These programs have been highly successful on the Delaware because of the cooperation among various agencies, between states, and the activism of its citizenry. Albert, Richard C. Damming the Delaware: The Rise and Fall of Tocks Island Dam. University Park: Penn State University Press, . Cheripko, Jan. Voices of the River: Adventure on the Delaware. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press, . Dale, Frank. Delaware Diary: Episodes in the Life of a River. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

ANDOVER DENVILLE

Stutz, Bruce. Natural Lives, Modern Times: People and Places of the Delaware River. . Reprint. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

DOVER N

WATERLOO

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See also rivers

MONTCLAIR HOBOKEN

Richard C. Albert

MORRISTOWN HAMPTON PHILLIPSBURG

GLADSTONE

NEWARK

0

5

miles © Rutgers, The State University

Delaware River and Bay Authority. The Delaware River and Bay Authority is a bistate transportation agency created by Delaware and New Jersey in . In , its responsibilities were expanded to include

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economic development. The commission operates the Delaware Memorial Bridge, the Cape May–Lewes Ferry, five airports including Millville and Cape May County in New Jersey, and a business park in Carney’s Point Township, Salem County. During summer and fall, the authority also operates ferries between Fort Mott (New Jersey), Fort Delaware (Pea Patch Island), and Delaware City, Delaware. The headquarters for the Delaware River and Bay Authority is located at the Delaware Memorial Bridge toll plaza in New Castle, Delaware. Miller, William J., Jr. Crossing the Delaware: The Story of the Delaware Memorial Bridge. Wilmington: Delapeake, . ———. A Ferry Tale: Crossing the Delaware on the Cape May–Lewes Ferry. Wilmington: Delapeake, .

Richard C. Albert

Delaware River Basin Commission. The Delaware River Basin Commission is an agency created by Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and the federal government in . The state governors and an appointee of the president serve as commissioner and the agency has broad powers to manage and regulate the water resources of the Delaware River Basin on behalf of its members. It deals with such issues as water quality, wastewater treatment, water supplies, groundwater, water conservation, drought emergencies, flood control, reservoir releases, and river flow. The commission and its staff of more than forty are headquartered in Ewing Township.

hay. In  the last remaining nineteenthcentury covered bridge in New Jersey was saved from demolition by local residents, who now work to preserve the township’s farmland. The township is agricultural and residential, with no major industry and minimal commercial activity. The  population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Delaware Township Master Plan, . Sergeantsville: Township of Delaware, . The First  Years of Hunterdon County, –. Flemington: Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Marfy Goodspeed

Delaware Water Gap.

The Delaware Water Gap is a spectacular gorge, about , feet deep. It was formed by the Delaware River eroding its bed into Kittatinny Ridge, which is part of the Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province. Visible for miles as a gap, it serves as a route through the Kittatinny Ridge for modern automobile traffic, as it did long ago for Lenape foot traffic. Today part of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, it has attracted sightseers and tourists for well over two hundred years.

Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. A Geography of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wolfe, Peter. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also Delaware River; Kittatinny Region

Peter O. Wacker

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. Established in , the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area flanks about forty miles of the Delaware River in Warren and Sussex counties. The park encompasses almost seventy thousand pristine acres, including a portion of the Appalachian Trail, the Flatbrook, all of Walpack Township, and the famous Delaware Water Gap in the Kittatinny Ridge. Most of the area was to be flooded in a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers plan to erect a dam across the Delaware River near Tocks Island, initiating the controversial eviction of thousands of residents. Environmental concerns and political pressure prompted Congress to withdraw funding for the project in . Nevertheless, only a handful of residents remain. See also Tocks Island Dam

Fred J. Aun

Delbarton School.

This boys’ college preparatory school is located in the hills of Morris County, adjacent to Jockey Hollow National Historic Park, on what was once the vacation estate of Luther Kountze. Established in  by the Benedictine monks of Saint Mary’s Abbey as a residential school for boys in grades seven through twelve, the school graduated its first class in . Today the school has a faculty of eighty and a student body of five hundred boys from diverse backgrounds. Although no longer a boarding school, it continues to maintain a Christian environment under the supervision of the Order of Saint

Albert, Richard C. Damming the Delaware: The Rise and Fall of Tocks Island Dam. University Park: Penn State University Press, .

Richard C. Albert

Delawares. See American Indians; Lenape. Delaware Township. .-square-mile township in Hunterdon County. The earliest European settler was John Reading in ; he helped settle the town of Amwell in . Original European settlers were English, German, and Dutch. Together with Raritan and Amwell townships, Delaware Township was created by a legislative act of , which divided the original Amwell into three townships. Delaware Township is bordered on the south and west by the Delaware River, the Delaware and Raritan Canal feeder built in , and the Belvidere-Delaware Railroad built in . Stockton, a commercial, quarrying, and manufacturing center, separated from Delaware in . The first peach orchards were planted in Delaware in the s, leading to a countywide peach industry that ´ scale. was wiped out in  by the San Jose Hatcheries were the next major agricultural industry, followed by dairy operations and creameries. Today farmers grow grain and

Delaware Water Gap.

Photo: Richard Raska. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Demarest, David ´ was painters, Paul-Henri-Georges DeLongpre born in France in the city of Lyons. After a period of study with the famous French horticulturalist M. Paillet at Chatenay, he began a successful career in Paris, where he exhibited in various venues including the Salons of , , and . In , after sailing to the United States, he lived for a short time in New York City, but soon was encouraged to move to Short Hills, New Jersey. There he found numerous nearby greenhouses filled with fine roses to serve as sources for his floral watercolors, which are marked by both an exuberance of design and a richness of color. In , he and his family settled in Hollywood, California, where he built a Moorish-inspired home on a three-acre plot of land that he planted with several varieties of flowers. He has been referred to as an “artist-botanist’’ in the tradition of artist-naturalists such as John James Audubon. Today, his works are to be found in numerous public and private collections. Old Main at Delbarton School, Morristown, c. .

Courtesy Delbarton School. Photo: Brother Paul Dweny, O.S.B.

Gerdts, William H., and Russell Burke. American Still Life Painting. New York: Praeger, . Mitnick, Barbara J. Nineteenth-Century American Still Lifes from New Jersey Collections. Morristown: Morris Museum, .

See also art Benedict of New Jersey, located at Saint Mary’s Abbey in Morristown. See also education

Declan J. Cunniff

´, Paul-Henri-Georges DeLongpre Maucherat (b. ; d. June , ). Painter. A descendant of a well-known family of flower

Barbara J. Mitnick

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Quakers who farmed the southern part of the township. The northern part, closest to the Delaware River, remained sparsely settled until the Camden and Amboy Railroad line was first built in the s. Early settler John Hollinshead operated a ferry across the Rancocas Creek as early as . The earliest community was Bridgeboro, established along the creek, where one of the first bridges was erected in . Delran also originally encompassed the now-independent township of Riverside. The community continued as mainly agrarian and residential until the late s and early s, when large-scale residential developments and apartment complexes began rising on former farmland along Route  and Haines Mill Road. The main commercial areas in the township include numerous retail centers along Route  and an industrial-commercial area on the Delaware River shore along River Road. Large-scale farming disappeared in the s. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Delran.

.-square-mile township in Burlington County. Located along the south bank of Rancocas Creek between the Delaware River and Moorestown, Delran was established as an independent township in  after breaking off from neighboring Cinnaminson. It was originally settled by

´, Flowers on a Ledge, n.d. Watercolor and gouache,  / ×  in. Paul DeLongpre

Private Collection, New Jersey.

Demarest, David

(b. ; d. Oct. ,

). Pioneer. Born in Beauchamps, France,

into a Huguenot family, David Demarest (originally des Marets) left France during religious upheavals and married Marie Sohier in Middelburg, the Netherlands, in . They had seven children. The family immigrated to New Amsterdam in . Demarest was a prominent citizen, supporter of the French Church, and magistrate under Dutch and English rule on Staten Island and in the village of Harlem. He led a group that in  purchased the “French Patent’’ on the east bank of the Hackensack from the Tappan Indians with the assent of the proprietor, Sir George Carteret. Originally about two thousand acres, this land stretched from New Bridge east to the Palisades and several miles north along the Hackensack. The Demarests and other French Huguenot and Dutch families settled on this land as farmers, millers, and tradesmen. Demarest’s descendants played important roles in the Reformed Church and the Revolutionary War, and in economic development in Bergen County through the twentieth century. The Demarest House at Historic New Bridge Landing may date from the second or third generation on the Hackensack; it is owned by the Blauvelt Demarest Foundation, which supports educational, research, and restoration activities relating to Bergen County. Demarest, New Jersey, is named for a descendant. Demarest, Voorhis D., ed. The Demarest Family. d ed. New York: Arno Press, .

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Leiby, Adrian C., in collaboration with Albert T. Klyberg, Jr., and Emorie A. Leiby. The Huguenot Settlement of Schraalenburgh: The History of Bergenfield, NJ. Bergenfield: Bergenfield Free Public Library, .

MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME, 2000

Riker, James. Revised History of Harlem (City of New York): Its Origin and Early Annals. . Reprint. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, .

David C. Major and John S. Major

Demarest.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The name of Demarest dates from the  homestead of David des Marets, a French settler who purchased land along the Hackensack River in present-day River Edge. David des Marets’s grandson Samuel established a home and gristmill within the present-day boundaries of Demarest. When the Northern Railroad of New Jersey arrived in , the local stop was Demarest Station, named for Ralph Demarest, a director of the railroad, an assemblyman (–), and a state senator (–). A larger station, designed in the Richardsonian Romanesque style, was built in  of stone quarried from the Palisades. Before the arrival of the railroad, Demarest had an agricultural economy. Afterward, the area boasted a distillery, an optical factory, a hotel, and a trotting track. Originally part of the township of Harrington, Demarest seceded in  and organized as a borough. By then, the mills and factories had closed and the hotel had burned down. Residential development supplanted farming and many residents commuted to New York City. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning Company, . History of Bergen County. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Linda J. Barth

demography. In , New Jersey’s population totaled ,, people, over four times greater than the . million persons of . The growth has made New Jersey the most crowded state in America. New Jersey now ranks ninth among the fifty states in population size, but forty-sixth in land area (, square miles). The resulting population density (, people per square mile of land area) is the highest in America, a position the state has held since . New Jersey is the only state with more than one thousand people per square mile, a level first reached in . It is a density greater than India’s ( people per square mile) and Japan’s ( people per square mile). But New Jersey is not a highly urban state; rather, it is a highly suburban one. At the start of the twentieth century, New Jersey’s population was concentrated in dense cities. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, its population was concentrated in sprawling

N

New Jersey’s population is extraordinarily affluent and well educated, reflecting the state’s leading-edge information-age economy. In , New Jersey had the highest median household income in the nation ($,), with  percent of the state’s households having incomes above $,. Of the state’s adults, . percent have a bachelor’s degree or higher (ranking fifth in the nation among the states), while . percent have doctorates (ranking third in the nation). Hughes, James W., and Joseph J. Seneca, eds. America’s Demographic Tapestry: Baseline for the New Millennium. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

NJ median: $55,146 USA median: $41,994

See also census; ethnicity; immigration

James W. Hughes and Connie O. Hughes

Dennis. .-square-mile township in Cape

0

20 miles

Source: Census Bureau 2000

THOUSANDS 40 - 49 50 - 59 60 - 69 70 - 79

@Rutgers, The State University

suburbs. In , the “Big Six’’ cities of the state—Camden, Elizabeth, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, and Trenton—accounted for only  percent of the state’s population, less than one-half of the level ( percent) of . One hundred years ago New Jersey was a gateway for the immigration waves from Europe, which at the time brought new population diversity to the state. This historic role has been maintained into the twenty-first century. However, Hispanic and Asian immigrants have supplanted Europeans and yielded yet again a new diversity in New Jersey. In , . percent of the state’s population was foreign born, the third highest among the states. Between  and , New Jersey’s overall population increased by . percent. However, its white population grew by only . percent, while blacks (African Americans) grew by . percent, Hispanics by . percent, and Asians by . percent. In absolute terms, Hispanics accounted for more than one-half of New Jersey’s population growth since . Mexicans were the fastest growing Hispanic group ( percent), while Asian Indians were the fastest growing Asian group ( percent). Overall, this diversity is not just concentrated in urban areas, but has spread to suburbs throughout the state. While this new diversity is changing the demographic tapestry of New Jersey, the state still reflects the European immigration of a century ago. The largest ancestry group in the state remains Italian (,, persons), followed by Irish (, persons) and German (, persons), according to the Census  Supplementary Survey.

May County. Settled by descendants of whaling families, Dennis Creek was an important shipping and shipbuilding center in the early nineteenth century. Ships sailed out of the creek loaded with wood and other cargo heading for Philadelphia. Shingle mining from the Great Cedar Swamp was a lucrative industry for early local residents. In the early s local businessmen decided to build a causeway across the creek to connect the north and south sections of Dennis Creek and provide a vital link for commerce to the southern parts of the county, including Cold Spring and Cape Island. In , the New Jersey State Assembly created Dennis Township from the southern portion of Upper Township, and the new township formally organized its government in March , sending two representatives to the county’s Board of Chosen Freeholders. The first post office in the county was established in Dennis Creek in , and in the late s local residents lobbied, strongly but unsuccessfully, to have their community named as the county seat. Today it is a rural, residential area with only a few small, locally owned businesses, which provide limited job opportunities. The  population of , residents was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara St. Clair

Denville.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. Dutch and English settlements in this area date back to . Legend cites the first settler as John Den, with the area called Den Brook, but this is not mentioned in official histories. Originally part of Rockaway Township, Denville was incorporated in . The town is dotted with a number of artificial lakes. Estling Lake was created by the Mountain Ice Company in  for ice harvesting; its icehouses held , tons of ice. Rock Ridge Lake, Indian Lake, and Arrowhead

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portation infrastructure is valued at more than $ billion, and its system of roads and bridges handles eighteen million trips per year. The department also oversees the state’s $ billion maritime industry, which includes ports and terminals, ferry operations, government services, and environmental resources. The department administers motor vehicle programs, including oversight of the automobile inspection system and diesel-truck emissions. The NJDOT commissioner is appointed by the governor and serves as the New Jersey Transit chair and is a member of each of the state’s three toll-road authorities and of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. NJDOT receives state and federal funding and had budget appropriations of $. billion for fiscal year –, including New Jersey Transit and Local Aid funding. New Jersey Department of Transportation. The Development of Transportation in New Jersey: A Brief History. Trenton: NJDOT, .

Arrowhead Lake, Denville, c. .

Courtesy Pike Archives.

Jeff Maclin Lake were summer colonies; now they are yearround residential areas. The busy commercial district is centered on Broadway. Much of the land in Denville is owned by the Catholic Church. The Franciscan Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother took over the Glover Estate in  and turned it into Saint Francis Health Resort; they also own and operate Saint Clare’s Hospital, a medical arts building, a mental health center, and Franciscan Oaks, an assisted-living retirement community. Both Saint Clare’s Hospital and Franciscan Oaks are members of the Saint Clare’s Health System. The Paterson Diocese’s Morris Catholic High School is also in the township, as is Saint Mary’s Roman Catholic Church and its parish school. Until it closed in , Reaction Motors, which developed the engine for the X- flown by Chuck Yeager to break the sound barrier, had been the major employer in town for many years. Denville is now predominantly a bedroom community for businesses to the east. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

and bus carriers. In  the COA evolved into New Jersey Transit Corporation, the state’s public transportation corporation. NJDOT employs more than , people and, with its capital and operating budgets, is responsible for building, operating, maintaining, and managing the state’s diverse transportation facilities. There are , statemaintained roadways, , bridges, and  public-access airports under NJDOT jurisdiction. With an annual ridership of  million, New Jersey Transit is the nation’s third largest public transit system, providing bus, commuter rail, and light rail service over a ,square-mile area. The state’s entire trans-

Depression. Deptford.

.-square-mile township in Gloucester County. Settled by the Dutch in the s, the township later attracted British settlers and was one of the original municipal districts of New Jersey. Deptford was incorporated on June , , and includes several unincorporated towns, including Almonesson, Blackwood Terrace, Lake Tract, New Sharon, Jericho, Oak Valley, and Westville Grove. Named for the British seaport town of Deptford, the township originally included parts of West Deptford, Monroe, and Washington townships. The first manned

Gill, Mildred Lawrence. Denville Days. Denville: Weaver Printing, . Laer, Charles M. toe. Bridging the Years in Denville. Denville: Haase Publications, .

Janet R. Primerano

Department of Transportation. Established under the Transportation Act of , the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) was the nation’s first staterun transportation agency. One of NJDOT’s earliest achievements was the creation of the Commuter Operating Agency (COA), which had statutory authority to contract with rail

See Great Depression.

Hot-air balloons over Deptford Township.

Courtesy Highwing Aerial Photography.

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Dergan, Bridget

flight in the United States ended in Deptford, when Jean Pierre Blanchard landed his balloon there after taking off from Philadelphia on January , . The balloon flight is now commemorated in the township seal. Initially an agricultural community, the township experienced a housing and population boom after World War II. The opening of the Deptford Mall in  made the township a major retail shopping destination in South Jersey. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

the American (“Know-Nothing’’) party there, espousing in his speeches their antiforeign and anti-Catholic ideology. He served as corresponding secretary for the American party from  to . In  he went to Jersey City to edit the Jersey City Standard and two years later became the editor of the Newark Daily Advertiser. During the Civil War he served as state agent, charged with seeing to the welfare of New Jersey’s soldiers. He returned to New Brunswick in  and pursued his literary and historical interests. From  to  he edited The Christian Intelligencer. He also engaged in the real estate and insurance businesses. In  he was appointed a lay judge of the Middlesex County Court of Common Pleas, and in  was appointed postmaster of New Brunswick. See also Know-Nothings

Armstrong, Harry, and Tom Wilk. New Jersey Firsts: The Famous, Infamous, and Quirky of the Garden State. Philadelphia: Camino Books, . Simpson, Hazel B., ed. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Augustine J. Curley

designed communities.

Tom Wilk

Dergan, Bridget

(b. c. ; d. Aug. ,

). Murderer. Bridget Dergan was an Irish

servant in the household of Dr. William Coriell and his wife, Ellen, in New Market (Piscataway). Convinced that Dr. Coriell was enamored of her, and would wed her if Ellen were disposed of, Dergan stabbed and bludgeoned Ellen Coriell. To cover up the crime, Bridget set the house on fire, and subsequently claimed that intruders had committed the murder. Her trial in New Brunswick attracted nationwide attention. Writing in a California newspaper, young journalist Mark Twain marveled that Dergan pled not guilty despite the overwhelming evidence against her: “This claiming of innocence where a plea of insanity would fit so much better, gives this trial a splendid interest, and all the East will watch it closely to the end.’’ Dergan was found guilty and hanged on August , . The story undoubtedly created a frisson of fear in the homes of well-to-do families, where the employment of immigrant women as domestics was common. Cunningham, John T., and Donald A. Sinclair. Murder Did Pay: Nineteenth-Century New Jersey Murders. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Marc Mappen

´ Ruiz de Rivera, Jose

´ Ruiz de Rivera, Flight, . Aluminum, Jose h.  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Allocated by the WPA Federal Art Project, 1943, 43.78A, B. Photo: Whitney, Aug. 1944. Newark Airport and now at the Newark Museum. Gordon, John. Jos´e de Rivera. New York: American Federation of Arts, . Marter, Joan M. Jos´e de Rivera: Constructions. Madrid: Taller Ediciones, .

See also sculpture

Jeanne Kolva

Descendants of Founders of New Jersey. A fellowship of people who can prove descent from settlers who arrived in New Jersey in the seventeenth century, the Descendants of Founders of New Jersey was founded in  by Kenn Stryker-Rodda. The organization’s objectives include scholarship assistance to students who demonstrate a special interest in the history of New Jersey and recognition of nonprofit groups that promote knowledge of New Jersey’s early history. Descendants, numbering more than  people nationwide and representing nearly  settlers, meet twice a year, in November and May.

Connie Myers (b. Sept. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Sculptor. The son of Joseph ´ later assumed anand Honorine Ruiz, Jose other family name, de Rivera. During the s in Chicago, he transformed himself from machinist to sculptor after studying under John W. Norton at the Studio School. He became part of the early twentieth century’s modern sculpture revolution by producing a multitude of metal, abstract, space-defining, curvilinear works of art. For the Works Progress Administration’s Federal Art Project in , he created Flight, a large, abstracted bird trimmed from solid aluminum rods for

Deshler, Charles , ).

(b. Mar. , ; d. May

Journalist and politician. Charles Deshler was born in Easton, Pennsylvania, to George Wagener Deshler and Catharine Lawson (Dunham) Deshler. At about the age of four he went to live with his maternal grandfather, Jacob Dunham, in New Brunswick, where he was at first educated privately, and then at Rutgers Prep, from which he graduated in  at the age of thirteen. He was apprenticed to a druggist and succeeded to the business. Active in political and social affairs in New Brunswick, he was one of the founders of

New Jersey town planning has followed a variety of forms, including several milestones in the history of community design. Early New Jersey settlements reflected a tentative urban structure defined primarily by the intersection of two important streets, as in Richard Noble’s  plan for an English Quaker settlement in Burlington. In the nineteenth and early twentieth century, grid platting was widely used to shape incremental additions to existing communities and to create entirely new communities. Some communities were developed according to a uniform grid, such as Hoboken with its signature -by--foot blocks. However, most communities grew through extensions into the countryside using a variety of grid types and orientations. Grid platting was predictable and expedient, and imposed a rational spatial order. It could also be used with sensitivity and flexibility. For example, the plans for Ocean Grove and adjacent Asbury Park use a variable grid that elegantly incorporates several significant water features as well as public open space, and creates two adjoining communities with very different characters. A notable example of a planned industrial community is Roebling (part of Florence Township), designed and built by Charles Roebling. The  plan created a complete community, with a variety of housing types, retail, services, a school, an inn, recreational facilities, an auditorium, and parks. It follows a modified grid with pleasant, human-scale blocks. Main Street terminates symbolically at the front gate to the Roebling steelworks, the major employer. New Jersey also hosts outstanding examples of communities designed around public spaces. Mount Tabor, near Denville, was developed in  as a Methodist summer resort community. The original tents were replaced with summer homes in  and permanent homes after World War I. The plan is focused on a series of public spaces where civic

Devlin, Martin P.

DESIGNED COMMUNITIES Fair Lawn

Mount Tabor

West Orange Hoboken

Princeton N

Asbury Roosevelt Park Ocean Grove

Trenton Roebling Burlington Fairview (Yorkship Village) 0

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miles @Rutgers, The State University

functions—a library, post office, church, firehouse, and school—are located. The modified grid is adapted to steep slope conditions and supplemented by a network of pedestrian walkways and stairways. Electus Litchfield’s  plan for Fairview (Yorkship Village) in Camden is one of the most striking urban design statements in the country. Built by the federal Emergency Fleet Corporation for shipyard workers, Fairview combines generous amounts of public open space and careful attention to design details. Higher-density mixed-use buildings are grouped around Yorkship Square, linked to the surrounding residential neighborhoods by a radial pattern of streets and pedestrian connections. Thomas Stapleton and Edgar Palmer’s  plan for Palmer Square created a focus for the Princeton community. Housing, offices, retail, restaurants, a post office, and a hotel surround an inviting public space, providing an enduring model of compact, mixed-use development at the center of town. New Jersey also pioneered new forms in lower-density suburban design. Andrew Jackson Downing’s  plan for Llewelyn Park in West Orange created one of the first suburban, gated residential communities in the country. The picturesque, low-density layout appealed to a wealthy clientele retreating from the challenges of the nineteenth-century manufacturing city. Similarly, the  Olmsted plan for Cadwalader Place in Trenton is a model of an in-town, lower-density neighborhood, capitalizing on the proximity to Cadwalader Park and linked by trolley to the downtown. Clarence Stein’s influential  plan for Radburn in Fair Lawn created the first com-

munity designed for the automobile—a new model for neighborhood design that separated vehicular from pedestrian traffic. Cars are limited to cul-de-sacs and collector roads while pedestrian circulation is encouraged through common open space in the middle of superblocks. Radburn also introduced the contemporary concept of clustering. Alfred Kastner’s s’ plan for Jersey Homesteads, later Roosevelt, is a twentiethcentury variation on the “Garden City’’ ideal, an experiment in the creation of a freestanding, self-contained community in a rural setting. Developed by the Federal Resettlement Administration for unemployed garment workers from Manhattan’s Lower East Side, it contained a clothing factory and two hundred homes clustered around a school and community center and was surrounded by a greenbelt and a -acre farm. Traditional development forms in New Jersey were characterized by a pedestrian scale, a mix of uses, and a highly interconnected circulation system. Postwar community design has emphasized cars over pedestrians, a strict separation of land uses and housing types, and the primacy of private over public space. More recently, a new generation of projects signals a renewed interest in the traditional models of community design.

Carlos Macedo Rodrigues

Devlin, Harry , ).

(b. Mar. , ; d. Nov.

Painter. New Jersey’s preeminent painter of Victorian architecture, Harry Devlin was born in Jersey City, the second son of Harry G. and Amelia Crawford Devlin. He spent his youth in Elizabeth. In , he entered Syracuse University to major in art, despite his family’s encouragement of a career in medicine. After his  marriage to Dorothy Wende, a distinguished portrait and still life painter, poet, and children’s book author, the Devlins first settled in Elizabeth and then moved in  to Mountainside, where the couple raised their seven children. Devlin began his career primarily in magazine illustration. After the onset of World War II, he entered the U.S. Navy, where he was assigned to the Identification and Characteristics Office of Naval Intelligence. There he assumed responsibility for all illustrations and technical drawings published in manuals used by fliers to identify enemy planes. He was so proficient that by , he had illustrated all Japanese, German, and Italian aircraft. At the end of World War II, after having risen to the rank of lieutenant, Devlin returned to private life and began a ten-year association with Collier’s Weekly, creating editorial cartoons and illustrations for the magazine’s advertisements and articles. His work also appeared in other publications including the Saturday Home Magazine and the New York Daily News, from which he was fired during the

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McCarthy era after refusing to design a proMcCarthy cartoon. It was during the s, a period of political uncertainty and the concurrent decline of illustration, that Devlin developed a comic strip carried in local papers, the Newark Evening News and the Elizabeth Daily Journal, and syndicated in newspapers as far west as Honolulu. He also began painting portraits and Victorian architecture. In a collaboration with his wife, Dorothy (known as Wende), the couple produced more than two dozen children’s books featuring Wende’s imaginative writing accompanied by Devlin’s colorful and exuberant illustrations. The first of these was Old Black Witch (), a story that along with its two sequels has sold almost two million copies. Devlin then went on to renew a long-standing interest in Victorian architecture when he published To Grandfather’s House We Go (), containing illustrations after paintings he had begun as early as . The clarity of the descriptions and illustrations of architecture made the work not only an educational children’s book but also a sourcebook for college courses in architectural history. What Kind of a House Is That? followed, and in  came his major volume on the subject, Portraits of American Architecture: Monuments to a Romantic Mood, –. Devlin’s style results from a technique similar to contemporary photo-realism as is evident in Off the Yellow Brick Road (). He alters slide images to define his basic composition, but incorporates “high truths’’ in the form of the removal of offending modern incursions such as telephone poles to infuse a sense of nostalgia and mood. Today, Devlin’s works can be found in several New Jersey private, corporate, and museum collections including the Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Museum and the Morris Museum. Devlin, Harry. Portraits of American Architecture: Monuments to a Romantic Mood, –. Boston: David R. Godine, . Mitnick, Barbara J. Harry Devlin: A Retrospective. Morristown: Morris Museum, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Barbara J. Mitnick

Devlin, Martin P.

(b. Nov. , ; d.

Aug. , ). Lawyer and labor leader. Born in

Scotland to Irish parents, sixteen-year-old Martin Devlin was a laborer in a shipyard when he immigrated to the United States. He worked in a pottery plant and became president of the National Sanitary Pressers’ Union. A labor organizer by day, Devlin read law at night and was admitted to the New Jersey bar in . He became active in Democratic politics and a prominent advocate of progressive causes, including women’s suffrage and commission government. Devlin, like other progressive Democrats, was initially suspicious of Woodrow Wilson’s conservative views when he was nominated for governor. But Wilson

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DeVry College of Technology

quickly cast his lot with the progressive faction of his party and later named Devlin as one of a small circle of advisors who liberalized his political views. Kerney, James. The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson. New York: Century, . Obituary. Trenton Times, Aug. , .

Martin Paulsson

the Palisades are due to complex in situ crystallization processes that are studied by geologists around the world. The principal source of the Palisades magma was probably previously subducted basaltic crust that melted during the Jurassic breakup of the Pangean supercontinent  million years ago. See also geology

John H. Puffer

DeVry College of Technology. With national origins dating back to , DeVry first opened in New Jersey in Union in . Recently renamed the DeVry College of Technology and relocated to North Brunswick, it is part of a national network of for-profit technical education institutions. It offers practical business and technical education tailored to employers’ needs. DeVry continues to grow as both a business and educational institution in New Jersey. DeVry went public in  and began trading on the New York Stock Exchange, and in  was given the authority to grant baccalaureate degrees for its electronics engineering technology program in New Jersey. Currently, the New Jersey campus has more than thirty-nine hundred students. See also higher education

Tracy L. Smith

Dey Mansion.

Known as “Washington’s Headquarters,’’ this Georgian-style house located in Preakness, Passaic County, was built on a -acre tract of land circa  by Dirck Dey, a Dutch immigrant. Dey served as a freeholder in what was then Bergen County and in the New Jersey General Assembly from  to . His son, Theunis Dey, served in the New Jersey Assembly and in the Provincial Council; he was a colonel in the local militia during the Revolutionary War. In  the mansion hosted Gen. George Washington, serving as his military headquarters and sheltering him against British kidnap plots. The historic site is now owned and operated as a museum by the Passaic County Department of Parks and Recreation.

Bailey, Rosalie Fellows. Pre-Revolutionary Dutch Houses and Families in Northern New Jersey and Southern New York. . Reprint. New York: Dover, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Company, .

See also historic sites; Revolutionary War

Evelyn Stryker Lewis

diabase.

Diabase is a common intrusive igneous rock composed largely of plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. A thick intrusion of diabase known as the Palisades Sill is exposed as a ridge along the Hudson River and constitutes the hard, black bedrock of Fort Lee, Hoboken, and Jersey City. Some of the Palisades magma broke through to the surface to flow out as Orange Mountain basalt. Variations in the mineralogy and geochemistry of

dialects. New Jersey is a dialect crossroads, and it has been since the time when the Lenape, or Delaware, Indians, occupied the land. The Lenape language belongs to the Algonkian language family, along with the languages of most of the other Eastern Woodland Indians. Within the Lenape language there were two dialects, which corresponded to the Munsee and Unami geographic groupings. The Munsee dialect was spoken in northeastern New Jersey, the middle and lower Hudson River Valley, on western Long Island, and on Staten Island. The Unami dialect was spoken in eastern Pennsylvania, most of Delaware, and southern and central New Jersey. Today, although the Delaware Indians no longer reside in New Jersey, their descendants in Canada still speak the Munsee dialect. The Unami dialect survives among the Oklahoma Delaware. Dialect differences also developed among the early European settlers. In the mideighteenth century, the Swedish naturalist Peter Kalm noted that the Swedish dialect in the parts of southern New Jersey that had been formerly part of New Sweden “already deviated from the Swedish that is used in the Old Country.’’ He predicted that the language soon would become “a new tongue’’ and eventually disappear. Two dialects developed among the Dutch in New Netherland. “Jersey Dutch’’ was spoken in northeastern New Jersey and southeastern New York State and “Mohawk Dutch’’ in the upper Hudson and Mohawk River valleys. There also existed a variant of Jersey Dutch among the Afro-Dutch slaves and free blacks in northern New Jersey. These spoken dialects began to die out in the nineteenth century. The Dutch Reformed Church kept the language alive by continuing to conduct services in Dutch until the mid-nineteenth century. The Dutch who immigrated to Paterson and Prospect Park in the late nineteenth century found it difficult to understand the dialect spoken by the Old Dutch families. By the beginning of the twentieth century, only a few people in Bergen County spoke the Jersey Dutch dialect. After , with the conquest of New Netherland by England, English became the official language of New Jersey. Soon dialect differences developed, which correspond with the earlier dialect regions among the Lenape Indians. Today, a major dialect boundary between the Northern dialect and the Midland

dialect divides New Jersey. These dialect regions extend beyond the political boundaries of New Jersey and are divided into three subregions: the Hudson Valley subregion, the Metropolitan New York subregion, and the Delaware Valley subregion. For example, the Northern dialect word for a small stream is a brook, while it is called a run in the Midland dialect region. A more modern example is the use of the term tomato pie in the Delaware Valley subregion for what is called pizza in the Metropolitan New York subregion. Immigrant groups who have settled in New Jersey since the early nineteenth century have brought their languages with them. German, Italian, Polish, Ukrainian, Russian, Yiddish, Spanish, and now Urdu and Gujurati were spoken and continue to be spoken in the homes and on the streets. Each new language has changed and enriched the dialects of New Jersey.

David S. Cohen

diamondback terrapin. Malaclemys terrapin is a small turtle that lives in estuaries from New England to Texas. It is the only turtle specialized for this moderately saline habitat between the ocean and freshwater ponds. Terrapins spend most of their time in the water, coming onto salt-marsh islands infrequently. During the winter they hibernate in the mud at the bottom of bays and creeks. Females are larger than males and can attain a length of eight inches, while males are rarely longer than five inches. Females come ashore from mid-June until mid-July to dig nests in the dunes, where they lay up to twelve eggs (usually nine). The nests are about six inches below the sand surface, above the high tide. The eggs take between sixty and eighty days to hatch, and the young climb out of the nest, hide in the vegetation to avoid being eaten by predators, and then, under the cover of darkness, crawl to the bay and swim away. In the s and early s, terrapins were considered a delicacy, like lobsters, and their populations were seriously exploited. Today terrapins are often injured or killed by boat motors, and females are often killed when they cross roads to find nest sites. Moreover, their

Diamondback terrapin.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife.

Dickinson, Jonathan nesting habitat is being destroyed; they are disturbed while nesting by people, dogs, and vehicles; and the young and eggs are eaten by predators. The Diamondback Terrapin Conservation Project of the Wetlands Institute in Middle Township works to protect females and eggs during the nesting season. See also turtles

Joanna Burger

Dickerson, Mahlon

(b. Apr. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Lawyer, mine owner, U.S. senator,

and governor. Mahlon Dickerson was born in Hanover Neck, Morris County, the son of an iron mine owner with the resources to provide him with a first-rate education. Dickerson graduated from the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in , read law in Morristown, and in  was admitted to the New Jersey bar. By  he was seeking a broader field of endeavor and moved to Philadelphia. There he joined the Jeffersonian-Republican cause, writing for the newspapers and earning not merely a reputation as a shrewd operator but election to local office as well. In  Dickerson returned to New Jersey to assume responsibility for the family’s iron mine in Succasunna. A sophisticated, handsome figure, Dickerson soon entered politics in New Jersey. During the next three decades he held virtually every office in the state; legislator, supreme court justice, governor, U.S. senator, and district court judge; in addition to a term as navy secretary serving Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. A staunch Jeffersonian-Republican, he became an equally staunch Jacksonian Democrat, albeit one whose views on key issues like tariffs and the national bank went against the grain of his party’s ideology. Elected governor in , Dickerson promoted banking, internal improvements, and public education. He also prodded the legislature to demand protective tariffs from Congress, an issue he would be identified with throughout his long career in politics. Dickerson’s support for road construction did not entail state spending; rather, he urged the creation of private turnpike companies. He also encouraged construction of a canal across the state between the Raritan and Delaware rivers, a project that was completed under private auspices in the s. Dickerson was governor during the socalled “year without a summer,’’ . Although he took note of the natural disaster in his annual message, he offered no specific remedies or assistance to the state’s farmers, who were most impacted by the droughts and killing frosts that plagued New Jersey that year. In  Dickerson was elected to the U.S. Senate, serving sixteen years. In the Senate he was best known for his advocacy of high tariffs. He was a key figure in the Jacksonian political organization in New Jersey, though not

as engaged in day-to-day political maneuvering as Whig leader Samuel L. Southard was. As navy secretary Dickerson did not make a distinctive contribution. He was a reasonably effective administrator but undertook no major initiatives. Dickerson was sixty-eight years of age in  when he retired from the Cabinet. He spent his remaining years occupied primarily with his iron-mining business and as spokesperson for the protectionist American Institute, which elected him its president in . In  Dickerson served as vice president of the state constitutional convention. A supporter of the presidential ambitions of Michigan senator Lewis Cass, Dickerson might have played a role in a Cass administration. Cass, however, lost both the Democratic party’s  nomination to James K. Polk and a close race against Whig Zachary Taylor in . Dickerson never married. His younger brother Philemon was also a significant New Jersey political figure, serving as governor –. In , Mahlon Dickerson accepted a temporary appointment from President Van Buren to a district court seat in New Jersey, in effect holding the position for his brother, who was appointed in the waning days of the Van Buren presidency. ANB. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Michael J. Birkner

Dickerson, Philemon (b. June , ; d. Dec. , ). Politician, governor, and ju-

rist. Dickerson was born at Succasunna, a son of Jonathan and Mary Coe Dickerson. His family line stretched back to the great Puritan migration to Massachusetts Bay in the s. Dickerson graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in  and a year later was licensed to practice law in Philadelphia. In  he moved to Paterson, where he spent the rest of his life. Like most lawyers in this era, Dickerson was active politically. Following in the steps of his older brother Mahlon, he became a leading Democratic activist and officeholder. As a member of Congress, – , Dickerson loyally supported the Jacksonian program, including the president’s war against the Bank of the United States. In , when popular Democratic governor Peter D. Vroom decided not to seek reelection, the Jacksonian legislative caucus turned to Dickerson, who resigned his congressional seat to accept the governorship. His one-year term as governor was turbulent. As the party in power during the depression of , the Jacksonians took the brunt of voter discontent and Dickerson lost his job. In  he won a bitterly contested race for Congress, but was defeated for reelection in the Whig landslide of .

207

Later that year, following the death of New Jersey federal district judge William Rossell, Philemon’s brother Mahlon interceded with President Martin Van Buren on Philemon’s behalf for the lucrative post. The appointment was duly made, and Dickerson was seated after a difficult confirmation battle. Philemon Dickerson served on the bench for the rest of his life. He died in Paterson of cancer on December , . Married in  to Sidney Stotesbury, he had a daughter and two sons, the second of whom, Edward Nicoll Dickerson, became a prominent New Jersey attorney, scientist, and inventor. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays, –. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Michael J. Birkner

Dickinson, Fairleigh Stanton

(b.

Aug. , ; d. June , ).

Businessman and philanthropist. Fairleigh Dickinson was president and founding partner of Becton Dickinson and Company, a medical and surgical equipment company. It was incorporated in East Rutherford in . During World War I the firm produced all-glass syringes, a significant improvement over the metal ones of the day. Dickinson himself was commissioned a lieutenant colonel, working with the Army Medical Corps on supplying surgical instruments. In  he was appointed colonel and in  was put in charge of the medical departments of both the army and navy. He was a major benefactor of Fairleigh Dickinson University, which was named in his honor at its founding in . In  he married Grace Bancroft Smith; their son Fairleigh S. Dickinson, Jr., was a New Jersey state senator from  to . See also Becton Dickinson and Company; Fairleigh Dickinson University

Robert D. Griffin

Dickinson, Jonathan ; d. Oct. , ).

(b. Apr. ,

Clergyman and college president. Jonathan Dickinson was born in Hatfield, Massachusetts, to Hezekiah and Abigail Dickinson. He graduated from Yale College in . In  he was called to minister to an independent congregation in Elizabeth Town (Elizabeth), New Jersey. The next year he married Joanna Melyne, the sister of his predecessor, Samuel Melyne. In  Dickinson led his congregation into the Presbytery (later Synod) of Philadelphia, where he established himself as an intellectual leader and New Side minister during the First Great Awakening. In  he withdrew from the Synod of Philadelphia to help form the Synod of New York. He became one of the founders, and in  the first president,

Dickson, William Kennedy Laurie

208

Jonathan Dickinson.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton), but he died later that year. ANB. DAB. Le Beau, Bryan F. Jonathan Dickinson and the Formative Years of American Presbyterianism. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, .

Bryan F. Le Beau

Dickson, Laurie (b.

William

Kennedy

Aug. , ; d. Sept. , ).

Photographer and inventor. At Thomas A. Edison’s West Orange labs, W.K.L. Dickson, an excellent photographer, was in charge of experiments with moving pictures. The Kinetoscope, an early device for viewing motion pictures, was essentially Dickson’s invention. He made many of the earliest films at Edison’s Black Maria studio in West Orange in –, and wrote the first history of motion pictures. Dickson also successfully experimented with combining film and recorded sound. He left Edison to found the American Mutoscope Company, a competitor in the movie business. He directed the Mutoscope and Biograph Syndicate’s London Office in ; the following year, he returned to inventing. Dickson, William Kennedy Laurie, and Antonia Dickson. History of the Kinetograph, Kinetoscope, and Kinetophonograph. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Hampton, Benjamin. History of the American Film Industry from Its Beginnings to . . Reprint. New York: Dover, . Hendricks, Gordon. Origins of the American Film. New York: Arno Press, . Spehr, Paul C. The Movies Begin: Making Movies in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also motion picture industry

Rita Ecke Altomara

DiFrancesco, Donald T. ).

(b. Nov. ,

Acting governor, state senator, and lawyer. The longest serving acting governor in

New Jersey history, Donald T. DiFrancesco held the position of senate president–acting governor for over eleven months. Born in Scotch Plains, DiFrancesco is an alumnus of Scotch Plains–Fanwood High School, Pennsylvania State University, and Seton Hall University Law School. He was admitted to the New Jersey bar in  and served as the municipal prosecutor for Scotch Plains from  to . DiFrancesco’s career in the New Jersey legislature began in  when he was elected to the General Assembly. The Republican was reelected in  and chose to run for the state senate in a special election in November . He won election and was reelected in six subsequent contests. DiFrancesco quickly established himself within the senate’s Republican party and was chosen minority leader from  to . In , when the Republicans gained control of the senate, DiFrancesco was elected senate president. He held this position until he retired from the senate in , making him one of the longest serving senate presidents in the state’s history. In the legislature, DiFrancesco counted among his successes the passage of the New Jersey Family Leave Act, the creation of the Catastrophic Illness in Children Relief Fund and the establishment of the Garden State Preservation Trust Fund. The senate president also sponsored legislation prohibiting unfunded mandates and extended the property tax rebate program through the Property Taxpayers’ Protection Act. DiFrancesco’s service as acting governor began on January , , when he succeeded Gov. Christine Todd Whitman, who resigned her office to take a position in the George W. Bush administration as national director of the Environmental Protection Agency. Since New Jersey does not have a lieutenant governor, the line of succession under the state constitution falls to the senate president. Thus, the vacancy caused by Whitman’s resignation created the unique situation in which DiFrancesco served as both senate president and acting governor for all except the final week of her unexpired term. (He was no longer the senate president for this last week of Whitman’s term, and the powers of the governorship passed to the new senate president(s) for that week, as well as to Attorney General Farmer for the period between noon on January  and the moment of James McGreevey’s swearing in.) DiFrancesco made no secret that he intended to run for governor in the  election. The incumbent had the blessing and support of the state’s Republican party, but faced a serious primary challenge from the more conservative Bret Schundler, mayor of Jersey City. Before he formally announced his candidacy, the New York Times ran an investigative series that examined the acting governor’s personal finances and relationship with local real estate developers. While the series indicated that no laws were broken, the damage caused by this

´ forced DiFrancesco to withdraw from expose the primary on April , , only three days after he formally kicked off his campaign. DiFrancesco retired from active politics when his term as senate president expired on January , . He is a partner in the law firm DiFrancesco, Bateman, Coley, Yospin, Kunzman, Davis, and Lehrer. He is married to the former Diane Dragovic, and the couple has three daughters. See also governor

Joseph R. Marbach

Diller, Burgoyne

(b. Jan. , ; d. Jan.

, ).

Painter and sculptor. Raised in Michigan, Burgoyne Diller moved to New York City in  and enrolled at the Art Students’ League where he studied with Jan Matulka and Hans Hofmann. In  he ended his study at the League and had his first one-person exhibition at Contemporary Arts, New York. Diller’s abstract paintings and relief constructions of the mid-s contain horizontal and vertical lines in shades of black, white, and primary colors. These works owe a debt to the art of Kasimir Malevich, the Russian Constructivists, and the de Stijl movement. In  he took the position of assistant project supervisor of the Works Progress Administration Federal Art Project mural division in New York. Two years later, he joined the American Abstract Artists organization. After World War II, Diller’s artistic production tapered off; he was appointed a full-time instructor at Brooklyn College in  where he continued to teach for the next seventeen years. In  he constructed a studio building in Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, where he spent his summers working on his art. He moved permanently to Atlantic Highlands with his wife, Grace, and her daughter, Suzanne, in . Burgoyne Diller: –. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum, . Burgoyne Diller: Paintings, Sculptures, Drawings. Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, . Haskell, Barbara. Burgoyne Diller. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, .

See also art

Tracy Schpero Fitzpatrick

diners. Diners did not start in New Jersey— that honor belongs to Rhode Island, where Walter Scott set up his horse-drawn cart on the streets of Providence in —but only one state can be called the diner capital of the world, and it’s New Jersey. There are about  diners in the Garden State, more than in any other. No one in New Jersey lives far from a diner; diners are in fully half of the state’s  municipalities. Why the glut of diners? One reason is that many of the diner companies traditionally were located here; few diners made it beyond the East Coast because of the high cost of trucking or railing them thousands of miles. But there’s something else. New Jersey is the most highway-intensive state. Millions

dinosaurs

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The White Mana, Jersey City, and the White Manna, Hackensack, are similarly named but wildly dissimilar. The first was a fixture at the  New York World’s Fair and is now host to the world’s only twenty-four-hour “diner cam,’’ while the second is the state’s tiniest and most photogenic diner, with its red-trimmed glass-block and white roof. The Clarksville Diner, with its graceful barrel ceiling, wooden booths, and swivel stools, once on Route  in Lawrenceville, is now in Paris, one of a dozen Jersey diners sent overseas. The diner stands outside the headquarters of a Paris TV station, serving not as a diner but as a venue for corporate functions. The state’s oldest diner is Max’s in Harrison, built in the late s.

Boulevard Diner, Forty-first Street and Crescent Boulevard, Camden, c. .

Courtesy Lake County (IL) Museum, Curt Teich Postcard Archives.

of people drive through the Garden State every day; they’ve got to eat somewhere. There’s also something innately New Jersey about a diner. Diners are colorful and kitschy, and in New Jersey, which Rutgers University professor Michael Rockland calls the roadside pop architecture capital of the world, they have found a home.

conversation, church choir–hushed in the early morning, gets more animated as the day wears on. Everyone from sanitation workers to the mayor and chief of police to six-figure executives can be found sitting at the counter; the diner may be the most democratic institution on earth. Some great Jersey diners:

Customers can get anything they want, whenever they want it, at a true Jersey diner. But the diner is more than just a place to eat; it is a hangout, a community center, a town hall. The sights and sounds inside a diner are half the allure. Bacon sizzles on the grill;

The Summit Diner, built in , features wood paneling, a self-serve water dispenser, a tiny bathroom, and a sign that reads, “Ladies Invited,’’ a reference to the s when women were finally “allowed’’ entry into the male-dominated diner world.

Jersey diners have had starring and background roles in many movies and commercials. Boys on the Side and Jersey Girl were shot in the Bendix Diner in Hasbrouck Heights. Scenes from The Purple Rose of Cairo were shot in the old Raritan Diner in South Amboy. Other Jersey diners and corresponding movies: Roadside Diner, Wall (Baby, It’s You); Liberty View Diner, Jersey City (Broadway Danny Rose); Teamsters Diner, Fairfield (Angel Heart). The most famous diner in the state’s history was Rosie’s. The Little Ferry diner in Little Ferry was renamed Rosie’s after the commercials for Bounty paper towels, featuring Nancy Walker, were filmed there. Rosie’s is now the star attraction at Diner World in Rockford, Michigan. Best Jersey diner? Near the top of the list is the Harris Diner, East Orange, for just about the best breakfast anywhere—or the one you call home. Genovese, Peter. Jersey Diners. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Peter Genovese

dinosaurs.

Interior of Joe’s Diner, Egg Harbor, c. .

Courtesy Lake County (IL) Museum, Curt Teich Postcard Archives.

New Jersey played an important role in the early discovery and study of dinosaurs, the dominant land animals of the Mesozoic Era, in North America. In the nineteenth century, numerous discoveries of dinosaur partial skeletons, isolated bones, and teeth were made in the marl pits of southern New Jersey. In addition to Hadrosaurus, the official state dinosaur, early paleontologists described Dryptosaurus, a larger meat eater, and Coelurus, a smaller, hollow-boned dinosaur, from the Late Cretaceous deposits of the Garden State. Both E. D. Cope and O. C. Marsh were active in the state at this time, and their famous “Bone War’’ feud, which led to the discovery of many new dinosaur types, started in the New Jersey marl pits. Besides Late Cretaceous dinosaurs, the red rocks of New Jersey’s Newark Basin contain footprints of many smaller early dinosaurs from the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic parts of the Mesozoic era. These footprints and trackways record the increase in variety and

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in size that led to the success of the dinosaurs as a group. Most of these tracks were made by small to medium-sized carnivorous dinosaurs. Gallagher, William B. When Dinosaurs Roamed New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fossils

William B. Gallagher

Disbrow, Levi

(fl. s–s). Engineer. Levi Disbrow, an ingenious mechanic, lived at various times in Piscataway, Franklin, and New Brunswick. He bored the first successful artesian well in the United States in May , in New Brunswick. It was  feet deep and supplied pure water for J. H. Bostwick’s distillery. Over the next several years he and his agents were at work at numerous sites from the Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, to Boston. His unprecedented exploits were admiringly reported in many newspapers and magazines. Disbrow obtained patents for his rockboring machinery in , , and . In  he was involved in a fanciful scheme, financed by the Raritan Coal Company, to locate and mine coal beneath the Raritan River. No coal was discovered. After  his base of operations was in New York City. His well for the Manhattan Company was bored through granite to a depth of  feet. Between  and , Disbrow and a partner, J. L. Sullivan, sought to persuade the Common Council to rely on bored wells to meet future needs. Instead, the council wisely decided to bring water to the city from the Croton River. There is no record of Disbrow after , when his son John took over his business.

Richard P. McCormick

Levi Disbrow’s earth-boring machine.

From Mechanics Magazine 1, no. 2 (Mar. 1830).

discrimination. Because discrimination—biased acts against individuals—frequently results in injury to those targeted, the U.S. Constitution bars state governments from engaging in certain kinds of discrimination, as does, since , the New Jersey state constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court has determined that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment imposes an antidiscrimination mandate on the states. Enacted during Reconstruction, when the rights of African Americans were the central issue, the Fourteenth Amendment assumed wider importance during World War II when Californians of Japanese descent were singled out and subjected to curfews, confiscation of property, and even incarceration under the justification of national security. In later years, the Court has determined that in themselves, racial classifications are presumptively odious and therefore require close judicial scrutiny. Judicial review under the equal protection clause is limited to discrimination involving the state or its agents; it does not apply to private discrimination. The Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, has been held to apply to private discrimination, but only that kind deemed either a badge or incident of slavery. As a result, it is judicial interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment that sets the important standard. States, though, are not limited in their antidiscrimination efforts by the federal standard; they just are not permitted to fall below it. Some states, including New Jersey, have set higher standards. New Jersey passed its first law against racial discrimination in , just as the federal court limited the reach of the Fourteenth Amendment. The statute, however, was rarely used. In  the Law against Discrimination (LAD) was enacted, providing an administrative remedy as well as judicial review; its focus was employment. It barred “discrimination against any of its inhabitants because of race, creed, color, national origin or ancestry.’’ In  the new state constitution added to the state bill of rights a clause prohibiting discrimination. Pushed by Oliver Randolph, the only African American at the constitutional convention, this clause prohibited discrimination in schools or in the militia (National Guard). New Jersey was the first state to have such a constitutional provision. Current notions of proscribed discrimination in New Jersey extend far beyond the categories covered in the  LAD. By  public accommodations, as well as schools and the militia, were the focus. It was housing in , aging and employment in , public contracts in , and housing again in . Gov. James Florio issued an executive order in  that expanded the groups entitled to the state’s protection to include sexual orientation. In  Gov. Christine Todd Whitman signed into law, amending the LAD, a provision prohibiting discrimination based upon “race, creed, color, national origin, ancestry,

age, marital status, familial status, affectional or sexual orientation, atypical hereditary, cellular or blood trait, genetic information, liability for service in the Armed Forces of the United States, or disability.’’ These categories place New Jersey in the vanguard—only eleven states have included gender as a basis of entitlement to the state’s protection. Williams, Robert F. The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Updated ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also affirmative action; civil rights

Alfred A. Slocum

district attorney.

See county prose-

cutor.

Division against Discrimination. The Division against Discrimination was created in , with the enactment of the Law against Discrimination (LAD), as an arm of the New Jersey Department of Education. The new division was a direct response to an ineffective  statute barring racial discrimination; the  statute had seen limited use because of an array of procedural problems and the inability of aggrieved parties to finance costly litigation. The new division provided an administrative remedy for allegations of discrimination in employment, subject to judicial review by the state’s highest court, and declared the right to employment to be a civil right. It barred “discrimination against any of its inhabitants because of race, creed, color, national origin or ancestry.’’ Fifteen years later the Division against Discrimination was removed from the Department of Education and placed in the Department of Law and Public Safety as the Division of Civil Rights—its present location— with greater emphasis on enforcement. See also civil rights; discrimination

Alfred A. Slocum

Division on Women.

A permanent agency in the New Jersey Department of Community Affairs, the Division on Women serves as the coordinator of state government programs and services for women. With the guidance of the New Jersey Advisory Commission on the Status of Women, the division administers programs, provides grants and technical assistance, supports information hot lines, and promotes legislation that advances women’s socioeconomic status and legal rights. The division was established by statute under the Division on Women Act of ; it replaced the Office of Women in the Division of Human Resources, Department of Community Affairs. Patricia Q. Sheehan, then commissioner of the Department of Community Affairs, was appointed acting director. The division’s first director was Clara Allen.

New Jersey Department of Community Affairs Programs Book, –. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Community Affairs, Office of Internal Services/Grants Management, .

Joann E. Donatiello

Dixon, Joseph

Dix, Dorothea Lynde

(b. Apr. , ;

d. July , ). Reformer, mental health ad-

vocate, Union Army nurse. Born in Worcester, Massachusetts, Dorothea Dix, at age fourteen, opened a school for twenty children. Dix furthered her own education with long hours of extensive reading, and then opened schools in her grandmother’s mansion in Boston, one for wealthy girls and another for poor children. In six years she published seven books, but the intense pace of her work caused her health to fail, and in , she went to England to convalesce. Returning to the United States, Dix toured housing for the mentally ill in Massachusetts, and in , her “Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts,’’ which advocated building units for the mentally ill at state hospitals, was presented to the all-male state legislature by Dr. Samuel Howe, husband of Julia Ward Howe. Dix’s study was called “the first piece of social research ever conducted in America,’’ and the legislation passed on February , , hailed as the most sensational passed in Massachusetts since the Revolutionary War. In New Jersey, Dix followed the same course. She toured jails and county almshouses that housed the state’s more than six hundred mentally ill, and then met with small groups of legislators, wrote newspaper articles, and encouraged writing campaigns to persuade others. On March , , her “Memorial’’ became law. Dix advised builders about the site and plans for a new hospital in Ewing Township, and in May , the New Jersey Lunatic Asylum (Dix’s “first-born child’’) was opened. Dix visited every state east of the Rocky Mountains, crusading for humane treatment of the mentally ill. Then, between  to ,

Dorothea Lynde Dix.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

she lobbied in the U.S. Congress for passage of a bill to set aside federal land funds for use by the insane poor. Congress passed the measure but President Franklin Pierce vetoed it, destroying hopes for a nationwide system of humane health care institutions. When the Civil War broke out, Dix’s organizational skills earned her the position of superintendent of women nurses in the Union Army, but after the war, she returned to her campaigns for the mentally ill. A charismatic reformer, Dix was in frail health most of her life, and feeling personally inadequate, she avoided public appearances and formal social gatherings, even declining White House invitations. Before most people, Dix believed that industrialized societies created stress, and that these societies must assume care of their mentally ill in humane ways. She was responsible for founding or enlarging thirty-two mental institutions in the United States and abroad. Herrmann, Frederick M. Dorothea L. Dix and the Politics of Institutional Reform. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Marshall, Helen. Dorothea Dix, Forgotten Samaritan. New York: Russell and Russell, . Wilson, Dorothy Clarke. Stranger and Traveler: The Story of Dorothy Dix, American Reformer. Boston: Little, Brown, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

was the legal property of the syndicate, and great measures were taken to present him as a bona fide author to the reading public. Authors for the syndicate signed contracts promising to conceal their true identities. According to his memoirs, The Ghost of the Hardy Boys (), McFarlane kept his identity as Franklin Dixon hidden from even his own children until they were grown. Although McFarlane and Stratemeyer were close collaborators for the first four years of the series (until Stratemeyer’s death), the two never met nor spoke. At the time of Stratemeyer’s death, the syndicate was producing  percent of all juvenile literature in the United States. Control of the syndicate passed to his two daughters, Harriet Adams and Edna Camilla Squier, who continued to oversee the output of “Franklin Dixon.’’ Adams, who wrote several of the Hardy Boys herself, remained in control of the syndicate until her death in . In , the syndicate was sold to Simon and Schuster. Billman, Carol. The Secret of the Stratemeyer Syndicate: Nancy Drew, the Hardy Boys, and the Million-Dollar Fiction Factory. New York: Ungar, . Johnson, Deidre. Edward Stratemeyer and the Stratemeyer Syndicate. New York: Twayne, . McFarlane, Leslie. The Ghost of the Hardy Boys. Toronto: Methuen/Two Continents, .

See also Adams, Harriet Stratemeyer; literature; Stratemeyer, Edward L.

See also Trenton Psychiatric Hospital

Sara B. Pfaffenroth

Kathryn P. Kimball

Dixon, Joseph June , ).

Dixon, Franklin.

Franklin Dixon is a pseudonym created by juvenile fiction mogul Edward L. Stratemeyer that was used by more than two dozen ghostwriters. Dixon is the listed author of the Ted Scott Flying Stories and the vastly popular Hardy Boys series. Part mystery, part adventure, the Hardy Boys series recount the exploits of Joe and Frank Hardy, ´ ge ´s of their world-famous detective faprote ther. Although sales of Hardy Boys books have been in decline since World War II, they remain the longest running, best-selling series of books for boys. Edward L. Stratemeyer was a prolific juvenile fiction writer and president of the Stratemeyer Literary Syndicate, which produced more than one hundred series, including the Bobbsey Twins, Tom Swift, and Nancy Drew as well as the Hardy Boys. The syndicate office was located in East Orange and was later transferred to Maplewood. In , Stratemeyer placed an advertisement in the trade journal Editor and Publisher: “Experienced fiction writer wanted to work from publisher’s outlines.’’ The notice, nestled among others calling for copyeditors, piqued the curiosity of the journalist and aspiring fiction writer Leslie McFarlane (–), who was subsequently hired to become the original Franklin Dixon. McFarlane penned the first eleven and five later volumes of the book series. The pen name Franklin Dixon

211

(b. Jan. , ; d.

Inventor and manufacturer. Joseph Dixon was born in Marblehead, Massachusetts, the son of Joseph and Elizabeth Reed Dixon, and remained a resident of his native state for the next forty-eight years. He married Hannah Martin, also of Marblehead, in . He had little formal education, but early on demonstrated an aptitude for mechanical pursuits. In his teens, Dixon invented a machine for cutting files; soon after, he became a printer. Because he did not have the wherewithal to buy metal type, Dixon made his type out of wood and in the process developed skills as a woodcarver and also learned wood engraving and lithography. Still, he wanted to work with metal type. Consequently, he perfected a way to cast his own. This, in turn, led him to experiment with graphite as a substance for receptacles into which he could melt his type. As he worked with graphite, Dixon recognized other of its properties and soon produced goods using it that became widely popular, including stove polish, lubricants, and lead pencils. In , he built a factory in Salem, Massachusetts, and began to manufacture these materials. In , Dixon moved his manufacturing plant to Jersey City to be closer to his customers. He was subsequently granted several patents in a variety of fields. Two of the earliest, awarded in March and April of , covered the use of graphite crucibles in the

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making of pottery and steel. Dixon had earlier used the principles explained in this patent to produce iron and steel during the Mexican War. In , the patent office recognized his application for the “improvement in manufacturing steel.’’ As well, Dixon perfected a process for using graphite to grind lenses, invented a way to print calico in fast colors, discovered a method for tunneling under water, and produced a galvanic battery. Dixon acquired mining property and mills in Ticonderoga, New York, to support his manufacturing activities. He befriended such luminaries as Robert Fulton, Samuel F. B. Morse, and Alexander Graham Bell. During the s, most people still used quill pens and ink; however, consumer demands for a dry writing instrument were growing. This led to the mass production of pencils, and in , Dixon obtained a patent for a wood-planing machine that was specifically designed to give shape to wooden pencils. In , in failing health, Dixon thought it prudent to incorporate all of his business interests; as a result, he formed the Joseph Dixon Crucible Company. When Dixon died two years later, his company was the largest maker of graphite products in the world.

E. Richard McKinstry

Doane, George Washington (b. May , ; d. Apr. , ). Bishop, educator, and poet. The only son of Jonathan Doane, builder of New Jersey’s first State House, and Mary Higgins, George Washington Doane was born in Trenton. After his graduation from Union College in , Doane read law but soon turned to the study of the ministry, entering General Theological Seminary in . He was ordained a deacon of the Episcopal Church in  and priest two years later, serving as an assistant at Trinity Church, New York City. From  to , he taught rhetoric and belleslettres at Trinity College and became involved as an editor for church publications. He was called to Boston’s Trinity Church in  and in  married Eliza Greene Callahan Perkins, a wealthy widow. The Episcopal Diocese of New Jersey elected Doane its second bishop in . As there was no independent support for the bishop, Doane accepted the rectorship of Saint Mary’s Church in Burlington (founded ). His episcopate was marked by great expansion with over twenty new parishes established. Doane supported the education of girls, founding Saint Mary’s Hall (), and established Burlington College for men. A friend of William Wordsworth, he was interested in poetry and hymnody, writing “Thou Art the Way’’ and “Fling Out the Banner,’’ among other hymns. His residence by John Notman (; demolished ) was the first Italianate structure in the United States and New Saint Mary’s Church, built – by Richard Upjohn, was the first Gothic Revival structure. A friend

of the Oxford movement, Doane was considered a leader of the High Church party in the United States. In , he was charged by his critics for misuse of Church funds. Doane defended himself successfully in an ecclesiastical tribunal but the trial took a toll on his health and fortune. He died in Burlington of an infectious fever, probably pneumonia. His eldest son, George Hobart, became the vicar general of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Newark and another, William Croswell, was the first Episcopal bishop of Albany, New York. DeCou, George. Burlington, a Provincial Capital: Historical Sketches of Burlington, New Jersey, and Neighborhood. Burlington: Library Company of Burlington, .

Lawrence Schmidt

run leader, first to play on a World Series championship team, and first to hit a World Series home run. He played in every All-Star Game from  to . After retiring, Doby coached for the Montreal Expos and Cleveland Indians. He took over as manager of the Chicago White Sox mid-season , becoming the second African American to hold such a position. Doby was elected into baseball’s Hall of Fame in . DiClerico, James M., and Barry J. Pavelec. The Jersey Game: The History of Modern Baseball from Its Birth to the Big Leagues in the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Moffi, Larry, and Jonathon Kronstadt. Crossing the Line: Black Major Leaguers, –. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, .

See also baseball

Linda Barone Corcoran

Doby, Lawrence Eugene

(b. Dec. ,

; d. June , ). Professional baseball player. Born in Camden, South Carolina, Larry Doby was raised in Paterson from the time he was eight years old. An outstanding athlete at Paterson’s Eastside High, he briefly attended Long Island University on a basketball scholarship. Before finishing, he joined the navy and served during World War II. Upon returning home, Doby focused on baseball and quickly became a standout for the Newark Eagles of the Negro League. As a power hitter and star second baseman, he lead the Eagles to their  championship. In July , just months after Jackie Robinson’s debut, Doby became the second African American in Major League Baseball when he was called up to the Cleveland Indians. Moving from infield to outfield, Doby went on to achieve a series of milestones for African Americans in baseball: first in the American League, first American League home

When Paterson’s Larry Doby left the Negro League to serve in the South Pacific during World War II, he sent this picture home to his mother.

Courtesy National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Cooperstown, NY.

Dodge, Geraldine Rockefeller Apr. , ; d. Aug. , ).

(b.

Philanthropist. The youngest child of William and Almira Rockefeller and niece of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge was born to wealth and social position resulting from her father’s presidency of Standard Oil of New York and his successful investments. She was educated at Miss Spence’s, a progressive New York school for women founded in . On holidays, she traveled to family homes at Mount Pleasant, New York; Jekyll Island, Georgia; and Bay Pond in New York’s Adirondack Mountains. Extended vacations were spent traveling throughout Europe. In , Geraldine married Marcellus Hartley Dodge, scion of the Remington Arms Company. The Dodges settled in Morristown and in  purchased Onunda, an estate in Madison. Geraldine changed its name to Giralda, after Saint Geraldo, the Spanish patron of orphans, and there she began to pursue various interests, including dog breeding and collecting primarily historical art and animalier bronzes. Her state-of-the-art kennels became world-renowned. She cofounded the Morris and Essex Kennel Club, and from  to , she sponsored the club’s annual dog shows at Giralda. In , Dodge established Saint Hubert’s Giralda (an animal shelter), and during the s, she wrote books about German shepherds and cocker spaniels. Her generous donations to animal research contributed to the prevention and treatment of disease. In August , the couple’s only son, Marcellus Hartley Dodge, Jr., was killed in an automobile accident in France during a post–Princeton University graduation vacation. Devastated by the loss, Dodge decided to underwrite the construction and furnishing of a new Borough Hall in Madison in her son’s memory. In , her husband died. At her death a decade later, Geraldine left the bulk of her estate to establish the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, which continues to provide support for animal welfare, the arts, local

doll manufacturing

Friedrich August von Kaulbach, Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Morris Museum, Morristown, and the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation. Photo: Timothy W. Volk.

Morris County projects, as well as education and environmental causes. Mitnick, Barbara J. Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge. Morristown: Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, .

See also Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation

Barbara J. Mitnick

Dodge, Mary Mapes d. Aug. , ).

(b. Jan. , ;

Children’s author and editor. Author of Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates, poet, and editor of Saint Nicholas magazine, Mary Mapes Dodge changed nineteenthcentury children’s literature and influenced generations of English-speaking writers. She was the daughter of Sophia (Furman), amateur musician and artist, and James Jay Mapes, a scholar, inventor, and agrarian scientist of wide renown. When she was sixteen she moved to Mapleridge, in Waverly (now a part of Newark), an old farm James Mapes used as a proving ground for his theories on the restoration of land through chemical fertilizer. The residence became a meeting place for Newark artists, writers, and scientists. Mary Mapes married William Dodge III in September , and they had two sons. In , distraught by economic problems caused largely by the numerous mortgages that had been held by his father-in-law and the illness of their son James, Dodge disappeared, presumed drowned, leaving his wife, at twentyeight, with two small children and many debts. Mapes turned to her childhood passion for writing. Dodge sold stories to Harper’s and other magazines. Urged by her sons to write about the European craze for ice skating, she published Hans Brinker, a lively tale about Dutch life, which instantly became a best seller, went through one hundred printings, and was

awarded the Prix Monthyon by the French Academy in . When her father died in , Mapes became head of a three-generation extended family at the Waverly farm. In  she became associate editor, under Harriet Beecher Stowe and Donald G. Mitchell, of Hearth and Home. She wrote articles on domestic, literary, artistic, and scientific topics. In , she accepted the editorship of Scribner’s new children’s monthly magazine, Saint Nicholas Magazine for Girls and Boys, over which she had complete control and which became a new literary force for children. In the first issue, Dodge listed nine standards which guided the magazine’s publication for thirty-two years, including “fun, appreciation of art, the cultivation of the imagination, high moral ideals, and realistic role models for living,’’ all presented with enthusiastic optimism. The magazine attracted leading authors of the day: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Alfred Lord Tennyson, John Greenleaf Whittier, Louisa May Alcott, Mark Twain, Rudyard Kipling, Laura Ingalls Wilder, and Frances Hodgson Burnett, and illustrators such as Howard Pyle and N. C. Wyeth. Dodge encouraged new talent: writers such as Eudora Welty, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and E. B. White first published as children in Saint Nicholas. Dodge, with her belief in children’s writing that reflected “freshness and heartiness, life and joy,’’ influenced a distinguished group of artists, writers, and notable figures. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, . Wright, Catharine Morris. Lady of the Silver Skates: The Life and Correspondence of Mary Mapes Dodge. Jamestown, RI: Clingstone Press, .

See also literature

Caroline Wheeler Jacobus

Dodge Poetry Festival. Since , the Village of Waterloo in Stanhope has been host to the largest public poetry event in North America. Every two years, eminent names from the roll call of regional, national, and international poetry join thousands of poetry enthusiasts for a four-day celebration of the written (and spoken) word. Featuring readings, workshops, conferences, social events, and concerts, the festival has been supported since its inception by the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation. The autumn biennial has been the subject of a PBS documentary and was the backdrop for the PBS series “Fooling with Words,’’ which showcased festival poets in readings and conversation. During the festival, amateur poets share the stage with their better-known peers, such as former poet laureates Rita Dove and Robert Pinsky. In addition to recitations, forums are held to consider such issues as poetry and

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politics, the technical aspects of the craft, and the impact of the Internet on poetic culture. The Dodge Poetry Program, an offshoot of the festival, provides yearlong training and in-service programs for high school teachers who wish to integrate poetry into their curricula. See also poetry

James F. Broderick

Doe v. Poritz.

At issue in this New Jersey Supreme Court case was the Registration and Community Notification Law (RCNL), or “Megan’s Law,’’ adopted by the New Jersey legislature in . The RCNL required that sex offenders register with law enforcement officials and, in some cases, that the communities in which they planned to reside be notified of their impending prison release. Sex offenders were placed into one of three tiers and the extent to which community notification was required was dependent on this tier designation. “John Doe,’’ a convicted sex offender, challenged the RCNL as being in violation of the federal and state constitutions. The state court found that the RCNL was constitutional and that states could take action in the interest of public safety to counter the high rates of recidivism by certain offenders. Although the court upheld the RCNL, it mandated that the state attorney general create judicial proceedings to allow offenders to appeal their tier designation. At these hearings, offenders bear the heavy burden of proving that their designations do not accurately reflect their risk of reoffense. The RCNL was the first statute of its kind adopted by any state, but all fifty states and the federal government now require registration, and many also require notification. In November , New Jersey voters overwhelmingly approved an initiative that permitted community notification through an Internet site. Diederich, Bryan R. “Note: Risking Retroactive Punishment: Modifications of the Supervised Release Statute and the Ex Post Facto Prohibition.’’ Columbia Law Review  (): . Small, Jane A. “Note: Who Are the People in Your Neighborhood? Due Process, Public Protection, and Sex Offender Notification Laws.’’ NYU Law Review  (): .

See also Megan’s Law

Suzanne U. Samuels

doll

manufacturing. Nineteenthcentury developments in technology spurred many toy entrepreneurs to launch businesses in New Jersey; however, their early dolls were neither artful nor necessarily designed for children. Thomas Edison applied his phonograph to an  British patent for a “phonographic’’ doll whose limbs moved. By , half of Edison’s West Orange plant was dedicated to the manufacture of phonographs and dolls. Philip Goldsmith, whose store “ Cents No More, No Less’’ eventually became

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Dominicans

MacGregor Sporting Goods, produced  twenty-two-inch talking dolls daily in his West Orange factory. Here, women recorded nursery rhymes while men produced the dolls. Goldsmith’s marketing savvy led to the commercial success of his dolls over competitors in the field. During the s, women redirected the industry from a concentration on mechanical toys to those that socialized children. Mary C. W. Foote, owner of the Fairyland Doll Company in Plainfield, expanded her mission to crusade for an end to child labor and the protection of women workers. After the First World War, prominent New Jersey manufacturers included Dollcraft of Newark, the Smock Doll Company of East Orange, Qualitoy of Newark, American Ocarina and Toy Company of Newark, American Bisque Doll Company of Newark, Fulper of Flemington, and the Magic Novelty Company of West Hoboken. Pursuing artistry, companies such as EFFanBEE of East Brunswick turned to Lenox to reformulate bisque heads for U.S. dolls. Though some companies, such as Gund, remain headquartered in New Jersey, many economic factors contributed to the midtwentieth-century demise of doll manufacturing in the Garden State. Most doll manufacturing is now located overseas. Forman-Brunell, Miriam. Made to Play House: Dolls and the Commercialization of American Girlhood, –. New Haven: Yale University Press, . O’Brien, Richard. The Story of American Toys. New York: Abbeville Press, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

Dominicans. Only a small number of immigrants from the Dominican Republic lived in New Jersey before World War II. Their numbers increased markedly after , and by  the census recorded , foreign-born Dominicans residing in the state. Their major places of settlement have been Elizabeth, West New York, Passaic, Hoboken, Newark, Paterson, Hackensack, Jersey City, Camden, and Englewood. Although some Dominicans have professional, executive, and entrepreneurial employment, most are engaged in factory and service work. Their native language is Spanish. Most are Roman Catholic, although some are members of Protestant and Pentecostal congregations. In New Jersey the Dominicans have founded many social, cultural, and civic clubs. Bischoff, Henry. “Caribbean Peoples in New Jersey: An Overview.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

See also ethnicity; Latinas/os

Henry Bischoff

Dominican Sisters of Caldwell. The Sisters of Saint Dominic of the American Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, known as the Dominican Sisters of Caldwell,

is a diocesan community of Roman Catholic women religious. The community originated in , when four Second Order Dominican sisters from Ratisbon (now Regensburg), Bavaria, came to New York to minister to the German immigrant population. In , members of this group living in Jersey City became a separate community with Catherine Muth as prioress. In , the sisters adopted the Third Order Conventual Constitutions, which allowed them more freedom of movement than they had before. The motherhouse was transferred to Caldwell in . Traditionally focused on education, the Dominican Sisters of Caldwell currently sponsor Caldwell College, three academies, and the Link Community School in Newark, as well as working in hospitals, nursing homes, and day care centers.

was the main author of a report, Remonstrance of New Netherland, which was critical of the management of the Dutch West India Company and especially the actions of Gov. Peter Stuyvesant. On behalf of that group, van der Donck went to Holland in  to negotiate the recall of Stuyvesant. The outbreak of the Anglo-Dutch war prevented implementation of the recall, and van der Donck was prohibited by the Dutch authorities from returning to America. It was during this time that he wrote his “Description of New Netherland,’’ which was first published in . It is a rich historical and literary resource with extensive descriptions of the physical environment and especially his informed reports on the American Indian population. Unfortunately, there is as yet not an adequate English translation available.

Curry, Lois. Women After His Own Heart: The Sisters of Saint Dominic of the American Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Caldwell, N.J., –. New York: New City Press, .

Donck, Adriaen van der. A Description of the New Netherlands. Edited by Thomas F. O’Donnell. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also religious communities of women; Roman Catholic Church

Fernanda Perrone

Dominion of New England.

The Dominion of New England, a bold attempt by James II to bring England’s northern colonies under a single administrative structure, began with the consolidation of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and the Narragansett Country (or King’s Province) under interim governor Joseph Dudley in May . In December  Dudley was replaced by Edmund Andros, who vigorously sought to enforce the Crown’s will in matters involving taxation, land tenure, religion, judicial practice, and trade. Andros gradually extended his jurisdiction to include Rhode Island, Connecticut, and, in August , New York and New Jersey. New Jersey’s inclusion in the Dominion had little real significance, and essentially ended in the spring of , when Andros returned to England following the overthrow of James II and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne.

Barnes, Viola F. The Dominion of New England: A Study in British Colonial Policy. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Lovejoy, David S. The Glorious Revolution in America. New York: Harper and Row, .

John W. Raimo

Donck, Adriaen van der (b. c. ; d. ). Lawyer and politician. Adriaen van der Donck was born in Breda (the Netherlands) and graduated from Leyden University with a degree in law. He came to America in  at age twenty-one as schout (sheriff) of Kiliaen van Rensselaer, the patroon of a vast estate on the northeast bank of the Hudson. Van der Donck became New Amsterdam’s first lawyer and one of its leading citizens. He chaired the city government’s Committee of Nine, and

Gastel, Ada van. “Van der Donck’s Description of the Indians: Additions and Corrections.’’ William and Mary Quarterly, d ser., , no.  (July ): –.

See also New Netherland; travel accounts

Hendrik Edelman

Doo-Wop architecture. A style of architecture popular during the s was known regionally as Doo Wop, but elsewhere as googie, populux, moderne, or streamlined. In New Jersey the architectural style derives the name Doo Wop from the vocal harmony rock ’n’ roll music synonymous with that era. Space-age and tropical themes executed in flamboyant neon, angular shapes, and chrome mark the style embodied primarily in motels and eateries. The Wildwoods claim the largest collection of Doo-Wop architecture in the United States. See also architecture Joseph V. Hamburger

Doremus, John P. (b. July , ; d. Jan. , ). Photographer. Turning from his original career as a painter, John P. Doremus opened a photography studio in Boonton in . In March , he established Doremus’ Gallery of Art in Paterson, producing photographic portraits and views, and dealing in oil paintings and frames. His New Jersey stereographic series included Passaic Falls and Vicinity; Paterson from Garret Mountain; Cedar Lawn Cemetery; and Stereoscopic Gems of Northern New Jersey. In , he photographed scenery around Minneapolis and there built the Success, a “Floating Photographic Gallery,’’ with an -by--foot deck, pulled by a small steamer, to “do the Mississippi Valley’’ over a four-year period. He made more than four thousand exposures (at least  published stereos) of river scenery and portraits in small towns. The luxuriously appointed Success included a reception room, operating room, toilet room, Doremus’s private room, private dining room,

Douglass College private parlor, two-berth stateroom, kitchen, pantry, storeroom, and silvering/toning room. In , Doremus published a pamphlet about his experiences, Floating down the Mississippi. His s stereographs of northern New Jersey and the Mississippi Valley are highly prized today. Eberhart, Edith Whitcraft, ed. The Doremus Family in America, –. Baltimore: Gateway Press, . Moss, George H., Jr. Double Exposure Two. Sea Bright: Ploughshare Press, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Double

Trouble

State

Park.

Established in , the park encompasses , acres of Pine Barrens habitat located in the Bayville section of Berkeley Township in Monmouth County. Frequented by visitors who canoe along Cedar Creek, fish and hunt, or hike along its nature trails, the park also contains a historic village of fourteen buildings—a general store, a schoolhouse, a sawmill, and several cottages. The park is a testament to Berkeley Township’s history of cranberry harvesting (it contains two original cranberry bogs) and logging (the Double Trouble sawmill was restored in ). Now owned by the state and protected under the Green Acres program for preservation, Double Trouble cranberry bogs are still leased to the New Jersey Devil Cranberry Company. At one time, Berkeley cranberry bogs produced the largest crops in the state, and Double Trouble State Park is a window to the region’s economic and historic past. See also cranberries; state parks

Beth Kressel

transforming the Carpender mansion into College Hall, hiring staff, and designing a curriculum that would provide a sound liberal arts education as well as vocational training in home economics. The New Jersey College for Women opened in September  with fifty-four students. The college survived the swine flu epidemic that began two weeks later and a heating system that malfunctioned all that winter. Douglass visited women’s clubs, board of managers’ meetings, and gatherings of potential financial friends and lobbied in Trenton for more funding. She knew each student personally and drew faculty and students into the formulation of college policy. During the college’s second year, she had a gymnasium built from packing boxes originally intended for shipping airplane engines to Europe. When she retired in , the New Jersey College for Women, which opened with  students,  buildings, and a faculty of , had become one of the largest colleges in the East with , students and  faculty members. Douglass received many honors. In , she became the first woman to receive the Columbia University medal, and in , she ´mie by the was made an Officier d’Acade French government in appreciation of her influence upon the teaching of the French language. She received honorary degrees from Rutgers in  and from Russell Sage in . The personal tensions and pressures created by the controversy over the relations among the New Jersey College for Woman, Rutgers, and the state as well as her son’s untimely death took a large toll. In June , after Douglass was granted a leave of absence

Douglass, Mabel Smith (b. Feb. , ; d. Sept. , ). Educator and founder and first dean of the New Jersey College for Women (now Douglass College). Following graduation from Barnard College in New York in , Mabel Douglass taught in the New York public schools until her marriage. President of the College Club of Jersey City in , she served as chair of a subcommittee to investigate the admission of women to Rutgers College, the state land grant college. She gathered support by meeting with President Woodrow Wilson, who had earlier been president of Princeton University, and by launching a onedollar subscription campaign. In January , for health reasons, she withdrew from the campaign. The three-year campaign for New Jersey college education for women lost its momentum, but in , after the Smith Hughes bill provided funding for the teaching of home economics at land grant schools and an estate suitable for a college became available, Rutgers’s trustees resolved to establish a college for women. During the summer of , Douglass organized the new college, raising monies, directing workers

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for reasons of health, she retired to her summer cottage on Lake Placid, New York. On September , , the boat she had gone rowing in was found empty. She had evidently committed suicide. The outpouring of tribute reflected a deep sense of loss. In April , Founder’s Day, the New Jersey College for Women was officially renamed Douglass College. Douglass, Mabel Smith. The Early History of New Jersey College for Women: Personal Recollections by Dean Douglass. New Brunswick: New Jersey College for Women, . Schmidt, George. Douglass College: A History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Douglass College

Louise Duus

Douglass College.

Douglass College, originally called New Jersey College for Women (NJC), opened on September , , with an enrollment of fifty-four, two buildings, and a faculty of eighteen. The new college, an autonomous unit within Rutgers University, was the result of a seven-year campaign by the New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs under the leadership of Mabel Smith Douglass, the first dean of the college, for whom it was renamed in . Despite a difficult first year, which included the depredations of the Spanish influenza, the college survived. By the time the first class graduated in , the enrollment had risen to  and the college had been granted a Phi Beta Kappa chapter, in recognition of its academic strength. By , when Dean Douglass retired, the college had , students and  faculty members. From the outset, Dean Douglass envisioned NJC as “a true college for women,’’ not a vocational school, and she and her successors developed a strong liberal arts program as well as addressing the needs and concerns of women. In the late s, Douglass opened its doors to mature women who had dropped out of college without completing their degrees. In the s, Douglass lost much of its autonomy, but it has maintained its national reputation as a center for research and programs focusing on women. The Institutes for Research on Women and Women’s Leadership as well as the Center for American Women and Politics are located on the Douglass campus. With an enrollment of approximately three thousand, Douglass College is the largest women’s college in the United States.

Moxon, Rosamond Sawyer, and Mabel Clarke Peabody. Twenty-five Years: Two Anniversary Sketches of New Jersey College for Women. New Brunswick: New Jersey College for Women, .

Mabel Smith Douglass.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Schmidt, George P. Douglass College: A History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also higher education; Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

Louise Duus

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Dover Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Salter, Edwin. A History of Monmouth and Ocean Counties. . Reprint. Toms River: Ocean County Historical Society, .

Jeffrey Heim

Dow, Joy Wheeler

(b. ; d. Feb. ,

). Architect. Joy Wheeler Dow was the son

Students in a home economics class at Douglass College, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Dover.

.-square-mile town in Morris County. Dover was founded in  with the establishment of an iron forge at Indian Falls. Originally known as Old Tye or Bemen’s, the name Dover was in use by ; it is said to refer to Dover, New Hampshire, the former home of a local industrialist. Dover was incorporated as a town on April , , though it remained part of Randolph Township until separating on May , . In , Dover annexed the small community of Bowlbyville from Randolph. From its earliest days until after World War II, Dover prospered from a range of industries, from the forging of iron ore to manufacturing and textiles. Its thriving commercial center, born in the days of the Morris Canal, served laborers and the local populace. The decline of heavy industry and the rise of suburban shopping malls after World War II cut into these sources of prosperity. Dover is primarily residential, but with a significant commercial presence. The town’s Hispanic population, which first began to arrive in the s, grew to  percent of the population by  and is a major cultural influence. Dover’s  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Platt, Charles D. A Bicentennial History of Dover, New Jersey. Dover: Charles D. Platt, . Schoonmaker, Stanley, and George Laurie. Dover. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Lawrence D. Weimer

Dover

Township.

.-square-mile township in Ocean County, commonly referred to as Toms River. Otherwise, it is called Dover Township to distinguish it from Dover in Morris County. This most populated municipality in the county grew by . percent in the s. Originally part of Shrewsbury, Dover Township was created in . In the Revolutionary War Block House Raid of , men on British sailing ships destroyed that fortification at the head of the Toms River, twelve houses, a tavern, two sawmills, and a salt warehouse, killing nine and capturing, then later executing, Patriot leader Joshua Huddy. In  when southern Monmouth County broke away to form Ocean County, Dover Township became one of the six original towns and the county seat. The Greek Revival courthouse on Washington Street, built in the midnineteenth century, remains a landmark. With much of the community on or near the Atlantic Ocean, the Toms River, and Barnegat Bay, tourism is important. The town includes two contiguous sections of the Island Beach barrier island and the wetland-heavy Cattus Island County Park on Silver and Barnegat bays. In the flat, sandy, inland area, chicken farms have given way to suburbia, including retirement communities. In  there were , residents, of which  percent was white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Jahn, Robert. Down Barnegat Bay, A Nor’easter Midnight Reader. Medford: Plexus Publishing, .

of Augustus F. and Sarah E. Dow of New York City. Born John Augustus Dow, he changed his name at twenty-one. He married Elizabeth Goodchild in , and they had two sons. A self-taught architect, he moved to Millburn in . Most of his early work was done in Millburn and Summit, where he built a number of homes incorporating his very individual philosophy of historic design. The Unitarian Church () in Summit is considered his best New Jersey work. Through his many magazine articles and his book on architecture, American Renaissance, he became nationally known. He was a charter member of the New Jersey Society of Architects, which later became the New Jersey Chapter of the American Institute of Architects in . In  he moved to Kennebunkport, Maine, where he died in . Dow, Joy Wheeler. American Renaissance: A Review of Domestic Architecture. New York: William T. Comstock, . Scully, Vincent J., Jr. The Shingle and the Stick Style. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also architecture

Sandy Brown Hamingson

Downe.

.-square-mile township lying on the Delaware Bay in the southwest part of Cumberland County. Created in  and named for Elizabeth Downes, wife of Gov. William Franklin (–), Downe had its boundaries altered in , and again in , when it took its final form. Much of the township is salt marsh. Major communities within its borders are Dividing Creek, settled before the American Revolution, later a Tory stronghold; Newport, originally called Autuxit; and Fortescue, the “Weakfish Capital of the World,’’ which hosts many marinas. The main industry is oyster hatching and sportfishing. Union Hall—built in  by the Odd Fellows and the Good Intent Beneficial Society, and believed to be the oldest public, secular structure in South Jersey—is still the social center for township residents. Municipal court meets here monthly. Fully  percent of Downe’s total land area is exempt from taxation because, like the small district of Egg Island Point, part of a larger Fish and Wildlife Management Area, it is owned by nonprofit nature conservancy groups. Glades Wildlife Refuge, managed by the Natural Lands Trust, encompasses , acres of vast tidal marshes, woodlands,

Drew, Daniel and forests. Spring migrating shorebirds often concentrate on the beach area. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Barber, John W., and Henry Howe. Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey. New York: S. Tuttle, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Downs, Sarah Jane Corson

(b. ;

d. Nov. , ).

Temperance leader. Evangelical Methodism was the central force of Sarah Downs Corson’s life. In , she gave up a seven-year teaching job in New Egypt to marry the Methodist circuit minister, the Rev. Charles S. Downs, and they worked in three southern districts: Allowaystown (–), Cape May (–), and Millville (– ). Downs hosted church events, taught Sunday school, and mothered two stepsons and her own daughter and son until, in , failing health forced her husband into retirement. The family moved to Tuckertown. When her husband died, Downs supported the children by teaching, serving as principal of the Pennington public school, and writing articles for the New Jersey Courier of Toms River. After retirement to the Methodist seashore community at Ocean Grove, Downs rose steadily in the ranks of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), becoming a persuasive speaker on the New Jersey reform circuit. She became president of the state WCTU in . Membership in New Jersey’s WCTU rose from  women in  chapters in  to over , women in  chapters ten years later under Downs’s leadership. Downs spoke forcefully to legislators, kept antiliquor activity constantly in the news, spearheaded a movement to require temperance instruction in public schools, and worked strenuously for woman suffrage and the election of woman to local school boards (the only electoral posts legally open to them). As the right-hand woman of the national organization’s president, Frances Willard, Downs became important in the national WCTU organization. “Mother Downs,’’ her admirers called her; her major interest was prohibition and “home protection,’’ with “gospel temperance’’ her motif. According to a historian of the temperance movement, she was “a good soldier, an ideal mid-level commander of the reform legion who worked within parameters others established.’’ When Downs died she was still actively involved in a state legislative campaign.

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Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Mark E. Lender

dragonflies. Dragonflies, members of the order Odonata, are among our most familiar and colorful insects. They include two main groups: the larger and more robust dragonflies proper (Anisoptera) and the smaller, more slender damselflies (Zygoptera). The immature stages (larvae) develop beneath the water in ponds or streams, so adults are most often found in the vicinity of bodies of water. Both larvae and adults are voracious predators on other insects but, despite rather fearsome vernacular names (e.g., horse stinger, devil’s darning needle), are entirely harmless to humans and may benefit us by feeding on mosquitoes and other harmful insects. New Jersey, because of its varied topography and climate, has a remarkable diversity of dragonflies for such a small area, with about  species.

Courtesy Michael L. May, Department of Entomology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick.

Needham, James G., Minter J. Westfall, and Michael L. May. A Manual of the Dragonflies of North America. d ed. Gainesville, FL: Scientific Publishers, .

pre-Revolutionary days through the Victorian era.

Westfall, Minter J., and Michael L. May. Damselflies of North America. Gainesville, FL: Scientific Publishers, .

Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. History of Union County, New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Company, .

See also insects

Eastern pondhawk dragonfly feeding on a butterfly.

See also historic sites

Michael L. May

Nancy A. Piwowar

Drake House Museum. In this house,

Drew, Daniel

built in Plainfield in  by Isaac Drake for his son Nathaniel, Gen. George Washington consulted with his officers during and after the Battle of Short Hills, June –, . The Drakes were Patriots. Caesar, one of the Drakes’ freed slaves, served as a wagoneer with the Continental forces. In  John S. Harberger, president of the Manhattan Bank, purchased the house as a summer residence and made alterations and additions. Now a city-owned public museum administered by the Historical Society of Plainfield, the Drake House illustrates everyday life from

, ).

(b. July , ; d. Sept.

Wall Street speculator and philanthropist. The semiliterate son of a poor farmer, Daniel Drew became the prototypical nineteenth-century robber baron. On Wall Street he had an unsavory reputation for deceitful investing tactics. In , Drew almost outsmarted Cornelius Vanderbilt by flooding the market with watered stock during their “war’’ for the Erie Railroad. He then had to flee across the Hudson River to Jersey City to prevent Vanderbilt from having him arrested. A devout Methodist, Drew provided the financing to establish Drew University, a

Graw, J. B. Life of Mrs. S.J.C. Downs. Camden: Gazette, .

Drake House, Plainfield.

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise:

Courtesy Historical Society of Plainfield, Drake House Museum.

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Drew University

Methodist theological seminary, in Madison. He was married for fifty-six years to Roxanna Mead and had two children. Because of the Panic of , Daniel Drew died a poor man.

Cunningham, John T. University in the Forest: The Story of Drew University. Florham Park: Afton Publishing, .

See also higher education

G. Kurt Piehler Browder, Clifford. The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, . Josephson, Matthew. The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists –. New York: Harcourt Brace, .

See also Drew University; Erie Railroad

Elaine L. Schwartz

Drew University. Named after its benefactor, Daniel Drew, a New York City financier, this institution was originally founded in  as a seminary by the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church under a charter from New York’s state legislature. Daniel Drew purchased the former family estate of William Gibbons in Madison for the new seminary after the institution’s first president, the Reverend John McClintock, recommended selecting a location easily accessible to New York City. The first class of seminarians enrolled in , and a year later, the New Jersey legislature chartered the school as the Drew Theological Seminary. Daniel Drew remained the principal benefactor of the seminary until he lost his fortune in the financial panic of . Under the charter establishing Drew Theological Seminary, the governing body was authorized to establish a comprehensive university. In  Arthur and Leonard Baldwin provided funds to establish an undergraduate college, Brother’s College, later renamed the College of Liberal Arts. In  the graduate school was established to offer advanced degrees in religious studies and several other disciplines in the humanities. The s witnessed the growing secularization of the university, stemming in large measure from the growth of the college’s enrollment to more than twelve hundred by the end of the decade. In  Robert Fisher Oxnam, son of Methodist bishop G. Bromley Oxnam, became the school’s first lay president. In  a major schism between the Theological School and the university administration over the allocation of financial resources for the seminary resulted in widespread student protests and faculty resignations. In  the New Jersey legislature, prompted by Drew’s board of trustees, amended the school’s charter to allow the appointment of nonMethodists to the governing board and formally declared the university an independent institution that still retained a historic affiliation with the Methodist Church. In  former New Jersey governor Thomas H. Kean became the first non-Methodist to serve as university president. Browder, Clifford. The Money Game in Old New York: Daniel Drew and His Times. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, .

Driggs, Elsie (b. Aug. , ; d. June , ), and Lee Gatch (b. Sept. , ; d. Nov. , ). Painters. Elsie Driggs and Lee Gatch, both painters, must be considered the preeminent husband-and-wife team in the art history of New Jersey. They lived in Lambertville from  until Gatch’s death in . But Driggs had established her career first, in New York City, before they married. In December , Driggs enrolled at the Art Students League in New York City. She studied there with three leading Ashcan school painters, Robert Henri, John Sloan, and George Luks, but her greatest influence came from the American Modernist painter Maurice Stern. Stern took his students to Rome in , to study the great Italian masters. In the little Italian town of Arezzo, Driggs came into contact with the mural cycle of the story of the True Cross by Pierro della Francesca, which had a direct influence on the development of her mature style. Returning to New York in , she joined the Daniel Gallery, one of the most radical galleries of the time. She became part of a group of artists, including Charles Sheeler and Charles Demuth, who exhibited at the gallery and later became known as the Precisionists. Driggs’s most famous painting, Pittsburgh (), is very much in the Precisionist style. Following the demise of the Daniel Gallery in , Driggs was represented for a few years by the New Art Circle, a gallery on Fiftyseventh Street. It was there that she first met Gatch, and they subsequently married. During the summer of , Driggs and Gatch visited Lambertville. The following summer, they purchased Coon Path, a three-room farmhouse. During the later s, Gatch’s career began to ascend. He had been born near Baltimore, Maryland, and entered classes at the Maryland Institute in . He studied with Leon Kroll and John Sloan. At the age of twenty-two, Gatch won a fellowship to ´ study abroad, where he worked with Andre Lhote, a leading French cubist. He returned to New York in . Gatch’s work of the s still dealt with representational themes, but his forms became increasingly reductive. By the s and s his work became more abstract. He and Driggs both created collage canvases—paintings made up of painted pieces of canvases sewn together. Unlike Driggs, who was not interested in the New Jersey landscape, Gatch usually found subject matter from nature, and there are strong landscape elements in his work. By the s, he began to avoid traditional painting altogether, and made collages comprised of pieces of colored stone. In many ways, Gatch was ahead of

his time, and he should be considered a precursor of Abstract Expressionism. During her time in Lambertville, Driggs rejected her Precisionist style from the s, and focused on a series of watercolors, many of which were made for the Works Progress Administration during the Depression. In , Driggs gave birth to a daughter, Merriman. On November , , Lee Gatch died, and Driggs moved with Merriman to New York City. Driggs began to have one-woman exhibitions there. By the s, her work again displayed Precisionist tendencies, and she regained a following. Driggs died on June , , and was memorialized at the Whitney Museum. Folk, Thomas C. Elsie Driggs: A Woman of Genius. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum, .

See also art

Thomas Folk

Drinker, Biddle, and Shanley.

In , Shanley and Fisher, P.C., and Drinker, Biddle, and Reath, L.L.P., combined their practices. The new firm operates as Drinker, Biddle, and Shanley, L.L.P., in New Jersey and Drinker, Biddle, and Reath, L.L.P., elsewhere. The firm maintains two New Jersey offices, in Florham Park and Princeton, with over  attorneys. The Florham Park office traces its origins to  when Bernard M. Shanley, later deputy chief of staff and special counsel to President Dwight D. Eisenhower, began practicing law in Newark with Joseph P. Young. Harold H. Fisher, of the Lindbergh kidnapping trial prosecuting team, joined the practice in , creating the firm that subsequently became Shanley and Fisher, P.C. The Princeton office began in  when Albridge C. Smith III and Samuel W. Lambert III formed the firm later called Smith, Lambert, Hicks, and Beidler, P.C. The firm merged with Drinker, Biddle, and Reath (formed in ) under that name in , adding in  Trentonbased Goldman and Epstein and in  the New Jersey practice of Cohen, Shapiro, Polisher, Shiekman, and Cohen. The partnership is a full-service law firm representing a broad spectrum of public and private enterprises, governmental authorities, charities, and individuals throughout the United States and abroad.

Daniel F. O’Connell

Driscoll, Alfred Eastlack ; d. Mar. , ).

(b. Oct. ,

Governor, lawyer, and businessman. Raised in Haddonfield, the son of Alfred and Mattie Eastlack Driscoll, Alfred Driscoll was an outstanding student in the public schools, at Williams College, and at Harvard Law School. While practicing law in Camden, Driscoll became involved in local politics and government in his hometown, eventually winning a seat in the State Senate as a “Clean Government’’ Republican. During the s Driscoll served as the state’s alcoholic

Drumthwacket beverage commissioner. From this base he established a statewide reputation as an effective watchdog of a scandal-plagued industry. He also served on a state reorganization commission during Walter Edge’s term as governor. The commission’s recommendations for streamlining state government were quickly enacted, but further work on reorganization was stymied, as voters rejected constitutional reform in a  referendum. In , supported by Governor Edge, Driscoll crushed former governor Harold Hoffman in the GOP primary and went on to defeat the Democratic nominee, Hudson County judge Lewis Hansen, in the fall elections. Although Driscoll had downplayed the issue of constitutional revision during what one historian has called a “lackluster’’ campaign, as governor he immediately identified the issue as his number-one priority. Driscoll was a driving force behind the convention that revised the  constitution and created a modern system that was admired and emulated by other states. The new system enhanced the authority of the governor and revamped the state’s judiciary. It also abolished segregation in the public schools and guaranteed the right of collective bargaining for individuals privately employed. Following the ratification of the  constitution, Driscoll repeatedly demonstrated his skills as a reform governor. He pressed successfully for the reorganization of the state government. Seventy departments were reduced to fourteen, saving some $ million in administrative costs. Law enforcement reforms permitted the attorney general to override the authority of local prosecutors—a key element if local gambling rings were to be broken. Driscoll was a strong advocate of civil rights for African Americans, supported increased teacher salaries, and improved the state’s disability insurance program. Driscoll won reelection by a narrow margin in  in a race against State Senator Elmer H. Wene. During his second administration, Driscoll oversaw the opening of the New Jersey Turnpike and the Walt Whitman Bridge and the beginning of construction on the Garden State Parkway. Driscoll spearheaded the state’s purchase of Island Beach State Park and the Wharton Tract in South Jersey, and he supported development of Sandy Hook State Park. Despite bad publicity generated by scandals related to gambling in Bergen County and the purchase of two privately owned bridges by the Burlington County Board of Freeholders, Driscoll was considered one of the bright lights of the national Republican party. He was on a short list of potential vice presidential candidates presented to Dwight D. Eisenhower at the GOP convention in . Driscoll emphasized the Republicans’ opportunity to win the black vote in the presidential election of that year, and as a result of his recommendation a New Jersey man, E. Frederic Morrow,

joined the Eisenhower campaign train. Following Ike’s election, Driscoll was offered several significant positions in the Eisenhower administration, including chair of the Civil Service Commission. He turned all offers down, accepting instead the presidency of WarnerHudnut Company, a major pharmaceutical enterprise based in New Jersey. Driscoll remained active in public affairs for the next two decades, most notably as chair of the New Jersey Turnpike Authority from  to . Driscoll was survived by his wife, the former Antoinette Ware Tatem, two sons, Alfred and Peter, and a daughter, Patricia Vielehr. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Michael J. Birkner

drive-in theaters.

Drive-in theaters were a form of entertainment in which people could view movies from the comfort of their automobiles. The world’s first drive-in theater opened on June , , on Admiral Wilson Boulevard in Pennsauken, near the Airport Circle. Patrons paid twenty-five cents per car to see Adolphe Menjou star in the film Wife Beware. The drive-in theater was devised by Richard M. Hollingshed, Jr. Hollingshed came up with the idea in the driveway of his Riverton home, where he mounted a Kodak movie projector on the hood of his car, projected images onto a sheet he nailed to trees in his backyard, and placed a radio behind the screen for sound. Hollingshed was issued a patent for the drive-in in May , but the patent was declared invalid in May . The drive-in ushered in an era in the film industry, which soon included thirty-four drive-in theaters in New Jersey as far north as Newton and as far south as Rio Grande. In , there were forty-six drive-in theaters in New Jersey; by  there were none. In the s, escalating land values forced most of the drive-in theaters out of business. The state’s last drive-in theater, the Route  Drive-In in Hazlet, closed in September .

Mike Mathis

droughts.

Although extended droughts occur infrequently in New Jersey, short-term droughts can be severe and can occur at any time of year. A drought exists when precipitation is insufficient to meet an area’s needs for water for drinking, industry, irrigation, recreation, aquatic biota, crops, or forestry. Drought conditions can be defined in terms of inadequate precipitation, streamflow, reservoir storage, or groundwater levels. There are three types of drought: agricultural, hydrologic, and meteorologic. Defining the beginning and end of a drought depends on the type of drought under consideration. For example, if New Jersey experiences drought conditions for several years

219

and then normal rainfall returns, the meteorologic drought might be over, but the hydrologic drought may continue until groundwater can be recharged and streamflow returns to normal levels. In the twentieth century, significant droughts occurred in New Jersey in –, –, –, –, –, –, and –. The drought of – is considered to be the drought of record for water-supply management purposes. The recurrence interval of this drought has been estimated at much greater than one hundred years on the Delaware River and greater than twenty-five years throughout the remainder of the state. The prolonged nature of this drought resulted in below-normal groundwater levels and streamflow in southern New Jersey until . The drought of – was the second most severe drought in New Jersey in the twentieth century. The recurrence interval of this drought has been estimated at greater than twenty-five years. The droughts of –, –, –, –, and –  lasted less than two years and were managed with water restrictions and conservation measures. In New Jersey, droughts are managed at the state and local levels. Drought-management procedures are described in a droughtemergency plan prepared jointly by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and the New Jersey State Police. Conservation measures, supply reallocation, and rationing are used to mitigate the effects of the drought and to maximize the equitable distribution of the state’s water resources. Ludlum, David M. The New Jersey Weather Book. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also weather

Robert D. Schopp

Drumthwacket.

Located in Princeton, this estate was named for two Scottish Gaelic words meaning “hill’’ and “woods.’’ It is the official residence of the governor of New Jersey. Drumthwacket has a long connection with New Jersey’s history. The land was first purchased in  by William Olden. The original homestead on the property is thought to have been standing at the time of the Revolutionary War, situated on lands bloodied by the Battle of Princeton. The existing stately mansion was built in the Greek Revival style in  by Charles Smith Olden, who became New Jersey’s chief executive in . Its subsequent owners were Moses Taylor Pyne, a trustee and generous benefactor of Princeton University, and Abram Spanel, a successful inventor during World War II. In  Drumthwacket was purchased by the state of New Jersey, and in  it was designated the governor’s official residence. Since then, the historic house and its

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Dryden, John Fairfield paintings exposed the empty, urban lifestyle of the roaring twenties. Despite having influence in New York’s Whitney Museum social circle, abstract art’s triumph led to relative obscurity for his highly stylized painting. Fahlman, Betsy. Guy P`ene du Bois: Artist about Town. Washington, DC: Corcoran Gallery of Art, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Dubois, Silvia

(b. Mar. , ; d. May ,

).

ANB.

Slave and freedwoman. Silvia Dubois was born the daughter of the slave of a hotelkeeper in Somerset County. While still an infant, she and her mother became the property of Dominicus Dubois, who owned a nearby farm. Early in Dubois’s childhood she was separated from her mother, who went to another owner. As an adolescent, Dubois moved with her owner’s family to western Pennsylvania, where her master operated a farm and a tavern on the Susquehanna. She proved to be an intractable slave, and at one point got into a fistfight with the wife of her owner when the woman attempted to beat her. In a time when slavery was dying out in the North, her master set her free, and Dubois returned to New Jersey. Dubois found her mother laboring as a slave in New Brunswick, and went to work there and in Princeton as a household servant. She inherited a tavern in the Hopewell area from her maternal grandfather. The tavern was burned down by antiblack arsonists in , and Dubois went to live in the Sourland Mountains with a daughter. In , a local historian, Dr. Cornelius W. Larison, published a biography of Dubois that was unstinting in its depiction of her hardships and of her determination to live her life as she chose. Dubois claimed to have been born in , which would have made her  years old when she died in . There is some doubt about her actual age, but her story remains one of the few detailed accounts of the life of a New Jersey slave.

Carr, William H. A. From Three Cents a Week . . . : The Story of The Prudential Insurance Company of America. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, .

Larison, Cornelius W. Silvia Dubois: A Biografy of the Slav Who Whipt Her Mistress and Gand Her Fredom. Edited by Jared C. Lobdell. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Deborah Pisarick Paglione, Drumthwacket, n.d. Watercolor,  ×  in.

Courtesy Deborah Pisarick Paglione.

twelve-acre grounds have undergone extensive rehabilitation. Its public rooms are furnished with eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury art and antiques, with a focus on New Jersey pieces and the residence’s three centuries of American history. Selden, William K. Drumthwacket: A History of the Governor’s Mansion at Princeton, New Jersey. Princeton: Drumthwacket Foundation, .

See also governor

Lisa Paine

Dryden, John Fairfield (b. Aug. , ; d. Nov. , ). Businessman and U.S. senator.

John F. Dryden was born to working-class parents in Temple Mills, Maine. On April , , he married Cynthia Fairchild, with whom he had two children. Leaving Yale without graduating, Dryden became an insurance agent, eventually settling in Newark in . Dryden perceived the social benefit and profit potential of life insurance policies directed at working-class customers. Acquiring financial backing for his vision, Dryden formed the Prudential Friendly Society in Newark in  and managed it until his death. Today the company is the Prudential Insurance Company of America, one of the largest financial institutions in the world. He was a director of several other companies, including Fidelity Trust and Public Service Corporation. A Republican, Dryden served in the U.S. Senate from  to .

See also insurance industry; Prudential Insurance Company of America

Lawrence D. Weimer

`ne du Bois, Guy Pe

(b. Jan. , ; d.

July , ). Painter, art critic, author, and

John F. Dryden.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

teacher. The son of wealthy parents, the mu`ne du Bois, sic critic Henri du Bois and Laura Pe Guy studied at the New York School of Art under the influential teacher Robert Henri. From  to , he, his wife Florence Duncan, and children Yvonne and Billy lived at the Enclosure, No. , an artists’ enclave in Nutley. As the editor of Arts & Decoration, du Bois commuted to New York. His trenchant figurative

Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also African Americans; slavery

Marc Mappen

Dubrow, Evelyn (b. May , ). Labor leader. Born in Garfield, Evelyn Dubrow is the daughter of Isador J. and Kathryn Kahan Dubrow. Her father was a member of the Carpenters’ Union, and both parents were politically active. Dubrow credits the union involvement and political discussions of her early

Dufner, Edward

221

Unlimited is dedicated to the propagation of waterfowl through the protection and enhancement of wetland habitat. New Jersey Ducks Unlimited is comprised of twenty-eight major chapters with a total membership of approximately six thousand. It utilizes an average of  volunteers in fundraising efforts, which have totaled over $, as of mid, with forty major individual and corporate sponsors contributing at least $, each. In New Jersey, Ducks Unlimited biologists work in partnerships with State Fish and Game biologists and technical teams in order to prioritize and manage wetland restoration and habitat improvement projects. Ducks Unlimited promotes the preservation of outdoor traditions and seeks to maintain a mutually beneficial relationship with hunters by providing information for enhancing the waterfowling experience. See also hunting

Joseph Marty Boa

Dudley, Thomas Haines

(b. Oct. ,

; d. Apr. , ).

`ne du Bois, The Corridor, . Oil on canvas,  ×  in. Guy Pe

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Mrs. Felix Fuld, 1925, 25.1161. Photo: Armen, Mar. 1974. home life with the direction of her career. She graduated from Passaic High School and studied journalism at New York University. She was married briefly and divorced. Dubrow’s long and distinguished career began when she was a reporter for The Citizen, an Italian American weekly, and The Morning Call in Paterson. She turned to union organizing for the Textile Workers Organizing Committee in . She was education director of the New Jersey Textile Workers Union from  to , then held positions with the New Jersey Industrial Union Council. In  she became chair of the women’s division of the New Jersey Political Action Committee of the CIO. She also helped to organize the New Jersey branch of the American Newspaper Guild. When Americans for Democratic Action was formed in , she became its director of organization, serving from  to . Dubrow joined the staff of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILGWU, now known as UNITE) in , work-

ing with civil rights and consumer groups. When she became a lobbyist for the ILGWU in , she was one of only three women lobbyists in Washington. Dubrow was a founder in  of the Coalition of Labor Union Women (CLUW), the organized voice of women in the labor movement. She served as vice president of the ILGWU from  until , when she retired. Evelyn Dubrow was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in  by President Bill Clinton. In , she was awarded CLUW’s Bethune Award for inspiring women to work for equal rights. Fink, Gary, ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement

Delight Wing Dodyk

Ducks Unlimited.

The world’s largest wetland conservation organization, Ducks

Diplomat and lawyer. Thomas Haines Dudley was born in Evesham. He became a leading attorney in Camden, and in the s he helped found and lead the state Republican party. At its national convention in , he played an important role in nominating Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln repaid his debt by nominating Dudley as a U.S. consul. Between  and , the vigilant Dudley energetically served in strategic Liverpool, neutral Britain’s biggest commercial port and shipyard. Dudley made vital contributions to the North’s war effort. Keeping tabs on British shipments to the Confederacy, he informed the American navy where to block them. Monitoring British shipyards for the construction of southern warships, he enabled American diplomats to lodge protests against the British government’s unneutral conduct and to pressure the government to detain such warships. Dudley was the Union’s best consul in the most important consular post. He played a major role in the postwar arbitration of American-British claims. See also Civil War

William Gillette

Dufner, Edward

(b. ; d. ). Artist and teacher. Born in Buffalo, New York, Edward Dufner attended the Buffalo Arts Student League. In  he won an Albright Scholarship, which enabled him to move to New York City. In  he traveled to Paris where ´mie Julian and the he studied at the Acade ´mie Carmen under James Whistler. In Acade  he returned to New York City and taught at the Art Students League. He spent summers in Caldwell, and while living there he began to move away from the blue-gray tones of Whistler and experiment with the more colorful hues of impressionism. Following the death of his first wife in , he married Ilka Howells

222

Duke, Doris Glamorous Life and Bizarre Death of Doris Duke. New York: St. Martin’s Press, . Valentine, Tom, and Patrick Mahn. Daddy’s Duchess: The Unauthorized Biography of Doris Duke. Secaucus: Lyle Stuart, .

Doris B. Armstrong

Duke Gardens. Occupying  acres of a

Doris Duke.

Courtesy Preservation Society of Newport, RI, and Newport Restoration Foundation.

Renwich of Short Hills. He remained in Short Hills until his death in . See also art

Patrice M. Kane

Duke, Doris

(b. Nov. , ; d. Oct. ,

). Philanthropist. The daughter of tobacco

multimillionaire James “Buck’’ Buchanan Duke and Nanaline Inman Duke, Doris Duke was born in New York City and educated by tutors and at private schools. She was only twelve when her father died and she inherited his estate. Her home was Duke Farms, Somerville, where she grew orchids, developed exotic gardens, pursued organic farming, and created a museum of Buddhist art. A strong swimmer, jazz pianist, art and antique collector, historic building restorer, wildlife protector, seeker of spiritual faith, choir singer, and journalist, she funded women’s causes, drug rehabilitation, children’s welfare, agricultural experimentation, Planned Parenthood, Duke University, and other charities. Of the many men in her life, she married two: James Cromwell (, divorced ) and Porfirio Rubirosa (, divorced ). A long-term relationship with jazz musician Joey Castro ended in . Emotional crises were severe: an abortion (); a premature daughter’s death (); a car accident in which a friend was killed (); and estrangement from Chandi Heffner, the young woman she adopted in . At her death in Beverly Hills, she left her butler-caregiver-executor Bernard Lafferty a large bequest; Chandi, cut from the will, later gained part of the estate. The Doris Duke Charitable Foundation continues to support Duke’s causes.

,-acre estate in Somerville, Duke Gardens consists of a series of greenhouse gardens. The property was purchased by James Buchanan Duke, the president of the American Tobacco Company, in . It took seven years and $ million for the grounds to be designed. The construction process was elaborate. A narrowgauge railroad was built in order to move massive amounts of soil from one area of the property to another. Thirty-two miles of track had been laid by the time construction ended. Duke had nine lakes and thirty-five ornamental fountains built on the property. In order to fill the lakes and run the fountains, water was diverted from the Raritan River. Large stone walls, built by hand, encircled the property. Duke also had approximately  million shrubs and specimen trees, imported from all over the world, planted on the site. When Duke died in , he left the estate to thirteenyear-old Doris Duke, his only child. Doris Duke moved to the property after she was married. She improved the property, adding an indoor skeet shoot, Japanese and boxwood gardens, and an eighteen-hole golf course. In  Doris Duke began creating the greenhouse gardens. The process took six years and several landscape designers working under her specifications. The gardens were opened to the public in .

Eleven gardens, each with its own theme, were constructed. First is the Italian Garden. This space reflects the European style in the nineteenth century and features acacia and mimosa trees. Next is the Colonial Garden, similar to those found in South Carolina. The Edwardian Garden looks to s America, when collecting rare and exotic tropical plants and orchids was popular. The French Garden is dominated by lush green foliage. The English Garden is seventy-five feet long and divided into five distinct sections. A topiary garden, rock garden, herbaceous borders, an herbal knot garden, and succulent collection form the space. The Desert Garden features a century plant of great height, as well as prickly pear and jade plants. The Chinese Garden is organized around a pond and includes rock formations, bamboo, and jasmine plantings, while, in the Japanese Garden, trees and shrubs have been espaliered, bonsaied, and sculpted. A highlight of the Indo-Persian Garden is a channel of water that runs throughout the three different levels of the room. The Tropical Garden replicates a rainforest environment, and the Semitropical Garden represents plants from volcanic regions including New Zealand and Hawaii. Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Ellen Hostetter

DuMont, Allen B. (b. Jan. , ; d. Nov. , ). Inventor. Working in his garage labo-

ratory at his Montclair home, Allen B. DuMont

Duke, Pony, and Jason Thomas. Too Rich: The Family Secrets of Doris Duke. New York: HarperCollins, .

Allen B. DuMont.

Schwarz, Ted, with Tom Rybak. Trust No One: The

Courtesy Montclair Public Library, Local History Collection.

Du Pont, Samuel Francis developed a long-lasting cathode-ray picture tube that made television practical and affordable. In  DuMont formed his own company with a manufacturing plant in Passaic, where over one million home television sets were produced. In the s he founded the DuMont Television Network, but found it difficult to compete with the NBC and CBS networks. DuMont eventually sold his interest in the business, spending his last years as a technical consultant. Hess, Gary N. An Historical Study of the DuMont Television Network. New York: Arno Press, .

Raymond Frey

Dumont.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The earliest European settlers of what was to become Dumont were Dutch and French Huguenots, and the area was known for much of its history by the Dutch name Schraalenburgh, thought to mean “scraggly hill.’’ The borough was part of Hackensack Township until its incorporation in . In , its name was changed to Dumont to honor its first mayor, Dumont Clarke, a New York banker. Portions of its land were annexed to the township of Palisades (now New Milford) in  and to Haworth in , reducing its size by about a third. Dumont’s first significant growth occurred in the s, when local railroad lines established train stations in the community. During World War I, Dumont—together with Cresskill, Haworth, and Demarest—was home to Camp Merritt, the largest army embarkation camp in the nation. The borough’s population grew rapidly during the first half of the twentieth century, from , in  to over , in the late s. Now it is a residential community of primarily single-family homes with no major industry. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Altshuler, H. Jeanne. Dumont Heritage: Old Schraalenburgh, New Jersey. Dumont: Mayor and Council of the Borough of Dumont, . Know Your Town: Dumont, N.J. Dumont: League of Women Voters, .

Susan Chore

Dunellen. A .-mile-square borough in the northwest corner of Middlesex County. Dunellen was established in  when the Central Railroad of New Jersey purchased and developed farmland to increase commuter and freight traffic. Most residents were employed by the railroad, which established a sizable complex to service and accommodate its locomotives and passenger equipment, and it became known as the “Railroad Town.’’ In  Dunellen separated from Piscataway. Former large industries included R. Hoe Printing Press and Art Color Printing (– ). Art Color, with its parent company,

W. F. Hall in Chicago, was the largest magazine printing company in the world. Among Dunellen’s interesting residents were Henry Harrison, a weatherman, who accompanied Commander Robert Byrd on his  South Pole expedition; and Louis Gordon, the mechanic on Amelia Earhart’s  transatlantic flight. Sir Thomas Lipton, the famous tea merchant, at age sixteen worked on a farm here during the s and returned to England with the $ he had earned to start his very successful business. All available land has been developed; the town is mostly residential with only small commercial businesses. Population in  was ,, with  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of New Jersey. Story of Dunellen, –. Dunellen: Art Color Printing Company, . Ott, Wesley H.  Mile ×  Mile ×  Years = Dunellen, NJ: –. South Plainfield: Pentacle Communications, .

Wesley H. Ott

Dunlap, William (b. Feb. , ; d. Sept. , ). Playwright and theater manager. Of-

ten referred to as “the father of American drama,’’ William Dunlap, who was born and raised in Perth Amboy, was the first American playwright able to make a living solely as a dramatist. His best known play is The Life of Major Andre (), one of the earliest examples of a drama built entirely upon American subject matter. Dunlap, who lived in the state until the late s, is credited with writing more than fifty full-length dramatic works (though many were reworkings of popular foreign dramas). In addition, he managed playhouses in New York and Philadelphia, where he was credited with introducing German playwrights such as Fredrich Schiller to the American stage. The “Gothic spirit’’ pervading German drama at the time informed Dunlap’s own works, such as Fountainville Abbey (), earning him the distinction among critics as Americas first Gothicist. In , Dunlap married Nabby Woolsey, who was connected to a prominent New York family. He continued to write plays and manage theaters simultaneously throughout the first decade of the nineteenth century. Eventually, he ventured into magazine publishing with the Monthly Recorder (). Frustrated with the bankruptcies of his theater companies, Dunlap turned to painting, for which he had shown great promise as a young man (at sixteen, he set himself up as a portrait painter in New York City; at eighteen, he went to London to study art, but found himself drawn more to the theaters than the galleries). He spent the next decade painting, adapting French and German plays, and helping found

223

the National Academy of Design, where he served as its vice president and professor of historical painting. Despite his vast dramatic output, he is best known for his comprehensive (though, in some critics’ minds, embellished) study of early theater, A History of the American Stage, published in . Dunlap died in New York on September , , from a stroke. Haycraft, Howard, and Stanley J. Kunitz, eds. American Authors, –: A Biographical Dictionary of American Literature. New York: H. W. Wilson, . Magill, Frank N., ed. Critical Survey of Drama. Hackensack: Salem Press, .

See also theater

James F. Broderick

Dunn, Harvey Thomas (b. Mar. , ; d. Oct. , ). Painter, illustrator, and art teacher. Born in Manchester, South Dakota, Harvey T. Dunn studied at the Art Institute of Chicago from  to . He was noted for his scenes of prairie life and people. Dunn spent his early twenties in Chadd’s Ford, Pennsylvania, where he perfected his art with Howard Pyle. Fellow students included N. C. Wyeth and Thornton Oakley. In  he married Johanne Louise Krebs. As most of his commissions came from New York City, in the s Dunn and his family moved to Leonia. In  he opened the Leonia School of Illustration, where several influential illustrators began their careers. He became an official artist with the American Expeditionary Force during World War I, and from  to  his illustrations appeared regularly in the Saturday Evening Post. Dunn died in Tenafly after a successful career as a painter and teacher. Zellerman, Michael David, ed. American Art Analog. New York: Chelsea House, .

See also art

Robert C. Nelson

Du Pont, Samuel Francis

(b. Sept.

, ; d. June , ). Naval officer. Samuel

Francis Du Pont was born at Bergen Point and was appointed a midshipman in the U.S. Navy in . A captain in , Du Pont organized the naval blockade of the Confederacy, then led several successful amphibious operations, including the capture of Port Royal, South Carolina. He was promoted to rear admiral in July . In April , Du Pont led a failed attack on Charleston, after which he requested to be relieved from command. He spent the rest of the war in administrative posts and died on active duty in Philadelphia. Bradford, James C., ed. Captains of the Old Steam Navy: Makers of the American Tradition, –. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, . Merrill, James M. Du Pont: The Making of an Admiral. New York: Dodd, Mead, .

See also Civil War

Joseph G. Bilby

224

Durand, Asher B.

Durand, Asher B.

(b. Aug. , ; d.

Sept. , ). Engraver and painter. The son

of a watchmaker and silversmith of Huguenot descent, Asher B. Durand began his artistic training in  in Newark as an apprentice engraver to Peter Maverick, with whom he formed a partnership in . So precise and proficient was Durand’s skill that he soon established a reputation as America’s preeminent engraver, especially after he was chosen to engrave John Trumbull’s The Declaration of Independence, completed in . Other engraving commissions followed. In association with his brother, Cyrus, Durand also engraved items such as banknote vignettes, business cards, lottery tickets, and diplomas. After moving to New York City at the age of twenty-nine, Durand began a long association with various artists’ organizations. He was a founding member of the New York Drawing Association () as well as the National Academy of Design (), where in addition to serving as second president (–), he continued to exhibit engravings, landscapes, portraits, and history paintings in the Academy’s annual exhibitions until . In , Durand was commissioned by the New York art patron, Luman Reed, to paint likenesses of the first seven United States presidents from George Washington to Andrew Jackson. Durand copied portraits by Gilbert Stuart of the first five presidents, but painted Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams from life. In the same year, Durand ended his engraving career in order to devote himself full time to painting. Although he became a successful painter of portraits, figure studies, and history paintings, Durand devoted the major portion of his career to landscape painting, becoming an important force in the development of America’s Hudson River school. Under the influence of Thomas Cole, then America’s leading landscape painter, Durand’s talent flourished, but unlike Cole’s works, which were largely studio compositions, Durand formed the opinion that landscape paintings should be taken directly from nature. In , in a series of “Letters on Landscape Painting,’’ written for the periodical the Crayon, Durand concluded that an artist must learn from nature, while rejecting reliance either on other artists or European study for training or for subject matter. His landscapes consistently retained an American character and reliance on American sources. Durand’s major landscapes include Kindred Spirits () and In the Woods (). In , Durand retired to his family’s home in present-day Maplewood, where he spent his last years and died in . Brown, Milton W. American Art to . New York: Harry N. Abrams, . Durand, John. The Life and Times of A. B. Durand. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . Lawall, David B. Asher Brown Durand: His Art and Art

Theory in Relation to His Times. New York: Garland, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Durand, Elias Wade

(b. Dec. , ;

d. ).

Engraver and painter. Thought to be the son of Cyrus Durand, brother of the famous New Jersey first-generation Hudson River school painter, Asher B. Durand, Elias Wade Durand maintained a studio in Newark during the s. As in the case of his uncle, he painted sharply detailed landscapes, but he tended to emphasize a cooler tonality in scenes related to the Hudson River and the Green Mountains that he exhibited at New York’s National Academy of Design in , , and . Gerdts, William, Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Durand, Victor

(b. ; d. Apr. , ).

Glass manufacturer. Victor Durand was born in Baccarat, France, where several generations of his family had worked for the famous Cristalleries de Baccarat. He became a glassblowing apprentice at the factory in . His family came to the United States in , and he went to work at Whitall-Tatum and Company, a bottle glasshouse in New Jersey. He worked at several other factories in the Northeast during the next ten years. In , Durand and his father leased the buildings of the Vineland Glass Manufacturing Company in Vineland and started their own factory. They made glass tubing and other lab wares, and by  they owned three glass factories, and one that made clay pots for glassmaking. They employed about seven hundred workers in the four plants. Although the factories were profitable, Durand was not satisfied; he wanted to produce artistic glassware. In , after the Quezal Art Glass and Decorating Company in Brooklyn failed, Durand approached Martin Bach, Jr., whose father had been Quezal’s founder. He hired Bach to develop a line of art glass similar to Quezal’s, and to supervise its production in Vineland. In , Durand Art Glass won a prize at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia. The glass was produced by a team of four men headed by Emil J. Larson, a glassblower who had worked for Bach at Quezal. Because the shop was in operation for only six years, until Durand’s death in , much less glass was produced than in the larger, longer-lived Tiffany Furnaces in Corona, Long Island, or Steuben Glass Works in Corning, New York. Durand Art Glass’s work was basically similar in design to these and to Quezal. Much of the production was iridescent glass, which was marketed as “Lustre Glass.’’

Applied threading in a pulled, peacockfeather pattern was frequently used, as was a heart-and-vine pattern. Both of these were embedded in the glass surface. Random threading, frequently iridescent, was also a favorite decoration and was often combined with the peacock-feather and heart-and-vine patterns. “King Tut’’ was a popular pattern of applied threading in the late s. Moorish Crackle and Egyptian Crackle glasses were produced in a variety of color combinations. These glasses were cased and then immersed in water, reheated, and finished with an iridescent surface. Some acid-etched and cut-and-engraved glass was also produced in the late s. This decoration was often combined with applied colored threading, a design that was unique to Durand. Most of the cut-and-engraved glass is either cased with another color and cut through, or decorated with colored threading. Glassware for lighting was made in the late s as well. Durand’s art glass was sold in major department stores in large cities. It was marked with the name “Durand,’’ and often with numbers indicating the design. Victor Durand died in , while his company was in the middle of a merger with the Kimble Glass Company. The production of his art glass was shut down shortly after his death. See also glassmaking

Jane Spillman

Durrie, George Henry

(b. June , ;

d. Oct. , ). Painter. George Henry Durrie

was the second of six children born to John and Clarrissa Clark Durrie. His father was the proprietor of Durrie and Peck, a stationery, book, and printing shop in New Haven, Connecticut. The son was raised in New Haven,

George Henry Durrie, Tunis V. Conover, c. . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Monmouth County Historical Association, Freehold. Gift of Mrs. J. Amory Haskell.

Dutch where his education was probably limited, as the public schools in that town were still being developed and the family most likely could not afford private education. Durrie’s father supported his son’s choice to work as an artist by allowing George and his brother, John Jr., to display their works in his shop window. Though primarily a self-taught artist, George Durrie did take some studio lessons for about two years under the tutelage of Nathaniel Jocelyn, an honorary member of the National Academy of Design and a well-known portrait painter in New Haven. Durrie continued studying art on his own at the Wadsworth Athenaeum in Hartford, Connecticut, after its opening in . Here, Durrie would have copied works by famous American artists including Charles Wilson Peale, John Trumbull, Thomas Cole, and John Vanderlyn, as well as Old Master works. Durrie began his professional artistic career as a portrait painter in , working in Bethany and Hartford, Connecticut. In the early s, he traveled frequently to Freehold, New Jersey, where he continued to work painting portraits, including one of Judge James S. Lawrence. These early portraits have been described as “unusually straightforward recordings of the staunch, God-fearing citizens of that town.’’ The style can be characterized by hard, clear lines, presenting a simple, yet skilled portrait of his sitter. This style resembles that of the early American itinerant painters and the portrait painters based in Hartford during the early s, whose work Durrie would have known. On September , , Durrie married Sarah Perkins. After their marriage, the couple moved to Monmouth County, where they stayed until  when they returned to New Haven. During this time, Durrie painted the portraits of the Tunis V. Conover family. It was also during this period that the couple’s first son, George Boice, was born, on October , . The Durries had two more children, Benjamin Woodhouse and Mary Clarissa. Durrie is best known for his landscape paintings, particularly winter scenes, which he began to paint as early as . These scenes include small, isolated New England farms, covered with snow and a sleigh often approaching the main building. The backgrounds of these scenes often included the distinctive surroundings of New Haven. They are expressive of everyday experience in America, depicting colorful figures, which enliven the scenes and express a narrative. These winter landscapes occupied Durrie for the later part of his career until his death in . His winter landscape scenes were popularized after Currier & Ives purchased ten of the canvases to be reproduced and distributed as part of the firm’s series recording American life. Durrie’s scenes were in accordance with the nostalgic views of simple rustic pleasures promoted by Currier & Ives.

George Henry Durrie, –: Connecticut Painter of American Life. Hartford, CT: Wadworth Athenaeum, . Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Hutson, Martha Young. George Henry Durrie, – : American Winter Landscapist, Renowned through Currier and Ives. Santa Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Museum of Art, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Dutch. The Dutch presence in New Jersey dates to the period –, when the Dutch West India Company, headquartered in Amsterdam, controlled New Netherland, a territory extending from the Connecticut River to the Delaware River. Originally established to exploit the fur trade, New Netherland eventually attracted settlers not only from the Netherlands but also from across all of Europe. They sought land for farming and also brought the skills, trades, and professions needed to found permanent communities. Over time, many of the non-Dutch immigrants adopted Dutch customs, language, religion, and values, “married Dutch,’’ and in effect became Dutch in name if not in ethnic origin. The hybrid Dutch American culture, both material and nonmaterial, that eventually evolved was evident in New Jersey into the early twentieth century. Traces of it exist today in the English language, in place names, in domestic architecture, and in the heritage of the Reformed Dutch Church, now called the Reformed Church in America.

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Even before New Netherland was conquered by the English in , a few Dutch settlers on Manhattan and Long Island had begun to emigrate to the western shore of the Hudson River, where they could trade with the Indians, obtain land for growing families, and eventually hope to establish communities centered around the Reformed Dutch Church. The first fledgling communities were Pavonia and Bergen (on the site of today’s Jersey City), Vriessendael (at today’s Edgewater), and Achter Col (at today’s Bogota). Indian wars in the s and again in  wreaked havoc on these and other nascent communities in today’s Hudson and Bergen counties. But once the threat of Indian attack had largely (though not completely) subsided, the stream of settlers grew, with hubs of Dutch settlement developing in Bergen, Middlesex, Monmouth, and Somerset counties. Attracted to these fertile river valleys, the first generation of settlers, all farmers with families, invariably organized themselves into Reformed congregations, the first in  in Bergen. That town received its charter from Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New Netherland, in , establishing a court with schout (sheriff) and three schepens (magistrates). Imbued with a strong sense of duty, these Jersey Dutch, as they came to be called, served their churches as deacons and elders and their local communities as jurors, justices of the peace, constables, sheriffs, highway masters, and freeholders. The most able of them were sent to the New Jersey Assembly and called to

The Johannes Luyster House in Middletown, showing additions and changes made to the original Dutch-style structure built in .

Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Historic American Buildings Survey.

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Dutch Reformed Church

the councils of the colonial governors. Closely protective of their traditional privileges and liberties as Dutchmen, these settlers, both in the land riots of the s and s and later in the events leading up to the Revolutionary War, insisted vigorously on the observance of their customary rights, particularly representative government. Tensions among the Dutch, centering first around theological questions, began to arise in the s, when Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen, a Reformed minister preaching controversial doctrines, arrived in the Raritan Valley. In the following decades differences deepened over questions concerning the relationship of the colonial church to the mother church in the Netherlands. The more liberal ministers and laity, forming the Coetus, wanted a governing structure on American soil, independent of Amsterdam, capable of training and ordaining clergy; the more conservative faction, the Conferentie, insisted on maintaining a subordinate relationship to Amsterdam, with ministers trained and ordained in the Netherlands. During the Revolution, these two factions sided, respectively, with the Patriots and the Loyalists on the question of the colonies’ proper relationship to England’s king. Bastions of Dutch settlement were torn asunder, not only figuratively by intra- and interfamilial discord on these issues of church and state, but also literally by the destruction of personal property by the American and the British forces. After the war, Queens College (now Rutgers University), chartered in  after intensive lobbying by the Coetus but slow to prosper, got a new lease on life in New Brunswick. The college and its then sister institution, the New Brunswick Theological Seminary (), the training ground for Reformed Dutch clergy, together made that little city the intellectual and social center of Dutch New Jersey throughout the nineteenth century. As the chief institution of their culture that Dutch settlers brought with them to New Netherland, the Reformed Dutch Church played a pivotal role in shaping the course of this ethnic group in New Jersey (and in New York). It also contributed to the persistence of “Dutchness’’ in the region for centuries after immigration essentially ended. Determined to uphold the purity of the Church’s doctrine, structure, and traditions as inherited from the Synod of Dort in , conservative elements in both leadership and laity resisted, in some rural areas until the midnineteenth century, all changes proposed by progressives, particularly the substitution of English for Dutch preaching. Even the elimination of the word Dutch from the name of the denomination was opposed until , though the name caused many outside of the denomination to conclude that the Reformed Dutch Church was a “foreign’’ church and thus to avoid it. Denominational progressives eventually prevailed, especially in their efforts in

the nineteenth century to rally around the causes of mission (both foreign and domestic) and of women’s education, and to support the moral reform, benevolence, temperance, and Sunday school movements that characterized the evangelical era. Some of the foremost leaders in these social movements were clergy and laity of the Reformed Church who had been educated at or taught at Rutgers College and the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, among them David Abeel, Joseph F. Berg, George W. Bethune, William C. Brownlee, Talbot W. Chambers, Thomas De Witt, Isaac Ferris, Theodore Frelinghuysen, John Henry Livingston, Thomas De Witt Talmage, and John A. Todd. The legacy of the Dutch to New Jersey today, and indeed to the nation, goes beyond the “Dutch colonial’’ houses that still dot the landscape ( in Bergen County alone in ), beyond linguistic survivals, beyond artifacts in museums and historic houses, and beyond the heritage of the Reformed Church. The Dutch left to posterity a legacy of ideas traditionally associated with the Netherlands: tolerance, freedom of conscience, an entrepreneurial spirit, economic justice, civic concord, and an insistence on the traditional rights and privileges enjoyed for centuries in their homeland. These ideas and elements of Dutch law, the Dutch educational system, and the Dutch attitude toward women survived long after the English takeover of New Netherland. Scholars have found resounding echoes of such Dutch principles in the language and ideology of the founding documents of the United States, as well as in the concepts of a free press, the secret ballot, and public schooling. Cohen, David Steven. The Dutch-American Farm. New York: New York University Press, . De Jong, Gerald F. The Dutch in America, –. Boston: Twayne, . Fabend, Firth Haring. Zion on the Hudson: Dutch New York and New Jersey in the Age of Revivals. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also ethnicity

Firth Haring Fabend

Dutch Reformed Church.

Colonial Dutch settlers established Dutch Reformed churches in New Jersey as early as . The denomination was organized in , and it was incorporated as the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in . That name was changed to the Reformed Church in America in . Calvinist in theology with a Presbyterian polity, the church followed the settlement patterns of the early Dutch and expanded into New Jersey as the settlers moved along the Hackensack, Passaic, and Raritan rivers. The organization of the Old Bergen Church in , located in present-day Jersey City, marked the origins of the church in the state. Since the start of that congregation, the Reformed Church has organized more than  congregations in New Jersey, of which more than  still remain. The second oldest church still

in existence is the Church on the Green in Hackensack, organized in . Occasionally served by ministers from New York, that congregation was ministered to by a layman, Guilliam Bertholf, a cooper by trade. He returned to the Netherlands to be ordained in  and was the first installed and settled pastor in the state. The Revolutionary War took a heavy toll on the Reformed churches in New Jersey. The majority of the congregations were located in North Jersey and were bitterly divided between Tories and patriots. The British military used the churches as stables, prisons, hospitals, and barracks. Many Tory members of the church fled north through central New York, eventually settling along the northern shore of the St. Lawrence River. Insisting on a well-educated clergy, individuals had to return to the Netherlands for education and ordination. With the trip so costly and hazardous, a school in the colony became essential. The Dutch church established Queen’s College (now Rutgers University) in  as a means of providing education for clergy needed in the growing church and in  organized the present New Brunswick Theological Seminary, the first graduate theological school in the United States. Church life in the nineteenth century was typical of the period, with a morning and evening worship service on Sunday and a midweek prayer meeting, with some churches holding prayer meetings on several nights in various homes and neighborhoods. Women were organized in most congregations by the mid–nineteenth century into Ladies’ Aid Societies, Missionary Societies, and other women’s groups. Sabbath schools (Sunday schools) were nearly universal. Education was an essential part of ministry for the Reformed Church. Adam Roelantsen founded the Collegiate School of the City of New York in , and many congregations organized schools associated with the church. Robert Raikes began Sunday schools in England in  as a means of eliminating illiteracy. The idea spread to the United States, and the first Sunday school was established in the First Reformed Church of New Brunswick in  under the leadership of Sarah Van Doren. In , the Reformed Church in America included  congregations and , total members in the United States and Canada. New Jersey represented  congregations and , of that total. Fabend, Firth Haring. Zion on the Hudson: Dutch New York and New Jersey in the Age of Revivals. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also religion

Russell Gasero

Dwight-Englewood School. A coeducational college preparatory school in Englewood, Bergen County, the Dwight-Englewood School was established in , when the Dwight School and the Englewood School for

Dyckman, Mary Lang Boys, founded in  and  respectively, merged to form one institution for students in the seventh through twelfth grades. DwightEnglewood joined with the Bede School in  to create an independent day school that included children from preschool through the sixth grade. The school’s curriculum emphasizes student interaction not only in academics but also in athletics, the performing arts, and community service. The school has a diverse student body of approximately one thousand, representing eighty communities. See also education

By  she was lobbying President Richard Nixon to include more women in the governmental process. A task force set up at her instigation issued a report in  entitled A Matter of Simple Justice. Newspapers published the report after the government repressed it on the basis that its recommendations for including women in the work of society were “too strong.’’ The time was not quite right for assertive activity on behalf of women, but Florence Dwyer used her sixteen years in Congress to help lay the foundation for future success. She knew how to appeal to voters, especially women, to get elected, and she knew how to work with male colleagues to achieve important legislative goals. Dwyer retired in .

Michele Gisbert

Dwyer, Florence Price

(b. July , ;

d. Feb. , ). Politician. Born in Reading,

Pennsylvania, Florence Price Dwyer moved with her parents to Elizabeth, and in  married Michael Joseph Dwyer, a university football coach who unfailingly supported and encouraged his wife’s political career. By the time of the birth of her son and only child in , Dwyer had become active in a wide variety of local organizations, including the Republican party. In  she was asked to serve as secretary to the majority leader of the New Jersey State Assembly. When the majority leader became Speaker of the House in , Dwyer made history by being the first woman to serve as secretary to the Speaker. She learned all the intricacies of legislative drafting and procedures, and by  she was ready to become a legislator herself. With the support of the people she had come to know through volunteer work, Dwyer was elected to the state assembly and immediately took up the cause of equal pay for women. In  the governor signed her equal pay bill into law, and Dwyer moved on to issues of child safety, uniform pay scales for teachers, environmental quality, and interstate cooperation. Selected to run against Harrison Williams for Congress in , she confronted the

227

Tomlinson, Barbara. “Making Her Way: The Career of Congresswoman Florence P. Dwyer.’’ New Jersey History  (): –. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise, Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Flo Dywer campaign poster, c. .

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark. publicly expressed attitude that being in Congress was a “man’s job.’’ By mobilizing the support of women and women’s organizations, Dwyer was able to engineer an upset victory. Dwyer was New Jersey’s second female member of Congress. She worked hard at constituent service and her committee assignments. She was especially devoted to issues of environmental quality and government efficiency. She defied her party leadership in the name of progressive social change when, in , she joined six other renegade Republicans to vote to change the size of the Rules Committee so important legislation could reach the floor. She was a leader in the fight for federal equal pay legislation, women’s right to serve on state and federal juries, and the Equal Rights Amendment.

Barbara Tomlinson

Dyckman, Mary Lang (b. Aug. , ; d. Apr. , ). Social worker and advocate. Born in Sleepy Eye, Minnesota, Mary Dyckman moved with her parents, Frank and Louise (Heroy) Dyckman, to Orange at the age of four. Following graduation from Miss Beard’s School for Girls in , she trained as a social worker. Until , Dyckman was employed as a social worker in the Newark area and served as a Republican committeewoman in Orange. She made her greatest contributions, however, through volunteer work for the Consumers League of New Jersey. Most importantly, Dyckman chaired an interorganization committee on working children, which led directly to the landmark Child Labor Act of . She also advocated better conditions of employment for adults. See also Consumers League of New Jersey

Fernanda Helen Perrone

E eagle.

Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Zinkin, Vivian. Place Names of Ocean County, New Jersey, –. Toms River: Ocean County Historical Society, .

Gail Greenberg

Eagleton, Florence Peshine

See bald eagle.

Eagleswood.

A progressive, interracial, coeducational boarding school located on the premises of the Raritan Bay Union, Eagleswood operated from  to . Headed by principal Theodore Weld, the school was an exciting place where abolitionists, artists, and freethinkers associated. Visiting lecturers included some of the foremost intellectuals of the period, while the teaching staff included ´ and an assortment of notables: Sarah Grimke ´ Weld, Elizabeth Peabody, Angelina Grimke Edward Livingston Youmans, James Steele MacKaye, and Catherine Inness Ireland. With this remarkable collection of role models, Eagleswood was hailed by contemporaries for the pioneering opportunities it afforded young women. The school kept the fractious community together, for it was always more successful than the utopian venture that was its home. The onset of the Civil War coupled with the serious illness of the Welds’young son caused the closing of the school in July . See also education; Raritan Bay Union

Marie Marmo Mullaney

(b. Apr.

, ; d. Nov. , ). Political activist and

philanthropist. Florence Eagleton grew up in her cousin’s family and attended a private girls’ school in Newark. Her first marriage, to a widower more than twice her age, was arranged by her parents and ended in an amicable divorce that her family strongly disapproved of. In  she married Wells Phillips Eagleton, a neurosurgeon, and they remained together until his death in . Eagleton was a leader in the long struggle for woman suffrage, serving as president of the Women’s Political Union (WPU) and first vice president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association. On January , , petitions containing more than a , names were presented to the state legislature in Trenton urging ratification of the federal suffrage amendment. Signatures had been collected in an intense canvass of Newark wards and districts by squads of women Eagleton organized. Soon after ratification, the WPU became the Newark League of Women Voters (LWV), which Eagleton organized and led as first president. Eagleton championed the cause of higher education for women as a member of the original board of managers of the New Jersey College for Women (now Douglass College). She was one of the first

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Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Rebecca L. Lubetkin

Eagleton, Wells Phillips

(b. Sept. ,

; d. Sept. , ). Neurosurgeon. Born in

Brooklyn, Wells Phillips Eagleton graduated from Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in . He completed his training at the Newark Eye and Ear Infirmary and served as its medical director from  until his death. In  he married the political activist Florence Peshine Eagleton. As a specialist in surgery of the head, Eagleton served at Fort Dix during World War I and as consultant in neurosurgery to many hospitals in northern New Jersey. His books, Brain Abscess: Its Surgical Pathology and Operative Treatment () and Cavernous Sinus Thrombophlebitis (), enhanced his international reputation. Eagleton was a strong supporter of health legislation and the control of the medical profession by physicians. He was president of the Medical Society of New Jersey (), the Academy of Medicine of New Jersey (), and the American Academy of Ophthalmology (). See also medicine and public health

Eagleswood Township.

.-squaremile township in the southeastern part of Ocean County. Eagleswood was incorporated in , and part of its area was later annexed by Little Egg Harbor, Beach Haven, and Long Beach. A portion of Eagleswood extends into Barnegat Bay and lies within the Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge. The Keith Line of , which divided East and West Jersey, is the boundary line between Eagleswood and Tuckerton. The area was first settled in the early eighteenth century by Jarvis Pharo, who built a mill on West Creek when shipbuilding was the major industry here. In later years oystering and clamming also became important occupations. Originally named Pharo’s Mill, the present village of West Creek, on Route , is a favorite locale for sportsmen. Stafford Forge, on the north branch of West Creek, provided pig iron for Martha Furnace and was later sold to Jesse Richards, who turned the entire estate into cranberry bogs. The name Stafford Forge survives today as a section of Eagleswood Township. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

women to serve as a Rutgers University trustee, and contributed generously to the college scholarship fund and the student center drive. Combining her interest in women’s political participation and women’s education, Eagleton left a bequest of more than a million dollars to provide education in the techniques of practical politics for young women in New Jersey. The result was the Wells Phillips Eagleton and Florence Peshine Eagleton Foundation (today known as the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University), now housed on the Douglass College campus. Eagleton was active in many of Newark’s philanthropic, social, and educational movements. She was a trustee of the Newark YWCA, president of the Newark Visiting Nurse Association, director of the Consumers League of New Jersey, an organizer of the New Jersey Birth Control League, and a member of Newark’s Maternal Health Center. A supporter of many cultural institutions, she was a trustee of the Newark Museum, the Newark Music Foundation, the Art Club of Newark, a life member of the New Jersey Historical Society, and a member of the Browning Society of New York. In addition she served as vice president of the Travelers Aid Society and honorary vice president of the League of Nations NonPartisan Association.

Sandra Moss

Eagleton Institute of Politics. Florence Eagleton.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Established in  from a bequest of over $ million from the estate of Florence P. Eagleton, longtime trustee of Rutgers University, the Eagleton Institute is a nationally recognized

East Brunswick education, research, and public service unit in the field of American politics at Rutgers. The institute is the home for the Center for American Women and Politics and the Center for Public Interest Polling, two specialized research centers, as well as the Civic Engagement and Political Participation Program, which includes the New Jersey Civic Education Consortium; the Eagleton New Jersey Project; the Electronic Government Project; and the Star-Ledger/Eagleton-Rutgers Poll. See also Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

union ranks were already severely thinned by the Great Depression. A year later, Eames was unseated by Marciante, and federation membership returned to normal levels. Eames was a member of the New Jersey board of the National Recovery Administration from  to , when the NRA was ruled unconstitutional.

Thomas J. Frusciano

Edward A. Jardim

early childhood education.

Early childhood education refers to instruction given to children from birth through age eight. At this age level, children function, process, and respond differently than at any other stage of development. Infants and young children learn best when they are engaged in concrete experiences that allow them to use their senses and motor skills. The New Jersey Department of Human Services, Division of Youth and Family Services, which oversees, monitors, and licenses childcare facilities throughout the state, provides specific governing regulations in the Manual of Requirements for Child Care Centers (chapter ). These operational guidelines provide direction for all aspects of curriculum and instruction for programs that serve children under the age of six. The state of New Jersey has further demonstrated support for early learning by mandating that teachers be certified by the state and by creating the Division of Early Childhood Education, which is committed to the expansion and funding of highquality programs that help prepare children to meet the challenges of elementary school.

Morrison, George S. Early Childhood Education Today. th ed. Upper Saddle River: Merrill Prentice-Hall, .

See also education

Gloria Castucci

Eames, Thomas B. d. Sept. , ).

(b. Nov. , ;

Labor leader. Born in Williamstown to James and Ellen (Vanaman) Eames, Thomas B. Eames attended grade schools in Millville. He learned the craft of bottle blowing and in  began his long union career with the Glass Bottle Blowers Association of the United States and Canada. Elected in  to the association’s international executive board, Eames became the union’s international secretary, a post he held for the rest of his life. After several years as vice president of the New Jersey State Federation of Labor, he was elected president in . But his narrow margin of victory ( votes) over Louis P. Marciante, of the powerful International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, aroused resentment, which led to a sharp decline in the federation’s paid membership at a time when

Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

earthworms. Lumbricus terrestris, with pointed heads, flattened tails, and many segments, can be up to twelve inches long. They are nocturnal, solitary, and generally live in the ground, although they come to the surface to breed after warm rains. Two worms breed by placing themselves upside-down relative to one another, each placing sperm in the receptacle of the other. Once they split up, each worm secretes a cocoon over its head that contains the sperm of one and the eggs of the other. The eggs hatch in two to three weeks. Earthworms eat decaying organic matter such as leaves and grass, and in the winter, they burrow deep in the soil below the frost line. They serve an extremely important ecological function because they dig up the soil, thereby aerating it and moving it from below ground to above ground. Since they eat decaying material, they are good bioindicators of soil conditions. Edwards, C. A., and P. J. Bohlen. Biology and Ecology of Earthworms. New York: Chapman and Hall, .

Joanna Burger

Eastampton.

.-square-mile township in Burlington County. Located directly east of Mount Holly and bordered by Southampton, Lumberton, Pemberton Township, Springfield, and Westampton, Eastampton was established as a township in , when it separated from Westampton. The Rancocas Creek crosses the southeastern corner of the township and forms part of its southern boundary. The earliest settlers were Swedes and Quakers. Part of the township was originally known as Shreveville. The most prominent location in the township’s history was Smithville, a factory colony originally founded in the s by the industrialist Hezekiah B. Smith. The walled complex was located along the Rancocas Creek and included factory buildings and worker housing, as well as Smith’s mansion. Originally a cotton and textile plant, it was converted to a woodworking facility in the late s. Since many of his workers lived in Mount Holly, Smith constructed a one-mile wooden railway using bicycles that ran to the township in the s. The factory stayed in business until the Depression, and its site was turned

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into a county park in . Eastampton today is primarily a residential community with several large tract-housing developments but still retains a significant amount of farm acreage where field crops and sod are grown. The  population of ,, which represents a  percent increase over the previous decade, was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Eastampton Township, Burlington County, New Jersey: Master Plan. Eastampton: Eastampton Planning Board, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

East Amwell.

-square-mile township in Hunterdon County. Amwell Township, created in , was the first municipality in Hunterdon County. It was named in honor of John Reading’s home in England. Reading, the first major landholder, was responsible for the creation of the new town. Amwell was separated into three townships by a legislative act of , creating Amwell, Raritan, and Delaware townships. In , Amwell was further divided into East Amwell and West Amwell townships. East Amwell borders Somerset County on the east, Hopewell Township on the south, Highway  on the west, and the Old York Road on the north. Its earliest settlers were principally German. The East Amwell village of Ringoes, named after early settler John Ringo, is at the intersections of Highways , , and . At Ringoes Tavern in  the Hunterdon freeholders formed a Committee of Correspondence. In  they chose delegates for the Provincial Congress, and in  they changed the location of the county seat from Trenton to Flemington. In  the Lindberghs were at their East Amwell home, Highfields, in the Sourland Mountains, when their baby was kidnapped. Like surrounding townships, East Amwell is principally agricultural, although recent development has made inroads. Residents have an active farmland-preservation program. In , the population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . East Amwell Bicentennial Committee. A History of East Amwell, –. Flemington: Hunterdon County Historical Society, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Marfy Goodspeed

East Brunswick. .-square-mile township in Middlesex County. Located inland south of the Raritan River, East Brunswick runs parallel to the South River on the east and south and is bordered by Farrington Lake

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Eastern Orthodox Church

on the west. Original inhabitants were the Lenape. The area was settled in the seventeenth century by people of Scotch, English, Dutch, and German origin. The township was incorporated in , when East Brunswick separated from North Brunswick and Monroe. Principal commercial activities were agriculture and clay mining. The lumber trade provided employment to numerous settlers, as did the manufacturing of bricks. The Raritan and South rivers provided a source for transportation and commerce, especially in the lumber and shipping industries. The village of Old Bridge, in the southern part of the township, derives its name from the first bridge to span the South River. The Amboy–Bordentown stage line, established in , was the major means of transportation until the Camden and Amboy Railroad was completed in . With the completion of the New Jersey Turnpike in , the township’s population quintupled, and East Brunswick remains a suburban residential township. Route  is a major artery through the township, and numerous small shopping malls have flourished along the corridor. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Karasik, Gary, and Anna M. Aschkenes. Middlesex County: Crossroads of History. Sun Valley, CA: American Historical Press, . Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission. Historic Stroll Through East Brunswick. North Brunswick: Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Stephen M. Dalina

Eastern Orthodox Church.

The Eastern Orthodox faith has been a presence in New Jersey for more than one hundred years. Most worshipers are immigrants or the descendants of immigrants from Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the Middle East, but there are converts as well. The diverse heritage of these ethnic groups is reflected in the several branches of the Orthodox faith in New Jersey. They share the same liturgy and doctrinal tenets but may utilize different liturgical languages (although most now use English as their primary language). The main Orthodox jurisdictions in New Jersey include the American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese, the Greek Orthodox Diocese, the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, and the Orthodox Church of America. The Orthodox Church of America is the only self-governing body; the rest are ultimately under the leadership of hierarchs abroad. It is possible to identify at least five historical periods that have influenced the growth of the Orthodox Church in New Jersey. The first is marked by the immigration prior to World War I of Slavic groups, including Belorussians, Russians, and Carpatho-Russians (an ethnic

group, largely composed of Roman Catholics of the Greek rite, who scattered throughout Eastern Europe). The administration of the Orthodox Christians among these groups remained the responsibility of hierarchs from the Russian Orthodox Church until the chaos of World War I and the Russian Revolution broke this connection. The second period of change came with the flood of immigration surrounding World War I. The Greek Orthodox were among the most recent of the “new immigrants’’ to come to America. In  there were only  Greek parishes across the country; by , there were about . Two of the earliest Slavic Orthodox churches in New Jersey were Saints Peter and Paul Church in South River () and Saints Peter and Paul Church in Jersey City (). In addition, the first Orthodox seminary in the United States moved in  from Minneapolis to Tenafly, where it remained until its closure in . In the third period of change, following World War II, a new wave of immigrants arrived. Many, particularly from the Slavic groups, joined established Orthodox communities in cities like Jersey City and Hoboken, but they also created new centers in Jackson, Mays Landing, and other areas of southern New Jersey. In the s, under the direction of Father John Nehrebecki, the diocese of the Orthodox Church of America in New Jersey began to turn its attention to “mission.’’ In this fourth period of change, parishes were located in suburban areas (rather than the early industrial centers), congregations were often pan-Orthodox or pan-ethnic, and English consequently became the primary liturgical language. Such parishes included Christ the Saviour in Paramus, Holy Apostles in Saddlebrook, Holy Resurrection in Wayne, and Holy Trinity in Randolph. In a parallel development, the Greek immigrants who in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had settled in large numbers in the cities of the New Jersey–New York region began to move into the suburbs. At the end of the twentieth century there were more than twenty Greek Orthodox parishes in New Jersey, including Saint Athanasios in Paramus, Saint Nicholas in Newark, and Saint Andrew in Dover. Saint Athanasios is well known for its annual Greek festival in May, which draws people from throughout Bergen County. Although there are fewer Antiochian Orthodox churches in New Jersey, the local hierarch, Metropolitan Philip, and the archdiocesan headquarters are based in Englewood. Antiochian Orthodox churches are located in Bergenfield, Little Falls, and South Plainfield. Carpatho-Russian parishes can be found in Freehold, Bayonne, Manville, Rockaway, Rahway, Perth Amboy, and Elizabeth. Most recently, the Eastern Orthodox churches have been influenced by a new wave

of immigration from Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the Middle East. This influx has required even some suburban parishes to examine how to meet the linguistic and social needs of the newest immigrants. Bulko, Mary Ann, and Father John Shimchick, comps. and eds. Who, What, and Where We Are: A History of the Diocese of New York and New Jersey. Bronxville, NY: Diocese of New York and New Jersey, . Erickson, John H. Orthodox Christians in America. New York: Oxford University Press, . Stokoe, Mark, in collaboration with Leonid Kishkovsky. Orthodox Christians in North America, –. Syosset, NY: Orthodox Christian Publications Center, .

See also religion

ancient

Oriental

churches;

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

East

Greenwich. .-square-mile township in Gloucester County. East Greenwich was incorporated on February , , and originally was part of Greenwich. The first European settlers were Swedes, who arrived in the seventeenth century, followed by the British. The township is made up of three towns: Clarksboro, Mickleton, and Mount Royal. Clarksboro was named for Jeffrey Clark, an early British settler. Mickleton, once known as Upper Greenwich, was named for Samuel Mickle, a resident who gave land to the Society of Friends. Mount Royal, once known as Sandtown because of the quality of the soil, is thought to have been named for the local bluffs. Mount Royal was also called Berkeley, named for a one-time landowner in the area. Legend has it that two homes owned by Quakers on Kings Highway were stops on the Underground Railroad and offered haven to slaves in the nineteenth century. The township is primarily a residential and agricultural community today. Over half the township’s acreage is devoted to farming. Crops grown include soybeans and corn. Sheep are raised and Christmas trees are grown for the holiday season. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Simpson, Hazel B., ed. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Tom Wilk

East Hanover. .-square-mile township in eastern Morris County, on the Passaic River. Formerly a part of Hanover Township, East Hanover was settled by the mid-eighteenth century and was established as a separate entity in . Historically, agriculture played a major role in the town’s economy, with dairy farming and stock raising as the most important agricultural endeavors. The Whippany River powered gristmills and sawmills. In the

East Orange twentieth century Routes  and  passed through the township; this has led to heavy commercial, industrial, and residential development. A number of large corporations, including Nabisco, maintain facilities in the township. Open space remains, however, most notably the three-hundred-acre Troy Meadows Natural Area. Mount Pleasant Avenue contains a fine historic district. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . History of Morris County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Tamburro, Peter J., Jr. Gateway to Morris. East Hanover Township: P. J. Tamburro, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

East Jersey. Proprietary New Jersey was divided into East and West Jersey after , each province with its separate owners, government, and laws. Although the political division ended when both proprietary groups surrendered their governments to the Crown in , the East Jersey Board of Proprietors retained land rights until its corporation was dissolved in . Despite the reunion of East and West under a royal governor in , divisions remained important. Efforts to run an east-west boundary line failed, giving rise to disputes over land titles that continued into the nineteenth century. Both sections expected equal representation in the Provincial Council, and the government met alternately in two capitals, Perth Amboy and Burlington. The East Jersey Proprietors even built a mansion in Perth Amboy in an effort to entice the governor to remain there. The robbery of Stephen Skinner’s house, location of the East Jersey treasury, provoked a political dispute in the s. Factions from the two sections were important in politics in the s and in the first federal election of . In the nineteenth century, as the proprietors’ importance diminished and the state industrialized, the diagonal division of New Jersey into eastern and western regions was transformed into a north-south divide. North Jersey became highly urbanized as its enduring economic ties to New York City strengthened. McCormick, Richard P. Experiment in Independence: New Jersey in the Critical Period, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Pomfret, John E. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . ———. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also boundaries; West Jersey

Maxine N. Lurie

East Jersey Board of Proprietors. In  a group of twelve men from England, Ireland, and Scotland purchased from George Carteret’s widow the eastern half of the colony of New Jersey, which had been granted to him by King James II. Each of the new proprietors promptly split his portion, creating twentyfour shares. Some of the proprietors moved to the colony; others, like William Penn, briefly visited; but many remained in England. To handle their business (land) and to deal with the government, the resident proprietors organized a board in . After the government of East Jersey was surrendered to the Crown in , the proprietors retained title to the land. Ownership of a quarter of a share (or /th of the proprietorship) was required to participate in board meetings, which continued, with two interruptions, from  to . The East Jersey Proprietors played an important role through the colonial period. Their efforts to control the lands they claimed led them into disputes with settlers, with the West Jersey Proprietors, and with New York authorities. A number of board members served on the Provincial Council, with the Scots among them being particularly prominent. Board members took different sides in the Revolution, but the organization survived. Over time it issued twelve dividends of good land, seven of pine lands, and four cash returns. Although there were efforts to sell out to the state in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it was only in , after an expensive lawsuit, that the group disbanded. It sold its remaining land claims to the state for $,, its building in Perth Amboy to that city for $, and turned over its records to the State Archives. Cunningham, John. The East of Jersey: A History of the General Board of Proprietors of the Eastern Division of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Lurie, Maxine, and Joanne Walroth, eds. Minutes of the Board of Proprietors of the Eastern Division of New Jersey.  vols. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Pomfret, John E. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Maxine N. Lurie

East Newark. .-square-mile borough in Hudson County. Originally a part of the First Ward of the town of Kearny, East Newark was established in  by a group of citizens who believed the township was neglecting their interests. The primary engineer of the breakaway from Kearny was Edward Kenny and, as a result, he was named the first mayor of the borough. The borough ranks among the smallest in the state and is a dwarf among its neighbors in the most densely populated county in the state. Wedged between Harrison and Kearny, the borough spans just two thousand feet along the Passaic River and is approximately sixteen hundred feet deep. By the late nineteenth century, the borough was known

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primarily through its association with the Clark Thread Company, located along the Passaic River in Newark, East Newark, Kearny, and Harrison. The company, the largest cottonthread mill in the United States, was the largest employer in the area, hiring thousands of local residents. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Winfield, Charles Hardenburg. History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, n.d.

Daniel R. Campbell

East Orange.

.-square-mile city in Essex County. Puritan colonists first arrived in the region in May , but the first known settlement in East Orange was not made until  by Daniel Dod. East Orange was part of Newark until November , , when the township of Orange was incorporated. On March , , East Orange separated from Orange. After rapid growth the town incorporated as a city on December , . Although it started as a farming community, the presence of the Second River and several streams led to the creation of mills and a hat-making industry in East Orange. Its proximity to Newark and New York and several train lines made East Orange a desirable place to live. By the mid-twentieth century it was known for its wealth, luxury apartments, cleanliness, school system, parks, and government. East Orange began a slow economic decline as other suburban communities became more attractive places to relocate businesses and residences, and market values began to drop. When the Garden State Parkway was constructed through East Orange in , it cut the city in half, destroyed tax-ratable properties, and further lowered property values. Similarly, the building of Route  from  to  divided the city into quarters and destroyed even more ratables. As more and more affluent white residents left East Orange, they were replaced by middle- and lower-middleclass black residents. Finally, the civil unrest in Newark in  led to a mass exodus of white residents to the surrounding towns and suburbs. Today East Orange is an urban community. Its population according to the  census was ,:  percent black and  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hart, Bill. East Orange in Vintage Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Postcards.

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East Rutherford

Pierson, David Lawrence. History of the Oranges to . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Stuart, Mark, and Jessie W. Boutillier. A Centennial History of East Orange. East Orange: East Orange Centennial Committee, . Whittemore, Henry. The Founders and Builders of the Oranges. Newark: L. J. Hardham, .

William Hart

East Rutherford.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. A part of Lodi Township from , East Rutherford was included in Harrison Township when Hudson County was first created in . Later it was returned to Bergen County as part of the new Union Township in . It became an area of Boiling Spring Township in  and incorporated as the borough of East Rutherford in . East Rutherford developed as an early industrial community along Paterson Plank Road. The community began with a textile dye mill in . By  East Rutherford had more than fifty firms representing a variety of industries. In  the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority built the Meadowlands Sports Complex east of Route . The Meadowlands Complex contains a racetrack, the Continental Airlines indoor arena, and Giants Stadium. Despite many recent proposals to revamp the Sports Complex or for teams to leave for other locales, in  the Meadowlands remained the home of the basketball New Jersey Nets, the hockey New Jersey Devils, and the football New York Giants and New York Jets. In , the population of , was  percent white, mostly of Italian, Polish, Irish, and German stock;  percent Asian; and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Program of the Works Progress Administration in the State of New Jersey. Bergen County Panorama. Hackensack: Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

East

Windsor. The most easterly township of Mercer County, encompassing . square miles. East Windsor was settled during the first half of the eighteenth century, becoming the easternmost part of Windsor Township in . In  Windsor was split in half, forming the townships of East Windsor and West Windsor. Both Windsors remained within Middlesex County until Mercer County was created in . East Windsor was reduced in size by the incorporation of Hightstown Borough in  and the creation of Washington Township in . East Windsor remained chiefly a farming community throughout the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century.

Both farming and small-scale manufacturing benefited from the building of the Camden and Amboy Railroad in , which crossed the township from southwest to northeast, fostering a period of widespread prosperity for farmers. Fruit crops such as peaches and nursery stock boosted the local farm economy during the nineteenth century. Clay mining, brick manufacturing, and farm-implement production all succeeded for a time. The completion of U.S. Route  in  as a WPA Depression-era project and of the New Jersey Turnpike in  eventually brought several major corporate facilities to the township. The largest of these were the RCA Space Center, first opened in , and the McGraw-Hill Company, book and magazine publishers. Twin Rivers, New Jersey’s first planned-unit development, was begun in . The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Orr, John W., Jr. Reflections from the Shrine: An Anecdotal History of Hightstown and East Windsor. Hightstown: Longstreet House, .

Robert W. Craig

Eatontown.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Eatontown became the economic hub of Monmouth County’s east end in , when Thomas Eaton built his gristmill beside Wampum Brook. Docks for goods and tourists were built in the then-township’s village of Oceanport. The other village, West Long Branch, consisted of prosperous farms and vacation estates for New York notables. Eatontown incorporated as a borough in . By  Eatontown’s business center included a tannery, a general store, and a tavern that catered to New York–Philadelphia stagecoach travelers. In  rail junctions enabled the town to be a distribution center for finished goods as well as the switching station to Atlantic City and the original Monmouth Park Racetrack. During the twentieth century businesses moved into the confluence of State Highways  and , Routes  and , and Garden State Parkway Exit , whose opening established the borough’s position as a Jersey Shore gateway. African Americans built the region’s earliest African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in  and established the state’s oldest independent black graveyard. New Jersey’s first Masonic temple, Washington Lodge No. , was organized in . Among Eatontown’s more prominent residents were equine enthusiast and magazine titan Peter F. Collier and Ada B. Nephew, who became the state’s only postmistress when President William McKinley appointed her in . Golf architect A. W.

Tillinghast designed the Suneagles Country Club course that Fort Monmouth later acquired. In , Eatontown’s population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . The Story of Eatontown. Eatontown: Eatontown Tricentennial Committee, .

Helen-Chantal Pike

ecology. New Jersey has a wide range of different ecosystems, or natural environments, within its borders—largely because physical environment ranges from the coast to the mountains. Although the state has only , square miles and is only  miles long, it has many different types of natural communities. Each ecosystem is distinctive because the conditions at any one place in the state are not exactly the same as in any other; there are variations in climate, topography, geological history, soils and rocks, and in the plants and animals that are present. Ecosystems also vary in time. The natural system found in a place today may not be the same tomorrow, particularly if there are major climate or human disturbances. Succession is the gradual change in community structure from one time to another. When an agricultural field is abandoned, grasses and other plants move in, followed by roses and other shrubs. Eventually, small cedars and other trees grow, and in time, there may be a forest. Succession occurs whether the change was wrought by a fire, tornado, hurricane, or buzz saw. Although every place in New Jersey has a slightly different ecosystem than every other due to differences in the physical environment, there are five major physiographic regions that have fairly distinct ecosystems. These include the Ridge and Valley, Highlands, Piedmont, Inner Coastal Plain, and Outer Coastal Plain. The Outer Coastal Plain is the largest, including all the land south from a line that extends from Sandy Hook to Salem. The major habitats in New Jersey are hardwood forests, freshwater wetlands, Pine Barrens, and coastal salt marshes and dunes. These are our natural areas, and although New Jersey is the most densely populated state in the nation, the state abounds in undisturbed parklands, forests, and coastal habitats. Even within our suburbs and cities there are remarkable forests and parks, many with substantial areas where the vegetation is not manicured and grows naturally. There are many kinds of forests in New Jersey. On the dry ridge tops, steep slopes, and rocky outcroppings in northern New Jersey, the forests are composed of chestnut oak, pitch pine, and scrub oak. The soils are thin, and rain quickly drains without permeating the soil. Chestnut oaks are more common on the ridge tops and slopes, while pitch pine and scrub oak occur only on the very highest

ecology peaks in the Kittatinny Mountains, Bearfort Mountain, and a few other high points. Although these trees are the most common, other oaks, black birch, hickories, sassafras, and other trees grow in New Jersey as well. The pitch pine–scrub oak forest grows on the highest ridges in northern New Jersey, where the soil is thin and rich in silica. Because of the slopes, the trees are exposed to strong winds, sleet, and ice storms. The soils are similar to those in the Pine Barrens, but the climatic conditions are often more severe, and in the most rugged conditions, only pitch pine grows, its form molded and twisted by winds. In secluded spots, there are red maple, black and gray birch, and juneberry. Some of the trees in High Point State Park are only twenty feet tall although they are seventy years old. Many of the highest points have only mosses and lichens, early successional vegetation that breaks down rocks into soil. The rocks were scoured by the last glaciers. Without vegetation to ameliorate the temperature, the rocks experience extremes, making the habitat inhospitable to plants. The rocks are covered with gray, black, or yellowish stains, a crustose lichen that is the first living organism to colonize bare rocks. Later, other lichens moved in, followed by mosses. Although the lichens penetrated the rocks, the mosses contribute the most to breaking down the rocks and adding nutrients to form soil. Once the lichens and mosses have created enough soil to provide anchorage for roots and water-holding capacity, small herbs move in, followed by grasses and low-growing shrubs. Eventually, small tree seedlings, such as pitch pine, move in, and a forest develops. On fertile uplands in the Highlands and Piedmont, there are three forest types: mixed oak, hemlock–mixed oaks, and sugar maple– mixed hardwood. The moist valleys and ravines have hemlock forests with mixed oaks. In the more fertile lowlands are sugar maples mixed with oaks and other hardwoods. Before  the mixed oak forests of New Jersey were called oak-chestnut forests. The American chestnut tree was as common as the oaks, but it died out because of a fungus that killed the immature trees. The mixed oak forests of today are largely composed of red, black, and white oaks. There is usually an understory of smaller trees that reach a height of thirty or forty feet; flowering dogwood is the most common and easily recognized. Below these trees are shrubs, such as viburnum, spicebush, witch hazel, blueberries, poison ivy, Virginia creeper, and honeysuckles. The ground is covered with a rich herbaceous layer, which is usually the most vibrant and full of flowers in the spring, before leaves obscure the sunlight. The herb layer includes mayapple, violets, Solomon’s seal, jack-in-the-pulpit, and many others. In late summer, goldenrod, woodland asters, and ferns are conspicuous. The forests of northern and central New Jersey are remarkable because of the

abundance of different habitats provided by the variety of trees and shrubs. The diversity of habitats provides abundant niches for different birds, reptiles, and mammals, as well as insects and other organisms. Niche refers to the sum total of the environment and other species that surround an organism, as well as its behavior and interactions with other species. Generally, the more diverse the layers in a habitat, the more niches there are. Many species of neotropical birds (species that breed here and migrate to the tropics) breed in the hardwood forests, often preferring interior regions, far removed from people and other predators. Mixed oak forests prevail on most of the uplands of New Jersey, but hemlock–mixed hardwood forests occur on moister and cooler sites in ravines or on north-facing slopes. Nearly half of the trees are hemlocks, which retain their small, delicate needles throughout the winter. Other trees include black birch, yellow birch, sugar maple, and basswood, as well as some oaks and beeches. Unfortunately, the hemlock woolly adelgid insect sucks juices from the needles, killing them. Large tracts in northern New Jersey have fallen to these insects, making our remaining hemlock forests very valuable. The last forest type, sugar maple–mixed hardwood, is typical of the fertile limestone valleys in northern New Jersey, but they were largely cleared for farming in past centuries. Common trees are oaks, white ash, tulip tree, black birch, red maple, basswood, American beech, and hickories, with a few American elm, white pine, and black walnut. These forests have several layers, a lush understory of herbs and shrubs, and a rich array of nesting birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects. The Pine Barrens is perhaps the best known ecosystem in the state, largely because of the wonderful writings of John McPhee. Located on the Outer Coastal Plain, the Pine Barrens has a distinctive flora and fauna adapted to sandy, infertile soils, and covers about  percent of New Jersey. It is a wilderness surrounded by suburbia and urban sprawl. Its importance and uniqueness were recognized internationally when the United Nations designated it an International Biosphere Reserve. The U.S. federal government designated a million acres as the New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve, and much of the Pinelands is protected by state legislation. The Pine Barrens is a mosaic of sandy uplands bisected by acid bogs and slow-moving streams that contain unique plant and animal communities. Many species of amphibians, reptiles, plants, and other organisms survive in the New Jersey Pine Barrens, with their closest relatives in North and South Carolina. The vegetation in the Pine Barrens has evolved, along with similar vegetation on eastern Long Island and Cape Cod, over thousands of years to have a tolerance for sandy soils with low water-retention and few nutrients. When the

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last glaciers retreated, the coastal plain was much wider than it is now, providing a corridor for plants and animals to migrate along the coast. Some species moved north into the Barrens from Appalachia, while others moved south into the Barrens. With sea level rise, the Pine Barrens was isolated from land to the north and south, leaving a unique assemblage of plants and animals. The Pine Barrens forest is very different from the forests described above. The trees are short, scraggly, and sparse. The forest is open, with sunlight penetrating to the ground in places. While other forests have many layers, including a rich understory of shrubs and trees, the pine forests of the Barrens have sparse ground cover, with few short shrubs. There are far fewer niches for animals to occupy. The dominant trees of the Pine Barrens are pitch pine and scrub oak. Pine-dominated forest covers about  percent of the Pine Barrens, while other areas are dominated by oak or include white cedar swamps and bogs. Pitch pine never gets taller than about fifty to sixty feet and in many places is shorter. The Pine Barrens vegetation is dominated by fire, caused by lightning, American Indians in the past, and Europeans more recently, and it is spread by high winds. Streams, wetlands, bogs, and highways serve as fire breaks. The dominant plant species of the Pine Barrens are adapted to frequent fires and quickly recover from all but the hottest infernos. In the past, fires burned until they reached a natural barrier or were dampened by rains, but more recently human intervention has curtailed them. This has the disastrous effect of allowing fuel to accumulate on the ground, ensuring that when a fire finally does take hold it will be hotter and more devastating than fires that are not hot enough to kill the pitch pines and scrub oaks. Pitch pines and blackjack oak are able to recover from fires at intervals of less than ten years. Following a fire, pitch pines sprout from the blackened trunks, and oaks sprout from underground buds. Within weeks, bits of green festoon the blackened trunks. Fires open the cones of the pitch pines (called serotinous cones), and seedlings sprout. The understory of the Pine Barrens is dominated by shrubs in the heath family, including huckleberry, lowbush blueberry, and mountain laurel, as well as ferns, mosses, and lichens. The abundant understory provides a number of niches for ground-dwelling organisms, and the Pine Barrens has a rich diversity of reptiles, including endangered species such as the Pine Barrens treefrog. Deer and other mammals abound, although species diversity is lower than in other forests of the state. One of the most interesting bits of nature is the Pine Plains, or dwarf pines, centered around Woodland and Bass River Townships in Burlington County. The pines here are so short that it is possible to stand on a high

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economy

point and look over the trees for several miles. Unlike most of the Barrens, the pines in the Plains are dense, making it difficult to walk through them easily. The trees are usually less than ten feet tall, although they can be one hundred years old. The pines growing here are a genetically dwarfed variety, and their stunted nature is not due to poor nutrients, soil type, or moisture conditions. There are many freshwater wetlands throughout the state, which vary in size and degree of moisture. Some are wet for only a few days each year, while others are wet nearly all year. Some are the remains of glacial lakes, which are gradually filling in. The distinction between these wetlands is often quite blurred, although the degree of wetness and the pH of the water distinguish bogs from marshes. While some have large areas of open water, others are clogged with both submerged and emergent vegetation such as cattails and phragmites, which provide shelter and nesting places for many birds. Freshwater wetlands are some of the most highly productive habitats in the state, often serving as nurseries for fish and other organisms, breeding habitat for salamanders and frogs, and foraging and drinking habitat for many mammals, reptiles, and birds. While wetlands were once considered wasteland to be filled in by developers, we now recognize their critical role in the ecology of both resident and migrant animals. It is here that amphibian diversity is the highest; frogs, toads, and salamanders come to breed each spring in abundance. Wetlands serve a critical role for humans as a buffer against severe floods, droughts, and other natural climatic perturbations, as do coastal marshes and bays. The coastal ribbon that runs from Sandy Hook to Cape May, and up Delaware Bay, completes the major habitats in New Jersey. These vast tidal marshes, estuaries, and rivers have standing water for most of the year. Salt-marsh islands, sandy islands, sand dunes, and barrier islands fringe the mainland along the Atlantic Coast. The location of salt marshes, with Spartina grasses, is limited by saltwater intrusion, and they go only as far north as Newark Bay, a short distance up the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers, although historically they existed farther up the Hudson River. Although many salt-marsh grasses can grow in freshwater, they are unable to compete with freshwater grasses, and so remain only where the less-tolerant freshwater grasses cannot grow. Salt marshes form only where they are protected by barrier islands that dampen the force of the storm winds and tides. Estuaries are the most highly productive habitat in the state and serve as nurseries for the production of fish, crabs, and a wide range of other invertebrates. Delaware Bay beaches, and others along the Atlantic shore, are the center of breeding horseshoe crabs, which come ashore in the millions to spawn each May, serving as the focal point for the

largest concentration of migrant shorebirds in the continental United States. Many different species of birds breed in coastal marshes and sandy beaches, including colonial-nesting birds such as gulls, terns, herons, and egrets, as well as the federally endangered piping plover. In the late fall, massive flocks of ducks migrate through the estuaries and bays, many remaining for the winter. For its small size, New Jersey has a wide range of highly productive habitats, with a relatively high diversity of plants and animals. The habitat diversity reflects a varied geologic history, human history, and New Jersey’s unique coastal position in the Mid-Atlantic region. Although heavily populated, New Jersey has managed to protect and conserve a wide range of habitats, but the maintenance of our natural environments requires continued vigilance. Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Collins, Beryl Robichaud, and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Forman, Richard T. T. Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also land use map, color section; physiography; restoration ecology; vegetation

Joanna Burger

economy.

The New Jersey economy has changed from its colonial, agrarian past to its high-technology present. During the past two centuries, the economic history of the state has been characterized by continuous geographic movements by people and industries. This evolution has been spurred by technological change along with demographic and social shifts. New Jersey has moved from widely dispersed, small, early nineteenth-century settlements based on waterpower and agriculture to highly concentrated early twentiethcentury urban-industrial areas predicated on electric and steam power and railroads, and now to a vast, early twenty-first-century suburban economy tied to computer, communications, and information technology. During the first period, between  and , New Jersey was primarily rural. At the

beginning of the nineteenth century, New Jersey had an agrarian economy, with a marked absence of population centers. Dispersed, rural, agriculture-based activity surrounding small towns and villages defined the state’s economic pattern at this time. The villages and towns were nascent trade centers, and economic activity and employment were dependent to a large degree on agricultural and mining (iron) functions, waterpower for mills and early textile processing, as well as mercantile activities. (See Table .) These towns and villages grew up around the primary shipping modes—canals and water transportation and early road networks—as well as sources of waterpower. They were seaports located on the Hudson or Delaware rivers, or on rivers flowing into them or to the coast. The origins of cities such as Trenton, Camden, Perth Amboy, New Brunswick, Elizabeth, Newark, and Paterson can be traced to this period. Many of the transportation linkages that sparked economic growth in the first half of the nineteenth century were designed to give the state access to New York City and Philadelphia. It was during this time that the New York City–Philadelphia axis took shape, a corridor within which much of New Jersey’s future economic activity and population would develop. Many of the early settlements located along this axis were destined to evolve into the major cities of the Civil War era, and would eventually provide the framework for the network of railroads that emerged in midcentury. The initial foundations of industrial urban New Jersey were set during this period. Between  and , New Jersey began to experience the effects of the emerging industrial era and its physical expression was the rise of the industrial city. The successive developments of the canal and railroad systems and the emergence of the industrial use of steam power generated economic activity that drew people to urban areas—the focal points of the industrial economy. The cities’ populations— supported by rural-to-urban and international migrations—resided close to emerging manufacturing businesses and were dependent on pedestrian linkages. A tight, dense, interdependent urban complex evolved, with

Table 1. New Jersey Resident Employment by Industry, 1820 and 1870

Total employment

Percent distribution Total employment Agriculture Manufacturing and mining industries Trade and transportation* Professional and personal services

1820

1870

58,583

296,036

100.0% 69.7 27.2

100.0% 21.3 34.9

3.1 –

15.6 28.2

*Note: In 1820 employment in this sector was listed under “Commerce.’’ Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Department of Commerce, 9th Census 1870, Industry and Wealth, Table XVIII, pp. 812–823; U.S. Census Bureau, Department of Commerce, 12th Census 1900 Special Report: Occupations, Table II.

economy residences directly linked to workplaces and service facilities clustered near their residential markets. During this time, agricultural employment declined as a share of total employment while employment in manufacturing and trade and transportation grew significantly. (See Table .) From  to , a new land-use pattern emerged: the early industrial metropolis, which depended on the growth and connection of electric power systems and the internal combustion engine. The cities exceeded their boundaries and began to encompass adjacent political units. Although the city was still the dominant economic sector of New Jersey society, a host of contiguous territories became a functional part of the urban economic system. Residential clusters developed outside the city but were closely dependent on it for most economic and social functions. Thus, the rise of the metropolis was a consequence of the continued employment dominance of the urban manufacturing economy as well as the development of outlying suburban residential communities. The earliest suburbs, which emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, were of a highly disciplined nature. Constrained by transportation technology, they were intimately tied to streetcar systems and early commuter railroad lines. Hence, suburban residential development clustered around commuter rail stations: people needed their homes to be within a feasible walking distance of the rail line. Better described as suburban villages, they established the image of suburbia that persists to the present day. However, during the s, suburbanization also began to be linked to the private automobile and the early development of the state’s highway system. From  to  car ownership grew markedly in the Garden State, and opened more suburban territory for development. The automobile made it easy for people to commute longer distances to work in the cities, promoting economic and residential growth. The trend toward urban and suburban sprawl was initiated during this period, although the city remained the focus of day-to-day economic activities for most people living in both cities and suburbs. The forces of suburbanization, held in check by the Depression and World War II, reasserted themselves in the postwar period between  and . The workforce demanded, and was able to afford, new housing as a consequence of the high rate of household formation, strong economic growth, and the home-loan provisions of the GI Bill. This was the era of tract houses in suburban New Jersey. Approximately one thousand housing units per week were added to New Jersey’s shelter inventory—a pace sustained for more than a thousand straight weeks—and New Jersey gained approximately one million housing units over a twenty-year period. The

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Table 2. New Jersey Percent Distribution of Employment by Industry, 1940, 1970, and 2001

Total employment

1940

1970

2001

1,314,300

2,606,200

4,024,300

100.0% 90.0 51.3

100.0% 85.6 37.8

100.0% 85.0 15.2

0.3 3.8 47.2

0.1 4.6 33.0

0.0 4.0 11.2

38.7 8.3 16.2

47.9 7.0 20.6

69.8 6.7 23.1

4.6 9.7 10.0

4.5 15.7 14.4

6.7 33.3 14.9

Percent distribution Total employment Total private sector Goods producing Mining Construction Manufacturing Service producing Transportation/public utilities Wholesale and retail trade Finance/insurance/real estate Services Government

Note: Data for 1940 and 1970 are annual averages; data for 2001 are for November. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, State and Area Employment Data.

great majority were “Levittown-style’’ units that filled the suburban counties, such as Essex and Union, which also housed the state’s major cities. This vast physical transformation was facilitated by unprecedented levels of automobile ownership, the opening of the state’s toll roads, and the initial stages of construction of the Interstate highway system. Manufacturing employment still dominated the state’s economy (see Table ), but its share of total employment fell as a service economy began to emerge. Throughout this period, activities once the sole province of the central city became dispersed throughout the metropolis. Electronics, oil, petrochemicals, and aviation industries changed the profile of the state’s economic base. The increasing reliance on trucking and highways and single-story manufacturing structures rendered obsolete many dimensions of the dense physical structure of urban New Jersey. All the patterns that had taken root in the preceding period reached a crescendo in the final two decades of the twentieth century. New Jersey’s manufacturing employment peaked in , followed by a sustained hemorrhage of manufacturing jobs and a diminution in the relative economic importance of manufacturing. The old industrial base of the state’s cities disappeared after the Vietnam War. Since , a virtual tidal wave of economic and demographic decentralization has reached and engulfed the outer edges of the state’s metropolitan regions that were historically centered on New York City and Philadelphia. As a result, the critical mass of the state’s economy shifted to New Jersey’s “suburban rings,’’ particularly in the narrow, central, waistband part of the state consisting of Somerset, Middlesex, and Morris counties. According to local lore dating back more than two hundred years, New Jersey was a

“barrel tapped at both ends,’’ wedged between the cities of New York and Philadelphia. Presently, the barrel is rapidly filling up with growing concentrations of property wealth, income, jobs, and people. Over thirty years ago, the New York Times still described New Jersey as “a corridor state lost in Megalopolis.’’ New Jersey is no longer lost; rather its matrix of growth corridors defines one of the most potent economies in the United States. The key economic dynamic behind these changes has been the latest reinvention and retooling of the New Jersey economy. Nationally, the powerful postindustrial service economy emerged during the s, with two key prerequisites. First, it required a highly educated, highly skilled labor force normally found in metropolitan areas, and New Jersey was the most metropolitan state—it was the only state in America with every county a part of a metropolitan area. Second, it required the office space to shelter these workers. Again, New Jersey was ready as a result of the great construction wave of the s, when  percent of all the office space ever built in the history of the state was erected, with the majority located in suburban growth corridors. By , the eleven counties of central-northern New Jersey comprised the fifth-largest metropolitan office market in the country. This new office space inventory was available to house the burgeoning information-age economy of the s. The economy that emerged has several dimensions. All the economic functions once solely the province of the central cities— employment, residence, shopping, health care, cultural activities, and recreation— became widely dispersed through the state. The signature event of this period was the development of the suburban-growth highway corridors during the s (Interstates , , , and the Garden State Parkway).

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Eddie and the Cruisers

The economic geography of start-ofmillennium New Jersey has been reinvented by one-half century of large-scale residential suburbanization, by four decades of large-scale retail decentralization, and by two decades of large-scale office and serviceindustry decentralization. Multiple dimensions of suburbanization have occurred simultaneously in New Jersey. Within the state, there have been population flows from older urban centers, such as Camden and Newark, into the surrounding areas. Superimposed on this pattern have been the outward flows from New York City and Philadelphia into suburban New Jersey. Moreover, while there is a historic flow of immigrant groups into New Jersey’s urban areas, suburban New Jersey has also become a direct destination for large numbers of new immigrants. Thus, the overall process of suburbanization and economic change in New Jersey has been complex. The emergence of the first-generation postindustrial economy, with massive growth in service, finance, and other corporate employment, defined the last two decades of the twentieth century. In the s, the second-generation postindustrial era emerged—a much more efficient and productive, knowledge-dependent, information-age service economy. (See Table .) It was driven by the impact of information flowing through fiber-optic cables and driven by globalization, deregulation, sustained innovation, and the rise to dominance of information technology. Despite the national recession of – and the severe economic troubles of the telecommunications industry, these forces still propelled a prosperous New Jersey into the new millennium. Table  provides a profile of key economic indicators for New Jersey in the early twentyfirst century. New Jersey’s Gross State Product (the dollar value of all goods and services produced in New Jersey) was estimated at $. billion in . The state’s per capita income

of $, () was the third-highest in the nation and total employment was ,, in , an all-time record. These strong income and employment data indicate that New Jersey benefited significantly from the longest economic expansion in the nation’s history— a -month expansion that began in March  and ended in March . The subsequent – recession caused only minor downward shifts in several of these economic barometers. New Jersey has become a servicedominated economy, with employment in service-producing activities accounting for over  percent of the state’s total employment. Within the service-producing sector, wholesale and retail trade, finance and insurance, health care, business services, computers and software, telecommunications, and engineering and management are major sources of employment. Manufacturing employment, once the mainstay of the economy, now constitutes only . percent of total employment, although New Jersey manufacturing output is concentrated in the high-value-added activities of instruments, chemicals (especially pharmaceuticals), and printing and publishing. New Jersey’s high income and high population density (, people per square mile, the highest in the nation, as revealed in Census ) make the state a major consumer market, and retail sales totaled an estimated $ billion in . New housing permits exceeded , for , and the dominance of the motor vehicle in the New Jersey economy and lifestyle is evident in the estimated , new vehicle registrations issued in  (the third consecutive year of over , new vehicle registrations). Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. This Is New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Table 3. New Jersey Economic Indicators, 2001 Indicator Gross state product Total personal income Per capita personal income Total employment Services Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insurance, and real estate

Level $363.1 (billions) $323.7 (billions) $38,153 4,024,300 1,341,700 927,900 271,500

Transportation/communications/public utilities Construction Manufacturing

269,800 161,000 450,100

Government Mining

600,700 1,600

Retail sales Total new vehicle registrations Housing permits Source: New Jersey Department of Labor.

$106.0 (billions) 641,900 28,267

Hughes, James W., and Joseph J. Seneca. Regional Economic Long Waves: Employment Dynamics in the Tri-State Region. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, .

James W. Hughes and Joseph Seneca

Eddie and the Cruisers. Eddie and the Cruisers was the most popular New Jersey rock ’n’ roll band that never existed. Writer P. F. Kluge created Eddie and the Cruisers for a  novel that three years later, in altered form, became a major cult movie. The Cruisers were nominally an early s Jersey Shore bar band, but leader Eddie was a musical visionary who could not cope with the artistic limitations of the business, and one day he apparently drove himself off a bridge. No body was found, however, and years later a writer revisiting the case found his investigation taking several dark turns. The movie, with much of ´ playthat darkness exorcised and Michael Pare ing Eddie with a strong hint of James Dean, did mediocre business in theaters, then exploded on TV and in home video—thanks largely to its real stars, John Cafferty and the Beaver Brown Band, who played Eddie’s music. An authentic Shore bar band, Beaver Brown suddenly found itself with a multiplatinum record under the name of a fictional alter ego. Years later Cafferty sued his record company to stop marketing Beaver Brown music as “Eddie and the ´ returned in  for a sequel Cruisers.’’ Pare that failed to recapture the magic. See also pop music David Hinckley

Eddy, Oliver Tarbell

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Painter, engraver, and inventor.

Oliver Tarbell Eddy was a self-taught, itinerant artist who worked in Elizabeth and Newark in the s, painting portraits of prominent civic and business leaders and their families. Eddy’s father, Isaac, was a pioneer printer and engraver in Greenbush, Vermont, where Eddy probably received his early training as an engraver. In , Eddy married Jane Maria Burger in Newburgh, New York. Like many other nineteenth-century folk artists, Eddy traveled extensively in search of commissions. From  to , he worked as a miniature and portrait painter in New York City, where he exhibited at the National Academy of Design. By , he was in New Jersey, first in Elizabeth and later, from  to , in Newark, where he painted portraits of members of such important families as William Rankin, Albert Alling, and Stephen Ball Alling. Eddy’s flat and linear style is characteristic of other self-taught artists who began their careers as engravers. Many of his portraits are fascinating social documents, recording the sitters in their homes, surrounded by their personal possessions and furniture. By , Eddy had again moved, probably in search of commissions, and was working in Baltimore, Maryland, where he remained until . He continued to paint portraits, but also

Edgewater

Oliver Tarbell Eddy, Portrait of the Children of William Rankin, Sr., . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Bequest of Dr. Walter M. Rankin, 1947, 47.53. Photo: Witt, Oct. 1948.

became preoccupied with mechanical inventions, much as his father had before him. In , he received a patent for a typewriter that he called a typographer, and nine years later, he patented an improved coffeepot. Among his other inventions were a device for raising and lowering the sails on a boat, a machine for making cork linoleum, and a barrel maker. Eddy’s final residence was in Philadelphia where he lived and worked from  until his death in . During his last years, he continued in his dual professions of portraitist and inventor. The largest repositories of Eddy’s paintings can be found at the New Jersey Historical Society, the Maryland Historical Society, and the Newark Museum. Bishop, Edith. Oliver Tarbell Eddy, –. Newark: Newark Museum, . Caldwell, John, and Oswaldo Rodriguez Roque. American Paintings in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Vol. . New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, .

See also art

Holly Pyne Connor

Edge, Walter Evans

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Governor, U.S. senator, and

businessman. Walter E. Edge was born in Philadelphia, the son of William Edge, a railroad manager. He relocated to Pleasantville with his parents in , attended public schools, and worked in an Atlantic City printing office in the early s. Edge purchased an advertising agency in  and by  owned the Atlantic City Daily Press, two business enterprises that ultimately made him a multimillionaire. He emerged as a second lieutenant from the Spanish-American War of . Nine years later he married Lady Lee Phillips, who died in ; in  he married Camilla Loyall Sewall. He was the father of four children. An influential New Jersey publisher whose editorials influenced Atlantic City’s affairs as well as those of New Jersey, Edge held a seat in the state senate from  to  and again from  to . His progressive legislative record included a workers’ compensation act and revision of the state’s budgeting apparatus. Elected governor of New Jersey in  on

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the slogan “A Business Man with a Business Plan,’’ Edge occupied the gubernatorial chair from  until his resignation in . As chief executive he promoted welfare and prison reform, highway construction, and the building of bridges. Edge left governorship for the U.S. Senate, in which capacity he served from  until his resignation ten years later. During his decade in the upper chamber, he was a mild reservationist who opposed U.S. participation in the League of Nations without adequate clarifying amendments. Edge sponsored a resolution that led to the Budget and Accounting Act of , championed increased salaries for postal workers, criticized national Prohibition, and at various intervals chaired the committees on coast and insular surveys, interoceanic canals, and post offices and post roads. His liberal policies and ideas outdistanced in most respects the conservative stands of Republican presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. In  Edge was appointed American ambassador to France, where he served until April . Among his diplomatic achievements were facilitation of U.S. participation in the Paris Colonial Exposition and amelioration of commercial relations in the aftermath of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of . Again elected Republican governor of New Jersey in , Edge remained in office from  to , during which time he pushed a businesslike strategy that emphasized executive department reorganization. Included among the reforms was a protective plan for migrant workers in the state. After he left office, Edge continued his interests in business and politics. One of his last endorsements was for President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s “Modern Republicanism.’’ Edge died in New York City, leaving a progressive legacy that ranked him with Woodrow Wilson and Alfred Driscoll as one of New Jersey’s strongest governors. ANB. Edge, Walter E. A Jerseyman’s Journal: Fifty Years of American Business and Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governers of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Leonard Schlup

Edgewater. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Named for its location along the Hudson River, Edgewater is one of the oldest organized settlements in the county. An early outpost, Vriessendael, was begun in  by David DeVriess. The settlement was shortlived, however, as it was destroyed in a war with the Hackensack and Tappan Indians in . Later, in , Etienne and Peter Burdett began a row-and-sail ferry to Manhattan. During the American Revolution the ferry transported troops, ammunition, and supplies. In

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Edgewater Park

 during the battles of Fort Washington and Fort Lee, the Burdett family ferried messages across the Hudson. Edgewater was part of the township of Hackensack until , when Ridgefield Township was carved out. When “borough fever’’ hit Bergen County, Edgewater separated from Ridgefield and was incorporated as the borough of Undercliff in . Since a section of Englewood Cliffs had the same name, Undercliff was changed to Edgewater five years later. Industries in the borough have included the Warner Sugar Company, producers of Jack Frost; Ford Motor Company assembly plant; Alcoa Aluminum; Hills Brothers Coffee; Pyle Pearline Button Works; and Lever Brothers. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Fox, Lynn. A History of the Borough of Edgewater: Centennial Edition, –. Edgewater: Borough of Edgewater, .

Linda J. Barth

Edgewater Park. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. Located along the Delaware River and bordered by Beverly, Burlington Township, Delanco, and Willingboro, Edgewater Park was founded as an independent township in  from parts of former Beverly Township. It remained largely agricultural well into the twentieth century, with farms growing both fruit and field crops. Cooper Street was the site of a long line of nineteenth-century homes that extended south from Beverly; the homes remain today. Magnificent mansions, many built for the area’s elite in the early twentieth century, line the Delaware River north of Beverly. Farmland was rapidly swallowed up for residential development in the s between the river and Route . The minimal agricultural acreage left in the township, mostly adjacent to Burlington Township, was almost entirely purchased during the late s for construction of new single-family homes. Several large apartment and condominium complexes are also located within the township. A commercial strip along Route  is home to auto dealers and restaurants but also includes several vacant retail properties and some largely undeveloped open space. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Edison, Charles (b. Aug. , ; d. July , ).

Governor, secretary of the navy, and businessman. Son of the famous inventor, Thomas A. Edison, and his second wife, Mina Miller, Charles Edison was born in West Orange. He was educated at the DearbornMorgan School, Carteret Academy, and Hotchkiss School. Edison attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but left before graduating to take a job at the Boston Electric Light Company. He left this job after a year to assume a position at his father’s corporation in . He proved to be a capable manager, overseeing the restructuring of the company and eventually being named president of Thomas A. Edison, Inc., in . An avid supporter of President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal Programs, Edison was appointed to various administrative posts from  to , in the New Jersey State Recovery Board, the National Recovery Administration, the National Emergency Council’s New Jersey division, the Federal Housing Administration, and the National Industrial Recovery Board. Edison’s loyalty to Roosevelt was rewarded in November  when he was appointed assistant secretary of the navy. He was subsequently named secretary of the navy in July  after the death of Claude A. Swanson. In his capacity with the navy, Edison oversaw an enormous expansion of the naval shipbuilding program and was instrumental in developing engine-design innovations. Edison’s tenure as a member of Roosevelt’s Cabinet was short-lived; he resigned in June , a few months after announcing his decision to run for governor of New Jersey. Easily securing the Democratic nomination, Edison faced Robert C. Hendrickson, a Republican state senator, in the general election. Edison made it a point throughout the campaign to distance himself from Frank Hague, boss of the powerful Hudson County political machine. Hague, however, apparently viewed Edison’s public statements as campaign posturing and delivered a ,-vote plurality for the Democratic candidate from Hudson County, thus assuring Edison’s victory. True to his campaign pledge, Edison attempted to limit Hague’s influence in state government. In this struggle, Edison stood alone. Roosevelt, dependent on Hague’s machine, continued to provide federal patronage positions to Hague’s allies. Without support from the White House, Edison’s effectiveness was limited. Governor Edison called for changing the  constitution in his inaugural address. The Hague faction of the Democratic party along with rural Republicans, who feared losing power if the executive or legislative branches were altered, successfully resisted this reform effort. New Jersey would have to wait until the summer of  for constitutional reform. Edison retired from public life when his gubernatorial term expired in . Back in the private sector, Edison returned to Thomas A.

Edison, Inc., as its president. In , he became the chairman of the McGraw-Edison Company (created when McGraw Electric and Thomas A. Edison, Inc., merged). After his retirement in , he founded the Charles Edison Fund, originally named the Brook Foundation in . Edison married Carolyn Hawkins in . The couple had no children. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Venable, John D. Out of the Shadow: The Story of Charles Edison. East Orange: Charles Edison Fund, .

See also governor

Joseph R. Marbach

Edison, Theodore

(b. July , ;

d. Nov. , ). Conservationist and inventor.

Theodore Edison was the sixth and youngest child of Thomas A. Edison and Mina Miller, the inventor’s second wife. He bore a striking resemblance to his famous father and inherited his technical bent as well. In  he graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a degree in physics. When his father died, he assumed control of the Edison Industries research laboratories. He went on to start his own research laboratory, Calibron Industries. He held several U.S. patents, including one for a drafting table. Edison married Ann Osterhout in ; the couple had no children. He died at his home in Llewellyn Park, West Orange, in . Melosi, Martin V. Thomas A. Edison and the Modernization of America. New York: HarperCollins, . Venable, John D. Out of the Shadow: The Story of Charles Edison. East Orange: Charles Edison Fund, .

Kitta MacPherson

Edison, Thomas Alva d. Oct. , ).

(b. Feb. , ;

Inventor and manufacturer. Thomas Alva Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, to Samuel Edison and Nancy Elliott, the last of seven siblings (three of whom died in childhood). In  the family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, where Edison briefly attended school. He was primarily educated by his mother using books from his father’s library. Samuel Edison, a freethinker who had come to the United States following his involvement in an unsuccessful revolt in the province of Upper Canada, engaged in a variety of enterprises, including shinglemaking, lumbering, running a grocery, and land speculation. At the age of twelve Thomas worked briefly on his father’s truck farm before obtaining a job selling candy, newspapers, magazines, and dime novels on the Grand Trunk Railway. While riding the train between Port Huron and Detroit he printed his own newspaper, the Grand Trunk Herald, in the baggage car, where for a time he also had a chemistry laboratory. It was at this time that he was taught

Edison, Thomas Alva

Thomas Alva Edison at work.

Courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site, West Orange.

telegraphy by one of the railway telegraphers whose son he had saved from a rolling car. Between  and  Edison worked at a number of telegraph offices in the Midwest and also began experimenting with the technology. He seriously began to pursue a career as an inventor in  after arriving in Boston to work in the main Western Union office. The following spring he went to New York, where he became connected with telegraph inventor and engineer Franklin Pope. Edison briefly replaced Pope as superintendent of the Laws Gold Reporting Company, which was soon taken over by the rival Gold and Stock Telegraph Company. In the fall Edison and Pope joined with James Ashley in the electrical engineering firm of Pope, Edison and Company and Edison began rooming at the Pope family home in Elizabeth, New Jersey. This marked the beginning of Edison’s residency in the state. During the next four years Edison became a key inventor in the telegraph industry. He was a contract inventor for the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company, the leading supplier of market reports, and later for Western Union, which acquired control of the business. In addition, he worked directly for Western Union, inventing in  the quadruplex telegraph which sent four messages simultaneously. This important invention became embroiled in financier Jay Gould’s attempt to build a network to compete with Western Union. Gould also acquired control of another Western Union competitor for which Edison had developed a system of automatic telegraphy.

Edison’s contracts and patent royalties from these companies enabled him to set up several telegraph manufacturing shops in Newark. In the nineteenth century machine shops were the center of inventive activity, providing skilled machinists and other resources for building and modifying inventions. In  Edison began to develop a new combination of shop and scientific laboratory and by  had separated it from manufacturing. At the beginning of  Edison’s father began overseeing construction of a building in Menlo Park, which Edison began using as a laboratory by early spring. The Menlo Park laboratory soon became world famous and a model for other inventors. Between  and  Edison developed three major inventions at his laboratory. The first of these was a carbon transmitter that made Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone into a viable commercial technology. Second was the cylinder phonograph, which so astounded the world that it made Edison an international celebrity. Third, and most significant, was Edison’s electric light and power system. With the resources of his laboratory Edison was able to develop a complete system, rather than just a light bulb, which became the foundation of the electric light and power industry. In  Edison moved into New York City to promote his system and to set up several manufacturing plants. The lamp factory, which had been established at Menlo Park in , moved to East Newark (later Harrison) in . Edison continued to make periodic use of the Menlo Park laboratory and he and his family occasionally lived there as well. It was at Menlo

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Park in August  that his first wife, Mary Stilwell (the daughter of a Newark sawyer) died at the age of twenty-nine. They had married on Christmas Day  and had three children, a daughter Marion (nicknamed “Dot’’) and two sons, Thomas Alva, Jr. (nicknamed “Dash’’) and William Leslie. Edison abandoned Menlo Park (and New Jersey) following Mary’s death, living and working in New York City for the next year and a half. Edison returned to New Jersey in  following his marriage to Mina Miller, the daughter of Lewis Miller, a cofounder of the Chautaqua Institute and an inventor and manufacturer of agricultural equipment. The couple settled at their new home, Glenmont, in Llewellyn Park, one of the first planned residential communities in the United States. They had three children, a daughter, Madeleine, and sons Charles and Theodore. At the end of  Edison opened a new, larger laboratory in nearby Orange (later West Orange) that was unparalleled at the time. During the first years of work at his new laboratory Edison continued to develop electric light and power technology, but he also returned to work on the cylinder phonograph and began experimenting on motion picture technology. The Edison Phonograph Works became the first of many manufacturing plants that Edison built in West Orange to manufacture the inventions he developed at his laboratory. The first movie studio was also built by Edison at the laboratory. Known as the Black Maria, it was a tarpaper building on a circular railroad track that enabled it to follow the sun, thus providing natural light through an opening in the roof. In the early s he abandoned electric light research following the merger of the Edison company with another to form General Electric. During the s Edison devoted most of his time to an effort at mining and processing low-grade iron ore at the Ogden Mine near Ogdensberg in northern New Jersey. By , however, the discovery of large iron deposits in the Great Lakes region led to the failure of Edison’s iron-ore venture. During the first decade of the twentieth century Edison successfully transferred much of the technology for crushing and handling ore to the manufacture of Portland cement. He developed a new, long rotary kiln and he established a large cement manufacturing plant in Stewartsville. During the same period he also worked to develop an alkaline storage battery for electric automobiles, but by the time he succeeded the internal combustion engine had come to dominate the auto industry. The Edison battery could be used for a variety of other industrial applications and became the foundation for Thomas A. Edison, Inc., which Edison founded in . Previously, Edison’s phonograph business had been his most successful but the cylinder phonograph technology he pioneered began to lose out to disc phonographs. Although

240

Edison

THOMAS ALVA EDISON SITES N

Ogdenburg Glenmont in Llewellyn Park West Orange Harrison Stewartsville Newark Elizabeth 0 10 Menlo Park miles @Rutgers, The State University

Edison developed a technically superior disc machine during the first half of the s, this failed to return the Edison company to a position of leadership in the recording industry. Not only was the Edison disc incompatible with those of his competitors, but Edison, whose long-term hearing loss had become quite acute, decided to select his company’s recording artists personally. The result was a record catalog that did not meet consumer demand. During World War I Edison did war research in connection with his duties as president of the Naval Consulting Board, which had been established by Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels as a way of engaging the nation’s inventors on the work of national defense. After the war Edison focused on his duties as president of Thomas A. Edison, Inc., and spent little time in the laboratory until , when he decided to retire and turn over the operation of the company to his son Charles. Edison then turned to what would be his last great research project. This was an effort to develop a natural substitute for rubber that could be rapidly produced during wartime shortages. At his death in October  Edison was celebrated as America’s most famous and prolific inventor but little recognized as a leader in the development of the industrial research and development laboratory. Bazerman, Charles. The Languages of Edison’s Light. Cambridge: MIT Press, . Israel, Paul. Edison: A Life of Invention. New York: John Wiley, . Millard, Andre. Edison and the Business of Innovation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Pretzer, William S., ed. Working at Inventing: Thomas A. Edison and the Menlo Park Experience. Dearborn: Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, .

See also science and technology

Paul Israel

Edison.

.-square-mile township in Middlesex County. Formerly known as Raritan Township, in  it was renamed for its most famous citizen, the inventor Thomas Edison. Raritan Township was formed from parts of Piscataway and Woodbridge townships in  and included Highland Park and Metuchen. European settlers in the seventeenth century

were attracted to the area for its fertile soils and the navigable Raritan River. Through the first half of the twentieth century, the township consisted of small villages near railroad stops, separated from one another by large farms. Clay mining and brick manufacturing near Bonhamtown were its largest industry. From  to , Thomas Alva Edison lived and worked in Menlo Park. From the new facilities at his second laboratory, Edison invented the phonograph, the electric lightbulb, and obtained more than four hundred patents. Abundant open space facilitated the construction of Raritan Arsenal during World War I and Camp Kilmer during World War II, as well as a post–World War II residential building boom. This suburban community presently contains the largest Indian population (,) and the largest Chinese population (,) in the state. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dally, Joseph W. Woodbridge and Vicinity: The Story of a New Jersey Township Embracing the History of Woodbridge, Piscataway, Metuchen, and Contiguous Places. . Reprint. Lambertville: Hunterdon House, . Marshall, David Trumbull. Boyhood Days in Old Metuchen. . Reprint. Metuchen: MetuchenEdison Historical Society, . Spies, Stacy E. Edison. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Stacy E. Spies

Edison

Memorial

Tower.

See

Thomas A. Edison Memorial Tower.

and Glenmont to the federal government. The National Park Service preserves the historic site, including its buildings, interior spaces, and extensive collection of artifacts and documents relating to Edison’s personal and business life. Baldwin, Neil. Edison: Inventing the Century. York: Hyperion, .

New

Millard, Andre. Edison and the Business of Innovation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also historic sites

Leonard DeGraaf

Edna Mahan Correctional Facility for Women. Originally designated the New Jersey State Reformatory for Women by legislative act in , this facility opened in  when adult women confined in a special wing at the state prison in Trenton were transferred to Clinton. Based on the late nineteenth-century concept of reforming inmates, the Clinton Farms Reformatory incorporated the cottage/family reform-school concept in a cluster of buildings on the site of a -acre farm in Hunterdon County. The prison was renamed in  for the twentyeight-year-old University of California graduate who was appointed superintendent in  and served until her death in . In  the facility housed , inmates. Barnes, Henry Elmer. A History of the Penal, Reformatory and Correctional Institutions of the State of New Jersey. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also prisons

W. James Franklin

Edison National Historic Site.

education. In New Jersey, education, over

Thomas A. Edison’s West Orange laboratory and his home, Glenmont, became part of the National Park Service on September , . Edison purchased Glenmont, a twenty-nineroom Queen Anne–style home, in January , shortly before marrying his second wife, Mina Miller. Located in Llewellyn Park, an exclusive residential community, the .-acre estate included a greenhouse, barn, and landscaped gardens. Thomas and Mina’s three children, Madeleine (), Charles (), and Theodore (), were born at Glenmont. In  Edison constructed a research laboratory near Glenmont at the corner of Main Street and Lakeside Avenue in West Orange. The laboratory, containing over , square feet of work space, included a library, heavy and precision machine shops, a pattern shop, and separate buildings devoted to electrical, chemical, and metallurgical research. Edison perfected the phonograph and developed the motion picture camera, the storage battery, and many other inventions at the West Orange laboratory, which he managed until his death on October , , at Glenmont. During the s the Edison Company and Edison’s family initiated plans to donate the laboratory

time, has reflected the varying concerns of its residents. In the colonial period the religious background of settlers influenced their plans to teach their children. Dutch and Swedish European settlers in colonial New Jersey relied upon their respective churches (Dutch Reformed and Lutheran) to provide education for their children. Religion was included with reading, writing, arithmetic, and, for boys, a trade. The Dutch charged tuition from those who could pay so children of all families in the towns could be taught. With the coming of the English in , education was controlled by the religiously diverse (Puritan, Congregationalist, Baptist, Quaker, Dutch Reformed, Huguenot, Presbyterian) towns. Generally, the curricula consisted of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion. Alphabets, rhymes, and Scripture were taught with the aid of hornbooks and slates. Family instruction and dame schools were common. Sons of wealthy families might be provided with private tutors. When West Jersey was settled, the Quakers took a completely different approach to education. Their schools stressed piety, practicality, and philanthropy and taught rich and poor

education

Students undergo a physical education test at the Millington School, Long Hill Township, .

Courtesy Long Hill Township Historical Society.

alike, sometimes including slaves, supported by local rates paid by all landowners. Quakers were suspicious of the corruptive influence of books, games, language, fancy dress, and gambling, but they were unusually open to hiring women as instructors. The Scots began to enter East Jersey in large numbers during the s, and they believed in universal education under church (Presbyterian) control. Academies and seminaries, often led by ministers, began to prepare students for college, with curricula that included Greek, Latin, literature, geometry, penmanship (which included how to make goose quill pens), public speaking, religion, and occasionally geography. After  royal governors and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (Church of England) encouraged the establishment of schools. By  none of the English schoolmasters could teach without the consent of the bishop of London. The advent of the Great Awakening after  had a profound effect on the development of education. In New Jersey the religious disagreements it produced led to the creation of two colonial colleges. Supporters of the Awakening among the Presbyterians founded what is now Princeton, while those among the Dutch Reform created what has become Rutgers. In  the royal governor granted a charter to establish the College of New Jersey at Elizabethtown, with John Dickerson as president; the college then moved to Newark, where it was run by Aaron Burr Sr., father of the better known Aaron Burr who became vice president of the U.S. and killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. The school finally settled in Princeton when that town offered land and money, and where it was renamed Princeton

College. This was followed by the efforts of a faction of the Dutch Reformed Church to establish a college to train ministers in America. Queen’s College, as it was first called, was given a charter by Governor William Franklin in . It opened in  with Jacob Hardenbergh as the first president, and ultimately settled in New Brunswick. Neither college required a religious test for entry. The American Revolution brought with it ideas based on republicanism that emphasized the need for an educated citizenry. While there was no mention of education in the first New Jersey State Constitution of , in  the legislature passed “An Act for the encouragement of Education,’’ which, even in wartime, exempted teachers who had five or more students from military service. In the period that followed, college instruction became more varied as demands grew for skills such as navigation, bookkeeping, dancing, fencing, the ability to play musical instruments, knowledge of languages, and manners. In , following the adoption of the new federal Constitution, provisions were even made for slaves to be educated. Societies for Public Education were established in Trenton in  and in Morris County in , and in  a state society devoted to education was incorporated. The idea of universal free education was slow in coming. In  Mount Holly turned its “poor school’’ into a free school. The following year the state free school movement began when the school fund was established with the governor and others serving as trustees. Following an  state law, townships began raising money for educating the poor, and “An Act to Establish Common Schools’’ called for the

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appointment of three men in each township to form a school committee. The Comprehensive School Law of  distributed the state school fund, now $, with $, set aside for poor school districts. A “free school’’ was opened in the Masonic Hall in Trenton in ; despite the name, most schools still charged tuition but tried to accommodate the poor. Curricula began to include citizenship, spelling, grammar, history, and singing, but morals were not forgotten and still held a central place in education. At this time, Newark established public schools (including evening schools) with different grades adapted to students’ age and progress; located in four wards, these schools were probably the forerunners of New Jersey public high schools. Despite the progress, flogging persisted in these schools. Meanwhile, there was a dramatic growth in the number of academies preparing students for college. By  there were ; by  there were ; by  there were , and by  there were . At a Trenton convention concerning further needs for common schools, George Doane, Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, delivered such an eloquent speech that, in , a law reinstated and increased annual appropriations. Furthermore, to ensure quality, board members were required to visit schools and make reports. Freeholders were authorized to elect county examiners and to license teachers, while school committees were also given the right to examine teachers. In  Dr. Charles Skelton opened a truly free school in Nottingham, earning for himself the title of Father of the Public School. The state responded to the increasing number of schools in this period by, in , creating the post of superintendent of schools and providing for township school supervisors appointed by the trustees of the state school fund. Dr. T. F. King of Perth Amboy was the first state superintendent of schools. In  federal funds were provided, and the state ordered the formation of school districts. In response to the growing interest in public education, teachers formed the first Teachers’ Institute, and began to organize and to become active in directing the growth of education. Among their main aims was to gain professional recognition, establish formalized teacher training, and define educational objectives. The push to professionalize led to the founding of the State Teachers Association in , with R. L. Cooke of Essex County as its first elected president. Male teachers were paid almost twice as much as female teachers, although they taught the same curriculum. Newark began to train teachers in . Pressure from the teachers convinced Gov. Rodman Price to charter a coeducational training school for teachers, then called a “normal school,’’ in Trenton with W. F. Phelps, of Albany, New York, as the principal. The first class graduated in  and consisted of two woman and eleven men.

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education

At the same time provisions were made to train teachers, educational opportunities for their students expanded. In  Pennington Preparatory School, founded in , opened a female institute awarding “mistress of English literature’’ and “mistress of liberal arts’’ degrees. In Newark a free academy was established whose goal was to foster intellectual talent, not just prepare students for college, and the movement toward high schools was begun. Among the earliest were those in Hackensack () and New Brunswick (). About this time, a law was passed eliminating corporal punishment from the schools, a response to teacher recommendations and the first such law in the nation. Although there was little educational movement during the Civil War, afterward the state began to move ahead quickly with a number of programs, many of them suggested by the teachers’ organizations. In  the State Board of Education was formed, and county superintendents appointed, who received progress reports from the newly formed districts: there were sixteen such districts in the s, eighteen in the s, and sixty-four in , but none in rural areas. In  the free school law was suggested by Ellis A. Apgar; it called for elementary or common schools in all districts, with the term set at nine months. When the state constitution was amended in , it called for the “thorough and efficient education for children between the ages of five and eighteen.’’ Despite the changes, in  the New Jersey Council of Education reported on the paucity of high schools in the rural areas. The Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools was formed in the s to examine academic programs of secondary schools preparing students for college. In  State School Superintendent Addison B. Poland created the township system to bring high schools to rural areas. The curriculum of New Jersey high schools began to be directed by the Trenton Normal School. In  high school curriculum requirements for entry to college were made public. This extraordinary progress is credited to Charles J. Baxter, state school superintendent at the time. The curriculum was also expanded from college preparatory to include more practical subjects, such as commercial courses. Extracurricular activities included debating societies, orchestras, and newspapers. The State Board of Education appointed a high school inspector, Louis Bevier, and recommended high school standards and coordination of curricula. The inspector met with the State High School Association to set curricular norms. In  tuition payments for high school ended and transportation was provided. High schools were now available to all. In addition to the increase in the number of high schools, as well as the breadth of their offerings, this period also saw the establishment of additional colleges. The two

were related because the number of schools increased, as did state requirements for those who would teach in them. Before  there had been no test to be a high school teacher, but after  there was. In  the state began requiring high school teachers to have a college degree. By  the Trenton State Normal School term of study was four years. In  the position of state superintendent of schools was changed to that of state commissioner of education. The growth of the suburbs, the statewide population increase, and the changing focus of high school education led to consolidation of high schools. Larger buildings were constructed. Some specialized high schools were founded in the cities, and three tracks were introduced: general, college preparatory, and commercial. Junior high schools were opened in Trenton, and international tensions led to an emphasis on physical training and a shift from European history to American history. In  another state normal school was established, this one in Paterson. Meanwhile, Elizabeth A. Allen, the first woman president of the New Jersey Education Association, fought for and obtained a teachers’ code of ethics. She then turned her attention to a fight for teachers’ pensions. In  Mabel Smith Douglass was successful in getting the state to establish the New Jersey College for Women (later Douglass College); she served as its first dean. The experience of World War I gave impetus to the requirement to teach civics () and the U.S. Constitution (). State educators published their “Ten Cardinal Principles’’ in  to clarify the objectives of New Jersey education. Curricula expanded and became more varied, to include languages, science, and vocational training. The state demanded that schools keep better records of students’ attendance and work. These requirements came at a time when laws limited child labor and required schooling. After  children from ages seven to sixteen were required to attend school, although they could leave at fourteen if they had passed the sixth grade. By  a law barred employment of children under fourteen. Those who left school at fourteen could not work in factories more than eight hours a day or forty-eight hours a week, at night, or on Sundays. They were required to attend “continuation’’ schools twenty hours a week. Although by  the existing philosophy of education emphasized the life needs and capacities of students under democratic school administration, the Depression brought with it budget cuts, limited school transportation to those who lived more than two miles from school, and established a commission to investigate school spending. The  Mort Report was the governor’s response to the New Jersey State Teachers Association’s proposal for a broad state school aid program. In the mid-s it was hoped that regionalization would accommodate more students at a lower

cost. Instead consolidation increased problems by leading to crowding and larger classes. Included in the federal government’s response to the Depression was a provision for aid to develop a social science curriculum that included home economics. The New Jersey College for Women proposed high school courses on home economics, child care, consumerism, home decoration and management, food and clothing, and driver education. The increasing concern in the s for the student’s individual needs led to the creation of the position of guidance counselor in many schools. When the Depression was followed by World War II there was a shortage of male teachers, opening positions for women, who still earned less than men. During the war, some schools turned to subjects tied to military needs. The issues of the postwar period greatly affected education. Articles IV and VIII of the  State Constitution provided for support of public education and desegregation of schools. The GI Bill flooded the state’s colleges with veterans. Teachers organized to push for tenure. Cold War competition with the Soviet Union led to increased emphasis on science and math. The civil rights movement led to the establishment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in . As elsewhere in the country, previously all-male New Jersey colleges opened their doors to women, including both colleges dating from the colonial period— Princeton and Rutgers. Increased migration of Puerto Ricans to the state led to the teaching of English as a second language, while elementary schools were struggling to accommodate an increasing number of children. Gov. Richard Hughes encouraged the legislature to pass a law creating the state’s system of community colleges to give all citizens access to college. From  through the s, educational opportunities for the state’s residents significantly increased. In the period since  the state’s continuing educational development has included provisions for multicultural studies, computer technology, and basic-skills tests. At the same time, the expansion in education created fiscal difficulties leading to several important state supreme court decisions on funding, the imposition of an income tax, the creation of state curriculum standards, and the creation of experimental charter schools. At the start of the twenty-first century, New Jersey continued to struggle with the quality and costs of its educational system. It had, though, over the course of three hundred years, established a system of state-supported education that includes K– schools, as well as a wide range of institutions of higher education. Burr, Nelson R. Education in New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Sloan, Douglas. Education in New Jersey in the Revolutionary Era. [Trenton]: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Edwards, Jonathan West, Roscoe L. Elementary Education in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Claribel Young

educational equity.

Through its laws and judicial decisions, New Jersey has been a leader in protecting the rights of students to participate in all educational activities and programs free of discrimination and bias. New Jersey’s pioneering Equality in Educational Programs statute and supporting administrative regulations protect students from discrimination based on race, color, creed, religion, sex, ancestry, national origin, or social or economic status. New Jersey’s Law against Discrimination (LAD) provides additional protection, specifically prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation. In the area of sex discrimination, New Jersey law protects students from sexual harassment, discrimination based on pregnancy, discrimination in testing, discrimination in athletics, and other inequities based on gender. Athletic programs, including intramural and interscholastic sports, must be available to all students regardless of gender and must be designed so as to accommodate students of both sexes. In addition, female and male athletes must receive equitable treatment in terms of the quality and availability of facilities, the scheduling of practice and game times, the quality and maintenance of equipment, staff salaries, and other related issues. While schools may generally operate separate teams for the two sexes, where no female team exists in a particular sport, New Jersey courts have held that girls must be allowed to compete for participation on the boys’ team. For example, in E.B. v. North Hunterdon Regional School District, the commissioner of education held that a female student must be allowed to try out for the boys’ high school football team. On the other hand, New Jersey courts have been vigilant in protecting female athletes from being forced to play with boys. In B.C. v. Cumberland Regional School District, the court rejected a boy’s efforts to be a member of a girls’ field hockey team based on both safety factors and the need to prevent “males from dominating and displacing females from meaningful participation in available athletic opportunities.’’

National Women’s Law Center. Check It Out: Is the Playing Field Level for Women and Girls at Your School? Washington, DC: National Women’s Law Center, .

See also affirmative action; discrimination

Linda J. Wharton

Educational Testing Service.

The Educational Testing Service (ETS), employing about , people, is the world’s largest private educational testing and measurement organization, and a leader in research. A nonprofit company, governed by a board of sixteen trustees and headquartered in Princeton, ETS provides services for individuals, institutions,

and governmental bodies in  countries. Together with its for-profit subsidiary, Chauncey Group International (specializing in measurement for certification, business, and government), ETS develops and administers more than  million tests annually. With funding from the Carnegie Corporation, ETS was founded in  to provide tests for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, the American Council on Education, and the College Entrance Examination Board. Henry Chauncey was the organization’s founding president. Testing programs have included the SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test: for college admissions); the GRE (Graduate Record Examination); the LSAT (Law School Admissions Test); the GMAT (Graduate Management Admissions Test); the PRAXIS series (teacher evaluation); the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language); and the NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress). ETS research has advanced the science of measurement with investigations into item response theory, differential item functioning, test validity, the social consequences of testing, comparability of scores under special conditions, adult literacy, gender-related issues, longitudinal studies in Head Start programs and among immigrant groups, and computer adaptive testing. ETS also introduced a sensitivity review process by which biased material is screened from tests, and a visiting committee process that monitors the quality of its programs.

Timothy S. Corlis

Edwards, Edward Irving

(b. Dec. ,

; d. Jan. , ). Governor and U.S. sena-

tor. Born in Jersey City, E. I. Edwards was the son of William and Emma (Nation) Edwards. He attended local public schools and, for two years, New York University. Married in  to Julie Blanche Smith, he had two children, Edward and Elizabeth. A self-made man, Teddy Edwards entered the banking business at the age of nineteen, and eventually became president of Jersey ´ ge ´ City’s First National Bank. He was a prote of banker E.F.C. Young, a major power broker in Hudson County. Entering politics, Edwards was appointed state comptroller by the legislature in , remaining in that post until . At that time Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City, becoming a force in Democratic politics, believed Edwards—wealthy, well-connected, and Protestant—would be an excellent ally and candidate. Hague’s Irish Catholic organization needed such men if it was to become a force outside Hudson County. With Hague’s backing, Edwards was elected Hudson’s state senator in . In the following year Edwards ran in the Democratic gubernatorial primary, as Hague made a frontal attack on Essex County’s James Nugent, state party boss and the other primary contender. Edwards defeated Nugent, enabling Hague to

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become state Democratic leader, a position the mayor held during the succeeding three decades. The  gubernatorial campaign focused on the power of the state Public Utilities Commission over trolley fares, but especially on Prohibition. Edwards, in a direct appeal to New Jersey’s urban ethnic and immigrant vote, vowed to block the enforcement of the Eighteenth Amendment in New Jersey. He was alleged to have promised to make the state as wet as the Atlantic Ocean. In a close contest, dubbed “The Applejack Campaign’’ by the press, Edwards defeated the Republican candidate, Newton Bugbee, by a statewide margin of , votes. Hudson’s large Democratic plurality provided the difference. Facing a Republican legislature and handicapped by his weak constitutional position, Edwards could accomplish little during his three-year term. He fought the legislature in such areas as Prohibition enforcement and public utility regulation, winning a few battles but losing most. An example of the latter was Edwards’s attempt to block the creation of the Port Authority of New York in . He did, however, help to solidify the Democratic party’s image as champion of the urban masses. In addition, Edwards strengthened the Hague machine by appointing the mayor’s adherents to key county and state offices. In , again with the weight of the Hudson County organization behind him, Edwards was elected to the U.S. Senate. Here, too, the repeal of Prohibition was high on his agenda, although he was also an advocate of increased efficiency and economy in government. In  he ran for a second term. His big issue, opposition to Prohibition, was neutralized when his Republican opponent, Hamilton Kean, also came out against it. State Republicans then rode to victory on the tide of economic prosperity and backlash against the presidential candidacy of Irish Catholic Al Smith. The political career of E. I. Edwards was at an end. The death of his wife during the  campaign and the onset of the Great Depression in , which brought about personal bankruptcy, led to Edwards’s physical and emotional decline. In  he tried unsuccessfully to stir up an intraparty revolt against his long-time mentor, Frank Hague. Edwards committed suicide in his Jersey City apartment in January . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Stickle, Warren E. “Edward I. Edwards and the Urban Coalition of .’’ New Jersey History  (): – .

See also governor

Richard J. Connors

Edwards, Jonathan

(b. Oct. , ; d.

Mar. , ). Clergyman and college president.

Edwards, Lena

244

In September , Jonathan Edwards reluctantly accepted a call to replace Aaron Burr, his recently deceased son-in-law, as president of the College of New Jersey (Princeton University). His fame as a pastor, missionary, preacher of the Great Awakening, and vigorous proponent of experiential Calvinism made Edwards the ideal choice to lead the fledgling school. He arrived in Princeton in late January . Soon after, complications from a smallpox inoculation led to his untimely death. Edwards is buried in Princeton Cemetery. He was the author of many books, including Religious Affections (), The Life of David Brainerd (), and Freedom of the Will (). Edwards, Jonathan. A Jonathan Edwards Reader. Edited by John E. Smith, Harry S. Stout, and Kenneth P. Minkema. New Haven: Yale University Press, . ———. The Works of Jonathan Edwards. Edited by Harry S. Stout. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also Presbyterians

Stephen D. Crocco

Edwards, Lena

Woman’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University press, .

See also medicine and public health

David Mitros

Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge. The refuge consists of the Brigantine and Barnegat divisions, established in  and  and combined in  to honor Edwin B. Forsythe (–), a New Jersey representative to Congress from  to . Located in Oceanville on the Atlantic flyway, the Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge contains over , acres of coastal habitat. One of  refuges administered by the U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, which dates to , the Forsythe is managed primarily for migratory birds, especially American black ducks and Atlantic brant. Eighty percent is tidal salt marsh and marsh. Management techniques create and maintain wetlands. The refuge protects , acres of woodlands. Over , acres protect barrier dunes as a National Wilderness Area.

(b. Sept. , ; d. Dec. ,

).

Physician and humanitarian. Lena Edwards was born in Washington D.C., to Dr. Thomas Edwards and Marie Edwards. She graduated from Howard University Medical School on June , , and married her former classmate, Dr. John Madison, the following day (retaining her birth name for professional reasons). Edwards, a devout Roman Catholic, spent her life helping the poor and disadvantaged. She began her career in Jersey City, caring for immigrant women from Eastern Europe. Here she became a special friend of the black community. While practicing as a pediatrician at Margaret Hague Hospital, she angrily confronted the chief of staff over the policy of segregating patients. The hospital changed its policy. After giving up her Jersey City practice in , Edwards taught at Howard University, but felt unfulfilled. In  she joined a mission in Hereford, Texas, where she raised money to build a ten-bed maternity hospital for migrant workers. In  she returned east and resumed her Jersey City practice. As a member of the Executive Committee of the American Cancer Society, she played a major role in administering the Pap test program in deprived areas. At age seventy-two Edwards retired to Lakewood in Ocean County. She spent her last years visiting the elderly and promoting health reforms on their behalf. When Edwards died she left six children, all successful professionals. During her life Edwards received countless honors, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Holmes, Linda Janet. “The Life of Lena Edwards.’’ New Jersey Medicine  (May ): –. Scally, Sister M. Anthony. Medicine, Motherhood, and Mercy: The Story of a Black Woman Doctor. Washington, D.C.: Associated Publishers, .

Tiner, Ralph W., Jr. Wetlands of New Jersey. Newton Corner, MA: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, .

Susan R. Schrepfer

eelgrass. Zostera marina is a perennial, flowering plant that grows all its life underwater in mainly temperate oceans. It belongs to its own family (Zosteraceae) and is related to aroids and freshwater monocotyledons. The leaves are grasslike and up to six feet long. Small flowers are hidden inside fused leaf bases. Eelgrass grows abundantly in shallow, sandy, and muddy coastal areas of the state. These eelgrass areas are important for marine ecosystems as nurseries and food sources for animals. During –, the “wasting disease’’ extinguished  percent of all eelgrass in the Atlantic, and it took decades to recover. Lena Struwe

Egerton, Matthew, Sr. (b. c. ; d. May , ), and Matthew Egerton, Jr. (b. s; d. ). Joiners and cabinetmakers. Three generations of the Egerton family made furniture in New Brunswick, over a three-quarter-century period, from the s to . The name Egerton is of English origin, but when the family came to New Jersey, where Matthew Sr. learned his craft, and even his exact birth date, all remain a mystery. His wife, Catelyna Voorhees, was of Dutch descent. He served in the Revolution and was active in Christ Church, New Brunswick. His cabinetmaker’s shop and house were located on Burnet Street near the Raritan River. In  he sold the lot adjacent to his own to his son, Matthew Jr., apparently the only one of five siblings to take up his father’s trade. Another son, Luke, graduated from Queens College (now Rutgers University) and became a teacher. Matthew Egerton, Sr., died in .

Linen press manufactured by Matthew Egerton, Jr., c. –.

Courtesy New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. Museum Purchase, CH1974.17. Photo: Joseph Crilley. Matthew Egerton, Jr., married Maria Bergan, also of Dutch ancestry. They had three sons, two of whom (John Bergan, b. , and Evert, b. ) became cabinetmakers, the younger in partnership with his father. Both sons died in , within a year of their father. Matthew Jr. probably apprenticed with his father. He may have had his own shop as early as the s; after  his house and two-story shop were located on Burnet Street. He owned a pew in the Dutch Reformed Church and was a founder and second vice-president of the New Jersey Bank for Savings. The Egertons most likely employed apprentices and journeymen, although no records to verify this have emerged. Their shops produced a wide range of furniture forms in the latest fashions, as well as traditional pieces such as the Dutch kast, for households in central New Jersey and surrounding areas. They made tall clock cases, wardrobes (linen presses for English customers, kasten in the Dutch tradition), sideboards, secretaries, bureaus, desks, bookcases, tables, bedsteads, cradles, cribs, and coffins. As cabinetmakers they made everything but chairs. The most recognizable Egerton furniture, based on labeled pieces, is in the Federal style, the better pieces displaying fine veneer work with string inlays in geometric patterns as well as more intricate fans, bellflowers, eagles, and urns. The woods they used included mahogany, cherry, walnut, maple, sweet gum, chestnut, poplar, and pine. Three forms of printed paper labels exist, all now thought to identify the work of Matthew Egerton, Jr. The one believed to be the earliest is of octagonal shape with a

Einstein, Albert leaf-and-vine oval around the words “MADE and SOLD by/MATTHEW EGERTON, Junior,/ Joiner and Cabinetmaker,/New-Brunswick,/New Jersey/—No.—.’’ The second is identical to the first but oval shaped with a scalloped edge. The third type, a plain oval shape, retains the leaf-and-vine motif and simply states “matthew egerton,/CABINETMAKER,/in burnet street,/new brunswick, [n.j.].’’ See also furniture making

Suzanne Corlette Crilley

Egg Harbor City. .-square-mile city in Atlantic County. Despite its name, Egg Harbor City is not a harbor. It was founded in  by German immigrants seeking refuge from the nativist activities of the Know-Nothing party. The harbor part of the name was a bit of optimism. It was so named in anticipation of a proposed canal that would connect it with Gloucester and the Mullica River six miles to the northeast; the canal was never built. In  John F. Wild discovered that the soil and climate were perfect for grape culture. The resulting prosperity attracted more Germans, but it was a Frenchman from Rheims, Louis Nicholas Renault, who was most successful. He established the Renault Winery in , and it still is in operation today. The Renault wines are pressed from the grapes of local growers who, in most cases, are second- and thirdgeneration viniculturists. An annual fair is held every September on the grounds of the Atlantic County Agricultural Society, which features agricultural exhibits. In the area are a few old gravel pits where, on occasion, fossil fish and amphibians are found. The city is basically residential, with nearly two thousand homes. Egg Harbor had little population growth in the twentieth century. In , it had , residents. The  census showed a population of ,, which was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

egg-filled nests. The name was applied to land and water areas encompassing both Little Egg Harbor in Ocean County and Great Egg Harbor Bay in Atlantic County. Today Egg Harbor is a mostly residential community that includes some farm properties. There is a commercial district along Route . Storybook Land, a popular amusement park for children, is located in the township. Among the township’s sections are Scullville, Sculls Landing, English Creek, Jones Island, Jobs Point, Pleasantville Terrace, and Farmington. Egg Harbor Township’s population more than tripled in the three decades between , when it was ,, and , when it stood at ,— percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. It has the fifthlargest population of Atlantic County’s thirtythree municipalities. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

American Academy of Design in  was his only show until . His work garnered no support from his contemporaries. Not quitting, as others might have, he was sustained by the family wealth. His early paintings can be placed within the nineteenth-century tradition of the Tonalists’ poetic landscapes, for example, his Delaware Water Gap (). Most of his later symbolist landscapes included nudes. His visionary treatment of the human figure was uneven, sometimes rendered skillfully but at other times portrayed awkwardly. After , he stopped painting and was rescued from obscurity due to the increased appeal of his idiosyncratic imagery. Between  and , he had over twenty-five one-man shows in New York. Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Karlstrom, Paul J. Louis Michel Eilshemius. New York: Harry N. Abrams, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva Edward A. Jardim

Einstein, Albert (b. Mar. , ; d. Apr. , Eilshemius, Louis Michel

(b. Feb. ,

). Scientist. When Albert Einstein first vis-

; d. Dec. , ). Painter. Born to prosperous parents at Laurel Hill Manor, a country house in Kearny, Louis Michel Eilshemius attended kindergarten in Newark, elementary school in Dresden, Germany, and Geneva, Switzerland, and college at Cornell University. A literate man, he wrote prose and poetry, created musical compositions, and worked on eccentric inventions. His art training included studies with Barbizon painter Robert Minor and two years under Adolphe Bourguereau at ´mie Julian in Paris (–). His the Acade debut exhibition of three landscapes at the

ited Princeton in May of , his fame preceded him. At the age of twenty-six he had proposed the equivalence of energy and mass (E = mc ) in the special theory of relativity. The generalization of the theory followed in . It was roundly criticized on several fronts, staunchly defended, then widely accepted after experimental proof was adduced just two years before Einstein’s New Jersey visit. Observations of light bending at the rim of the Sun during a solar eclipse (May , ) provided the pivotal proof that catapulted Einstein to fame.

McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Jerome E. Klein

Egg Harbor Township.

.-squaremile township in Atlantic County. Situated about eight miles west of Atlantic City, Egg Harbor Township once included all of what is now Atlantic County; it was part of Gloucester County until . The township dates from . Egg Harbor in its Dutch form—Eyerhaven—appears on a  map that also bears the identification “C. May,’’ for Cornelius Jacobsen Mey, the Dutch explorer who had sailed by the coast in  aboard the ship Fortuyn and for whom Cape May is named. He described a shoreline replete with birds, and beaches laden with

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Albert Einstein in his Princeton study, c. .

Courtesy Archives of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. Photo: Alan Richards.

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Eisner Company

Although the motivation for his first trip to the United States in  was to support the Zionist cause spearheaded by Chaim Weizmann, Einstein was constantly lionized during the entire trip as the genius among geniuses who had overthrown mankind’s previous notions of the physical universe. It was in this context that Princeton University conferred an honorary doctorate upon Einstein (May , ), lauding him as the new Columbus of science. A series of lectures on relativity, though presented in German, was heavily attended by both the university community and throngs of off-campus visitors. This first visit to Princeton laid the groundwork for a safe harbor to which Einstein would return a dozen years later. Despite being accepted during the intervening years as a leader among the scientific elite in Germany, he became the target of escalating criticism and attacks because of his Jewish heritage. Fortuitously, Abraham Flexner had approached Einstein already in the spring of  about a position at the Institute for Advanced Study then taking shape in Princeton. Although a competing offer was presented by the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Einstein ultimately accepted the offer from the Institute, and settled into his final home at  Mercer Street in October of . He was visiting Caltech when Adolf Hitler rose to power (January , ) and quickly recognized Germany’s desperate state. In March, Einstein resigned from his prestigious position at Berlin’s Prussian Academy of Sciences, renounced his German citizenship, and never returned. During his remaining years in Princeton, Einstein pursued the same causes that had occupied his previous life. On the scientific front, he continued the quest for a better understanding of nature in a unified field theory, without any lasting success. Increasingly, he became isolated from leading-edge science. Even though the Manhattan Project was launched at the Institute on the floor just above his office, and even though its technology rested upon his discoveries, Einstein was not a member of the team. His long-held political views as a pacifist were severely tested by the stark reality of the Second World War. Einstein had learned that Germany possessed the knowledge and capacity to build an atomic bomb. Faced with this information (later revealed as incorrect), he made a supremely difficult moral choice: he recommended to President Franklin Roosevelt the development of the atomic bomb (August , ). After the war, Einstein reaffirmed his pacifist beliefs as an eloquent supporter of international disarmament and world government. His years in Princeton were crowned with a continuing stream of accolades for accomplishments of the past, prominent visitors from all parts of the world, and even an offer of the presidency of Israel upon Chaim Weizmann’s death in September . Einstein

had the good sense to turn the offer down, but his affection for Israel remained strong to the end of his life. His personal papers are held in the archives of Hebrew University in Jerusalem and are being published by Princeton University Press.

Katz, Milton S. Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

Michael Immerso

elections.

See

presidential

elections;

voting. Calaprice, Alice. The Expanded Quotable Einstein. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ¨ lsing, Albrecht. Albert Einstein: A Biography. New Fo York: Viking, .

electric companies.

Pais, Abraham. ‘Subtle is the Lord. . .’: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein. Oxford: Oxford University Press, .

Elizabeth.

Sayen, Jamie. Einstein in America. The Scientist’s Conscience in the Age of Hitler and Hiroshima. New York: Crown, . Stachel, John, et al., eds. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein.  vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, –.

See also science and technology

Rudy Hirschmann

Eisner Company.

See Sigmund Eisner

Company.

Eldridge, Dorothy Daggett (b. Nov. , ; d. July , ). Peace activist. Dorothy Daggett, daughter of Josephine and Royal Bradford Daggett, was born in San Francisco. A graduate of Mount Holyoke College, in  she married Robert Eldridge, with whom she had three children. Dorothy Daggett Eldridge was a microbiologist residing in Nutley in  when a nationwide campaign to halt nuclear weapons testing was initiated. Eldridge committed herself to the goal of nuclear disarmament, forming a New Jersey chapter of the Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy (SANE) in , and serving as its first director. In  she assisted in organizing an Easter-Passover march from McGuire Air Force Base to the United Nations calling for a ban on nuclear explosions, a goal partially achieved when the superpowers ratified the Limited Test Ban Treaty in . U.S. military involvement in Vietnam prompted Eldridge to refocus her energies. SANE organized peace centers throughout New Jersey and helped coordinate an antiwar mobilization that ferried forty thousand Jerseyans to Washington for a peace rally in . When the war ended, Eldridge redoubled her efforts to halt the proliferation of nuclear weapons. SANE aligned itself with other groups advocating an end to the arms race, and formed the New Jersey Campaign for a Nuclear Weapons Freeze. In  a Freeze ballot initiative that Eldridge championed was overwhelmingly approved by the state’s electorate. She spent her last years campaigning for the resolution of Cold War conflicts in Central America and opposing President Reagan’s Star Wars program. She remained director of New Jersey SANE until her death in  at the age of eighty-two. Her legacy of activism prompted the state legislature to proclaim her “New Jersey’s First Lady of Peace.’’

See energy in-

dustry. .-square-mile city in Union County. Founded in the seventeenth century by English settlers, the new town was called Elizabethtown in honor of Elizabeth, the wife of Sir George Carteret, who, along with Lord John Berkeley, had received the tract of land known as New Jersey from the duke of York. Gov. Philip Carteret, appointed by his relative Sir George and Lord Berkeley, made Elizabeth the capital of New Jersey and convened the first General Assembly there in . Land riots and court disputes took place in the ensuing decades, as settlers who received patents from Col. Richard Nichols, governor of New York (which originally included New Jersey), refused to apply for new patents or pay quitrents to Governor Carteret. These disputes, interrupted by the French and Indian War and then the Revolution, were never judicially settled. In  the General Assembly passed an act to divide the counties into townships, and Elizabeth Township was defined to include all of present-day Union County and parts of Somerset, Hunterdon, Morris, Warren, and Sussex counties. King George II of England granted a charter for the Free Borough and Town of Elizabeth in February , which the township government had sought to “more promptly and thoroughly transact the public business.’’ During the Revolution, Elizabeth was often attacked by British forces based in New York and Staten Island and served as one of the weakest points in Gen. George Washington’s New Jersey front. After the war’s end the New Jersey legislature granted Elizabeth a new charter on November , . In  the legislature approved a charter for the city of Elizabeth, which was accepted by Elizabeth citizens in a special election. At the time Elizabeth’s population was ,. In  Elizabeth was selected as the seat of the newly defined Union County. The first major industry, the Singer Sewing Machine Company, came to Elizabeth in  and employed seven thousand people. Over time much of the territory that had been Elizabeth Township broke away to become Woodbridge, Basking Ridge, Springfield, New Providence, Westfield, Scotch Plains, Rahway, Union, Linden, Roselle, Roselle Park, and Hillside. Now a service, manufacturing, and retail center, Elizabeth features an IKEA superstore with gross sales of over $ million a year just off the New Jersey Turnpike and the nearby Jersey Gardens Mall, with more than

Elizabethtown Associates two hundred stores. The Elizabeth Marine Terminal, located near the airport, is the most active containerport in North America; the Port Newark/Elizabeth area occupies , acres. Also in Elizabeth are the Elizabeth General Medical Center, a -bed facility, and Saint Elizabeth Hospital, a -bed facility; a Union County College campus; and the historic Ritz Theater. Elizabeth draws many benefits from Newark Liberty International Airport, nearly half of which falls within Elizabeth’s borders. In , Elizabeth’s population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent other. Hispanics of different races made up almost  percent of the population. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Elizabeth, NJ: An Economic Profile. New York: Economic Opportunity, . Newberry, Lida, ed. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. Rev. ed. New York: Hastings House, .

Harry Glazer

Elizabeth Daily Journal.

This daily newspaper, based in Elizabeth, was founded in  and closed in . Its origins were political. Because most New Jersey publications supported the Loyalists, Gen. Harry Knox sought to establish a newspaper that conveyed the ideals of the Revolutionaries. Alexander Hamilton recommended Shepard Kollock, a lieutenant in the Continental Army who had previously worked as a printer in the West Indies. Kollock was given an honorable discharge and set up shop for what was then called the New Jersey Journal in the backroom of Day’s Inn (the site is now part of the Short Hills Mall in Millburn). The newspaper started as a weekly and received support from Kollock’s uncle in Philadelphia and additional supplies of paper and paper materials from the army. In the newspaper’s early years Kollock wrote all the stories and ran the printing press, which he moved frequently to avoid capture. In  the newspaper settled in Elizabeth. Kollock sold the newspaper in  when he was appointed postmaster of Elizabeth. The New Jersey Journal was resold and renamed several more times until a former teacher, Frederick Foote, took charge in . Foote named the paper the Elizabeth Daily Journal in , although it did not actually become a daily newspaper until . Augustus Crane, a former copy boy at the newspaper who rose through the ranks, became the newspaper’s president in . His family controlled the newspaper until  when it was sold to Mid-Atlantic Newspaper, which was supported by Goodson-Todman television enterprises. Mid-Atlantic’s head, Ralph Ingersoll, Sr., was the first editor of Life and Fortune magazines. He changed the newspaper’s name to the Daily Journal in , to reflect increased suburban coverage in Union, Essex, and Middlesex counties. At that time

the newspaper’s circulation rose to sixty thousand readers, its highest level ever. A pressman’s strike in  stopped the paper from publishing for eight days, before a settlement was reached. Hagadone Newspapers of Idaho purchased the Daily Journal in . To boost the newspaper’s prospects, Hagadone built a new $ million newspaper plant next to the old one, with modernized facilities and offset printing. Yet the size, staff, and circulation of the paper slowly began to shrink. The Daily Journal’s Newspaper Guild went on strike in April  over job classifications and began publishing a strike paper, the Community Paper. The Journal continued to publish, but lost advertising. The Guild eventually ran short of funds and settled in November. The Journal was sold in  to the North Jersey Newspaper Company, which owned the Denver Post, the Houston Post, and other newspapers. In December , the newspaper, with circulation shrinking and advertising in decline, was set to be sold to the Rudder Publishing Company of Daytona Beach, Florida, with supporting loans from the Elizabeth City Council and Elizabeth Development Company. The deal fell through and the Daily Journal ceased publication on January , , with headlines reading “Goodbye: A Friend Bids Farewell.’’ Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Harry Glazer

Elizabeth Marine Terminal.

The ,-acre Port Newark–Elizabeth complex, constructed on reclaimed wetlands at the western edge of Newark Bay, consists of the Elizabeth Marine Terminal and Port Newark. Port Newark, surrounding the north ship channel, was constructed in the s; the Elizabeth Marine Terminal, at the south channel, was constructed between  and . The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey operates both facilities. The Elizabeth Marine Terminal (frequently, but incorrectly, called Port Elizabeth or Elizabethport) was the world’s first containerport, specifically designed to handle standardized containers rather than general cargoes. Traditional port facilities occupied several dozen acres at most, and were largely covered with storage sheds and warehouses; the new containerport occupies more than a thousand acres, and is basically a giant parking lot designed to hold hundreds of thousands of containers. The New Jersey Turnpike Authority constructed Exit A to provide immediate access to the new containerport, whose advertisements boast that truckers can drive from Port Newark– Elizabeth to Chicago without encountering a single traffic light. Sea-Land, the ocean carrier that pioneered the development of containerization at Port Newark, signed up as the terminal’s first tenant in . Within ten years,

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almost all of New York City’s shipping lines had adopted containerization and relocated their operations from Manhattan and Brooklyn to Port Newark–Elizabeth. “Elizabeth Container Facility: New York.’’ Dock and Harbor Authority  (Nov. ): –. Jane’s Information Group. Jane’s Intermodal Transportation, /. Coulsdon, Surrey, UK: Jane’s Information Group, . Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Port Guide New York/New Jersey: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. New York: NYT Custom Publishing, . Savage, Anna. “Port Newark–Elizabeth Complex Becoming the World’s Container Capital.’’ New York Times, July , .

Stephen Marshall

Elizabethtown

Associates. The Elizabethtown Associates was one of the major landholding companies of colonial New Jersey. It was originally established by Puritan settlers from Long Island to control the distribution of a land grant around Raritan Bay received from Col. Richard Nicolls in . By the eighteenth century the associates were using the Nicolls grant to claim more than four hundred thousand acres in an eastwest band running from the Elizabethtown settlement on Raritan Bay to the Delaware River. The associates, who included most of the independent yeomen in the town itself, were led by a committee that was sometimes referred to as “the associates’’ or “the committee.’’ Some of the most prominent men in the township served on this committee. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the associates distributed or sold lands west of Elizabethtown to newcomers and the town’s younger generations. The East Jersey Proprietors’ aggressive efforts to gain control of these western lands in the s and s involved the Elizabethtown Bill in Chancery. It was prepared by proprietor and lawyer James Alexander, and became a contributing factor in the disorder of the period as violence broke out at Turkey on the so-called Clinker Lots and on the Peapack Tract in Somerset. In all of these areas, individuals claiming land under the associates engaged in violence or acts of protest against the proprietors, their tenants, and members of the royal government. Meanwhile, the committee itself prepared to file an “Answer to the Elizabethtown Bill in Chancery,’’ written by William Livingston (among others). The associates’ legal delaying tactics were successful, and as the Revolutionary era unfolded, the ownership of the contested tract remained in doubt. There was a close connection between the Revolutionary-era associates and the socalled Essex Junto that spearheaded the drive for independence in New Jersey, and after the fighting ended, the proprietors’ efforts to revive their bill in Chancery collapsed. The fact that William Livingston had by then become New Jersey’s governor no doubt played a role in discouraging their plans.

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Elizabethtown Gas Company

Landsman, Ned. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . McConville, Brendan. These Daring Disturbers of the Public Peace. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Purvis, Thomas. Proprietors, Patronage, and Paper Money: Legislative Politics in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Nicolls patents

Brendan McConville

Elizabethtown Gas Company. The Elizabethtown Gas Company originated as the Elizabethtown Gas Light Company, founded in  to provide processed coal gas for lighting in the city of Elizabeth. It was organized by the politically influential Kean family, who also controlled the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Elizabethtown Water Company, the Hacksensack Water Company, and the National State Bank of Elizabeth. The company converted to natural gas in the s, after pipelines were constructed from oilfields in Texas. In  it organized a parent holding company, National Utilities and Industries Corporation (NUI Corporation since ), which set up unregulated subsidiaries in nonutility businesses. The company provides gas to approximately four hundred thousand customers in Union and Middlesex counties. NUI also acquired gas companies in Pennsylvania, Florida, and North Carolina. After New Jersey enacted legislation in  that deregulated the energy industry, Elizabethtown Gas began offering its customers a choice of different gas suppliers. Its sister firms also sought to provide telecommunications and information services in competition with Verizon (formerly New Jersey Bell), by using Elizabethtown’s public franchise, right-ofways, and easements with connections to all homes and businesses in its service area.

of Clayton broke off and was officially designated as Elk Township. It earned its name because the roads that intersected it were said to have been the chosen paths of elks. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, farms, including orchards, were plentiful. Today the rural township is predominantly made up of farms and single-family homes. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Ellarslie Mansion, the Museum of the City of Trenton. In , Henry McCall, Sr., of Philadelphia, selected architect John Notman to build an Italianate villa as a summer residence. In September , the city of Trenton acquired the property and its surrounding acres for use as a park. When Cadwalader Park opened in  the mansion became an ice cream parlor, and in , it was part of the city zoo and became the monkey house. In , renovations began and Ellarslie became Trenton’s first city museum; in  it was included in the National Register of Historic Places. Ellarslie opened with an exhibition from its permanent collection of Trenton cultural history. The first-floor

galleries are host to changing exhibitions of contemporary art in all media. See also museums

Brian O. Hill

Elliott, Charles Loring

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Painter. Charles Loring Elliott

was born to Daniel Elliott and Mehitable Booth Elliott in Scipio, New York. His father, an architect, moved the family to Syracuse in , where Charles worked for his father sketching and drafting building details. Charles longed to be an artist and with his father’s support he left for New York City in  with a letter of introduction to John Trumbull, the president of the Old Academy. Elliott spent six months studying with Trumbull and figure painter John Quidor. Soon he found himself without money and without an income. Feeling discouraged about his career as an artist, he returned to upstate New York. He spent the next ten years working as a portrait painter in addition to taking odd jobs as a sign painter. He often referred to these itinerant years as the best ten years of his life. In  he returned to New York City. His artistic skills had improved considerably and he exhibited work at the National Academy in  and  but soon he was in debt. He again went home to Syracuse where he earned money painting local portraits and was able to establish himself as a professional artist. He returned once more to New York City in  and caught the attention of his peers. The

Czarnecki, Katherine Kean. Illuminations: A History of Elizabethtown Gas. Elizabeth: Elizabethtown Gas Company, .

See also energy industry

Stephen Marshall

Elk Township.

.-square-mile township in Gloucester County. Elk Township is made up of several small towns, including Aura, Ferrell, Lawns, Hardingville, Ewan, and Lake Gilman. Leonard and Jacob Fisler from Switzerland were early settlers, purchasing land in what is now the township in . Settlers from Ireland and England were also drawn to the location. During the colonial period the heavily wooded area was known for its lumber industry. Located on a well-traveled eighteenth- and nineteenth-century path to Cape May and Bridgeton, this central location supported many taverns, including the Pine Tavern, built in . In  the small settlements were known collectively as Clayton Township; in  part

Preliminary plan for Cadwalader Park in Trenton drawn by Frederick Law Olmsted and Company, September , .

Courtesy City of Trenton, Department of Recreation, Natural Resources, and Culture.

Ellis Island Bolton, Theodore. “Charles Loring Elliott, an Account of His Life and Work.’’ Art Quarterly (Winter ): –.

See also art

Patrice M. Kane

Ellis Island.

Image Not Available

Charles Loring Elliott, Portrait of Mrs. Thomas Goulding, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy National Academy of Design, New York. Gift of Samuel Goulding, 1901.

aging Henry Inman stated, “When I am gone that young man will take my place,’’ and with Inman’s death in , Elliott emerged as a leading portrait painter. Commissions came from politicians, bankers, scholars, and merchants. He received so many requests from officials in Washington, D.C., that he had to move his family there for a year. Elliott kept a studio in the Art Union Building on Broadway in New York. In the s he was successful enough to invest in real estate and bought an acre of land in Hoboken overlooking the valley of Hackensack. It was in Hoboken that he made his permanent home, even building another studio on the land. New Jersey was very convenient to the city and provided a pastoral setting away from the hustle and bustle of urban life. In  he completed one of his most famous works, Portrait of Mrs. Thomas Goulding, a Jersey City resident. In  he traveled to Poughkeepsie where he completed another renowned work, a fullsize portrait of Matthew Vassar, brewer and founder of Vassar College. It is estimated he painted over seven hundred portraits, including James Fenimore Cooper, William Cullen Bryant, and Mr. and Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt. Demand was so great for his portraits that Elliott could afford to turn down work that did not catch his interest. In  Elliott temporarily moved to Albany, buying another home and studio, in order to complete commissions in the state capital. Overwork and excessive drinking were affecting his health. Back in New York he completed ten commissioned portraits, then signed a pledge witnessed by his friend Charles Edwards Lester to abstain from alcohol. He returned to Albany in July exhausted, and died on August , . He is buried in Greenwood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York.

The Mohegan Indians once used this island as an oyster fishing ground. In  they sold it, along with Staten Island and a large part of New Jersey’s coast, to the Dutchman Michael Paauw, who established Pavonia colony, New Jersey’s first European settlement. From the period of English colonization, New Jersey and New York disputed the jurisdiction and sovereignty of Ellis Island and its surrounding waters. New York State transferred its land titles to—but not its sovereignty over—Ellis Island to the federal government in  and in . On May , , as a result of a suit filed by the state of New Jersey, the U.S. Supreme Court awarded to New York sovereignty over the island’s original  acres; the Court affirmed New Jersey’s sovereignty over the additional . acres created by federal landfill projects undertaken from  to . In  both states had acknowledged that the submerged land later filled by the federal government was within New Jersey’s jurisdiction. Ellis Island remains under federal ownership. Between  and  the federal government operated an immigration processing center on Ellis Island. Ellis Island was one of seventy such stations established from the s to replace state-run facilities. A series of laws initiated at this time established

249

federal control over immigration inspection, admission, and deportation. Several federal laws, culminating in the national quota acts of the s, limited the number of persons allowed to enter the country from various parts of the world, notably Asia and southern and eastern Europe. Another series of restrictive federal measures aimed to protect Americans from contagious diseases, political dissidents, criminals, the indigent, the mentally ill and disabled, and persons likely to become public dependents. The shipping companies that transported immigrants to the United States undertook preliminary inquiries affirming an immigrant’s suitability for admission, but civil servants at Ellis Island and the other immigrant processing stations conducted the legal and medical inspections designed to implement federally mandated regulations. The shift to federal control of immigration reflected the Progressive Era’s understanding of big government, bureaucracy, and expert civil servants as appropriate means to address social problems. Ellis Island, which handled  percent of the immigrants entering the nation through processing centers, was indeed a model of bureaucratic efficiency. During  and , for example, its civil servant staff, numbering about  persons, processed approximately , persons a day. In  American consular offices began inspection of immigrants at European ports of embarkation. By , immigrant processing at Ellis Island had ceased, and it became a deportation and detention center. After its use as a wartime detention center (–), Ellis Island closed in .

New arrivals being examined for trachoma, a highly contagious eye disease.

Courtesy Ellis Island Immigration Museum.

Elmer, Jonathan

250

In  President Lyndon Johnson placed the deserted facility under the care of the National Park Service as the Statue of Liberty– Ellis Island National Monument. An estimated  percent of Americans, mostly of European descent, claim ancestors who entered the United States through the Ellis Island Immigration Station. Today, the Immigration Museum and Family History Research Center occupy the main building where these immigrant ancestors found first admission to their new homeland. Brownstone, David M., Irene M. Franck, and Douglass L. Brownstone. Island of Hope, Island of Tears. New York: Rawson, Wade Publishers, . Tifft, Wilson. Ellis Island. New York: W. W. Norton, . Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia, and Marjorie Lightman. Ellis Island and the Peopling of America: The Official Guide. New York: New Press, .

See also immigration

Virginia Yans-McLaughlin

Elmer, Jonathan

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Physician, legislator, and ju-

rist. Jonathan Elmer was born in Cedarville, Cumberland County, the son of Daniel Elmer and Abigail Lawrence. He was privately tutored. In  he married Mary Seeley; they had eight children. He was awarded an M.D. degree from the Medical School of the College of Philadelphia in , and established a practice at Bridgeton. In  he was elected to the American Philosophical Society. Elmer’s political career began in  when he was appointed Cumberland county sheriff. He was a member of the county Committee of Observation in  and the next year he was chosen a deputy to the Provincial Congress. In November  he was a delegate to the Continental Congress, and subsequently served in – and –. He was elected to the state’s Legislative Council in  and again in . On the county level, Elmer at various times was clerk, surrogate, freeholder, justice of the peace, and common pleas judge. He was elected president of the Medical Society of New Jersey in . Reelected to Congress in , Elmer supported the new federal Constitution. That November the legislature chose him as one of the state’s first U.S. senators; a moderate Federalist, he served from March  until March . In  he chaired an antiwar convention held at Trenton. Elmer died at Bridgeton, leaving behind a reputation for medical erudition and a forty-two-year legacy of public service. ANB. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . DNB. Elmer, L.Q.C. Genealogy and Biography of the Elmer Family. Bridgeton: Nixon and Potter, . Wickes, Stephen. History of Medicine in New Jersey. Newark: Martin R. Dennis, .

David J. Fowler

Elmer.

Borough of less than  square mile in southeastern Salem County. Elmer is completely surrounded by Pittsgrove and Upper Pittsgrove townships, from which it was formed in . Once called Pittstown and originally part of Cumberland County, it was on the Bridgeton Branch of the West Jersey Railroad and was the hub of an important fruit-shipping business. Elmer was probably named after Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus Elmer, a nineteenthcentury lawyer, state legislator, congressman, and a justice of the state supreme court. His illustrious family included his father, Dr. Ebenezer Elmer, who served in the American Revolution and the War of , and his uncle, Dr. Jonathan Elmer, member of the Continental Congress, trustee of the College of New Jersey, and U.S. senator. In , before the formation of a fire company in the borough, one of Elmer’s citizens purchased the Merrimac, an  hand pumper that saw its first service after the formation of the Elmer Volunteer Fire Company No.  in . It is still maintained by the fire company. The David V. Smith House, built in , once a blacksmith shop and later a commercial center, was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in . The  population of , was  percent white. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Elmwood Park. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The original settlers were Dutch and English; Bohemians, French, and Italians later arrived to fill jobs in the textile mills along the Passaic River. The site of an American military post during the Revolution, the area was part of Saddle River Township until its incorporation in  as East Paterson; it changed its name to Elmwood Park on January , . In the s, after a river dam created Dundee Lake and a railroad station opened on River Drive, the community enjoyed a brief heyday as a resort, with lakeside cottages and day-trippers coming from as far away as New York. But industrial pollution spoiled the lake, and legislation ended harness racing at the local fairgrounds. With manufacturing reestablished as its major economic underpinning, the town figured in the labor unrest of the s and s; a strike in  brought out the National Guard. More recent businesses included Curtiss-Wright (aircraft parts); Allen B. DuMont Laboratories (television); and Marcal Paper Mills, which remains a leading employer after sixty years. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and 

percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Clayton, W. Woodford. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Nelson, William, and Charles A. Shriner. Paterson and Its Environs (The Silk City). New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Scott, William W. History of Passaic and Its Environs. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Maureen Dillon

Elsie the Cow.

Borden’s Elsie the Cow was “born’’ at the  New York World’s Fair, when patrons kept asking, “Where’s Elsie?’’—a reference to a cartoon cow created by Madison Avenue advertising executive George V. Pisani. A Jersey cow named You’ll Do Lobelia was selected as Elsie, and for two years she was a star, making personal appearances in her custom -wheeler, the “Cowdillac.’’ But on April , , her vehicle was hit from behind by another truck on Route  in Rahway. She suffered neck and spine injuries, and could not be saved. She was put to sleep at the Walker-Gordon Farm in Plainsboro, where she is buried. See also Walker-Gordon Farm

Russell Roberts

Elsinboro.

.-square-mile township in Salem County. In  a group of English colonists from New Haven, Connecticut, settled here; this was known locally as the New Haven Colony. The colony did not last long; settlers were either driven away by the Swedes and the Dutch or their numbers were decimated by pleurisy. In  a Swedish fort, Fort Elfsborg, was built here—it also lasted only a short time. The remains of this fort are believed to be buried under the sands of the Delaware River. During the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, there were four breweries and a tide-mill in Elsinboro Township, all of which operated for only a few years. Oakwood Beach was a well-known local summer resort along the shores of the Delaware River, with cottages first built there in the s. Currently, industry in the township is very limited, making Elsinboro basically a residential community. Residents live in the upper half of the township; the lower half consists of swamps and marshland. In , the population of , was  percent white, and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Place Names of Salem County, N.J. Salem: Salem County Historical Society, .

Patricia W. Blakely

Embargo Act

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War I. Later, the site served as the home of a Maxwell House Coffee factory, which closed in . DiClerico, James, and Barry Pavelec. The Jersey Game. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Goldstein, Warren. Playing for Keeps: A History of Early Baseball. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Kirsch, George. The Creation of American Team Sports: Baseball and Cricket, –. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also baseball

Corey Seeman

Embargo Act.

Elsie the Cow takes a dip off Atlantic City’s Steel Pier with some other bathing beauties, c. .

Courtesy Vicki Gold Levi.

Ely, John H. (b. ; d. ), son C. Ely (b. ; d. ).

and WilArchitects. John H. Ely and Wilson C. Ely formed a wellknown father-and-son Newark architectural firm. John came to Newark in  as a carpenter and builder and rose to become a prominent architect, and Wilson spent fifty-seven years designing buildings and later running the firm. During their lifetimes they designed and built the National Newark and Essex Banking Company building, Newark City Hall, the Mutual Benefit Life building on Broadway, and the American Insurance Company and Firemen’s Insurance Company structures. Outside Newark they were responsible for the East Orange City Hall, the Morristown Memorial Hospital, and the Deposit Company of Maryland. During their careers Newark’s skyline changed from classical and Beaux-Arts to modern-style skyscrapers. See also architecture

with these rules took place at Elysian Fields on June , , with Cartwright’s Knickerbocker baseball club losing to the New York Nine,  to . Although baseball evolved from the game of rounders, this event helped Hoboken claim to be the true birthplace of baseball. The Elysian Fields were used through the Civil War as home for many of New York City’s baseball and cricket teams, sometimes attracting eight thousand spectators. They continued as a recreational facility through at least World

The Embargo Act of December  imposed a moratorium on trade to pressure England into respecting American neutral rights during the Napoleonic Wars. The embargo hurt New Jersey’s farmers by reducing prices for grain and other produce shipped to New York and Philadelphia. Clearances required for every rivercraft taking produce to those cities raised costs to farmers, and the value of livestock dropped by  percent. Farmers routinely smuggled cornmeal, flour, salted meats, fruits, and vegetables to Manhattan while avoiding revenue cutters between Perth Amboy and New York. Despite New Jersey’s distance from Canada and its lack of major ports, smugglers’ vessels left Jersey City and Perth Amboy for Canada, England, and the West Indies. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin removed Phineas Manning, collector of customs at Perth Amboy, because of his connivance with smugglers there and in Jersey City. The economic impact of the embargo rejuvenated the Federalists and restored two-party competition in New Jersey, where Republicans had dominated since . In  Federalists actively challenged Republican control of the

Charles F. Cummings

Elysian Fields. The Elysian Fields, in the northern part of Hoboken, hosted the first modern game of baseball. The fields took up approximately five acres donated by prominent Hoboken resident John C. Stevens for cricket and baseball games, parades, and other community events. Only a mile from the Hudson River ferry dock, the Elysian Fields were a frequent recreational destination for people from New York City. The name was taken from the classical Greek term for heaven. In , Alexander Cartwright established rules that would serve as the basis for the modern game of baseball. The first game played

Elysian Fields, Hoboken.

Courtesy National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Cooperstown, NY.

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embroidery

state legislature and dramatically increased their organizational activities, putting the Republicans on the defensive. The embargo and Jeffersonian foreign policy emerged as the major issues in the  campaigns, and the intense competition between political parties brought voters to the polls. Federalists emphasized the economic hardships produced by the embargo, while Republicans wrapped themselves in American nationalism and patriotic loyalty to President Jefferson. Although Republicans retained control of the legislature after the October  state elections, the embargo allowed the Federalists to make impressive gains, threaten Republican domination, and restore two- party competition. A -vote shift in Hunterdon and Gloucester counties in the election would have given the Federalists control of the legislature. The Embargo Act was repealed in . Pasler, Rudolph, and Margaret Pasler. The New Jersey Federalists. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Prince, Carl E. New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also War of 1812

Harvey Strum

embroidery.

A sign hangs over Route  about two minutes outside the Lincoln Tunnel—“Welcome to Northern New Jersey, Embroidery Capital of the World Since .’’ A narrow region in northern Hudson and southern Bergen counties has been a major center for the creation of commercial embroidery and lace for  years. Commercial embroidery machines produce a wide variety of decorative textiles that are used throughout the United States. Embroidery shops of northern New

Jersey have created glamorous textiles for the costumes of Broadway and television shows, delicate lace and eyelet trims that adorn fancy linens, fields of stars on U.S. flags, and multicolored emblems worn by the Boy Scouts, the police, and men and women in the military. In the s, Swiss immigrants who came from the region around St. Gallen imported embroidery machines from Europe and set them up in the towns now known as Union City, West New York, Weehawken, and North Bergen. The firm bedrock of the Palisades was perfect as an anchor for the ,– ,-pound cast-iron machines, and the region’s proximity to New York gave the stitchers access to the fashion market. German immigrants from the Plauen embroidery region soon joined the growing embroidery community. Successive waves of immigrants from Eastern Europe, the Near East, and Latin America contributed hard work and talent in subsequent years. Embroidery started out as a cottage industry run by families who passed down their knowledge and skills from one generation to the next. Each family anchored a machine or two on the ground floor of the house or in the backyard, and they divided up the tasks involved in production. The men usually operated the ten-yard and fifteen-yard embroidery machines, while the women kept the books and did piecework upstairs. The children grew up in the shops, learning the trade by observing and assisting their parents. Although over the decades some shops grew in size to thirty machines, for the most part shops in northern New Jersey remained small. A number of embroidery companies active in this area today are still run by the families of immigrants who established these businesses almost a century ago.

Europe, with its rich tradition of lace, has always been seen as the most important source of commercial embroidery designs. New Jersey embroiderers bought sample books from Switzerland, Germany, Italy, and France, and then adapted the patterns for the American market. As they followed the fluctuations of fashion, they also supplied a wide variety of embroidery and lace to the world. In , there were , shuttle embroidery machines in the United States and Canada, and  of them were in New Jersey. Of the  shuttle embroidery firms operating at that time,  were in New Jersey. In ,  of the , machines in North America were still set in New Jersey, although the years since  have seen a precipitous drop in the industry, with much of the embroidery work in textiles now being done overseas in Asia and Latin America. See also textile industry

Meriam Lobel

Emerson.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Most of the area of Emerson was acquired by Gawen Lawrie and Peter Sonmans, two of the East Jersey proprietors, and later sold to individual settlers. During the American Revolution, both American and British troops plundered the local farms in search of supplies. Although there were many early mills and taverns, Ackerman’s general store was probably the first shop in town. The borough was originally part of Essex County. When the limits of Bergen County were extended to the Passaic and Pequannock rivers, New Barbadoes (the original township) was included in Bergen. It remained so until , when Harrington Township was formed from part of the original New Barbadoes Township. Washington Township separated from New Barbadoes in . When “borough fever’’ came to Bergen County, the borough of Etna was incorporated in . The town name was changed to Emerson in , possibly after author Ralph Waldo Emerson. By  the Hackensack and New York Extension Railroad Company had completed its line to New Bridge (North Hackensack); it later was extended north to Emerson and beyond. Emerson has high-quality schools, rail and bus lines for commuters, and many parks, including more than one hundred acres of wooded watershed along the Oradell Reservoir. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Durie, Howard I. Background History of the Borough of Emerson. Emerson: Emerson Tercentenary Committee, .

Linda J. Barth

eminent domain. Venise lace embroidery manufactured by the Schiffli process in the North Hudson region of the state.

Courtesy Northeast New Jersey Folk Arts Program, Park Performing Arts Center, Union City. Photo: Bracco Art Studio.

The power of government to appropriate private property for public use is eminent domain, also called the power of condemnation. This ancient power

Engelhard Corporation is inherent in all sovereign governments and requires no constitutional provision to give it force. Local governments possess eminent domain powers only as authorized by state legislation, and under limited circumstances the power can be delegated to private entities. Eminent domain contributed to New Jersey’s economic rise in the nineteenth century by helping to assemble the rights of way needed to build an infrastructure of canals and railroads. The New Jersey Turnpike and Garden State Parkway are modern examples. Eminent domain also made possible twentieth-century urban redevelopment, such as high-rise public housing in Newark and other big cities and the Meadowlands Sports Complex in the Hackensack Meadows. The social, economic, and environmental controversies surrounding many of these huge projects have helped place eminent domain among the least popular powers of government. Initially, New Jersey permitted use of eminent domain without paying just compensation, a practice ended by the state’s  constitution and an  statute. Compensation is also required by the federal Constitution. Related to eminent domain is a practice sometimes called inverse condemnation— uncompensated regulation of property that may violate the constitution in extreme cases if it effectively destroys all of the value of private property. In a prominent  case, for instance, the New Jersey Supreme Court invalidated a very restrictive Parsippany–Troy Hills zoning ordinance whose purpose was to protect a sensitive wetlands area. More recently, however, the court has upheld broad statutory restrictions in the Pinelands Preserve without compensation, reflecting evolving attitudes toward the environment since the s. Buonocore, John H., Jr. “Eminent Domain.’’ In New Jersey Practice: Skills and Methods. d ed. Vol. . St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, .

See also law

John M. Payne

Emlen Physick Estate.

Originally occupying eleven acres in Cape May, the Emlen Physick Estate includes the eighteenroom Physick House (–), a carriage house, and eight smaller outbuildings. Built in the Stick style, the Physick House is attributed to the renowned Philadelphia architect Frank Furness, and features his characteristically oversized corbelled chimneys, jerkinhead dormers, and stick porch brackets. The estate was built as a year-round home for Dr. Emlen Physick, Jr. (–), a descendant of two prominent Philadelphia families. Following the death of the last family member in , the Physick Estate passed through a variety of hands and ultimately became the town’s vacant and vandalized “haunted house.’’ Its proposed demolition in  spurred the formation of the MidAtlantic Center for the Arts, which has since

saved and restored it. The Physick Estate now welcomes more than fifty thousand visitors a year to its Victorian house museum, as well as to the exhibit gallery and Twinings Tearoom in the Carriage House. See also historic sites

B. Michael Zuckerman

Endangered and Nongame Species Committee. This committee was established by passage of the  Endangered and Nongame Species Conservation Act. It is composed of eleven members who are “actively involved in the conservation of wildlife.’’ Members primarily come from New Jersey’s nonprofit conservation groups and Rutgers University. The committee’s purpose is to “advise and assist the Commissioner (of DEP) in carrying out the intent of this act.’’ Principal among the committee’s duties is to review periodically the status of each of New Jersey’s wildlife species and recommend to the commissioner a formal list of endangered or threatened species. The committee has also assumed a major role in initiating programs to fund the conservation of nongame species. Beans, Bruce E., and Larry Niles, eds. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

James E. Applegate

energy industry. The early history of gas and electric utilities in New Jersey shows two trends: consolidation of numerous small companies into a few large entities, and shifts in sources of fuels. Recent trends are deregulation, divestiture of power sources, and diversification into unregulated activities. Gas companies were the earliest utilities, organized in the s for the manufacture and distribution of processed coal gas for streetlighting purposes in Newark, Elizabeth, and other large cities. They expanded both functionally, by providing residential lighting and industrial power sources, and geographically, first into the suburbs and later into the rural portions of the state. Electric companies, first organized during the s, followed a similar pattern. Gas and electric companies at first experienced only light and sporadic municipal regulation. After  they were closely regulated by the state Public Utilities Commission, today’s Board of Public Utilities (BPU). Initially there were dozens of small utilities, but by the mid-s they had been consolidated into a half-dozen large firms. The largest was Newark-based Public Service Electric and Gas Corporation (PSE&G), which served New Jersey’s heavily populated central corridor. Other gas providers were Elizabethtown Gas, New Jersey Natural Gas, and South Jersey Gas. Electric service was also provided by Jersey Central Power & Light (JCP&L), the Atlantic City Electric Company (ACE), and Rockland Electric. Gas utilities ceased manufacturing their gas supplies in the s, after interstate pipelines began providing natural gas.

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Electric-generating plants were initially fueled by coal, but this was later supplemented by oil, natural gas, and nuclear power. Energy utilities began diversifying during the s and s, setting up parent holding companies with unregulated subsidiaries involved in data processing, real estate, and other activities. PSE&G set up Public Service Enterprise Group; Elizabethtown Gas created National Utilities and Industries Corporation (NUI); ACE formed Atlantic Energy. It became possible for large, unregulated profits to be gained by using intangible assets (e.g., customer information, computer software), which had been developed or purchased with utility consumers’ funds. These could be transferred to unregulated affiliates, without any corresponding payments, and without any reporting of the transfers in the utilities’ financial reports to the BPU. Diversification and deregulation increased during the s. Following the example of California and other states exposing their utility consumers to market forces, New Jersey enacted the  Electric Discount and Energy Competition Act. This decreased the scope of state regulation to utilities’ transmission and distribution functions; it also required consumers to select the particular (unregulated) providers of gas and electricity that would provide their service via the utilities’ local grids of pipelines and wires. Energy utilities strongly supported the  act, as well as earlier administrative rulings by the BPU that facilitated their entry into unregulated activities. Attempts by the Ratepayer Advocate to help municipalities and other energy consumers organize cooperative purchasing entities (which would have better access to information and greater bargaining power in dealing with unregulated energy suppliers) were strongly opposed by the utilities and the BPU.

Stephen Marshall

Engelhard Corporation.

This Fortune  firm has its headquarters in Iselin, and specializes in widely diversified applications of surface and materials sciences with environmental, product appearance, and performance applications. Its primary business, accounting for about  percent of current sales, is providing precious and base metals as raw materials for manufacturers in markets ranging from automotive to lawn equipment. In , Engelhard was a pioneer in the development of catalytic converters for reducing automotive exhaust emissions. Ford Motor Company accounts for approximately  percent of Engelhard’s annual sales. Services include development of process technologies and chemical catalysts used in pharmaceutical and agricultural applications. Pigments and absorbent technologies are used in products ranging from automotive finishes to cosmetics. Performance additives are used in manufacturing coatings, paper, and

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Englewood

other goods. In New Jersey, Engelhard operates plants in Carteret for industrial production and materials service research. Its facility in East Newark manufactures precious metals coatings. Research and development facilities are located in Iselin and Union. In , Engelhard was awarded a patent for an exhaust-gas recirculation system to reduce emissions from diesel engines, especially in city buses. The firm employs more than , people in one hundred countries. Worldwide sales in  totaled nearly $. billion.

trails. Both visitors and the town’s diverse ethnic, racial, and cultural population enjoy Englewood’s thriving downtown. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Jim Donnelly

Englewood: A Community Handbook. Englewood: Englewood Centennial Committee, .

Englewood.

.-square-mile city in Bergen County. Settled in the s by the Dutch and Huguenots, Englewood’s Liberty Pole area was a strategic junction during the Revolutionary War. In  the Northern Railroad changed Bergen County’s Northern Valley, making Manhattan more accessible. J. Wyman Jones, a New York lawyer, who had discovered the beauty of the area, encouraged other wealthy New Yorkers to settle in the area. They built large estates on the hills, planted trees, and founded civil service organizations intent on the improvement and expansion of the township. Incorporated in  as the first city in Bergen County (shortly after Teaneck and Englewood Cliffs broke away from Englewood Township), Englewood became known as the Queen City of the Palisades and the Bedroom of Wall Street. It is a residential area that over the years has attracted well-known artists, entertainers, and businessmen. Englewood’s hospital, incorporated in , added the Dizzy Gillespie Cancer Institute in . The John Harms Center for the Arts, a restored  vaudeville theater, is a venue for classical music concerts and other productions. Flat Rock Brook Nature Center, encompassing  acres on the Palisades slope, offers hiking

Bouton-Goldberg, Bobbie, Arnold Brown, Mary Buchbinder, Betty Grossman, Lisa Levien, and Irmari Nacht. Englewood and Englewood Cliffs. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Lattimer, John K. This Was Early Englewood. Englewood: Englewood Historical Society, .

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

Englewood Cliffs.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Named for its location atop the Palisades, Englewood Cliffs features a landmark glacial erratic known as Samson’s Rock. After the American Revolution, the waterfront became a shipping port. Quarrying of the Palisades was an early occupation in the village, although at first the stone was gathered mainly from the base of the cliffs. Later, blasting threatened this landmark and inspired the Save the Palisades movement, a long public campaign led by the State Federation of Women’s Clubs. Finally, the Palisades Interstate Park Commission was formed in  to preserve the area. The New Jersey section of the park, including twenty-five hundred acres of Hudson River shoreline, was formally dedicated in . Englewood Cliffs separated from Englewood Township and was incorporated in . Because so many motion picture companies used the Palisades in the early s, the town passed an ordinance requiring a ten-dollar fee for every separate film “shooting.’’ More businesses came to town in the mid-twentieth

century. Prentice-Hall arrived in , and Volkswagen in , followed by Scholastic, Inc., Lipton Tea, and CNBC in . In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bouton-Goldberg, Bobbie, Arnold Brown, Mary Buchbinder, Betty Grossman, Lisa Levien, and Irmari Nacht. Englewood and Englewood Cliffs. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Greco, James J. The Story of Englewood Cliffs. Englewood Cliffs: Tercentenary Committee, .

Linda J. Barth

Englewood Cliffs College.

Founded in , Englewood Cliffs College (originally known as Archangel College) was a Catholic junior college operated by the Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Joseph of Peace. Laywomen were admitted on a part-time basis beginning in , and by  the school had become coeducational. ECC reached its peak attendance with  students in , but enrollment fell to  by mid-decade. ECC lost its independent status when the school became a satellite campus of Saint Peter’s College in . See also higher education

Alan Delozier

Englewood Hospital and Medical Center. Englewood Hospital was incorporated in  and opened in  with fourteen beds and a six-member medical staff, partly in response to overcrowding at Bergen County’s Hackensack Hospital. The present hospital complex was built on the Engle Street site of the  building. A nurse’s training school opened in . Periodic expansions included a contagious disease pavilion in , the present East Wing (), the West Wing (), and the Dean Street Wing (). Today, the Englewood Hospital and Medical Center is a -bed community teaching hospital affiliated with the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York. The Dizzy Gillespie Cancer Institute, established at the musician’s death in , provides comprehensive cancer care, while the Dizzy Gillespie Memorial Fund assists jazz musicians unable to afford medical care. Other special programs include the Post-Polio Institute for polio survivors, the New Jersey Institute for the Advancement of Bloodless Medicine and Surgery, two hyperbaric oxygen chambers to treat poorly healing wounds, multidisciplinary cardiac and vascular centers, and the Surgical Weight Reduction and Support Center. The Englewood Medical Center of Learning () provides facilities for medical conferences and education. DeMott, Constance. A Short History of Englewood Hospital, –. Englewood: Englewood Hospital, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Sandra Moss Englewood railroad station.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

English. In the early colonial period in North America, the English were slow to settle

entire controversy doctrine in what is now New Jersey. The Dutch and the Swedes arrived first. Attempts by some groups of English immigrants to establish settlements along the Delaware River failed in  and . Before the English navy took New Netherland by force in , a number of English had begun settling in Monmouth County, Egg Harbor, Cape May, and Elizabethtown. After the conquest, the number increased markedly, with most of the new settlers coming from New England and moving particularly into Essex, Union, Middlesex, and Morris counties. They brought with them the Congregational Church, although some Quakers and Baptists settled there as well. A small but influential group of wealthy English, including the Morris family, arrived in Monmouth and Bergen counties from Barbados, bringing with them a considerable number of African American slaves. Some of these families eventually engaged in iron mining and iron production in the provinces of East and West Jersey. The s saw the beginning of a large influx of English Quakers into West Jersey, where they freely expressed their pacifist sentiments and their opposition to slavery. The great majority of the English who came into the Jerseys, including the Quakers, engaged in farming, although there were some craftsmen and small businessmen in the developing towns and cities. Anglican churches were established in New Jersey by ; after the American Revolution these became Episcopalian churches. The Revolutionary War divided the people of English heritage in New Jersey. Many, particularly members of the dissenting churches, such as the Presbyterians, joined the Patriot cause. A considerable number, however, including many Anglicans and government officials, remained loyal to the mother country, and from among them Loyalist regiments were formed. Many of these Loyalists left for Canada at the end of the war. Still, according to the  census,  percent of New Jersey’s population of , claimed English ancestry. As the new nation grew and men like Alexander Hamilton encouraged the development of industry, the new textile mills, iron works, and machine shops in places like Paterson, Belleville, Boonton, Trenton, and Phillipsburg sought experienced English mechanics, metal workers, and weavers. Attracted by higher wages, a small but steady stream of skilled English laborers emigrated to New Jersey from the s onward. In the s John Ryle, an Englishman, helped to establish the silk industry in Paterson, and James Taylor, also from England, started the pottery industry in Trenton. English workers in the pre–Civil War years were among the early leaders in pushing for workers’ rights and for labor unions. Between  and the s there was an increased influx of English immigrants. The number of foreign-born English residents in New Jersey, about , in , nearly tripled to , in , but then rose more slowly to , by . A rise in protective

tariffs during the Civil War encouraged a considerable number of British firms to move to the United States or to establish subsidiaries here. Thus English silk manufacturers relocated in Paterson along with more than , English silk workers. The number of English immigrant workers in the pottery, machine tool, iron and steel, and other industries also increased. These newcomers were among the most skilled workers in New Jersey. Many attained supervisory positions and, in general, earned higher than average wages. Despite their advantaged positions, or perhaps because of them, they were particularly active in the labor movement, which further enhanced their incomes. Although the English immigrants, with their language advantage and Protestant background, could more easily and quickly become acculturated into mainstream American society, they maintained a sense of community in areas where their numbers were concentrated and retained some cultural characteristics. They were often heavy drinkers and boisterous, and some continued to play cricket and other British sports. Others joined ethnically based clubs, lodges, and other organizations, such as the Sons of Saint George and the British-American Association in Jersey City. As early as the s, some English immigrants joined American Nativists in seeking to limit immigration. After , with the influx of newcomers from southern and eastern Europe, people of English heritage were among the leaders in the anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant American Protective Association. Although English immigrants most often tended to join the Republican party, they were not particularly active in New Jersey’s political parties. English-born Republican candidates for governor of the state failed to win elections in  and . However, English immigrants and others of English descent strongly supported America’s declaration of war on the side of England against Germany in World War I and again in World War II. In the interwar years, the English continued to prosper in New Jersey’s labor market, with many rising to become foremen in manufacturing establishments; others started small businesses or found professional and white-collar employment in growing corporations. Since , there has been a growth in British companies doing business in the United States, and they have brought some of their employees to New Jersey. Additionally, a small number of immigrants has continued to arrive from England. The  U.S. Census counted , foreign-born residents in New Jersey from the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland). The same census noted some , persons in New Jersey of English ancestry, the fourth largest ethnic group in the state. Although immigrants from many different countries have contributed to the culture of the United States and of New Jersey, the influence of the English

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remains particularly marked in the nation’s language, law, and customs. Berthoff, Rowland T. British Immigrants in Industrial America, –. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Henry Bischoff

Englishtown.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Early records show that on June , , the East Jersey proprietors granted John Johnston a patent for the area that included what is now known as Englishtown. Originally part of Manalapan Township (established in  when Freehold Township was divided), Englishtown was settled in the early s by James English and his family. In the center of the small village was a tavern, originally built as a tailor shop about , which was probably used as an officer’s headquarters during the Battle of Monmouth, on June , . Major portions of the Continental Army camped nearby on June , . The building remained a familiar landmark as a tavern, tearoom, and restaurant until the Battleground Historical Society restored it in . Known as the Village Inn, it is now used as the society’s headquarters. In the nineteenth century, thanks to access to the Pennsylvania Railroad, Englishtown grew to become a commercial center for exporting agricultural products from the surrounding farming communities, and local merchants met the needs of area residents. Englishtown was not incorporated until . The twentieth century brought small factories (a rug mill and cutlery company) that employed local residents. The factories no longer exist, and Englishtown remains a small residential village with new homes in addition to older Victorian structures. The town is known for a large flea market, the Englishtown Auction. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Dalik, Richard J. Manalapan and Englishtown. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County. . Reprint. Cottonport, LA: Shrewsbury Historical Society, .

Richard J. Dalik

entire controversy doctrine. A concept unique to New Jersey at one time required plaintiffs in a lawsuit to assert claims against all persons responsible for their injuries or be precluded from later suing those persons. In other jurisdictions, litigants generally could lose only claims that they failed to assert against parties to a prior lawsuit; New Jersey alone precluded claims against persons who were never previously sued. The New Jersey Supreme Court determined in  that preclusion of claims against

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Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute

nonparties was mandated by the  constitution. Four cases decided in  extended the doctrine to claims omitted from prior, out-of-state litigation and even suggested that the doctrine might preclude legal malpractice claims that a lawyer fails to assert against himself. This expansion drew broad-based criticism from the bar and from legal scholars. In , the court indicated a desire to pull back, and in  it adopted amendments to Civil Practice Rules that all but eliminated the mandatory party-joinder aspect of the doctrine. Today, the doctrine is largely indistinguishable from the claim preclusion enforced in other jurisdictions; parties are required to assert all related claims that they have against other parties to the lawsuit. The Civil Practice Rules merely require parties to inform the trial court of potential claims that they have against nonparties to the litigation, and the court, in its discretion, may direct that those claims must be asserted. Failure to notify the court may incur monetary sanctions, but will rarely result in loss of those claims.

An outbreak of smallpox in  prompted Jersey City health officials to introduce compulsory vaccination of children

Courtesy Bert Hansen Collection, New York. Erichson, Howard M. “Of Horror Stories and Happy Endings: The Rise and Fall of Preclusion-Based Compulsory Party Joinder under the New Jersey Entire Controversy Doctrine.’’ Seton Hall Constitutional Law Journal  (): –. Hazard, Geoffrey C. “An Examination Before and Behind the ‘Entire Controversy’ Doctrine.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –. Stein, Allan R. “Power, Duty, and the Entire Controversy Doctrine.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

See also law

Allan R. Stein

Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute. The Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute (EOHSI), founded in , is dedicated to research, education, and service programs focused on the health effects of environmental pollutants. Under the sponsorship of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and Rutgers University, EOHSI’s six divisions (environmental health, environmental policy, exposure measurement and assessment, occupational health, public education and risk communication, and toxicology) promote a comprehensive approach to understanding environmental health. EOHSI is the base for ten specialized centers, including the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. See also medical and dental education

Helen E. Sheehan

epidemics. The term epidemic refers to an increase, often sudden, in cases of a disease above what is normally expected in a particular population, in a particular area, during a specific period of time. The native preColumbian population in what was to become New Jersey suffered from many infectious

(tuberculosis, syphilis) and noninfectious (traumatic, degenerative, congenital) ills. The most devastating changes that occurred with the arrival of Europeans involved viral illness (measles, smallpox) that ravaged the native population of both American continents. Colonial New Jersey had its share of outbreaks of smallpox and yellow fever, but these were more spectacular than constantly out of control. In fact, the most common infectious causes of colonial mortality were dysentery, malaria, and bacterial and viral respiratory disease, followed by smallpox, yellow fever, and scarlet fever. Much of the nineteenth century saw the northern United States, including New Jersey, expand its industrial base. With this concentration of people came filthy living conditions, overcrowding, and epidemics that eventually mobilized community sanitary reform. New Jersey was hard hit during the national epidemics of cholera in , , and . The state was also the site of tuberculosis, yellow fever, and smallpox outbreaks, even after vaccination for the latter became available. Sanitary reform was finally mobilized during the Civil War, after the appalling loss of life due to infections. While the sanitary reforms that followed the Civil War did much to control death from infectious disease, the discovery of the cause of such illnesses in the last two decades of the century (the bacteriological revolution) led to great hope for their eventual cure. Diagnosis and control of open cases of tuberculosis were rapidly adopted in New Jersey, which had its fair share of sanatoriums where open-air treatment of TB was considered the state of the art. During World War I, many New Jersey military men had their first exposure to sexually

transmitted disease while in Europe. Even before the United States entered the war in mid-, the worldwide influenza pandemic ravaged mobilized “doughboys,’’ and then spread throughout the United States, killing thousands in weeks. New Jersey participated fully in the first antibiotic era of the twentieth century, using whatever penicillin it could purchase or manufacture to combat rheumatic fever and pneumococcal pneumonia. It was at Rutgers University that Selman Waksman isolated streptomycin from the soil for the first real cure of tuberculosis. However, one of his re´ Dubos, soon pointed search partners, Rene out the logical fallacy of depending on antibiotics to eradicate epidemic illness, and talked of the “mirage of health’’ that such magic bullets promised. In the early and mid-s New Jersey children finally were spared fear of epidemic polio by newly available vaccines. The vaccine era accelerated with near-eradication of illnesses (mumps, measles, rubella) that were once an accepted part of childhood. And while the s were marred by increases in some sexually transmitted diseases, it was the  outbreak of an illness that included both a normal strain of influenza and a strain that seemed related to the swine flu of  that invoked fears of a new flu pandemic. This swine strain mysteriously disappeared after infecting about five hundred soldiers at Fort Dix, leaving experts uncertain whether it would reemerge or how lethal it might be if it did. This disquieting uncertainty lead to the rapid development and deployment of a mass vaccination project that aimed to vaccinate every man, woman and child in the country. The vaccine, however, didn’t work well in children and three coincidental deaths among elderly vaccinees forced a suspension in ten states. Some  people contracted a paralytic dis´ syndrome after ease known as Guillain-Barre being vaccinated, and thirty-two of them died. Ultimately, the vaccine itself was blamed for ´ for causing roughly one case of Guillain-Barre every , people vaccinated and, when the swine flu failed to reappear, the campaign was halted after reaching only  million of America’s  million citizens. A real epidemic, however, was incubating in New Jersey and other parts of the United States—human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Along with New York City, Chicago, Florida, and the West Coast, New Jersey was one of the epicenters of this true epidemic. While in other areas it first was concentrated in the gay community, in New Jersey it rapidly moved into the heterosexual population, and the first newborns with HIV/AIDS were identified in Newark. As the s and early s progressed, tuberculosis came back in New Jersey, along with congenital syphilis, hepatitis B, and emerging hepatitis C. In the era of Superfund cleanup sites, the perception of epidemic disease moved to

Erie Railroad noninfectious illness. New Jerseyans now commonly talked of epidemic cancer clusters, epidemic increases in drug use, and epidemic increases in children with developmental disorders (ADHD, autism). As the twenty-first century began, New Jersey was the center of a human-caused epidemic, as apparently weaponized anthrax was sent through Hamilton to New York, Maryland, Washington D.C., and likely to Florida and Connecticut as well. Having recently experienced the tragic September  terrorist attacks, the nation feared the use of anthrax as a biological weapon by terrorist groups in the United States. Fear of the reintroduction of smallpox also became a great concern for New Jerseyans, and the relative value of smallpox vaccination was being debated anew. Crosby, Alfred W. America’s Forgotten Pandemic: The Influenza of . New York: Cambridge University Press, . Duffy, J. Epidemics in Colonial America. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, . Reeds, Karen M. A State of Health: New Jersey’s Medical Heritage. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also medicine and public health

George DiFerdinando, Jr.

Episcopal Church. The earliest sons and daughters of the Church of England in New Jersey lived without the Church’s ministrations until , when the Reverend Alexander Innes of New York City appeared briefly in Middletown, where he held services in worshipers’ homes. By , a small group of dedicated clergy brought the services of the Church of England to a growing number of towns, including Perth Amboy, Elizabeth Town, Burlington, Woodbridge, and Piscataway, but no established congregation existed, and no Anglican minister was in residence. The Reverend Thomas Bray galvanized the Church of England’s interest in the spiritual health of the colonies with his founding of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) on June , . Thereafter, the trickle of clergy began to increase. Missionaries like John Talbot and George Keith arrived in New Jersey in , bringing the church’s services to New Brunswick, Shrewsbury, Alexandria, Edison, Freehold, Lambertville, Newark, Swedesboro, Mount Holly, Spotswood, Newton, and Penns Neck. The growing belief among the other colonists that church and crown were synonymous resulted in distrust and estrangement between Anglicans and other religious groups. This animosity laid the groundwork for the devastation brought upon the church by the American Revolution. The clergy, all ordained in England, had taken an oath of loyalty to the crown, which necessitated that they pray for the king. All church doors but one closed at the commencement of hostilities, although it, too, was soon shut. The end of the Revolution

and the consequent withdrawal of the SPG steepened the decline of the church. In addition to the isolation caused by the unavoidable identification with the crown and by the lack of bishops to ordain and shepherd, the fierce combat on New Jersey soil and the divided loyalties of its citizens left the church’s buildings abused and severely damaged, its parish organizations decimated, and its members distrusted. Although American clergy were consecrated as bishops in England beginning in , New Jersey remained without that leveling and encouraging presence until . Of the twenty-six congregations in New Jersey reported in , eleven had no pastoral care. The first bishop of New Jersey, John Croes, was elected in , and with this episcopal presence the church—now known as the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America—began a slow but steady increase in congregations and membership. In  the diocese divided in two, with the northern seven counties becoming the Diocese of Newark. The rest of the state continued as the Diocese of New Jersey. The Episcopal Church is a member of the Anglican Communion and shares with it the traditions of faith and order set forth in the Book of Common Prayer. Its particular genius is its flexibility, being both Protestant and Catholic, ancient and reformed, and embracing both liberal and conservative views. The church’s beliefs are rooted in three sources: Holy Scripture, reason, and church tradition.

and the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western railroads. Both confronted extensive deficit commuter operations in New Jersey; high local property taxes and heavy federal regulation, neither of which reflected railroads’ diminished economic status; government-funded competition in the form of the new interstate highway system; antiquated labor agreements; and management inertia. On October , , the two companies merged to become the Erie Lackawanna Railroad Company. With routes extending from Hoboken across northern New Jersey to Mahwah, Blairstown, and Phillipsburg, the Erie Lackawanna reached as far west as Chicago. The synergies that were supposed to have been generated by the merger were seldom realized, however, as lack of resources held the company back. Ultimately, by federal directive, it was sold to the Norfolk and Western Railway. In , following the devastation of Hurricane Agnes, the Erie Lackawanna Railroad declared bankruptcy, and in  many of its routes were included in the federally created Consolidated Rail Corporation, or Conrail. Many former Erie Lackawanna lines in New Jersey are now owned and operated for commuter service by New Jersey Transit Corporation. The Erie Lackawanna Collection and the Erie Lackawanna Historical Society Collection are both at the University of Akron. Grant, H. Roger. Erie Lackawanna: Death of an American Railroad, –. Stanford: Stanford University Press, .

See also railroads; transportation

Burr, Nelson R. The Anglican Church in New Jersey. Philadelphia: Church Historical Society, . King, David R., ed. The Episcopal Diocese of New Jersey, –. [Trenton]: Diocesan Bicentennial Committee, . Manross, William Wilson. A History of the American Episcopal Church. d ed. rev. New York: Morehouse-Gorham, .

See also religion

Laurence D. Fish

Erie Lackawanna Railroad.

Financial distress in the mid–twentieth century led many railroad companies to seek shelter in merger. Among them were the Erie

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Larry A. DeYoung

Erie Railroad. The Erie Railroad was born in the politics of early-nineteenth-century New York State. The Erie Canal opened between Albany and Buffalo, and the southerntier counties resented their lack of a commercial artery, yet the topography prohibited a canal. The idea of a railroad was advanced, and the first shovelful of earth was turned at Deposit, New York, in . Finally, in  the Erie was completed from Piermont-onHudson, just north of the New Jersey line, to

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Dunkirk, on Lake Erie east of the Pennsylvania border, making it the longest railroad in the world at the time. As it became clear that neither location was appropriate to the demands of commerce, the Erie looked toward New Jersey for its eastern terminus. In  it leased the Paterson and Hudson River and Paterson and Ramapo railroads, thereby reaching a waterfront destination in Jersey City. New Jersey expansion continued, making the Erie for years the dominant railroad company in Passaic and Bergen counties. Eventually, western terminals included Buffalo and Chicago. Notorious for financial intrigues in the s and s, the Erie never was financially strong. In  it merged with the Lackawanna Railroad to create the Erie Lackawanna Railroad. Erie Railroad Company Corporate Records. Pennsylvania Historic and Museum Commission, Harrisburg. Grant, H. Roger. Erie Lackawanna: Death of an American Railroad, –. Stanford: Stanford University Press, . Hicks, Frederick C., ed. High Finance in the Sixties. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, .

Essex County. .-square-mile county in the northeastern part of the state. Essex County, containing twenty-two municipalities, is bounded by Newark Bay and by Union, Morris, Passaic, Bergen, and Hudson counties. Geographically, it rises from sea level at Newark Bay to two ranges of the Watchung Mountains near its western border. First Mountain traverses Montclair, West Orange, Maplewood, South Orange, and Millburn; Second Mountain traverses Verona, Caldwell, Livingston, and Millburn. The first Europeans to visit the area were Henry Hudson and his crew, who in  sailed into Newark Bay, which Hudson called Achter Cull, or “after-bay,’’ because it lay behind New York Bay. Present-day Essex County was first settled by Puritans from Connecticut, led by William Branford, who landed in Newark in . They secured from the Indians an area including present-day Essex and Union counties for some wampum, gunpowder, beer, axes, lead, clothing, and thirty-two gallons of whiskey. In  the settlers purchased the land to the top of Range Mountain (now Watchung Mountain) for two guns, three coats, and thirteen containers of rum. In  the final piece of what would become Essex County was purchased for  English pounds; the land was known as the Horse Neck Tract, because its outline resembled the shape of a horse’s neck. Essex was one of the four counties into which the General Assembly divided the province of East Jersey in , although the counties were not named until . In 

Hungerford, Edward. Men of Erie. New York: Random House, .

See also railroads; transportation

Larry A. DeYoung

Erskine, Robert

ESSEX COUNTY

(b. Sept. , ; d. Oct.,

).

Surveyor and cartographer. Born in Scotland, Robert Erskine came to New Jersey in  to manage the American Iron Company’s facilities in Ringwood. Starting in , he used skills acquired as a surveyor in England to produce maps for the Patriot cause. Later that year he was appointed “Geographer and SurveyorGeneral’’ for the Continental Army. Surveyors hired by him and working under his direction produced maps showing in particular the location of “capital roads’’ and “navigable rivers’’ for use by American troops. By the time of his death, from a cold caught while working, approximately  maps had been drawn. A number were of roads in New Jersey.

Newark

Heusser, Albert H. George Washington’s Map Maker: A Biography of Robert Erskine. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Tholl, Claire K. Robert Erskine: Geographer and Surveyor-General to the American Army, . Newfoundland: North Jersey Highlands Historical Society, .

See also American Revolution

Maxine N. Lurie

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the northern area was set off as Bergen County, and much of the southwestern part was given to Somerset County. In  a section was set off as part of Hudson County, and in  Elizabethtown was set off as Union County. Originally much of Essex County was agricultural, and West Essex was particularly known for its orchards, providing for the production of cider and vinegar, and an early version of “Jersey Lightning’’ (applejack). By about , however, at least in the area immediately surrounding Newark, farming began to give way to business and trade, iron ore mining, and the manufacture of consumer goods such as hats, leather goods, beer, carriages, and jewelry. Still, in , nearly  percent of the county was farmland. During the Revolutionary War sentiment in Newark was divided, with much open support of the British. Washington and his troops received only a lukewarm reception when they passed through Newark in . Thomas Paine, reacting to the situation, sat down in one of the city parks and penned his most famous essay, “The Crisis.’’ After the Revolution, roads, which had been terrible, were greatly improved. The state legislature in  authorized the building of a plank road between Newark and Paulus Hook (now Jersey City). A number of private toll roads were built throughout the county over the next few decades, and with the completion of the Morris Canal in the s, industries quickly developed. Many hatters, leather tanners, and shoemakers moved to Newark and Orange during Newark’s industrial boom. Within twenty years, their wares were being sold as far south as Savannah, Georgia. Thomas Gordon’s survey of – noted that the county had “ cotton and  woolen manufactories,  paper mills,  vats for tanning leather,  bleaching and printing establishments for cotton and  distilleries.’’ In  the county population was about ,. The Horseneck Tract, present-day West Caldwell, North Caldwell, Caldwell, Verona, Cedar Grove, Fairfield, Essex Fells, Roseland, and Livingston, separated from Newark in . Newark Township was divided in  into wards called Newark, Orange, and Bloomfield and incorporated as a city in . By this time Newark had become a center of commerce and industry, being the terminus of the Morris Canal, the New Jersey Railroad, and the Morris and Essex Railroad; it had also developed its port into a major shipping venue. Springfield Township was formed from Elizabeth Township and Newark in . Newark saw more splits starting with Orange in , Bloomfield in , and Clinton Township (now Maplewood and Irvington) in . These townships in turn saw splits. Belleville broke away from Bloomfield in , Irvington from Clinton in , and Millburn from Springfield Township (now Maplewood) in , the same year that Union County was split off.

Essig, George Emerick The county was divided in its loyalties during the Civil War. Because of the conflict, manufacturers lost their market in the South, but the county provided many troops for the Union cause. The animosity against Irish Catholics, which had showed itself in nativist violence in Newark, abated somewhat when many Irish immigrants joined the Union forces to fight to preserve their adopted country. In  the population stood at ,, with , in Newark alone. Shoes and leather remained important industries, joined by carriage making and the production of machinery. The county attracted out-of-state inventors such as Seth Boyden, the producer of patent leather and malleable iron, who settled in Newark. Thomas Edison moved his laboratory from Menlo Park to West Orange in . John W. Hyatt moved his celluloid-production plant to Newark in . The Essex County Park Commission was established in  to preserve open space in the midst of the building that had been spurred by the county’s growth. It was the first county park commission in the United States and oversaw the creation of South Mountain Reservation, Branch Brook Park, and Weequahic Park. Branch Brook Park, begun in  with the transfer of Newark’s Reservoir Park to the county, was redesigned in  by the firm of Frederick Law Olmsted. It is most famous for its more than two thousand cherry trees, which surpass those of Washington, D.C., both in variety and number. In the twentieth century the banking and insurance industries continued to grow. Immigrants from southern and eastern Europe arrived in the beginning of the century, to be joined later by other groups, most notably the Portuguese and West Africans, as well as South Americans. The suburbs continued to expand, and with them the system of highways and railroads. The airport at Newark grew into one of the nation’s busiest, as did Port Newark. Essex County also became an educational center, with ten institutions of higher learning at one point, although this was reduced to eight by the end of the century. In , the county’s population was ,, an increase of  percent over the  figure. The ethnic breakdown was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Twenty-one percent were foreignborn, with  percent of these being from Latin America,  percent from Europe,  percent from Asia, and  percent from Africa. The median household income in  was $,. Cunningham, John T., and Charles Cummings. Remembering Essex: A Pictorial History of Essex County, New Jersey. Virginia Beach, VA: Donning, . Folsom, Joseph F., Benedict Fitzpatrick, and Edwin P. Conklin, eds. The Municipalities of Essex County,

New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Augustine J. Curley

Essex County College. Located on twenty-two acres in the University Heights section of Newark near the New Jersey Institute of Technology, Rutgers University, and the University of Medicine and Dentistry, Essex County College (ECC) is a public, twoyear community college serving Essex County. It has an extension branch in West Caldwell and operates the Essex County College Police Academy in Cedar Grove. ECC was founded in  and opened its doors in ; it now enrolls more than eight thousand full-time and part-time students and offers forty-one associate degree programs and twenty noncredit professional certificates. See also higher education

259

City. The borough’s two-part name is derived from Essex County and from the plural of John Fell’s name as well as from the English name for a hill or down. Rail service to Essex Fells started in  and spurred development. Passenger service was discontinued in  and freight service in . Essex Fells was incorporated as a borough on March , , having previously been part of Caldwell Township. In , the population of , was  percent white. Essex Fells is the smallest community in Essex County and consists almost exclusively of medium to large singlefamily homes on picturesque lots. The estimated median household income for  was $,. In , with $, as the median price of a home, Worth magazine ranked Essex Fells as the th wealthiest community in the United States. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Kelly A. Shea

Brydon, Norman F. The Essex Fells Story—–. Essex Fells: Borough of Essex Fells, .

.-square-mile borough in Essex County. Essex Fells was first settled in the s as part of the Horseneck tract purchased from the Lenape. Much of the original land belonged to the Samuel Gould family farm. In  Anthony S. Drexel of Philadelphia purchased approximately one thousand acres from the estate of William J. Gould, a former Revolutionary War captain and War of  general, and developed it in the late nineteenth century as one of the first planned suburban developments in the United States. Drexel’s corporation was the New York Suburban Land Company, and his son-in-law, John F. Fell, was the principal stockholder. The company solicited sales for homes in the nascent community by touting that Essex Fells was “one of the three healthiest places in the United States,’’ being located in the nearest mountain district to New York

Folsom, Joseph F., Benedict Fitzpatrick, and Edwin P. Conklin, eds. The Municipalities of Essex County, New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Essex Fells.

Poekel, Charles A., Jr. West Essex-Essex Fells, Fairfield, North Caldwell, and Roseland. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Charles A. Poekel, Jr.

Essig, George Emerick (b. Sept. , ; d. Dec., ). Artist. George Emerick Essig was one of three children born to Christian and Matilda Essig of Philadelphia. Both parents were first-generation Americans descended from German immigrants. His father carved ornamental handles for an umbrella factory. Essig attended the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and exhibited sixteen watercolors between  and . Although he made his home in Philadelphia, he spent time in New Jersey painting Atlantic City scenes for

George Essig, Foot of New York Avenue, . Watercolor,  ×  in.

Courtesy the Atlantic County Historical Society, Somers Point.

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Estell Manor

the tourist trade. In  he and his family moved permanently to Atlantic City where he lived until his death in . He is buried next to his wife in West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia. A Certain Slant of Light: Marines and Seascapes by George Emerick Essig. Oceanville: Noyes Museum; Philadelphia: Philadelphia Maritime Museum, .

See also art

Patrice M. Kane

Estell Manor.

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County. The Tuckahoe and Great Egg Harbor rivers, Weymouth and Hamilton townships, and Corbin City bound Estell Manor. The city, which is the second-largest city in land area in the state, was incorporated from a portion of Weymouth Township in . Originally part of Gloucester County, Estell Manor was part of Egg Harbor Township until , when Weymouth Township was separated from Egg Harbor. Estell Manor was part of Gloucester County until  when it became part of Atlantic County. The D’Estails family, reputedly French Huguenots who fled Europe because of religious persecution, were among the earliest settlers. Rebecca Estell Bourgeois Winston, who in  became the city’s first mayor and the first female mayor in the state, purportedly drew the boundaries of Estell Manor. Early industry in the area included bog iron, glass manufacturing, and cranberry production. Sawmills and gristmills also were abundant in the region. Some of the state’s oldest residences were built from sandstone quarried here. The state owns approximately three thousand acres of Estell Manor and maintains that land for hunting and fishing. The majority of the city’s population is concentrated in the Risley section, which is named for Daniel L. Risley, a nineteenthcentury real estate agent and developer. The community today is still largely rural and agricultural. Estell Manor’s population in  of , was  percent white. The city’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

ethnicity. The population of New Jersey in the colonial era was of mixed northern and western European and African descent, and also included a remnant of the native aboriginal inhabitants. The English, approximately half of the total number, held political power after . Their Anglo-Saxon culture, including language, laws, architecture, customs, economy, and foods, came to dominate most of this province, though modified by American conditions. There were different expressions of that culture across class lines and through a variety of Protestant denominations, namely, Anglican, Congregational, Quaker, and Methodist.

The other half of the colonial population was grouped, in varying degrees of cohesion, into a number of diverse ethnic associations. The Scots, although they had some cultural similarities with the English, thought of themselves as ethnically different in customs, dialect, historical remembrances, and worship in Presbyterian churches. The second largest ethnic group, the Jersey Dutch, constituted almost a fifth of the population. Most of these people had come to New Jersey through New Netherland, but they were of diverse Dutch, Walloon, German, Flemish, French Huguenot, Scandinavian, and Polish backgrounds. Particularly in Bergen County and in the Raritan Valley, they developed a variant of the Dutch language, formed Dutch Reformed congregations, and practiced customs that were predominantly Dutch, with adjustments to the New World. By the eighteenth century there were growing Scots-Irish and German ethnic groupings in New Jersey. The Scots-Irish were found mostly in the Millstone, Raritan, and Passaic river valleys, whereas the Germans settled in Hunterdon, Sussex, and Morris counties. Among the Germans were followers of the Lutheran, Reformed, Catholic, and Moravian faiths. There was also a scattering of Swiss, French, and Irish Catholic settlers in New Jersey by the time of the American Revolution. The Africans, mostly slaves, and the fourth most numerous group in the province, were generally found in groups of two to three among Caucasian families. As recorded in  in the first census held in the newly independent United States, New Jersey had a population whose origins were  percent English,  percent Dutch,  percent German,  percent African,  percent Scots,  percent Scots-Irish,  percent Swedish,  percent Irish Catholic,  percent French, and  percent other. From the s to the s the population of the state grew primarily by reproduction, supplemented only by a small influx of mostly Irish and some French people. These years are notable for an increasing dominance of the English heritage (with some intermixture from other ethnicities), a growing amount of intermarriage across ethnic lines, increasing tolerance among the various Protestant denominations, and a decrease in ethnic differences. In the decades after , a major wave of immigration resulted in a large Irish and German ethnic presence in New Jersey. Although members of both groups could be found in all parts of the state, they tended to cluster around the economic opportunities to be found in the growing cities and in a number of towns. Neighborhoods that became heavily Irish included the Horseshoe in Jersey City and Dublin in Paterson. Germans were found in large numbers in Hoboken, Union Town, Guttenberg, Weehawken, Carlstadt, and Egg Harbor.

These ethnic groups brought their cultures to New Jersey. There were Irish and German religious, literary, athletic, social, and benevolent clubs, eating and drinking establishments, newspapers, arts, music, festivals, celebrations, schools, and churches. German Protestants formed congregations, German Jews established temples, and the German and Irish Catholics founded parishes. Irish males, mostly unskilled when they arrived, worked on roads, canals, railroads, and docks, in factories, and in urban construction. By  about half of the Irish had advanced to more skilled labor. Irish women were employed in domestic and factory work. The Germans engaged in cigar, leather, wood, machine, jewelry, rubber, silk, and garment work; labored in iron, worsted, chemical, and electric factories; and were mechanics and brewers. The large number of newcomers, their use of foreign languages, their poverty, their perceived clannishness in the face of economic need and hostile attacks, their cultural differences, their public recreational drinking, and particularly the adherence of so many to Roman Catholicism caused a rise in Nativism. The outpouring of criticism often led to considerable harassment, including violence, and organized political opposition. Nevertheless, the sacrifices of people of many different ethnic backgrounds on behalf of the Union in the Civil War, their growing economic contributions to the nation, their active political participation, and their adaptation to many aspects of mainstream culture helped to quiet Nativist opposition. These new Americans contributed greatly to the gradual acceptance in New Jersey and elsewhere of the concept that an individual could belong to a church other than a Protestant one and still be a loyal member of the nation’s civic culture. In the mid-s, and particularly after the Civil War, new arrivals enlarged the English cultural presence in New Jersey. Many worked in the iron, machine, pottery, and silk industries of the state. Although they formed new social, athletic, and other clubs, in general they were absorbed quickly into the already established Anglo-Saxon population of the state. A wave of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe that began in the s and crested in the s brought a wide variety of new ethnic groups to New Jersey. The largest number of newcomers were Italian, and they became the major ethnic group in the state. In addition, large communities were formed by Polish, Russian, Jewish, Austrian, Hungarian, Czech, and Slovak immigrants. A fresh flow of people from Holland developed new Dutch settlements. There were also some groupings of Swedes, Norwegians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Serbs, Romanians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Spaniards, Portuguese, Armenians, Syrians, Turks, Lebanese, West Indians, and Anguillans.

ethnicity

261

ASIAN

HISPANIC or LATINO

Percentage of NJ Population 1980 1990 2000

Asians

Hispanics

1.4 3.4 5.7

6.7 9.6 13.3

Percentage of Population United States, 2000 Asians Hispanics 3.6 12.5

PERCENT

0

20 miles

0.0 - 5.0 5.1 - 10.0 10.1 - 15.0 15.1 - 20.0 30.0 - 40.0

PERCENT

Source: U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov

0.0 - 2.0 2.5 - 4.5 5.0 - 7.0 8.0 - 10.0 12.0 - 14.0

In the federal statistical system ethnic origin is considered to be a separate concept from race. People of Hispanic origin may be of any race and are instructed to answer the census question on race by marking one of the race categories (White, Black or African American, American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, or Some Other Race). © Rutgers, The State University

As happened during the earlier wave of immigration, most of the new arrivals tended to settle in cities that offered the greatest opportunities for work. A small percentage engaged in agricultural work, particularly in southern New Jersey; some Italians, for example, gravitated to Vineland and Hammonton, and some Jews moved to small settlements like Alliance. Although some of these new immigrants were skilled and even professional workers, many more of them found employment as semiskilled and unskilled factory laborers. Poles, Hungarians, Italians, Russian Jews, and Slavs labored in food processing plants, in factories making textile, leather, electrical, garment, machinery, clay, and chemical products, and in oil refineries. Large numbers of Italians, Poles, Slavs, and Hungarians obtained outdoor work in clay pits, quarries, and iron mines; in road, railroad, streetcar, utility, and building construction; on the docks; and in transportation. Most of these jobs were low paying and involved long hours of physically demanding work with inadequate safety protection. Life was made more difficult by prejudice in places of work

and in some unions. Nevertheless, a considerable number of ethnic laborers became union members, and a few rose to leadership positions. In an effort to find places of acceptance and community, many newcomers, particularly those who came in large numbers, formed distinct urban neighborhoods, most often crowding into unhealthy, often squalid, lowcost housing. Italians settled in the Burg in Trenton, in the North Ward in Newark, in the Dublin area of Paterson, and in the Horseshoe in Jersey City. The Dutch preferred Prospect Park, and Hungarians, Czechs, and Poles clustered in the Budapest area of Perth Amboy. Portuguese congregated in the Ironbound section of Newark, Russians in Garfield, Poles in Wallington, Armenians, Syrians, and Turks in the Dardanelles area of West Hoboken, and a wide variety of eastern Europeans in the Dundee section of Passaic. Here and elsewhere in the state, immigrants tried to re-create as much of their accustomed culture as possible. Most in the first generation retained their native language, family arrangements, foods, arts, music, customs, and beliefs.

Despite the scorn, opposition, and resistance they met, particularly the poorest of them, the people of this wave of immigration contributed music, dances, literature, art, humor, festivals, and other aspects of their cultures and gradually reshaped mainstream society. For example, the eating habits of New Jerseyans have been forever changed by the, at first disparaged, contributions of the Italians. Conversely, the cultural ways of these ethnic groups have been, in significant respects, Americanized. In terms of religion, the number of Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches grew markedly, as did the number of Jewish synagogues. By the s, it is estimated, Roman Catholics accounted for more than  percent of church members in New Jersey. Throughout the remainder of the twentieth century, many cultural aspects of the established ethnic groups were preserved, but there was much crossing of ethnic boundaries as well. By , of the ,, persons who asserted they were Italian, , reported that they had mixed ancestry; of ,, Irish, , were mixed; of ,,

262

ETS

Germans, ,, mixed; of , English, , mixed; of , Polish, , mixed; of , Russians, , mixed; of , Dutch, , mixed; of , French, , mixed; of , Scottish, , mixed; and of , Slovaks, , mixed. In the years after World War II, and especially after , a third wave of immigration enlarged the existing ethnic groups in New Jersey and also established many newer ones, particularly Hispanic and Asian groups. The largest number of Latino ethnics were Puerto Rican, followed by Cubans, Dominicans, Colombians, Mexicans, Ecuadorians, Peruvians, and Salvadorans. Also with roots in the Americas were French-speaking Haitians, English speakers from Jamaica and Guyana, and Portuguese-speaking Brazilians. The largest number of ethnic Asians in the state were from India, followed by immigrants from China, the Philippines, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Newcomers also arrived from Pakistan, Israel, Lebanon, Palestine, Afghanistan, and Armenia. New Jersey’s newest ethnic people have a wide range of skills and occupations. Among some groups, such as the Asian Indians, there is a very high percentage of college graduates. Most of the newcomers have at least a high school education. A considerable number of these new ethnic people are engineers, scientists, computer specialists, health professionals, and educators. There are many entrepreneurs, mostly in small retail stores, restaurants, gas stations, and motels. There are also skilled craftsmen; white-collar, service, factory, and restaurant workers; and day laborers. Although many Latinos and some Asians live in New Jersey’s cities, a considerable number reside in suburbia, a pattern different from that of most earlier first-generation ethnic people. In suburbia some of these newcomers have formed ethnic neighborhoods, but most live interspersed among the already established population. In terms of class and affluence, it is notable that Bergen County has the largest number of Asians, and Hudson, Essex, Passaic, and Union Counties have the most Hispanics. The new ethnic people have brought their wider world to New Jersey. The cuisines of almost every country can be found in specialty food stores and restaurants. There is now a wider range of languages, customs, and holiday celebrations in New Jersey than ever before. The number of Islamic mosques, Buddhist temples, and Hindu cultural centers continues to grow. There has been some opposition and even some violence directed at the new ethnic people, although it probably has been less intense than that experienced by earlier immigrants. As the newcomers try to find solace and support in their traditional ways, the schools,

workplaces, and neighborhoods of New Jersey have brought American values into their lives and particularly into the lives of their children. In turn, the new ethnic people have helped to bring a global perspective to the citizenry of New Jersey. Bischoff, Henry, and Kathryn Koop. Guide for Understanding Students and Families of the New Immigration. Mahwah: Ramapo College, . Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, . Shaw, Douglas V. Immigration and Ethnicity in New Jersey History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also immigration; specific nationalities and ethnic groups

Henry Bischoff

ETS.

See Educational Testing Service.

Evans, George Henry

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Journalist and land reformer.

Born in Herefordshire, England, George Henry Evans immigrated to the United States in  and was apprenticed as a printer. Between  and , Evans edited several influential labor and reform newspapers (The Man, The Working Man’s Advocate, The Daily Sentinel, and Young America) chronicling labor politics in New York City. With the demise of the workingmen’s movement, Evans retired to his Granville farm in  to formulate a new theory of social reform based upon the establishment of “rural republican townships’’ on the unsettled public domain. Evans borrowed liberally from the political writings of Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson on individualism and the rights of man. He also imbibed the radical agrarianism of Thomas Spence, but eschewed Spence’s strident call for the equal division of all property as a social panacea. In Young America, Evans propagated the ideas of the right of every man to an inalienable homestead of  acres, the abolishment of debtor’s laws, and an end to all monopolies. His ideas presaged the passage of the Homestead Act, and influenced Henry George’s single-tax movement in the late nineteenth century. Grob, Gerald. Workers and Utopia: A Study of Ideological Conflict in the American Labor Movement. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, . Hugins, Walter Edward. Jacksonian Democracy and the Working Class: A Study of the New York Workingmen’s Movement, –. Stanford: Stanford University Press, . Ware, Norman. The Industrial Worker, –: The Reaction of American Industrial Society to the Advance of the Industrial Revolution. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, .

James P. Quigel

Everson v. Board of Education of Ewing Township. This U.S. Supreme Court case dealt with the First Amendment

prohibition of the establishment of religion. The issue was whether the state of New Jersey could by law require local school boards to pay to transport children to private religious schools, specifically to Catholic parochial schools. In a state with a large and politically active Catholic population, this was an important and controversial issue. The case was brought by Arch Everson, a Ewing resident and taxpayer, who believed the law violated First Amendment provisions for the separation of Church and State. The case was decided while New Jersey was, for the third time since , trying to revise its state constitution, an effort that had previously failed in part because of religious divisions. In a  to  decision the Court held that such busing was constitutional under state police powers because it protected the lives and safety of children. The majority maintained that the state must be neutral, neither supporting nor obstructing religion. Nationally, most important was that the case used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply the First Amendment Establishment Clause to the states. The case removed busing as a divisive issue at a politically important point in New Jersey history. Connors, Richard J. The Process of Constitutional Revision in New Jersey, –. New York: National Municipal League, . Hall, Kermit, ed. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Evesham. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. Bounded by the Camden County border, Mount Laurel, and Medford, Evesham adjoins the huge Camden County township of Cherry Hill. Evesham was one of Burlington County’s fastest-growing communities in the s and s and exemplifies the county’s rapid transformation from a largely rural to a suburban and commercialized locale. It is one of the county’s first townships, dating back to the s, and was originally the home of gristmills and the farms that supplied them with grain. A reservation for the Delaware Indian tribe was established in . Medford, originally part of Evesham, broke off in , the year to which Evesham’s current organization and boundaries date. Evesham was largely a farming community where field crops and orchards thrived until the s, when suburban housing tracts rose around the village of Marlton, ironically named after the droppings at numerous pig farms in the immediate area. The township underwent a phenomenal transformation into a commercial, retail, and high-tech powerhouse in the s along the Route  and Route  corridors. Its daytime working population is estimated to approach , today, yet pockets of remaining farmland are still targeted for either residential or commercial use. It is Burlington County’s

ExxonMobil largest municipality, with a  population of ,,  percent of it white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Ewing.

.-square-mile township in Mercer County. Initially populated by the Lenape, this area was later settled by Thomas Hutchinson who became the first Europeanborn resident around . Additional property owners settled upon vast tracts of farmland traversed by the Shabakunk Creek and bordered by the Delaware River. Situated within the province of West Jersey, latter-day Ewing encompassed the southern portion of Hopewell Township, Burlington County, before it was divided and renamed Trenton Township in . It gained a permanent identity in  when the New Jersey legislature granted Trenton Township municipal government status; it was renamed Ewing in honor of state supreme court justice Charles Ewing. In  Ewing Township annexed land from the city of Trenton, Lawrence, and the Hopewell area, but, before its present geographic borders were established, various portions were returned to the city of Trenton in , , and . During the

twentieth century, Ewing gradually underwent transformation from a semirural region to a community of residential neighborhoods and active institutions such as the College of New Jersey and Trenton-Mercer County Airport. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

263

ExxonMobil.

periments in Art and Technology is an international nonprofit service foundation, which answers artists’ requests for new technology by matching them with engineers or scientists, for one-to-one collaborations. Founded in  by Bell Laboratories engineers Billy Kluver and Fred Waldhauer and artists Robert Rauschenberg and Robert Whitman, E.A.T. is headed by Billy Kluver. E.A.T. has also carried out several large-scale interdisciplinary projects:  Evenings Theatre and Engineering (); Some More Beginnings, an exhibition of art and technology at the Brooklyn Museum (); the Pepsi Pavilion at Expo ’, Osaka, Japan; and Children and Communication ().

Formed by the merger of Exxon and Mobil in , ExxonMobil is the world’s largest oil company. The merger reunited two original elements of John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust, which was broken up into thirty-four companies on the order of the U.S. Supreme Court in . The largest of these successor companies was Standard Oil of New Jersey, known as Jersey Standard, which marketed its major brand of gasoline under the name Esso (derived from the initials of Standard Oil). This company changed its name to Exxon in . Two other Standard Oil spin-offs, Vacuum Oil and Socony (Standard Oil of New York), united in  as Socony-Vacuum, which became Socony-Mobil in  and finally Mobil in . Exxon acquired Mobil for $ billion in . Besides extracting, transporting, and refining oil and producing automotive fuels, ExxonMobil also produces heating oil, aviation and maritime fuels, lubricants, and petrochemicals ranging from synthetic rubber to packaging film. Like its predecessors Jersey Standard and Exxon, ExxonMobil is incorporated in New Jersey. ExxonMobil held first place on the Fortune  list of the largest publicly held U.S. companies for the year , although it dropped to second place when Wal-Mart rose to the top spot in . See also energy industry; oil refineries; Standard Oil Company of New Jersey

Julie B. Martin

David A. Norris

Felcone, Joseph J. Ewing Township, Mercer County, New Jersey: A History to the Year . Princeton: J. Felcone, .

Alan Delozier

Experiments in Art and Technology. Located in Berkeley Heights, Ex-

F

building is marked by a plaque and an old cemetery. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent American Indian. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Faesch, Johan ( John) Jacob (b. Nov. , ; d. May , ). Iron master. Johan Faesch came to America in  to manage the London Company’s New Jersey ironworks. He left in  to run the Mount Hope mines and furnace, and several forges later put to use making armaments for the American Revolution. Aristocratic but generous, Faesch was politically influential, serving as a county judge. Faesch, a widower, married his second wife, Elizabeth Brinkerhoff, in ; the couple later moved to Morristown. She died there in . In , Faesch married Susan Kearny Lawrence and lived in Old Boonton until he died, leaving four children. His estate included several iron mines and a share in the Morris Academy. He is buried in Morristown. Cunningham, John T. The East of Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Munsell, W., ed. History of Morris County, New Jersey, –. New York: W. W. Munsell, . Thayer, Theodore. Colonial and Revolutionary Morris County. Morristown: Compton Press, .

See also iron industry

Kevin C. Perry

Fairfield (Cumberland County). .-square-mile township on the Delaware Bay. A few miles south of Bridgeton, the Cumberland County seat, Fairfield was first formed in  in the Cohansey area of Salem County. It became part of Cumberland County in ; five boundary adjustments occurred before it achieved its present form in . The ´migre ´s from name derives from its settlers, e Fairfield, Connecticut. Much of the land is composed of salt marsh and loam. Farming and plant nurseries are leading industries, and salt-hay farming is done on reclaimed marshland. Sea Breeze and Fairton are designated village centers within the township. The latter, once called Bumbridge, situated where Millcreek and Rattlesnake Run join to form the Cohansey River, was a meatpacking center in . Other early industries there were sawmills, gristmills, and woolen manufacturing. Gouldtown, an old African American community, is said to have been established by descendants of Elizabeth Adams, granddaughter of Quaker proprietor John Fenwick, who married a black man named Gould. As a result of this liaison, she was written out of Fenwick’s will. The oldest Presbyterian church in South Jersey is said to have been located in the township before . The site of the original log 264

Barber, John W., and Henry Howe. Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey. New York: S. Tuttle, . Gordon, Thomas F. Gazetteer of the State of New Jersey. . Reprint. Cottonport, LA: Polyanthros, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Fairfield (Essex County).

.square-mile township. American Indians lived in the area as early as  b.c.e., and later the Lenapes developed settlements along the Passaic River, which flows through Fairfield. The first European settlers were the Dutch in ; the community was originally known as Gansegat—Dutch for “duck’s pond.’’ English settlers arrived in . The settlement later became part of Horseneck and then of Caldwell Township. In  the Dutch Reformed Church Society was organized, and there is still a Dutch Reformed Church in Fairfield. One of Fairfield’s earliest settlers was Simon Van Ness, who in  participated in the so-called Horseneck Riots, when Horseneck farmers stormed the Newark jail and freed Samuel Baldwin, who had been incarcerated in a deed dispute with the East Jersey Proprietors. During the Revolutionary War, the town was a major crossroads for Tories and militia; Gen. George Washington passed through it on at least one occasion. Incorporated in , Caldwell Township would later develop into nine separate towns. The name of the township was changed to Fairfield on November , . Fairfield is home to the Essex County Airport, which is situated on land formerly belonging to the Fairfield Dairy. During World War I, the U.S. Navy maintained barracks and a firing range facility in Fairfield. During World War II, the Curtiss-Wright Corporation’s Propeller Division produced more than one hundred thousand airplane propellers to assist in the war effort. In , the resident population of , was  percent white. (Because of Fairfield’s office and industrial sectors, its daytime population rises to nearly ,.) The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bailey, Rosalie Fellow. Pre-Revolutionary Dutch Houses and Families in Northern New Jersey and Southern New York. New York: Dover, . Folsom, Joseph F.,Benedict Fitzpatrick, and Edwin P. Conklin, eds. The Municipalities of Essex County, New Jersey –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Poekel, Charles A., Jr. West Essex—Essex Fells, Fairfield, North Caldwell, and Roseland. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Charles A. Poekel, Jr.

Fair Haven. .-square-mile borough in northern Monmouth County. Located on the Rumson peninsula south of the Navesink River, Fair Haven was formed from Shrewsbury Township in . Its boundary with neighboring Red Bank was adjusted in . Initial European settlement of the area occurred during the eighteenth century and was associated with the Borden and DeHart families. Some sources note that the town was originally called DeHartsville after Morris DeHart, a prominent landowner. The origin of the current name, Fair Haven, is unknown; local legend attributes it to an anonymous sea captain who noted the area’s potential as an anchorage. In the nineteenth century, a dock was constructed for use by steamboats—one of which is still depicted on the borough’s seal. Beginning in the s, Fair Haven was home to a vibrant free black community centered in the area around Brown’s Lane. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Fair Haven became a resort popular with vaudeville performers. Today the borough is largely residential. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Boss, Rose Spalleta. History of Fair Haven, NJ. Fair Haven: Fair Haven Auxiliary of the Riverview Hospital, . Gabriellan, Randall. Fair Haven. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Richard F. Veit

Fair Lawn.

.-square-mile borough in northeastern Bergen County. Fair Lawn is one of the more densely populated areas of the county. It is bordered by two rivers, the Passaic to the west and the Saddle River to the east. In the Fair Lawn section of the Passaic, there is still an Indian weir that was used to trap fish. The first European settlers were Dutch fur traders. Fair Lawn seceded from Saddle River Township because of a dispute over school districting and was incorporated in . Incorporation ushered in a period of rapid growth, as new subdivisions for Paterson factory workers sprang up on what had been farmland. The period after World War II also saw a tremendous increase in population, and in recent years Fair Lawn has seen a large influx of immigrants from the former Soviet Union. Its original name, Fairlawn, was changed to Fair Lawn in . The Radburn section, one of the first planned communities in the twentieth-century United States, was designed by Clarence S. Stein and Henry Wright in the late s. The main commercial activities are professional services and retail businesses.

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Fairleigh Dickinson University. In  Dr. Peter Sammartino and his wife, Sylvia, founded Fairleigh Dickinson University in Rutherford as a junior college, naming it in honor of a leading industrialist and benefactor. The new institution met a need for educational options in the populous northern suburbs of New Jersey, where the Depression years had seen little expansion of higher education. Dr. Sammartino was able to recruit a charter faculty of educators excited by the challenge of creating a new college. That first year, the student body numbered fifty-nine women and one man, and classes were held in rented space on Rutherford’s main street. Soon the college moved to a castlelike mansion several blocks west and began the construction of its first campus, which has been owned since  by Felician College. Today Fairleigh Dickinson offers more than a hundred degree programs to its , undergraduate and , graduate students. More than eight hundred international students from seventy countries are now among those pursuing their educational goals at the university’s two New Jersey campuses, TeaneckHackensack and Florham-Madison. Dr. Sammartino stressed international studies and activities and actively sought a diverse student body. The university remains close to the United Nations, inviting ambassadors to speak on campus. In , nine years after the New Jersey State Board of Education confirmed its university status, Fairleigh Dickinson became the first U.S. university to own its own campus in an overseas venue, at Wroxton College, Oxfordshire, England. Since then, a branch campus has been established in Tel Aviv, Israel, and relationships have developed with institutions of higher learning in Spain, Turkey, Switzerland, South Korea, and Poland. Lengyel, Emil, and Heinz F. Mackensen. The First Quarter Century: A History of Fairleigh Dickinson University, –. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, .

Van Valen, J. M. History of Bergen County, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Publishing and Engraving, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Robert D. Griffin

Faith Fellowship Ministries.

In March , on Staten Island, Pastor David Demola began operating a small home Bible study program called Faith Fellowship Ministries. Later that year, Demola moved to a larger facility in Iselin, and the ministry expanded rapidly. By , more than one thousand Christians attended weekly services. Pastor Demola initiated an innovative series of educational endeavors, radio programs, cable television offerings, and international outreach efforts. Overflow crowds and limited parking created tensions with local residents, and Faith Fellowship eventually relocated its world outreach center to a ,-squarefoot facility in Sayreville in . Twenty Year Anniversary, –. Sayreville: Faith Fellowship Ministries World Outreach Center, .

See also higher education

Maureen Dillon

Fairview.

.-square-mile borough lying along the western edge of the Palisades upland area of southeastern Bergen County, part of the area previously known as the English

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Piedmont. Rivers above the fall line are shallow and not navigable, but on the seaward side of the fall line, rivers become deep, wide, and navigable. Towns and cities on the fall line had three distinct economic advantages. First, they were at the head of the navigable river from the sea. Second, before the advent of suspension bridges at the end of the nineteenth century, the fall line locations were the last sites where the rivers were narrow enough for bridges to cross. Therefore, cities on the fall line became centers of land transportation. And third, falls and rapids provided energy resources that stimulated industrial growth. Trenton was established near the rapids in the Delaware. Examples of other cities established on the fall line are Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, Petersburg, Raleigh, Camden, Columbia, and Augusta. In New Jersey the fall line connects New Brunswick and Trenton. Hunt, Charles B. Physiography of the United States. San Francisco: Freeman, .

See also geography; geology; physiology; Piedmont

See also religion

Harbans Singh Peter J. Wosh

Sammartino, Peter. A History of Higher Education in New Jersey. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, . ———. I Dreamed a College. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, .

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Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Northern Edition. Neptune: National Resource Directories, .

Neighborhood. Bulls Ferry Road, now Fairview Avenue, ran east to west from the Hudson River port of that name to the tollgate at the Hackensack Plank Road and Turnpike that operated from  to  between Hudson and Bergen counties. Following the Civil War, Dan Kelly’s hotel and saloon opened at the foot of Bulls Ferry Road in what is called Lower Fairview, and a tow-team business sprang up and flourished, the owners dressing their teams with fancy rigs and leather. Fairview Avenue is still referred to locally as Dan Kelly’s Hill. Early twentieth-century industries included the Bellman Brook Bleachery Company, specializing in bleaching cotton for the clothing industry. The business, known as Bellman Brook, was converted in  to a nationally known book-printing business. Mount Moriah Cemetery and the Fairview Cemetery occupy  acres, or nearly one-fifth of the borough. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent other, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

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IN

The population in  was ,, of which  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

LL ID E Y G & E

Fanwood

fall line.

Rivers and streams develop waterfalls and rapids as they pass from the older, harder rocks of the Piedmont to the softer sand and clay of the coastal plains. The locations of these waterfalls and rapids are designated as “on the fall line.’’ The fall line runs continuously in New Jersey southward along the east side of the Appalachians and marks the boundary of the coastal plains with the

Fanwood.

.-square-mile borough in southwestern Union County. Fanwood lies between the towns of Westfield and Plainfield. The borough was formed from Fanwood Township (now Scotch Plains Township) in ; parts were later annexed to and from Scotch Plains Township in . Fanwood was once a summer resort, and the railroad drove development in the town,

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Far Hills

which is composed of many late nineteenthand early twentieth-century homes near the train station. The first railroad was the Elizabethtown and Somerville Railway in , acquired thirty-six years later by the Central Railroad of New Jersey, which also developed real estate. The community is said to have been named for Fannie Wood, a writer, the daughter of a Jersey Central Railroad official. The Victorian railroad station in the center of the borough now occupies a place of honor in the town as a community house. Located within easy commuting distance of New York City and major airports, Fanwood is primarily a bedroom community. There is no industrial or commercial area. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fridlington, Robert J. Union County Yesterday. Westfield: Union County Cultural and Heritage Programs Advisory Board, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren. History of Union County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Far Hills.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. Far Hills, on the east bank of the North Branch of the Raritan River, was set off from Bernards Township in . Its gently rolling landscape was occupied by working farms prior to the late nineteenth century. In the s, the Schley family took advantage of good rail access between the metropolitan region and this area and developed numerous estates and gentleman’s farms. By the early twentieth century, the borough had become a wealthy enclave of large estates whose owners emulated the lifestyle of the aristocratic English country house. Many of the estates have since been converted to institutional uses. The Leonard J. Buck Gardens are a notable botanical exhibit. The United States Golf Association (USGA) maintains its headquarters and museum in a historic house here, with adjacent large equipment-testing facilities. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: The Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Williams, Joan M. In the Somerset Hills. Bath, ME: Allan Sutton; distributed by Berwick Publishing, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Farley, Frank Sherman ; d. Sept. , ).

(b. Dec. ,

Lawyer and legislator. The youngest of ten children born to a firstgeneration Irish family in Atlantic City, Frank Farley attended Atlantic City public schools, Wenonah Military Academy, and graduated from Georgetown University Law School in

. He worked in an Atlantic City law firm until he opened his own office in . Nicknamed “Happy’’ or “Hap’’ by high school friends, Farley was elected to the state assembly in  where he began to make his way through the corridors of power and influence in the State Capitol. When in  the Republican leader of Atlantic County, Enoch L. Johnson, went to prison for income tax evasion, Farley assumed the reins of power. From this tiny Republican stronghold he was able to extend his influence beyond the county into the state and federal levels of government. For the next two decades he was, according to one observer, “the most powerful public figure in the region and perhaps the state.’’ During the Farley era Atlantic City declined as an urban center and a national resort and was the frequent target of federal and state investigations for commercial vice, political corruption, and connections to organized crime. In , the Kefauver Crime Commission concluded that Atlantic City was “an important way station in the national highway of crime,’’ controlled by a “secret government of hoodlums and key officials’’ who plundered the taxpayers. Farley himself was never indicted but he was defeated in  in the midst of a federal grand jury investigation that resulted in the conviction of city officials, including two former mayors, for bribery, extortion, and conspiracy. Farley served in the state senate for thirtyone years, longer than any other individual, and for most of that era was the leader of the Republican organization in Atlantic County and one of the most powerful and influential politicians in the state. Farley’s legacy was mixed. His ability to manipulate the levers of power brought many benefits to southern New Jersey, including the Garden State Parkway, the Atlantic City Expressway, Stockton State College, and the Atlantic City Raceway. Perhaps the most important indicator of his ability to get things done was his role in procuring casino gambling for Atlantic City in . After the failure of the first referendum in , local politicians, including former political enemies, turned to Farley for assistance. Farley lobbied former cronies in the legislature and secured the critical support of North Jersey politicians, both Democrats and Republicans. At the Republican National Convention in  he led part of the New Jersey delegation to Richard Nixon, helping to ensure Nixon’s nomination on the first ballot. Nixon expressed his gratitude by keeping the federal aviation test center in Atlantic County. Farley’s defeat for reelection in  marked the end of more than seventy years of Republican dominance of Atlantic County. His passing also meant the end of a personal style of politics characteristic of an earlier era in American history. Paulsson, Martin W. The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform: Atlantic City, –. New York: NYU Press, .

Sternlieb, George, and James W. Hughes. The Atlantic City Gamble. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, .

Martin Paulsson

Farmingdale. .-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. During the colonial era, the village of Farmingdale was a stagecoach stop between Freehold and Manasquan, sporting a succession of taverns and hotels for travelers. Known as Marsh’s Bog until  and then Upper Squankum until , the borough incorporated as Farmingdale when it separated from Howell Township in . A group of progressive Jewish chicken farmers in Howell Township established the cooperative Howell Nursery School—the first cooperative nursery school in the state—in Farmingdale in . The borough, a residential and light industrial area, served as the business and shopping center for the surrounding farms until strip shopping centers sprouted along Highway  later in the twentieth century. With the demise of passenger train service and the discontinuance of Trenton-to-Asbury Park buses, Farmingdale sank back into the somnambulance typical of one-street towns with no distinctive architecture or shops. It provides the basic services—grocery, pharmacy, post office, churches, doctors, dentists, bank, liquor store, and a firehouse—for residents, many of whom are descendants of the original settlers. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Donahay, Alma. History of Howell. Adelphia: Howell Historical Society and Committee, . Navarra, Tova. Howell and Farmingdale: A Social and Cultural History. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Susan Hamburger

Farrand, Beatrix

(b. June , ; d.

Feb. , ). Landscape architect. Born into

Gilded Age New York society, Beatrix Farrand enjoyed a privileged upbringing that exposed her to some of the most lavish of northeastern estate gardens. She embarked on a career as a landscape designer in the s, studying with Charles Sprague Sargent, director of Harvard University’s Arnold Arboretum, and touring European gardens. In , she began creating a campus for Princeton University’s Graduate College. Her design, meant to complement a Collegiate Gothic building by architect Ralph Adams Cram, was distinguished by its use of trees and shrubs native to the Princeton area. At Princeton she also established a nursery to cultivate such plants. Farrand’s other New Jersey commissions included the design of gates for the Lawrenceville cemetery, plantings at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in Plainsboro, and residences in Morristown and Spring Lake. Balmori, Diana, Diane Kostail McGuire, and Eleanor M. McPeck. Beatrix Farrand’s American

Feickert, Lillian Ford Landscapes: Her Gardens and Sagaponack, NY: Sagapress, .

Campuses.

Brown, Jane. Beatrix: The Gardening Life of Beatrix Jones Farrand, –. New York: Viking, .

See also gardens, public

Peter Mickulas

Father Divine.

See Peace Mission of

Father Divine.

Fauset, Jessie Redmon

(b. ;

d. Apr. , ). Editor, writer, and teacher.

Born in Fredericksville, also called Free Haven, an all-black hamlet in Camden County founded as a refuge for slaves, Jessie Fauset (Harris) became nationally known for her contributions to black literature. In addition to four novels, she wrote poems, reportage, reviews, and translations. Prominent on the Philadelphia cultural scene and renowned as a vital force in the cultural renewal called the Harlem Renaissance, Fauset lived most of her life in her New Jersey. Refused admission to local colleges because of her race, Fauset was the first black woman to graduate from Cornell University in , having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa in her junior year. Denied teaching appointments in Philadelphia because of racial barriers, she taught high school French and Latin in Washington, D.C., for thirteen years, continuing her education at the Sorbonne and at the University of Pennsylvania, from which she earned a master’s degree in . Fauset’s reviews and feature articles began appearing in  in the Crisis, the official publication, founded by W.E.B. Du Bois, of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). After Fauset was appointed literary editor in , Crisis gained a reputation for literary excellence. She published Langston Hughes’s first poems and promoted the careers of Countee Cullen and Jean Toomer, major writers of the Harlem Renaissance. Fauset also chose the material for the Brownies Book, a progressive children’s magazine that Du Bois published in  and . Fauset’s four novels, written in only ten years, did not achieve critical acclaim. After she resigned from the Crisis in , she returned to teaching. In , she and her husband, Herbert Harris, moved to Montclair, where she was active in local cultural affairs. As an editor, Langston Hughes wrote, Fauset was one of those “who midwifed the so-called New Negro literature into being.’’ Sylvander, Carolyn W. Jessie Redmon Fauset: Black American Writer. Troy, NY: Whitston, . Wall, Cheryl A. Women of the Harlem Renaissance. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also literature

Cheryl A. Wall

Federici, Gaetano Feb. , ).

(b. Sept. , ; d.

Sculptor. The “master-artist

Gaetano Federici with his sculpture The Virgin and his son, Tony, .

From Gaetano Federici: The Artist as Historian (Passaic County Historical Society). of Paterson,’’ Gaetano Federici, was born in the southern Italian village of Castelgrande, and in  followed his stonemason father, Antonio, to “Silk City,’’ as Paterson had come to be known. His genius for carving emerged early, and “Tom Fredrick’’ (as he first signed himself) was invited to show student work at the Buffalo Exposition of . The young sculptor trained with some of New York’s major bronze sculptors while contributing to family construction projects in New Jersey that combined building and decorative arts. He assisted noted sculptor Giuseppe Moretti in modeling the giant Vulcan (cast in iron for the  World’s Fair) inside the unfinished shell of Saint Stephen’s Church in Passaic. Paterson’s building boom after the great fire of  offered opportunities for many local public and private works, and Federici’s charm and vigorous gift for realist portraiture assured him commissions while gaining him wide respect and affection. When the Depression withered funding for large public art, Federici designed a small and endearing Paterson monument, the Dublin Spring (), for a former Irish worker neighborhood. Appointed a schools commissioner, he carved memorial and didactic sculptures for Paterson schools.

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effort to convince the state legislature to ratify the federal suffrage amendment, which was accomplished on February , . In  the state Republican party named Feickert vice-chair of the Republican State Committee at the same time the newly formed New Jersey League of Woman Voters (NJLWV) elected her treasurer. Feickert resigned from the League and concentrated her energy on the presidency of the New Jersey Women’s Republican Club (NJWRC). Feickert and the organized Republican women secured passage of a Consumers League–supported Night Work Bill, which prohibited women from working at night between : p.m. and : a.m. in manufacturing and mercantile establishments, laundries, and bakeries. By late  Feickert’s demands for Republican party support of Prohibition and her insistence on legislative passage of women’s bills brought her and the NJWRC into conflict with Republican party leaders. In  she was defeated in her quest for reelection to the state committee. Feickert ran unsuccessfully as a pro-Prohibition candidate for the U.S. Senate in . Her public role ended in the early s with the defeat of Prohibition and the demise of the State Council of Republican Women, which Feickert had established to rival the Republican women’s organization, which, she felt, placed party loyalty before the public good. Gordon, Felice D. After Winning: The Legacy of the New Jersey Suffragists, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . New Jersey League of Women’s Voters’ Papers. Special Collections and Archives, Alexander Library, Rutgers University, New Brunswick. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Felice D. Gordon

Alaya, Flavia, gen. ed., et al., Gaetano Federici, – : The Artist as Historian. Paterson: Passaic County Historical Society, .

Flavia Alaya

Feickert, Lillian Ford

(b. July , ;

d. Jan. , ). Suffragist and political leader.

Lillian Ford Feikert, who lived in the foothills of the Watchung Mountains in North Plainfield, was president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association (NJWSA) from  to . She steered the organization to such power that she was chosen to head a formal

Lillian Ford Feickert.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

268

Felician College

Felician College. This coeducational Catholic liberal arts college has campuses in Lodi and Rutherford. In  the Felician Sisters founded Immaculate Conception Normal School to train women religious to serve as teachers. In  the normal school was raised to the status of a teacher-training college affiliated with the Catholic University of America, and in  it was incorporated by the state of New Jersey as Immaculate Conception Junior College. The college admitted its first class of laywomen in , and the following year introduced an associate degree program in nursing. In , under the name Felician College, it began to offer a four-year program in teacher education. It has been coeducational since , and acquired the Rutherford campus of Fairleigh Dickinson University in . Grabowski, Sister Mary Bonaventure. Felician Sisters: History of the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Felix of Cantalice. Newark: Johnston Letter, .

See also higher education

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Felician Sisters.

The Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Felix of Cantalice is a Catholic women’s religious order founded in  in Warsaw by Sophia Truszkowska (Mother Mary Angela). Felician Sisters first came to the United States in . In  the sisters of the Buffalo region–which included New York, New Jersey, and several mid-Atlantic states–purchased the HenesseyO’Hare estate in Lodi, Bergen County, and the Immaculate Conception Province was officially established at Lodi in  to minister to the needs of the Polish immigrant community of the mid-Atlantic region. The sisters’ early work in education included the care of orphans and the establishment of Immaculate Conception High School. By the s, Felician Sisters were training as nurses. Today, the Felician Sisters’ primary ministries are education, health care, and social work. Notably, the sisters sponsor Felician College and the Felician Home for Exceptional Children in Lodi. Grabowski, Sister Mary Bonaventure. Felician Sisters: History of the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Felix of Cantalice. Newark: Johnston Letter, . Response, –. Ponca City, OK: Felician Sisters Centennial in America, . Yesterday, Today, Always, –. Lodi: Felician Sisters Immaculate Conception Province, .

See also religious communities of women; Roman Catholic Church

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Feltville.

A tiny deserted village in Union County’s Watchung Reservation, occupying slightly less than one square mile, Feltville is of interest today because it preserves elements from its history as a mill village, as a resort for retreat from unhealthy city conditions, and as the site of murals by Nicaragua’s first modern artist. Founded as a mill village in  by David Felt, a New York City entrepreneur, Feltville

was an experiment in providing workers with religious freedom and escape from the evils of city life. Felt’s paternalistic insistence that he choose everything—from where his workers shopped to where they would worship—led to discontent and the first abandonment of the village, in . In the late nineteenth century, Feltville became Glenside Park, a resort free from malaria and disease, where the wealthy could escape the deadly summer conditions threatening their city homes. The resort lost popularity as the area succumbed to suburbia. When the first vogue for things Latin and native swept the country in the s, the village hosted Roberto de la Selva, Nicaragua’s first modern artist, as he painted murals showing natives practicing ancient and modern religions. Today, ten of Feltville’s buildings are preserved as a historic landmark, part of Union County’s Watchung Reservation. Hawley, James B. The Deserted Village and the Blue Brook Valley. Mountainside: Trailside Museum Association, . Rawson, Marion Nicholl. Under the Blue Hills—Scotch Plains, New Jersey. Plainfield: Historical Society of Scotch Plains and Fanwood, .

Priscilla E. Hayes

feminism.

Following the American Revolution, New Jersey was the only state in the new Republic that permitted women to vote. By , however, the legislature had limited the franchise to free white males. For the rest of the nineteenth century, feminism would be coupled with the struggle to regain suffrage. By the mid-s, an extraordinary number of women active in the cause lived in the ´ Weld state. In  the sisters Angelina Grimke ´ moved to New Jerand Sarah Moore Grimke sey, where they wrote and organized against slavery and helped to establish schools that promoted equality of education for all children. Sarah was especially devoted to the cause of higher education for women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote three volumes of her History of Woman Suffrage in Tenafly, where she attempted, unsuccessfully, to vote in . Antoinette Louisa Brown Blackwell was living in Somerville in  when she helped to organize the American Woman Suffrage Association. In , Lucy Stone Blackwell refused to pay taxes on her house in Orange as a protest against taxation without representation. She later helped to found the American Equal Rights Association and served as president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association. Women did gain the right to vote in local school board elections in , only to have the privilege denied by the courts in  and by referendum in . Lillian Ford Feichert became president of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association in  and skillfully guided the organization through the final push leading to the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in .

Earlier, in , New Jersey’s Alice Paul, who had worked with militant British suffragist Emmeline Pankhurst, helped to organize a parade of seven thousand suffragists in Washington, D.C., on the day before former New Jersey governor Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration as president. The following year Paul’s organization evolved into the National Women’s Party. Continued acts of civil disobedience resulted in the imprisonment of Paul and many of the hundreds who joined her. After ratification of the suffrage amendment, Paul refocused her energies to fight for equal rights. An equal rights amendment she drafted was submitted to Congress in . Even as aggressive activity on behalf of feminist goals drastically declined between  and , Paul worked tirelessly for equal rights. Mary Philbrook, the first woman to become a lawyer in New Jersey (), lectured on women’s legal rights and worked for the establishment of a public college for women. Allied with Paul, Philbrook campaigned for the inclusion of an equal rights amendment in the state’s  constitution. Supported by such women’s groups as the Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs, Philbrook was able to insert gender-neutral wording (“person’’ instead of “he’’) into the constitution, opening the door for later court decisions against sex discrimination. The  report of the Federal Commission on the Status of Women, along with the inclusion of sex as a category in the  Civil Rights Act, helped to generate new interest in the pursuit of feminist goals. New Jersey established a Commission on Women in  (reorganized in ) and a state Office on Women in . Chapters of national feminist groups, such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), the Women’s Equity Action League (WEAL), and the Women’s Political Caucus (WPC) were organized across the state. In May  Paula Kassell and Marge Wyngaarden organized the state’s first feminist conference. By  they were publishing New Directions for Women in New Jersey, the first statewide feminist newspaper in the country. The Women’s Political Caucus held its first conference at Rutgers University in . High on the agendas of this and other organizations were the election of women to political office and the passage of an equal rights amendment. In  Ann Klein, challenging the nominating procedures of the state’s Democratic party, ran for a gubernatorial nomination. In , the first “Year of the Woman in Politics,’’ Millicent Fenwick and Helen Meyner were elected to Congress. (New Jersey had elected only two women to Congress in the previous fifty years.) The state legislature ratified the federal Equal Rights Amendment (ERA, written by Alice Paul) in , but it was voted down in a  statewide referendum. Pressured by women’s organizations, the state Department

Fenwick, John

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A key figure in the yearly celebrations of the Lincoln-Douglass Memorial Association, Fenderson also served on the board of directors of the Sojourner Truth Branch of the black YWCA, which operated until , and the New Jersey Mental Health Association. When she died, her eulogy was read into the Congressional Record by New Jersey representative Hugh Addonizio, who cited her farreaching influence for good and her “notable contribution to the great cause of education and of civil rights.’’ Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also civil rights

Mildred L. Lipscombe

Fenwick, John

Suffragists getting out the message, Long Branch, .

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark. of Education mandated in  that sex (in addition to race, ethnicity, and religion) could not be used as a basis for inequality in educational curricula, athletics, or employment. The New Jersey Commission on Sex Discrimination in the Statutes was established in  to recommend revisions in state laws affecting employment, housing, pensions, insurance, and family life. The defeat of the federal ERA led feminists to focus on a variety of more specific issues, such as reproductive rights, sexual harassment, and health. Women’s studies programs were instituted at many of the state’s colleges, and individual groups, such as the Women’s Project of New Jersey, organized to work for particular goals. Although New Jersey has been the home of many groups and individuals notable for their feminist activities, the political structure of the state has historically been resistant to their efforts. Tightly controlled party organizations were reluctant to move women into positions of genuine influence and responsibility. In , even with a female governor, only nineteen women (. percent of the total) served in the state legislature. Despite this lack of governmental representation, feminists continue to focus their efforts on various social, political, and economic issues.

Kean College, in , and became one of the first regular African American teachers in the Newark public school system, where she taught for forty-two years. A founder of the Newark chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in , she was a tireless worker for integration and a leader in the campaign for the appointment of African American principals and administrators by the Newark Board of Education.

(b. ; d. Dec. ).

Proprietor and colonizer. John Fenwick was the second of four sons of William Fenwick and his wife, Elizabeth. John studied law in Middlesex, and during the English Civil War he served as an officer under both George Monck and Oliver Cromwell. Shortly after his military service, he converted to Quakerism. In , Fenwick and Edward Byllynge, a London brewer and leading member of the Society of Friends, purchased Sir John Berkeley’s share in the western portion of the colony of New Jersey. Fenwick, who served as Byllynge’s agent in the transaction, quickly demanded a percentage of the land so that he might settle a colony of his own. The struggle for control of West Jersey became so divisive that London Quakers called upon William Penn to moderate the dispute. The disagreements were

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Barbara Tomlinson

Fenderson, Grace Baxter

(b. Nov. ,

; d. Mar. , ). Teacher and civil rights

leader. Grace Baxter Fenderson, a lifelong resident of Newark, graduated from Newark Normal and Training School, a predecessor of

Ivy Point, the home of John Fenwick, was built on the Delaware River in .

Courtesy Salem County Historical Society, Salem.

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Fenwick,

Millicent

Hammond

temporarily worked out and in , a “TriPartite Deed’’ was signed by Fenwick, Byllynge, and three Quaker trustees for Byllynge’s creditors. As part of the new deed Fenwick would receive one-tenth of the original Berkeley grant. In November, he arrived with  settlers on the ship Griffen to assume what he believed to be the role of proprietor and governor of the first English settlement in the Delaware Valley. The Salem experiment was plagued with controversy and political and financial problems. Fenwick’s political control over the colony remained in jeopardy because Edmund Andros, the governor of New York, insisted that the colony was under his administration. “Fenwick’s Tenth,’’ as his colony was often called, was eventually united with Byllynge’s Quaker colony of West Jersey, centered in Burlington. At the time of his death, Fenwick had few possessions and no West Jersey lands. He is buried somewhere in Salem County, but the exact location of his grave is unknown. Pomfret, John E. The Province of West Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press,  Stewart, Frank H. Major John Fenwick. Salem: Salem County Historical Society, 

See also West Jersey

John Fea

Fenwick, Millicent Hammond (b. Feb. , ; d. Sept. , ).

Congresswoman and diplomat. Millicent Hammond Fenwick, the daughter of the diplomat Ogden Hammond and Mary Stevens, grew up in cultured society, but was largely self-educated. She married Hugh Fenwick, a sportsman and businessman, but divorced him and raised her two children alone on a dairy farm near Bernardsville. She went to work as a reporter for Vogue magazine, and wrote the -page

Vogue Book of Etiquette. When the real estate firm she inherited from her mother became financially sound, she left Vogue and entered politics. Fenwick first served on the local board of education for six years. As a member of the Bernardsville Borough Council, she facilitated the building of the Little League Field House and the community swimming pool. Elected to the General Assembly in , she sponsored migrant labor legislation and consumer issue bills, and worked for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). In  she became director of consumer affairs, implementing more than a dozen regulations. By a margin of  votes, Fenwick won a Republican seat in the U.S. House of Representatives in , and went on to serve for four terms. She proved herself a tough, independent legislator, introducing bills concerning home health care and bankruptcy, and working in defense of human rights and political prisoners. In August , her trip as a delegate to the Soviet Union led to changes in legislation in connection with the Helsinki Accords. When she returned, she helped create the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, known as the Helsinki Commission. Fenwick also served on the House Small Business and Banking Committee, the Foreign Affairs Committee, the Subcommittee on the City, and the Committee on Official Conduct, known as the Ethics Committee. As a member of the Republican Women’s Task Force at the Republican Convention in August , Fenwick debated Phyllis Schlafly, the ERA’s main opponent, on television. After she lost her bid for the U.S. Senate in  to Frank Lautenberg, she became the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organizations in Rome, from which she retired in .

Millicent Fenwick.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Referred to as the “conscience of Congress,’’ Fenwick was once compared to Eleanor Roosevelt because of her integrity and dedication to public service. She was reportedly the model for the “Lacey Davenport’’ character in the popular comic strip Doonsbury. Fenwick, Millicent. Speaking Up. New York: Harper & Row, . Lamson, Peggy. In the Vanguard: Six American Women in Public Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . Schapiro, Amy. Millicent Fenwick: Her Way. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Grace A. Aqualina

ferryboats.

The needs of commerce dictate that people and goods must often get from one side of a river to the other. The first ferry leases in New Jersey date to colonial times, but until sailing vessels were replaced by mechanically powered ferries in the early years of the nineteenth century, crossing the Hudson River or the Delaware was, quite literally, at the whim of the wind. The first steam-powered ferry to cross the Hudson was John Stevens’s Juliana in . A more robust Stevens vessel, Phoenix, followed in . Then, in , a ferryboat by the name of Jersey began operating between Manhattan and New Jersey. Jersey was built by Robert Fulton and, because of a monopoly that New York State had awarded to Fulton’s business associate, Robert Livingston, it prevented others, such as Stevens, from operating steam-powered ferries on the Hudson. In , a firm called the Hoboken Ferry Company put the steam-powered ferryboat Hoboken into trans-Hudson service. No agreement was ever reached with the FultonLivingston monopoly to sanction this service, but pressure was building, litigation was beginning, and people were less fearful of challenging the state-sanctioned monopoly than they had been just a decade earlier. The Fulton-Livingston monopoly ended with the Gibbons v. Ogden decision by the U.S. Supreme Court in . With the growth of railroads in the years before and after the Civil War, ferryboats found a largely supplementary niche in New Jersey’s overall transport picture. Vessels crossing the Hudson and the Delaware Rivers were largely owned by various railroads whose terminals were on the banks of the two rivers, and the boats provided transriver connections to New York City or Philadelphia. The Hoboken Ferry Company, for example, became a maritime subsidiary of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad. Gradually, ferryboats faded from the scene. Bridges across the Delaware and the Hudson made automotive alternatives more convenient than combination trips by rail and water, and three sets of trans-Hudson rail tunnels, built in the first decade of the twentieth century, greatly diminished the role played by ferryboats in New York Harbor. On November

festivals , , the Erie Lackawanna Railroad, successor of the DL & W, abandoned service on its Barclay Street–Hoboken ferry route, the last Hudson River ferry line. Delaware River ferries between Philadelphia and Camden had been abandoned even earlier, and other Delaware crossings north and south of Philadelphia that provided no connecting service to rail terminals were also replaced by bridges. Nineteen years later, in , a small vessel named Port Imperial, owned by a firm called Arcorp Ferries, revived trans-Hudson ferry service. In the years since, Arcorp has become NY Waterways, Port Imperial has been joined by a fleet of sister ships, and a new generation of ferries provide supplementary capacity across the Hudson since rail and automotive tunnels operate virtually at capacity during the peak rush hours each workday. There is also a ferry service in southern New Jersey that combines elements of old-fashioned steamboats and ferryboats. It crosses Delaware Bay between Lewes, Delaware, and Cape May, New Jersey, and a fleet of modern, three-deck vessels provides a relaxing ninety-minute trip that recalls an earlier era in New Jersey transport. Cudahy, Brian J. Over and Back: The History of Ferryboats in New York Harbor. New York: Fordham University Press, . Morrison, John H. History of American Steam Navigation. Rev. ed. New York: Stephen Daye, .

See also boats; transportation

Brian J. Cudahy

Fessenden,

Reginald

Aubrey

(b. Oct. , ; d. July , ). Physicist and

inventor. Called “the father of radio broadcasting,’’ Reginald Fessenden was perhaps the most prolific of the many young researchers employed by Thomas Edison at Menlo Park, holding more than five hundred patents. He built the first power generating station at Niagara Falls and developed the fathometer, a device that used radio waves to accurately gauge ocean depths and to detect submarines and icebergs. A precocious youth, Fessenden became fascinated with Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone and the new science of electricity. He followed the work of Guglielmo Marconi in radio telegraphy and, as a young adult, became convinced of the possibility of broadcasting the human voice in accordance with the Morse signals. Radio and television transmission as we know it today is based on the continuous wave theory, the idea that radio waves travel in the same manner as light emanating from its source. Marconi and other authorities insisted that radio waves traveled in alternating bursts. This “whiplash theory’’ retarded the progress of radio broadcasting for at least a decade. Even Edison, normally receptive to new ideas, was skeptical. He once told his young assistant that the chances of sending speech over the air were “about as likely as a man jumping over the moon.’’ In the face of such pessimism and

ridicule, Fessenden persisted. His obsession with the continuous wave theory determined the course of his career. Fessenden attended the Trinity School in Ontario and completed his formal education at Bishops College in Quebec. He taught for two years in Bermuda and read everything he could find on the latest developments in electricity. In December  the twenty-yearold Fessenden journeyed to the United States for the express purpose of seeking a position with Edison Laboratories. To Fessenden, “the golden age of invention’’ began with Edison. Fessenden later described his four years at the Edison laboratories in New Jersey as his “learning period.’’ He wrestled with problems in chemistry and metallurgy as well as in electricity and radio waves. He left Edison’s employ in  grateful for the experience and more determined than ever to transmit the human voice by radio. Teaching assignments at Purdue University and the University of Pittsburgh and stints at the Westinghouse Laboratory and the U.S. Weather Service gave Fessenden the opportunity to refine his theories and perfect his equipment. In December of  his voice became the first to be broadcast by radio waves and heard by another human being. In  he formed his own company. On Christmas Eve , he broadcast a program of music that was heard by ships hundreds of miles at sea. Despite the importance of this breakthrough it was not until after World War I that the United States and Canadian governments issued licenses for radio broadcasting. For the remainder of his career Fessenden struggled to obtain financial backing for further research, a process that jeopardized his rights to many of his own inventions. During World War I many of his patents were used

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without his consent and his time and fortune were consumed in lengthy court battles. In  the United States Radio Trust awarded Fessenden $. million in recognition of his many contributions to radio technology. Fessenden, Helen. Fessenden: Builder of Tomorrows. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Raby, Ormond. Radio’s First Voice: The Story of Reginald Fessenden. Toronto: Macmillan, .

See also radio

Martin Paulsson

festivals. Many festivals are held annually in New Jersey, in the warmer months between April and October. These events or happenings are planned in advance, usually scheduled for one or two days on a weekend, as celebrations with a series of related performances, exhibitions, or competitions. Festivals are normally held in outdoor locations such as parks, plazas, or fairgrounds, which can accommodate large crowds. In urban settings, festivals often begin with a parade, where one or more streets may be blocked off for the occasion. The focal point for most festivals is the entertainment with music, dance, singing, storytelling, or skits presented with sound amplification on temporary stages, platforms, or trailers. Some festivals are open to the public and free while others charge admission. Most of these events have vendors who sell food, crafts, clothing, souvenirs, toys, and other specialty items. Some festivals in the Garden State come from the older agricultural year and are structured around a particular crop. In an annual cycle, the very first one is the Dandelion Festival held in April in Vineland. Later, in June, there is the Strawberry Festival at Dutch Neck Village, a collection of small shops in Hopewell Township in Cumberland County; in August,

Edith Muno and group playing at the New Jersey Folk Festival, Rutgers University campus, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries,New Brunswick.

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fiction

the Country Corn Festival at Historic Cold Spring Village, a re-creation of a nineteenthcentury South Jersey farm village in Cape May; in October, the New Jersey Cranberry Festival at Chatsworth in the Pine Barrens. Other festivals are based on ethnicity, such as the Festival of the Buffalo held in May by the Powhattan Renni Renapi at the Rankokus American Indian Reservation in Westampton Township, Burlington County; in June, the Portugal Day Festival where people come to the Ironbound section of Newark to dance in the streets, eat barbecued sardines, and drink sangria; also in June, the Hungarian Festival held along Somerset Street in New Brunswick; in September, the Scottish Heritage Festival in Holmdel featuring Highland games as well as pipes and drums. With a coastline of  miles in length, New Jersey has a good number of seafood festivals serving clams, oysters, shrimp, crabs, and all types of fish. In June there is the Clam Fest in Highlands, featuring the “Battle of the Clam Shuckers’’; in August, the Barnegat Bay Crab Race and Seafood Festival at Seaside Heights; in September, the Chowderfest Weekend at Beach Haven, with the “Chowder Cook-Off Classic’’ where visitors vote for their favorite red and white chowders. Still other festivals focus on music. Starting the season is the New Jersey Folk Festival held in New Brunswick in April, featuring traditional music; in June, the Appel Farm Arts and Music Festival held in Elmer, featuring contemporary folk; also in June, Atlantic Mutual’s Jersey JazzFest at Fairleigh Dickinson in Madison; in August, the family-oriented Knowlton Riverfest along the Delaware River in Knowlton; over Labor Day Weekend, the Delaware Bluegrass Festival at the Salem County Fair Grounds in Woodstown; in September, the Festival of the People in Newark with rap, jazz, and gospel.

Angus Kress Gillespie

fiction. New Jersey has generated a broad and fine collection of fiction writing from authors who have experienced the state through various cultures, ethnicities, and eras. Some are native to the state, including James Fenimore Cooper and Norman Mailer, while others have adopted the state or briefly passed through it to pursue higher education, such as Princeton alumnus F. Scott Fitzgerald, who talked about his Jersey years in his first book, This Side of Paradise (). New Jersey authors have written inspired fiction in all genres, including historical novels, such as Stephen Crane’s Red Badge of Courage (), chronicling the Civil War; children’s stories, such as Mary Mapes Dodge’s Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates (); mysteries by Saddle River resident Mary Higgins Clark; or westerns such as Newark resident Zane Grey’s Riders of the Purple Sage (). Many have chosen New Jersey as backdrop for their novels and have captured

experiences that are, if not unique to New Jersey, best understood by fellow New Jerseyans. James Fenimore Cooper, born in Burlington to Quaker parents, is deemed by many to be America’s first major novelist. His early novel, The Spy (), the story of a Loyalist in the Revolutionary War supplying inside information to George Washington, won him instant recognition, and was followed by short stories, The Last of the Mohicans (), and The Deerslayer (). Stephen Crane, a Newark native, studied at Pennington Seminary and worked at Newark’s Morning News before writing his classic The Red Badge of Courage. It was also in Newark that Washington Irving, author of The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle (), embarked on his literary career and helped entrench the short story in the American literary tradition. Mary Mapes Dodge wrote her first collection of short tales for children, Irvington Stories (), in a deserted farmhouse near her father’s home in Newark. Contemporary authors have filled the voids that these greats have left. Norman Mailer, author of The Naked and the Dead (), The Deer Park (), The Executioner’s Song (), and Harlot’s Ghost (), was born in Long Branch. Longtime South Orange resident Belva Plain, a leading writer of generational sagas, is the author of the best-seller Evergreen () and the follow-up successes Eden Burning (), Whispers (), Homecoming (), and Looking Back (). The prolific Mary Higgins Clark, of Saddle River and Spring Lake, continues to publish popular mysteries. Her first suspense novel, Where Are the Children? (), was an instant best-seller, followed by numerous others, including A Stranger Is Watching () and Before I Say Goodbye (). Espionage thriller novelist Robert Ludlum, who lived in Short Hills and Leonia, published thirteen consecutive best-sellers from  to , including The Holcroft Covenant (), The Aquitaine Progression (), Apocalypse Watch (), and The Prometheus Deception (). Other New Jersey authors more directly channeled their experiences of growing up in New Jersey into their work. Newark native Judith Ortiz Cofer, born in Puerto Rico, used her experiences growing up in Paterson’s El building as basis for her novel The Line of the Sun (). Philip Roth, who attended Rutgers University and taught at Princeton, used his own upbringing in a Jewish family in Newark in many of his novels. A collection of his short stories, entitled Goodbye, Columbus (), won the National Book Award and his American Pastoral () won the Pulitzer Prize. Other books by him include Portnoy’s Complaint (), The Human Stain (), and The Dying Animal (). Princeton has served as a kind of literary incubator for fiction. John O’Hara, who spent most of his life in Princeton, wrote a string

of novels, including Appointment in Samara () and Butterfield  (), some of which were later made into box-office hits starring such talents as Elizabeth Taylor and Paul Newman. Joyce Carol Oates, author of nearly forty novels, was a writer-in-residence at Princeton University and wrote National Book Award recipient Them (), as well as mysteries under the pseudonym Rosamund Smith. Some authors made their contributions to juvenile fiction. Harriet Adams, of Maplewood, wrote various Nancy Drew books under the pseudonym Carolyn Keene and Hardy Boys books as Franklin Dixon. Judy Blume, who was born and raised in Elizabeth, wrote the adolescent favorites Are You There, God? It’s Me, Margaret (), Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing (), Blubber (), and Superfudge (). Ann Martin, of Princeton, is the author of the popular Baby-Sitters Club series for young readers. See also literature

Kathryn P. Kimball

Fielder, James Fairman

(b. Feb. ,

; d. Dec. , ). Governor and legislator.

The son of George Bragg and Eleanor A. (Brinkerhoff) Fielder of Jersey City, James Fairman Fielder married Mabel Cholwell Miller on June , . Fielder graduated from Columbia Law School and went into practice in Hudson County. Fielder began serving in the state assembly in , moving to the state senate in . During the next few years he was a member of numerous committees and developed an impressive record for competence. He worked effectively in support of Woodrow Wilson’s legislative program. In , Fielder was chosen president of the senate. This important office made him acting governor when Wilson left office to assume the presidency. Fielder successfully supported some significant reform bills during his acting governorship, but he failed to gain the constitutional convention he wanted. In his strenuous efforts to put through reforms in the administration of the jury system, he focused on one of Wilson’s objectives from the latter part of his period as governor. Reformers believed that political machines through the office of county sheriff controlled juries to such an extent that grand and petit juries were nearly useless in cases involving members of those machines. After a protracted struggle, which included President Wilson’s return to New Jersey to speak for changes, a bill was negotiated that eliminated the total discretion over jury selection exercised by the sheriffs. Fielder faced an election in . His fate depended heavily on gaining Wilson’s support, as well as the backing of the New Jersey Democratic political bosses. Despite support from the Democratic organization, in a far from overwhelming victory, Fielder won the governorship by a plurality of , votes

fishermen’s associations over his Republican opponent, Edward C. Stokes. Fielder’s achievements as governor were relatively few. The legislature was nearly evenly divided between the two major parties, and the reform impulse that was so evident in the early part of the century was dissipating. Indeed, one might argue that a “conservative coalition’’ developed to prevent further reforms and to undo as many as possible the changes instituted during Wilson’s brief governorship. Wilson, who had other priorities, increasingly distanced himself from the New Jersey progressives. Interpretations of Fielder vary. In an essay in The Governors of New Jersey, David W. Hirst portrayed him as a Wilson follower who earnestly pursued progressive goals, although he was unsuccessful because Republicans and conservative Democrats stalled new legislation. Duane Lockhart viewed Fielder as someone quite willing to come to terms with the Democratic organization, moving significantly away from Wilson’s reform path. Joseph Mahoney believed Fielder was loyal to Wilson’s reforms, fought vigorously against efforts to dilute these accomplishments, but proposed little in the way of new progressive initiatives. At the end of his term in , Fielder vowed to leave politics. He was appointed vice chancellor of the court of chancery, a post he retained for the next twenty-nine years until retirement. Lockard, Duane. The New Jersey Governor: A Study in Political Power. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds., The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Benjamin R. Beede

Fieldsboro.

.-square-mile borough in Burlington County. Surrounded by Bordentown City and Bordentown Township along the Delaware River, Fieldsboro was founded in . Originally known as White Hill, the town’s name was changed to White Hill Station when the railroad arrived in the s. In  the town was incorporated as Fieldsboro and remains one of Burlington County’s tiniest municipalities. Today Fieldsboro consists mostly of single-family dwellings. Its largest industry is a commercial brick business that caters to builders. The borough is home to the historic, though currently decrepit, early eighteenth-century White Hill Mansion located on the banks of the Delaware River. The  population of  was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Jim Donnelly

Filipinos. Filipinos have been called the “invisible minority.’’ Because the Philippines

was an American colony from  to , most Filipinos who arrived in New Jersey already spoke English and were familiar with American culture. As they became established, many moved to the suburbs. New Jersey had few Filipino residents prior to , when immigration laws were changed in response to the need for more professionals, especially doctors and nurses. Because of the large influx of Filipinos, some of whom were employed by the Jersey City Medical Center, Jersey City was transformed. A symbol of the change was the renaming of a major street as “Manila Avenue.’’ According to the  U.S. Census, there are , Filipinos living in New Jersey; however, there may be another , or more who were not counted in the official census. Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also ethnicity

Angus Kress Gillespie

Finesville.

See Pohatcong

Finley, Robert

(b. Feb. , ; d. Oct. ,

). Teacher and clergyman. Robert Finley

graduated from Princeton in , at age sixteen. He taught in the college’s grammar school and then in Allentown until moving to Charleston, South Carolina, in . He returned to Princeton in  to study theology, also serving as a tutor in the college and later as a trustee. In  he was ordained pastor at the Presbyterian church at Basking Ridge, where he served for twenty years as a popular preacher and noted educator. While there, he pioneered the concept of modern Sunday school curriculum. Reverend Finley also originated the plan of African Colonization and, in , was instrumental in the formation of both the American and New Jersey Colonization Societies. Shortly afterward, he became president of what is now the University of Georgia, but died after serving less than a year. Brown, Isaac V. Biography of the Reverend Robert Finley, of Basking Ridge, N.J. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, .

See also New Jersey Colonization Society; slavery

Scott D. Peters

Finley, Samuel ).

(b. July , ; d. July ,

Clergyman and college president. Samuel Finley was born in Armagh, Ireland, and arrived in Philadelphia in . He was educated at the Log College, a Presbyterian academy under the direction of the Rev. William Tennent, and was ordained by the New Brunswick Presbytery in . He spent much of his early career as an itinerant minister of the prorevival “New Side’’order and ministered to Presbyterians in the southern New Jersey towns of Greenwich, Deerfield, and Cape May. He eventually settled in Nottingham, Pennsylvania, where he presided over an

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academy for young boys. Finley published several pamphlets on theological and Presbyterian themes. In , he became president of the College of New Jersey at Princeton, a position he held until his death. Alexander, Archibald. Biographical Sketches of the Founder and Principal Alumni of the Log College. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, . DAB. Webster, Richard. History of the Presbyterian Church in America until . Philadelphia: Joseph Wilson, .

See also Presbyterians

John Fea

Firemen’s Insurance Company. The Firemen’s Insurance Company was founded in Newark in  with Moses R. King as president. It grew into New Jersey’s largest fire and casualty insurance company. Its sixteen-story office building, completed in , is considered Newark’s first skyscraper. Another major office building for the company was finished in . In , Firemen’s Insurance was acquired by Continental Insurance Company, which was bought by CNA Financial Corporation in . French, Bruce H. Banking and Insurance in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Shaw, William H. History of Essex and Hudson Counties. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

See also insurance industry

David A. Norris

First Union Bank.

See Wachovia Bank.

fishermen’s associations.

Concern for the health of coastal waters and debate over the management and allocation of fishery resources have led fishing interests to form several fishermen’s associations. The Garden State Seafood Association is an organization of fishermen, fishing companies, related businesses, and individuals working to promote the interests of the commercial fishing industry and seafood consumers in New Jersey. The association’s primary goal is to ensure that marine resources are managed responsibly to sustain productive fisheries and quality supplies of seafood for the future. The Blue Water Fishermen’s Association represents the interests of commercial fishermen, fish dealers, and other companies involved with highly migratory Atlantic species. Their goal is to preserve the economic viability of these fisheries and give the nonfishing public access to a share of these resources. The interests of New Jersey’s baymen are served by a number of associations, including the New Jersey Shellfisheries Association and the Baymen’s Protective Association. Individuals involved in the culture of marine species have formed the New Jersey Aquaculture Association. For many anglers without access to watercraft, party and charter boats are the only

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fishes

affordable way to reach productive fishing grounds beyond the shoreline. The United Boatmen of New York and New Jersey represents the interests of party and charter boat captains in environmental and fishery management issues. In addition, captains in a number of ports have formed local party and charter boat associations. The interests of the recreational angling community are served by several organizations. The Jersey Coast Anglers Association represents the interests of saltwater fishing clubs and anglers in matters pertaining to fishing, fisheries management, and environmental quality. The Recreational Fishing Alliance, an organization of anglers, fishing clubs, marine manufacturers and retailers, works to safeguard the rights of saltwater anglers, protect jobs in the marine trades industry, and ensure marine resources will be sustained over the long term. Piehler, Glenn R. Exit Here for Fish!: Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishing

John A. Tiedemann

fishes. New Jersey’s reservoirs, lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams provide habitats for a diversity of fishes. Its ichthyofauna is typical of temperate regions and, by most accounts, comparable to, rather than distinct from, that of other states in the Mid-Atlantic region. Minnows comprise the largest family of fishes worldwide. Minnows common in New Jersey include shiners (such as common shiners and golden shiners) and carp. Bullhead catfish comprise the largest family of freshwater fishes endemic to North America north of Mexico. Bullhead catfish found in New Jersey include brown bullhead, yellow bullhead, white catfish, and channel catfish. Sunfishes and basses are a family of freshwater fishes native only to North America. Most characteristic of warm-water lakes, ponds, and sluggish streams, this family is represented in New Jersey by black basses (largemouth and smallmouth bass), sunfishes (bluegills, pumpkinseeds, redbreast sunfish), crappies (white crappie, black crappie), and rock bass. Darters, perches, and pikeperches comprise the second-most diverse family of North American freshwater fishes. Aside from darters, two other species found in New Jersey are the yellow perch and walleye, which has been introduced as a game fish in the state. Pike are commonly found in weedy lakes, ponds, and other slow-moving water bodies in North America. Pike found in New Jersey include the chain pickerel, redfin pickerel, and introduced species like the northern pike and muskellunge. Trout are generally found in cool streams and lakes in North America. New Jersey waters are home to a variety of trout such as brook trout, brown trout, lake trout, and rainbow trout.

Anadromous fishes live primarily in saltwater; however, mature fish move from saltwater to freshwater to spawn. Anadromous species found in New Jersey coastal waters include members of the herring family (alewife, blueback herring, American shad, and hickory shad) as well as temperate basses such as striped bass and white perch. Representatives of more than fifty families of resident and migratory fish are found in New Jersey coastal waters. Small schooling fishes that occur in tidal waters of estuaries and adjacent marshes include the sheepshead minnow, mummichog, striped killifish, and banded killifish. Small schooling fishes common in coastal waters include silversides, primarily Atlantic silversides, and anchovies, primarily bay anchovies. Inshore, the fish community seasonally includes flatfishes (summer flounder, four-spot flounder, windowpane, winter flounder, yellowtail flounder), cunner, blackfish, red drum, northern kingfish, croaker, spot, weakfish, Spanish and Atlantic mackerel, bluefish, porgy, and black sea bass. Sea robins are a widely distributed family of marine fishes that live on soft bottoms at moderate depths. Two species commonly found in New Jersey waters are the northern and striped sea robin. Sculpins are a large family of bottom-dwelling fishes found in colder marine waters. Sculpins common in New Jersey waters include the grubby and longhorn sculpin. Hakes are found at moderate depths in New Jersey coastal waters. Common species include the white, red, silver, and spotted hakes. Cods such as the Atlantic cod, pollock, and haddock are found in deeper, cooler waters of the continental shelf or slope. Atlantic tomcod, on the other hand, occur predominantly in coastal rivers, reaching the southern terminus of their range in the lower Hudson River. Highly migratory species found in New Jersey’s offshore waters include tuna (albacore, bigeye, bluefin, skipjack, yellowfin) and billfish (blue marlin, white marlin, swordfish). Numerous other species are found in marine waters of New Jersey including stargazers, monkfish, eelpout, cuskeel, hogchocker, blowfish, and smallmouth flounder, as well as a variety of sharks, skates, and rays. MacKenzie, Clyde L. The Fisheries of the Raritan Bay. New Brunswick: Rutgers University press, . Pollock, Leland. A Practical Guide to the Marine Animals of Northeastern North America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Robins, C. R., and G. C. Ray. A Field Guide to Atlantic Coast Fishes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

John A. Tiedemann

fishing.

Bay and inshore fishing has been far more important than offshore and distant water fishing and whaling in New Jersey’s history, even though Cape May was founded by New England whalers. Giant shellpiles once testified to the importance of fishing to New Jersey’s native Lenape. In colonial times fishing was closely tied to agriculture. Farmers

Fishing in the Hudson River at Englewood.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. would bring their wagons to the shore to harvest menhaden for food and fertilizer. Along the rivers, migratory fishes such as shad, sturgeon, and herring were taken for subsistence and trade. On the Delaware River, shad were caught using large seines cast out from the shoreline, and individuals and companies held private property in the haul-seining areas, known as fisheries, one of which remains in Lambertville. Commercial fishing developed in response to the growth of urban areas and transportation. New York City and Philadelphia, and also Elizabeth, Newark, and other New Jersey cities, provided large markets for products from the rivers and the sea. Oystering and clamming flourished in the northeastern area, in Newark Bay, the Raritan River and Bay, and the Shrewsbury River, and the practice of oyster planting took hold in this region by the late s. Young oysters are moved to underwater acreage, where they are tended for one or more years before harvest and marketing. With the development of rail transportation, oyster planting spread to coastal bays and to the Maurice River Cove area of Delaware Bay in the mid-s. Oyster planting was big and often profitable business in ports such as Keyport, South Amboy, and in Port Norris, where it persists to this day. The development of coastal tourism and summer resorts on the Jersey Shore also created local markets for fresh fish. In the late nineteenth century, Atlantic City was the home port of ocean-going sailing smacks equipped with wells to keep fishes alive for the tourist market. Similar boats pursued fish up and down the coast for New York markets. There were also hundreds of large pound nets off New Jersey’s beaches, connected with

Fithian, Philip Vickers ice houses on the beach, to supply local and metropolitan markets with fresh fish. The pound-net fisheries attracted immigrants, initially from Italy and then from Norway and other northern European countries, creating diverse cultural roots in the state’s fisheries. By the s ocean pound netting had been largely replaced by techniques such as gill netting, dragging, dredging, and line fishing, and Cape May, Wildwood, Atlantic City, Point Pleasant, and Belford emerged as the major fishing ports. Commercial fishing is an important industry, providing over $ million in revenue to the state, but recreational fishing dominates most coastal areas. Recreational fishing has a very long history in New Jersey, linked to the early rise of tourism at the Jersey Shore. Taking tourists fishing was recognized as an occupation in the Barnegat Bay as early as the s, and it is said that George Washington went fishing for sport at Sandy Hook. Major ports for recreational saltwater fishing are Atlantic Highlands, Shark River, Brielle and Point Pleasant, Cape May and Wildwood, and Fortescue.

Bonnie J. McCay

fishing, freshwater. Freshwater fishing is an aspect of angling that appeals to many New Jerseyans of varied ages and socioeconomic levels. Hook-and-line fishing in lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams is both a pleasant sport and a way to gather food. New Jersey’s freshwater fishing resources are maintained, enhanced, and regulated by the Bureau of Freshwater Fisheries, Division of Fish and Wildlife, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Modern aquaculture techniques have enabled the division to raise numerous freshwater fish species and to begin stocking the state’s abundant and diversified fishable waters with them. Popular freshwater fish species include brook, brown, and rainbow trout, largemouth and smallmouth bass, yellow perch, catfish, crappie, pickerel, carp, sunfish, walleye, hybrid striped bass, shad, northern pike, tiger musky, and muskellunge. The most popular tackle configurations are those employed in spinning, bait-casting, fly-fishing, and spin-casting. Frequently used natural baits include minnows, earthworms, mealworms, grubs, hellgrammites, salmon eggs, and doughballs. Popular artificial lures include flies, streamers, nymphs, plugs, spoons, spinner baits, buzz baits, bladed spinners, and a variety of soft plastic worms. Catch-and-release fishing is a popular angling philosophy by which fish are caught and immediately released unharmed. Although the practice is mandatory in some waters, many anglers observe it on a voluntary basis.

saltwater fisheries of the Jersey coast, which attract many visitors and residents, contribute much to the state’s economy. Marine angling involves fishing for desirable species in the Atlantic Ocean and associated rivers and bays. Saltwater anglers cast from jetties, banks, bulkheads, and docks as well as in the surf and from private, commercial, and guide-service boats. Saltwater fish species appeal to anglers for two main qualities, fighting ability and food value. Those possessing both are the most desirable. Striped bass, summer flounder (fluke), winter flounder, and bluefish are among the most sought-after saltwater fish. Others in demand are weakfish, tuna, black sea bass, blackfish (tautog), ling, cod, whiting, kingfish, and mackerel. The taking of most marine species is governed by state and federal regulations that impose season length, size limits, possession limits, and other rules. Most of New Jersey’s saltwater fisheries mandate the taking of fish by hook-and-line methods, with anglers choosing conventional, spinning, or fly tackle and varied baits and artificial lures. MacKenzie, Clyde L. The Fisheries of the Raritan Bay. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . New Jersey Fishing Guide: A Guide to Fishing in New Jersey. Trenton: Travel and Tourism, New Jersey Commerce and Economic Growth Commission, . Piehler, Glenn R. Exit Here for Fish!: Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Joseph Marty Boa

Fitch, John

(b. Jan. , ; d. July , ).

Inventor. Fitch was the first American to formulate plans for a practical steamboat. His first successful prototype was launched on the Delaware River near Philadelphia on August , . One year later, Fitch had a steamboat in regular service, ferrying passengers between Philadelphia, Burlington, and Trenton. Fitch repeatedly tried to gain financial backing for his invention from the federal government, but was unsuccessful. A

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steamboat Fitch had built for the Ohio River ran aground and was wrecked in a storm, leaving him penniless. He died in Kentucky, where he once worked as a surveyor and had owned some land. Boyd, Thomas. Poor John Fitch: Inventor of the Steamboat. New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, . Dale, Frank. Delaware Diary. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Prager, Frank D., ed. The Autobiography of John Fitch. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, .

See also steamboats

Raymond Frey

Fithian, Philip Vickers (b. Dec. , ; d. Oct. , ). Clergyman. Philip Fithian was

born to Joseph Fithian and Hannah Vickers Fithian, farmers in Greenwich, and married Elizabeth Beatty in . He was educated at the Presbyterian academy of the Rev. Enoch Green at Deerfield and then at the College of New Jersey at Princeton. He graduated in  and embarked on a two-year excursion to Virginia, where he served as a tutor to the children of Robert Carter, a Northern Neck tobacco planter. Upon his return to Greenwich, Fithian pursued ordination with the Philadelphia presbytery. Due to a shortage of available pulpits in the geographical bounds of the presbytery, he transferred to the Donegal, Pennsylvania, presbytery and traveled throughout western Pennsylvania to minister to its inhabitants. Fithian’s missionary tour was cut short, however, by the outbreak of war with England. He died of complications related to dysentery, which he contracted while serving as a chaplain with a New Jersey militia brigade in New York. Fithian is perhaps best remembered as a journal writer. His daily entries, recorded between  and , reflect the everyday agricultural, religious, cultural, and educational life of early southern New Jersey and plantation Virginia. Farish, Hunter D., ed. Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian: A Plantation Tutor of the Old Dominion. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, .

fishing, saltwater. Recreational saltwater fishing is one of New Jersey’s mainstay outdoor sports, with enormous appeal both as recreation and as a way of obtaining food. The

Steamboat designed by John Fitch, scale model by John Hutchings, c. . Wood,  ×  ×  / in.

Courtesy New-York Historical Society. Accession number, × 59. Negative number, 7226.

276

Flanagan, John

Palmer, F. Alan, ed. The Beloved Cohansie of Philip Vickers Fithian Greenwich: Cumberland County Historical Society, . Williams, John R. ed., Philip Vickers Fithian: Journal and Letters, –.  vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, –; reprint, Books for Libraries Press, .

John Fea

Flanagan, John

(b. ; d. Mar. , ).

Sculptor and medalist. John Flanagan was born in Newark in . He studied at the Cooper Union and the Art Students League, and with the famed sculptor of the American Renaissance Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Like many sculptors during this period, Flanagan also ´mie Julien pursued study in Paris, at the Acade ´ cole des Beaux-Arts. and the E Flanagan is perhaps best known for his bronze head of Saint-Gaudens. Flanagan began the head in , but it remained unfinished at the time of Saint-Gaudens’s death in . He was finally able to complete the work in , and it was first exhibited in the Centennial Exhibition of the National Academy of Design held in Washington in . Flanagan also executed a clock for the Library of Congress in Washington, and numerous portrait medallions and medals. In New Jersey, Flanagan’s bronze relief of Wisdom Instructing the Children of Man, which was installed in the pediment of the Newark Free Public Library in , stands as one of the state’s most significant allegorical works of public art. John Flanagan died in New York in . His work is included in numerous collections, including those of the Newark Museum and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Hassler, Donna J. “John Flanagan: An American Beaux-Arts Sculptor and Medalist.’’ In Public Art in New Jersey during the Period of the American Renaissance. Wayne: Museums Council of New Jersey, .

———. “The Medals of John Flanagan.’’ In The Medal in America, ed. Alan M. Stahl. New York: American Numismatic Society, .

See also sculpture

Meredith Arms Bzdak

flea markets.

Open-air markets have been found in New Jersey at least since the late s, when ship supplies and provisions were bartered at Cohansey Wharf (now Greenwich). By the s, such operations had evolved into monthly sales or auctions, usually in rural areas, for livestock, furnishings, bedding, used clothing, and farm equipment. Two of New Jersey’s oldest markets, Englishtown Auction and Columbus Farmers Market, both began in . During the s, these auctions started renting space to antique vendors, who took advantage of the large crowds. Suburbanization in the mid-twentieth century did not make the country market obsolete, but instead brought a steady stream of new bargain-hunters and day-trippers by car. The term flea market (from the French march´e aux puce, after the insects that infested secondhand furniture) was popularized in the late s. Flea markets appeared in fields, at drive-in theaters, speedways, fairgrounds, abandoned malls, and downtown areas. Merchandise might include not just used items and antiques but low-priced new goods. Independent vendors are usually charged a rate per table (or parking space) in order to participate. Low operating costs and the part-time status of many vendors made flea markets competitive with stores. Englishtown Auction in Manalapan, which averages , vendors and features three food courts, is considered the state’s largest flea market. Other notable flea markets are in Berlin, Collingwood, Columbus, East Brunswick, East Rutherford (in a Giants Stadium parking lot), Flemington, Lambertville, Neshanic Station, New Egypt, and Palmyra. In , some organizers joined the newly created National Association of Flea Markets. Vendors have become sophisticated about pricing antiques, but bargains can still be found; in , one customer at a New Jersey flea market paid $ for an authentic statuette from the movie The Maltese Falcon and later auctioned it for $,. LaFarge, Albert. The U.S. Flea Market Directory: The Complete Guide to America’s Best Flea Markets. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

See also illustration, color section

Jon Blackwell

Fleet Bank.

John Flanagan, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, . Bronze, h.  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Felix Fuld, 1926, 26.2361.

FleetBoston Financial Corporation, with headquarters in Boston, is the eighth-largest financial holding company in the nation, with customers from Maine to Pennsylvania. Fleet is also the largest bank in New Jersey, with, in , a statewide total of $. billion in assets, a deposit market share of  percent, and  branches. Fleet first moved into New Jersey in  when

it bought National Westminster Bank’s retail branches. In October , Fleet acquired Summit Bancorp, at the time of its acquisition the largest independent bank in New Jersey. Summit originated in the town of Summit in . In March , the bank’s successor, Summit Bancorp of Princeton, was acquired by UJB (United Jersey Bank) Financial Corporation, which then assumed the name Summit Bancorp. The subsequent purchase of Summit Bancorp made Fleet the largest New Jersey bank at the start of the twenty-first century. See also banking

Ann Kessler

Flemington.

.-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. Flemington, the Hunterdon County seat, became an independent borough in , when it separated from Raritan Township in an effort to reduce taxes. Before European settlement there were American Indian communities in the Flemington area. Located along important Indian trails, the area had good soils, a sheltered location from the north winds, and abundant deposits of argillite, a mineral used to make tools and weapons. Early European landowners were Daniel Coxe, Joseph Kirkbridge, and William Penn, proprietors of the West Jersey Company. One of the earliest settlers was Johann Philip Kase, a German who purchased land in . Kase also renegotiated his land settlement with Tuccamirgan, a Lenape chief of the encampment just west of town. In  Irish-born Samuel Fleming purchased property in what is now Flemington. At this junction of Indian trails he built a tavern. The surrounding area became known as Flemings, and a post office was established in . The village, located roughly midway between New York and Philadelphia, became known as Flemington. The community likely was appointed the county seat when the first courthouse was built there in . The original courthouse burned in  and was replaced by a handsome Greek Revival structure, now a National Historic Landmark site, that was used until , when a newer courthouse replaced it. Flemington’s most newsworthy event occurred in , when, in what was dubbed the “Trial of the Century,’’ Bruno Richard Hauptmann was tried and convicted in the historic Hunterdon County Courthouse for the kidnap-murder of the infant son of Charles and Anne Lindbergh. Flemington grew primarily by serving the neighboring farming community and conducting county business. Early commercial enterprises included copper-mining ventures that were generally unsuccessful. Local clay deposits enabled pottery and brick production from pre-Revolutionary times until well into the twentieth century. The manufacturing of wood-related products was also a significant early industry. By the second half of the s, as rail transport grew in importance, Flemington became a sizable railroad

Florence junction, providing freight and passenger service. In the s a factory that produced peach baskets was built and a cooperative peach exchange established. By the beginning of the twentieth century, overproduction followed by insect infestation killed the Hunterdon County peach industry. In  a glass-cutting factory was set up in an old peach basket factory. The owners of the factory opened the first factory outlet of any kind in Flemington in . In  a countywide egg auction was instituted to obtain better prices for poultry farmers. In the s the shopping area of Turntable Junction was created on the site of the old Foran Foundry; the creation of Liberty Village followed. These two areas provided attractive and varied shops that, in conjunction with other stores and outlets, made Flemington a major shopping destination. Tourism plays a large role in the town’s diverse commercial environment. Flemington also remains a hub for county government activities. The town has pleasant residential neighborhoods, and a substantial portion of the borough is designated as a state and national historic district. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Raritan Township, Flemington, and Environs. Flemington: Raritan Township Bicentennial Committee, . Schmidt, Hubert. Rural Hunterdon. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Mary Anne Adams

floods. Floods have been a serious problem in New Jersey since colonial times. Flooding can be caused by rainfall from thunderstorms, spring frontal storms, snowmelt, nor’easters, tropical storms, and, occasionally, hurricanes. Tidal flooding due to storm surge is an important cause of flooding in coastal areas. Fortunately, deaths from flooding in New Jersey are not common, and most flood-related problems are caused by damage to property and the resulting disruption of activities. New Jersey’s most notable floods of the twentieth century occurred in , , , , , , , , , , , and . The  and  floods particularly affected the Passaic River Basin. The  flood was caused by rainfall that exceeded ten inches in a four-day period. In the Delaware River Basin, the March  flood was the result of a warm rain that led to a rapid melting of a significant snow cover. The July  flood was the result of a prolonged period of showers and thunderstorms that caused major flooding in the Raritan River Basin. In September , a passing hurricane caused flooding in central and southern New Jersey. The September storm went on to cause loss of life and massive damage in the New England states. The passage of two hurricanes, Connie and Diane, caused major flooding in . Connie struck on August , and Diane on August . Rains from Connie helped to saturate the soil and prepared the way for Diane to cause record-breaking flooding on the Delaware River. At Trenton, where flood records extend back to , the flood flows were the greatest ever recorded. In March  a slow-moving nor’easter storm passed New Jersey offshore. The surge

Intersection of Vosseller and Talmage avenues underwater after Hurricane Floyd passed through Bound Brook, September , .

Photo: Joe Epstein. Courtesy The Star-Ledger

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that resulted from this storm created massive flooding along New Jersey’s Atlantic coast. The worst hit areas were Long Beach Island and Atlantic City. Many barrier islands were almost entirely submerged, and several new inlets through the barrier islands were opened up. Flooding increased progressively through five high tides as winds retarded outgoing tides. Tropical storm Doria, in August , caused record-breaking flooding in central and northeastern New Jersey. Flooding was most severe in the Manville–Bound Brook area of the Raritan River Basin. Later in the s, thunderstorms caused damaging floods in August , when six people died, and again in July . The most severely hit areas were the Green Brook Basin in  and the Assunpink Creek Basin in . The Passaic River Basin experienced severe flooding in April , when a frontal storm produced from two to eight inches of rain. Because most water-supply reservoirs in the basin were nearly full before the storm, they could not greatly attenuate the floodwaters. A nor’easter-type storm in mid-December  caused severe flooding from storm surge. Flooding was worst in the northern New Jersey coastal areas from Monmouth to Bergen counties. Tropical storm Floyd, in mid-September , raised flood levels on the Raritan River in the Bound Brook area higher than any in recorded history, which extends back to colonial times. The Rahway, Saddle, and Hackensack river basins also experienced record-breaking flooding. Ludlum, David M. The New Jersey Weather Book. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also weather

Robert D. Schopp

Florence. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. Located between Burlington and Bordentown along the banks of the Delaware River, Florence is bounded on the east by Mansfield. The municipality’s earliest settlers are believed to have been members of the Richardson family, who occupied a land tract near a mill in . The township was formed from Mansfield in . At first, the principal village in the township was Florence, which was an attractive railserved bedroom community for Philadelphia in the s. The township experienced an industrial renaissance after the Civil War, when the steel baron Charles G. Roebling established a company town bearing his name next to his steel plant on the banks of the Delaware River. The Roebling plant was the dominant economic entity in the township well into the twentieth century. Around the plant in the village of Roebling, a proud ethnic community of Romanians, Hungarians, and other eastern and southern Europeans grew that lasts to this day and fiercely protects its heritage. The steel plant was closed down by  and currently is a federal Superfund site.

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Today the town is the subject of several residential and commercial redevelopment plans, and there have been residential building booms in outlying areas. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M., and John F. Hageman. History of Burlington and Mercer Counties, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Many of Their Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, .

Jim Donnelly

Florham Park.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. Florham Park seceded from Chatham Township in , creating the name Florham Park from the first names of Florence and Hamilton Twombly, major estate owners. The place previously was called Afton Post Office, Columbia Turnpike. Until World War II the borough depended heavily on adjacent Madison Borough for services that included rail transportation, library service, high school education, and churches. Florham Park’s leading citizen, Lloyd W. Smith, conceived and helped underwrite the nation’s first national historical park. The park was established in  at Morristown to preserve historical sites, including the military headquarters where Gen. George Washington and his troops spent the winter of –. After World War II, Florham Park changed rapidly. Large home developments boosted the population, and in the s major industries built in several areas of the borough, giving the town a stable tax base. The College of Saint Elizabeth and Fairleigh Dickinson University are both within borough boundaries. The town is also known for its Little Red Schoolhouse, opened in  at the borough’s main crossroad, and a roller-skating rink, started in  and still a popular northern New Jersey attraction. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Weis, Eleanor. Saga of a Crossroads: Florham Park. Florham Park: Historical Society of Florham Park, .

John T. Cunningham

Florio, James J.

(b. Aug. , ). Governor, congressman, state assemblyman, and lawyer. Jim Florio was born in Brooklyn, New York. He attended public schools through junior year in high school, when he left school to enlist in the navy in . Florio’s active service concluded in . (He continued to serve in the naval reserve until , when he retired at the rank of lieutenant commander.) After earning a high school equivalency diploma while in the service, Florio enrolled in Trenton State College and graduated in  with a

degree in social studies. In  and , he continued his studies at Columbia University on a Woodrow Wilson Fellowship. He then went on to receive a J.D. from Rutgers University School of Law in . Florio was first elected to the New Jersey General Assembly in . He was reelected twice. In , he ran for U.S. Congress, but was defeated. His second run for that office in , however, was successful, marking the first time since  that a Democrat won New Jersey’s First Congressional District’s seat. A popular representative, Florio was reelected seven times. As a member of Congress, Florio was best known for his activities to protect the environment. He was instrumental in writing the Superfund law that provides federal funds to clean up toxic waste sites. While in Congress, Florio twice ran unsuccessfully for governor. In , he lost the Democratic primary, finishing fourth in a crowded field of ten. In , Republican Thomas H. Kean, in the closest gubernatorial election in New Jersey’s history, defeated Florio. In , Florio’s third attempt paid off when he defeated Republican James A. Courter by more than a half million votes to become the fifty-ninth governor of New Jersey. As governor, Florio proposed and signed into law a $. billion tax increase package, the largest in New Jersey’s history. This measure was designed to meet court-ordered school funding requirements and to decrease local property tax dependence. In , Governor Florio signed into law the Clean Water Enforcement Act, the Quality Education Act, and the toughest ban on assault weapons in the country. The governor also pursued legislation to make it easier for families to save for college, a first-time homebuyers’ mortgage program for middle-class families, and a health care cost-containment measure. In , Florio became the first incumbent governor to lose a general election when Republican Christine Todd Whitman narrowly defeated him. The central issue of this campaign was the Florio administration’s tax increase and Whitman’s pledge to reduce the income tax rate by  percent. Florio attempted a political comeback in  when he sought the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by the retiring Frank Lautenberg. Political newcomer Jon Corzine, the retired chairman of Goldman Sachs, won the nomination and went on to win the senatorial race. Florio is a partner in the law firm of Fischbein, Badillo, Wagner, and Harding. He is married to Lucinda Coleman; both were previously married and have four children from those marriages. Aron, Michael. Governor’s Race: A TV Reporter’s Chronicle of the  Florio/Whitman Campaign. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also governor

Joseph R. Marbach

fluorescent minerals.

New Jersey is justly famous for its fluorescent minerals, which glow in spectacular colors under ultraviolet light. The zinc mines at Franklin and nearby Ogdensburg in Sussex County have furnished more than eighty fluorescent mineral species (a world record). Best known from these mines are calcite (fluorescent red) and willemite (green), but other collector favorites include esperite (greenish yellow), clinohedrite (orange), hardystonite (violet), manganaxinite (red), margarosanite (pale blue), barite (cream), and wollastonite (yellow to orange). Fine specimens from the area rank among the world’s most notable fluorescent minerals and are renowned for their bright colors, bold patterns, and common presence of two to five fluorescent minerals within a single specimen. Fine fluorescent minerals have also been found at numerous other localities in New Jersey. Among them are sodalite (orange) from Beemerville, fluorapophyllite (yellow) and chabazite (green) from the trap-rock quarries in the Watchungs, amber (pale blue) from the clay pits at Sayreville, and diopside (pale blue), norbergite (yellow), and a host of other minerals from several marble quarries in the Sparta-Franklin-Hamburg area.

Robbins, Manuel. Fluorescence: Gems and Minerals under Ultraviolet Light. Phoenix: Geoscience Press, .

See also minerals

Earl R. Verbeek

folklore.

Folklore includes narrative, musical, and material traditions that are passed along orally from generation to generation. Much folklore goes back so far in time that we do not know its original authorship. As an item of folklore is passed along orally from one person to another, it tends to undergo change. Much of the folklore found in New Jersey is similar to that found in the Middle Atlantic region and, indeed, in the rest of the United States. Legends, sometimes referred to as folk history, make up perhaps the largest category of traditional prose narratives regarding New Jersey. Because they are unverified popular stories handed down from earlier times, historians often dismiss legends as less reliable than stories based on documentary evidence. Yet legends are often regarded by their tellers as true. New Jersey legends are closely associated with specific places. The Pine Barrens of southern New Jersey are known for their legends as well as for their pitch pines and scrub oaks. Some of the most interesting legends deal with the origins of so-called Pineys, the native residents of the area. The story has often been told how the Pineys are descendants of runaway slaves, Hessian deserters, criminals, pirates, smugglers, and others who did not fit into conventional society. This legendary story is so romantic

folklore and compelling that it is often told and retold, getting better each time. Considerable research would be required to sort truth from fiction. In the Ramapo Mountains of northern New Jersey we find another group of people with legendary origins, the so-called Jackson Whites, or Ramapo Mountain People. According to the legend, they were descended from four groups—Tuscarora Indians migrating from North Carolina, escaped slaves seeking refuge in the mountains, Hessian deserters from the British army, and prostitutes procured by a man named Jackson. In this case, scholar David Steven Cohen has compared the legend to known historical fact and reached the conclusion that the people could be traced back to an early settlement of free blacks. However, the people themselves have largely rejected Cohen’s research since they prefer to see themselves as being of both Indian and white ancestry. Other New Jersey legends focus on individuals rather than groups. Many of these legends are greatly exaggerated stories that are fanciful and boastful. For example, folklorist Herbert Halpert collected series of legends in the Pine Barrens about Sammy Giberson, whose abilities as a fiddler and dancer tempted him to boast that he could defeat the devil in a competition. Halpert also collected legends about Jerry Munyhun of Hanover Furnace in Pemberton Township, Burlington County, who sold his soul to the devil. In the Ramapo Mountains, David Steven Cohen collected tall tales about Uncle Rob Milligan, a strong man who worked in the Ringwood iron mines. The line between folk heroes and popular culture heroes is often blurred. According to folklorists, on the one hand, stories of a true folk hero, such as Sammy Giberson or Jerry Munyhun, should be strictly those which have been passed down through oral means over the years. On the other hand, some stories of popular culture heroes have been passed along in books, magazines, and pamphlets— not to mention radio and television. Such is the case for Molly Pitcher, the American heroine of the Revolutionary War. In real life, she was Mary Ludwig Hays, the wife of William Hays, a private in an American artillery company. According to the story, she carried water to the thirsty soldiers firing their cannon. After a while, the soldiers would yell out to her, “Molly, bring the pitcher,’’ or finally, just “Molly, Pitcher!’’ When her husband was injured, Molly took his place at the cannon. Although Molly Pitcher is a genuine hero, this story is not genuine folklore because it has come down to us through written sources. In addition to narrative traditions, folklorists have studied New Jersey folk songs and ballads. The earliest European settlers in New Jersey included the Dutch, the Puritans, and the Quakers. Because of their strict religious principles, these groups generally discouraged the development of music and song during the

colonial period. With the arrival of other ethnic groups, such as the Scots, Irish, Germans, and Africans, however, folk music and dance began to thrive. Because of the pioneering work of Herbert Halpert, who in  began collecting several hundred folk songs, the regional folk song tradition of the Pine Barrens is especially well documented. In  Dorothea Dix Lawrence began carrying out folk song fieldwork in southern New Jersey. She had been charged with finding traditional musicians to represent New Jersey at the  National Folk Festival at Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C. In Forked River, Lawrence discovered a trio who called themselves The Pinehawkers. The group was made up of fiddler Bill Britton, his banjo-playing cousin Walt Britton, and vocalist-guitarist-songwriter Merce Ridgway, Sr. Some folk music in New Jersey is best described as occupational rather than regional. For example, researchers have collected narrative folk songs associated with the Morris Canal, telling of adventures getting the boats through the locks and planes of that waterway. Others have collected songs from the Jersey Shore dealing with its tradition of fishing, whaling, and oystering. Still others have collected songs about the legendary characters who rafted on the Delaware River. Since the s New Jersey has enjoyed a revival of interest in folk song. Many of the new practitioners have learned their art through formal study and have adopted elements of style and material from folk culture. Such revival musicians did not learn their music from family and community as a daily part of growing up. Instead, many are college-educated artists who are drawn to traditional music by various political, artistic, or cultural agendas. These musicians typically perform at coffeehouses and festivals rather than on the front porches of small-town general stores. Kathy DeAngelo of Voorhees had in her repertoire in the s “Wabash Cannon Ball,’’ but she localized the song with references to Jersey City and the Jersey Central Railroad. This mirrors the folk practice of localization as noted by Herbert Halpert, who collected the song “Mount Holly Jail,’’ which had earlier been “Hard Times in Lancaster Jail.’’ Thus, revivalists carry out folklike practices, but in a self-aware manner. Similarly, Folkways recording artist Jim Albertson of Millville encountered a problem in  when he wanted to record “Moore and Jacoby,’’ a song about a long-forgotten race between two rival South Jersey oyster boats on the Delaware Bay. Albertson had the words to the song from an old newspaper clipping found at the Vineland Historical Society, but there was no indication as to the tune. Drawing from his extensive repertoire, Albertson fit the words to an old tune, “Ring the Bell, Second Mate.’’ Without this improvisation, it is likely that no one would have ever heard the song.

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New Jersey is home to several folk revival societies whose members sponsor informal gatherings and concerts. The largest of these is the Folk Project of Mendham, which holds weekly concerts and dances throughout Somerset and Morris counties. Other organizations include the Garden State Sacred Harp Singers of Montclair, the Hurdy Gurdy Folk Music Club of Paramus, the Mine Street Coffeehouse of New Brunswick, Outpost in the Burbs of Montclair, Outta Sights and Sounds of Hightstown, the Pinelands Cultural Society of Waretown, and the Princeton Folk Music Society. Established in , the New Jersey Folk Festival, an annual, free, not-for-profit event, is the oldest continuously run folk festival in the state. The festival is held annually in New Brunswick on the last Saturday of April. In addition to narrative and musical traditions, there is the material culture, or folklife, of New Jersey. Folk architecture, also called vernacular architecture, is the most basic kind of material culture, as everyone needs shelter. We often think of the log cabin as a symbol of the American frontier; however, some of the first were built by the Swedes of New Sweden in the early s on what is today the Pennsylvania and New Jersey sides of the Delaware Bay. Particularly noteworthy in the s was the patterned brickwork found on farmhouses in Salem, Gloucester, and Burlington counties. Once a house is built, the occupants need furniture. Folk furniture is often called country furniture. Scholars have pointed out that such furniture follows a traditional aesthetic, meaning that the artisan has limited opportunity for creativity and must work within sharply defined boundaries. Folk furniture includes beds, chairs, benches, chests, bureaus, clocks, cupboards, and tables. New Jerseyans living near the water developed a number of distinctive boat types, such as the Sea Bright skiff, the Barnegat sneakbox, and the garvey. The state has also excelled in the making of duck decoys, a form of folk sculpture. The most celebrated New Jersey decoy maker was Harry Van Nuckson Shourds (–) of Tuckerton. While folk crafts, such as the making of furniture, boats, and duck decoys, are primarily utilitarian, folk art, such as folk painting, is generally purely decorative. Authorities worry over matters of definition since folk art is often defined as “primitive’’ or “naive.’’ One of the first folk art exhibitions ever held in the United States was in New Jersey. In – the Newark Museum hosted the show American Primitives, put together by Holger Cahill, the museum’s curator. Of the household or domestic arts and crafts, the one receiving the most study and attention has been quilting. Interestingly enough, quilting does not show much regional variation. Quilts made in New Jersey, for the most part, are similar to those made elsewhere in the United States. Quilts are made of three

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layers of cloth, all stitched firmly together, called the backing, the filler, and the top. Although as bed coverings quilts are practical, most artistic discussion has been focused on the design motifs of the top layer. Significant collections of interesting quilts are found in both the New Jersey State Museum and the Newark Museum. Study of historic New Jersey folk pottery involves the analysis of raw materials such as clay and glazes as well as decorative elements such as colors, shapes, and inscriptions. Folk pottery takes many forms, including jugs, crocks, bowls, mugs, and plates. Pottery today in New Jersey is mostly practiced by fine artists or by hobby crafters. The few surviving traditional potters are mostly found in the southern states. Foodways is the study of traditional preparation and consumption of food and drink. New Jersey was always known for its applejack, a brandy made by distilling cider, sometimes called Jersey Lightning. After distillation, the applejack was aged in wooden casks, then either bottled or sold in stoneware jugs. The study of New Jersey folk cookery reveals strong regional patterns. In North Jersey we find many ethnic recipes, based on the persistence of tradition; in South Jersey, many seafood and cranberry dishes dominate, based on local availability. The future of folklore studies in New Jersey is likely to deal with various recent immigrant groups. Very little folklore has been collected from the Cubans, the Filipinos, the Puerto Ricans, the Mexicans, or the Ukrainians—to name a few. Most of these ethnic groups are gathered in particular neighborhoods. Each group has its own narrative, musical, and material culture traditions worthy of collection and analysis. Cohen, David Steven. The Folklore and Folklife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also decoys; decorative arts; folk music; Jersey Devil; Pineys

Angus Kress Gillespie

folk music.

Folk music in New Jersey is reflected in the tapestry of its diversified ethnic, cultural, and geographic communities. Each group’s distinctive songs and dances used for celebrations, recreation, and ceremonies have been handed down from generation to generation, orally or aurally. Irish, Hungarians, Italians, Greeks, Eastern European Jews, Lebanese, Portuguese, Asian Indians, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans, to name a few, all contribute to the state’s wealth of folk music traditions. The earliest folk music found in New Jersey was that of its native Indians, the Lenape, or Delaware. Tribal dance and song were an integral component of rituals and celebrations and were taught to the young as soon as they were capable of learning. Principal musical instruments employed for accompaniment were

Alphorn expert Dr. Ted Schlosberg provides the opening sounds for the New Jersey Folk Festival, .

Courtesy New Jersey Folk Festival, New Brunswick. Photo copyright 2000 Steve Goodman.

the water drum and various rattles, especially the gourd rattle. New Jersey’s first European settlers, largely Dutch, Swedes, and those from the British Isles, brought ballads and melodies sung and played at family affairs or community social events. African slaves introduced the precursor to the banjo, and their often slow-tempo musical sounds developed into the blues. Their deeply emotional spirituals remain the backbone of traditional gospel music. A number of South Jersey cities, including Lawnside and Camden, gained considerable prominence in the arena of gospel music instruction and dissemination during the twentieth century. And although not known solely as such, New Jersey’s most notable folk singer, Princeton-born Paul Robeson, drew for his repertoire from home-place gatherings where songs ranged from sorrowful ballads to uplifting spirituals. It should be noted that he also included folk songs from diverse cultures. Folk music derived from oral tradition remains largely within New Jersey’s ethnic communities; however, folk revivalists today interpret and present for audiences throughout the state a wide variety of styles and topics ranging from canal lore and train songs to sacred harp singing, hot bluegrass picking, lilting and lively Celtic music, soulful blues, and a cappella gospel to rousing klezmer dance sounds as well as contra, square, and English country dance music. Others create wholly original folk music (commonly referred to as singersongwriter) to address contemporary social, political, and personal issues. New Jersey does claim one enduring, indigenous folk form, albeit with outside stylistic influences and origins. Pinelands, or “Piney’’

music is the folk music of the Pine Barrens and the adjacent southern coastal region. Steeped in more than two hundred years of occupational traditions, it has been aggressively preserved and furthered during the past half century. It speaks about oyster baymen, decoy carvers, boatbuilders, and cranberry bogs, and includes narrative lore about such legends as fiddler Sammy Buck and the Jersey Devil. Many songs are local adaptations of universally recognized ballads said to have been introduced by pirates and other travelers, while more recent compositions were written by such prominent Pineys as Merce Ridgway, Sr., and fiddler Bill Britton, whose “Home in the Pines’’ stands out for its anthem appeal. Janice Sherwood and Gladys Eayre, of The Pineconers, became the preeminent collectors of Pine Barrens songs and founded the Pinelands Cultural Society, dedicated to preserving the region’s rich culture. Ridgway Sr.’s Pinehawkers were among the regulars at weekly music gatherings originally begun in Joe and George Albert’s “Home Place’’ cabin fifty years ago. The “Sounds of the Jersey Pines’’ continue today with weekly jam sessions and informal stage shows in the Albert Music Hall in Waretown. Kaufman, Charles H. Music in New Jersey, –: A Study of Musical Activity and Musicians in New Jersey from Its First Settlement to the Civil War. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

See also folklore

Stephanie P. Ledgin

Folsom.

.-mile-borough in Atlantic County. Folsom, first known as New Germany, was created from Buena Vista Township in  and is named for Frances Folsom, the wife of President Grover Cleveland. The area was first settled between  and  by German immigrants who sought employment in sawmills, gristmills, glass factories, and fruit production facilities in nearby Hammonton and Winslow. Farming and small businesses also thrived. The area was first served by stagecoach lines and later by the Camden and Atlantic Railroad and the Philadelphia and Sea Shore Railway Company. The latter operated a station in New Germany that handled freight and passengers. The name of the community was changed from New Germany to Folsom in . Social and economic changes in the twentieth century had a profound effect on the borough. Farmers found it difficult to make a profit on small farms. Some modernized their operations while others found different employment to supplement their income. Construction of major highways, including the Black Horse Pike, the White Horse Pike, and the Atlantic City Expressway allowed residents to commute to work in Atlantic City. Folsom’s  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

forest fires Eckhardt, Gertrude M. The History of Folsom, New Jersey, –, Bicentennial Edition. Egg Harbor City: Laureate Press, .

Mike Mathis

football.

This sport, derived from violent ball games played by the ancient Greeks and Romans, is a popular game played mainly outdoors by two opposing teams. Each team places eleven men on the field of play. The modern game of football had its crude beginnings in New Jersey. In New Brunswick, on November , , students from Queen’s College (now Rutgers University) challenged students from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) to a football match. A hundred to two hundred spectators witnessed what is generally believed to be the first college football game in the United States. Each team consisted of twenty-five players, who did not wear uniforms or helmets. A team scored one point each time it crossed the opponent’s goal line. Rutgers won, six to four. Princeton won a rematch played the following week, eight to nothing. A third game was cancelled because the administrations of both schools felt that football was distracting students from their studies. Although the first professional football game was allegedly played on August , , no formal football league was organized until , when the forerunner of the National Football League was formed. In the early days, professional football was less popular than the college game, but fan interest grew significantly as rules were changed, new teams created nationwide, and the championship game known as the Super Bowl grew popular.

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Although the state of New Jersey does not officially have a team in the National Football League, two teams play their home games in the state. Both the New York Giants and the New York Jets play at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford. Important football figures native to New Jersey include NFL Hall of Famer Franco Harris and NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue.

Forbes married Roberta Remsen Laidlaw in  and together they had five children; they were divorced in . Forbes died at his home in Far Hills, New Jersey.

Swineburne, Laurence, and Irene Swineburne. America’s First Football Game. New York: Contemporary Perspectives, .

E. Richard McKinstry

See also sports

Jones, Arthur. Malcolm Forbes: Peripatetic Millionaire. New York: Harper and Row, . Winans, Christopher. Malcolm Forbes: The Man Who Had Everything, New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

Ford, Cornelius Jeffrey A. Margolis

Forbes, Malcolm S.

(b. Aug. , ; d.

Feb. , ). Publisher, politician, and busi-

nessman. Malcolm Forbes was born in New York City. His parents were Bertie Charles Forbes, a newspaper writer and publisher, and Adelaide Stevenson. Forbes attended private schools and in  graduated from Princeton University. He served in the U.S. Army during World War II, attaining the rank of staff sergeant. In , he was wounded in Germany. Forbes’s publishing career began in college when he started a newspaper, Nassau Sovereign. In , he joined the staff of Forbes, his father’s business magazine, and during the next forty-four years, he turned it into one of the most successful publications of its kind. A Republican, in the s Forbes served on the Bernardsville borough council and in the state senate. He challenged incumbent New Jersey governor Robert Meyner in , but lost in a landslide. Forbes invested in real estate, publishing ventures, and art. He was a hot-air balloonist, sportsman, and motorcycle enthusiast.

(b. Feb. , ; d. ).

Labor leader and politician. Cornelius Ford was born in Hoboken and lived there until , when he was appointed Public Printer at the U.S. Government Printing Office by Woodrow Wilson. Ford worked in the printing trades as a young man, and later became involved in labor politics. Between  and  Ford served as president of the New Jersey State Federation of Labor and as an active organizer for the American Federation of Labor. He spent four years on the Hoboken school board and three terms in the New Jersey legislature. In  he unsuccessfully sought nomination to run for the U.S. House of Representatives. His politics were reformist and he strongly supported progressive programs during Woodrow Wilson’s years as governor of New Jersey. Ford made his mark at the GPO serving as its director from  to . He strove to raise the wages of the department’s employees and initiated a number of health and safety measures. These included sanitary restrooms, medical attendants on the bureau’s premises, and a ventilation system to relieve atmospheric health hazards caused by melting metals and linotype ink. Ford also instituted a vacation policy that he felt was an important source of renewal for his employees. The war years saw a tremendous increase in the work done by the GPO and Ford successfully oversaw all its new responsibilities. See also labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

First intercollegiate football game, held between Rutgers and Princeton, November , . Rutgers won, –.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

forest fires. Wildfire is a natural disturbance that controls the composition, processes, and structure of ecosystems. Many species are adapted to naturally occurring fires and may flourish and reproduce only when they are periodically burned. In New Jersey, fires have been important in maintaining the Pine Barrens vegetation, especially the dwarf pine forests. There is little evidence for fires in the pre-European settlement period in the oak-dominated forests. However, the dry soils and highly inflammable Pine Barrens vegetation produces a highly fire-prone ecosystem where huge fires burn rapidly through the tree crowns. After the fires, animals thrive on the newly released seeds, and the plant community quickly reestablishes itself. Lightning ignited most wildfires before European colonization, but in the succeeding

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forests

two centuries, careless logging and increased ignition sources led to many large fires. Sparks from locomotives were especially common sources. These fires may have mimicked the earlier fire regimes in the Pine Barrens, but they damaged young forests elsewhere. Recently, improved fire fighting and the regular light burning of some pine woods have suppressed stand-regenerating wildfires in the Pine Barrens. The lack of fires in the oak forests allows more fire-sensitive species such as hemlock, beech, and maples to flourish.

FORESTS

Forman, Richard T. T., ed. Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also forests; Pine Barrens

Emily W. B. Russell

forests.

About  percent of New Jersey is forested; and although forest areas in the more heavily developed regions of the Garden State are usually small, there are still large tracts of relatively unspoiled forest in state parks and other natural areas in northwestern New Jersey and in the Pinelands of southern New Jersey. This percentage of forest cover is only slightly less than it was in , when New Jersey’s human population was about one-fourth of what it is today. But this does not mean that the forests we see today have been left intact since the turn of the century. Large areas that were then cleared have since been left to regrow as forest, and large areas that were reforested have been cleared to make room for our growing human population. There are between fifteen and twenty-five different forest types in New Jersey, their number and names depending on how precisely one wants to define each type. Forests are classified by their dominant tree species, by the nature of the underlying soil, and by the amount of moisture in the soil, which creates a distinction between upland and wetland forests. Some forest types are rare and cover very small areas; others cover many thousands of acres. In practice, the different forest types usually grade into each other without any sharp changes being apparent, although there are sometimes obvious boundaries between wetland and upland forests. By far the commonest upland forest types in New Jersey are those dominated by various species of oaks. On soils of average fertility and moisture content in northern New Jersey, one finds an inland mixed oak forest, with red, black, and white oaks and several species of hickories being the most common trees. On richer, moister soils, this forest grades into a sugar maple–mixed hardwood forest, in which the oaks are joined by sugar maple, black birch, tulip tree, white ash, and many other tree species. But on the drier slopes of the Watchung Mountains, the Highlands, and the Kittatinny Ridge, the inland mixed oak forest gradually changes to a chestnut oak forest, which in turn, on the higher ridge tops, gives

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@Rutgers, The State University

way to a ridge-top pitch pine–scrub oak forest similar in many ways to some forests of the Pinelands farther south. Average soils in southern New Jersey are also likely to have an oak-dominated forest on them—in this case, the coastal plain mixed oak forest. Black and white oaks are the most

important trees in this forest, and they grow with such species as American holly, beech, southern red oak, persimmon, and sweet gum. On the sandy, drier soils of the Outer Coastal Plain, this forest type gradually gives way to an oak-pine forest, in which black, chestnut, blackjack, and post oaks are mixed with

Fort, George Franklin pitch and shortleaf pines. The pitch pine– dominated pine-oak forest of the Pinelands is found on dry sites that are subject to fires, which favor pines over oaks. In some places, a dwarf pine forest, in which almost the only trees are blackjack oak and a fast-maturing variety of pitch pine, has developed in response to exceptionally frequent fires. On barrier islands, a dune forest, dominated by red cedar, black cherry, American holly, and pitch pine, can be found growing on old, stable sand dunes. Wetlands also have particular forest types associated with them. In northern New Jersey, some cool, moist ravines and north-facing slopes have a hemlock–mixed hardwood forest, in which eastern hemlock is the most important tree. Flood plain forests, which may be wet for several months each year, often have pin oak, sycamore, and white ash as major tree components. Red maple swamp forests of northern New Jersey are wet nearly yearround and, in addition to red maple, are likely to have sour gum and yellow birch as common trees. Bog forests of several types, which in New Jersey are found only in areas covered by ice during the last ice age, sometimes contain such northern trees as black spruce and larch, growing with eastern hemlock, yellow birch, red maple, and Atlantic white cedar. In southern New Jersey, on both the Inner and Outer Coastal Plain, several wetland forest types have red maple as a major component. On the Inner Coastal Plain, red maple is likely to be associated with sweet gum and willow oak in a red maple–sweet gum forest, while in the Outer Coastal Plain, it can be found with sour gum and sweet bay magnolia in a red maple–sour gum forest, or with pitch pine in a pitch pine–red maple swamp forest. In the Pinelands, some damp areas are covered by pitch pine lowland forest, in which pitch pine is almost the only important tree. Finally, many wetlands along streams in the Pinelands are associated with cedar swamp forests, which are almost completely dominated by Atlantic white cedar. In addition to mature forest types such as those listed above, there are many different kinds of successional forests in New Jersey. These young forests grow on land recently left vacant and are typically dominated by fastgrowing, light-loving trees such as gray birch, red cedar, and Virginia pine. Their composition varies greatly. But if left alone, they will normally change with time into mature forests typical of the area in which they grow. Although forests may be classified according to their dominant tree species, each forest type contains many additional plant species that are associated with it in a plant community, that is, a group of plant species that may be expected to grow naturally together under particular habitat conditions. Some of these associated species can be found in many different forest types, while others might be restricted to just one. Lowbush blueberry, black

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huckleberry, and mountain laurel, for example, are found in all of the oak forest types in New Jersey, north and south, as well as in the pine forests of the Pinelands and ridge tops. Conversely, such plants as curly grass fern and laurel-leaved greenbrier are, in New Jersey, found almost exclusively in the cedar swamp forests of the Pinelands. Collins, Beryl R., and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kricher, John, and Gordon Morrison. A Field Guide to Eastern Forests, North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

See also deforestation; forest fires

Karl Anderson

Forked River.

See Lacey.

Forker, Reuben (b. Dec. , ; d. Nov. , ). Labor leader. At two o’clock on Monday,

November , , Trenton workers laid down their tools in honor of Reuben Forker, known as the voice of labor for central New Jersey, who had died the previous Friday. Forker learned the printing trade working for the Mount Holly Herald. In Trenton he joined the Typographical Union No. . He helped found and was secretary of the Central Labor Council, a position he held continuously, except for a brief period when he was vice president and then president for twenty-three years. Forker published the Trades Union Advocate, labor’s voice in Trenton. Although not a socialist, Forker was an uncompromising defender of labor’s rights and the rights of radical labor activists. Labor leaders of all sides of the political spectrum respected and admired his dedicated work. Cumbler, John T. A Social History of Economic Decline: Business, Politics, and Work in Trenton. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

John T. Cumbler

Forman, David

(b. Nov. , ; d. Sept. ,

). Landowner and soldier. A son of Joseph

Forman, a shipping merchant, and Elizabeth Lee, David Forman was born near Englishtown in Monmouth County. In  he married Ann Marsh; they had eleven children. Forman was in the forefront of revolutionary agitation in Monmouth. In  the Provincial Congress appointed him colonel of a state regiment. He participated in the battles of Long Island and White Plains. During this time he began actively suppressing Tories, which would eventually earn him the appellation “Black David.’’ In  Gen. George Washington appointed him colonel of one of the Additional Continental regiments. That same year the legislature elected him brigadier general of militia; he led the state’s troops at the battle of Germantown. He soon resigned his militia commission, however, when accused of involvement in county election irregularities. He was at the battle of Monmouth as a Continental officer, after

Charles Willson Peale, Portrait of General David Forman, n.d. Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy Berkshire Museum, Pittsfield, MA. Photo: Nicholas Whitman.

which he testified against Gen. Charles Lee. Forman played a crucial role in gathering and transmitting intelligence from a network of lookouts along the Monmouth coast. An inveterate Tory-hater, in  he chaired the Association for Retaliation, a county vigilante organization. After the war Forman concentrated on the management of his landholdings. In  he negotiated the purchase of land from the Spanish in the Natchez District (Mississippi). He relocated to Maryland in . While visiting Mississippi in  he suffered a stroke. The vessel bringing him home was captured by a British privateer seizing American ships during the wars of the French Revolution, and he died en route to the Bahamas. ANB. DAB. Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, . Forman, Charles. Three Revolutionary Soldiers: David Forman (–), Jonathan Forman (–), Thomas Marsh Forman (–). Cleveland, OH: Forman-Bassett-Hatch, .

See also American Revolution

David J. Fowler

Fort, George Franklin

(b. May ; d.

Apr. , ). Governor, legislator, physician,

and judge. The eldest son of a wealthy farmer, George F. Fort was born near Pemberton and graduated from the Medical College at the University of Pennsylvania in . In , he married Anna Marie Wright, the daughter of an iron manufacturer and future Whig congressman, and for the next twenty years Fort practiced medicine in southern Monmouth and western Burlington counties. In  Fort became a delegate to the New Jersey constitutional convention where

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Fort, John Franklin

he supported, along with the Democratic majority, universal manhood suffrage, open eligibility for office, abolition of the freehold qualification for public office, and the popular election of all state and county officials. In that same year he was elected to the general assembly and after serving one term was elected to the state senate from Monmouth County. As a legislator, Fort gave strong support to public education and wrote the Manufacturing Incorporation Law, which exempted manufacturing companies in specific industries from the requirement of private incorporation acts. This was one of the earliest general incorporation laws in the United States. Fort’s political career spanned the decades when rising corporate power and slavery became important issues in New Jersey and the nation; and his position on both was staunchly Democratic. The charter merging the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company and the Camden and Amboy Railroad into the Joint Companies in  gave that corporation a monopoly over canal and rail transportation between Philadelphia and New York City. Reformers, both Whig and Democratic, assailed New Jersey as the “sovereign state of Camden and Amboy,’’ alluding to the control of the company by Robert F. Stockton and other powerful New Jersey Democrats. The Compromise of  rekindled the slavery issue as Whigs attacked the Democrats’ willingness to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law as proof that they were allied with “the slave power.’’ In the gubernatorial election of  Fort maintained that enforcement was essential to the rule of law and campaigned on the slogan, “Peace, Stability, and Union.’’ With strong support from the railroad interests, Fort won a stunning victory and the Democrats controlled the legislature for the first time in seven years. Contemporary observers, as well as historians, attributed Democratic gains in  to the Whig division over slavery. Partly to diffuse the monopoly issue, during his tenure as governor, Fort continued to support general incorporation laws and higher expenditures for common schools drawn from the income of state-owned Joint Company stock. He signed legislation creating the tenhour workday, child labor reforms, a law providing for a statewide system of elections for the assembly, and general incorporation laws for banks, insurance companies, and public works. But the old system of private acts for the incorporation of railroads remained unchanged, and the power of the Joint Companies continued into the next decade. On leaving office, Fort became a director of the Camden and Pemberton Agricultural Railroad Company, a subsidiary of the Camden and Amboy, and was appointed to the court of error and appeals by his Democratic successor, Rodman M. Price. After one term on the bench he retired from public life and resumed the practice of medicine in New Egypt, where he died in .

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Martin Paulsson

Fort, John Franklin

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Nov. , ). Governor, lawyer, and state

supreme court justice. Born at Pemberton in Burlington County, John Franklin Fort was descended from an old New Jersey family with a tradition of public service. His father, Andrew Fort, had served in the state assembly and his uncle George F. Fort had been the Democratic governor of New Jersey from  to . Young Fort attended private schools in Burlington County, graduated from Pennington Seminary in , and from Albany Law School in . After his admission to the bar in  he moved to Newark, where his maternal grandfather had been an influential Essex County Republican. Bright, articulate, and well connected, Fort rose rapidly in the legal profession and in Republican politics. In  Gov. George B. McClellan appointed him judge of the First District Court of Newark. He served on a number of judicial commissions under both Democratic and Republican governors and was appointed to the New Jersey Supreme Court in . As a young attorney, he campaigned actively for Ulysses S. Grant in  and became a delegate to the Republican National Convention in . In  he became chairman of the Republican state convention and in the following year at the national convention he delivered the nominating speech for New Jersey’s favorite son, Garret A. Hobart, for vice president. An established party regular with progressive inclinations, Fort was nominated for governor in  when the revolt of the progressive New Idea faction threatened to tear the Republicans apart. His opponent, Trenton mayor Frank S. Katzenbach, was a progressive Democrat who, like Fort, had come out in favor of the direct primary, the creation of a public utilities commission, and civil service reform. The only difference between the candidates lay in Fort’s lukewarm support of the so-called “Bishops’ Law,’’ the controversial act of  that provided for state prosecution of Sunday liquor sales. Fort won the election by a scant , votes and later attributed his narrow victory to his support of the Bishops’ Law. In his inaugural address Fort outlined an ambitious program of progressive legislation but was frustrated at every turn by conservatives in both parties and by liberals who were unwilling to accept token reform. During his administration the Republican legislature failed to create a public utilities commission or to enact civil service and primary election reform. Yet Fort’s warm support of these and other measures and the legislative battles themselves generated public support

for reform and laid the groundwork for the more productive Wilson administration that followed. In  Fort supported Theodore Roosevelt for president and became chairman of New Jersey’s Progressive Committee. But it was his personal relationship with Woodrow Wilson that kept him in public service. He served as special envoy to Haiti and the Dominican Republic in  and . In March  Wilson appointed him chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, where he served until failing health forced him to resign in . Noble, Ransom. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton from Wertz to Wilson. New York: J. L. Murphy, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, 

See also governor

Martin Paulsson

Fort Dix. The U.S. Army training installation located seventeen miles southeast of Trenton was established in  as Camp Dix, named in honor of Maj. Gen. John Adams Dix, a Civil War veteran who later served as governor of New York and secretary of the treasury. When it became a permanent facility in , the base was renamed Fort Dix. Throughout its history, the primary mission of Fort Dix has involved the training of soldiers. The base was a major training and embarkation point for troops bound for Europe during both world wars. More than two hundred thousand members of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) were trained here between  and . The Fort Dix Army Air Base, partly constructed with CCC assistance, was an important military air transport field during World War II. Thousands of soldiers serving in the Korean and Vietnam Wars also received their training here. Fort Dix was again a major point of embarkation for troops during the Desert Shield and Desert Storm operations of –. The last regular U.S. Army troops to use Fort Dix completed their basic training there during . The base was transferred to the Army’s Reserve Command in  and remains an important training and mobilization center for reserve military forces. Roberts, Robert B. Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States. New York: Macmillan, .

See also World War I; World War II

Donald E. Bender

Fort Hancock. The first U.S. Army fortifications on the Sandy Hook peninsula in Monmouth County date from the War of . Construction of a stone fortress began in , although the structure was never completed. From  through  the army operated the

Fort Monmouth Sandy Hook Proving Ground to test artillery and munitions. The first permanent fortifications on Sandy Hook—Battery Potter and a mortar battery— were constructed between  and . Fort Hancock, named for Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, was established in  to house the hundreds of personnel manning these batteries. Additional gun batteries for coastal defense were constructed at Fort Hancock during both world wars. During World War II, the base served as the headquarters for the New York region’s harbor and coastal defenses. It also contained troop staging areas and a prisoner of war camp. The cold war brought antiaircraft guns and Nike surface-to-air missiles to the base. Fort Hancock’s lengthy and significant military role ended in  with the inactivation of the Nike site. The base was subsequently transferred to the National Park Service. The Fort Hancock Historic District is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

income from the booming industry. During World War I the movie industry largely relocated to the West Coast, although movies continued to be made in Fort Lee into the s. The George Washington Bridge was completed in  and a real estate boom began, but it collapsed with the Depression. Foreclosures drove the borough into bankruptcy, and the state took over Fort Lee’s finances. In the s, high-rise apartment construction boomed, beginning with Horizon House, and development continues into the twenty-first century. Fort Lee is primarily residential and is home to a large Korean population. Fort Lee Historic Park, part of the Palisades Interstate Park system, is a major attraction. In , the population was ,:  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Roberts, Robert B. Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States. New York: Macmillan, .

Spear, Paul C. The Movies Begin: Making Movies in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, .

Hoffman, Thomas J. Fort Hancock. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Gateway National Recreation Area, .

Donald E. Bender

Fort Lee. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Incorporated in  with Coytesville, Fort Lee was previously part of Ridgefield Township. In  the Palisades section was added. Fort Lee is located on the Palisades overlooking the Hudson River across from northern Manhattan. The name is derived from the fortifications erected by George Washington’s army during the American Revolution. The early moving-picture industry established itself in Fort Lee about . Over the next ten years, movie studios were built, and the population derived employment and

Fort Lee: Past and Present. Fort Lee: Fort Lee Chamber of Commerce, .

Lucille Bertram

Fort Lee Historic Park.

The park, established in , occupies a thirty-threeacre site south of the George Washington Bridge, and is administered by the New Jersey Palisades Park Commission. It is dedicated to preserving the history of Gen. George Washington’s efforts to keep the British from controlling the Hudson Valley and splitting the colonies during the American Revolution. On November , , British forces overwhelmed Fort Washington on the New York side of the river, leaving Fort Lee unable to stop the British advance by itself. Washington was forced to abandon it, leaving most of his artillery and supplies behind. The park contains historical artifacts, exhibits, and

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demonstrations, and includes an auditorium, a bookstore, and reconstructed gun batteries and soldiers’ quarters. Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Vincent M. Altamuro

Fort Mercer.

Named after Gen. Hugh Mercer, who died at the Battle of Princeton, Fort Mercer was an earthwork fortification built in  on the Jersey side of the Delaware River to defend Philadelphia. The Pennsylvania Committee of Safety chose James Whitall’s Red Bank plantation as a defensive site in , and the Pennsylvania Militia constructed the fort between May and July . It was not garrisoned until October , when Gen. George Washington sent Col. Christopher Greene’s troops to improve the defenses. Fort Mercer was a supply point for besieged Fort Mifflin on the Pennsylvania side of the river, which made it a British target. The Battle of Red Bank occurred on October , , when three Hessian battalions attempted, unsuccessfully, to reduce the fort. The evacuation of Fort Mifflin on November , , led to the abandoning of Fort Mercer on November  as a large British force approached. With the fort abandoned, the site reverted to a plantation. The U.S. government purchased the site in  with plans to construct another fort. In  the area was turned over to Gloucester County and converted into a historical park. Greenman, Jeremiah. Diary of a Common Soldier in the American Revolution, –: An Annotated Edition of the Military Journal of Jeremiah Greenman. Edited by Robert C. Bray and Paul E. Bushnell. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, . Jackson, John W. The Pennsylvania Navy, –: The Defense of the Delaware. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Joseph-James Ahern

Pearl White filming The House of Hate along the bluffs in Fort Lee, c. .

Courtesy Fort Lee Public Library, Silent Film Photo Collection.

Fort Monmouth. Fort Monmouth is a self-contained military installation of about eleven hundred acres, located primarily in the Monmouth County borough of Eatontown, just west of Long Branch. Its population of about twenty thousand (as of September , ) included active and retired military personnel, civilian employees, and their families. Established as Camp Little Silver in  by the Army Signal Corps to serve as a training school, the facility underwent name changes until , when it was renamed in honor of the Revolutionary War battle fought nearby. The Signal Corps school and the subsequently developed engineering laboratories at Fort Monmouth and the surrounding area engaged in the highly secret work on radar, fire control, guided missile, and communications equipment. For this reason, they were described in  as “vital’’ to America’s security. That year,

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Fort Mott

Sen. Joseph McCarthy investigated alleged “security leaks’’ at Fort Monmouth. Suspension of this investigation played a significant role in the  Senate hearings that looked into the controversial relations between the senator and the U.S. Army and helped to diminish McCarthy’s influence. During the s the Signal Corps school was relocated. Fort Monmouth now serves as headquarters for the army’s Communications and Electronic Command, and continues to function as a center for research and development of “technologically superior integrated . . . capabilities.’’ Various other government operations are based at the installation, including an FBI Information Processing Center. Historical Office, U.S. Army Communications and Electronic Command. A Concise History of Fort Monmouth, New Jersey. Fort Monmouth: Historical Office, . Pike, Helen-Chantal, and Glenn D. Vogel, Eatontown and Fort Monmouth. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

See also McCarthyism

Gallagher, William B. When Dinosaurs Roamed New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also dinosaurs

David C. Parris

Fosterfields Living History Farm. Fosterfields, owned by the Morris County Park Commission, is operated as a living history farm on  acres in Morris Township. The main house on the site, The Willows, is a fine example of Gothic Revival architecture, built in  by Gen. Joseph Warren Revere, a grandson of Paul Revere. In  Charles Foster, a New York merchant, purchased the farm and introduced innovative agricultural techniques. His daughter, Caroline, who lived at Fosterfields for  of her  years, continued farming well into the s. She bequeathed the farm to Morris County in . The county restored the house to its circa  appearance and provides site tours and demonstrations of turn-of-the-century farming practices.

Daniel J. Leab

Fort Mott.

This coastal fort, established to defend the lower Delaware River and Philadelphia, was part of a nineteenth-century defensive system that included nearby Forts Delaware and DuPont. The original battery at Finns Point dates from . Construction of an improved fort began in . One year later it was renamed for Gen. Gershom Mott, a Civil War veteran and Bordentown native. Fort Mott remained active throughout World War I. In , four years after the fort was declared surplus, the state of New Jersey acquired it as a historic site. Fort Mott State Park was opened to the public in . Roberts, Robert B. Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States. New York: Macmillan, .

See also Civil War

Donald E. Bender

fossils.

The remains and traces of organisms of the past, preserved in the record of rocks, are called fossils. New Jersey has a remarkable fossil record spanning more than  million years, including a vast array of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Perhaps most famous for dinosaurs and other large fossil reptiles, New Jersey fossils include representation from nine of the eleven periods into which the geologic history of life is customarily divided. As a result, New Jersey has a prominent position in paleontology (and in geoscience as a whole). The fossil record of New Jersey is closely associated with the rock formations and therefore the physiographic regions of the state. For example, the Cretaceous rocks and fossils are characteristic of the Inner Coastal Plain, while Triassic and Jurassic rocks and fossils are located in the Piedmont region.

Cavanaugh, Cam. In Lights and Shadows: Morristown in Three Centuries. Morristown: Joint Free Public Library of Morristown and Morris Township, .

See also historic sites

Richard C. Simon

Foster

Wheeler

Corporation.

Founded in  in New York City, Foster Wheeler has grown into a global company based in Hamilton, Bermuda, with operational headquarters in Clinton and a subsidiary in Livingston. Foster Wheeler was the top construction firm in the state in , according to the New Jersey Business and Industry Association. The company provides engineering services and products to a broad range of industries, including petroleum and gas, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, chemical processing, and power-generation. Design, engineering, construction, and procurement, as well as project management, research, plant operation, and environmental are among the services that Foster Wheeler supplies.

programs for youth: in , more than three thousand adults served as -H volunteers in New Jersey. -H volunteers are supported by professional staff members who are faculty or staff of Rutgers University. Rutgers Cooperative Extension, of which -H is a part, receives funds from a cooperative partnership of federal, state, and county governments as well as from private sources. The -H emblem is a green four-leaf clover with a white H on each leaflet, symbolizing Head, Heart, Hands, and Health. The -H motto is “To Make the Best Better’’ and its slogan, “Learn by Doing,’’reflects the active methods used to teach youth. Wessel, Thomas, and Marilyn Wessel. -H—An American Idea, –: A History of -H. Chevy Chase, MD: National -H Council, .

See also agriculture

Keith G. Diem

Four Seasons. Behind the infectious beat of hits like “Sherry,’’ “Rag Doll,’’ “Dawn,’’ “Walk Like a Man,’’ and “Let’s Hang On,’’ the Four Seasons created one of the most durable sounds of s’ rock ’n’ roll. Combining classic pop with the rhythm-and-blues harmonies of the s, the Four Seasons came together in New Jersey and found their defining sound in  behind the distinctive high tenor of Frankie Valli, born Francis Castelluccio in Newark in . Valli had been trying to break into show business since , but it wasn’t until  that he and Tommy DeVito, singing in a group called the Four Lovers, met Nick Massi and Bob Gaudio. They decided to form their own group and took their name from a Union City bowling alley where they unsuccessfully auditioned for a job. They got a record contract in  and after one false start broke through with “Sherry,’’ which Gaudio and producer Bob Crewe originally wrote as “Jackie’’ in a salute to Jacqueline Kennedy. The group had hits into the s, when Valli went solo. In , the Four Seasons were voted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. See also pop music

David Hinckley

Maureen Dillon

fox hunting. 4-H clubs.

As organizations for young people, -H clubs started as corn clubs for boys and canning clubs for girls in the early s by public school educators. Throughout its long history, -H has adapted to the everchanging needs and interests of youth. Today it includes young people living on farms, in cities, and in suburbs. Four and a half million youth participate in -H in , counties throughout the United States, and more than eighty countries around the world have youth programs similar to -H. New Jersey -H serves youth in grades K– (one year out of high school) and is active in nearly every county. In , , youth participated in New Jersey -H, about , of them as members of -H clubs. Volunteers are the key to providing -H

Fox hunting became a favored sport of the English gentry in the midseventeenth century. Colonists who wanted to mimic the British aristocracy brought it to New Jersey. United States aficionados, unlike their British counterparts, rarely kill the fox. But like the British, they adhere to strict rules governing the dog pack, clothing, and the fox’s fate once it is caught. For fox hunters the main thrill is in the chase, and the fox is run until it burrows into a hole. Fox hunting works best where there are wide-open spaces, but development has drastically reduced such areas. A prime spot for fox hunting is the Pine Barrens, where the hunters go on foot and in pickups instead of on horses. In North Jersey there are two clubs, the Tewksbury Foot Bassets and the Bare Cove

Franklin, Benjamin Beagles, that use hounds to track the foxes while the hunters go on foot. The state has maintained five clubs: the Amwell Valley Hounds, the Essex Fox Hounds, the Monmouth County Hunt, the Spring Valley Hounds, and the Windy Hollow Hunt. According to the state Division of Fish and Wildlife, packs may chase a fox, but only during hunting season, which is late September to mid-February. Cohen, David Steven. The Folklore and Folklife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hufford, Mary T. Chaseworld Foxhunting and Storytelling in New Jersey’s Pine Barrens. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

See also hunting

Dona M. Amici

Fox, Rothschild, O’Brien, and Frankel. In  this Pennsylvania law firm expanded into New Jersey, first opening an office in Princeton. In  it merged with Katzenbach, Gildea, and Rudner and relocated to Lawrenceville. In  it merged with Horn, Goldberg, Gorny, Plackter, Weiss, and Perskie, making the combined firm the twelfth largest in the state, employing (in ) seventy-five attorneys. The firm emphasizes business, corporate and securities, health care, labor and employment, real estate, environmental, creditors’ rights, litigation, and tax and estate law. Significant cases include the Claridge Hotel and Casino bankruptcy case, U.S. v. Kramer, and the real estate transaction for the Borgata Casino. Three attorneys from the New Jersey practice have assumed judgeships in state and federal courts, and one joined Gov. James McGreevey’s cabinet.

Karen Di Prima

Franchise Law of 1807. New Jersey’s constitution of  provided that “all Inhabitants of full Age, who are worth Fifty Pounds’’ could vote. Under these terms New Jersey became the only place in the early republic where women and blacks could and did vote. In the heated politics of the s, when politicians tried to turn out large numbers of voters, this increasingly produced complaints from those who lost the elections. The law violated republican notions that only independent citizens could vote, and those by definition not so qualified—such as unpropertied blacks and women—were seen as being manipulated in progressively more fraudulent elections. This culminated in a fierce  election (involving the location of the Essex County seat) that produced charges of inappropriate voting in Newark, where the county seat was then located. As a result the legislature passed a new voting act on November , , which “clarified’’ the constitution by stipulating that only “free, white, male citizens’’ age twenty-one and older could vote. At the same time that the law disfranchised “aliens, females, and persons of color,’’ it also stated that men who paid taxes would be judged worth fifty pounds and could

vote, in effect liberalizing the property qualification. The Constitution of  later eliminated property requirements, but retained the state’s disfranchisement of women and blacks. Acts of the Thirty-second General Assembly, of the State of New Jersey. Trenton: Wilson and Halsey, . McCormick, Richard P. The History of Voting in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also voting

Maxine N. Lurie

Francis, Connie

(b. Dec. , ). Vocalist. A Newark native who has also lived in Belleville, Essex Falls, Verona, and West Orange, Connie Francis, born Concetta Maria Franconero, began performing as a child and first hit the charts at the age of nineteen. By the time she was twenty-one, she had developed her own vocal style, projecting innocence and vulnerability with her yearning, girl-next-door voice. Between  and  she was hugely popular, with thirty-five Top  hits, including three No. ’s: “Everybody’s Somebody’s Fool,’’ “My Heart Has a Mind of Its Own,’’ and “Don’t Break the Heart That Loves You.’’ She also appeared in movies, including Where the Boys Are, Follow the Boys, and Looking for Love. But her wholesome s style sounded dated after the Beatles, Bob Dylan, the Rolling Stones, and others revolutionized the world of pop music, and her popularity waned. She continued recording and touring, but tragedy struck in , when she was raped and robbed at knifepoint in a hotel after a show in Westbury, New York. Since then she has battled depression and vocal problems, but has made sporadic comeback attempts and, in , published an autobiography, Who’s Sorry Now, named after her breakthrough  hit.

Francis, Connie. Who’s Sorry Now. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

See also pop music

Jay Lustig

Francis, Jacob

(b. Jan. , ; d. ).

Slave, freedman, and soldier. Born in Amwell, Hunterdon County, of a slave mother and perhaps a white father, Jacob Francis was bound to a succession of masters before being freed in Massachusetts at twenty-one. Enlisting in the Massachusetts Line, he fought in the battles of Long Island, White Plains, and Trenton. Discharged in New Jersey, Francis returned to Amwell to care for his mother, and then enrolled in the Hunterdon militia. Captured by Hessians near Newark, he escaped and later participated in the Battle of Monmouth. Following the war he married a slave named Mary, purchased her freedom, and they later lived in Flemington. Dann, John C. The Revolution Remembered: Eyewitness Accounts of the War for Independence. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .

See also American Revolution

William A. Schleicher

287

Francis, Joseph (b. Mar. , ; d. May , ). Inventor. In the s, Joseph Francis

invented what he called a lifecar for saving people from shipwrecks when surfboats and breeches buoys failed. The lifecar, credited with saving thousands of lives, was a podlike structure that held up to four people as it was pulled over or through the water. It was first used in  when the Scottish brig Ayrshire, missing its mast and rudder, drifted off New Jersey’s Absecon Beach. Francis received the Congressional Medal of Honor from President Benjamin Harrison in  for his lifecar and other maritime inventions. Francis lived in Toms River. Ehrhardt, John B. Joseph Francis (–): Shipbuilder, Father of the U.S. Life-Saving Service. New York: Newcomen Society in North America, .

See also Life-Saving Service

E. Richard McKinstry

Frankford.

.-square-mile township in central Sussex County. Frankford was set off from Newton Township in . Located in the Kittatinny Valley, the township, though somewhat hilly, contains much fertile land. Occupied almost entirely by farms since the late eighteenth century, Frankford now includes many residential developments. Culver’s Gap, the only pass through the Kittatinny Mountains for some thirty miles, is on the western edge of the town. Culver’s Lake, also in Frankford, is a large natural lake that was a popular tourist resort in the nineteenth century; it is now a large lake community. The Sussex County Farm and Horse Show takes place annually at the County Fairgrounds in Augusta in the western part of the township. Skylands Park, a minor league baseball stadium, is also located in Frankford. Among the other town landmarks is the Frankford Plains Octagon Schoolhouse, a midnineteenth-century school built in the shape of an octagon. Recent decades have seen the township evolve toward becoming a bedroom community. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Franklin, Benjamin

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Apr. , ). Printer, scientist, and diplo-

mat. The son of Boston candlemaker Josiah Franklin and Abiah Folger, Benjamin Franklin moved to Philadelphia in , married Deborah Reed, and established a printer’s business there. Franklin had three illegitimate children.

288

Franklin, William

Franklin spent most of his adult life in Philadelphia and on diplomatic missions in London and Paris. However, he has a number of important connections to New Jersey. Franklin had served as the colony’s printer, and his son William was New Jersey’s last royal governor. He always represented his son’s— and hence the colony’s—interests, offering invaluable advice and lobbying for New Jersey initiatives, particularly the issuing of paper money. Franklin became New Jersey’s colonial agent in London in . The colony generally benefited from the relationship until , when Franklin left for home, convinced that diplomacy had reached its limit in the disputes between England and the colonies. The famous remark attributed to him—that New Jersey was like a barrel tapped at both ends by New York and Philadelphia—does not represent Franklin’s published views. Franklin, Benjamin. The Papers of Benjamin Franklin. Ed. Leonard W. Labaree et al.  vols. New Haven: Yale University Press, –. Kammen, Michael G. A Rope of Sand: Colonial Agents, British Politics, and the American Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Lopez, Claude-Anne, and Eugenia W. Herbert. The Private Franklin: The Man and His Family. New York: W. W. Norton, . Wright, Esmond. Franklin and Philadelphia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, .

Sheila L. Skemp

Franklin, William

(b. ; d. May ,

).

Colonial governor. William Franklin was the illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin. He received a classical education at Alexander Annand’s Philadelphia academy, and in  he traveled with his father to London, serving as his father’s secretary and completing his legal training at the Inns of Court. While in London, he met and married Elizabeth Downes, the wealthy daughter of a Barbadian

William Franklin, New Jersey’s last royal governor.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

planter. He also had an illegitimate son, William Temple. Franklin used his connections to obtain an appointment as New Jersey’s governor, taking his oath of office in the colony in . As an American, Franklin understood the colonists’ perspective more than most governors did, and for many years he enjoyed an amicable relationship with his assembly. He put down roots in New Jersey, bought a farm near Burlington, and as late as  could claim, “It is here, if I return to a private station, that I propose to spend the Remainder of my Days.’’ He sympathized with colonial efforts to pass a paper currency bill. He thought England was wrong to tax its provinces without representation and unwise to send British troops to Boston in . Because New Jersey was a relatively moderate colony, he was generally able to walk a middle ground between the demands of an increasingly rigid royal government and the expectations of the Americans he served. He did not always please everyone, but he was politically astute enough to steer a moderate course and to avoid the controversies that troubled less able and less fortunate governors. Still, the longer Franklin remained in his post, the more determined he became to uphold the Crown’s prerogative and the more troubled his tenure as governor became. No royal governor, no matter how charming and sympathetic he might be, could serve both king and colony in these years. He was embarrassed when the assembly “selfishly’’ refused to honor the king’s request for provisions for English troops posted in the colonies. A prolonged controversy over the blame to be assigned for the robbery of the East Jersey treasury in , fueled suspicions on both sides, leading some assembly leaders to demand the right to nominate and remove the colony treasurers—a demand that Franklin stubbornly rejected. After the Boston Tea Party in , and the battles of Lexington and Concord two years later, Franklin and his assembly were on a collision course. Unlike many governors, Franklin did not flee his province. He continued his efforts to persuade the assembly to reject the directives of the Continental Congress, a “pretended government’’ in his eyes, and to deal directly with Lord North, the British Prime Minister. He desperately sought to keep the legitimate assembly intact, even as radicals erected their own extralegal government in the colony. In the end, Franklin was arrested on June , , and spent over two years as a prisoner in Connecticut. At first he was incarcerated in Middletown, but when his captors discovered that he was taking advantage of his relatively mild condition to try to influence Connecticut farmers to support the king, he was moved to Litchfield, where he lived in solitary confinement. His wife died while he languished in his cell. When he finally won his freedom in the fall of , he moved to British-occupied New

York where he became the president of the Associated Board of Loyalists, a terrorist group that mounted attacks against American positions in New Jersey and New York. Franklin fled to England after the war, never returning to New Jersey. Randall, Willard Sterne. A Little Revenge: Benjamin Franklin and His Son. Boston: Little, Brown, . Skemp, Sheila L. Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist. Boston: Bedford Books, . ———. William Franklin: Son of a Patriot, Servant of a King. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also American Revolution; governor

Sheila L. Skemp

Franklin Borough.

.-square-mile borough in Sussex County. Franklin, incorporated in , is on the Wallkill River near the western edge of the Highlands. Its history revolves largely around mining and minerals. The iron industry started here about , when a furnace was constructed; iron smelting continued through the s. Iron and zinc mining, as well as limestone quarrying, remained the borough’s major industrial activities during the first half of the twentieth century. The mines and plant of the New Jersey Zinc Company were the major employer in Franklin, attracting laborers from many nations and making Franklin the most ethnically diverse town in northwest New Jersey. Zinc mining ceased in . The borough has since become a commercial zone but is still economically underdeveloped. Franklin has some of the most unusual mineral deposits in the world and has been dubbed the Fluorescent Mineral Capital of the World. The Franklin Mineral Museum preserves the borough’s heritage. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Dunn, Pete J. Franklin and Sterling Hill, New Jersey: The World’s Most Magnificent Mineral Deposits. Washington, DC: Department of Mineral Sciences, Smithsonian Institution, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Franklin Lakes.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Franklin Lakes was named for William Franklin, the last royal governor of New Jersey. Early Dutch settlers brought their distinctive architectural style, characterized by one-story rough stone homes with gambrel roofs. In  Michael Hawden, a New York City vintner, received a patent for land that included today’s Franklin Lake, Pond Brook, and the cedar swamps. There was little industry in Franklin Township before the nineteenth century, which saw the rise of cotton mills, sawmills, and paper mills. Cornelius Demarest alone had four

Frazee, John mills in the Crystal Lake section of the township. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Newark purchased some lakeside property in . Approximately ten years later, Urban Farms bought the lake and the surrounding property and built a large, high-priced housing development. Ridgewood, Midland Park, and Oakland withdrew from Franklin Township in , , and  respectively, and in  Franklin Lakes Borough was established. Many of the borough’s homes are situated on or near the shores of its twenty-one lakes. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Braun, Maria S. Franklin Lakes: Its History and Heritage. Cedar Grove: Phillips-Campbell, .

Linda J. Barth

Franklin Township (Gloucester County). .-square-mile township. When it was incorporated in , Franklin Township included seventy-two thousand acres and a number of small villages, which separated from the townships of Woolwich and Greenwich to become a new municipality. Agriculture attracted many of the first settlers of the area, including the Lenape Indians, who first inhabited the fields and woodlands of Franklin Township. The land is generally level, with light, sandy soil that is ideal for cultivation. In the s the John H. Coffin Company began offering farm lots for sale from a twenty-thousand-acre Franklin Tract, which had been inaccessible to development prior to the completion of railroad connections that brought Philadelphia within an hour’s journey. There are still many small farms and orchards even in residential areas of the township. Glasshouses once occupied the Malaga and Janvier sections, and gristmills and sawmills could be found along the headwaters of the Maurice River and Scotland Run. Some of the lakes in the region were once streams, which early settlers widened and dug out. By  the communities of Glassboro, Clayton, Newfield, and Elk had separated from Franklin Township to become independent municipalities. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Coffin, John H. Franklin Tract: Rural Homesteads. Philadelphia: King and Baird Printers, .

Melissa Schiavo

Franklin Township (Hunterdon County). .-square-mile township. Originally part of Kingwood Township, Franklin was set off and incorporated on April , . In  part of the township seceded to form Clinton, which had been contained within the township.

Franklin Township remains rural in character. Farms surround the quaint villages of Pittstown (part of Alexandria), Quakertown, Cherryville, Sidney, and Oak Grove, all of which at one time had mills, churches, and general stores. Pittstown, named by Revolutionary War commissary general Moore Furman for William Pitt, earl of Chatham, is the location of the Century Inn that Furman built in  to celebrate the new century. On the Franklin plateau is Quakertown, the site of the last active Quaker meetinghouse in Hunterdon County. Built of stone in , it replaced the earlier stone meetinghouse, constructed in about . To the rear of the building is the Quaker Woods, or cemetery, which dates from the time of the American Revolution. Franklin Township’s most important industry is agriculture; there are several large nurseries within its borders. The population in  was ,, of whom  percent was white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Stout, J. E. Facts and Fantasies of Franklin. Franklin Township: Franklin Township Committee, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Franklin Township (Somerset County). .-square-mile township. Franklin Township’s varied geography includes semi-urban, suburban, and rural regions. Colonists of Dutch, French, and English descent developed farms on the flat terrain after . During the American Revolution, skirmishes occurred as both sides camped and passed through here, since Franklin Township is the midway point on the route linking New York City to Philadelphia. Franklin Township was incorporated in . Many of its historic villages prospered after the opening of the Delaware and Raritan Canal in . The first commuters arrived in  with the opening of the Millstone and New Brunswick Railroad. Redrawn town boundaries on the northeast corner ceded eight hundred people to the city of New Brunswick in . South Bound Brook became an independent town in . In  Guglielmo Marconi built a transmission tower and antenna, part of a transatlantic communication system, in Franklin Township and New Brunswick, pioneering radio technology that was used during World War I. The first significant suburban development came in the s, although many areas remained rural until the s. Located between Princeton and Rutgers universities, the township became home to technology and research companies in the s.

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In , this diverse community had a population of ,:  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Brahms, William B. Franklin Township, New Jersey: A History. Somerset: Franklin Township Library, . ———, and Franklin Township Public Library. Franklin Township. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Stryker, Elsie B., and Ralph W. Thomson. Where the Trees Grow Tall: A History of Old Middlebush, –  and a History of Franklin Township, Somerset County, New Jersey. Franklin Township: Franklin Township Historical Society, .

Laura Garber

Franklin County).

Township

(Warren

.-square-mile township. Named after Benjamin Franklin, Franklin Township was formed from portions of Greenwich, Oxford, and Mansfield in . Its villages—Asbury, Broadway, and New Village— played major roles in the township’s history and development. Asbury, on the banks of the Musconetcong River, formerly known as Hall’s Mills, was named after Bishop Francis Asbury, the Methodist circuit-riding minister. Asbury is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. Broadway was the home of Aunt Peggy Vliet Warne, who doctored local citizens when the area’s physicians rode off to the Revolutionary War. Her medical herb house was still standing in . New Village is the site of Lock  West, known as the Bread Lock, on the Morris Canal. In  plans were being made for the reconstruction of the lock area. During the nineteenth century Franklin was famous as a health resort thanks to an abundance of natural mineral springs. Just south of Broadway, the landscape is covered with a fine dust, the legacy of Thomas Edison’s portland cement factory. Incorporated in , the company was dissolved in . The  census showed a population of , that was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Frazee, John (b. July , ; d. Feb. , ). Sculptor. John Frazee was born in Rahway to Reuben and Jane Frazee. At the age of fourteen he became apprentice to William Lawrence, a builder. In  he married Jane Probasco and moved to New Brunswick, where he started a stonecutting business. Later John and his brother William began a marble-cutting business in New York City. Frazee carved busts of notables such as the marquis de Layfayette and John Jay. In  his wife, with whom he had ten children, died, and Frazee married Lydia Place, with whom he would have ten more children. In  he became the

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Fredon

Free Acres. A small community located partly in Berkeley Heights and partly in Watchung, Free Acres was founded as a singletax colony in  by Bolton Hall, a New York attorney, real estate developer, writer, and follower of the radical political economist Henry George. Hall divided the former Murphy farm into one-year leaseholds and used the rents to pay for local property taxes and for community services. Free Acres developed an active community life revolving around common institutions—the farmhouse, ball field, tennis court, and swimming hole. The single-tax structure was modified in  with the beginning of individual property tax assessments. Today Free Acres is similar to a cooperative or condominium complex, where residents are charged fees to pay for shared services and facilities. See also utopian communities Asher B. Durand, John Frazee, c. . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Stephen C. Millett, Jr., Collection, Boston Athenaeum. Photo courtesy Frick Art Reference Library, New York.

architect of the Customs House, now Federal Hall National Memorial in New York City, completed in . He died in Rhode Island in . See also sculpture

Patrice M. Kane

Fredon.

.-square-mile township in Sussex County. When it incorporated in , Fredon included parts of Andover, Green, Hampton, and Stillwater. Fredon lost some land to Newton in . The stagecoach used to stop at the Fountain House, built in ; there horses could be watered. It was also a popular place for entertainment and political meetings, so, when Fredon was incorporated, the Fountain House served as its first municipal building. Another historic landmark is the Whittingham Mill, which lacked sufficient waterpower to function successfully. Fredon is also known for its Presbyterian Yellow Frame Church. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a new church was built with the same name, to be used instead of the original eighteenthcentury structure. Today Fredon is still largely rural, devoting much of its land to residential and agricultural use. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income reported in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography. .

Cynthia Hammell

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Freehold Borough.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. In  the westward spread of population determined that the site of the first courthouse and county seat would be in agricultural Freehold Township. The tiny village that grew around Monmouth Court House, built in , was called Monmouth as early as . In their churches and houses, residents tended the wounded from the  Battle of Monmouth during the American Revolution. On January , , the post office’s name was changed from Monmouth to Freehold; the borough separated from the township in . Freehold developed as a business and industrial center amid potato fields, with markets in Trenton and Newark, when the railroad laid tracks through downtown in . The borough recovered from two devastating fires in  and , and the closing of the Karagheusian Rug Mill in , the town’s largest employer since . Battling the trend in declining downtowns, Freehold salvaged its Main Street with restaurants and specialty shops. The town’s two most notable residents were Gov. Joel Parker and musician Bruce Springsteen. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, . Griffith, Lee Ellen. Freehold. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Susan Hamburger

freeholders.

New Jersey is the only state that calls its county legislators chosen freeholders. In  each of the  townships was incorporated by state law and required to elect two freeholders (property owners) to a new

county governing body, one of the then thirteen boards of chosen freeholders. These officials were formally separated from the judges of the county court with whom they had “constituted the county legislative authority.’’ Provided that bylaws, ordinances, and regulations were not contrary to state law, such bodies could “vote, grant, and raise money’’ for “the building, purchasing, or repairing of poor houses, gaols, courthouses, and bridges, the surveying and ascertaining of the lines,’’ and other legal purposes. Unlike a township committee, whose members were originally unpaid for meetings and who were only to “examine, inspect, and report to township meeting’’ that approved expenditures, a freeholder board could approve the financial claims submitted by any member (a major cause of corruption). And rather than only three or five members as on a township committee, a freeholder board could come to include as many as forty persons (as in Essex in ) elected by municipalities and wards. Also unlike a township committee, a freeholder board could not enact ordinances; instead, it passed resolutions. The system of apportioning representatives by municipality became unequal, uncertain, and complex in  after the number of freeholders in Monmouth and Hunterdon was halved and each of Jersey City’s four wards was granted two freeholders. By , more than two-thirds of the counties had escaped from the  rigid requirement of two freeholders per township;  was when an amendment to the state constitution prohibited special laws regulating the internal affairs of counties and towns. By then, partisan legislators had assigned freeholders to the wards of only certain types of cities, had created new wards that were allotted freeholders, and had even established some assembly districts as constituencies. In the next quarter-century the legislature found additional variables besides gerrymandering that could be used to control the political composition of a freeholder board: classification of population (and location) of municipalities and ostensibly general legislation regulating the types of municipal government (like boroughs and towns). The concept of home rule was strong enough to defeat enactment of mandatory legislation to abolish large freeholder boards. The first optional small-board law (the Strong Act) to apply to every county was passed in , and the last successful referendum to abolish a large board occurred in  (in Camden, with thirty-eight freeholders). Without a direct vote by the people, small boards elected at large in Atlantic, Cumberland, Gloucester, and Salem were established after the federal and state judiciary’s “one man, one vote’’ decisions (, ). Now all counties have small boards. Uncertain also was the proper role of the board’s chief executive. The director, who was elected by the members until , was the first among equals. In that year a

free speech director-at-large was chosen by the entire electorate of Hudson, but the office was abolished in . It was reestablished in Hudson and Essex in  and continued until , when the election of freeholders by assembly districts in these counties (and in three others) was ended. County supervisors were established in Essex () and Hudson (). Traditional arrangements for administration by the freeholders have been superseded in some counties. The Optional County Charter Law of , as amended and supplemented, offers four plans: ) elected executive; ) strong manager; ) elected supervisor; and ) board president. As of , five counties had adopted the first option; one the second. Some freeholders can be elected by districts. In addition, the  state constitution provides for the adoption of a special county charter. Collier, James M. County Government in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Effross, Harris I. County Governing Bodies in New Jersey: Reorganization and Reform of Boards of Chosen Freeholders, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rich, Bennett M. The Government and Administration of New Jersey. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, .

See also county government

Blair, Jeannette. Freehold Township: The First  Years. Freehold: Freehold Township Committee, . Griffith, Lee Ellen E. Freehold. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Barbara Pepe

Freehold Young Ladies’ Seminary. Founded in , the seminary was one of the first of its kind to offer a broad educational experience to young women. Amos Richardson, a graduate of Dartmouth, was the seminary’s first principal. He advocated for his students a “solid, practical education to fit them for the duties of life and to qualify them to enjoy the pleasures of a rational, intelligent existence’’ as well as preparation for higher education. Although students came from as far as Missouri and Alabama, roughly half of the seminary’s students were from Freehold. The last commencement was held in . Wilbur, Lillian Lauler. The Early Schools of Freehold, New Jersey, and Vicinity, –. Asbury Park: Privately printed by Schuyler Press, .

See also education

Lee Ellen Griffith

Freeman, Grace Margaret

(b. Apr. ,

Harris I. Effross

; d. Apr. , ). Legislator. Grace Freeman

.-squaremile township in Monmouth County. On October , , Monmouth was subdivided into Middletown, Shrewsbury, and Freehold. Originally known as Monmouth Court House, Freehold became the county seat and a significant industrial center. Marlboro, Manalapan, Millstone, Upper Freehold, and a considerable part of Ocean County once made up Freehold. It was incorporated as Freehold Township on February , ; the borough separated from the township in . In the eighteenth century Freehold was mainly a farming community with several small villages that were populated by a large number of artisans. The Battle of Monmouth took place near Englishtown in Manalapan and Freehold Township on June , . This battle is remembered as the first major offensive of the American forces in the Revolutionary War. The arrival of the railroad in the nineteenth century established Freehold as a prime center for commercial activity. Today, Freehold has a large population of professionals. It is home to the oldest daytime harness racetrack in the United States and to Freehold Raceway Mall. There are thirteen parks in the township, including Turkey Swamp County Park and Monmouth Battlefield State Park. The  population of Freehold Township was , with  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

earned a B.S. and an M.A. from Teachers’ College, Columbia University, in , and taught civics and history in the secondary schools of Caldwell and Montclair. After World War II she was elected to the New Jersey assembly, where she served for five years. In , she sponsored New Jersey’s Civil Rights Act, which preceded similar U.S. congressional action by fifteen years. The Freeman bill outlawed all forms of discrimination due to race, creed, national origin, or color in employment, education, housing, public accommodation, and recreational facilities such as hotels, bars, restaurants, theaters, beaches and boardwalks, swimming pools, bathhouses, gymnasiums, bowling alleys, and myriad other places. Freeman became chair of the Education Committee in the General Assembly, where she sponsored such bills as the repeal of the tax on school athletic meets and plays and the outlawing of switchblades. She personally provided grants to needy students at Montclair State College. Her most important education bill, passed in , established a $ million bond issue for building programs at state teachers’ colleges. Freeman was active in many clubs and political organizations, and received some forty awards of recognition from organizations as diverse as the New Jersey Conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People to the New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs. In her will she left her residence to be used as a retirement home for Presbyterian ministers and missionaries, their wives and widows, and $, to benefit the

Freehold Township.

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dormitory named for her at Montclair State University. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also civil rights

Doris B. Armstrong

Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins (b. Oct. , ; d. Mar. , ). Writer. When Mary E.

Wilkins moved to Metuchen in  after marrying Dr. Charles Manning Freeman, a nonpracticing doctor who ran a family coal and lumber business, she was already a writer of renown, having published poetry for children and popular stories for adults in such periodicals as Harper’s Bazaar and Harper’s Monthly. In Metuchen she was a celebrity, even though in her novels The Debtor, “Doc’’ Gordon, and The Butterfly House she used Metuchen as the setting and satirized the local manners and idiosyncrasies of New Jersey small-town life. She lived in Metuchen for twenty-eight years and wrote eleven more volumes, collaborated on a motion picture, and published many short stories. She was well acquainted with other notable authors of her time, including Mark Twain. In , Freeman obtained a legal separation from her husband, an alcoholic and drug addict, who had been committed to the New Jersey State Hospital for the Insane in Trenton. During the s, she wrote little. In  the American Academy of Arts and Letters awarded her the first William Dean Howells Medal for distinguished work in fiction. In  she and Edith Wharton were among the first women elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters. After Freeman died, in , the American Academy of Arts and Letters in New York City installed new bronze doors with the inscription, “Dedicated to Mary E. Wilkins Freeman and the Women Writers of America.’’ Freeman’s short stories, particularly “A New England Nun’’ and “The Revolt of ‘Mother,’’’ have been widely anthologized. Critics admire her willingness to experiment with genre, her innovative exploration of topics such as homosexuality, and her ability to portray women as strong-willed individuals. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Foster, Edward. Mary E. Wilkins Freeman. New York: Hendricks House, . Westbrook, Perry. Mary Wilkins Freeman. New York: Twayne, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also literature

Sondra B. Fishinger

free

speech. Free speech in New Jersey receives special protection from Article , paragraph , of the state constitution, as supplemented by Article , paragraph ,

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which protects the rights of assembly and petition. Under paragraph , every person “may freely speak, write and publish his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for the abuse of that right.’’ And “no law shall be passed to restrain or abridge the liberty of speech or of the press.’’ The second of these sentences echoes the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits governmental entities from acting in such a way as to deny freedom of speech. The first sentence, however, provides special protections for freedom of expression in New Jersey, unavailable under the federal Constitution, in two significant ways. First, because the constitutional provision is framed as an affirmative right to speak, rather than as a prohibition on governmental action, it limits certain private entities, such as shopping malls and property owners’ associations, from unreasonably restricting speech on their premises. As the state’s supreme court has reiterated, the more private property owners open their property to public use, the greater their obligation to respect the expressional rights of visitors. This principle was most eloquently articulated by the supreme court in : “Property rights serve human rights. . . . Title to real property cannot include dominion over the destiny of persons the owner permits to come upon the premises.’’ Pursuant to this principle, in subsequent cases, the court has ruled that privately owned regional and community shopping malls had to allow petitioning and leafleting by advocacy groups pursuant to reasonable regulations. The second way in which New Jersey provides special protections for freedom of speech lies in the constitutional affirmation of free speech, whereby governmental entities are not only prohibited from abridging speech, but also have an “affirmative obligation to protect speech.’’ Askin, Frank. “Free Speech, Private Space and the Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (summer ): .

See also law

Frank Askin

Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore (b. Aug. , ; d. May , ). U.S. senator and secretary of state. Born in Millstone, the son of Frederick Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen graduated from Rutgers College in  and then studied law under the tutelage of his uncle and adoptive father, Theodore Frelinghuysen (the Whig vice presidential candidate in  on the ticket headed by Henry Clay). Frelinghuysen commenced his legal practice in Newark in  and held various local political offices. In  he married Matilda Griswold, with whom he had six children. A member of a New Jersey political dynasty, Frelinghuysen reluctantly left the Whig party

Fredrick T. Frelinghuysen.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. upon its disintegration in the early s and joined the Republicans. He represented New Jersey at the Washington peace conference in February . During the Civil War, he was attorney general of the state. As U.S. senator from  to , Frelinghuysen, a Radical Republican during Reconstruction, favored African American suffrage and the removal from office of President Andrew Johnson. After declining an appointment as minister to Great Britain tendered by President Ulysses S. Grant, Frelinghuysen was again elected to the Senate, where he held a seat from  to . He served on the Electoral Commission of  to resolve the disputed presidential election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel J. Tilden. Frelinghuysen’s bid for reelection was defeated in . President Chester A. Arthur selected Frelinghuysen, a member of the “Stalwart’’ wing of the Republican party, as secretary of state, in which capacity he remained from  to . Frelinghuysen endorsed a Central American canal, hastily negotiating the ill-fated Frelinghuysen-Zavala Treaty with Nicaragua. He also supported reciprocity agreements with Mexico and Hawaii. Frelinghuysen died in Newark.

from Princeton in  with high honors, and read law with Richard Stockton in Princeton. He became an attorney in  and relocated to Newark, where he married Charlotte Mercer in . Her father, Archibald Mercer, was a prominent Federalist merchant from Trenton. The Frelinghusens had no children, but adopted a nephew, Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen, who became a politician, diplomat, and secretary of state. Theodore Frelinghuysen served as a militia captain during the War of , commanding a group of volunteers from Essex County. His unit did not see service during the war, but he organized volunteers in  to work on the fortifications in Brooklyn to protect New York City. Chosen as New Jersey’s attorney general in , he served until , when he resigned to become a U.S. senator. In the s he shifted from Federalism to support President John Quincy Adams and became an Adams presidential elector in  before becoming a Whig in the s. While in the Senate he became well known for his opposition to the Indian removal policy of President Andrew Jackson, and he unsuccessfully defended the Cherokee. He picked up the nickname of “Christian statesman’’ because of his attitudes on Indian removal and his support for the suspension of mail delivery on Sundays, which he believed profaned the Christian sabbath. Dutch Reformed by denomination, Frelinghuysen, in both public and private life was a consistent advocate of Protestant values. By defending the Bank of the United States, Freylinghuysen outraged New Jersey Democrats, and lost any chance of another Senate term. Returning to Newark, he was

ANB. Doenecke, Justus D. The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, .

Leonard Schlup

Frelinghuysen, Theodore (b. Mar. , ; d. Apr. , ). Lawyer, politician, college president, and religious reformer. Theodore Frelinghuysen was born in Millstone, Franklin Township, Somerset County. His father, Frederick Frelinghuysen, was an important politician. His mother, Gertrude Schenck, died when he was a child. Theodore graduated

Theodore Frelinghuysen.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

French and Indian War elected the second mayor of the city in , serving two terms before being appointed chancellor of New York University in , a position he retained until his resignation in the summer of . In  the Whigs nominated him for vice president with Henry Clay at the head of the ticket. During the  campaign, Democrats attacked Frelinghuysen as a “Negro lover’’ because he donated a building lot for the Fourth Presbyterian Church, an African American church in Newark, and for his leadership role in the American Colonization Society. His Protestant moral values raised questions about his nativist leanings with Irish Catholic voters. In  Frelinghuysen became president of Rutgers College, serving until his death in . His wife died in , and he married Harriet Pumpelly in . He expressed his Protestant values by his service to the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (–), and he was vice president of the American Bible Society (– ) and president (–). Also, he was actively involved in American Sunday School Union, American Tract Society (president, –), and American Temperance Union. He was particularly well known for his temperance activities. ANB.

Harvey Strum

Frelinghuysen, Theodorus Jacobus (b. Nov. ; d. c. ). Clergyman. Born in Lingen, Germany, the son of Johannes Henrich Frelinghaus, a pastor, Theodorus Frelinghuysen matriculated at the University of Lingen and was ordained in Westphalia to the ministry of the Reformed Dutch Church in . He subsequently held pastorates for a short interval in Belgium. In January  he and Jacobus Schuurman, a schoolmaster friend, immigrated to America, where Frelinghuysen served as minister to several Dutch Reformed churches in the Raritan Valley of central New Jersey until his death. Loyal to the Heidelberg Catechism, he emphasized pietism, conversion, repentance, strict moral standards, private devotions, excommunication, and church discipline. An eloquent preacher who published numerous sermons, he struggled against indifferentism and empty formalism. His theories conflicted with the orthodox views of Henry Boel and others, who challenged Frelinghuysen’s religious emotionalism and unauthorized practices. As one of the fearless missionaries of the first Great Awakening in America, Frelinghuysen stressed tangible religious experiences. He trained young men for the clergy, often ordaining them without permission. His evangelical fervor and autonomous actions helped to instill an element of local independence for Dutch churches in North America’s middle colonies.

Frelinghuysen married Eva Terhune of Flatbush, Long Island, and fathered seven children. He died in Somerset County. Tanis, James R. Dutch Calvinistic Pietism in the Middle Colonies: A Study in the Life and Theology of Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, .

See also Dutch Reformed Church

Leonard Schlup

Frelinghuysen.

.-square-mile township in Warren County. Frelinghuysen was named for Theodore Frelinghuysen, U.S. senator and running mate of defeated presidential candidate Henry Clay. Villages include Marksboro, Johnsonburg, Shilo, and Kerrs Corner. In  Frelinghuysen was set off from Hardwick Township. The first settlers were German, Scots-Irish, and English. Johnsonburg, one of the oldest settlements in northwest New Jersey, is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. Originally called Log Gaol (Log Jail), it was the county seat of Sussex (–), before the inception of Warren County. The township is one of the county’s most sparsely settled areas and relies on its historic atmosphere to attract visitors and new residents, most of whom are employed elsewhere. The first Yellow Frame Presbyterian Church once stood in two counties; the pulpit in Sussex County and the congregation in Warren. The  census population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

French. Individuals of French extraction have been a significant presence in New Jersey since the seventeenth century. However, in comparison with other ethnic groups with European roots, their numbers were few, as evidenced by the lack of French-inspired names of places and landmarks. The first wave of French immigration came under the flag of Holland during the mids. A small number of expatriates and Walloons (Belgians often mistaken for French owing to similarity in language and general geographic origin) joined Dutch merchants to help build the New Netherland colony. These refugees, Protestants known as Huguenots, were renowned as skilled craftsmen, especially for their salt-making expertise. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in  (which had safeguarded religious freedom in France) persuaded many of France’s remaining Huguenots to pursue their brand of Calvinistic Christianity in Protestant-centered European countries and in the New World.

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By the s, French Huguenot surnames appear in the population rolls of Monmouth County, chiefly around Middletown, but a sizable number of Huguenots eventually settled in Salem County, West Jersey. These pioneers were accepted by the established Presbyterian and Quaker majority, and descendants of Huguenots from this region largely became assimilated through ties of marriage, religious conversion, and social circumstance. The French presence in New Jersey also included members of the Catholic faith, but these immigrants encountered religious discrimination in English-dominated North America. Among the first documented French Catholics in New Jersey was Robert Vanquellen La Prarire, a resident of Woodbridge who served as a surveyor-general in Middlesex County from  to . Other pockets of French influence established during the eighteenth century included crafters in Mount Holly, servants in Cape May, and farmers around Princeton, Cedar Grove, and Cherry Valley. France allied itself with American Patriots during the Revolutionary War. French naval forces landed at Sandy Hook in , and in  the French army and navy helped the Continental Army to achieve the decisive victory of the war at Yorktown, Virginia. Another influx of French refugees came to the United States after France itself endured revolution in the late s. The last significant swell of early French immigration to New Jersey came during the s, when settlers from the French colonies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo escaped turmoil to establish homesteads in Elizabethtown, Bottle Hill (Madison), Paterson, and elsewhere. Other social and economic circumstances precipitated immigration from France to the United States throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Assimilation has marked the French experience in New Jersey, but various athletic, cultural, social, and surviving surname memorials of this land have endured. Koehler, Albert F. The Huguenots or Early French in New Jersey. Bloomfield: Huguenot Society of New Jersey, .

See also ethnicity

Alan Delozier

French and Indian War.

Although looked upon in Europe as a side issue to the Seven Years’ War (–), to the American colonists, attacks from the French and their Indian allies were an immediate threat, especially on the northern and western frontiers. New Jersey reluctantly joined the war effort. Gen. Edward Braddock’s defeat in July  in neighboring Pennsylvania and Indian raids in northwestern New Jersey (Sussex County) prompted the colony to greater action. From summer  through , the legislature voted to raise troops (the New Jersey

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Frenchtown

Regiment or “Jersey Blues’’), eventually numbering one thousand men, for service on the New York frontier. Colonels Peter Schuyler and John Johnston alternately commanded the regiment. Misfortune faced the Jersey Blues in early engagements. On August , ,  of the Blues and Colonel Schuyler were captured at Oswego. On July , , an entire detachment of New Jersey troops was killed or captured at Sabbath Day Point, on Lake George. And on August , , at nearby Fort William Henry,  New Jerseyans were among those who surrendered; some of these captives were massacred by the Indians as they marched toward Fort Edward. At the disastrous BritishAmerican assault on Fort Ticonderoga on July , , the Blues, held in the rear, suffered only light casualties. From  to  New Jersey troops were stationed at Oswego or at the forts abandoned by the French on Lake Champlain. The Blues accompanied Gen. Jeffrey Amherst’s army, which took Montreal on September , . For protection against Indians at its own borders, New Jersey established a chain of forts in the northwestern part of the colony, each garrisoned by between  and  men. By , after the Delaware Indians switched allegiance to the British, and the Minisink and Waping Indians sold their land claims in New Jersey, the forts were no longer needed. The colony also furnished army supplies for the war effort and constructed barracks at Trenton, Burlington, New Brunswick, Perth Amboy, and Elizabethtown. To pay for its wartime obligations, the colony issued a total of £, in paper money. Fisher, Edgar J. New Jersey as a Royal Province,  to . . Reprint. New York: AMS Press, . Gilman, C. Malcolm. The Story of the Jersey Blues. Red Bank: Arlington Laboratory for Clinical and Historical Research, .

See also colonial wars

Harry M. Ward

Frenchtown.

.-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. According to a  map, the first European settlement at this locality was called Sunbeam. By  the hamlet located at the juncture of the Delaware River and Nishisackawick Creek was known as Alexandria and contained several mills. In the late s Swiss-born, French-speaking Paul Henri Mallet-Prevost purchased the tract. The settlement that developed around his holdings became known as Frenchtown. Originally part of Alexandria and Kingwood townships, Frenchtown was incorporated as a borough in  and functioned as an agricultural center for surrounding farms. Local industry was based primarily on timber, which provided raw material for sawmills and the manufacture of wood-related products. As area forests were depleted in the early twentieth century, hatcheries and a porcelain manufacturer replaced wood-dependent jobs. The town also

functioned as a transportation hub, beginning with ferry service in the eighteenth century. The first Frenchtown bridge across the Delaware was completed in . Rail service to Trenton was instituted in . After a long decline, Frenchtown’s function as an agricultural center ended when rail service was terminated in . Now this attractive river town draws tourists and provides goods and services for suburbanites who live in the area. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fargo, Clarence B. History of Frenchtown. New York: Clarence B. Fargo, . Schmidt, Hubert. Rural Hunterdon. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Mary Anne Adams

Freneau, Philip

(b. Jan. , ; d. Dec. ,

). Poet, editor, and mariner. Philip Freneau

was the son of Pierre Fresneau (the s was later dropped) and Agnes Watson, daughter of an old New Jersey family. When Freneau was a boy, the family moved from New York to Mount Pleasant (Matawan). Educated privately and at a grammar school in Manalapan, he entered the College of New Jersey (Princeton University) at the age of sixteen. There he met James Madison and Hugh Henry Brackenridge, who were highly influential. It was at Princeton that Freneau’s gifts as a writer began to emerge. A poem he cowrote with Brackenridge, “The Rising Glory of America,’’ was read at their commencement in . Required to help support the family after his father’s death, Freneau tried teaching for several years after graduation, with little satisfaction. In  he published a collection of poems, The American Village. By  he had made his way to New York City, amid growing tensions between England and the colonies. His poems about the crisis, both satirical (“General Gage’s Soliloquy’’) and patriotic (“American Liberty’’), as well as his political essays, won him the nickname “Poet of the Revolution.’’ In early  Freneau headed for the West Indies after a bitter exchange with critics, taking a position with a prominent planter in Santa Cruz. The island’s exotic scenery led him to produce some of his best poems, including “The Beauties of Santa Cruz.’’ Freneau was captured by the British en route back to America in . Released shortly afterward, he joined the New Jersey militia and served on blockade runners, but was captured again in . The harsh conditions aboard the prison ship Scorpion, where he was held for six weeks, left Freneau a virtual skeleton and led him to write “The British Prison-Ship.’’

For the rest of his life Freneau alternated between periods as an editor with a variety of newspapers, and as a mariner. After a period of recuperation from his imprisonment, in  he joined the staff of the Freeman’s Journal, a Philadelphia paper in which many of his poems and essays appeared. However, the financial problems that would plague him throughout his adult life led to Freneau’s decision to return to the sea in . It was during this period that he produced some of his most highly regarded poems, including “The Hurricane,’’ which is notable for its use of symbolism and philosophical ambiguity. Freneau returned to New Jersey to marry Eleanor Forman of Freehold in , and to become editor of the New York Daily Advertiser. At the request of Thomas Jefferson, Freneau moved to Philadelphia in  to oversee publication of the politically influential National Gazette, leaving his family at Mount Pleasant. When the paper failed in , he returned to New Jersey to start the Jersey Chronicle, which failed in . He spent – as editor of the Timepiece and Literary Companion. Financial difficulties, as well as marital discord, forced his return to the merchant marine between  and . During these years he continued to write poetry and revise earlier pieces, publishing such collections as The Miscellaneous Works of Mr. Philip Freneau (), Poems Written and Published During the Revolutionary War (), and A Collection of Poems, on American Affairs (). The final years of his life were spent with his family on the farm in Monmouth, always on the verge of poverty. Freneau was eighty years old when he died in a blizzard in . ANB. Axelrad, Jacob. Philip Freneau: Champion of Democracy. Austin: University of Texas Press, . Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Leary, Lewis. That Rascal Freneau: A Study in Literary Failure. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution; literature

Mary McAleer Balkun

Frerichs, William C. A.

(b. Mar. ,

; d. Mar. , ). Painter. Born in Ghent,

Belgium, William Frerichs came to New York City in  after a varied career in Europe. He specialized in portraits and pristine landscapes. Little is known of his earliest years in the United States. At some point before the Civil War he married Clara Butler and taught at Greensboro College in North Carolina. In  he moved to Newark and after the death of his first wife married E. Walen. In Newark he began a successful art school, and his landscapes often graced the front windows of shops on Broad Street. He was popular with the Newark press and was usually referred to as “the Professor.’’ He died at the home of his son in

Fulper Pottery Company Tottenville, New York. Many of his paintings are held by the Newark Museum. See also art

Robert C. Nelson

Friends, Society of.

See Quakers.

Fuld, Caroline Bamberger Frank (b. Mar. , ; d. July , ). Philanthropist

and businesswoman. Caroline Bamberger and her brother, Louis, who worked together in the dry goods business, moved from Baltimore to Philadelphia in . In , her brother, her first husband, Louis Meyer Frank, and Felix Fuld became business partners, and bought out the bankrupt firm of Hill and Craig in Newark. After selling the stock, they organized the firm of L. Bamberger and Company, and opened a department store at the corner of Market and Halsey streets in Newark on February , . Caroline Frank and the three men worked together in the store to make it prosper, developing new advertising methods. Frank was widowed in ; three years later she married her brother’s other business partner, Felix Fuld. By that time, the firm was in a new building and employed , people. The business soon became one of the largest mercantile companies in the United States, with annual sales of $ million by . After the death of her second husband in , Fuld lived with her brother. She and Louis sold L. Bamberger and Company to R. H. Macy in June , several months before the stock market crash. In , Caroline Fuld and Louis Bamberger endowed the Institute for Advanced Study, to be located in Princeton, on the condition that Dr. Abraham Flexner undertake its organization. They contributed approximately $ million for the Institute’s development. Bamberger became president and Fuld vice president until the Institute was formally established in , when they became life trustees. The Institute for Advanced Study, the first of its kind in the United States, was dedicated to “the pursuit of advanced learning and exploration in fields of pure science and high scholarship to the utmost degree that the facilities of the institution and the ability of the faculty and students will permit.’’ It attracted scholars from all over the world. From its earliest years, the Institute was internationally recognized as one of the world’s leading centers for research, and the presence of Albert Einstein and Oswald Veblen was a factor that attracted others. Caroline Fuld maintained her commitment to service. In  she was elected director of the National Council of Jewish Women, where her special interests were vocational guidance and employment programs. She was also active on the Child Welfare Committee of America. Fuld gave generously of her fortune throughout her life, but in keeping with

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Jewish tradition, sought to make her donations anonymously. When she died, Fuld left a large portion of her fortune to the Institute for Advanced Study and to public health, welfare, and cultural institutions in Newark. Flexner, Abraham. I Remember. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Institute for Advanced Study

Constance B. Schuyler

full-service gas stations.

In , a gas station in Hackensack lured customers away from rival stations when it offered gasoline at a discount to motorists who pumped the gas themselves. Lobbying by the New Jersey Gasoline Retailers Association led to the passage of a law that year banning self-service at gas stations in New Jersey. That ban has remained in force ever since, making New Jersey one of only two states in the nation (Oregon is the other) to prohibit self-service. Repeated attempts since  to repeal the ban have failed. Opponents of self-service argue that, if it were introduced to New Jersey, it would severely inconvenience senior citizens and the disabled, create a safety hazard, cause gasoline prices to rise, result in layoffs, and jeopardize the survival of independently owned service stations. These opponents of self-service point to the fact that gasoline prices in New Jersey are below the national average. Those who want to eliminate the ban argue that New Jersey’s low gas prices are due to low gas taxes, and that even if self-service were introduced, full-service pumps would remain an option for those who preferred them. A poll of motorists in  found public support for the ban, and the legislature continues to back it. There seems to be little chance that self-serve gas pumps will appear in New Jersey any time soon.

Peter Genovese

Fulper Pottery Company. The Flemington and Trenton potteries survived for many years by changing their product line from utilitarian stoneware to art pottery to tableware. In , Abram Fulper bought Samuel Hill’s Flemington pottery, where Fulper had been making stoneware and redware for Hill. Hill’s pottery had been operating since about , and in later years the Fulper family often used this as the starting date of their pottery as well. Following Abram’s death in , his sons Charles, William, George, and Edward took over management of the operation; however, the Fulper Pottery Company was not officially incorporated until . J. Martin Stangl, a German glaze chemist, began working for the pottery in . In , the Fulper Pottery opened a second factory in Trenton in the old Anchor Pottery, principally for the manufacture of tableware. Stangl bought the company in  and closed the

Fulper Pottery Company trade catalog.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

original factory in Flemington in , officially changing the company name to Stangl Pottery at that time. The pottery’s earliest wares were stoneware crocks and jugs having a salt glaze on the outside and dark-brown slip coating on the inside. Cobalt blue decoration was sometimes added to the surface and wares were marked with the company name and the size in gallons. By , the use of heavy stoneware vessels was passing from favor. Lighter materials, such as glass, were helping homemakers perform many of the same household tasks as stoneware had. The company decided to change its product focus, and in  introduced the VaseKraft (also Vase-Kraft) line of art pottery. For this line, a series of art glazes was applied over the traditional stoneware body. This body was fashioned into a variety of ornamental shapes, including vases, lamp bases, jardinieres, bowls, bookends, tobacco jars, candleholders, and the like. Many of the shapes were based on classical Asian and European forms that the Fulpers had seen in art museums in New York and Philadelphia, but had simplified to accommodate the thick glazes and heavy clay bodies. The glazes were given evocative names for marketing purposes, such as “Elephant’s Breath,’’ a luminous black, or “Alice Blue,’’ from the popular song about Theodore Roosevelt’s daughter. Stangl developed significant glazes for this art line after he joined the company, including a

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furniture making

´ wide range of crystalline, matte, and flambe glazes. The company’s display won an award at the  Panama-Pacific Exhibition in San Francisco. Stangl managed the operation with increasing autonomy in the s and began development of a tableware line made in red earthenware and decorated with brightly colored glazes. The Trenton factory was opened in  in order to accommodate production of this new line, while the art pottery with stoneware body continued to be made in Flemington, so that the radically different bodies and glazes would not contaminate each other in the same factory. In , the daughters of William Fulper III revived the company’s many signature glazes into a line of art tiles, called Fulper Glazes, which the original firm did not make in quantity. See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker Wainscot armchair made by Robert Rhea, Freehold, .

furniture making.

Religious discrimination against his Quaker beliefs banished Robert Rhea from his native Scotland in the early s, and he came to America and settled near Freehold in Monmouth County. He farmed his several-hundred-acre tract of land, and with carpenter-joiner skills learned in Scotland, he also made furniture. A wainscot armchair inscribed in its carved back panel with the initials of Robert Rhea and Janet Hampton Rhea (his wife) and dated  bears testimony to his ability. While Rhea’s chair may be the earliest documented piece of New Jersey furniture, there were other craftsmen working in the province by the time he arrived. In the rural environment of the colonial period, in order to produce enough income to support their families, craftsmen generally alternated their trades with other income-producing activities, fitting them into the seasonal rhythms of farming or fishing, or combining them with occupations such as shopkeeper, surveyor, undertaker, or justice of the peace. New Jersey remained largely rural throughout the eighteenth century, supplying food and raw materials, including quantities of wood, to the nearby urban centers, Philadelphia and New York. Only a few towns in the province grew to a size that could support more than one furniture maker: New Brunswick, Elizabeth, and Newark in East Jersey, and Mount Holly, Burlington, and Salem in West Jersey; and by the end of the century Trenton, as the seat of government, attracted many craftsmen to its environs. Rural craftsmen worked in much the same way urban craftsmen did, usually in smaller shops, employing fewer hands and managing with fewer tools, but using the same basic knowledge. A furniture maker had to know the techniques of joining, turning, carving, and finishing, or he had to hire a person trained

Courtesy Monmouth County Historical Association, Freehold. Gift of Mrs. J. Amory Haskell, 1941. in the skills he lacked. Training was acquired through an apprenticeship system, traditionally a seven-year period spent in the shop of a master craftsman, perhaps working alongside a journeyman who had completed his apprenticeship but had not attained enough wealth to establish his own shop. In more rural areas an apprenticeship might be as short as three or four years. Often family members were the only help in smaller shops; larger shops might employ several journeymen and apprentices. The tools in a furniture maker’s shop would vary, depending on his ability as a craftsman, the demands of his market, and his wealth. He would need implements for splitting, sawing, planing, turning, joining, and carving wood. Tools were a costly investment, so they would be well cared for and commonly were handed down from one generation to the next. The forests of New Jersey provided plenty of raw material for making furniture. Oak, cedar, pine, and walnut in early furniture, and by the mid-eighteenth century, maple, cherry, and sweet gum were used as primary woods, the visible structural wood with finished surfaces; with pine, ash, cedar, and poplar used as secondary woods for drawer interiors, shelving, backing, and bracing. Although mahogany became available early in the eighteenth century through the West Indies trade, a preference for native walnut persisted in Quaker-dominated southwest New Jersey late into the century. Among the wide range of furniture forms the colonial craftsman was capable of producing, evidence provided by extant examples as well as inventories indicates that dressing tables, chests, high chests, chest-on-chests, linen presses, tea tables, card tables, dining tables, sideboards, candlestands, tall-clock

cases, desks, armchairs, side chairs, stools, and settees were made and used in New Jersey. Different techniques used in the construction of two chest-on-chests, one by Richardson Gray, working in Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth),  to , the other by Mahlon Thomas in Mount Holly, also at the turn of the century, are of interest. Gray used cherry wood for his chest; Thomas used walnut. Both pieces have ten drawers, three small over seven wide, and ogee bracket feet. Thomas embellished his with fluted quarter columns; Gray did not, reflecting the different tastes (or pocketbooks) of their customers. The waist molding is attached to the top section of the Mount Holly chest, which fits together by sliding the top across two horizontal tracks from the front. In more traditional fashion, the waist molding on the Elizabethtown chest is part of the bottom section and the top fits down inside it, making this chest slightly more awkward to assemble. Imprinted paper labels in two drawers identify Gray’s work. Thomas’s handwritten inscription is more informative: “Bottom/Made th Nov ’’ and, on the top, “Made by Mahlon Thomas in Mount Holly Jany th ’’—confirming that furniture styles continued in popularity long after the traditionally quoted end dates when they would have been surpassed by newer fashions in more cosmopolitan centers. Matthew Egerton is one of the most recognized names in the history of New Jersey furniture makers. Three generations of the family worked in New Brunswick over a period of nearly a century, but Matthew Jr., the middle generation, active from the s to the s, is the best known. His work was considered so important in the early years of the twentieth century (much of it believed then to be by Matthew Sr.) that nefarious antiques dealers are known to have applied faked, newly printed Egerton labels to furniture by unknown makers and to have transferred original labels from lesser pieces to finer ones. The Egertons made inlaid furniture in the fashion of the federal period, but Matthew Egerton, Jr., was catering to vernacular tastes introduced by seventeenth-century Dutch settlers in the Hudson Valley when he made a kast in the s. Another furniture form unique to the Bergen County area is the Hackensack cupboard, with glazed doors above, paneled doors below, and diagonal reeding applied liberally to the surface. Chip-carved spoonracks and rush-seat, turned chairs with solid vaseshaped splats, saddle-shaped crestrails, and vase-turned legs ending in pad feet also are typical of the Hudson Valley area. Most remarkable for the longevity of their business and the quantity of work they produced and inspired is the Ware family of South Jersey. Four generations spanning three centuries, the s to s, made rush-bottom, slat-back, turned chairs. Characteristic of early Ware chairs are accentuated bulbous turnings on the front stretcher, ball front feet, and

furniture making pointed ball finials on the stiles supporting the graduated (often five) arched slats. A simpler form of rush-seat, three-slat, turned chair was made in central New Jersey in the nineteenth century. These low-back chairs have stiles, flattened on the front with a drawknife, ending about two inches above the top slat, rounded leg tops, simple stretchers, and stenciled or free-hand decoration, usually flowers or fruits, applied to the slats, stiles, and legs, and seats often painted yellow. Changes in social structure and business practices that began in the early years of the new republic continued at an accelerated pace in the nineteenth century as new transportation systems and new technology moved the nation toward full-blown industrialization. Partnerships were formed to meet the demands of expanding markets, and to stay competitive in a growing industry, production methods shifted toward specialization. The range of skills of a master craftsman were no longer in demand, resulting in the decline of his social status. Jobbers supplied parts, such as seats, arms, or legs for chairs, which semiskilled, low-wage workers assembled and finished at the factory. Local retail business shrank as wholesale orders for more distant markets increased, requiring construction of big warehouses that changed the landscape forever. Cabinetmaker John Jelliff worked in Newark, with various partners and numerous employees, from  to . Jelliff and Company produced furniture of the highest quality in all the Victorian revival styles for every

room in the house, from entrance hall to bedchamber, and for church, bank, lodge, and office, all by hand. All their work was done under one roof, moving the business toward modern industrial practices. Jelliff, however, was one of the last manufacturers to offer a complete line of furniture in New Jersey. This was because shops with man-powered machinery still outnumbered steam-powered factories in New Jersey into the s, while midwestern furniture manufacturers moved toward fully mechanized operations much earlier. Fancy chair factories such as David Alling’s in Newark, T. R. Cooper’s in Schraalenburgh, Collignon Brothers in River Vale, and Gardner Brothers in Glen Gardner were prolific in the nineteenth century. From warehouses in New Jersey, New York, and Philadelphia, they shipped portable seating furniture throughout the United States and to South America and the West Indies. Advertisements boasted of patents such as those issued to the Collignons for their folding chairs, popular on steamships, and to the Gardners for perforated plywood, practical for railroad waiting rooms. Few of these businesses survived to the end of the century in New Jersey; they either closed or moved away. The eclectic excesses of the Victorian period and the dehumanization of factory workers in the late nineteenth century led to a desire for reform. Ideals that John Ruskin and William Morris had advanced in England as part of the Arts and Crafts movement found a receptive audience in this country. Gustav Stickley, a leader of the movement in

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America, promoted the ideals of simplicity, individuality, and dignity of labor. He began as a chairmaker in rural Pennsylvania and ultimately designed not only complete household furnishings but the houses themselves, at middle-class prices, without abandoning his goal of financial success. In  he built Craftsman Farms at Morris Plains. It never materialized as the utopian community he envisioned, but for five years Stickley made his home at the log house which today is a National Historic Landmark. Colonial Revival, a component of the Arts and Crafts movement and related to a national historical consciousness inspired by the nation’s  centennial celebration, reached its zenith in the s under the leadership of New England entrepreneur Wallace Nutting, a former minister, who made honest reproductions of colonial furniture (not fakes with built-in stress marks). Responding to market demands created by this revival, Samuel Brown and Harry Phares developed a successful business reproducing Queen Anne and Chippendale furniture, which they operated from  to  at Mount Holly. Today craftspersons working at Peters Valley and elsewhere in the state continue to uphold the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement using traditional woodworking techniques to create their own masterpieces. MacDonald, William H. Central New Jersey Chairmaking of the Nineteenth Century. N.p., . White, Margaret E. Early Furniture Made in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, .

Suzanne Corlette Crilley

G

 its population was ,. The  census recorded it as being ,. Of these,  percent was white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . MacMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gage, Margaret Kemble

(b. ; d.

Feb. , ).

Wife of a British general. Margaret Kemble was born in Piscataway, daughter of wealthy merchant Peter Kemble and Gertruyd (Bayard) Kemble. Her grandmother came from an aristocratic Greek family, the Mavrocordatos. Margaret, a woman of intelligence, charm, and beauty, was well known among the socially elite. She married British general Thomas Gage in Morristown on December , . Gage, Gen. George Washington’s chief nemesis, became the most important British general in America during the Revolution. Many believed that Margaret spied for the Americans during the battle of Lexington and Concord, providing them with military secrets to help protect them from British attack, though this has never been verified. However, Margaret departed for England in August of  at the request of the British government. Her image is preserved in a famous portrait by John Singleton Copley, who considered it his best portrait of a woman. Pingeon, Frances D. “Margaret Kemble.’’ The County Circular: Morris County Heritage Commission. , no.  (Spring ): , .

See also Revolutionary War

David Mitros

Galloway.

.-square-mile township in Atlantic County. On April , , Galloway Township was formed from Great Egg Harbor. Absecon was originally part of the township but separated from it in . Tradition has it that the phrase “political fence’’ was invented here. When the township was incorporated in , the Smith Hotel served as the polling place. Election Day was a time not only for voting but also for a town picnic. At the picnic, disputes among rival factions could erupt into violence. Consequently, town officials erected a fence in the middle of the hotel’s yard and each party’s members stayed on its side. For years, just before Election Day, the constable would get out his fence-building tools and proclaim, “It’s about time to mend our political fence.’’ In more modern times, the exclusive Seaview Country Club, with its famous golf course, became prominent in the township. Now nearly a century old, Seaview still has a year-round golf course but is a luxury resort run by the Marriott Corporation. With the arrival of casinos in Atlantic City, Galloway’s population grew more than that of any other community in the area. In

298

Shaw, H. Leslie, ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Neptune: Towndata.com Network, .

Jerome E. Klein

Gallup, George Horace

an overhaul of Gallup’s polling procedures and negatively impacted his business, but the company survived. Although he was not the first to conduct polls, Gallup’s originality and strength were in his ability to formulate appropriate questions. Because of his background in journalism, he was a very effective spokesperson for his profession. ANB. Gallup, George, and Saul Forbes Rae. The Pulse of Democracy: The Public-Opinion Poll and How It Works. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

(b. Nov. ,

E. Richard McKinstry

; d. July , ).

Journalist and public opinion pollster. George Gallup was born in Jefferson, Iowa. He began the newspaper at his high school and edited his college paper at State University of Iowa (now the University of Iowa). After receiving his B.A., Gallup joined the faculty of the university’s journalism school; subsequently he received a master’s degree and, in , a Ph.D. in applied psychology. Gallup married Ophelia Smith Miller in ; they had three children. (His son George followed his father into the Gallup organization.) Gallup left teaching in  and joined Young and Rubicam, a New York City advertising firm. He remained there for fifteen years, all the while nurturing his own fledgling public opinion polling business. To Gallup, polling was at first merely a new tool for advertisers. In , Gallup established the American Institute of Public Opinion in Princeton. One year later his company gained credence when it predicted President Franklin Roosevelt’s reelection. In , however, Gallup erred in forecasting that Thomas E. Dewey would defeat Harry Truman for president. This led to

George Gallup on the cover of Time magazine, .

Courtesy TimePix.

gambling.

Illegal gambling in New Jersey has a long subterranean history that includes bookmaking, numbers running, and back room slot machines, often controlled by organized crime. Officially, there have been many sanctions against gambling. The  state constitution specifically prohibited lotteries, which in the colonial era had been a principal funding source for educational and religious institutions. In  the voters, responding to the legislature’s efforts to loosen restrictions, adopted a constitutional amendment prohibiting “gambling of any kind’’ in the state. Following the modification of the anti-gambling ban by a constitutional amendment in , in  the legislature passed the Racing Act, which made pari-mutuel horse racing the only legal gambling in New Jersey. The  constitution permitted the voters to authorize, by referendum, statutes detailing specific forms of gambling and the controls that would govern them. The constitution also preserved the policy of the  Racing Act, this form of gambling having already been approved by the  referendum. After  the voters used their new power to approve several amendments to the Racing Act, permitting night racing (), simulcasting (when a race is simultaneously, visually broadcast in a casino) (, after a court decision invalidated a statute adopted by the legislature without a referendum), and Sunday racing (, after the electorate had rejected a similar proposal in ). The voters also approved a  statute permitting boardwalk amusement games, which a  court decision had ruled illegal without voter approval. A statute enacted by referendum cannot later be amended in any material fashion without voter approval. Accordingly, except for the Racing Act amendments and the  statute permitting amusement games, the legislature has expanded gambling since  only by submitting to the voters proposed constitutional amendments that would grant it authority to enact and, as needed, amend gambling laws. This process has been used to permit charitable organizations to hold bingo games and raffles with municipal voter approval ()

garbage

Resorts International was the first casino to open in Atlantic City on May , .

Courtesy Vicki Gold Levi. and to authorize the state lottery (), senior citizen bingo (), casinos in Atlantic City (), senior citizen raffles (), and simulcasting to casinos (). In addition, in  the voters amended the constitution to authorize horse racing explicitly. However, they rejected proposals for amendments to allow localities to establish casinos () and to permit jai alai (). They also defeated a  proposal that would have given constitutional status to amusement games, so that the voters still must approve any amendments to the  statute. As each form of gambling was approved, an agency was created to monitor and regulate that activity. The Racing Commission (), the Legalized Games of Chance Control Commission (), the Lottery Commission (), and the Casino Control Commission () all have independent responsibilities, funding, and powers. The costs of each regulatory agency are paid, in whole or in substantial part, by the regulated industry rather than by the taxpayers. Except for amusement games, which were intended to help tourism businesses in the Shore communities, the revenues generated by all forms of gambling since the  approval of racing have been dedicated to specific purposes. The , , and  amendments that authorized bingo and raffles specified that the proceeds would benefit charitable organizations and senior citizen groups. Lottery revenues were dedicated to “State institutions, State aid for education,’’ language that was modified by the voters in  to preclude any application of lottery funds for prison construction or programs. By the original  amendment and a

modification approved by the voters in , the state’s tax on casino revenues is reserved for “reductions in property taxes, rental, telephone, gas, electric, and municipal utilities charges of eligible senior citizens and disabled residents of the state, and for additional or expanded health services or benefits or transportation services or benefits to eligible senior citizens and disabled residents.’’ In the fiscal year ending June , , the state received approximately $ billion from lottery and casino revenues. In addition, it receives significant revenues from the income, sales, payroll, excise, and other taxes paid by the businesses and individuals engaged in gambling activities, and local governments receive substantial property tax revenues and licensing fees as well. Beyond providing an important foundation for the state’s strong tourism economy, gambling businesses also generate significant economic opportunities for other New Jersey firms. In , for example, Atlantic City’s casinos transacted $. billion in business, mainly the purchase of goods and services, with , companies located in the state’s twenty-one counties. As a result of the  creation of the Casino Reinvestment Development Authority, funds generated by Atlantic City’s casinos have been made available throughout the state for economic development projects, housing programs, infrastructure needs, and other investments. Since the adoption of the Constitution of , gambling has played a significant role in the state’s economy, both through direct revenues to state and local governments and, particularly with casinos, by creating jobs and

299

supporting other businesses. But gambling has not assumed the central role in the state’s economy or government that it has in Nevada. Each time the question of legalizing gambling has arisen, it has generated a significant public debate. The  racing amendment, the  recommendations of the New Jersey Constitutional Convention, the  proposal for a state lottery, the  and  versions of a casino authorization, and the unsuccessful  effort to approve jai alai all resulted in vigorous statewide campaigns in which the economic, political, moral, and religious issues related to gambling were hotly debated. Most observers believe that the voters approved the lottery and casino amendments largely because the revenues were committed to specific—and very popular—programs. With racing, bingo and raffles, amusement games, the lottery, and casinos, New Jersey has become one of the most gambling-tolerant states in the nation. Conventional funding sources, lending institutions, and public policy makers throughout the country have reexamined gambling thanks to the economic contribution of New Jersey’s legalized casinos and the visible success of the rigorous enforcement and monitoring standards provided in the  New Jersey Casino Control Act. This new receptivity to gambling by “Wall Street and Main Street’’ spurred efforts throughout the s and s to spread gambling nationally. Results include the creation of the riverboat gaming industry, mainly in the Midwest, and the  enactment by Congress of the National Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, which permits casinos on tribal reservations under certain circumstances. Williams, Robert F. The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Updated ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Steven P. Perskie

garbage. From the start of the colonial period, New Jersey homeowners and county and municipal government adopted the most expedient (and cheapest) methods to dispose of solid waste. Garbage was burned, buried, used as landfill and animal feed, composted, and dumped into waterways. Even after the miasmatic theory of disease identified solid waste as a health hazard, no steps were taken for the collection or disposal of garbage. A report issued in  by the Sanitary Commission of the New Jersey Medical Society lamented that there was an “almost total neglect of those measures best calculated to secure health and longevity.’’ By the s the problems created by the large influx of immigrants into already overcrowded cities changed public attitudes, and in  a state board of health was established. The board adopted regulations regarding solid waste, but there was little practical result. In , M. N. Baker, a civil engineer,

300

gardens, public

complained that the state’s solid waste policies were ineffective. After World War II an increased population that sought a higher standard of living created a larger solid waste stream. Regulated and unregulated landfills were opened wherever land was available. New Jersey became a dump for out-of-state solid wastes. Leachates (contaminating liquids) entered the potable water supply, and methane gases filled the atmosphere adjoining the landfills. Garbage continued to be used as feed for swine. When a new swine disease appeared in , a law was enacted requiring garbage to be boiled before it was used as feed, and as late as  more than , swine were being fattened on garbage in the state. Solid waste disposal remained a festering public health sore. In  the federal government established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and shortly thereafter New Jersey created a state agency, the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). In the early s the DEP issued a warning that the state faced a crisis due to the lack of space for the sanitary disposal of garbage. In spite of the need for additional space, more than forty thousand tons of out-of-state garbage was buried in New Jersey landfills in . In  a restrictive law closed state borders to out-of-state garbage, but in  the U.S. Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional. The same year, to reduce the amount of garbage going to landfills, the state enacted a mandatory Recycling Act, and also instituted a flowcontrol system to safeguard the investments of municipalities and private waste management companies. The flow-control rules were declared unconstitutional in . State laws could not prevent the flow of solid waste into the state, nor was there any way they could control the amount of solid waste generated within the state. In , . million tons of solid waste was generated, and it increased annually (except for  and ), up to . million tons in . In  New Jersey introduced a fifteen-year tax rebate policy to encourage recycling. There was a steady increase in the amount of solid waste that was recycled. In  and ,  percent of the solid waste was recycled; however, at the end of the rebate program the amount began to drop and stood at . percent in . The figures indicate that garbage remains a difficult problem for the state, one that has yet to be resolved. Galishoff, Stuart. Newark: The Nation’s Unhealthiest City, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also hazardous wastes; pollution; water

Sam Alewitz

gardens, public. The majority of New Jersey’s public gardens opened their doors between  and  and are associated with a historic house, monument, or landmark.

GARDENS 86,95 52,67 47 101 24,102

107

69

31

1,6,20,23,39,62,91,97,112 108

77

92 34

78 72

68

51

99 59

41,63 17 85 98

38

29,36 37,88

26,66,73,84 40

54 50

11

33

22,65

57

42,56,90

43,74,111

5 82

45

25

15 70,71

16,87,104

21,61 8

55,100 35 12,75 80 2,10 105 28,64

93

27 81

106 4,12,19,103 83

32

3

18,49 53

96

7

14

94

89

60

44

30

9

110

N

58

109 48 13,76

46

0

20 miles

79

More information: http://www.state.nj.us/smug/internet/css/outdoor

Only gardens open to the public are shown @Rutgers, The State University

There are four major trends in the origin of public gardens. The first are gardens that were formerly family estates that were bought by or donated to the state or municipality. The second are gardens saved by local residents who either pressured town officials to save the property or formed their own historical society to purchase and care for them. Third are gardens operated by garden clubs that work closely with historical associations and

townships to create and/or preserve gardens on historic sites. Lastly are gardens that were opened directly to the public or donated by philanthropists and individuals. Choroszewski, Walter. The Garden State in Bloom. Somerville: Aesthetic Press, . Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

Ellen Hostetter

gardens, public

301

Public Gardens in New Jersey Garden

Location

Description

1. Acorn Hall

Morristown

2. Alice Ransom Dreyfuss

Newark

A Victorian Italianate mansion (c.1853–1860) with a period garden, it is also headquarters of the Morris County Historical Society. Part of the Newark Museum, the grounds include century-old trees and sculpture

Memorial Garden 3. Allen House 4. Avis Campbell Gardens

Shrewsbury Montclair

5. Backyard Habitat Garden

Englewood

6. Bamboo Brook Outdoor

Morristown

At Flat Rock Brook Nature Center and created by the Englewood Garden Club, this four-acre garden contains a gazebo, native grasses, flowers, and various other plants. The grounds were designed by Martha B. Hutcheson, the second woman in America

Education Center 7. Barclay Farmstead 8. Belmont Hill Park Rose Garden

Cherry Hill Hackensack

to complete formal training in landscape architecture. This site reflects a typical South Jersey Quaker farm, including an herb garden. This hilltop rose garden offers more than sixty-five varieties of roses.

9. Boxwood Gardens

Alloway

from the 1960s and 1970s. Built by the Stillwell family around 1750, the grounds include a period herb garden. Established by the Garden Club of Montclair, the design of the gardens is called the “Wheel of Life’’ and features planting beds radiating from a central fountain.

These gardens contain original boxwood plantings and surround two nineteenth-century homes. This park contains the largest display of Japanese cherry trees in the United States. Created as an educational tool for the Girl Scouts of the Delaware-Raritan Girl Scout Council, it was opened to the public in 1996.

10. Branch Brook Park 11. Bristol-Meyers Squibb Friendship Garden

Newark East Brunswick

12. Brookdale Park Rose Garden 13. Butterfly Garden at Cape May

Bloomfield and Montclair Cape May Point

Bird Observatory 14. Camden Children’s Garden

Camden

15. Cannonball Museum Garden

Scotch Plains

16. Colonial Park Arboretum

Franklin Township

17. Cora Hartshorn Arboretum and Bird Sanctuary

Short Hills

Created in 1923, the grounds include wildflower gardens, trails, and an educational center.

18. Covenhoven House

Freehold

19. Crane House Garden

Montclair

William A. Covenhoven built this Georgian-style house in 1752–1753. In 1778 British general Henry Clinton used it as his headquarters. This site contains two houses with herb, vegetable, annual, and perennial

20. Cross Estate Garden

Morristown

plantings. The landscape architect Clarence Fowler designed this English-style garden.

21. Davis Johnson Memorial Park

Tenafly

22. Deep Cut Horticultural

Middletown

Center 23. Delbarton

Morristown

24. Dey Mansion

Wayne

25. Dr. William Robinson Plantation Herb Garden

Clark

Dr. Robinson’s house dates from 1690. The grounds include a seventeenth-century herb garden focusing on medicinal herbs, planted in 1977.

26. Drumthwackett

Princeton

27. Duke Gardens

Somerville

Charles Smith Olden built the mansion in 1935. Today, it is New Jersey’s gubernatorial residence. The gardens reflect the earliest landscape plan. Eleven thematic gardens represent English, French, Italian, Chinese, Japanese, and

28. Durand-Hedden House and Garden 29. East Jersey Olde Towne Herb

Maplewood Piscataway

Garden 30. Edith Duff Gwinn Garden 31. Emilie K. Hammond Wildflower Trail

Barnegat Light Boonton

32. Erlanger Memorial Gardens

West Long Branch

This rose garden was planted in 1959 and today contains 1,200 roses. This garden was created with plants favored by butterflies and hummingbirds. Adjacent to the New Jersey State Aquarium and mainly created by Michael Devlin, the garden is based on themes from children’s literature, folk stories, geography, and regional history. The grounds include a kitchen garden, grape arbor, and an herb garden designed around an Indian mortar stone. This site contains the Rudolf W. van der Goot Rose Garden, and a Fragrance and Sensory Garden, as well as large specimen trees and shrubs.

The park contains the Van Vorst Azalea Collection, the Jack D. Lissemore Rose Garden, and the Iris Garden. This forty-acre site contains bulbs, heath, heather, vegetables, herbs, roses, and greenhouses. Delbarton was built in the Gilded Age by Luther Kountze. The grounds include an Italian garden with a pergola and statuary. The house was built in the 1740s by Dirck Dey. Today, the grounds contain a formal garden, herbs, vegetables, and a knot garden.

Indo-Persian landscapes, as well as semitropical, desert, and rain-forest environments. The garden was designed in 1958. The grounds include an eighteenth-century farmhouse and an extensive herb garden. The grounds include original and replica colonial structures and an herb garden featuring medicinal and culinary herbs from the colonial period. Started in 1962, these gardens contain a colorful display of shore plants. Part of Tourne Park, the grounds include a wide variety of plant life, including more than 250 different native wildflowers and shrubs. Part of Monmouth University, these gardens were designed to reflect Versailles and include a colonnade and formal terrace garden. (continued)

302

gardens, public

Public Gardens in New Jersey (continued) Garden

Location

Description

33. Ferry House Kitchen Garden

Washington Crossing

34. Florence and Robert Zuck

Madison

Located on the grounds of the Johnson Ferry House in Washington Crossing State Park, the gardens are a replica of an eighteenth-century Dutch kitchen garden. Part of Drew University, the grounds include nature trails and native plants, as well as

Arboretum 35. Force House

Livingston

36. Gail Shollar Memorial

Piscataway

Garden 37. Garden at Bucceleuch

New Brunswick

38. Garden for the Blind

Iselin

39. George Griswold Frelinghuysen Arboretum

Morristown

40. George Washington Memorial Arboretum 41. Glenmount

Titusville West Orange

42. Grounds for Sculpture

Hamilton

43. Hamilton Veterans Park

Trenton

44. Helen C. Branson Herb Garden 45. Henry Chatfield Memorial Garden

Haddonfield Roselle

a refuge for migrating birds. The gardens highlight different types of herbs— medicinal, scented, and culinary—as well as vegetables and seasonal plants. This garden is dedicated to Gail Shollar, who was murdered in 1992. Highlights are a fragrance garden for the blind, a handicapped-accessible playground, and herbs. Originally known as White House Farm in the mid-1700s, plantings at this site include lilacs and cherry trees that are over two hundred years old. Part of the Iselin Library, each plant in this garden appeals to the sense of touch, taste, or smell. The arboretum is separated into a North Tract and a South Tract. The South Tract displays a large variety of native and exotic plants in formal gardens and informal plantings. The North Tract contains an education and public demonstration area. Part of Washington Crossing Historic Park, the grounds include ornamental cherries, crab apples, and dogwoods. Located in Llewellyn Park, Glenmount was once Thomas Edison’s home. The thirteen-acre estate includes many exotic specimen trees, flower gardens, and a greenhouse. J. Seward Johnson, Jr., began to redesign the grounds in 1989. Today, they contain over one hundred pieces of sculpture set against a varied landscape. The park encompasses 330 acres and features formal gardens, wildflower fields, azaleas, rhododendrons, and woodland trails. Situated between Greenfield Hall and the historic Samuel Mickle House, the garden highlights herbs of the colonial period. Part of Warinanco Park, the garden provides color for most of the year. Displays include 14,000 tulips, 10,000 annuals, as well as azaleas, magnolias, and Japanese

46. Hereford Inlet Lighthouse Garden

North Wildwood

cherry trees. The gardens are designed to reflect cottage and Victorian gardens from the nineteenth century.

47. Hermitage Gardens 48. Historic Cold Spring Village

Ho-Ho-Kus Cold Spring

Occupied by the Rosencrantz family for 160 years, the grounds reflect the Victorian era. The site includes flower gardens, vegetable and herb gardens, as well as farm fields.

Gardens 49. Holmdel Arboretum

Freehold

The arboretum specializes in flowering crab apples, cherries, and plums. There are also hundreds of species and cultivars of ornamental trees and shrubs.

50. Holmes-Henderickson House

Holmdel

This restored eighteenth-century Dutch-style home includes a period kitchen and an herb garden.

51. Hunterdon County Park System Arboretum

Lebanon

Originally a commercial nursery, this arboretum is unique in that it has groves of single-specimen trees, including laurel, oak, gray birch, weeping cherry, and honey locust. The grounds also contain display gardens.

52. James A. McFaul Environmental Center 53. John Abbott II House

Wyckoff Yardville

54. Kearny Cottage Garden

Perth Amboy

The grounds consist of a nature trail, waterfowl pond, rhododendron garden, and a daffodil display. Part of the Hamilton Veterans Park, the farmhouse dates to c. 1730 and features an herb garden. The grounds contain a raised-bed herb and perennial garden featuring plants

55. Kingsland Manor Garden

Nutley

reflecting Commodore Lawrence Kearny’s world travels. This home was built in 1750 and was owned by Joseph Kingsland. The site contains a

56. Kuser Farm Mansion

Hamilton

57. Lambertus C. Bobbink Memorial Rose Garden 58. Leaming’s Run Botanical Gardens 59. Leonard J. Buck Garden

Lincroft Swainton Far Hills

60. Lewis W. Barton Arboretum and Nature Preserve

Medford

61. Lost Brook Preserve

Tenafly

colonial garden, as well as other small gardens. Built by Fred Kuser in 1892, this Queen Anne–style mansion includes a formal garden with flowering shrubs, perennials, and annuals. This site contains a formal rose garden and an All-American Selections display garden of more than fifteen hundred plants. The grounds encompass an annual garden that is divided into twenty-seven areas, each having a different theme. Created in 1930, highlights of this year-round rock garden are the collections of dogwoods, azaleas, rhododendrons, wildflowers, ferns, alpines, and rock-loving plants. Part of the Medford Leas Retirement Community, but open to the public, the grounds include courtyard gardens, wildflower meadows, and a collection of evergreens. Part of the Tenafly Nature Center, this 380-acre preserve contains six trails, an herb garden, perennial garden, and salvia garden. (continued)

gardens, public

303

Public Gardens in New Jersey (continued) Garden

Location

Description

62. Macculloch Hall

Morristown

63. Manor Gardens

West Orange

Owned by the Macculloch family for 139 years, the present-day gardens feature old-fashioned roses and a wisteria trellis from Japan. Part of a restaurant opened in 1956, the gardens include rose arbors, herbs, and

64. Maplewood Memorial Park

Maplewood

65. Marlpit Hall Gardens

Middletown

66. Marquand Park

Princeton

67. McFaul Gardens

Wyckoff

68. Merril Creek Reservoir Butterfly and

Washington

vegetable gardens, a gazebo, fountains, and a Starlight Garden. This park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, opened in 1928. Today, it contains hundreds of flowers and a greenhouse. The house was built in 1685 by James Grover and was part of the Taylor family from 1740 to 1936. The site contains an herb garden. Established in 1842, the gardens were designed by a world-renowned gardener named Petrey. The park contains eight of the largest trees of their species recorded in New Jersey. Part of the James A. McFaul Environmental Center and begun in 1968, the purpose of the gardens is educational. There are wildflower fields, an herb garden, dwarf conifer garden, a water garden, a rose garden, and a hummingbird and butterfly garden. The garden was opened in 1990 and features a butterfly and hummingbird garden.

Hummingbird Garden 69. Millbrook Village Garden

Millbrook

Part of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, the gardens contain representational crops of the nineteenth century such as fruit trees, vegetables, and tobacco.

70. Miller-Cory House Gardens

Westfield

The grounds consist of an herb garden with a well house, kitchen garden with colonial-era vegetables, woodland flowers and shrubs, flax and dye plants, and an orchard.

71. Mindowaskin Park

Westfield

72. Moggy Hollow National Landmark 73. Morven

Gladstone

The park was established in 1918. The grounds include gardens with a variety of flowers and shrubs, a gazebo, and a bird sanctuary. These grounds are interesting for their rock outcroppings and a quaking bog surrounded by concentric rings of plantings. Built in 1758, this house was the home of the Stockton family for nearly two centuries,

Princeton

and later became the gubernatorial mansion from 1954 to 1981. Colonial revival gardens are located in the back. The front landscape is reminiscent of the mid-1800s. 74. New Jersey State Capitol Complex Gardens

Trenton

The grounds include a series of formal plantings with thousands of tulips and cherry trees.

75. Oakeside-Bloomfield Cultural Center 76. Pavilion Circle Gardens

Bloomfield Cape May Point

The grounds include a rose and kitchen garden, designed by Vitale, Brinckerhoff, and Geiffert in the early 1900s, as well as a water and terrace garden dating from 1929. Started by Sally Sachs and her husband, this garden is run by volunteers. Highlights

77. Pequest Butterfly Garden

Pequest

include a butterfly bed, herb bed, and annual and perennial beds. All of the plants in this garden are meant to attract butterflies.

78. Phoenix House Garden

Mendham

79. Physick Estate

Cape May

80. Port Imperial Gardens

Weehawken

81. Prallsville Industrial Herb

Stockton

Garden

Landscape architect Martha B. Hutcheson designed the gardens in an early nineteenth-century style in 1938. Built in 1879 by Frank Furness, this estate reflects the Victorian period. The gardens have been restored to the 1880s with period plantings. Created in 1993 by Arthur Imperatore, president of the New York Waterway, the garden is meant to welcome people to the city. The highlights of the garden are ´e of trellised tropical vines. colored flowers and an alle This herb garden is one of only three of its kind in the nation. Located next to the Delaware and Raritan Canal, the site features herbs of industrial use from the colonial era to the present day.

82. Prentice-Hall Japanese Garden

Englewood Cliffs

Situated on the corporate campus of Prentice-Hall publishing company, the garden was created to commemorate Japanese-American relations. It includes stone lanterns, statuary, and a replica of a Japanese wooden bridge.

83. Presby Memorial Iris Gardens

Upper Montclair

84. Prospect Garden

Princeton

Established in 1927, the highlight of the grounds are 75,000 irises of more than six thousand varieties, including historic European rootstock from the 1500s. Once the residence of Princeton University presidents, this Florentine-style mansion was built in 1849. Ellen Wilson, the wife of Woodrow Wilson, designed the gardens in 1904.

85. Reeves-Reed Arboretum

Summit

86. Ringwood Manor

Ringwood

Calvert Vaux and Ellen Shipman, two renowned landscape architects, worked on these grounds. In the 1960s, the Reed family became the owners and added an herb garden and woodland trails. Built in 1740, the estate was used as Gen. George Washington’s headquarters during the Revolutionary War. The third owner of the estate created the gardens, borrowing from Versailles. (continued)

304

gardens, public

Public Gardens in New Jersey (continued) Garden

Location

Description

87. Rockingham Herb Garden

Franklin Township

Rockingham is the house where Gen. George Washington wrote his Farewell Address to his troops on November 7, 1783. In the 1960s, the gardens were created in a style reminiscent of an eighteenth-century herb garden.

88. Rutgers Display Gardens

New Brunswick

89. Sambol-Citta Arboretum

Toms River

Established in 1921, these gardens are home to the world’s largest collection of American hollies as well as a substantial collection of dogwoods. The grounds also include an evergreen garden and the Donald B. Lacey Annual Garden. This arboretum features trees and shrubs native to New Jersey, as well as a

90. Sayen Gardens

Hamilton

91. Schuyler-Hamilton House

Morristown

92. Shakespeare Garden

Convent Station

93. Shakespeare Garden

Plainfield

The house has a medicinal herb garden based on that of the original owner, Dr. Jabez Campfield. There is also a small annual garden. The garden has separate plots for more than twenty of Shakespeare’s plays and poems, displaying plants and flowers featured in each. Part of Cedarbrook Park, established in 1927, this garden features over forty plants

Lakewood

and flowers mentioned in Shakespeare’s works, arranged in seventeen geometrical beds. The garden was designed by the Olmsted Brothers, famous landscape architects. New York architect Bruce Price designed the gardens to resemble a lavish English

94. Sister Mary Grace Burns Arboretum

one-mile-long children’s nature trail featuring Pine Barrens plants. Fred Sayen purchased this land in 1912 to house his azalea and rhododendron collection. It was opened to the public in 1988 and contains approximately 2,000 azaleas and 1,500 rhododendrons.

country estate of the Georgian period. The gardens include the Classic Italian Garden, the Sunken Garden and Lagoon, and the Formal Garden. The Japanese Garden was added by Takeo Shiota.

95. Skylands Botanical Garden

Ringwood

Morristown

Established in 1924, this site includes formal terraced gardens, winter, rock, and annual gardens, as well as wildflowers and trails. Hezekiah B. Smith made changes to this 1840 Greek Revival mansion and created a boxwood garden and glass conservatory. Part of Morristown National Historic Park, this garden features eighteenth-century

96. Smithville Mansion Courtyard Gardens 97. Tempe Wicke House

Eastampton Township

98. Trailside Nature and Science

Mountainside

culinary, medicinal, and domestic herbs, as well as vegetables and fruit trees common during colonial times. The grounds feature nature trails, herbs, wildflowers, a butterfly garden, and a field

Center 99. Tunis-Ellicks Parlor Garden

New Vernon

crop display. Reminiscent of “parlor gardens’’ of the 1800s, this garden features 120 varieties of

100. United Nations Garden

Nutley

101. United Water Xeriscape

Haworth

Garden 102. Van Riper–Hopper House Garden

Wayne

103. Van Vleck House and Garden

Montclair

104. Van Wickle House Garden

Franklin Township

105. Wallbridge Rose Garden

Millburn

perennials, herbs, and shrubs as well as old-fashioned roses and cosmetic herbs. Part of Kingsland Park, created in 1961 by the Home Garden Club of Nutley and designed by Roy Blair, the garden’s plantings represent many countries in the United Nations. As part of the Haworth Water Treatment Plant, the purpose of these gardens is to display drought-tolerant plants that save water and maintenance time. The Van Ripers and Hoppers occupied these grounds for almost two centuries. Today, the grounds contain flower beds, shrubs, and a colonial herb garden. The homestead of the Van Vleck family for several generations, the grounds feature a collection of rhododendrons and azaleas, as well as a wisteria vine. The grounds encompass a nature trail, canal bridge, and the Reinmann Memorial Garden (a formal wedding garden). Part of Taylor Park, created in 1981, the gardens are centered on a gazebo, emanating outward in concentric rings. In addition to hundreds of roses, the gardens include Korean boxwood, azaleas, rhododendrons, sorrel, and holly.

106. Washington Spring Garden

Paramus

107. Waterloo Herb Garden

Stanhope

108. Well-Sweep Herb Farm

Port Murray

109. Wetlands Institute Garden

Stone Harbor

110. Wheaton Village Garden

Millville

111. William Trent House

Trenton

112. Willowwood Arboretum

Morristown

Part of Van Saun Park, the gardens were created in the 1960s and were designed around a spring that is the center of a George Washington legend. Colonial and Victorian plantings can be found throughout the site, as well as an herb garden designed by Cyrus Hyde. In 1967 Cyrus Hyde and his wife, Louise, purchased this property and began an herb garden and nursery that they still run. These formal gardens feature a variety of herbs as well as a traditional knot garden. This 6,000-acre site includes nature trails, an elevated boardwalk, and “Marion’s Garden,’’ a flower garden. Part of the Museum of American Glass and a courtyard in the museum itself, this garden was begun in 1973 and includes glass sculptures and a metal fountain. This site was the summer house of William Trent, planner of Trenton. This property was restored in 1938 and includes a quadrangle herb garden. Originally a farmland, this arboretum includes 3,500 different kinds of native and exotic plants and features 110 different willows.

Garden State Parkway

Garden State Arts Center.

See PNC

Bank Arts Center.

Garden State Fireworks Company. After apprenticing to Italian royalty, Augustine Santore took his pyrotechnic skills to North Bergen in . His descendants have been manufacturing fireworks and putting on fireworks displays—upward of two hundred shows a year—ever since. The business

moved to New Vernon, finally settling during the s in what is now Long Hill Township in Morris County. Honors include two Monte Carlo championships in the s, and a pair of victories at Spain’s San Sebastian competition in the s. Garden State has supplied fireworks for Disney, the  Statue of Liberty Centennial, and the closing ceremonies of the  Calgary Olympics.

Kevin Coughlin

GARDEN STATE PARKWAY

Garden State Park.

The original racetrack, located at Route  and Haddonfield Road in Cherry Hill, opened as a thoroughbred racetrack in  and operated until April , , when a fire destroyed the grandstand. The property then changed hands, and the track was rebuilt by International Thoroughbred Breeders, a publicly traded company. It reopened in  as the selfdescribed “racetrack of the twenty-first century’’ and later added harness racing to its schedule. At the end of the twentieth century the track was leased to a Pennsylvania group. With daily attendance dwindling to a few thousand patrons, the racetrack closed in May .

Guy Sterling

MONTVALE

Garden State Parkway.

PASCACK VALLEY BERGEN BROOKDALE ESSEX UNION VAUX HALL RARITAN CHEESEQUAKE

ASBURY

Toll Plaza Service Area

MONMOUTH

TOMS RIVER

FORKED RIVER BARNEGAT NEW GRETNA

ATLANTIC CITY

GREAT EGG

N

CAPE MAY OCEAN VIEW 0

20 miles @Rutgers, The State University

305

Recreational road and commuter route, the -mile-long Garden State Parkway extends the length of the state, from the New York State line to Cape May. Considered to be one of the best examples of its type in the nation, the parkway combines superhighway speeds with a wooded, scenic setting and became, in the s, a textbook example of a successful modern parkway. In addition to its original status as a pleasure drive, the parkway allowed more efficient access to the New Jersey shore and contributed to the unprecedented residential and commercial development in that region. In  the state highway department began construction in Union County on the Route  Parkway, as it was originally named; however, due to a lack of funds, only  miles were constructed by . As a remedy, the New Jersey legislature created the independent New Jersey Highway Authority (NJHA) in  to oversee completion of the parkway and its operation as a self-liquidating toll road. At that time, the firm of Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Hall, and MacDonald was employed as general engineering consultants, and Coverdale and Colpitts was employed to conduct traffic and revenue studies. Dozens of New Jersey engineering firms were hired as subcontractors. Harold W. Giffin of the state highway department designed the initial  miles of the parkway and became the project’s chief engineer after the NJHA was created. Opening ceremonies were held October , , and the original  miles of roadway were completed in May . In , a -mile extension connected the parkway with the New York State Thruway. Safety concerns and accommodation of high-speed traffic were the two main principles behind the parkway’s design. Many of the parkway’s features were considered revolutionary at the time of its construction. The limited-access roadway restricts traffic to specific interchanges equipped with acceleration and deceleration lanes. Cross-traffic is limited to overpasses and underpasses. Northbound and southbound traffic are separated

306

Garden State Preservation Trust

John J. Gardner.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Garden State Parkway Pascack Valley toll plaza.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

by center medians with swales to eliminate head-on collisions. Foliage forms a protective screen to shield drivers from the glare of oncoming headlights and to slow down wayward vehicles. The NJHA is credited with designing the singing shoulder (now known as rumble strips), which alerts drivers straying from the roadway. Grassy shoulders allow drivers to pull off the roadway in an emergency. Billboards and roadside establishments are prohibited. Higher speeds were anticipated with superelevated curves and minimization of steep grades. Gentle curves minimized the unsafe monotony drivers sometimes experience on straightaways. Driver comforts were also an integral part of the parkway’s design. Service areas with Colonial Revival–style buildings and wooded picnic areas were provided. Five service areas are situated in the center medians to serve all traffic—an innovative feature, as earlier service areas were located on northbound or southbound rightsof-way only and were either inundated during holiday rushes or idle during off-peak times. Installation of the E-ZPass electronic toll collection system began in , a year when approximately ,, vehicles traveled the parkway and participated in ,, toll transactions. New Jersey Highway Authority. The First Five Years of the Garden State Parkway, –. [Red Bank]: New Jersey Highway Authority, . Snow, W. Brewster, ed. The Highway and the Landscape. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also highways

Stacy E. Spies

Garden State Preservation Trust. Established in  to provide funding and oversight of state programs that preserve open space, farmland, and historic sites, the

trust’s goals are to preserve an additional million acres to protect water supplies, increase recreational opportunities, and safeguard irreplaceable natural and historic resources. Funding for this effort was secured in  when the voters overwhelmingly approved a constitutional amendment dedicating $ million of the state’s existing sales tax annually for thirty years. A nine-member bipartisan board governs the trust, consisting of five members appointed by the governor, two by the senate president, and two by the assembly speaker. The trust utilizes the funds provided by the constitutional dedication for state acquisitions, such as state parks, and to match county and local dollars for acquisitions and recreational developments. Additionally, nonprofit land trusts qualify for matching grants. Preserved farms can never be developed because their development rights are retired, but they continue to be farmed by private owners.

Maureen Ogden

Gardner, John James d. Feb. , ).

(b. Oct. , ;

Congressman and political leader. John James Gardner served in the Civil War in the Sixth New Jersey Volunteers and United States Volunteers. His military experience was followed by legal studies at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor from  to . Gardner married Mittie Scull on January , ; they had five children. He became an alderman in Atlantic City in , then served as mayor from  to  and in  and . He served in the New Jersey senate from  to , and was its president in . In  Gardner was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served ten consecutive terms. He made a reputation for involvement in postal issues and

what were then termed “labor problems.’’ He chaired the House Committee on Labor and served on the House Post Office Committee during his entire congressional career. He was also a member of the U.S. Industrial Commission. In , in a series of muckraking articles by journalist Lincoln Steffens, Gardner was pilloried as a symbol of procorporation political corruption. He lost his bid for an eleventh congressional term in , presumably as a result of division in the Republican ranks that year. In private life, Gardner was a successful farmer and was active in the real estate and insurance fields. Steffens, Lincoln. The Struggle for Self-Government. . Reprint. New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, .

Benjamin Beede

Garfield, James A. d. Sept. , ).

(b. Nov. , ;

State senator, lawyer, congressman, and president of the United States. The last president born in a log cabin (in Chagrin Falls, Ohio), at the time of his assassination James A. Garfield was the youngest president to die in office, and the first Chief Executive to lie in state in the Capitol Rotunda. After he was shot on July , , he lingered for eighty days. Unlike any previous president, his medical condition received nationwide press coverage, with daily bulletins offering extended descriptions concerning his symptoms and treatment. Unfortunately ignorant of the relationship between poor sanitation and infection, Garfield’s well-meaning physicians may have contributed as much to his death as did the bullets fired by Charles Guiteau. The hot weather in Washington during the summer of  did not help matters, and Garfield’s discomfort led to the first sort of air conditioning in the form of a fan blowing air over a box filled with ice. It may well have

Gasser, Henry Martin In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Goldberg, David J. A Tale of Three Cities: Labor Organization and Protest in Paterson, Passaic, and Lawrence, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Scott, William W. Passaic and Its Environs. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Van Valen, J. M. History of Bergen County, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Publishing, .

Maureen Dillon

Garretson Forge and Farm.

President James Garfield’s last days were spent at a seaside cottage in Elberon, .

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

lessened the temperature in the patient’s bedroom, but to no avail. Finally, the decision was made to move him to the New Jersey Shore, already known for its healthful climate. On September  he was taken to Elberon, where volunteers had labored to build a special set of tracks to a seaside cottage. Neither the first nor the last president to visit the Shore, he died after only two weeks. Doenecke, Justus D. The Presidencies of James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, .

Jonathan Lurie

Garfield.

.-square-mile city in Bergen County. Part of a ,-acre parcel purchased in  from the Hackensack clan of the Lenape tribe, Garfield was named for the assassinated U.S. president James Garfield in  and incorporated as a city on April , . In November , British troops camped for a week at the end of Toer’s (Outwater) Lane until they could ford the Passaic River in pursuit of George Washington’s army. By , the once-sleepy village boasted a gristmill, ships plying the river to and from Newark, and farms famous for their melons and peaches. An octagon house built in  to crown the high ground of the Belmont section still stands, wedged among smaller dwellings on Orchard Street. With the arrival of the railroad, the city grew into a place of mixed industry and modest residential neighborhoods anchored by ethnic churches. At one time it was home to five major textile and paper mills, and many residents were active in the  textile workers’ strike. Garfield now has about  enterprises, including recycler Garden State Paper.

This pre-Revolutionary site dates to the early eighteenth century. The land was purchased by Gerrit Garretson, Jr., in , and originally ran from the Passaic River to the Saddle River. This once extensive farm now consists of . acres along River Road in Fair Lawn. Peter Garretson built the original Dutch sandstone house in the early s and added the main section in . Additions and changes to the house in  include a gambrel roof, pillared porch, and a stairway to the basement. Garretson Forge and Farm is one of the oldest historic sites in Bergen County, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is a living history Dutch farm museum owned by Bergen County and maintained by volunteers of Garretson Forge and Farm Restoration, Inc. See also historic sites

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the borough consisted of seventy-five houses and four hundred people. Prior to its independence in the s, large tracts of land in what is now the borough were acquired by John Maxwell, president of the Central Railway of New Jersey. He formed the Garwood Land and Improvement Company, so named for the first president of the company, Samuel Garwood. The name Garwood was applied to the settlement to honor him and remained after its incorporation. The borough post office dates to ; the fire department was founded in , the police department in , and the volunteer first aid squad in . The Garwood Public Library, dating to , has a substantial collection and is a valuable resource for the community. Garwood became Union County’s central focus for industry: Hercules Tubeworks, Aeolia Organ, and Thatcher Furnace all housed their factories in Garwood in the early s, and the borough still supports retail and manufacturing activities. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Clayton, W. Woodford. History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Honeyman, A. Van Doran. History of Union County.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Melissa Drake Campbell

Margaret L. Shultz

Garvey, Marcus.

See Universal Negro Improvement Association.

Garvin, Mildred Barry (b. Nov. , ; d. June , ). Educator and state legislator. Born in Chicago, Mildred Barry Garvin attended DuSable High School, the University of Illinois, and William Paterson State College. Married to Ralph Garvin, Sr., and the mother of five children, she was a research specialist and director of field experience for the Graduate School of Public Administration at Rutgers– Newark from  to . Garvin served the th Assembly District in Essex County from  to . She also served as coordinating legislator for the National Black Caucus of State Legislators and the National Conference of State Legislators. The Mildred Barry Garvin Prize, created in honor of Garvin’s contributions to the state’s educational community, is awarded annually by the New Jersey Historical Commission to a New Jersey educator for outstanding teaching of African American history.

Ethel M. Washington

Garwood.

.-square-mile borough in Union County. Originally part of Westfield and Cranford, the borough of Garwood was incorporated on February , . At that time,

Gasser, Henry Martin d. Dec. , ).

(b. Oct. , ;

Painter. An important New Jersey artist and lifelong resident, Henry Martin Gasser was born in Newark and later moved to South Orange. His art education included study with John Grabach and periods of training at the Newark School of Fine and Industrial Arts (where he later served as director from  to ), and in New York City at the Grand Central School of Art and the Art Students League. He also had a distinguished career as a teacher and a writer; from  to  he taught at the Art Students League, and he wrote eight books dealing with painting technique. In , Gasser was elected a full academician in New York’s National Academy of Design (NAD); he served on its school committee and was a frequent exhibitor. During his long career he won several awards, including the NAD’s prestigious Hallgarten Prize in . Today his work is found in the collections of more than fifty museums and colleges in New Jersey and throughout the nation, including the Newark Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Gasser’s finest paintings include city views of Newark such as House on Owl Hill (c. s). His watercolors and oils of black dancers are also typical of his work, as are his scenes of harbors and fishing villages. He died in Orange in .

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Genealogical Society of New Jersey

Gerdts, William. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Genealogical Society of New Jersey. The objectives of the Genealogical Society of New Jersey, which was organized in , are to discover, procure, preserve, and publish information pertaining to families and individuals associated with New Jersey. To fulfill these objectives, the society publishes the Genealogical Magazine of New Jersey three times a year, which includes transcriptions and abstracts of primary source material in addition to well-documented genealogical compilations. The GSNJ Newsletter, published twice a year, contains genealogical queries, book reviews, research news, and meeting notices. The society also sponsors public programs, maintains an extensive manuscript collection (housed at Alexander Library, Rutgers University), and answers hundreds of genealogical inquiries annually.

Janet Riemer

General

Assembly. The English colonists who settled New Jersey brought with them faith in a government of laws. They believed that people had a right to participate in the lawmaking process through elected representatives who could assemble and deliberate as a distinct body. While a proprietary colony (–) and a royal province (–), New Jersey had such assemblies. When the colony was controlled by the Crown, its governor and council were royal appointees. The elected assembly often struggled with the governor, typically over finances and land ownership. Its institutional development, however, was hampered by an irregular pattern of elections and meetings. The governor could convene and dissolve the assembly at his pleasure. In  the new state’s constitution provided for a popularly elected “General Assembly,’’ consisting initially of three delegates per county, serving one-year terms. The assembly dominated financial policy, initiating all tax and spending bills. The council (now composed of one person elected annually from each county) could not alter these, voting only to approve or disapprove. The governor had no veto. This “republican’’ constitution made the legislature in general, and the assembly in particular, quite powerful. Joint meetings with the council, where the assembly had numerical superiority, selected the governor and all judges. In  the constitution was revised along separation-of-power lines. The assembly’s size was reduced in favor of the governor and senate (successor to the council), the latter with the power to amend finance bills. The General Assembly now had sixty members, apportioned among the counties according to

General Assembly chamber.

Courtesy New Jersey State Archives, Department of State, Trenton.

population. The one-year term continued. (The senate kept its predecessor’s representation by county, but the term was increased to three years, as was that of the now popularly elected governor.) Assembly elections usually were at large by counties; this maximized the power of county political parties. With constitutionally weak governors, the legislature normally dominated state government. Senate and assembly became “upper house’’ and “lower house’’ in the public’s eye, to the status disadvantage of the assembly. New Jersey became a two-party state: rural Republicans generally controlled the senate; the assembly’s yearly elections meant that it was more quickly affected by shifting political currents. Each party handled legislative decisionmaking through secret caucuses; formal legislative sessions confirmed caucus votes. Potentially powerful, the legislature preferred to delegate governing responsibility to counties and municipalities. Constitutional revision in  brought no change to the mode of representation. Assembly terms were increased to two years, the senate’s to four years. Legislative influence was reduced in favor of the governor, who became budget initiator and received strong veto powers. Aggressive supreme courts also altered the political game, with the system evidencing more checks, balances, and complexity than before. As state government became more active, however, the assembly’s workload increased markedly. Party caucuses remained, but standing committees and professional staff acquired significant roles in its decision making.

The system of representation, voided by the courts in , was revamped by a special constitutional convention in . Forty legislative districts were authorized, based on whole counties or groups of counties. Two assembly members and one senator were to be elected from each district. The state supreme court later mandated that legislative districts be substantially equal in population, effectively ending the long tradition of formal county representation. County political parties, however, remain major factors in the nomination and election of state legislators. Batinski, Michael C. The New Jersey Assembly, – . Lanham, MD: University Press of America, . Rosenthal, Alan. “The Legislature.’’ In The Political State of New Jersey, ed. Gerald Pomper. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wright, William C., ed. The Development of the New Jersey Legislature from Colonial Times to the Present. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also government; State Senate

Richard J. Connors

General Assembly et al. v. Byrne. In General Assembly v. Byrne, the New Jersey Supreme Court considered whether the  Legislative Oversight Act violated the state constitution. The act conferred upon the legislature the power to invalidate all rules proposed by state executive agencies. By creating such a “broad and absolute legislative veto,’’ the court held that the act interfered with the governor’s power to enforce law. In so doing, the law violated the separation-of-powers principle encompassed in Article  of the state constitution. According to the court, the veto

geography concentrated power in the legislature by enabling it both to make and to execute laws. The court also found that the veto violated the presentment clause by significantly interfering with the executive’s power to veto laws passed by the legislature. This case underscored the court’s intention to enforce vigorously the expanded executive veto created under the  constitution, and thereby enabled the executive to safeguard its independence from the legislature. Prior to the ratification of this constitution, the state legislature had been the clearly dominant branch in New Jersey government. The Byrne decision echoed the findings of the U.S. Supreme Court and a number of other state high courts that struck down legislative vetoes as violations of separation-ofpowers guarantees. Hills, Roderick M., Jr. “Dissecting the State: The Use of Federal Law to Free State and Local Officials from State Legislatures’ Control.’’ Michigan Law Review  (): . Rossi, Jim. “Institutional Design and the Lingering Legacy of Antifederalist Separation of Powers Ideals in the States.’’ Vanderbilt Law Review  (): . Sabatino, Jack M. “Assertion and Self-restraint: The Exercise of Governmental Powers Distributed under the  New Jersey Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): .

See also constitutions

Suzanne U. Samuels

General Electric Corporation.

For much of the twentieth century, the East Coast manufacturing and distribution operations of General Electric’s lightbulb division were based in Newark, in a sprawling plant at  Seventeenth Avenue, near Irving Turner Boulevard in the city’s Central Ward. Built as a series of eight connected buildings between  and , the factory employed as many as , people, working three shifts, during its heyday. By , the workforce had been cut to . The closing of the plant in  added to the economic problems that beset Newark after the city’s race riots in .

John Hassell

Genovese case. A political storm hit Rutgers University in  in wake of remarks made by a junior professor at a Vietnam War teach-in. One of several speakers at the New Brunswick campus’s Scott Hall on April , history professor Eugene Genovese denounced U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. “Those of you who know me know that I am a Marxist and a socialist,’’ he observed. “Therefore, unlike some of my distinguished colleagues here this morning, I do not fear or regret the impending Viet Cong victory in Vietnam. I welcome it.’’ Press reports of Genovese’s remarks were initially spotty, and no major controversy seemed in prospect until the state’s Young Republican organization assailed Genovese at its May convention and demanded a legislative investigation. Mounting public criticism provoked a review of Genovese’s remarks, first

by a two-person assembly committee, then by the Rutgers Board of Governors. In both reports, and in Gov. Richard Hughes’s response to them, Genovese’s statement was sharply criticized, but no sanctions against him were deemed appropriate. Genovese had exercised his First Amendment rights, the reports concluded; he had not tried to indoctrinate students in his classroom. The issue might have gradually faded but for its injection into that year’s gubernatorial campaign. Seeking to exploit patriotic sentiment in New Jersey at a time when the Vietnam War was escalating, Republican nominee Wayne Dumont made the dismissal of Genovese a central theme in his platform. At a Rotary Club luncheon in Paterson on July , Dumont said that he supported academic freedom, but he did not believe it should “give to a teacher in a state university, supported by taxpayers’ money, the right to advocate victory of an enemy at war in which some of his own students may very well lay down their lives in the cause of freedom.’’ Dumont pressed the Genovese case on the campaign trail and in a debate with Governor Hughes. New Jersey voters, however, did not believe that the fate of a history professor trumped other issues. In the November elections Hughes, who consistently defended Genovese’s right to free speech, trounced Dumont. The Genovese case was not entirely a triumph for academic freedom. The Rutgers administration’s treatment of Genovese—denying him standard academic rewards—suggested that the university remained uncomfortable about the controversy he generated. Genovese grew increasingly dissatisfied with his status at Rutgers and in  he accepted a position at Sir George Williams College in Montreal. His subsequent career earned him a reputation not merely as a sharp-tongued controversialist, but also as a leading scholar of slavery. See also Vietnam War

Michael J. Birkner

geography.

New Jersey ranks forty-sixth in land area among the states, accounting for only . percent of the nation’s territory. Despite its relatively small size, New Jersey has a fairly varied physical geography, a complex economic geography, and a remarkably varied mosaic of racial, ethnic, and cultural geographies. Although New Jersey is home to only  percent of Americans, on average they are among the richest citizens: New Jersey’s median household income was the nation’s highest in . New Jersey is first among the states in density of population: at over a thousand people per square mile, the state has a higher density than China or India. New Jersey’s population of almost eight million is larger than that of one hundred independent countries. Not particularly blessed with natural resources, the state’s comparative wealth results more from its relative location than from

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any particular natural resource. Relative location, or situation, is the geographic key to understanding the state’s economic and cultural distribution patterns. From the colonial era forward, New Jersey has benefited from its position between New York and Philadelphia, astride the main transport axis of the northeastern megalopolis. New Jersey can be seen as a large peninsula with the Delaware River and Bay to the west and the Hudson River and Atlantic Ocean to the east. The only land boundary, shared with New York State, forms but  percent of the total border. About  percent of the state lies within the Appalachian Mountain Province, with the remaining  percent in the Atlantic Coastal Plain. The boundaries of these two great landform regions and their subdivisions run essentially northeast to southwest, roughly parallel to one another. The Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont contain some of the oldest rocks on the continent, while the Coastal Plain is composed of relatively young sediments that are poorly consolidated. The northwestern portion of the state lies in the Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachians—an area of strongly paralleling mountain ridges and valleys. Kittatinny Mountain is the highest of these ridges; it includes High Point (the state’s highest elevation) at , feet above sea level. The famed Delaware Water Gap is one of the few breaks in this long, rugged ridge, channeling transport routes to the west. Highlands Province, flanking the Ridge and Valley to the southeast, is an extension of the rugged crystalline rocks of the New England Uplands. This part of New Jersey has a “New England’’ appearance, with forested ridges, hillside pastures, and picturesque lakes. The Piedmont (“foot of the mountains’’) Province lies south and east of the Highlands. The bulk of New Jersey’s Piedmont consists of the Newark Basin, characterized by ridges of once-molten magma intruded into relatively less resistant sandstones and shales that now form the lowlands. During the Pleistocene glaciation, great sheets of ice moved down from Canada, scraping off soil and loose rock, pockmarking the surface and finally depositing a ridge of debris at their southernmost, melting edge. This debris ridge, or terminal moraine, runs across New Jersey from Perth Amboy north to Morristown, and west to about Belvidere on the Delaware. New Jersey’s Atlantic Coastal Plain is subdivided into an Inner (in from the ocean) and Outer Coastal Plain. The Inner Plain, about one-fifteenth of the state’s area, has older, somewhat better consolidated sediments exposed at the surface. The Outer Plain soils have less clay and more sands. The relative lack of water retention near the surface meant that Outer Plain soils were considered largely unusable for crop production. The Outer Plain, with its pine and oak forest, is often termed the “Pine Barrens,’’ reflecting a general scarcity of farms. Generally, the state’s best agricultural

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geography

soils are those of the Piedmont and Inner Coastal Plain, together with some limestonefloored valleys to the northwest and some specialty-crop producers (cranberry bogs and blueberry fields) on the Outer Plain. Between Sandy Hook and Cape May, the ocean shoreline has some of the finest sand beaches in the world. From Bay Head south to Wildwood Crest, the shoreline is characterized by offshore sandbars or barrier beaches, with extensive salt marshes and bays between the barrier islands and the mainland. New Jersey lies in the midlatitudes, slightly closer to the equator than to the North Pole. To the west lies the bulk of the continent, while to the east is the Atlantic Ocean. A broad, undulating belt of eastward-moving air, the westerly airstream, seasonally shifts northward or southward, pulsating along in wavelike motions. Great cyclonic storms, lowpressure cells, move eastward along the broad, shifting freeway of the westerly airstream, especially during the colder months. The results are a highly changeable climate. Despite its coastal location, New Jersey’s climate is continental, reflecting the seasonal extremes in temperature typical of a midlatitude landmass via the westerlies’ influences. Increasing altitudes to the northwest result in cooler temperatures there than in lowlands, and coastal locations tend to be cooler in summer and milder in winter due to oceanic influences. New Jersey is wetter than the average for the United States, with most of the state averaging between forty and forty-eight inches of precipitation. New Jersey is not an important mining state, although copper and zinc were once produced, and iron mining in both the Outer Plain and Highlands was important in the colonial era. Iron is still mined in the Highlands, and there are known but so far unexploited deposits of oil and gas offshore. Glass sands are important, and gravel, sand, and crushed rock are produced for road construction and concrete. No economic activities can exist in isolation from the larger economy. New Jersey’s supreme economic advantage—its relative location—has been, and must be, exploited via a well-developed transport network. New Jersey lies at the center of the northeastern seaboard megalopolis, featuring an interconnected string of big cities. Suburban growth is concentrated in the “corridor’’ of highways and railroads linking the cities. The prototype megalopolis was identified from Boston’s New Hampshire suburbs to Washington, D.C.’s suburbs. New Jersey’s intermediate position within a megalopolis, its location astride the northeast-southwest axis of transport development, provides the state with access to a huge, rich market and to a large, varied labor pool. The New Jersey Turnpike exemplifies the busy corridor between New York and Philadelphia, where Piedmont and Inner

Coastal Plain meet. Carrying more than  million vehicles a year, the turnpike is probably the world’s busiest road. Underlining the importance of megalopolis’s interconnection of big cities, vehicular traffic between New Jersey and Pennsylvania is the highest interstate volume in America. The volume across the New Jersey–New York border ranks second. The George Washington Bridge, linking Manhattan with Fort Lee, New Jersey, carries more vehicles than any other bridge in the world. The corridor was the site of one of New Jersey’s early canals, the Delaware and Raritan. This was soon paralleled by the Camden and Amboy Railroad, the nation’s first railroad to be designed specifically as an interconnector of cities rather than simply a short link between navigable waterways. This early railway’s route is now part of the highvolume Metroliner service. Peak railroad route mileage was reached around  at , miles; current route mileage is below ,. The Port of New York–New Jersey, now the third-ranked containerport in the United States, includes the world’s first () containerport, Elizabeth Marine Terminal. New Jersey accounts for  percent of all cargo handled in the port of New York–New Jersey, but is only a minority partner in the Delaware River port complex shared with Pennsylvania and Delaware. Newark Liberty Airport is second to John F. Kennedy Airport in both air freight and passenger volume in the New York metropolitan area. Other important New Jersey airports include Mercer County (Trenton) and Atlantic City–Pomona. In the Garden State today,  percent of the land is used for agriculture, less than half the national average. Only Rhode Island has a smaller average size for farms than New Jersey’s  acres (the national average is  acres). The name “Garden State’’ reflects New Jersey farmers’ emphasis on marketing fresh fruits and vegetables. New Jersey ranks second in blueberry and summer potato production, third in cranberries, and fourth in peaches, tomatoes, spinach, and green peppers. This specialization in fresh fruits and vegetables reflects both the very high cost of farmland and a close proximity to markets. As early as the colonial period, New Jersey was known for its fresh produce, which provides higher profits per acre than most other crops. Relatively small acreages, no doubt related to high land values in such a crowded state, helped encourage high-value crops. Access to markets reduces the problem of perishablity. New Jersey’s top agricultural counties in farm acreage are Hunterdon, Salem, Burlington, Warren, Sussex, and Cumberland. Hudson County has no farms at all, while other highly urbanized counties tend to have few farms of very small average size. In keeping with New Jersey’s high population density

and growing suburbs, the most valuable products of New Jersey farms are in the greenhouse and nursery category—mostly young trees, shrubs, and plants for suburban homeowners. Counter to national trends, the number of very small farms (nine acres or less) is increasing in New Jersey, as are very large farms (, acres or more). Less than half of New Jersey’s farmers list their principal occupation as farming. New Jersey has long been a major manufacturing state, but manufacturing jobs have been in decline. In , jobs in manufacturing accounted for  percent of all nonfarm employment. By , that number was reduced to  percent of nonfarm employment. Meanwhile, manufacturing output has expanded because of automation. New Jersey’s rank is ninth in value added by manufacturing, the same as its population rank. Paterson was the first planned industrial city in the United States; New Jersey and the industrial revolution grew up together. By  New Jersey had proportionately fewer farmers and miners than the national average, but almost double the proportion of manufacturing employees. Early industries included iron, glass, textiles, and paper. Contemporary specializations include scientific and industrial instruments, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, machinery, fabricated metals, rubber, and plastics. Typical of the nation as a whole, New Jersey’s economy has experienced two major shifts. Manufacturing became more important than agriculture during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, to be in turn surpassed by service employment as the twentieth century ended. The fastest-growing employment categories are now general services, government, trade, printing and publishing, finance, insurance, real estate, transport, communication, and public utilities. Employment has declined in tobacco, textiles, stone, clay and glass, apparel, leather, transport equipment, electrical equipment, fabricated metals, and mining. New Jersey ranks fourth in total tourism revenues among the states, following California, Florida, and Texas. In terms of per capita tourism receipts, New Jersey’s tourism industry is more important than in California, Florida, or Texas, but behind the leading states, Nevada and Hawaii. New Jersey’s geographic assets for tourism are its relative location within the megalopolis, its superb ocean beaches, and the mountains and lakes of the northwest. The decision to legalize casino gaming in Atlantic City (by referendum in ) created a political/cultural basis for that aging resort’s revitalization. In the period of most rapid expansion,  to , the number of casino employees went from , to ,; the gross gaming revenues grew from $ million to $. billion, and the number of casino hotel rooms from  to ,. Atlantic City now attracts almost forty million visitors a year.

George Washington Bridge New Jersey’s rate of population growth has exceeded the national rate in three distinct eras: from early colonial times through ; from  through  (excepting ); and from  to . These three booms reflect, respectively, New Jersey as a farming frontier, New Jersey as an urban-industrial frontier, and New Jersey as a suburban frontier. Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. An Ecological History of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . ——. A Geography of New Jersey: The City in the Garden. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wacker, Peter O. Land and People: A Cultural Geography of Pre-Industrial New Jersey: Origins and Settlement Patterns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Charles A. Stansfield

geology.

New Jersey is underlain by rocks and sediments that are quite diverse and record most of the geologic events that formed eastern North America. The oldest rocks crop out in the Highlands. They include igneous and sedimentary rocks that were deeply buried during a period of continental collision and mountain building known as the Grenville orogeny, between . and  billion years ago. Similar rocks of Grenville age occur from Alabama to Labrador. High pressure and temperature during burial converted the granites, sandstones, and mudstones to gneiss, a layered, crystalline metamorphic rock, and converted limestone to marble. Gneiss is widespread, but marble occurs only in a few places, notably in the Franklin-Vernon area of Sussex County. The continent created by the Grenville orogeny began to rift apart between  and  million years ago, opening an ocean basin along the east edge of what was to become North America. Sediments deposited along the continental margin in this ocean became the rocks that underlie the Ridge and Valley. Between  and  million years ago, limestone was deposited in a shallow sea that covered much of the continent. These limestones underlie Kittatinny valley and several valleys in the Highlands. Beginning about  million years ago, this ocean basin began to close as the African plate moved westward beneath the North American plate. As mountains rose to the east, rivers washed silt into the closing ocean basin. These silts were laid down on the limestone and became shale. As the continents converged and the ocean basin closed, the shale and underlying limestone were folded and faulted. This period of mountain building and deformation is known as the Taconic orogeny. As the deformation ceased, about  million years ago, rivers deposited sand and gravel from the eroding mountain range. The sand and gravel became the quartzite and conglomerate that underlie Kittatinny Mountain and several ridges in the Highlands.

As the mountains eroded, a shallow sea again spread over much of the continent. Limestone and shale were laid down in this sea, above the older quartzite, between about  and  million years ago. These rocks underlie the area northwest of Kittatinny Mountain and also crop out in a narrow belt in the Highlands. Following deposition of these rocks, there is no preserved record in New Jersey for a period of about  million years. Rocks from this period are present in Pennsylvania and may have extended over New Jersey, but they have been completely eroded. Deformation of the older rocks, though, records another period of continental collision and mountain building between  and  million years ago known as the Alleghany orogeny. This event folded and thrust the rocks of the Ridge and Valley and Highlands by compressing them from the southeast and northwest, forming fold axes and thrust faults trending northeastsouthwest. The northeast-southwest trend of ridges and valleys in the Ridge and Valley and Highlands is the result of later erosion by rivers exposing the alternating hard and soft layers along the flanks of the folds. About  million years ago the continent formed by the orogenies began to break apart. This separation created a series of rift valleys from Nova Scotia to Florida, which were similar to the rift valleys in East Africa today. One of the largest of these valleys is the Newark Basin, which extends from the Hudson River to central Virginia. Rocks in the Newark Basin include red and gray shale, sandstone, and conglomerate deposited between  and  million years ago in floodplains, alluvial fans, and lakes. Interbedded with the sediments are layers of diabase and basalt. Diabase formed when magma was injected between beds of sedimentary rock and cooled slowly, creating a layer known as a sill. The Hudson Palisades, and Rocky Hill and Sourland Mountain between Princeton and Lambertville, are parts of a large diabase sill. Basalt formed when magma flowed as lava onto the surface of the rift valley. Three periods of lava eruption formed the basalt layers that now underlie the three parallel ridges of the Watchung Mountains. As rifting continued, these rocks were tilted to the northwest and faulted into a series of blocks. The faults bounding these blocks include the Ramapo Fault, which defines the northwest border of the Newark Basin, and several faults traversing the western part of the basin. With further separation, the rifting shifted eastward and created the Atlantic Ocean basin. Sediments of the Coastal Plain were laid down in shoreline and shelf settings in the widening Atlantic Ocean. The Coastal Plain sediments thicken from a feather-edge along their inland limit to about , feet at Cape May. They include layers of sand and clay that record about twenty-five cycles of rising and falling sea level between  and  million

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years ago. During periods of high sea level, beds of a clayey, green mineral known as glauconite were deposited in shelf settings. During lowered sea level, sand and clay were deposited in bay, beach, estuary, and nearshore settings. Global sea level started a long-term decline about  million years ago, when the Antarctic ice sheet began to grow. In New Jersey, this decline caused a shift to nearshore sand deposition. These sand beds cover the outer Coastal Plain southeast of a line between Long Branch and Salem, accounting for the sandy soil and distinctive vegetation of the Pine Barrens. Continued growth of the Antarctic ice sheet between  and  million years ago further lowered global sea level. The Coastal Plain emerged, and a long period of river erosion followed that gradually produced the present landscape. By about  million years ago, the overall form of the present valleys and uplands had been established. Within the past  million years, most landscape change has been due to glacial events. Glaciers advanced into New Jersey three times during this period, most recently , years ago. With each advance, glacial erosion and deposition modified landscape details and rerouted rivers. As the climate warmed and glaciers melted, sea level rose. Along the present coast, shoreline and estuary deposits from interglacial highstands within the past , years occur up to fifty feet above modern sea level. Modern estuaries, barrier islands, and bays formed as sea level rose during the past , years. Wolfe, P. E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane, Russak, .

See also minerals

Scott D. Stanford

George Street Playhouse. George Street Playhouse in New Brunswick is a nationally recognized award-winning theater that presents a heavily subscribed main-stage season while providing an artistic home for established and emerging theater artists. Its educational outreach programs have become models used by other theaters around the nation. Well-known playwrights and actors have been associated with the company since its founding in . The theater has premiered a number of shows that went on to success in New York and elsewhere, including The Spitfire Grill, Down the Garden Paths, and Proof. The theater was first located on the street whose name it bears. As part of New Brunswick’s revitalization during the s, it moved to its current location on Livingston Avenue near George Street for the  season. See also theater Paul Somers

George Washington Bridge.

The George Washington Bridge spans the Hudson River between Fort Lee in Bergen County and th Street in Manhattan, providing a key link

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George W. Helme snuff mill

Unfinished suspension cables of the George Washington Bridge stretch across the Hudson River, .

Courtesy Brown Brothers, Sterling, PA.

between the highway systems of New York City and New England, to the east, and the New Jersey Turnpike and the interstate system to the west and south. A suspension bridge at this location was proposed in – by Othmar H. Ammann, an engineer living in Bergen County, as an alternative to a massive railroad-vehicular span (then under study) from Hudson County to th Street. His plan was championed by New Jersey governor George Silzer, and in  the Port of New York Authority agreed to build the bridge. Ammann was hired to design the crossing, with the longest single span in the world (, feet); in October  he completed the bridge, months ahead of schedule and below estimated cost. The towers rise  feet above the water, and each of the four steel cables (made by the Roebling Company of Trenton) has , miles of spun wire. Ammann’s initial plan was to follow the precedent of the Brooklyn Bridge, covering the towers with monumental stone, but cost constraints in the Depression led him to leave the steelwork unclothed. The completed bridge was widely acclaimed; when the civil engineering profession celebrated its hundredth anniversary in , the George Washington Bridge was chosen to represent its achievements. The crossing stimulated extensive development in Bergen County and beyond, turning a rural area into densely developed suburbs. In , a lower deck, also designed by Ammann, was added. The structure now has fourteen vehicular lanes, whose tolls produce gross operating revenues of more than $ million and net income of more than $ million a year.

Ammann, Othmar H. “George Washington Bridge: General Conception and Development of Design.’’ Transactions ASCE [American Society of Civil Engineers]  (): –. Doig, Jameson W., and David P. Billington. “Ammann’s First Bridge.’’ Technology and Culture  (): –. Mysak, Joe, with Judith Schiffer. Perpetual Motion. Santa Monica, CA: General Publishing Group, .

See also bridges

Jameson W. Doig

George W. Helme snuff mill. Located in Helmetta, the George W. Helme Snuff Mill dates to about , when Helme, a former Confederate Army major-general, became sole owner, although a snuff mill may have operated on the site as early as about . Primarily known for “dry snuff’’ (processed tobacco the texture of baking flour), it produced such brands as Railroad Mills, Lorillard, and Navy. The mill stopped packaging snuff in April , consolidating with its sister mill in Wheeling, West Virginia. In , the mill district—factories, outbuildings, and worker houses—was named to the state and National Registers of Historic Places. Weiss, Harry B., and Grace M. Weiss. The Early Snuff Mills of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

Joseph Sapia

Georgian Court College. Georgian Court College was established at Lakewood in  when the College of Mount Saint Mary, founded in North Plainfield in  by the Sisters of Mercy of New Jersey as a women’s

undergraduate liberal arts college, purchased the -acre property at Lakewood from the estate of George Jay Gould. The condition of sale required that the name of the estate, Georgian Court, be retained. Under its new title the college remained an all-women’s institution until , when a coeducational evening division was established. Graduate programs began in  and presently include biology, business administration, counseling psychology, education, instructional technology, mathematics, and theology. In  the college was designated a comprehensive, five-year institution. The student body numbered , in the year . In the fall of  it reorganized into four schools: business, education, arts and humanities, and sciences and mathematics. The buildings and gardens were designated a National Historic Landmark in . The Gould Mansion, designed by Bruce Price, boasts a large mural of the Canterbury Tales pilgrims painted by Robert Van Vorst Sewell. The Casino, formerly the Rink, was built in . Ten years later it became the training ground of the American Polo Association for the selection of the American Cup and World Championship teams. The campus chapel, originally the Lakewood Roman Catholic Church, is dedicated to Mother Catherine McAuley, founder of the Order of the Sisters of Mercy. Geis, M. Christina, R.S.M. Georgian Court: An Estate of the Gilded Age. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, .

See also higher education

Claribel Young

Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation. Created in  by a bequest of Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge (daughter of William and Almira Rockefeller), the foundation has made grants totaling more than $ million in five program areas: education, arts, critical issues, welfare of animals, and Morris County projects. Of this, over $ million has supported groups located in New Jersey. Signature New Jersey initiatives have included the Animal Assistance program, the Summer Opportunity Awards program (for teachers and principals), a visual arts program for public school art teachers, a science education program that sends teachers to the rain forest, and a poetry program that features the nationally renowned biennial Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival. Mitnick, Barbara J. Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge. Morristown: Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, .

See also Dodge Poetry Festival

Alexandra Christy

Geran Act.

The Geran Act, a comprehensive election reform law signed by Gov. Woodrow Wilson in April , required for the first time in New Jersey an Australiantype secret ballot in all elections, with candidates listed alphabetically instead of by party. It standardized registration procedures and

Germans the method for selecting election officials, and it extended the direct primary to all elective offices and party officials. A companion law, the Corrupt Practices Act, further purified the election process by regulating campaign contributions and outlawing bribery and vote buying. Taken together, these laws made New Jersey a national model for Progressive election reform. Lehne, Richard, and Alan Rosenthal, eds. Politics in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McCormick, Richard P. The History of Voting in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton. Vol. . New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, .

See also Progressive Era; voting

Martin Paulsson

German-American Bund. Following Adolf Hitler’s takeover of Germany in , an organization of Nazi sympathizers was formed in the United States. Bundists, most of whom were German-born immigrants, dressed in Nazi-style uniforms and gave the Hitler salute. New Jersey had one of the nation’s largest Bund memberships, and chapters were formed in Union City, Passaic, Clifton, North Bergen, Hackensack, Fairfield, and Newark. New Jersey also furnished leaders to the Bund, including Gerhard Wilhelm Kunze of Union City, who became the national leader of the organization in . The most prominent New Jersey manifestation of the Bund was Camp Nordland, located in Sussex County. Because of its proximity to Bund headquarters in Manhattan, Nordland was frequently used for national ceremonies at which pro-Hitler, anti-Semitic oratory was common. Most German immigrants in New Jersey, like their fellow citizens, shunned the organization. In  New Jersey became one of the first states to pass a law against the Bund, making it illegal to promote “hatred, abuse, violence, or hostility’’ against any group because of race, color, or religion. A further law in  prohibited quasi-military uniforms and the Hitler salute. Bund leaders were arrested in a raid at Nordland in  and indicted by the Sussex County grand jury for violating the  law. The camp was shut down as a public nuisance. Although the New Jersey Supreme Court overturned the conviction of the Bundists on the grounds that the  law violated the New Jersey constitution, the decision, announced two days before Pearl Harbor, came too late to help the organization, which by then was thoroughly discredited. Diamond, Sander A. The Nazi Movement in the United States, –. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univesity Press, . Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Marc Mappen

German Evangelical Synod.

The German Evangelicals began in St. Louis in  and were mostly midwestern, but they also had many congregations in western New York State. In New Jersey the first immigrant congregations were established in Newark in  and continued in Saint Stephan’s Evangelical Congregation (Newark) in . New Jersey had only three Evangelical congregations in , growing to eight in . In spite of the small size of the sect in New Jersey, important young theologians like Paul Lehmann (friend of the martyred Dietrich Bonhoeffer) served interim pastorates in congregations there. The German Evangelicals demonstrated their assimilation to American ways by the time of World War I, and in  the denomination became part of the United Church of Christ. At the present time there are fifty-six United Church of Christ congregations in New Jersey.

Dunn, David, et al., eds. A History of the Evangelical and Reformed Church. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, . Nordbeck, Elizabeth C., and Lowell H. Zuck, eds. The Living Theological Heritage of the United Church of Christ. Vol. : Consolidation and Expansion. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, . Zuck, Lowell H. “Evangelical Synod of North America.’’ In Dictionary of the Presbyterian and Reformed Tradition in America, ed. D. G. Hart. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, .

See also religion

Lowell H. Zuck

Germans.

Germans have been a significant presence in New Jersey since colonial times. In  persons of German ancestry constituted  percent of the population; in  they composed the largest foreign-born group in the state; and by the end of the twentieth century more than . million persons in New Jersey attested to German ancestry. In the earliest days of colonization in the seventeenth century, there were Germans among the Dutch when New Jersey was a part of New Netherland, and a small number of Germans lived in the Swedish settlements along the Delaware River. Following the English conquest of New Netherland, Palatine Germans were settled as renters in the Ramapo Tract in northern New Jersey after . Some German immigrants arrived in East Jersey, but more came through Pennsylvania or directly into Sussex, Hunterdon, and Morris counties in West Jersey. Their settlements included New Germantown, Lebanon, and German Valley. Many German peasants came from the Rhineland as redemptioners and were sold as indentured servants for agricultural labor and for work in mines and iron mills. German craftsmen and some entrepreneurs established glassworks in South Jersey and ironworks in the north. The leading German ironmaster was Peter Hasenclever, who brought  German laborers to New

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Jersey to establish the American Iron Company’s complex of works in the Ringwood area. John Faesch employed German laborers in his important ironworks in Boonton and Mount Hope. During the American Revolution, some Germans sided with the Patriots, and a few joined the Hessians who were fighting with the British; most tried to remain neutral. After the war, some of the Hessians settled in New Jersey. By the time of the  census, there were , Germans in the state. Many recorded their religious affiliation as Lutheran, although there were also some Catholics and some Moravians. Germans continued to arrive in the first half of the nineteenth century, but the major influx came in the second half of that century. The number of foreign-born Germans grew from approximately , in  to some , by . Most came for economic betterment. On the average, although many were poor, they brought more skills and economic resources than the Irish who were arriving in New Jersey at the same time. Particularly in the late s, middle-class and well-educated Germans sought to escape war and political persecution. Some Germans engaged in rural agriculture and formed enclaves in places like Carlstadt, Guttenberg, and Egg Harbor. Most settled in rapidly expanding cities like Newark, Paterson, and others throughout Hudson County. In these urban places the newcomers often established largely German neighborhoods. The Germans engaged in a wide range of economic activities, most often as craftsmen and laborers, but also as entrepreneurs—in glassworks and woodworking trades, as tailors and in garment workshops, as leather workers, in the metal trades and iron and steelworks, as machinists, tool workers, and goldsmiths, and in jewelry, cutlery, tobacco, and rubber firms. They were butchers, bakers, confectioners, and brewers, and they ran groceries, dry goods stores, cigar stands, restaurants, and saloons. Some worked for large German firms like Botany and Forstmann in Passaic and Merck in Rahway. Others were employed in businesses started by successful German American entrepreneurs like John A. Roebling, with his wire-rope works, and Louis Bamberger, with his large department store. Germans also ran retail and wholesale businesses, sold real estate, and managed theaters; some became doctors, lawyers, artists, musicians, teachers, and scientists. Germans were active in the labor movement in New Jersey, and a number joined the ranks of the socialists. Throughout New Jersey, Germans formed many religious congregations and social and cultural organizations. They built and worshiped in Protestant Lutheran and Reformed churches, in Catholic parishes, and in Jewish synagogues. These institutions gave members a sense of solidarity and often provided social

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Ghadiali, Dinshah P.

services. There were also numerous mutual benefit societies, singing organizations, dramatic groups, and athletic clubs. The Germanlanguage press was a vital means of communication, and many Germans sent their children to German religious and secular schools. Germans suffered from the nativism that swept the country in the mid-nineteenth century, but this harsh treatment did not deter them from strongly supporting the Union in the Civil War. After the war, Germans began to enter politics. In Newark in the s they fought vigorously against local blue laws, particularly those that prevented socializing in German beer gardens on Sunday, the one day off from work. There was some friction between German Catholics and the dominant Irish hierarchy, and a similar situation occurred later with the culturally different Catholics from southern and eastern Europe. Likewise, difficulties arose between German Jews and eastern European Jews. Among the Germans themselves there were differences of opinion on German language and cultural retentions and degrees of acculturation. All things German came under intense suspicion with the American entrance into World War I, despite the large number of German Americans who served in the armed forces of the United States. Many German place names were changed, the teaching of German in schools decreased, and German cultural expressions were muted. There were some efforts to resuscitate German culture in New Jersey after the war, but in most places and for most Germans it had lost its former vitality. Some Germans continued to emigrate to the United States in the s. The number decreased markedly in the s, although some fled the rise of Nazism in the homeland. The small but vocal group of New Jersey German Americans who joined the Bund, an anti-Semitic organization which supported Germany’s renewed aggressiveness under Hitler, were ignored by most ethnic Germans in the state. Large numbers of German Americans from New Jersey enlisted in the U.S. armed forces during World War II and in other ways vigorously supported the American war efforts. Although a few suspected aliens were detained, there was no generalized campaign directed against German Americans as there had been during World War I. In the post–World War II era, a number of German refugees from war-torn areas of the federal republic and from the communist regime of East Germany emigrated to the United States. Some also came as spouses of American military personnel. Additionally, a number of German firms opened headquarters and/or commercial and manufacturing facilities in New Jersey, including MIS-AG, Mercedes-Benz, and BMW. By the end of the twentieth century, there were some , foreign-born Germans in New Jersey. In terms of ancestry, Germans

were the third largest ethnic group in the state, not far behind the Italians and the Irish. By this time, persons of German heritage have been highly acculturated into the mainstream New Jersey population. Chambers, Theodore. The Early Germans of New Jersey: Their History, Churches, and Genealogies. With a new foreword by Kenn Stryker-Rodda. Baltimore: Geneaological Publishing, . Faust, Albert B. The German Element in the United States.  vols. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, .

two hour and fifty-six minute intervals. Tonation had to be rendered at a particular time during this cycle in order to be maximally effective. Dr. Dinshah delivered lectures and gave demonstrations until his death in . Dinshah, Darius. Let There Be Light. th ed. Malaga: Dinshah Health Society, . Kubersky, Edward S. “Dinshah P. Ghadiali and the Spectro-Chrome.’’ Caduceus  (Spring ): –.

Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Henry Bischoff

Ghadiali, Dinshah P.

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Apr. , ). Physician and inventor. The

“Spectro-Chrome Metry’’ therapeutic system invented, perfected, and promoted by Colonel Dinshah P. Ghadiali, M.D., is today a somewhat obscure footnote in the history of alternative medicine. At the peak of his popularity, however, Dr. Dinshah’s system of cure by “tonation’’ of the body with a projector with colored filters enjoyed wide popularity, including among members of the medical community. The inventor of the system, who preferred to be called “Dr. Dinshah,’’ was born on November , , in Bombay, India, to Parsee Zoroastrian parents. Dinshah was a brilliant, eccentric, arrogant, self-taught former child prodigy and inventor, who prior to the invention of Spectro-Chrome already possessed several patents. He perfected his therapeutic system in , and began manufacturing projectors and other necessary instruments at his institute, initially in Philadelphia but later based in rural Malaga, New Jersey. Dinshah traveled around the country giving courses in Spectro-Chrome and leasing equipment to graduates, but soon ran afoul of the medical establishment, and found himself the defendant in numerous lawsuits. He continued the institute’s activities under various guises, staying narrowly within the letter of court rulings, until  when he was ordered to cease and desist. Dinshah’s Spectro-Chrome theory proposed that the body, being composed of elements, radiates a color aura in accordance with its elemental composition. Health imbalances, usually due to the excess or lack of an element, are reflected in changes in the visible spectrum aura. Treatment (or rather, “normalation,’’ in Dinshah’s cautious nomenclature) is rendered by irradiating the body with the particular color that is lacking. Dinshah manufactured light projectors for this purpose, containing an electric bulb and five glass slides (green, red, violet, yellow, and blue). Dinshah claimed that the color slides had to be carefully attuned in order to achieve the desired therapeutic effect. He also claimed to have discovered a natural rythmicity of the human organism running in cycles of precisely

Steven Maron

Gibbons, Del Deo, Dolan, Griffinger, and Vecchione. One of New Jersey’s largest law firms, Gibbons, Del Deo, Dolan, Griffinger, and Vecchione has over  attorneys providing a broad range of transactional, litigation, and other services to clients on a regional, national, and international basis in every major area of the law. Founded in  by Andrew Crummy, the firm was known as Crummy and Consodine in ; later as Crummy, Gibbons, and O’Neill, when John J. Gibbons joined the firm; and still later as Crummy, Del Deo, Dolan, Griffinger, and Vecchione. In , the firm name was changed to Gibbons, Del Deo, Dolan, Griffinger, and Vecchione, when John J. Gibbons rejoined the firm in , after serving as a chief judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals. In , the firm established the John J. Gibbons Fellowship in Public Interest and Constitutional Law. The program, which annually sponsors two full-time associates for two-year commitments, provides counsel on significant public issues such as homelessness, the death penalty, prison conditions, the rights of AIDS victims, welfare reform, domestic violence, and consumer protection. As the first recipient of the American Bar Association’s Service Program Partnership Award, the fellowship program was recognized as “an outstanding partnership program which promotes greater understanding of the justice system and enhances the profession’s service to both clients and their communities.’’

Daniel J. O’Hern

Gibbons v. Ogden.

In this  case, the U.S. Supreme Court considered whether New York could grant an exclusive license to navigate the waters between New York City and New Jersey. A New York court had recognized Aaron Ogden’s license and had granted an injunction to force Thomas Gibbons to stop operating steamboats between Elizabethtown and New York City. Arguing before the Supreme Court, Gibbons contended that under a  congressional statute, only Congress had the power to enroll and license ships engaged in coastal trade and fishing. Writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall struck down the state licensing scheme, finding that it conflicted with the federal law. He held that the federal law fell

Gilbreth, Lillian Moller squarely within Congress’s enumerated power to regulate commerce and that this power extended to all commercial intercourse, including navigation. Marshall contended that this power did not govern commerce that was solely internal; however, he argued that most commerce extended beyond a state’s borders. The decision opened competition to steamboat companies located in New Jersey, and then the nation. The full impact of Gibbons, however, was not felt until sixty years later, when Congress used this ruling to frame the  Interstate Commerce Act and the  Sherman Anti-Trust Act. It was not until  that the Court adopted the expansive reading of the commerce clause that Marshall had embraced in Gibbons. Baxter, Maurice G. The Steamboat Monopoly: “Gibbons v. Ogden.’’ New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Dangerfield, George. “The Steamboat Case.’’In Quarrels That Have Shaped the Constitution, ed. John A. Garraty. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also transportation

Suzanne U. Samuels

Gibbsboro. .-square-mile borough in central Camden County. Gibbsboro was first settled in  as part of Waterford Township. In , the geographic area that is now the borough of Gibbsboro and Voorhees Township were incorporated as Voorhees Township. In  Gibbsboro seceded from Voorhees Township and was incorporated as a borough. In the s the Lucas Paint Company established a factory on Silver Lake, which was selected as the site because of its water quality. Rather than producing paint components for sale, Lucas was the originator of ready-touse paints. The production of paint became the area’s primary industry, and the Lucas Company is responsible for much of the borough’s architectural and physical makeup. The core of the borough’s historic district is made up of former Lucas industrial buildings, homes constructed for workers, and the Lucas family home. With the opening of the PATCO highspeed rail line in  and the closing of the paint factory in the s, Gibbsboro evolved from an industrial community to a bedroom suburb of Philadelphia. According to the  census, the borough had , residents,  percent of them white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gaquin, Deidre A., and Richard W. Dodge, eds. Places, Towns and Townships. d ed. Lanham, MD: Bernan Press, .

Bruce C. Compton

Gibbs College.

In  Katharine Gibbs opened a two-room secretarial school in Providence, Rhode Island, to help women realize their potential. Today the private business and technical vocational institution bearing her

name has seven locations in the Northeast, two of them in New Jersey, in Piscataway and Montclair. Accredited by the Accreditation Council for Independent Colleges and Schools in , Gibbs schools also grant associate degrees. Their mission is to provide men and women with the skills necessary for building professional careers. More than eighty-five thousand people have graduated from Gibbs College since its founding. See also higher education

Michele Gisbert

Gibbstown.

See Greenwich (Gloucester

County)

Gibson, Althea (b. Aug. , ; d. Sept. , ). Tennis player. The daughter of Daniel and Annie Gibson, Althea Gibson was born in South Carolina and raised in Harlem. She made headlines in  by breaking the color barrier at Forest Hills. In , she became the first black to win the Wimbledon and the U.S. championships, and was the Associated Press’s female athlete of the year. Gibson repeated these feats in , then turned professional. In  she moved to East Orange, where she managed the Department of Recreation, later becoming New Jersey state athletic commissioner. Gibson was the first African American to belong to the Ladies Professional Golf Association and was elected to the International Tennis Hall of Fame and the International Women’s Sports Hall of Fame. Briacree, Tom. Althea Gibson: Tennis Champion. Los Angeles: Melrose Square, . Gibson, Althea. I Always Wanted to Be Somebody. New York: Harper and Brothers, . ———, with Richard Curtis. So Much to Live For. New York: G. P. Putnam, .

See also tennis

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

Gilbert, Cass

(b. Nov. , ; d. May

, ).

Architect. Cass Gilbert was born in Zanesville, Ohio, to Samuel Augustus and Elizabeth Fulton Wheeler Gilbert. He attended prep school in St. Paul, Minnesota, and in  began training in an architect’s office there. Two years later, he enrolled in the architectural program at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Gilbert became one of the leading proponents of the Beaux-Arts style. He began his professional career with McKim, Mead, and White, serving as their representative in the Midwest before starting his own firm. In , he was awarded the commission for the Essex County Courthouse in Newark, New Jersey, the first of many buildings designed for that city. Heilbrun, Margaret, ed. Inventing the Skyline: The Architecture of Cass Gilbert. New York: Columbia University Press, . Irish, Sharon. Cass Gilbert, Architect: Modern Traditionalist. New York: Monacelli Press, .

Ashley L. Atkins

Gilbreth, Lillian Moller

315

(b. May ,

; d. Jan. , ). Management consultant,

efficiency expert, and writer. When Lillian Moller received her B.Litt. degree in , she was the University of California’s first woman commencement speaker. She went on to earn a master’s degree at Berkeley in . She and Frank Bunker Gilbreth, who was attracting international attention for his innovative system of industrial management, were married in October . In their early years together, Lillian did much of the writing of their many books, and urged her husband to give up his lucrative construction business so they could develop their knowledge of motion study and management. She earned her Ph.D. from Brown University in . Her dissertation, entitled “The Psychology of Management,’’ became a classic in its field. In  the Gilbreths, with their dozen children, moved to Montclair and the whole family became subjects for Gilbreth, Inc., efficiency studies. The family’s unusual lifestyle and research methods were celebrated in popular books written by two of their children, Ernestine and Frank Jr.: Cheaper by the Dozen (), Belles on Their Toes (), and Time Out for Happiness (). When Frank Gilbreth died suddenly in , clients who did not think that a woman could carry on the business alone canceled most of their consultant contracts. Lillian Gilbreth was determined to maintain the reputation of the Gilbreth System and to establish an independent reputation as a management consultant. She turned to her older children to share the physical and psychological responsibilities of rearing their younger siblings. Gilbreth applied management methods in the home, which led to two more books and many articles in popular magazines. Even in the kitchen, “the one best way’’ involved the least exertion, better health, greater happiness, and therefore increased productivity of the worker—ideas that were revolutionary when the Gilbreths developed them. Lillian began to consult with university departments of home economics, and had considerable impact on the development of their courses. From  to , Gilbreth ran a “Motion Study Institute’’ in her home to instruct executives in the scientific management of the work process. “Mother’s College,’’ as her children called it, lasted until engineering colleges began to offer courses like hers; she then consulted with many of these schools. She became a full professor at Purdue University in , Newark College of Engineering in , and the University of Wisconsin in , as well as a visiting professor at other schools. Although Gilbreth became nationally known, she was occasionally refused admittance to men’s clubs where she was to be the speaker. Her conviction that the most effective management emphasizes motion (the worker’s comfort) rather than time (the employer’s profit) continued to be met with

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Ginsberg, Allen

Lillian Moller Gilbreth (left) and her family in a “foolish carriage,’’ Montclair, c. .

Courtesy Montclair Public Library, Local History Collection.

resistance. But by , motion study was widely accepted, and Lillian Gilbreth was awarded the first Gilbreth Medal by the Society of Industrial Engineers. As her children grew up, Gilbreth turned to volunteer work in Montclair, although she also served six U.S. presidents on committees dealing with employment, civil defense, war production, rehabilitation of the disabled, and problems of aging. She received many honors, including honorary membership in the Society of Industrial Engineers in , at a time when the group did not admit women. The Gantt Gold Medal was awarded to Gilbreth and her husband posthumously by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in , and she received the Hoover Medal for distinguished public service in . Gilbreth, Lillian. Living with Our Children. New York: W. W. Norton, . ———. The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching, and Installing Methods of Least Waste. New York: Sturgis and Walton, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, . Yost, Edna. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth: Partners for Life. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Donna Walling and Daryl Boylan

Ginsberg, Allen

(b. June , ; d. Apr.

, ). Poet. Allen Ginsberg was the son of

Louis and Naomi Ginsberg. His father was a distinguished poet and a respected educator at Paterson’s East Side High School. His mother was also a schoolteacher, and a Communist Party activist. Ginsberg was raised in Paterson and attended the local public schools. Influenced by the socialist politics of his parents,

he attended Columbia University with dreams of becoming a labor lawyer. It was at Columbia University that he met Jack Kerouac and William Burroughs; both would later become major figures in the Beat literary movement—a group of freewheeling writers who attempted to counter America’s materialistic culture with transcendental spirituality. His college years were turbulent, and it was only through the intervention of teachers, such as Lionel Trilling, that he was allowed to graduate in . Ginsberg spent five years working for a Madison Avenue advertising firm before moving to San Francisco in . His poetry, which was already moving away from traditional verse form, took on a more prophetic and visionary tone on the West Coast. One night in October , he read a long poem called “Howl’’ at a public reading in a coffeehouse. The lengthy poem, which expressed the anxieties of the poet’s alienated generation in vibrant and shocking terms, caused an instant sensation. The poem became nationally famous a year later when copies of the City Lights edition of Howl and Other Poems () were seized by government officials for obscenity. Ginsberg was ultimately acquitted in a landmark censorship trial and went on to become one of the world’s best known poets. Though he was a world traveler, Ginsberg lived most of his adult life on Manhattan’s Lower East Side. He was well known in the s, but became a visible symbol of the counterculture in the s. He assumed the status of a major figure in the anti–Vietnam War movement, often reading his poetry at large demonstrations. Ginsberg was also an outspoken advocate for gay rights; he was openly homosexual in an era when it was a criminal

offense, and considered a mental illness. He argued for the legalization of marijuana and psychedelics, and, as a follower of Tibetan Buddhism for twenty-five years, was a popularizer of Eastern spirituality. Although once considered a barbarian at the gates of “respectable’’ literature, he was, at the time of his death, a respected major poet. His work was widely anthologized and the subject of much scholarship; his literary archive was sold to Stanford University for $ million. Once considered “anti-academic,’’ he was a full professor at Brooklyn College. Even the city of Paterson, once scandalized by Ginsberg, came to embrace him. In his later years, he often read at the Paterson Museum and nearby William Paterson University, and allowed his name to be used for a poetry contest sponsored by Passaic County Community College. Many of his poems make reference to his childhood in Paterson, his relatives in Newark, and summers at the beach in Belmar. His two greatest literary influences were fellow Jersey poets Walt Whitman and William Carlos Williams. Cassady, Carolyn. Off the Road: My Years with Cassady, Kerouac, and Ginsberg. New York: W. Morrow, . Miles, Barry. Ginsberg: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Schumacher, Michael. Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

See also poetry

Joel Lewis

Ginsberg, Louis

(b. Oct. , ; d. July ,

). Poet and educator. The son of Russian-

Jewish immigrants, Louis Ginsberg was raised in Newark and settled in Paterson, where he taught English at Central High School for forty years. A lyric poet, he published three volumes of verse and was anthologized in several of Louis Untemeyer’s collections. His greatest fame occurred in the late s and early s when he and his son, poet Allen Ginsberg, often gave joint readings across the country. Ginsberg’s traditional verse proved a startling contrast to his son’s incendiary poetry.

Joel Lewis

Girl Scouts.

Girl Scouts of the United States of America (GSUSA) has the mission “to inspire girls with the highest ideals of character, conduct, patriotism, and service, that they may become happy and resourceful citizens,’’ and has contributed to nonsectarianism, multiculturalism, and gender equity. New Jersey has eleven Girl Scout council offices, over , girl members (ages five to seventeen), and over , adult members. Juliette Gordon Low brought what was then called “Girl Guiding’’ from Great Britain to Savannah, Georgia, in , and soon established the movement firmly in New Jersey, as well. In  Newark Embroidery Works manufactured the nation’s first proficiency badges. That same year, the new fifty-member

Glassboro national Honorary Committee included six New Jerseyans: in Orange, Mrs. Herbert Barry, Mrs. Thomas A. Edison, Mrs. Philip Garrison, and Mrs. George Merck; and in Newark, Mrs. Frederick Frelinghuysen and Mrs. Wayne Parker (Low’s sister, Eleanor). New Jersey’s first troop, formed in Camden by , was among America’s first thirty. The state’s earliest council was probably that formed in  in the Madison, Florham Park, and Hanover area. The  National Council meeting was canceled because of World War II hardships, but the Girl Scouts reestablished the continuity of the national conferences when they met in Atlantic City in . The first National Campus Girl Scout Conference was held at William Paterson University in .

GLACIATION

WALLKILL

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Late Wisconsinian Terminal and Recessional Ice Margins Illinoian Limit Pre-Illinoian Limit Meltwater Drainage Glacial Lakes

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Susan Charles T. Groth

glaciation.

New Jersey lies at the southern edge of the area glaciated by the Laurentide ice sheet. This glacier, which spread from centers in northern Canada, has grown and melted away about ten times in the past  million years. Three of these advances entered New Jersey. Deposits of the earliest glaciation, known as the pre-Illinoian, are intensely weathered and deeply eroded. These features, and other evidence from fossil pollen and magnetic properties, indicate that this glaciation occurred more than , years ago, possibly as long ago as  million years. Today, sediments left by this glacier are preserved as small remnants on flat uplands as far south as Somerville. They include till, which is mixed sediment deposited directly from glacial ice, and a few sand and gravel deposits laid down by meltwater. The next glaciation was the Illinoian advance about , years ago. This glacier reached south to a line between Phillipsburg and Morristown. East of Morristown, Illinoian deposits are covered by those of the most recent advance. Illinoian deposits are much less weathered and eroded than those of preIllinoian age. Till is more widespread and, in the Lamington and Pohatcong valleys, forms moraines, which are ridges deposited along the glacier margin. Sand and gravel deposited in river plains and in lakes are preserved in the Delaware, Lamington, Rockaway, Pequest, and upper Passaic valleys. The most recent glaciation is known as the late Wisconsinan. Radiocarbon dates indicate that this glacier reached its maximum position about , years ago, and retreated from New Jersey about , years ago. Farther north, the glacier retreated into Canada by , years ago and was entirely melted by , years ago. The late Wisconsinan glacier advanced across northern New Jersey in two masses. One lobe flowed southwesterly across northeastern New Jersey, centered in the lowland between the Palisades and Watchung Mountains. A second lobe advanced southerly across Kittatinny Mountain, Kittatinny Valley, and the

0

BAYONNE

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Highlands. The lobes deposited a terminal moraine at their maximum position. Most of the landscape north of the moraine is glacially shaped, with little erosion and weathering since ice retreated. During glacial advance the ice laid down till, primarily on hillslopes that faced advancing ice, and in drumlins, which are streamlined hills elongated in the direction of ice flow. In many areas, till was not deposited and bedrock is exposed. On hillslopes facing the glacier, ice sliding up the slope abraded bedrock to form smooth ledges. On lee slopes, the glacier cracked bedrock into blocks that were then carried away by the ice, leaving cliffs. This process, known as quarrying, is how the Palisades and most other cliffs in northern New Jersey were created. As the glacier margin stood at and retreated from the terminal moraine, sand, gravel, silt, and clay were deposited in glacial lakes and river plains. Lakes formed where valleys were dammed by the ice front or by earlier deposits. Most valleys contained lakes, including large lakes like Passaic, Hackensack, Bayonne, and Wallkill, and numerous small lakes. River plains were deposited in valleys that drained away from the ice margin, such as the Delaware, the Musconetcong, and the Pequannock. Ice-contact sand and gravel deposits and several moraines mark the positions of the receding ice front, and indicate that ice withdrew along the same lines as the advance. Harper, D. P., and F. R. Goldstein, eds. Glacial Geology of New Jersey. Trenton: Geological Association of New Jersey, .

Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; lakes

Scott D. Stanford

Glassboro.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. Although there were a few settlements of Dutch, English, and Swedish immigrants dating back to the s, the opening of the Stanger Glassworks in  marked the community’s birth. The business was sold to Cols. Thomas Heston and Thomas Carpenter, two former soldiers in the Continental Army, when the area was named Glassboro. One hundred years later, on March , , Glassboro Township was formed from Clayton Township. It officially became a borough on March , . In  the borough named for its glass industry lost its last glassworks, Anchor Hocking. The borough is nicknamed Summit City, because it was host to the summit meeting between President Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Premier Aleksei N. Kosygin on June –, , at Holleybush Mansion. The Victorian mansion, located on the Rowan University Campus in the center of Glassboro, was built by the owners of the Witney Glass Works, which was once the Stanger Glassworks. The borough, known primarily for its university, is largely residential with single-family homes. In , its population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

318

Glassboro Summit

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Glassboro Summit.

The s saw a heightening of the Cold War and the outbreak of actual war in the Middle East and Vietnam. Diplomats saw a need for discussions between the leaders of the two superpowers, Soviet premier Alexi Kosygin and American president Lyndon Johnson. The possibility of a meeting began to materialize when Kosygin traveled to New York to speak to the United Nations. For reasons of image, however, Kosygin did not want to meet in Washington, and Johnson did not want to go to New York. As a compromise, a location in New Jersey approximately halfway between New York and Washington was chosen. The New Jersey State College at Glassboro (now Rowan University) offered good road access, proximity to a major airport, and suitable conference facilities. On short notice, Kosygin and Johnson met for talks there, on July  and , . The meetings were generally cordial, with the two men discussing numerous issues related to the Cold War, including the situations in the Middle East and Vietnam. More important, they discussed the building of antiballistic missile defense systems by both sides. Although the talks resulted in no significant breakthroughs, any open discussion during the Cold War was seen as a positive step. Bole, Robert D. Summit at Holly Bush. Glassboro: Glassboro State College Endowment Fund, .

See also McCarthyism

thought that New Jersey sand might be suitable for glassmaking. Just as important for the fledgling industry were the extensive woodlands in the area, since the furnaces were fueled by wood. The earliest craftspeople were experienced German glassblowers who emigrated to work for Wistar. His factory remained in operation until about . In that year, the Stangers, who had worked for Wistar, started a glasshouse in Gloucester County that operated until the s. From these beginnings, glassmaking became one of the most important industries in New Jersey in the nineteenth century and remained so through the first half of the twentieth century. More than thirty glasshouses were started in the state between  and . Most of the nineteenth-century production was of bottles and window glass since those were most in demand from consumers, relatively expensive to import, and relatively inexpensive to manufacture. Bottles, usually made of unrefined greenish glass, were the simplest glass product to manufacture; blowing window glass required somewhat more skill and a more refined formula. European glass workers continued to emigrate, and could be sure of finding a job in the United States at higher wages than they were paid at home. Often their sons followed them into the glasshouses as well and by the second half of the nineteenth century there were many American-born glass workers in the Jersey factories. South Jersey’s location, near both Philadelphia and New York, with easy access to water-transportation routes, made it an ideal place for glassmaking in the early

years of the Republic. The Harmony Glass Works, started in  in Glassboro, which made glass for over a century, turned out all types of apothecary wares, wine and liquor bottles, and jars and food containers. It also advertised window glass. The Hammonton and Winslow glass factories in Winslow operated for much of the nineteenth century, as did the Washington Glass Works in Williamstown. The Millville Glass Works was started in  and operated under several ownerships, eventually becoming Whitall, Tatum, and Company, which manufactured bottles and flasks of all types and was in operation until the midtwentieth century. The factories in Waterford, Bridgeton, Millford, Williamstown, Crowleytown, Brooklyn, Fislerville, and Bulltown were somewhat shorter-lived but quite productive, operating mostly in the mid-nineteenth century. They all manufactured bottles of various types. Several of them made the patternmolded flasks with patriotic or other decorative motifs that are popular with collectors today. Samuel Crowley’s Atlantic Glass Works in Crowleytown made the first preserving jar for John Landis Mason in  and other Jersey factories made later jars to Mason’s specifications. Apothecary glassware, which required a more transparent glass, was also a specialty of the Jersey industry. Factories in Port Elizabeth, Clementon, Columbia, Estelville, Marshallville, Winslow, and Lewisville as well as other places made window glass. It was traditional in the glass industry that the glassblowers were allowed to make glass for themselves, or as presents for their family, on their own time at the end of a shift. Usually this was simple household table glass; the

Brian D. Stokes

glass eel. The black-eyed, translucent, tiny, threadlike larval stage of the American eel, Anguilla rostrata, the glass eel migrates from the Sargasso Sea to Atlantic coastal estuaries and rivers, including those of New Jersey. The eels swim upstream to mature, eventually returning to the sea as adults to mate and die. The best time and place to view the New Jersey glass eel migration is on a late winter or early spring evening at Hooks Creek Lake in Cheesequake State Park. Formerly, glass eels were harvested in huge numbers to satisfy the demands of Japanese gourmets and to restock Asian fish farms. As a result of pressure by sport fishermen and outdoor writers, the glass eel fishery was closed in . Burger, Joanna, and Michael Gochfeld. Twenty-five Nature Spectacles in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Joseph G. Bilby

glassmaking.

Glassblowing was one of the first industries to take root in New Jersey, starting in  with the glasshouse at Wistarburgh, in Salem County. Caspar Wistar, a Philadelphia brass-button manufacturer,

Workers at T. C. Wheaton Company, c. .

Courtesy Museum of American Glass at Wheaton Village, Millville.

Glen Gardner

GLASSMAKING

Columbia

Jersey City

NYC

Millford

PHILADELPHIA Camden Clementon Glassboro Fislerville Wistarburgh

Waterford Winslow Williamstown

Bulltown Crowleytown

Egg Harbor City Vineland

Bridgeton Millville

Estelville Port Elizabeth

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Marshallville

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City since . This factory was one of the first to successfully produce pressed glass tableware in the late s. They also made cut and engraved wares, and, in the s, employed as many as  workers. They won awards at several trade fairs in New York and Philadelphia for the quality of their cut and engraved wares, and successfully competed in the New York City market for nearly four decades. In the twentieth century, table glass was made at the Liberty Cut Glass Works in Egg Harbor City from  until . This firm was started by Thomas P. Strittmatter, a Philadelphia businessman, and was very successful, employing up to  workers in the teens. Liberty’s product was the elaborately cut glass that was most popular from the s until just after World War I. Another manufacturer of fine glass was Victor Durand, who came from a French glassmaking family and immigrated to the United States as a boy in . With his father, he leased the Vineland Glass Manufacturing Company in . Here they made glass tubing and rods, and were so successful that by  they were operating three glasshouses and a factory for manufacturing clay pots for glassmaking with a combined total of  employees. In , Durand added a line of fine quality art glass to his production. This was blown, colored, iridescent ware with applied decoration. Only one team of glassblowers produced this high-quality glass, so comparatively little was made. Some cut and engraved wares were also made by Durand. In , Durand died and production of his art glass came to an end. Glassmaking continued to be a major industry in New Jersey throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. As many of the bottle factories converted to massproduction machinery after , fewer workers were needed and many factories closed down. Although some glass is still made in the state, it is no longer one of the major glassproducing regions in the United States. McKearin, Helen, and Kenneth M. Wilson. American Bottles and Flasks and Their Ancestry. New York: Crown, . Palmer, Arlene. Glass in Early America: Selections from the Winterthur Collection. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also Wheaton Village most commonly found shapes are pitchers in several sizes and sugar bowls, but vases and drinking vessels and occasionally washstand sets were also made. The colors vary from pale aquamarine to darker shades of blue, green, and amber, and the execution also varies due to the different levels of skill of the blowers. Many of these pieces were very skillfully done and they are rarely alike, since each was an individual creation. The paler colors were usually made in window glass factories and the darker pieces in bottle glasshouses. Paperweights were a specialty of several workers, especially in Millville. A number of craftsmen there made paperweights in the

early twentieth century. Ralph Barber is probably the best known. His popular Millville rose is a paperweight design with an enclosed rose. Other Millville craftsmen made similar weights as well as other designs with enclosures. Only two of the glasshouses in New Jersey produced tableware in the nineteenth century. These were the Jersey Glass Company in Jersey City, which operated from  until , and the Excelsior Glass Works in Camden, which operated from  to . The Jersey City firm was founded by George and P. C. Dummer, brothers who had been selling imported glass and ceramics in New York

Jane Shadel Spillman

Glen Gardner. .-square-mile borough in northern Hunterdon County. John Eveland built a tavern in the area that became Glen Gardner around . First called Eveland, the settlement served travelers and the farming community. It was later referred to as Spruce Run and as Sodom (purportedly because of the inhabitants’ indifference to a wandering evangelist). A post office called Clarksville was established in the village in . The community was located on the Belvidere and Burlington Turnpike, and commercial activity accelerated when the Central

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Railroad of New Jersey built a depot in the village in . Twelve years later, the Gardner Brothers of New York set up a factory that used a patented process to produce picture frames. Soon the factory employed seven hundred workers. During this boom period the town was renamed Glen Gardner. Competition ruined the picture-frame business, but a Gardner brother then patented a process for producing perforated chair sets for use in ferries and streetcars. Eventually fire and flood destroyed the factory and the Gardner brothers moved away, ending the town’s industrial era. Carved from Lebanon Township, Glen Gardner was incorporated in . At the end of the twentieth century, many Glen Gardner residents were commuters who traveled on Route , which bisects the village. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Mary Anne Adams

Glen Ridge.

.-square-mile borough in Essex County. Glen Ridge was part of the original Newark colony of , but the first settlers did not arrive in the area until the late s. Covered by woodlands and traversed by Toney’s Brook, the land was used primarily for farming, although there were some mills along the stream. These mills produced lumber, calico, brass fittings, and pasteboard boxes until the end of the nineteenth century. In  Glen Ridge became a section of Bloomfield when that town separated from Newark. Glen Ridge has had many names over the years, including Toney Brook Valley, Moffet’s, High Bridge, Honeysuckle, and Ridgewood, but it was permanently christened Glen Ridge by its citizens in . The name derived from the topographical characteristics of a ridge and glen. With the arrival of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad in the late s, and the nearby Erie Railroad, Glen Ridge slowly developed into a residential town with stately homes. In  the borough separated from Bloomfield in a dispute over tax expenditures. Today, Glen Ridge is a suburban residential community. The  census shows a population of ,, with  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

originally part of the Great Ramapo Tract. The earliest European settlers were Dutch farmers, some of whose names survive in present-day street names such as Ackerman and Doremus. Glen Rock was incorporated in  after a dispute over school districting prompted residents in southern Ridgewood to vote to secede from that community. The new borough was formed from land in Ridgewood and Saddle River townships. The town gets its name from a large rock in its center, originally called Pammackapuka, or “rock from heaven,’’ which was used by the Lenape Indians for tribal meetings. It served as a boundary marker in all early surveys for the area, and is still used as a point of reference in the borough. The borough’s main commercial activities are professional services and retail businesses. The oldest house of worship, the Community Church of Glen Rock, dates from . According to the  census, the population stood at ,, of whom  percent was white and  percent was Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Maynard, William Benz, comp. The Centennial History of Glen Rock. Baltimore, MD: Gateway Press, . Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Northern Edition. Neptune: National Resource Directories, .

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

changed from Union to Gloucester. Part of its present area was taken from Centre Township in  and part from Haddon Township in . Nineteenth-century industries included shad fishing, depicted by Winslow Homer in Mending the Nets, shipbuilding, paper and textile manufacture, and ironworking. Lacking good rail connections to markets, industry declined after the Civil War until David S. Brown secured new investors and built a gingham mill, textile printing works, terra-cotta works, a gas lighting company, and a bank. In  a narrow-gauge railroad, the Peanut Line, connected the city’s industrial area to a Camden ferry landing; it was eventually purchased by the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad. Known for the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, which produced ships for the United States during World War II, Gloucester City is one of the county’s older urban areas in need of revitalization. Because the Walt Whitman Bridge connects the city to South Philadelphia, however, the historic Mill Blocks, nineteenthcentury workers’ houses, are attracting young families. In , the population was ,, of whom  percent were white. The  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Gloucester City.

.-square-mile city on the Delaware River in northwestern Camden County. Settled in  by Quakers seeking religious freedom, Gloucester was known as Gloucestertown until , when it separated from Gloucester County and became part of Union Township. In  its name was

Gloucester County.

.-squaremile county located in the southwestern part of the state. Gloucester County was established on May , , when the inhabitants of the region met at present-day Gloucester City to establish townships and jurisdictional courts.

Image Not Available

Folsom, Joseph Fulford, ed. The Municipalities of Essex County, New Jersey, –. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

William Hart

Glen Rock.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Most of Glen Rock was

Thomas Eakins, Shad Fishing at Gloucester on the Delaware River, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Art. Gift of Mrs. Thomas Eakins and Miss Mary A. Williams. Photo: Graydon Wood, 2000.

Gloucester County College

GLOUCESTER COUNTY

Woodbury

0

15

county seat

miles

The county at that time stretched from the Delaware River to the ocean and included present-day Atlantic and Camden counties, which separated in  and  respectively. The county’s name is derived from that of Gloucestershire, England. The county’s English name, however, belies its earlier diverse history. The first inhabitants, the Lenape, maintained villages along most of the county’s many creeks; their presence survives most visibly in place names such as Narraticon, Cohawkin, and Mantua. The Dutch came to Gloucester County in  to trade with the Lenape for furs. They constructed Fort Nassau, believed to have been located near the mouth of Big Timber Creek; nothing remains of that settlement today. The Swedes initiated a more enduring presence beginning in the s. While more sparsely populated than their counterparts across the Delaware, the settlements at Bridgeport, Repaupo, Mullica Hill, and, most prominently, Swedesboro were nonetheless significant outposts of New Sweden. Log structures from that period survive in the vicinity, and Trinity (“Old Swedes’’) Church in Swedesboro, established in , remains a visible reminder of the county’s Swedish heritage. The Swedes, in fact, provided shelter for the first English arrivals in the county. Samuel Smith in his History of the Colony of NovaCaesaria or New Jersey () wrote that the second party of Quaker immigrants to West Jersey sojourned at Swedesboro for a period of time in  before proceeding upriver to Burlington. Quaker colonists permanently

settled in the county in the s, establishing the first Friends meeting at Woodbury in . The Woodbury Friends Meetinghouse, erected in , remains the oldest surviving house of worship in the county. Although court sessions originally alternated between Gloucester City and Red Bank on Woodbury Creek, the former was selected as the site for the first county buildings in . Gloucester continued as county seat until a fire destroyed the courthouse and jail in , at which time Woodbury was selected as the new county seat by public referendum. The city has continued to serve as the seat of county government ever since. Gloucester County was the scene of military activity during the American Revolution, most notably during the defense of the Philadelphia in –. Chevaux-de-frise, artificial reefs designed to obstruct river navigation, were sunk in the Delaware off the county’s shores in , and the Continental Congress authorized construction of two military fortifications along Gloucester County’s riverfront at Billingsport and Red Bank on Woodbury Creek (today National Park). These earthen redoubts were known as Fort Billings and Fort Mercer respectively. The latter was the site of land and naval engagements in October . Here American troops successfully repelled a land assault by Hessian troops on October  and then defended the fort against a naval attack the following day. The Whitall Mansion, located next to the fort, was turned into a military hospital after the battle. These successes, however, were short-lived, for just as it was necessary to abandon Fort Billings prior to the Battle of Red Bank, so too did American troops have to evacuate Fort Mercer by mid-November. The county was also the scene of foraging expeditions by both American and British troops in February and March . Military operations never again took place within Gloucester County’s boundaries after the American Revolution. The Underground Railroad, however, passed through the county, which has long been the site of a number of well-established African American communities. Recently, Mount Zion AME Church near Swedesboro, an Underground Railroad station, was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. From the outset, Gloucester County’s economy was agricultural, with major markets readily accessible in nearby Philadelphia. While farming remains an important segment of the county’s economic base, it is no longer the dominant industry. Industrial parks burgeon along the major transportation corridors that traverse the county, and farmlands are developed for retail and residential purposes, although the county maintains an active farmland preservation program. The manufacture of glass was the first major nonagricultural industrial development in the county. The Stanger brothers established

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the second major glassworks in New Jersey in  at aptly named Glassboro, and by  twenty-six glass factories were in operation in the county, stimulated by access to deposits of fine glass sand in the central part of the county. Glass manufacturing continued in Glassboro well into the twentieth century. The county’s manufacturing base began diversifying in the latter half of the nineteenth century. In , the DuPont Company opened the Repauno Chemical Works in Gibbstown, the first of the major chemical and petroleum refineries that would come to dominate the county’s riverfront from West Deptford to Paulsboro. A wide variety of historic sites can be seen throughout the county. Red Bank Battlefield is designated a National Historic Landmark; Mullica Hill and Pitman boast National Register Historic Districts. An additional twenty-seven sites in the county are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. County and municipal organizations manage a number of historic sites in Glassboro, Mullica Hill, National Park, Washington Township, Williamstown, Woodbury, and Woolwich. The Gloucester County Historical Society, the county’s oldest and largest historical organization, maintains an extensive research library and museum in Woodbury, as well as the historic Moravian Church near Swedesboro. Religious organizations preserve a rich variety of historic houses of worship. The county consists of twenty-four municipalities: Clayton, Deptford, East Greenwich, Elk, Franklin, Glassboro, Greenwich, Harrison, Logan, Mantua, Monroe, National Park, Newfield, Paulsboro, Pitman, South Harrison, Swedesboro, Washington, Wenonah, West Deptford, Westville, Woodbury, Woodbury Heights, and Woolwich. Still reflecting its rich rural heritage, Gloucester County began the twenty-first century in the midst of change spurred by its proximity to the greater Philadelphia metropolitan area. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Harper, Robert W. Old Gloucester County and the American Revolution, –. Woodbury: Gloucester County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Mickle, Isaac. Reminiscences of Old Gloucester. Philadelphia: T. Ward, .

James Turk

Gloucester County College.

Located on  acres in Deptford Township, Gloucester County College (GCC) was founded in , when New Jersey expanded its highereducation system to include county colleges. GCC serves Gloucester County, enrolling

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Gloucester County Times

nearly twenty-three hundred full-time and part-time students, and offering fifty-nine associate degree programs in such fields as early childhood education, law enforcement, business, and health careers. There are also thirty professional certificates in such areas as accounting, computer graphics, and real estate. The college also provides on-line and distance learning programs. Transfer agreements with Rutgers University and other state institutions help students with associate degrees complete their education. See also higher education

Kelly A. Shea

Gloucester County Times.

On February , , the Woodbury Daily Times was established by C. Walter Hawn and Harry B. Wilson, former employees of the Gloucester County Democrat. The newspaper offices were located in Woodbury, and the publication changed names several times. On March , , the name was changed to the Daily Times and on February , , it changed again, this time to the Gloucester County Times. C. Walter Hawn was bought out by the Wilson family in , which then became sole proprietor. The paper was subsequently owned by the Harte-Hanks Newspapers in , by Scudder and Singleton Newspapers in , by Garden State Newspapers in , and by Penn-Jersey Advance in . See also newspapers

Shannon E. Martin

Gloucester Township. .-squaremile township in Camden County. Gloucester Township was the largest and the third to be established of the six original townships that in  made up the original Gloucester County, from which Camden County separated in . The oldest villages in the township are Chews Landing, named for Jeremiah Chew in , and Blackwood, named for John Blackwood. Erial, Blenheim, Sicklerville, and parts of Grenloch contributed to the township’s early growth; Hilltop and Glendora were carved out of Chews Landing during the early s. Davistown, largely inhabited by blacks, was settled as early as . Solomon Wesley Church, which marks the area, celebrated its th anniversary in the year . The Blackwood National Register Historic District, in the center of the township at the crossroads of the Black Horse Pike and Church Road, contains nearly one hundred buildings and sites, representing the development of the township from its early years to its emergence as a suburb. Saint John the Evangelist Episcopal Church, the Chew Powell House, and the Gabreil Daveis Tavern also are on the National Register of Historic Places. Camden County Health Services Center, a acre social services complex begun in  and known as the Lakeland Complex until

the s, bulges past Gloucester County’s border. In  a rapid transit line from Philadelphia to within two miles of Gloucester caused a population spurt of almost  percent. The population of , in  was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

Gail Greenberg

Glover, Savion

(b. Nov. , ). Tap dancer and choreographer. Savion Glover was born in Newark. Early in his life, he showed a remarkable rhythmic gift. His mother enrolled him at the age of four in the Newark Community School of the Arts, where he took drum lessons. By age five, he was on scholarship there. When he was seven, he saw a rhythm tap-dance demonstration and knew that he had found his calling. By age ten, Glover was dancing professionally. He made his  Broadway debut in The Tap Dance Kid. Since then, he has appeared as a regular on the PBS television show, Sesame Street, in the motion pictures Tap () and The Wall (), and on Broadway in Black and Blue () and Jelly’s Last Jam (). In  Glover became the youngest recipient of a National Endowment for the Arts grant for choreography. His Broadway creation, Bring In Da Noise, Bring In Da Funk (), won him Tony and Drama Desk awards. In , he was the youngest recipient of Dance Magazine’s Choreographer of the Year. Glover, an African American, continues to choreograph and teach. According to tap great Gregory Hines, Glover is “possibly the best tap dancer that ever lived.’’

Beth S. Bloom

Goddard, Henry

(b. Aug. , ; d. June

, ). Psychologist, researcher, and teacher.

Born of Quaker parents in Vassalboro, Maine, Henry Goddard graduated from Haverford College. Granted a fellowship in psychology, he received his doctorate from Clark University in . In an age when William James and G. Stanley Hall were publishing seminal works on child and adolescent development, Goddard began his professional life training teachers at the Pennsylvania State College in West Chester. He spent a year in Europe (– ) to acquaint himself with the progressive psychological research then being conducted. He recognized the significance of the work of the French psychologists Alfred Binet and ´odore Simon in developing tests that could The distinguish intellectually less mature children from more normally developing children. In  he accepted an invitation to become director of research at the Vineland Training School. It was in this remote stretch of New Jersey farmland, over a twelve-year period, that Goddard carried out the activities

that established him as one of the foremost psychologists of his time. He established the first research laboratory for the psychological study of mental deficiency. He popularized an adapted version of the “Binet-Simon Scale,’’ a measure that was to become the prototype for cognitive assessment instruments in the years to come. He hosted the Yerkes Committee, which produced the group ability tests that were used to screen more than a million World War I recruits. He consulted nationwide on special education issues; his research and publications on juvenile delinquency and mental retardation were pacesetting. Goddard’s  classic research, The Kallikak Family, confirmed the prevailing view of the genetic origins of mental deficiency. His pioneering efforts in the field of psychology have been devalued in recent years by critics within the antitesting movement who interpret his hereditarian view as racist. In later years, he taught at Ohio State University. Gould, Stephen J. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W. W. Norton, . Kamin, Leon. The Science and Politics of I.Q. Potomac: Earlbaum, . Zenderland, Leila. Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence Testing. New York: Cambridge University Press, .

Richard Cummings

Goethals Bridge.

The Goethals Bridge spans the Arthur Kill between Elizabeth, New Jersey, and Howlands Hook, Staten Island, and is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, carrying four vehicular lanes of Interstate  as well as pedestrian and bicycle traffic. Constructed between  and  at an original cost of $. million, it is a steel truss cantilever bridge with a -foot main span. Named for Maj. Gen. George W. Goethals, builder of the Panama Canal and the Port Authority’s first consulting engineer, its channel clearance of  feet at midspan allows passage of deep-sea vessels.

Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

See also bridges

Steven M. Richman

golf. Although the origins of golf are shrouded in mystery, it is clear that the game did not formally take root in America until the late s. At that time, however, golf was almost at once played throughout the nation. New Jersey proved no exception, welcoming the game to its soil by . Soon there were golf courses throughout the state. Towns like Deal, Essex Fells, Montclair, Moorestown, Plainfield, Ridgewood, Riverton, Springfield, Spring Lake, and West Orange became well known for their golf courses. In fact, golf was so widely popular that in  the New Jersey State Golf Association was founded to promote the interests of

Goodwin, Abigail

Four gentlemen play the course at Baltusrol Golf Club, Springfield, c. .

Courtesy Baltusrol Golf Club.

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expected of him. Born on the Lower East Side of New York City to Polish immigrant parents, he studied engineering at Columbia University, graduating in . After several years in consulting work and subway design, he joined the Mercer County Highway Department as its bridge engineer in . Three years later he joined the New Jersey Highway Department, and in  he was appointed chief bridge engineer. In that capacity, and later as a consulting engineer, he designed or supervised the design of more than four thousand bridges. These included the Pulaski Skyway and all of the major bridges on the state highway system. In , his design for the College Bridge (carrying U.S. Route  over the Raritan River) earned Goodkind the Phoebe Hobson Fowler Medal for excellence in bridge design from the American Society of Civil Engineers. After his retirement from state government in , he joined his son’s engineering firm, Goodkind and O’Dea, headquartered in Bloomfield, as its bridge consultant. The College Bridge was renamed in his memory in .

Robert Craig the game and to sanction and conduct state tournaments. New Jersey played a part in a number of important historical developments. Morris County Golf Club, established in  in Convent Station, became the first eighteenhole club organized by women for women. The club hosted the second United States Women’s Amateur championship in  and the  U.S. Amateur. The term “birdie’’ was coined in  at Atlantic City Country Club by Ab Smith when he proclaimed, “That’s a bird of a shot!’’ The wooden tee was patented and popularized by a Maplewood dentist named William Lowell in . In addition, a Plainfield mayor, Leighton Calkins, is commonly regarded as the father of golf handicapping. Over the years, New Jersey boasted many respected homebred golfers, including Jerry Travers, Max Behr, Charlotte Glutting, and Eugene Homans. Rumson’s Vic Ghezzi learned the game as a caddie and eventually found great success on the professional circuit. Some of the game’s brightest stars played locally for a time, including Johnny Farrell at Baltusrol Golf Club, Ralph Guldahl at Florham Park Golf Club, Byron Nelson at Ridgewood Country Club, and Craig Wood at Forest Hill Field Club and Plainfield Country Club. Despite its rich golf history, New Jersey is perhaps best known in golfing today for some of the most respected and top-ranked courses in the world, including Pine Valley Golf Club in Clementon and Baltusrol Golf Club in Springfield. See also sports

Andrew C. Mutch

from Portugal to Spain to sail for Charles V. Passed over for command of the expedition led by Magellan, Gomez did pilot the fleet’s San Antonio, which mutinied and returned to Spain. In  Charles gave Gomez command of the fifty-ton caravel La Anunciada, to find a northern route to the Philippines and Moluccas and to challenge Verrazzano’s explorations. From February  he coasted south from Cape Breton perhaps as far as New Jersey before returning to Spain, where he was knighted in . Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Joseph P. Byrne

Good, Ralph Edward (b. Feb. , ; d. Dec. , ). Ecologist. Ralph Good was born in Chicago and educated at the University of Illinois and at Rutgers University (earning a Ph.D. in  in plant ecology). Good served on the Rutgers–Camden faculty for twentyfour years, becoming a Distinguished Professor. He married Norma Frauendorf () and had one child, Karen. His extensive studies of the New Jersey Pinelands (with his wife, also a botanist/ecologist) helped lay the scientific foundation for the protection of the .-million-acre region in the late s. In the s, Good established the Rutgers Pinelands Field Station in New Lisbon, which still serves as an internationally recognized center for Pinelands research.

Mark D. Morgan

Goodkind, Morris

(b. ; d. Sept. ,

Good Roads Movement. The Good Roads Movement was the late nineteenthand early twentieth-century national advocacy group for road improvements. First formed by bicyclists as the League of American Wheelmen, it demanded more and smoother roads. In  the New Jersey chapter successfully lobbied the legislature for the first state aid bill in the nation for road construction; the act became a model for other state groups. In the automobile age, New Jersey’s commercial interest lay especially in hard-surface intrastate and transcontinental roads. The  Federal Aid Road Act was the movement’s first major national success. It provided $ million to state highway departments for roads, and it led to New Jersey’s creation of its highway department in . After World War I, road improvement became a national security measure. The  Federal Highway Act set up an integrated branching system with collaboration between federal and state bodies and set state spending formulas for matching federal contributions. Between  and , New Jersey’s road mileage nearly doubled. New Jersey’s Good Roads Movement triumphs ranged from its piece of the national Lincoln Highway to the regional Pulaski Skyway, a thirteen-mile road project to relieve Jersey City–Newark congestion. Cranmer, H. Jerome. New Jersey in the Automobile Age: A History of Transportation. Princeton: Van Nostrand, . Seely, Bruce E. Building the American Highway System: Engineers as Policy Makers. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

See also highways; transportation

).

Gomez, Estevan

(b. c. ; d. c. ).

Navigator and explorer. Born Estavao Gomes in Oporto, Portugal, Estevan Gomez emigrated

Civil engineer. Morris Goodkind felt that bridges were monuments to structural elegance and that unless a bridge was beautiful, the engineer had not given all that was

Deborah E. Popper

Goodwin, Abigail

(b. Dec. , ; d. Nov.

, ). Abolitionist. From her home in Salem,

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Goodwin, Hannibal

Abigail Goodwin, a Quaker, aided hundreds of runaway slaves between  and  both by hiding them and their supporters in her home and by raising money, despite strenuous opposition outside the Quaker community. She became a friend and correspondent of many leading abolitionists in New England, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Today she is recognized as a humanitarian and proprietor of the most important Underground Railroad station in all of southern New Jersey. Blockson, Charles L. Hippocrene Guide to the Underground Railroad. New York: Hippocrene Books, . Still, William. The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, etc. . Reprint. Chicago: Johnson Publishing, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also abolition; Underground Railroad

Robert W. Harper

Goodwin, Hannibal

City, Georgia, to be closer to its manufacturing and distributing facilities.

Bowman, Ruth. Murals without Walls: Arshile Gorky’s Aviation Murals Rediscovered. Newark: Newark Museum, .

David A. Norris

Matossian, Nouritza. Black Angel: The Life of Arshile Gorky. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, .

Gordon, James Riely (b. Aug. , ; d. Apr. , ). Architect. Born in Virginia and later a Texas resident, James Riely Gordon was one of the country’s most prolific designers of public buildings in the late nineteenth century. In addition to the Arizona State Capitol, he served as architect for seventy-two county courthouses in Texas and the Midwest. In  he moved to New York City, where he joined in a partnership with architects Evarts Tracy and Egerton Swartwout. Egerton, who had worked for the firm of McKim, Mead, and White, probably was responsible for the design of the Somerset County Courthouse in Somerville (–). Gordon also designed the Bergen County Courthouse and Jail in Hackensack (–).

(b. Apr. , ; d.

Constance M. Greiff

Dec. , ). Clergyman and inventor. Born

in Tompkins County, New York, Hannibal Goodwin graduated from Union College, Schenectady, in , and later trained in a seminary. He held several rectorates in the Protestant Episcopal Church in New Jersey, then, for a brief time, lived in the western United States for health reasons. By , Goodwin was rector of House of Prayer in Newark, retiring in . He filed a patent for roll film to be used in cameras in , with seven revisions by September , , but the patent was not issued until . Lengthy litigation ensued over the conflict with the Eastman/Reichenbach patent, issued December , . The final opinion on the lawsuit, rendered by the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on March , , was favorable to Goodwin, and George Eastman paid $ million to the patent owners (ANSCO and Goodwin heirs). Goodwin had died in  from injuries received in a streetcar accident. Jenkins, Reese V. Images and Enterprise: Technology and the American Photographic Industry, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Taft, Robert. Photography and the American Scene. A Social History, –. . Reprint. New York: Dover, .

Gary D. Saretzky

Goody Products.

Ukrainian immigrant Henry Goodman founded this hair products manufacturing firm in . Goodman and his sons at first sold rhinestone-studded combs from a pushcart in New York City. By , their company was known as H. Goodman and Sons, and had expanded into the Northeast and Midwest. Their products were sold in department stores, and then, later, in drugstores, supermarkets, and shopping centers. Goody Products grew into one of the country’s largest hair-accessory companies. The Newell Company purchased Goody Products in . In , the corporate headquarters was moved from Kearny, New Jersey, to Peachtree

Gorky, Arshile

(b. Apr. , ; d. July ,

). Painter. Arshile Gorky was born Vos-

danig Manoog Adoian in Khorkom, Armenia, to Sedrag Adoian and Shushanik der Marderosian. He attended local schools. In  he fled the Turkish genocide of Armenians, finally immigrating to America in . He joined relatives in Providence, Rhode Island, where he briefly attended high school, and then studied at the New School of Design in Boston. In  Gorky moved to New York City and changed his name to honor the Russian writer Maxim Gorky, to whom he often pretended to be related. Arshile is the Armenian form of Achilles. He studied at the National Academy of Design and the Grand Central School of Art, where he taught from  to the early s. Gorky’s work was first exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in . While Gorky was influenced by many of the masters he studied, including Paul Cezanne and Pablo Picasso, he developed his own style, combining aspects of surrealism and abstract expressionism. In  Gorky joined the Works Progress Administration Federal Art Project and began a mural entitled Aviation: Evolution of Forms under Aerodynamic Limitations for the Newark Airport Administration Building. Unveiled in , this work was one of the first abstract murals in the United States. Eight of the original ten panels were destroyed during airport renovations in World War II. The two extant panels, “Aerial Map’’ and “Mechanics of Flying,’’ were rediscovered in  and are on permanent loan to the Newark Museum. Gorky was married twice: briefly to Marny George in , and then in  to Agnes Magruder, with whom he had two children. Beset by illness and personal problems, Gorky committed suicide at his farm in Connecticut in .

Spender, Matthew. From a High Place: A Life of Arshile Gorky. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Jan Kelsey

gospel music. Although indebted both to plantation spirituals and the hymnody of late nineteenth-century revivalists such as Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey, gospel music, a fusion of traditional African American call-andresponse with popular forms such as ragtime and blues, only emerged as a distinct form of inspirational music in the s. A leading figure in the development of the form was Thomas Dorsey (–), a musician who worked with Sallie Martin and Mahalia Jackson in the s and s, while composing and publishing such songs as “If You See My Saviour’’ and “Precious Lord, Take My Hand.’’ Gospel music was enthusiastically received in churches whose parishioners had resettled in New Jersey during the Great Migration of the s. Regional styles of southern quartet singing were transplanted north more or less intact; aficionados distinguish the Mississippi sound of a group such as the Lumzy Sisters, for example, from the style of gospel groups in other areas in the South. Much gospel music has been centered on the urban areas of Camden and Newark. Although church choirs and small vocal ensembles are the neighborhood base of traditional gospel, secular venues such as Newark’s Laurel Gardens and Symphony Hall have hosted performances to capacity crowds, with choruses sometimes drawn from the community at large. The Campbell Soup Male Glee Club was directed by Sue Smith McDonald and recruited entirely from the factory’s employees; the interracial Woodbury Choral Society, founded by Samuel Edward Davis in , performed into the early s; and the Ecumenical Choir of Camden and Vicinity was formed by Walter Young and Lois K. Harris to perform a  benefit concert for the ailing James Marshall Wheeler. Directors such as Wheeler, Davis, McDonald, and Henrietta Fuller Robinson often did double duty as choir directors and music educators. Robinson ran a summer music camp called Robin Oaks Farm in Evesham Township for several years. The relationship between gospel and popular music is a two-way street. Dionne Warwick, a New Jersey gospel choir alumna, recorded many secular songs with palpable gospel influence, such as Burt Bacharach and Hal David’s swinging “Let Me Be Lonely.’’ Gospel has been described as one of the fastest-growing segments of the music industry by Dr. Albert Lewis, host of three weekly cable-television gospel shows and appointed

government New Jersey’s Musical Minister by a gubernatorial proclamation. He spearheaded a successful drive to have Newark declared the Gospel Capital of the state by its city council, and to have June designated Gospel Music Month. The Rev. Milton Bingham, pastor of Mount Vernon Baptist Church, is also president of the gospel label Savoy Records in New York; and resident Newark-area ensembles have ranged from the Fields Gospel Singers and Morgan Singers, active in the late s and s, to present-day groups such as Alvin Darling and Celebration, the New Jersey Mass Choir, and the Franklin Singers. A new generation of listeners has been attracted to inspirational music by offshoots of the genre, including Contemporary Gospel, New Traditional Gospel, Steppers, Praise Dances, and even Gospel Rap. Robinson, Henrietta Fuller, and Carolyn Cordelia Williams. Dedicated to Music: The Legacy of African American Church Musicians and Music Teachers in Southern New Jersey, –. Cherry Hill: Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers, .

Nick Humez

Gould, George Jay (b. Feb. , ; d. May , ). Millionaire, railroad executive, and sportsman. The son of infamous railroad magnate Jay Gould, George Jay Gould managed the family fortune after his father’s death in . He married actress Edith Kingdon in , and they had seven children. Their splendid Lakewood country home, Georgian Court, built in , was a center for social and sporting events, especially polo matches. In , less than a year after Edith’s death, Gould married Guinevere Sinclair and acknowledged in his will that he fathered her three children. The Lakewood estate, still intact today, was sold in  to the Sisters of Mercy and became Georgian Court College.

the nineteenth century. In  blacks owned more than , acres of land in the area, probably the largest example of contiguous landholding by black New Jerseyans. Farming was Gouldtown’s chief means of livelihood up to the s. Gouldtown’s Trinity African Methodist Episcopal Church, built in , is probably New Jersey’s largest surviving pre–Civil War black religious edifice. The nearby cemetery contains graves dating from the eighteenth century onward, including that of Theophilus Gould Steward (–), an AME clergyman, U.S. Army chaplain, and Wilberforce College professor. Another Gouldtown historic site is its old school (now joined to a newer school), which dates to the early s. Steward, Theophilus Gould, and William Steward. Gouldtown: A Very Remarkable Settlement of Ancient Date. Philadelphia: Lippincott, .

See also African Americans

Giles R. Wright

government.

As a political society, the state of New Jersey participates in a federal system of government, one that divides authority between central and regional elements. As such, New Jersey is subject to the constraints of the national Constitution, including its Bill of Rights. The U.S. Constitution has allocated certain functions, such as foreign affairs, to the national government, and has forbidden the states to exercise others, such as taxing exports. New Jersey still retains substantial governmental authority—the so-called police power—over those residing, visiting, or operating within its geographic boundaries,

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by regulating their behavior, protecting them, and promoting their well-being. As part of a nation, New Jersey is influenced by U.S. political culture, traditions, and history. Thus New Jersey’s two-party system is a reflection of the nation’s. Or again, its attempt to create a new state constitution in  was thwarted in part by the fact that the United States was at war. A key feature of the political culture of the United States is faith in, and reliance upon, written constitutions. New Jersey has had three: adopted in , , and . Unlike the U.S. Constitution, which acts as a source of power for the national government, state constitutions function primarily to place limits on a state’s inherent police powers. These limits may be found in the  document’s bill of rights, as well as in policy restrictions contained in other articles. Most of the constitution is, however, concerned with the organization and operations of the state’s government, as well as with voting and elections— that is, the means of popular control. Like its national counterpart, state government in New Jersey is structured according to the principle of separation of powers with three independent and theoretically coequal branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislature is bicameral, with its system of representation changed from that of  by a special constitutional convention held in  and by subsequent decisions of the New Jersey Supreme Court. The State Senate consists of forty members, elected quadrennially from single-member districts, approximately equal in population. Legislative district lines are redrawn after each federal

Geis, M. Christina. Georgian Court: An Estate of the Gilded Age. Philadelphia: Art Alliance Press, . Hoyt, Edwin P. The Goulds: A Social History. New York: Weybright and Talley, .

See also Georgian Court College

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Gouldtown. Located in Fairfield Township, Cumberland County, Gouldtown is one of the nation’s oldest communities of free landowning blacks. It was named after Benjamin Gould, the only surviving child of a former slave named Gould and Elizabeth Adams, granddaughter of John Fenwick. According to oral tradition, Fenwick, a Quaker who founded the Salem colony in , the earliest English settlement in southern New Jersey, disinherited his granddaughter for living with Gould. Other early families of Gouldtown—the Pierces, Murrays, and Cuffs— also appear to have sprung from unions between black men and white women. Benjamin Gould is said to have owned at least  acres of land in the Gouldtown area in . Gouldtown’s early families and others acquired additional land in the region during

Satire on the  New Jersey gubernatorial campaign centered on the extension of the Camden and Amboy Railroad, a major issue in the race. Charles Stratton campaigned on a platform opposing powerful railroad interests. His opponent, John Thomson, was a stockholder in the railroad.

Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-10103.

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government

census. The lower house, the General Assembly, consists of eighty members, two elected biennially from each of these same districts. Elections are held in odd-numbered years, a provision designed to avoid state contests from being submerged by the national political calendar. Nonetheless, elections are dominated by the two major national parties. The independent is a rarity; no minor party candidate won a legislative seat in the twentieth century. The New Jersey legislature possesses broad policy and financial powers, subject to specific constitutional limitations. The constitution also contains a mandate: “the legislature shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of free public schools,’’ which has long been a bone of contention between legislators and the state courts. Each legislature has a life of two years, which runs with the terms of office of members of the lower house. Two annual sessions are held. The constitution places no time limits on these sessions; by tradition meetings are held on Mondays and Thursdays. The months of July and August see little activity, as does the autumn campaign season. The legislature works through a committee system supplemented by party caucuses— general-purpose discussion and decisionmaking agencies. Party allegiance has long been the principal factor in decisions on legislative organization and operations. Formal leadership positions—presiding officers, committee chairs—are monopolized by the majority party. Caucuses are used by each party to frame its position on important issues. Minor bills, and some major ones, are processed in routine, bipartisan fashion. The power that legislative officers wield over process, however, typically enables the majority party to have its way in controversial matters. This is especially true if the governor’s office is held by that same party, adding its weight to the political scales. The  constitutional convention intended to create a chief executive with strong policy and administrative powers. It largely succeeded. The governor is elected, in oddnumbered years, for a term of four years, and is eligible to run for one succeeding term. New Jersey does not have a lieutenant governor, and there are no separately elected executive officers. All department heads (to a maximum of twenty) are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the senate. Through annual “state of the state’’ and budget messages, the governor is given opportunities to set New Jersey’s policy agenda and thereby exercise political leadership. With an impressive package of veto powers, the constitutional right to appoint all state court judges, and strong controls over the personnel, organization, and operations of the executive branch, the governor is positioned to function as a “little president’’ so long as he or she avoids

antagonizing the media and the public. An incumbent governor assumes the roles of party leader and state spokesperson, providing additional leverage for the office. Prior to , New Jersey’s judicial system, little changed from colonial times, had an unenviable reputation. The new constitution brought about major reforms, producing a simple, integrated system of state courts. These principles were furthered in  when separate county courts were eliminated. What remains is a two-tiered system of municipal and state courts. All judges are appointed; New Jersey has no elected judges. Municipal courts (with judges typically appointed by local governing bodies) enforce local ordinances, traffic regulations, and some state laws. The basic state court is the superior court with original, statewide jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters, and a built-in appellate division. A seven-person supreme court functions as the final court of appeals, and exercises administrative control over all New Jersey courts. Although not without problems in trying to handle the crushing caseloads of a litigious society, the modern New Jersey judiciary is regarded as one of the best in the nation. The system’s reputation has been enhanced by the activism of the supreme court. The state’s highest court has been an aggressive competitor in the public policy arena, attempting to shape the law in such areas as land use control, civil liberties, and school funding. Although controversial, its decisions have generally been acceptable to a state regarded as liberal by political observers. Law enforcement in New Jersey is also a two-tiered system. Municipal police exercise generally local jurisdiction. The attorney general, a member of the governor’s cabinet, has statewide jurisdiction, working operationally through appointed prosecutors in each county and through such agencies as the state police. The state government’s revenue system was fundamentally reshaped after midcentury. In  New Jersey had no broadbased state tax, and total appropriations were less than $ million. The adoption of a state sales tax in , of an income tax a decade later, and revenue from state lotteries and casino gambling have enabled New Jersey to increase spending dramatically. State appropriations in  exceeded the $-billion mark. The other major source of governmental revenue is the property tax, levied and collected locally for the support of county and municipal governments and school and special districts. Despite ever increasing amounts of state aid, especially to cities, New Jersey’s comparatively high local property tax is a continuing source of public criticism. Local government is the product of the state’s history, and no twentieth-century governor, legislature, court, or constitutional convention has effectively changed its basic character. Any such attempt is met with the cry

of “Home rule!’’ one of the strongest themes in New Jersey’s political culture. It was enshrined by the legislature in  with the declaration that municipalities should have “the fullest and most complete powers possible’’over their internal affairs. Throughout the nineteenth century the state’s response to growth and change was to create additional units of local government. The fragmentation of counties did cease in , when the total of twenty-one was reached, but the creation of new municipalities and school and special districts continued well into the twentieth century. In  New Jersey had  incorporated municipalities and  school districts. At the start of the new millennium the numbers were  and , respectively. Attempts at consolidation or elimination of these units have been few, foundering on the home-rule principle. Diversity characterizes not only the population and geographic size of local government in New Jersey, but also forms of government. The Faulkner Act of  led to a degree of regularity among city governments, but the rest of the state is marked by a bewildering array of nineteenth- and twentieth-century municipal formats. There is more system similarity among New Jersey’s counties, each run by an elected board of chosen freeholders, and its school districts, controlled by elected or, in some cases, appointed boards of education. Unlike many states, where one or another local unit has few if any powers, New Jersey’s counties, municipalities, and school districts are marked by independence and functional strength. Weaving its way through all levels and units of government is New Jersey’s two-party system. The formal organization of the two major parties is fixed by state law, with its base a county committee consisting of one man and one woman chosen by the registered party voters in each election district. The chairs of these county committees have traditionally been the state’s major political actors, receiving substantial competition in the closing decades of the twentieth century from governors, legislative leaders, and members of Congress. Although state party committees and conventions exist by statute, they have not developed independently as significant political forces in New Jersey. Political interest (pressure) groups have long been part of the political scene. As government has become more involved in society’s problems, regulated more of its behavior, and spent more of its money, the number and activities of pressure groups have increased dramatically. Those organizations promoting and/or protecting the economic well-being of their members are a continuing presence in Trenton. Included are groups representing business and labor, manufacturing and farming, as well as professions such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers. Groups promoting

governor particular ideologies and points of view are also seen. Some, such as the League of Women Voters, are involved in a broad spectrum of policy issues. Others, such as pro-choice and anti-abortion groups, have a very limited scope. Traditionally, legislative lobbying has been the favorite pressure-group activity. This may be done by an organization’s own staff, by the rank-and-file membership, or through a professional government liaison or public relations firm. Often prominent in the last type are former bureaucrats and legislators with established connections to decision makers and the media. Since the initiative—and the last word—on an item of public policy may lie in the executive and/or judicial branches (school funding has been such an issue in New Jersey), pressure groups are also present in those arenas. Nor can the general public be ignored. The New Jersey Education Association, for example, promotes its perspective via television, newspapers, and other media. Regardless of institutional target, the effectiveness of a political interest group is related to the skill of its lobbyists, the resources at its disposal, and the commitment and voting solidarity of its membership. Also affecting its impact are the timeliness of its message, and the receptivity of the party and politicians in power to that message. Parties and pressure groups do not exhaust the many forces shaping public policy in New Jersey. Among others are the mass media, the state’s geographic location, the nature and vitality of its own and the nation’s economy, and the changing moods and priorities of the general public. The people of New Jersey can express their political views through direct contacts with governmental officials and party leaders, protest meetings and marches, letters to the editors of the state’s newspapers, the ballot box, and so forth. The franchise is available, with few exceptions, to citizens eighteen years of age and older. Citizens must formally register to vote in New Jersey. Only voters who state a specific party preference may vote in primary (intraparty) elections, held in the spring. Any registered voter may cast a ballot in municipal, school, special district, and other general elections when residency stipulations are met. The  constitution requires voter approval for all constitutional amendments and for major state borrowing. The latter provision, however, has been sidetracked by such stratagems as borrowing from pension funds or through state authorities. Provisions for direct democracy—voter initiative, referendum, recall—exist in some municipalities. The initiative and recall are not available in New Jersey at the state level. Voter referenda are limited to the cases just mentioned. The closing years of the twentieth century witnessed a drop-off in public participation in state and local elections. Despite this, no astute politician takes the public for granted: an active electorate can be the most powerful force in New Jersey politics.

Connors, Richard J., and William J. Dunham. The Government of New Jersey: An Introduction. Rev. ed. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, . League of Women Voters. Spotlight on Government. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Worton, Stanley N. Reshaping New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also municipal government

Richard J. Connors

governor. The office of state governor is one of the very few constants in American politics. Each of the fifty states has a governor, but from state to state the offices have differing histories, and they vary widely in structure and range of powers. New Jersey has had a governor since the English conquest in . Overall, the governors have reflected the Garden State, although only one was a farmer. Most have been lawyers, but there have also been entrepreneurs and doctors, among other professions. They have come from every part of New Jersey, and generally they served in elective office, often in the state legislature, before becoming governor. There have been twentyfour Democrats and four Democratic (or Jeffersonian)-Republicans; as well as fifteen Republicans, four Whigs, and four Federalists. For much of its first thirty-eight years New Jersey was split into two colonies—East Jersey and West Jersey. In both, official power belonged to Proprietors. They appointed governors who were expected to increase the value of the Proprietors’ property but who also tried to solidify their own power. As time passed settlers began to defend self-government in defiance of gubernatorial authority. In the late seventeenth century, near anarchy prevailed. In , the Proprietors surrendered sovereignty to the Crown in return for a promise to protect their investments. The two

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proprietary colonies were united under one royal governor chosen directly by the Crown. Until , New Jersey shared its governor with its more powerful neighbor—New York— which generally received more attention than New Jersey from the appointee. While formally royal governors had almost total authority, their actual positions were unenviable. Governors had the power to convene and adjourn the legislature, veto legislation, call elections, and control the appointments of many officials. But the assembly initiated all legislation and controlled the purse strings—including the governor’s pay. During the first half of the eighteenth century the system worked well enough, despite a number of occasionally violent protests over disputed land titles. Toward the end of the century, tensions developed as the interests of the Crown and those of the colony began to diverge. The governor had to span an ever-widening, and ultimately unbridgeable, gulf. The royal period ended with the first constitution in . This hastily written document severely limited the powers of the governor’s office. The governor was chosen by the legislature, served a term of only one year, had neither appointive nor fiscal powers (though he presided over the judiciary), and lacked a veto. Nearly all political power lay with the legislature. The combination of a weak governor and a strong legislature is often seen as an expression of the principles of the Revolution, but the arrangement also had pre-Revolutionary roots. A strong legislature elected by the citizens had been a feature of the political landscape in New Jersey for a century. In general the post-Revolutionary governors performed capably in office, which reassured New Jerseyans who feared potential

Governors of the Colonial Period (Proprietors, 1665–1703; Royal Governors, 1703–1776) Name

Jurisdiction

Term

Philip Carteret Edmund Andros

East Jersey East and West Jersey

1665–1682 1674–1681; 1688–1689

Edward Byllynge Robert Barclay Daniel Coxe

West Jersey East Jersey West Jersey

1680–1687 1682–1690 1687–1692

Andrew Hamilton Jeremiah Basse Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury

East and West Jersey East and West Jersey New York and New Jersey

1692–1698; 1699–1703 1698–1699 1703–1708

John Lovelace Richard Ingoldesby

New York and New Jersey New York and New Jersey

1708–1709 1709–1710

Robert Hunter William Burnet John Montgomerie

New York and New Jersey New York and New Jersey New York and New Jersey

1710–1720 1720–1728 1728–1731

William Cosby Lewis Morris Jonathan Belcher Francis Bernard Thomas Boone

New York and New Jersey New Jersey New Jersey New Jersey New Jersey

1732–1736 1738–1746 1747–1757 1758–1760 1760–1761

Josiah Hardy William Franklin

New Jersey New Jersey

1761–1763 1763–1776

William Livingston (1776–1790)

William Paterson (1790–1793)

Richard Howell (1793–1801)

Joseph Bloomfield (1801–1802; 1803–1812)

Aaron Ogden (1812–1813)

William S. Pennington (1813–1815)

William Pennington (1837–1843)

Daniel Haines (1843–1845; 1848–1851)

Charles C. Stratton (1845–1848)

George F. Fort (1851–1854)

Rodman M. Price (1854–1857)

William A. Newell (1857–1860)

George C. Ludlow (1881–1884)

Leon Abbett (1884–1887; 1890–1893)

Robert S. Green (1887–1890)

George T. Werts (1893–1896)

John W. Griggs (1896–1898)

Foster M. Voorhees (1898–1902)

Edward I. Edwards (1920–1923)

George S. Silzer (1923–1926)

A. Harry Moore (1926–1929; 1932–1935; 1938–1941)

Morgan F. Larson (1929–1932)

Harold Hoffman (1935–1938)

Charles Edison (1941–1944)

James Florio (1990–1994)

Christine Todd Whitman (1994–2001)

William Livingston, by John Wollaston (the younger), n.d. Oil on canvas. Courtesy of Sons of the Revolution in the State of New York, Inc./Fraunces Tavern (R) Museum, New York City. Photo by Geoffrey Clements Photography. William Paterson, by Gregory Stapko, n.d. Collection of the Supreme Court of the United States. Richard Howell. Courtesy of the New Jersey State Library. Joseph Bloomfield, Aaron Ogden, William S. Pennington, Isaac H. Williamson, Peter D. Vroom, Elias P. Seeley, Charles C. Stratton, George F. Fort, Rodman M. Price, Charles S. Olden, Joel Parker, Theodore F. Randolph, Joseph D. Bedle, George C. Ludlow, Leon Abbett, Robert S. Green, George T. Werts, Foster M. Voorhees, Franklin Murphy, John Franklin Fort, Woodrow Wilson, James F. Fielder, Edward I. Edwards, A. Harry Moore,

Richard J. Hughes, William T. Cahill. Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries. Mahlon Dickerson, Philemon Dickerson, Marcus L. Ward, Harold Hoffman. Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Jersey Portraits. Governor Samuel L. Southard, by Henry Harrison, 1907. Oil on canvas, 29 5/8 × 24 3/4 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC14. Governor William Pennington, by Henry Harrison, 1903. Oil on canvas, 29 3/4 × 24 3/8 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC18. Governor Daniel Haines, by Henry Harrison, 1895. Oil on canvas, 31 1/4 × 26 1/4 in. New Jersey State

Mahlon Dickerson (1815–1817)

Isaac H. Williamson (1817–1829)

Peter D. Vroom (1829–1832; 1833–1836)

Samuel L. Southard (1832–1833)

Elias P. Seeley (1833)

Philemon Dickerson (1836–1837)

Charles S. Olden (1860–1863)

Joel Parker (1863–1866; 1872–1875)

Marcus L. Ward (1866–1869)

Theodore F. Randolph (1869–1872)

Joseph D. Bedle (1875–1878)

George B. McClellan (1878–1881)

Franklin Murphy (1902–1905)

Edward C. Stokes (1905–1908)

John Franklin Fort (1908–1911)

Woodrow Wilson (1911–1913)

James F. Fielder (1913–1917)

Walter E. Edge (1917–1919; 1944–1947)

Alfred E. Driscoll (1947–1954)

Robert B. Meyner (1954–1962)

Richard J. Hughes (1962–1970)

William T. Cahill (1970–1974)

Brendan T. Byrne (1974–1982)

Thomas Kean (1982–1990)

House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC12. William A. Newell, George B. McClellan, Walter E. Edge. Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, Oversized New Jersey Portraits. Governor John W. Griggs, by A. A. Anderson, n.d. Oil on canvas, 52 3/8 × 33 1/2 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC66. Governor Edward C. Stokes, by Frederick H. Clark, 1916. Oil on canvas, 44 1/4 × 34 1/4 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC70. Governor George S. Silzer, by H. H. Hanatschek, 1929. Oil on canvas, 44 1/4 × 32 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, Donald T. Di Francesco (2001)

James E. McGreevey (2001– )

SHPC78. Governor Morgan F. Larson, by F. Luis Mora, 1931. Oil on canvas, 33 3/8 × 29 3/8 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC81. Charles Edison. Collections of the New Jersey Historical Society. Governor Alfred E. Driscoll, by C. J. Fox, n.d. Oil on canvas, 39 1/2 × 29 1/2 in. New Jersey State House Portrait Collection, Administered by the New Jersey State Museum, SHPC135. Robert B. Meyner. Courtesy of the New Jersey State Archives, Department of State. Brendan T. Byrne, Thomas Kean, James Florio, Christine Todd Whitman (photo by Jerry McCrea), Donald T. Di Francesco, James E. McGreevey. Courtesy The Star–Ledger.

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governor

Governors under the Constitution of 1776 Name

Party

Term

William Livingston William Paterson Richard Howell

Patriot Federalist Federalist

1776–1790 1790–1793 1793–1801

Joseph Bloomfield Aaron Ogden William S. Pennington Mahlon Dickerson Isaac H. Williamson Peter D. Vroom Samuel L. Southard Elias P. Seeley

Jeffersonian-Republican Federalist Jeffersonian-Republican Jeffersonian-Republican Jeffersonian-Republican Democrat Whig Whig

1801–1802; 1803–1812 1812–1813 1813–1815 1815–1817 1817–1829 1829–1832; 1833–1836 1832–1833 1833

Philemon Dickerson William Pennington Daniel Haines

Democrat Whig Democrat

1836–1837 1837–1843 1843–1845; 1848–1851

abuse of executive power. This enabled the framers of the constitution of  to readjust the balance of power between the executive and legislative branches, though they made no drastic departures from the past. They eliminated the governor’s judicial duties and increased his administrative power. They lengthened the term of office to three years but prohibited consecutive terms, replaced legislative choice of the governor with direct popular election, and gave the governor a limited veto that could be overridden by a simple majority of the legislature. Finally, they empowered him to make several appointments that the legislature formerly controlled.

The  constitution was the state’s fundamental law for over a century. During that time New Jersey underwent momentous change, arguably more drastic than in any equivalent period in its history. The population increased; the economy grew. The governor’s office that the  framers designed was not equipped to deal with the executive requirements of the mid-twentieth century. The constitution of  ushered in an entirely new era in the history of the New Jersey governor’s office. It lengthened the term of office to four years and permitted the governor to serve two consecutive terms. It also gave the incumbent a stronger veto by increasing to

Governors under the Constitution of 1844 Name Charles C. Stratton George F. Fort Rodman M. Price

Party Whig Democrat Democrat

Term 1845–1848 1851–1854 1854–1857

William A. Newell

Republican

1857–1860

Charles S. Olden Joel Parker

Republican Democrat

1860–1863 1863–1866; 1872–1875

Marcus L. Ward Theodore F. Randolph

Republican Democrat

1866–1869 1869–1872

Joseph D. Bedle George B. McClellan George C. Ludlow

Democrat Democrat Democrat

1875–1878 1878–1881 1881–1884

Leon Abbett Robert S. Green George T. Werts John W. Griggs Foster M. Voorhees

Democrat Democrat Democrat Republican Republican

1884–1887; 1890–1893 1887–1890 1893–1896 1896–1898 1898–1902

Franklin Murphy Edward C. Stokes John Franklin Fort

Republican Republican Republican

1902–1905 1905–1908 1908–1911

Woodrow Wilson James F. Fielder Walter E. Edge Edward I. Edwards George S. Silzer

Democrat Democrat Republican Democrat Democrat

1911–1913 1913–1917 1917–1919; 1944–1947 1920–1923 1923–1926

A. Harry Moore Morgan F. Larson Harold Hoffman

Democrat Republican Republican

1926–1929; 1932–1935; 1938–1941 1929–1932 1935–1938

Charles Edison

Democrat

1941–1944

two-thirds of both houses the vote necessary to override it. It strengthened the office’s administrative powers as well, empowering the governor to consolidate the myriad boards and commissions that had proliferated for over a century into a manageable number of departments, all under the authority of the governor. Many observers believe that the New Jersey governorship is now the most powerful state executive office in the nation. Whether it is the country’s strongest, the office is certainly very powerful. The governor does not share power with any other statewide elective officers and has vast patronage to dispense, appointing virtually all top state officers, members of state boards and authorities, as well as the judiciary. The governor also has the authority to supersede county prosecutors. The lesson one takes away from a history of the office of governor of New Jersey, however, is that it is not the structure of the office but the incumbent that matters. Despite the severe limitations on the office under the first state constitution, there were several successful administrations. Gov. William Livingston was reelected annually for fourteen consecutive terms, the longest gubernatorial tenure in the nation during this era. Livingston used his constitutional power as commander of the state militia to rally a reluctant state to the cause of independence. Joseph Bloomfield, the state’s first Jeffersonian governor, served for seven years. He was a leader in the antislavery cause, initiating the legislation that gradually abolished chattel slavery in New Jersey. Under the second constitution, governors such as Joel Parker, Leon Abbett, Woodrow Wilson, and Walter E. Edge were forceful leaders of the state. These men initiated programs to meet popular needs for education, honest local government, and regulation of the economy. Wilson in particular demonstrated that despite constitutional limitations on the office’s executive power, forceful gubernatorial leadership could focus public attention on problems and available solutions. The progression has not been smooth, but the level of activism of New Jersey governors has increased unmistakably over the years. They have grown gradually more assertive in using the power of their office to deal with the critical social and economic problems of the day. While there are, of course, limits to executive power, there is no reason to think this trend will end in New Jersey—or elsewhere. Connors, Richard J. The Government of New Jersey: An Introduction. Rev. ed. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, . Salmore, Barbara G. New Jersey Politics and Government: Suburban Politics Comes of Age. d ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also government

Howard Green

Grant, Ulysses S.

Governors under the Constitution of 1947 Name

Party

Term

Alfred E. Driscoll Robert B. Meyner Richard J. Hughes

Republican Democrat Democrat

1947–1954 1954–1962 1962–1970

William T. Cahill Brendan T. Byrne Thomas Kean James Florio Christine Todd Whitman Donald T. Di Francesco* James E. McGreevey

Republican Democrat Republican Democrat Republican Republican Democrat

1970–1974 1974–1982 1982–1990 1990–1994 1994–2001 2001 2001–

* Acting governor; not elected.

Grabach, John R. (b. Mar. , ; d. Mar. , ). Painter. John R. Grabach was born

in Newark in . He worked as a die-cutter and silverware designer, but began studies at the Art Students League in New York. In , he settled in Irvington, the same year that his work was shown at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Francisco. During World War I, he was employed by the U.S. government as a mapmaker. Primarily known for his portraits and urban scenes, Grabach began to exhibit widely in , and throughout his career won several awards, including the Peabody Prize in  at the Art Institute of Chicago for Wash Day in Spring, a work that was subsequently purchased for that institution’s permanent collection. He exhibited in one-man and group exhibitions throughout the nation and was the winner of prizes at institutions including the Corcoran Gallery, the Salmagundi Club, and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In  the Newark Museum purchased Street in Newark (). In  Grabach began his teaching career at the Newark School of Fine and Industrial Art, and he continued to teach throughout his life at various New Jersey venues. In  he was elected an associate of the National Academy of Design, and in , a full academician. Today his works are found in public and private collections throughout the United States. Mecklenberg, Virginia M. John R. Grabach: Seventy Years an Artist. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Grad Partnership. Frank Grad was born in Czechoslovakia, attended Vienna Technical School, immigrated to the United States when he was seventeen, and attended the old Newark Art School. In , he received his architectural degree, established a Market Street office, and completed his engineering degree in . Later he moved to the Raymond Commerce Building, and eventually to Newark Gateway Center when additional space was needed. In  sons Bernard and Howard

joined the firm, and by the s they took over managing the business, although the senior Grad remained active until his death. Many of Newark’s landmark buildings were designed by Frank Grad, including the old High Street YMHA, the Center Market Building, Beth Israel Hospital, the Mosque, the Raymond Commerce Building, and the Military Park Garage. His firm also designed portions of Newark International Airport, college campuses, hospitals, office buildings, federal agencies, hotels, waterfront projects, and foreign, military, and parking facilities. From New York’s elegant Essex House on Central Park South to Newark’s neoclassical Martin Luther King Courthouse, Grad has left its signature on the region’s architecture. See also architecture

Charles F. Cummings

Grange.

The Granger movement began in Washington, D.C., in  as the Patrons of Husbandry, a secret fraternal order promoting agricultural interests. It soon evolved into a national movement, and expanded dramatically during the depression of . Men and women were admitted to membership on an equal basis and shared leadership roles. The first New Jersey Granges were formed in the early s during a period of agricultural transition and economic hardship. Juvenile Granges were introduced in  to encourage the leadership of young members. Today in New Jersey there are twelve county (Pomona) Granges, fifty local (subordinate) Granges, and thirteen junior Granges, whose membership of families and individuals share interests in community service, agriculture, and rural issues.

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in Ohio, graduated from West Point in , and served in the Mexican War. After that war, he retired from the peacetime army and worked with no great success at farming and shopkeeping. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he enlisted in the Illinois volunteers. Grant, so much a failure in civilian life, advanced rapidly in the military. By February  he was a major general and, after his capture of Vickburg in , he became supreme commander in the West. By this time he was Abraham Lincoln’s favorite, winning general, and in February  Grant came east to command the army in Virginia against Robert E. Lee. Eventually, Grant wore out Lee by attrition, and accepted his surrender at Appomattox Courthouse on April , . Grant rented a suburban villa at  Wood Street in Burlington for his wife, Julia Boggs Dent, and their four children (Frederick, Ulysses Jr., Nellie, and Jesse) in –. While in Burlington the boys attended a local Episcopal school. Grant visited the home from time to time during the war, and in fact was journeying there from Washington on the night of April , , when he learned of Lincoln’s assassination. (Grant had turned down the President’s invitation to attend Ford’s Theater that evening in order to visit his family in Burlington.) In , Grant was elected president of the United States. Again, Grant’s military genius did not translate into civilian life. His administration was marred by financial corruption. The general’s sister, Virginia Paine Grant, married Abel Rathbone Corbin of Elizabeth. Corbin unwittingly drew Grant into the gold-buying scandal of . (Virginia and two other siblings, his brother Orvil and another sister, Mary Frances Grant Cramer, are buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside.) While president, Grant established a summer White House in Long Branch, buying a spacious Stick-style villa on Ocean Avenue in . The family continued to use this house until they had to sell it upon Grant’s bankruptcy in . Grant’s oldest son, Col. Frederick Dent Grant, and his wife, Ida Marie

Marti, Donald B. Women of the Grange. New York: Greenwood Press, . Weiss, Harry B. The New Jersey State Grange, Patrons of Husbandry, –. Trenton: New Jersey State Grange, .

See also agriculture; 4-H clubs

Delight Wing Dodyk

Grant, Ulysses S.

(b. Apr. , ; d. July

, ). Civil War general and president of

the United States. Ulysses S. Grant was born

Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and family at their summer cottage in Long Branch, c. .

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Ulysses G. Dietz in memory of Ulysses G. Grant III, 1986, 86.36.

332

grasses

´ of Chicago, lived in Morristown from Honore about  to , possibly due to Grant’s friendship with Thomas Nast, who also lived there. Fred and Ida stayed in Morristown, with Fred commuting by train to New York, until . The May , , Jerseyman reported that the Grants proposed to move to Morristown to live with Fred in his house on South Street, but in fact the younger Grants moved into the general’s house at  East Sixty-sixth Street in New York City. Grant died the next year of cancer of the throat. Grant, Julia Dent. The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant (Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant). Edited by John Y. Simon. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, . Scaturro, Frank J. President Grant Reconsidered. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, . Simpson, Brooks D., Ulysses S. Grant: Triumph over Adversity, –. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

Ulysses Grant Dietz

grasses. More than seventy species of grasses are found in New Jersey. While some are native, many of the grasses are introduced species, including turf grasses used for lawns, athletic fields, and golf courses. Other introduced turf grasses are located along roadsides and in highway medians, near the deserted iron furnace towns of the Pine Barrens, and around abandoned homesteads. Long-rooted American beach grass is used by coastal communities to reinforce protective sand dunes. Wild animals and domestic livestock feed off grazing and forage grasses, while ornamental grasses are used in landscaping throughout the state. Brown, Lauren. Grasses—An Identification Guide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . Collins, Beryl R., and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Andrew J. Anderson

Graves, Michael

(b. July , ). Architect and designer. Indiana-born, Harvardeducated, Princeton resident Michael Graves is one of America’s most original architectural voices. Once a member of the modernist school, he revisited classical design and has made use of color and cubist design. Early projects were residential, and he partnered with the Newark Museum in its building rebirth. Other New Jersey projects have included the Federal Court House in Trenton, Liberty State Park Environmental Education Center in Jersey City, Abrahams Dance Studio in Princeton, and the John Witherspoon School, also in Princeton. His major buildings include the Portland Building in Portland, Oregon, the Humana Building in Louisville, Kentucky, and Disney Corporate headquarters in Burbank, California. Well-known for his housewares designs, he has been associated with Target Stores, and in the s he contributed

millions for the Washington Monument restoration. Graves, Michael. Buildings and Projects, –. New York: Rizzoli, . ———. Buildings and Projects, –. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, . ———. Buildings and Projects, –. New York: Rizzoli, .

See also architecture

Charles F. Cummings

Greacen, Edmund W. (b. Sept. , ; d. Oct. , ), and Nan (Faure) Greacen (b. May , ; d. Nov. , ). Painters and art instructors. Edmund W. Greacen was born in New York City, received a Bachelor of Arts degree from New York University, and studied at the Art Students League beginning in . He also attended the art school of William Merritt Chase, studying with artists Robert Henri, Frank Dumond, and Everett Shinn. In  he accompanied Chase on an art study tour to Spain, and remained in Europe until . In  he went to Giverny, France, to be near Monet, where he was greatly influenced by impressionism. From  to  Greacen participated in the art colony at Old Lyme, Connecticut, where he painted landscapes in the American impressionist style. He became very influential in New York City art circles, organizing an artists’ cooperative, the Grand Central Art Galleries, in , and founding the Grand Central School of Art in . During the s Greacen painted in New Jersey and summered with his family in Oak Ridge, where he bought a house in . Examples of his New Jersey painting are Winter Landscape, Short Hills and Silvery Springs, Oak Ridge. Nan Greacen, Edmund’s daughter, was born in Giverny, France, and lived for a time in Oak Ridge. She studied art with her father and at the Grand Central School of Art, where she taught from  to . She became a noted still-life painter, and published two books on the subject. Like her father, she became a full member of the National Academy of Design. Connecticut and American Impressionism. Storrs, CT: William Benton Museum of Art, . Gerdts, William H. American Impressionism. New York: Abbeville Press, .

See also art

Richard C. Simon

Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company. George Francis Gilman and George Huntington founded the Great American Tea Company in New York City in  (the first headquarters was on the spot where the World Trade Center once stood), offering coffee and tea at discount prices. The company was renamed the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company in  to commemorate the completion of the first transcontinental railroad. In the s, it began experiencing

financial setbacks, but it survived. The company, more commonly known as A&P, moved it headquarters to Montvale in . In , A&P had nearly $ billion in sales from its more than  stores and employed almost , people nationwide. It operates thirteen different brands of stores, including SuperFresh and Kohl’s, and still makes its own Eight O’Clock coffee. Walsh, William I. The Rise and Decline of the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company. Secaucus: L. Stuart, .

Dona M. Amici

Great Depression.

The Great Depression began with the stock market crash of October , , and lasted until America geared up production for World War II. The economic disaster that occurred between  and  was unparalleled in U.S. history. The gross national product fell by . percent. Prices dropped from  to  percent. For ten years, the national unemployment rate remained above  percent, and from  through  it was over  percent, reaching its highest mark, . percent, in March . The median rate of unemployment for the years – was . percent. One survey of , companies in  revealed that only  percent were operating full-time. Of all employed workers,  percent were part-time, working an average of  percent of a normal full-time schedule. Income from wages and salaries for workers dropped . percent from  to . Farm income was also hit hard, falling by more than half from  to . Prices for farm products fell by  percent. In the Middle Atlantic states . percent of farm mortgages were delinquent in . In other parts of the nation more than half of all farmers could not pay their debts. Twenty percent of the commercial banks in the United States failed between  and . The crisis overwhelmed local governments. By the end of , , local government entities had defaulted on their debts. The Depression hit New Jerseyans hard. Average per capita income in New Jersey fell from $ in  to $ in  and $ in . In  there were , New Jerseyans on Emergency Relief Administration rolls. By , the figure had more than doubled to ,. The number of unemployed in the state rose from , in  to , in . As late as January , there were , unemployment claims. The state’s , African Americans suffered disproportionately. The average annual income for African American households fell from $, in  to $ in . Between  and  at least  New Jersey banks closed,  in Atlantic City alone. The state government in New Jersey reacted to the crisis by cutting spending. The budget presented by Democratic governor A. Harry Moore in  was more than  percent smaller than the budget of . The most

Green, George Gill

by —in towns such as Asbury Park, Atlantic City, Orange, Paterson, Perth Amboy, Trenton, and Wyckoff. The largest of the Greek Orthodox congregations was Saint George of Piscataway. In , according to the U.S. Census, New Jersey was home to , persons of Greek ancestry (. percent of the state’s population).

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GREAT SWAMP National Wildlife Refuge

Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

Refuge Headquarters

Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Bridge White

GREAT SWAMP

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© Rutgers, The State University

McElvaine, Robert S. The Great Depression: America, –. New York: Times Books, .

See also Works Progress Administration

Great Swamp Watershed Association. Founded in , the Great Swamp Watershed Association encourages the protection of the ecological, historic, and cultural integrity of the Great Swamp and its fifty-fivesquare-mile watershed. Portions of ten municipalities as well as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services’s ,-acre Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge and National Wilderness Area lie within this watershed. The association promotes conservation and restoration of the watershed’s diversity of natural resources. It encourages regional planning and regulation sensitive to the Great Swamp’s ecological needs and assists the municipalities in the watershed to coordinate their growth objectives with these goals.

Cam Cavanaugh

Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. Located in Harding Township,

Greeks. New Jersey had few Greek immigrants before the late nineteenth century, but by the s Greeks were sought after to fill jobs at tanneries and shoeshine parlors, mainly in Newark. By , the Greek community had grown sufficiently to warrant its own church. Consecrated in , Saint Nicholas of Newark was the first Greek Orthodox church in the state. By , exiled Pontic and Ionian Greeks from Turkey swelled the ranks of Greeks entering the United States, some of whom settled in New Jersey. Greeks enjoyed a reputation as hard workers and had by the mid-s established almost every type of small business in the major towns, including bakeries, florist shops, hat shops, and restaurants. Some began as street vendors or, on the seashore, as fishermen and cruise boat operators. The new wave of Greek immigrants arriving after  found well-established Greek American communities, with businesses, schools, organizations, and, by , twentyone Greek Orthodox churches—twenty-three

Cavanaugh, Cam. Saving the Great Swamp: The People, the Power Brokers, and an Urban Wilderness. Frenchtown: Columbia Publishing, . Thomas, Bill. The Swamp. New York: W. W. Norton, .

Cam Cavanaugh

, ). Businessman and patent drug manufacturer. G. G. Green was born in Clarksboro and died in Woodbury. He attended the University of Pennsylvania medical school for two years but left in  before graduation to enlist in the d Regiment, Illinois Volunteers. In , Green founded a wholesale drug business in Baltimore that later was destroyed by fire. Relocating to Ohio, where he married Angie Brown, Green started two retail drug companies. Upon returning with his family to Woodbury in , Green purchased the manufacturing and sale rights for both August Flower and Boschee’s German Syrup from his father. Green’s patent medicines were sold and distributed across the United States as the result of extensive advertising through his trade cards, flyers, and almanacs. Green’s success with patent medicines and his other local businesses resulted in his becoming the first multimillionaire in Woodbury. His business

Cavanaugh, Cam. Saving the Great Swamp: The People, the Power Brokers, and an Urban Wilderness. Frenchtown: Columbia Publishing, .

Mark Wasserman

twenty-six miles west of New York’s Times Square and seven miles south of Morristown, the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge was established in  in response to the threat of a jetport in the environmentally sensitive Great Swamp. Swamp woodland, hardwood ridges, cattail marsh, grassland, ponds, and streams typify this ,-acre refuge. It is host to  species of birds,  species of plants, and a wide variety of reptiles, amphibians, fish, and mammals. The refuge, administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, was designated a National Natural Landmark in  and a National Wilderness area (eastern part) in . Approximately , people visit annually.

Thea Halo

Green, George Gill (b. Jan. , ; d. Feb.

1 mile

drastic measures included cuts in public employees’ salaries, ranging from  percent for the lowest paid to  percent for the higher echelons in . State employees received no raises from  to . In early , however, New Jersey was one of the first states to appropriate significant sums for relief, which it financed by issuing $ million in bonds. Governor Moore further financed public spending by increasing the state’s bonded debt from $ million in  to $ million in . Much of the indebtedness went toward construction and maintenance of the state’s highway system. Republican governor Harold G. Hoffman, changing strategies, pared down the debt, but raised budgetary expenditures by nearly  percent from  to .

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G. G. Green, located in Woodbury, used postcards to advertise its patent medicines, c. .

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark.

334

Green, Howland Robinson (Hetty)

enterprise declined around , due in part to the passage of the  Food and Drug Act, which hindered manufacturers from making false claims about the curative effects of patent medicines. Reeds, Karen. A State of Health: New Jersey’s Medical Heritage. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Lois R. Densky-Wolff

Green, (Hetty)

Howland

Robinson

(b. Nov. , ; d. July , ). Busi-

nesswoman. Hetty Green was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, the heiress to a whaling fortune. By , the deaths of her parents and an aunt made her a millionaire. She married Edward Henry Green, a businessman, on July , , after he signed a prenuptial agreement. The couple moved to London where their children, Edward () and Sylvia (), were born. Green resettled in New York City with her family, and began investing in railroads and real estate. She was a shrewd investor with an uncanny talent for avoiding ruin during financial panics. She became well-known for providing loans to desperate investors, failing businesses, and even the city of New York. When Edward Green went bankrupt in  the couple separated, but remained friendly. Hetty Green’s obsessive attempts to live frugally while continuing to amass incredible wealth exposed her to charges of eccentricity and miserliness in the popular press. Most notoriously, the “richest woman in America’’ often lived in shabby boarding houses in Hoboken in order to avoid taxation as a New York resident. Green died in New York City in . Her fortune was estimated at $ million and divided equally between her children. Sparkes, Boyden, and Samuel T. More. Hetty Green: The Witch of Wall Street. New York: Garden City Publishing Company, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Margaret Sumner

Green, Jacob ).

(b. Jan. , ; d. May ,

Minister, patriot, scholar, and abolitionist. Jacob Green was born in Maiden, Massachusetts, to Jacob and Dorothy Llynde Green. After study at Harvard, Green settled in New Jersey. In  he became a Presbyterian minister in Hanover, Morris County, and married that same year. Eventually he also practiced medicine and law and operated several businesses to support his family. In June of , Green became a delegate to New Jersey’s provincial congress where he chaired the committee that wrote the state’s first constitution. By spring of , with prospects for an American victory in doubt, the Continental Congress declared a day of fasting and prayer. Green gave a sermon supporting the war while calling for social reforms at home. He expressed concern that God might let the British prevail as a way of punishing the Americans for prac-

ticing slavery. Green condemned the hypocrisy of those who tolerated slavery while professing a commitment freedom. As the war progressed, Green kept the slavery issue alive, debating the subject in the New Jersey Journal, a patriotic newspaper. As a minister, Green favored local rule by congregations. He seceded from the New York Presbytery to form Morris County Presbytery in . Following the war, Green retired from political activism and devoted his remaining years to religious work. After serving his congregation for forty-four years, he died in Hanover at the age of sixtyeight. Green, Jacob. Observations on the Reconciliation of Great Britain and the Colonies. Edited by Larry R. Gerlach. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Mitros, David. Jacob Green and the Slavery Debate in Revolutionary Morris County, New Jersey. Morristown: Morris County Heritage Commission, .

David Mitros

Green, Robert

(b. Mar. , ; d. May

, ). Lawyer, congressman, governor, and

judge. Robert Green was the son of James S. Green and Isabella McCulloh. His father, who taught on the law faculty at Princeton and was closely identified with canal and railroad interests, was an unsuccessful candidate for governor in . The Greens were descended from a long line of Presbyterian ministers. His great-great grandfather, the Rev. Jacob Green, chaired the committee that drafted the state constitution in . His grandfather, the Rev. Ashbel Green, was a well-known theologian who served as president of Princeton from  to . Robert grew up in Princeton and graduated from the university in . Admitted to the bar in , he became one of the ablest constitutional lawyers in the state. An ardent Democrat, he played a leading role in the battle to break the monopoly of the Camden and Amboy Railroad. In , Robert Green married Mary E. Mulligan. They lived in Elizabeth and raised a son and three daughters. Step by step Green climbed the political ladder, moving from prosecutor of the borough courts to city attorney, then to city councilman, after which he became surrogate of Union County. In  he was named the presiding judge of the court of common pleas, and in  he was appointed to a blue-ribbon commission that recommended several amendments to the state constitution. After an initial unsuccessful effort, he was elected to Congress in . Two years later, in , Green was elected governor. Upon taking office, he discovered that the recalcitrant Morris and Essex Railroad owed the state $. million in back taxes. Rather than insist on payment, Green submitted the matter to arbitration. He did not press for a settlement, and the dispute remained unresolved when he left office three years later. Meanwhile, a Republican legislature passed a stringent liquor control law in . When the Democrats regained control of the legislature

in , they sought to repeal what they considered a tyrannical puritan blue law. Under mounting religious pressure, Green agreed to a compromise whereby the high license fees mandated by the statute were retained, but the local option provision was deleted. Green had a good working relationship with the business community, which dominated state politics. Both in ideology and outlook, he conformed to the safe, comfortable conservatism that characterized the age of industrial expansion. Not surprisingly, he signed into law the famous statute of  that legalized the holding company and allowed businesses to incorporate for almost any purpose. Under his administration, New Jersey became known as “the mother of trusts.’’ As chief executive, Green was a model of dignity and restraint, a symbol of integrity and social respectability, but he lacked passion for any cause. He was detached, cultured and scholarly, impersonal and logical. The press respected him, but he did not capture the temper of the times or the imagination of the electorate. Upon leaving office, Green was appointed vice chancellor of the New Jersey court of chancery. He performed admirably as a judge; his knowledge and experience seemed better suited for the judiciary. Robson, Charles. The Biographical Encyclopaedia of New Jersey of the Nineteenth Century. Philadelphia: Galaxy Publishing, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey –. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard A. Hogarty

Green Acres.

In the early s the pattern of land use in New Jersey began to change with the increase of suburban sprawl and the decline of urban areas. The public’s concern about this trend resulted in the passage in  of New Jersey’s first Green Acres bond referendum. This first bond issue was the smallest—$ million—but it preserved the greatest number of acres—,. The last Green Acres bond issue, of $ million, was passed in  and brought the total amount of the nine Green Acres bond issues to approximately $. billion. By  the Green Acres bond issues included funding for farmland and historic preservation as well as for open space and recreation. Funds for historic preservation were first included in the  bond issue, while farmland preservation became part of the Green Acres bond issue in . In the farmland program the farms remain in private ownership, but the development rights are purchased and retired. All of the nine bond issues were very popular with the state’s electorate; recent bond issues have passed with at least a two-toone majority. They funded the preservation of , acres over the past four decades. When this acreage was added to previously preserved land, the total exceeded , acres of public open space. Responding to

Greenwich (Cumberland County) the ever-increasing pressure of sprawl, Gov. Christine Todd Whitman in  called upon New Jersey’s voters to support an ambitious new goal of adding one million more acres to the state’s protected open land. When this goal is reached, New Jersey, the most densely populated state in the country, will have preserved  percent of its acreage in open space. The state’s electorate strongly supported the constitutional amendment that set aside $ million annually of state sales tax revenues to preserve open space, farmland, and historic sites. To receive and distribute the $ million, the legislature established the Garden State Preservation Trust in . The trust is authorized to issue revenue bonds, backed by the stable funding of $ million a year. In analyzing the requests from state agencies, local governments, and nonprofit organizations, the trust is guided by several policy objectives: Protecting the state’s water supplies; Preserving New Jersey’s agricultural base; Enriching the state’s historic heritage; Protecting habitats for threatened and endangered species; Creating contiguous greenways for animals and humans; and Providing a broad array of recreational opportunities for all. More than one hundred municipalities and three-quarters of the counties have dedicated taxes to local preservation programs. These local funds are matched with Green Acres dollars. As appropriate, the trust provides advice to policy makers to achieve the state’s goals, including legislative initiatives at both the state and federal levels. In order to ensure that the economic and environmental benefits of open space, farmland, and historic resource preservation are widely recognized and understood, the trust is also working to provide information and educational services to local and county governments, nonprofit organizations, landowners, and the general public. See also open space

Maureen Ogden

Greenbaum, Dorothea

(b. June ,

; d. Apr. , ). Sculptor. Dorothea Green-

baum was born in  and moved to Princeton in . A self-taught artist, she took up sculpture at the age of thirty-four. Working in both stone and metal, she demonstrated a particular flair for working in hammered lead. She was influenced by Asian art, and admired the works of Manzu and David Smith. She achieved international acclaim as the only American sculptor invited to the International Art Conference sponsored by UNESCO in Venice, Italy, in September . One of her sculptures, a three-quarter bust of Bathsheba, is part of the collection of the Newark Museum. Dated , this work stands about three feet high and won

an honorable mention in the Audubon Artists Twelfth Annual Exhibit of . American Art in The Newark Museum. Newark: Newark Museum, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Three Centuries of Art in New Jersey. Red Bank: Monmouth Museum Gallery at the Mall and the Junior League of Monmouth County, .

See also sculpture

Melissa Drake Campbell

Green Brook.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Scottish and English Quakers seeking religious freedom settled along the Green Brook as early as , turning plains once traversed by the Lenape into prosperous farms. Gristmills, sawmills, a paper mill, and a tannery harnessed the brook’s abundant waterpower. In the Watchung Mountains above Green Brook looms Washington Rock, where Gen. George Washington went to observe the movement of British troops in the summer of . A state park since , the forty-five-acre preserve offers a breathtaking view extending from the New York City skyline to the Atlantic Highlands. The township is what remains of North Plainfield Township, set off from Warren Township in . North Plainfield Borough seceded in , followed by Watchung in . A November , , referendum changed the township’s name to Green Brook. Expansion of residential development outward from Plainfield and North Plainfield forced out most farmers early in the twentieth century, and today Green Brook is overwhelmingly single-family residential, with some new residential development now taking place north of Route . The township’s business district lies along Route  and on Interhaven Avenue. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Feldkercher, Irene E. Our Town: A History of the Township of Green Brook. Green Brook: Green Brook Bicentennial Committee, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Alan A. Siegel

Green

Township. .-square-mile township in southern Sussex County. When Warren County was set off from Sussex County in , Green Township was created from the portions of Hardwick and Independence townships that remained north of the division line. Named after Ephraim Green, a prominent early settler, it is one of the smallest townships in Sussex County. The Pequest River runs through the township, which in the nineteenth century was predominantly one of farms and mills. The rolling hills of the Kit-

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tatinny Valley made the township well suited to agriculture. Recent years have seen significant residential development. The villages in the township are Huntsville, Greensville, Huntsburg, and Tranquillity. The Whittingham Wildlife Management Area is located in the township. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bierne, Thomas J. A History of Green Township. Phillipsburg: Jersey Free Press, . Honeyman, A Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Greenwich (Cumberland County). .-square-mile township.

Established on the Cohansey River by John Fenwick’s will of  and named for the town in Connecticut from which some of the settlers came, Greenwich became the leading community in eastern Salem County. Early settlers were Quakers, Baptists, and Presbyterians, whose descendants still worship in their respective meetinghouses. Failing to become the county seat in , when Cumberland County was established, Greenwich’s prominence began to fade. It entered history on December , , when a hidden cache of British tea intended for Philadelphia was discovered in a cellar and burned by patriots disguised as American Indians. Vestiges of a canning plant and a railroad indicate the Industrial Revolution actually did come to Greenwich, but the boat-building industry persisted longer. Sailing craft for commerce and, later, for oyster harvesting, were built locally, and pleasure craft are still repaired in town. The role of Greenwich in the twentieth century was signaled by the erection of the Tea Burners’ Monument in . The same year saw the founding of the Cumberland County Historical Society. This organization now owns or supervises five sites in the village. Today Greenwich attracts history buffs with its striking preservation of eighteenth-century America. According to the  census, there were  residents, of whom  percent were white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Andrews, Bessie Ayars. Historical Sketches of Greenwich in Old Cohansey. Vineland: Vineland Printing House, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Sickler, Joseph S. Tea Burning Town. Bridgeton: Greenwich Press, .

Jonathan E. Wood

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Greenwich (Gloucester County)

Greenwich (Gloucester County). .-square-mile township. The first township formed in the county, Greenwich was incorporated on March , , and initially encompassed parts of Logan, East Greenwich, and Paulsboro. To avoid confusion with Greenwich in neighboring Cumberland County, the township is also known as Gibbstown, named for Ethan Gibbs, a major landowner and blacksmith. Greenwich was originally settled by Swedes who came up the Delaware River from Delaware. Built sometime in the s or s, the C. A. Nothnagle Log House on Swedesboro Road is the oldest log cabin in the United States and is on the National Register of Historic Places. It is believed to have been built shortly after the first Swedish settlers arrived in North America. The township’s location on the Delaware River made it a prime spot for business and industry. E. I. DuPont built a chemical and dynamite plant in , and Mobil constructed a refinery and research laboratory in . The facility is now the Valero Refining Company. Agriculture is still a part of the local economy, with  acres devoted to farming. Crops include soybeans, corn, wheat, and barley. In , the population of , was  percent white. Median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Simpson, Hazel B., ed. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Woodbury: Board of Chosen Freeholders, Gloucester County, .

Tom Wilk

Greenwich (Warren County). .square-mile township. Incorporated in , Greenwich is one of the oldest townships in the county. It was one of the largest before it was subdivided into other civic areas. Greenwich (pronounced “green-witch’’ by local residents) is said to be named after Samuel Green, an early settler. Historic hamlets include Port Warren and Stewartsville, both located on the Morris Canal, which provided a market outlet for the area’s farm products during the second half of the nineteenth century. Port Warren was the location of the canal’s largest and highest inclined plane. While still open to the public, in  renovation plans were implemented for the plane’s gradual restoration. Greenwich was the home of Gen. William Maxwell, who led New Jersey troops in Revolutionary War battles. Stewartsville was named for Thomas Stewart, George Washington’s secretary. In the s Greenwich, once a rural farming community, experienced a population explosion of  percent. The  census showed a population of , that was  percent white. The medium household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Greenwich Tea Party.

The town of Greenwich is located on the Cohansey Creek, a navigable stream that flows through Cumberland County in southern New Jersey and empties into Delaware Bay. In the autumn of , amid rising tensions caused by punitive measures imposed by Britain after the infamous Boston Tea Party, a British brig, the Greyhound, landed at Greenwich with a cargo of British East India Company tea. The Greyhound had been bound for Philadelphia, but the captain heeded warnings of possible danger if he attempted to unload tea there in violation of the colonial boycott of that product. Instead, he chose to stop at Greenwich, where he had heard that a Loyalist by the name of Dan Bowen was ready and willing to help unload and hide the tea until it could be sold. On December , , the crew of the Greyhound unloaded the chests of tea and took them to Bowen’s house, where they were stored in the cellar. News of the tea spread throughout Greenwich soon thereafter. An ad hoc committee of five was chosen to handle the matter until a county committee could be elected to take charge of the tea. Before the committee could take action, however, a group of about forty Whigs took matters into their own hands. On the night of December , , disguised as Indians, they broke into Bowen’s cellar and carried the chests of tea to a nearby field, where they lit a bonfire and destroyed the cargo. The Greenwich Tea Party in many ways resembled the event a year earlier in Boston. It was rumored that the destruction of the tea at Greenwich was organized and directed by members of the local Committee of Safety. In an attempt to punish the participants, New Jersey Chief Justice Frederick Smythe called for a grand jury investigation; however, he failed to obtain any indictments. An eight-foot monument in Greenwich, listing the names of all twenty-three tea burners, commemorates the event. Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Gerlach, Larry R. Prologue to Independence: New Jersey in the Coming of the American Revolution. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Pierce, Arthur D. Smugglers’ Woods: Jaunts and Journeys in Colonial and Revolutionary New Jersey, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Phillip Papas

Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital. The New Jersey State Lunatic Asylum at Morristown opened in  to relieve overcrowding at the Trenton asylum. An imposing central administrative building was flanked by wings for patient care, a popular architectural plan for asylums. In , the hospital was renamed Morris Plains; in the same year, state “insane asylums’’ were officially redesignated as “hospitals for the insane.’’ A training school for nurses

opened in . A  survey by the National Committee for Mental Hygiene found that public officials had neglected their duties to the patients. Overcrowding was a problem from the outset. In  an expanded and better-funded facility was renamed Greystone Park because of the gray building stones quarried on the site, and in , outpatient mental hygiene clinics expanded to include a “traveling clinic’’ serving adults and children in nearby communities. A Chest Building was opened in  for the state’s mentally ill patients with tuberculosis. By the late s, the patient population was seven thousand, including many war veterans. With deinstitutionalization beginning in the s, the population decreased to the present level of approximately six hundred. A  state senate task force found overcrowding, staffing deficiencies, and other problems at the facility. Since that time, plans to modernize the hospital and improve the quality and level of staffing have made significant progress. Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also mental hospitals

Sandra Moss

Grier, Roosevelt “Rosey’’

(b. July ,

). Professional football player, actor, social

activist, and minister. Named at the dawn of the New Deal for Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Roosevelt Grier was one of eleven children growing up on a Georgia peanut farm. In , the poverty-stricken family moved to Roselle, Union County, where the future all-American played high school football. He spent his collegiate career at Penn State, then, in  the -foot, -inch, -pound Grier signed with the New York Giants for a $ bonus and $, salary. He also played for the Rams before an injury in  ended his athletic career. A political activist, he was with Sen. Robert F. Kennedy on June , , when the presidential candidate was shot; Grier and former Olympian Rafer Johnson tackled the assassin. By then, Grier was an established entertainer and prominent needlepoint enthusiast. He starred in his own television show and authored The Rosey Grier Needlepoint for Men. A religious reawakening in the late s caused him to move to the right politically. He became an ordained minister and counseled O. J. Simpson as he awaited trial in jail for a double slaying. Grier founded a youth jobs center in Los Angeles, and works with charities and businesses in the black community. Roosevelt Grier married twice, and has two children. Grier, Roosevelt, with Dennis Baker. Rosey: An Autobiography, The Gentle Giant. Tulsa: Honor Books, . Maher, Todd, and Bob Gill, eds. The Pro Football Encyclopedia: The Complete and Definitive Record of Professional Football. New York: Macmillan, .

See also football

Dona M. Amici

Griggstown

William Griffis and his “Fukui boys,’’ Tokyo, c. .

Courtesy William Elliot Griffis Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Griffis, William Elliot

(b. Sept. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Minister, educator, and writer.

A Philadelphia native and Civil War veteran, William Elliot Griffis graduated from Rutgers College in  and Union Theological Seminary in . A prolific writer (over fifty books and hundreds of articles), his works introduced American readers to Japanese history and culture in the Meiji period following the Perry Expedition of . The Mikado’s Empire, his most influential work, was first published in  and went through twelve editions. While at Rutgers, Griffis tutored the first Japanese students to study in America; this led to service in Japan (–) as a teacher and school administrator, first in Fukui and then at Tokyo University. Beauchamp, Edward R. An American Teacher in Early Meiji Japan. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, . Burks, Ardath W., ed. The Modernizers: Overseas Students, Foreign Employees, and Meiji Japan. London: Westview Press, .

See also Japanese

Ruth J. Simmons

Griffith, Ella

(fl. late-nineteenth century).

Painter. Ella Griffith has been linked to the father of late nineteenth-century still life painting in America, William Michael Harnett of Philadelphia. Departing from fruit-and-flower bounty and beauty, this school of painting took a more masculine approach to the genre, both in subject matter and in tonal qualities. Three still life paintings, very much in the style of Harnett and one even bearing his false signature, have been attributed to Ella Griffith. One of the paintings, dated , corresponds with records of an Ella Griffith living in Orange, New Jersey. A second painting signed by her was found in a private collection in Verona. Nothing else is known about her life, but her three paintings exhibit great skill in the trompe

l’oeil style. She painstakingly depicted books, candlesticks, old pipes, and other objects in the standard repertoire of nineteenth-century still life painters. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Melissa Drake Campbell

Griffith, Mary (b. ; d. ). Writer and horticulturist. Though little is known of her background, Mary Griffith grew up in Massachusetts and achieved some local prominence as an authority on horticulture and the tilling of land. Widowed about , she moved to a farm in Franklin Township, near New Brunswick. Devoting herself chiefly to farming and writing, she plumbed her interest in science to create a nonfiction book, Discoveries in Light and Vision (), and that same year produced her best-known work, the science fiction novella Three Hundred Years Hence, which appeared originally in a collection of stories called Camperdown; or, News from Our Neighborhood (). Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Clute, John, and Peter Nichols. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St. Martin’s Press, . Mainiero, Linda, ed. American Women Writers: A Critical Reference Guide from Colonial Times to the Present. New York: Ungar, .

James F. Broderick

Griggs, John Williams

(b. July , ;

d. Nov. , ). Governor and attorney general

of the United States. The son of Daniel Griggs, a prosperous farmer, John Williams Griggs was born in Sussex County, New Jersey. He graduated from Lafayette College in Pennsylvania in  and then studied law near Paterson, where he developed a close friendship with

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Garret A. Hobart, who was later to serve as vice president of the United States from  to . Admitted to the bar in , Griggs began practicing law in Paterson and three years later married Carolyn Webster Brandt. In , two years after his wife’s death, he married Laura Elizabeth Price. With these two wives he reared seven children. Griggs’s political career accelerated in the s and s. Following two terms in the New Jersey General Assembly in the mid-s, he worked as city counsel for Paterson from  to . He subsequently held a seat in the state senate from  to , serving as president of the upper chamber in . A loyal Republican who supported his party’s stand on major issues and attended some GOP nominating conventions, Griggs attracted national attention in  by winning election as governor of New Jersey, the first Republican chief executive of the state in almost three decades. This position elevated him to higher office. In  Griggs joined President William McKinley’s cabinet as attorney general of the United States. Although lacking enthusiasm to vigorously enforce the Sherman Antitrust Act, he shared McKinley’s imperialistic ambitions. No doubt his most notable legal achievement was arguing the “Insular Cases’’ before the Supreme Court, which determined the constitutional status of territories acquired from Spain in the Spanish-American War. Shortly after McKinley’s inauguration for a second presidential term in , Griggs left the cabinet to return to New Jersey, where he competed unsuccessfully for the Republican senatorial nomination in . During the period from  to , he was a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague. He also enjoyed a profitable law practice in New York City. He died in Paterson. ANB. Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of William McKinley. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governers of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Leonard Schlup

Griggstown.

Unincorporated hamlet on the Millstone River and the Delaware and Raritan Canal in Franklin Township (Somerset County). The earliest European settlers purchased land in what is now Griggstown in , and by  Benjamin Griggs was operating a gristmill on the river. Between  and  a copper mine operated intermittently. During the American Revolution Continental troops led by George Washington marched through the village after the Battle of Princeton, and Rochambeau’s French troops marched through to the Battle of Yorktown. The completion of the Delaware and Raritan Canal in  opened a freight transportation route through the area. At lock number  is the lock tender’s house; at

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´ , Sarah Moore Grimke ´s At a farm in Belleville, the Weld-Grimke established a small school for the Welds’ three children and the children of several friends. Three years later, in , the family joined other abolitionists in the Raritan Bay Union community, outside Perth Amboy, and moved to Eagleswood where they established and operated the community school. The school was interracial and coeducational, and operated until . During these years, both sisters remained active in the abolitionist and women’s rights movements. When the Emancipation Proclamation was issued in , they supported the North in the ensuing conflict. ´s taught After the war, the Weld-Grimke again at a female seminary in Lexington, Massachusetts. In  they discovered the existence of three nephews, all former slaves and the illegitimate sons of one of their brothers. ´ The elder two boys, Archibald Henry Grimke ´, became very close to their and Francis Grimke aunts and both would become public figures in their own right; their great-niece, Angelina ´ Weld, was a prominent poet and playGrimke wright of the Harlem Renaissance.

A boy fishing in the Delaware and Raritan Canal, Griggstown, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

bridge number  is the bridge tender’s house on the berm side (east) and the mule driver’s barracks on the towpath side (west). By  the Atlantic Terra Cotta plant was flourishing, shipping its products via canal and railroad. The factory closed in . During the s Griggstown attracted a group of Norwegian Americans from Brooklyn who spent summers enjoying the fresh air, swimming, and playing baseball. They eventually settled permanently in what is now called Norseville, as well as in Sunset Hill and Acken Park. Griggstown has a historic district and remains rural residential. Muser, Jeanette K. Rocky Hill, Kingston and Griggstown. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Terhune, Laura P. Episodes in the History of Griggstown. New York: Albert H. Vela, .

Jeanette K. Muser

´, Sarah Moore (b. Nov. , ; Grimke ´ d. Dec. , ) and Angelina Grimke Weld (b. Feb. , ; d. Oct. , ). Abolitionists, suffragists, public speakers, writ´ and ers, and teachers. Sarah Moore Grimke ´ Weld were raised in South Angelina Grimke Carolina in a leading family of plantation and slave owners. Both were converted to the Quaker faith and an antislavery position, and both, although publicly silenced at the Quaker Yearly Meeting, became the first female “antislavery agents,’’ in the drive to petition state legislatures. The sisters, particularly Angelina, attracted attention as public speakers and writers of tracts in the form of letters published in the press.

Lerner, Gerda. The Grimk´e Sisters from South Carolina: Pioneers for Women’s Rights and Abolition. New York: Schocken Books, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also abolition They took up the cause of women’s rights as well as abolition, arguing that women and men were equal before God, that their rights and moral responsibilities derived from this equality, and yet women everywhere were in a condition of subjection. This challenge to the legitimacy of ecclesiastical and civil institutions brought both sisters into the radical wing of the Anti-Slavery Society and into the center of a controversy that by  had split the abolition movement. Angelina was less radical than Sarah, but as the more politically potent of the sisters (as she was the more powerful speaker), drew criticism from prominent moderates like John Greenleaf Whittier and Theodore Weld. Despite their differences ´ were in tactics, Weld and Angelina Grimke married in . That year Angelina addressed the Massachusetts legislature three times, and both sisters spoke to large audiences in Boston and Philadelphia. When they spoke to the Anti-Slavery Convention in Philadelphia, opponents were so angry that they burned the hall. ´ moved toThe Welds and Sarah Grimke gether to New Jersey, and lived in Fort Lee, Belleville, and Perth Amboy for twenty-five years. They collaborated on a major research and writing project, culminating in the publication in  of American Slavery as It Is, which presented testimony to the evils of slavery collected from southern sources, including thou´ sisters spent sands of newspapers the Grimke months reading and clipping. The book sold over one hundred thousand copies in its first year, and made the Weld home an important junction of the abolitionist network.

Nancy Beadie

Grogan, John J.

(b. Mar. , ; d. Sept.

, ). Mayor. John James Grogan was one

of eight children born to James and Catherine (May), Irish immigrants. Grogan left school at fifteen, during the Depression years. At nineteen he was employed as a pipefitter’s helper at the Bethlehem Shipyards in Hoboken. In  he helped organize a union at the shipyard, and that same year became the first secretary of Local  of the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of America, C.I.O. In  Grogan became the international president of the union, a post he held till his death. Grogan was later international vice president of the AFL-CIO. In , President Harry Truman chose Grogan to be part of an American team that toured Greece to evaluate the success of that nation under the Marshall Plan. Presidents Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson all called on him to serve as a U.S. delegate to various world conferences. Grogan was mayor of Hoboken from  until , and was Hudson County clerk at the time of his death. He was married to the former Eileen McNulty, and they had two children.

Leonard Luizzi

Grounds for Sculpture.

This indoor/ outdoor museum is located in Hamilton Township on thirty-five acres that were formerly used for the New Jersey State Fairgrounds. American sculptor J. Seward Johnson, Jr., grandson of one of the founders of

gulls

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Johnson & Johnson, created the Grounds for Sculpture to increase the public’s interest in and awareness of contemporary sculpture. Opened in , the Grounds for Sculpture features works by artists from around the world. The once flat fairgrounds have been altered to include hillocks, marshes, ponds, and hundreds of trees and flowers of diverse types, including many rare ones. Displayed throughout the property are  permanent sculptures, as well as five to ten rotating exhibits each year. The Grounds also makes use of two former state fair buildings, the Domestics Arts Building and the Museum Building, to host several indoor exhibits annually. Open year-round, the Grounds for Sculpture is a not-for-profit institution. Although originally owned and operated by the private Atlantic Foundation, a new, public organization, Public Art Foundation, was founded in  to run the museum. The Grounds’ budget is now entirely based upon donations. Public Art Foundation also maintains a restaurant, Rat’s, on the premises. See also museums; sculpture

Jason Rimmer Hepburn Hall of New Jersey City University was designed by Guilbert and Batelle.

Grover Cleveland historic sites. Three historic sites in New Jersey are associated with Grover Cleveland. The first, on Bloomfield Avenue in Caldwell, is the Grover Cleveland Birthplace, which once served as the parsonage of the First Presbyterian Church. Cleveland never remembered his childhood there, and the only remaining relic is his crib. The two-story structure, built in  and with its original floor plan still intact, was purchased in  by the Cleveland Birthplace Memorial Association, and then in  deeded by it to the state. It was restored in  by the New Deal’s WPA. Since then it has been maintained as a historic site by the state government, which renovated the building in . The second Cleveland site is the home he retired to on leaving office. Cleveland, who was wealthy, bought a two-and-a-half-story, cream-colored stucco mansion in Princeton on Hodge Road. Built in  in the classical and Italianate style for the daughter of Robert F. Stockton, it was enlarged by Cleveland, who named it Westland for his friend Andrew F. West, who arranged its purchase. He died there in . The third site, Cleveland Tower, was built in Princeton, after his death, by the Cleveland Memorial Association, because the former president had identified himself with both the town and the university. Andrew West, active in the association and dean of Princeton University’s Graduate School, decided the monument should take the form of a soaring, -foot tower (resembling Oxford’s Magdalen Tower) and be the dominant feature of the new Graduate College, the future residence of graduate students. West collaborated with architect Ralph Adams Cram, who pioneered the American Collegiate Gothic style, to design

Courtesy Jersey City Free Public Library. the Graduate College, which was completed in .

Grovers Mill. See “War of the Worlds’’ broadcast; West Windsor. Guilbert and Betelle.

Ernest F. Guilbert (–) and James O. Betelle (– ) formed the Newark architectural firm of Guilbert and Betelle during the years – . Both had worked in Cass Gilbert’s New York office before coming to Newark. They were specialists in school construction with buildings in Newark, Delaware, and New York State. The firm built between $ million and $ million worth of structures, including  schools. Major Newark buildings Guilbert and Betelle designed include the Essex County Hall of Records, Weequahic High School, the Robert Treat Hotel, the Essex Club, Temple B’nai Jeshurun, and the Chamber of Commerce Building in Branford Place. Built for contemporary use, Guilbert and Betelle buildings made extensive use of classical design elements, including columns, friezes, moldings, and sculpture, within the framework of a workable modern structure. See also architecture

Charles F. Cummings

Gulick, Henry Thompson

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Aug. , ). Painter. Comparable to

New York’s Grandma Moses, Henry Thompson Gulick is New Jersey’s beloved, naive painter. Born in Manalapan, with deep genealogical roots in Monmouth County, he ran his family farm near Middletown for many years. He married Charlotte Field on October , , and they had four children. After his sons gave him

a box of paints at age seventy-four, Gulick’s self-taught artistry blossomed in colorful renderings of local rural landscapes and house interiors. Immediately popular, his paintings were included in many state and national group exhibits, and are in the collections of the Montclair and Newark museums. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Henry Thompson Gulick: New Jersey’s Native Painter. Montclair: Montclair Art Museum, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

gulls. Gulls are short-legged, heavy-bodied seabirds that nest along the coasts and in inland lakes and rivers throughout the world. There are about forty-four species in the world, three of which nest in New Jersey: great black-backed (Larus marinus), herring (L. argentatus), and laughing (L. atricilla). In New Jersey all three species nest on salt marsh islands above the high-tide line, and great black-backed and herring gulls also nest on sandy islands. They are ground-nesting species that assemble a nest of grass and other vegetation. The typical clutch is three eggs, which take about twenty-four days to hatch. The young are downy at hatching and can walk, but are fed at the nest by their parents until they fledge at five to eight weeks of age. Prior to the mid-s, only the laughing gull nested in New Jersey. Great black-backed and herring gulls formerly bred only in northern Maine and Canada, but with increases in human populations and the provision of food at garbage dumps, their populations increased and their breeding distribution moved farther south. Herring

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Gund

Henry Gulick, Spring—The Gulick Farm, . Oil on masonite,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1949 Edward Weston Gift, 49.354. gulls spread south first, often usurping the nesting habitat of the smaller terns and laughing gulls. Since herring gulls are about three times larger than laughing gulls and arrive at the breeding sites two or more months before laughing gulls, they usurp the best nesting sites. Now great black-backed gulls are increasing in New Jersey and displacing some of the herring gulls from their nesting sites. Laughing gulls always bred along our coasts, and New Jersey is the center of their distribution. A familiar gull along the coasts, they have a black head and gray body. Because all three species feed at garbage dumps, they sometimes present a threat to aircraft at nearby airports. Most feeding, however, is conducted along the shore, where they eat a large variety of vertebrate and invertebrate prey in the bays and along the coast. In the winter, some gulls migrate south while others remain in New Jersey. Ring-billed gulls (L. delawarensis) migrate into New Jersey in the winter from their breeding grounds in the Great Lakes region, joining the other species along our shore, in lakes and rivers, and at garbage dumps. Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also birds, colonial; shorebirds

Joanna Burger

Swedlin, Gund was one of the first companies to obtain licensing rights for popular cartoon characters such as Felix the Cat and Mickey Mouse. Still owned today by the Swedlin family, Gund employs about  people and is headquartered in Edison. The company is the oldest soft-toy manufacturer in the United States. O’Brien, Richard. The Story of American Toys. New York: Abbeville Press, .

David A. Norris

Gussow, Bernar

front and break away from North Bergen. Incorporated as a town on March , , the place name is a German phrase meaning “good village,’’ but tradition has it that the name may have been adopted in honor of the inventor of printing from movable type, Johannes Gutenberg. Early in the town’s history several important industries developed, including quarrying and brewing. In the s and s several other industries emerged, including cigar manufacturing, blacksmithing, wagon building, harness making, and the manufacture of pearl buttons and surveying and drafting tools. This industrial boon was maintained through the turn of the century, and by  Guttenberg had eighty small plants producing articles ranging from chessboards to atomizing nozzles. The embroidery industry, now the town’s most important, took root about the turn of the twentieth century with about four shops in . By the s these had increased to about thirty. From the s through the s Guttenberg experienced a housing boom, with several federal and private building projects providing room for population growth. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. Fiftyfour percent of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino heritage (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Robinson, Walter Francis. Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, . Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Winfield, Charles Hardenburg. History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. . Reprint. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, n.d.

Daniel R. Campbell (b. Jan. , ; d. Feb. ,

). Painter, lithographer, and teacher. The son of Rabbi Mordecai Gussow, Bernar Gussow immigrated to New York in , later studying at the National Academy of Design and the Art Students League. His many exhibitions included the New York Armory Show in , and the  World’s Fair. He taught at the Newark School of Fine and Industrial Arts from  to . Favorite subjects in his modern realist paintings included musicians and Newark’s streetscapes. He was a founder of the Modern Artists of America, and a director of the Society of Independent Artists. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Gund.

Founded in  by Adolph Gund, this company was one of the earliest manufacturers of teddy bears. In , Gund retired and sold the company to an employee, Jacob Swedlin, who was a Russian immigrant. Under

Guttenberg.

.-square-mile town in Hudson County. Originally a part of North Bergen, Guttenberg was the first Hudson County town to take action on the home-rule

Bernar Gussow, Elevated Station, n.d. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Mrs. Felix Fuld, 1928, 28.697.

H

and Oradell Reservoir). These reservoirs have a combined storage capacity of . billion gallons. Coron, Beatrice. The Enduring Hackensack River. New York: Beatrice Coron, . Leiby, Adrian C., with Nancy Wichman. The Hackensack Water Company, –. River Edge: Bergen County Historical Society, .

Hackensack. .-square-mile city in Bergen County incorporated in . In , the Dutch established a trading post named New Barbadoes on the lands of Oratam, sachem of the Achkincheshacky. Settlers from Great Britain, France, and Scandinavia followed. In , the Hessians and British burned the courthouse on the Hackensack Green; that year Gen. George Washington and the marquis de Lafayette attended the burial of Brig. Gen. Enoch Poor in the nearby graveyard of the First Dutch Reformed Church. Hackensack grew as the freight depot for the Northern New Jersey–Hackensack Turnpike to Hoboken and, after the railroad arrived in , as a residential community. Newcomers from western and eastern Europe began arriving in , and African Americans from the southern U.S. settled in the valley west of the business district. Major employers today are the Hackensack Medical Center, founded in  and now the largest in the state, and The Record newspaper, located on the riverfront near the New Jersey Naval Museum, where a World War II submarine, the U.S.S. Ling, is moored. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian,  percent multiracial, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Steuerwald, Linda. The City of Hackensack: Three Centuries of Prosperity –. Privately printed, . Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Hackensack. Reprinted from The History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Company, .

Maureen Dillon

Hackensack River.

The Hackensack River begins in Rockland County, New York, and flows south through the counties of Bergen and Hudson, where it empties into Newark Bay. The total drainage area is . square miles, of which  square miles ( percent) is fresh water, and . square miles ( percent) is tidally affected and therefore brackish. The Hackensack River occupies the area that was once glacial Lake Hackensack during the Ice Age. It is now one of the most developed rivers in the state for water supply, with four reservoirs in its upstream portion (De Forest Lake, Lake Tappan, Woodcliff Lake,

Schuberth, Christopher J. The Geology of New York City and Environs. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, .

Robert M. Hordon

Hackensack University Medical Center. Hackensack Hospital, the first in Bergen County, opened with twelve beds in a converted Victorian residence in . Dr. David St. John and state senator William Johnson, a local attorney, served and supported the hospital through the early decades. The Hackensack Hospital School of Nursing, established in , graduated its last class in . The hospital moved to a larger building in , adding new wings and a maternity annex. In , the facility expanded to a capacity of  beds with the opening of a new six-floor main building. Mary Stone Conklin, a  graduate of the school of nursing, was superintendent (later chief administrator) from  to . In , Hackensack Hospital became affiliated with the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–New Jersey Medical School and is now a member of the University Health System of New Jersey. Today, Hackensack University Medical Center is a regional teaching hospital with over six hundred beds. The Heart Center was established in . The Tomorrow’s Children’s Institute for Cancer and Blood Disorders opened in , providing comprehensive services such as bone marrow transplants. Kidney transplants have been performed since . The David Joseph Jurist Research Center for Tomorrow’s Children, which includes the Institute for Biomedical Research, was opened in . Hackensack University Medical Center is a state-designated trauma center. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Sandra Moss

Hackensack Water New Milford Plant.

Company

The complex of red brick Romanesque Revival buildings on .-acre Van Buskirk Island in the Hackensack River at Oradell documents the early twentieth-century development of a pure municipal water supply. Diarrhea, dysentery, and typhoid were rampant in the nation at the turn of the twentieth century, as citizens had little choice but to drink water with bad taste, foul odor, and bacteria from untreated sewage dumped into rivers. Built as a pumping station in , the original New Milford Plant was plagued by complaints of murky water “too fishy to drink.’’ In  the Hackensack Water Company’s board

of directors hired George W. Fuller to design a filtration system at the New Milford site utilizing the “American’’ rapid sand filtration method he had developed in the s. In the s New Milford Plant chemist George Spalding invented the activated carbon method of filtration that remains the international standard. The company began using his method in . These inventions and other innovations place the New Milford Plant and New Jersey in the forefront of the processing and delivery of clean, safe, potable water. The New Milford Plant originally operated with a self-contained coal, steam, and hydraulic power system. Following World War II, it gradually shifted to electric power, yet continued to maintain and operate steam pumps until closing in . The site, donated by the New Milford Plant to Bergen County in , is nationally significant for its water purification facility, its remarkably intact industrial architecture, and its unique timeline of technology—from steam to electricity. It is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places and is eligible for national landmark status. Leiby, Adrian C. The Hackensack Water Company, –. River Edge: Bergen County Historical Society, . Melosi, Martin V. The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also water

Margaret L. Harrer

Hackettstown. .-square-mile town in Warren County has the distinction of being the only community of that name in the United States. It was set off from Independence Township and incorporated in . Originally called Helm’s Mills or Musconetcong, after its river border, it was changed to Hackettstown in  to honor one of its early settlers, entrepreneur John Hackett. Hackett and other early arrivals were mostly Scots and ScotsIrish. In the nineteenth century the Morris Canal and railroads were the means of mass transportation. By the twentieth century major highways intersected the town, making it a growing industrial and commerce center. Carriage building was big business in the late s, followed by small manufacturing enterprises such as leather and silk industries and now a nationally know candy maker, M&M Mars. There are many residential clusters of contemporary homes and stately Victorians. Hackettstown is the home of Centenary College, dedicated in  by the Newark Methodist Episcopal Church. Originally a coed college preparatory school, then an all girls’ school, it is now a four-year coed college. According to the  census the population was ,;  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . 341

342

Haddon, Elizabeth

Hello Hackettstown. Hackettstown: League of Women Voters, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Haddon, Elizabeth

(b. July , ; d.

Mar. , ).

Landowner and founder of Haddonfield. Elizabeth Haddon came to West Jersey from England at nineteen to live on land her father had purchased. Her courtship with John Estaugh, a Quaker preacher, was detailed in “Elizabeth,’’ a story in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Tales of a Wayside Inn. She and Estaugh married on December , . They built a beautiful brick home, and were noted for gracious hospitality. According to Gerald McDonald in Notable American Women, Elizabeth Haddon was considered the founder of Haddonfield. In  a Quaker Meeting House was erected in a field on John Haddon’s land. The name Haddon’s Field was chosen, the first indication of which was in the Salem Friends Meeting, where it was written “Haddus fealds.’’ Clement, John. Sketches of the First Emigrant Settlers in Newton Township, Old Gloucester County. . Reprint. Salem, MA: Higginson, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Elizabeth A. Lyons

Haddonfield.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Haddonfield, located near the Cooper River and across from Philadelphia, was originally a farming community. Perhaps the only colonial New Jersey town to be settled directly by a woman, it was founded in  by Elizabeth Haddon, age twenty-one, a Quaker who had come to take an option on land purchased by her father, John Haddon. In , the state legislature met at the Indian King Tavern in Haddonfield (now a museum) and adopted the Great Seal of New Jersey. In , when a railroad came through from Camden to Atlantic City, it became a more suburban community for Philadelphia. First Haddonfield was part of Gloucester County. As development continued, in , it became part of Camden County. On March , , the state of New Jersey approved Haddonfield as a borough. The community remains predominately residential single-family homes, with a population in  of , that was  percent white. The  medium household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . This Is Haddonfield. Haddonfield: Historical Society of Haddonfield, . Rauschenberger, Douglas S., and Katherine Mansfield Tassini. Lost Haddonfield. Haddonfield: Historical Society of Haddonfield, .

Joseph Haro

Haddonfield Symphony.

The Haddonfield Symphony is a nonprofit professional orchestra based in Haddonfield, serving New Jersey and the Greater Philadelphia region. It was founded in  as a community orchestra and initiated its Professional Development Student Internship program, which gives many university and conservatory music students their first professional exposure, in . In  the symphony became a regional, professional orchestra while retaining the student intern component. The symphony’s programming includes extensive educational outreach programs as well as a regular concert season. See also orchestras

Melissa L. Posten

Haddon Heights.

-square-mile borough in Camden County. The land that was to become Haddon Heights was settled in , probably by John Hinchman. In , John Siddon built a farmhouse near Hinchman’s property. John Thorn Glover dammed King’s Run and constructed a mill race and fulling mill on this property before . Jacob Hinchman built a frame dwelling no later than  that was later enlarged by Revolutionary War hero Col. Joseph Ellis. New Jersey governor Joseph Bloomfield later purchased this property. Benjamin A. Lippincott, in , constructed a passenger station in the center of his land for the Atlantic City Railroad Company. Then Lippincott, with Charles Hillman, filed a grid street plan with Camden County to develop a community. They named it Haddon Heights because of its proximity to Haddonfield and its high elevation. Large houses were constructed that appealed to prosperous middle-class families moving from the cities. In , Haddon Heights was incorporated as a borough and Lippincott was elected mayor. A small downtown grew near the railroad and the White Horse Pike and eight churches and a synagogue were built. An area of old Center Township, known as Fairfield Estates, voted in  to become part of Haddon Heights. This land was developed for more single-family housing through the s and s. Even though rail passenger service ceased in July , Haddon Heights remains a typical turn-of-the-twentieth-century railroad suburb with tree-shaded streets and comfortable homes. In  the population was ,,  percent of which was white. The median household income according to the  census was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cammarata, Ann Marie T. Pavements in the Garden: The Suburbanization of Southern New Jersey, Adjacent to the City of Philadelphia,  to the Present. Madison: Fairleigh Dickenson University Press, . Cook, George W. Atlantic City Railroad, the Royal Route to the Sea. Oaklyn: West Jersey Chapter, National Railway Historical Society, .

Heston, Alfred M., ed. South Jersey: A History, – . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Hunter, Robert J., ed. An Historic Guide Through Haddon Heights. Haddon Heights: Borough of Haddon Heights, .

Robert J. Hunter

Haddon Township.

.-square-mile municipality in Camden County. The township has its roots in old Newton Township, established by a group of Quakers who settled along the Newton Creek in . Haddon Township separated from Newton Township and incorporated in ; earlier, a group of former slaves led by Joshua Sadlar settled the area and formed Saddlertown [sic], which continues today. The township has become increasingly urbanized since the Crystal Lake Paint and Color Works were formed in  near the Westmont section. An old farm on the important Ferry Road to Camden City was purchased in  by J. Ogden Cuthbert, whose name was given to Cuthbert Boulevard, which, like Haddon Avenue, is a major thoroughfare through the community. One of the township’s greatest growth periods was the decade following  when the impact of the automobile accelerated relocation from the cities to the suburbs and led to an almost fourfold increase in Haddon Township’s numbers. The location of a PATCO Philadelphia-Suburban High-Speed Line station in the Westmont section in  further enlarged the number of residents. The year  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———, and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Raible, Dennis G. Down a Country Lane. Camden: Camden County Historical Society, .

Gail Greenberg

Hadley Airport. Also called Hadley Field, this is one of the nation’s first airmail fields. In , the U.S. Post Office established a terminus in Piscataway Township, on the -acre farm of John R. Hadley, Sr. On December , a pilot, James D. Hill, took off from what would then be known as Hadley Field on the first leg of the New York–Chicago airmail run. Prior to that, the Post Office flew out of Belmont Race Track on Long Island, New York, which required flying over New York City, frequently in poor weather. Relocating to New Jersey solved that problem. On July , , overnight airmail was flown from Hadley for the first time when pilot Dean C. Smith took off with eightyseven pounds of mail. Once the routes around the country were established, the government relinquished airmail transport to private carriers. Most of the government’s pilots went to

Hague et al. v. Committee for Industrial Organization et al. work for the newly formed airline companies, which grew into American Airlines, United Airlines, Eastern Airlines, and others. Hadley Airport was closed in  and the land sold to real estate developers who built a shopping mall on the property. Reilly, H. V. From the Balloon to the Moon: A Chronology of New Jersey’s Amazing Aviation History. d ed. Oradell: H.V. Publishers, .

See also airports; transportation

largest repositories of his work can be found at the New Jersey Historical Society, Princeton University, and the Newark Museum. Egbert, Donald Drew. Princeton Portraits. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Gerdts, William H. Art across America. Vol. . New York: Abbeville Press, . Naylor, Maria. National Academy of Design Exhibition Records, –. Vol. . New York: Kennedy Galleries, .

See also art

Vincent M. Altamuro Holly Pyne Connor

Hadrosaurus.

Hadrosaurus foulkii, the state dinosaur of New Jersey, was the most complete dinosaur specimen known to science when it was excavated and described in . Hadrosaurus was discovered in a marl pit on the farm of John Hopkins in Haddonfield, and excavated by a team led by William Parker Foulke and Joseph Leidy of Philadelphia. At that time the diggers discovered a number of large, heavy, dark bones in a layer of fossil seashells. After excavating through the month of October , some forty-eight bones and teeth were taken back to the Academy of Natural Sciences, where Leidy studied them and described them in a report read to the academy in December of that year. In his study, Leidy proposed that on the basis of the disparity of the lengths of the thigh bone (femur) and the upper arm bone (humerus), this dinosaur could stand on its hind limbs and move about in a bipedal stance. This was a novel view of dinosaurs at that time. Leidy named it Hadrosaurus foulkii, “Foulke’s large lizard.’’ Hadrosaurus also made history in , when it became the first dinosaur skeleton to go on display in a public museum anywhere in the world, at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. Gallagher, William B. When Dinosaurs Roamed New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also dinosaurs

William B. Gallagher

Hagny, John (b. ; d. ). Painter. Though John Hagny is best remembered today as a New Jersey portrait artist, he was also a versatile painter who produced genre and history paintings, and at least one known landscape and still life. Little information has come to light about his early life and career, but from  to  and again from  to , he is recorded as living and working in Newark where his name appeared regularly in the city directories. Most of his known works are portraits, dating from the s and s, of prominent New Jersey political and civic leaders. He exhibited at the National Academy of Design in , where he showed a genre picture entitled The Politicians. The following year he painted another genre work, The Broken Pitcher, now in the collection of the Newark Museum. Hagny was a competent but rather uninspired academic artist, whose portraits record his sitters in conventional poses. The

Hague, Frank (b. Jan. , ; d. Jan. , ). Mayor and political boss. Frank Hague was the son of John and Margaret (Fagen) Hague. Raised in the Irish section of Jersey City, Hague was a grammar school dropout. He began his political career in  as an elected constable. He was married to Jennie Warner in ; they had two children and adopted another. Hague joined the Democratic organization of boss Bob Davis, and there learned the ways of machine politics. His star rose in  when charter change brought commission government to Jersey City. In a crowded field, Hague was elected to one of the five commission seats, taking charge of the police and fire departments. He acquired an image as a reformer through his ruthless purge of “corrupt’’ police, who were replaced by his own adherents. Hague united the Irish Catholics behind his banner and formed alliances with politicians like A. Harry Moore, a Protestant fellow commissioner. Hague’s slate won handily in , and he was named mayor, retaining that office for thirty years. Ambitious and resourceful, the mayor used his Jersey City base to gain quick control over Hudson County’s government and Democratic party apparatus. In , Hudson County’s plurality helped win the governorship for his candidate, local banker E. I. Edwards. National party influence followed: Hague was named national committeeman in , and national Democratic vice chair in . Knowing that political longevity depended upon a strong base, Hague developed a mostly Irish Catholic ward-and-precinct organization that was a model of efficient vote production: a machine. He complemented this with “good government’’—an effort to give Jersey City superior public services. Hague used organization and reputation to control or neutralize other political, social, religious, and economic groups. Jersey City became “Hagueville.’’ Local Republicans made an all-out effort to dislodge him in the  municipal elections. Although backed by a major newspaper, the Jersey Journal, and by the state GOP through a legislative investigation and financial assistance, their bid failed. During the Depression decade that followed, Hague was at the height of his power. He was helped by New Deal largess, which supported major public works such as additions to the Jersey City Medical Center.

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In state politics, Hague used Hudson’s Democratic pluralities, magnified by tight control of election officers and stuffed ballot boxes, to win the governorship for his favorites five more times. A. Harry Moore secured that office in , , and . State power meant contracts and patronage, nurture for the machine. Since governors appointed state judges, and usually county prosecutors and jury commissioners, Hague was able to insulate his organization from outside interference. Hague enjoyed the perquisites of power, gradually neglecting the machine for Florida’s racetracks and his mansion at the Jersey Shore. Charles Edison, elected governor with Hague’s help, broke with the boss in  and began a drive for constitutional reform. Hague’s machine lost the next two gubernatorial elections, and he retired as mayor in  after reluctantly endorsing the reform movement. His nephew, Frank Hague Eggers, succeeded him, but this nepotism produced a revolt within the party. Hague’s second ward (downtown) chief, John V. Kenny, broke the unity of the Irish, forged a coalition with other ethnic leaders, Republicans, organized labor, and veterans, and defeated the machine in . Hague soon quit as county party leader, resigning his national posts in . An effort to regain control of city hall failed in . Connors, Richard J. A Cycle of Power. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . McKean, Dayton David. The Boss: The Hague Machine in Action. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . Smith, Thomas F. X. The Powerticians. Secaucus: Lyle Stewart, .

Richard J. Connors

Hague et al. v. Committee for Industrial Organization et al. In its  opinion in Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a Jersey City ordinance that required that a permit be obtained by any individual or group seeking to assemble in a public place. The city, long dominated by Mayor Frank Hague, was known as “Scab City’’ because of his opposition to unions. The ordinance was part of an effort by municipal officials to bar labor organizers from speaking publicly and trying to organize the city’s industrial workers. A majority of the justices agreed that the ordinance violated the right to engage in public speech; however, the justices sharply disagreed about the source of this right. Justice Owen Roberts’s plurality opinion based the right on the privileges and immunities clause; in contrast, Justice Harlan Stone’s concurring opinion employed the due process clause. In often-cited language that established the right to engage in public assembly and speech, Justice Roberts contended that streets and parks had been used “immemorially . . . and time out of mind’’ for assembly and communication about public questions, and for this reason the right to speak and assemble in these

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Haines, Daniel

forums was guaranteed as a privilege of citizenship. This case for the first time limited the power of states and municipalities to interfere with the right to engage in public speech, and the decision has been used repeatedly to ensure that officials provide “minimum access’’ to public forums. Connors, Richard. A Cycle of Power: The Career of Jersey City Mayor Frank Hague. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . Maffett, Jennifer L. “Note: Balancing Freedom of Speech against the Rights of Unwilling Listeners: The Attack on the First Amendment in Hill v. Colorado.’’ Dayton Law Review  (): . Pfohl, Richard T. “Note: Hague v. CIO and the Roots of Public Forums Doctrine: Translating Limits of Powers into Individual Rights.’’ Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review  (): .

See also labor movement

Suzanne U. Samuels

Haines, Daniel

(b. Jan. , ; d. Jan. ,

). Lawyer, governor, and associate justice

of the state supreme court. Daniel Haines, who was born in New York City, was the son of Elias Haines and Mary Ogden. His father was a well-known New York City merchant and his mother was the niece of Gov. Aaron Ogden. The son’s early education took place at a private school in New York. After completing his preparatory education at the academy in Elizabethtown, he graduated from the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in . Haines then entered the law office of his uncle, Thomas C. Ryerson, in Newton, Sussex County. In , after three years of study, he was admitted to the bar, and he began to practice law in Hamburg, Sussex County. Haines married Ann Maria Austin of Warwick, New York, in . They had three daughters and two sons before her death seventeen years later. In , Haines was elected to the legislature’s upper house as a Democrat by a large majority. He immediately became involved in the political controversy known as the “Broad Seal War.’’A dispute over the results of the  congressional election triggered this intensely bitter, partisan contest in the legislative session of –. Haines debated with an ability and tact that contributed to his emergence as a political leader. The joint meeting of the legislature appointed Haines governor in October , making him the last person so elected. His major achievement during the first of his two terms in office was the adoption of a new state constitution in . The anachronistic unity of the offices of governor and chancellor and the chief executive’s election by the legislature instead of the people became two of his chief concerns. Moreover, Haines pleaded successfully for a bipartisan convention. Educational reform received Haines’s attention also. To ensure that local governments supervised educational matters properly, Haines suggested that the legislature “inquire

into the expediency of appointing a general superintendent’’ of schools. Only a year later, Theodore F. King became the first person to occupy that position. Haines was also involved in the creation of an efficient militia system and a general incorporation law for railroads before he left office in January . On January , , Haines became New Jersey’s chief executive a second time when he was popularly elected to a three-year term under the new constitution. During this tenure, he continued his crusade for educational reform. To improve the quality of instruction, Haines suggested that the state create a school to furnish competent teachers, introduce free public education, and increase the money raised to support schools. Besides being committed to education, Haines was deeply interested in the welfare of prisoners. At the end of his term in January , Haines resumed his law practice in Hamburg. In , Gov. George F. Fort, his successor, nominated him as an associate justice of the state supreme court. After Haines’s retirement from the court following a second term in , his interest in prison reform led the legislature to appoint him in  to study prison systems in New Jersey and other states. He died at his Hamburg home, which he shared with his second wife, Mary Townsend of Newark, whom he had married in . Alumni Biography Collection. Seeley G. Mudd Library, Princeton University, Princeton. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Haitians. Although some Haitians lived in New Jersey prior to the mid-twentieth century, the largest number has come since the late s. The  U.S. Census reported , foreign-born Haitians in New Jersey. They have settled in East Orange, Newark, Elizabeth, Irvington, Orange, Asbury Park, Edison, Trenton, Paterson, Jersey City, and Teaneck. A small number of Haitians are employed as teachers and in other professional and entrepreneurial positions; the majority are engaged in factory and service work. Their culture has influences from Africa and France; most speak Creole; and they are predominantly Roman Catholics. There are Haitian clubs and organizations in New Jersey. Bischoff, Henry. “Caribbean Peoples in New Jersey: An Overview.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

See also ethnicity

Henry Bischoff

Haledon.

Frederick M. Herrmann

Hainesport.

in the s. That process continues today with efforts at land preservation, including the development of a recreation complex. Retail development is also on the upswing. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

.-square-mile township in Burlington County along the Rancocas Creek, situated between Lumberton, Mount Holly, and Mount Laurel. Originally settled by Quakers in the s, who also settled neighboring Mount Holly, the town was originally called Long Bridge and was the site of several Revolutionary War skirmishes. It was renamed for Barclay Haines, a prominent Lumberton landowner. Hainesport was best known beginning in the s as a steamboat port, where farm products were loaded aboard paddle-wheelers for a journey down the creek, into the Delaware River, and then to Philadelphia. Hainesport was originally part of Lumberton and as that township grew, a need for a new school to serve the Clermont and Rancocas Heights areas became pressing. It was never built, and Hainesport seceded from Lumberton in . Until very recently, the township has been nearly evenly divided between residential development and agriculture. A small industrial strip still exists along Route . Part of the Rancocas State Forest was established within Hainesport along the creek banks. The town began a profound transformation into a costly residential community

.-square-mile borough in Passaic County,  feet above sea level, once part of Manchester Township. Originally called Oldham and Deer Hill, Haledon was incorporated April , . Landowners bought large blocks of land, then sold off -by--foot lots. Advertisements to entice buyers boasted of Haledon’s good water and air. Because of Haledon’s healthy air, Valley View, a hospital for tuberculosis patients, was built on top of the mountain. The residents were predominantly northern Italian, German, and Dutch. Most worked in the textile mills in Haledon or Paterson (a trolley on Belmont Avenue made it possible for workers to commute to Paterson for work). Belmont Avenue, Haledon’s main street, had stores to sustain the community. The Botto House on Norwood Street (now the American Labor Museum) was a center for union activity during the Paterson Silk Strike of . Haledon’s Mayor Brueckmann allowed the workers to congregate for free speech and assembly, which they were not allowed to do in Paterson. The community remains predominantly residential with single- and two-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was

Halsey, William F., Jr. $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Tambor, Maurice. Boro of Haledon. Haledon: Citizen’s League of the Boro of Haledon, .

Bunny Botto Kuiken

Hall-Mills murder case.

On the morning of September , , the bodies of the Rev. Edward W. Hall, forty-one, and his choir-singer mistress, Mrs. Eleanor Mills, thirty-four, were found lying side by side under a crab apple tree in a lovers’ lane off De Russey’s Lane in Franklin Township. Hall, rector of Saint John’s Episcopal Church in New Brunswick, had been shot once in the head. The choir singer, wife of a janitor and mother of two school-age children, had been shot three times in the head, and her throat was cut. The bodies had lain on the ground for approximately thirty-six hours. Neatly dressed, they were arranged in a kind of tableau, with the minister’s right hand cradling Mrs. Mills’s shoulder and neck, and her left hand resting on his knee. Eleven love letters written by Mrs. Mills lay scattered between the corpses. The Hall-Mills slayings became an imme´ le `bre, but, owing to inept detecdiate cause ce tive work, the investigation did not progress well. Later in the year, when a special prosecutor, Wilbur A. Mott from Essex County, laid before a Somerset County grand jury what scant evidence he had, he obtained no indictments. Then in , four years after the crime, a New York tabloid, the Daily Mirror, pressured New Jersey authorities into reopening

the case. The Reverend Hall’s widow and her two older brothers were arrested and charged with the crime. Also arrested, but never tried, was a cousin, stockbroker Henry Carpender. A highly publicized trial was held at the Somerset County Courthouse in Somerville in . The wealthy and socially prominent Mrs. Frances Stevens Hall, fifty-two, made a strong witness, as did her brother, Henry Stevens, fifty-seven, a sports fisherman from Lavallette. Mrs. Hall’s eccentric bachelor brother, William (Willie) Stevens, fifty-four, proved surprisingly shrewd under cross-examination. Willie, a childlike fire buff, was known for spending his time running errands and polishing brass at a local firehouse. He lived with his sister Frances in a mansion near the New Jersey College for Women. All three defendants had alibis for the time of the murders. Henry Stevens produced several witnesses from Lavallette to support his claim that he was fishing at the Jersey Shore. Frances and Willie lacked solid alibis, but scores of prominent women were eager to attest to Mrs. Hall’s sterling character. Neither of the two live-in maids in the Hall mansion could swear to Frances’s or Willie’s whereabouts during the critical hours from : p.m. to : a.m. on the night of the murders. The defendants were represented by a seven-lawyer “Million Dollar Defense’’ team, which included Robert H. McCarter and Clarence E. Case. The woman primarily responsible for the arrests and trial was a Middlebush farmer named Jane Gibson (or Mary Jane Easton), who

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gained fame in the press as “the Pig Woman.’’ A purported eyewitness to the crime, Mrs. Gibson was Mott’s key witness in , a role she reprised in  for the new special prosecutor, Alexander Simpson of Hudson County. A quick-witted publicity seeker who changed her story on each retelling, Mrs. Gibson, although wracked with cancer, promised to be “the Babe Ruth of the trial.’’ She failed to convince the trial jury, however, just as she had failed to sway the grand jury in . On December , , Frances Stevens Hall, Henry Stevens, and Willie Stevens were acquitted of murder. The case remains officially unsolved. Kunstler, William M. The Minister and the Choir Singer. . Reprinted as The Hall-Mills Murder Case. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Tomlinson, Gerald. Fatal Tryst: Who Killed the Minister and the Choir Singer? Lake Hopatcong: Home Run Press, .

Gerald Tomlinson

Halpert, Herbert

(b. Aug. , ; d. Dec.

, ).

Folklorist, college professor, and book collector. Herbert Halpert was the one of three children born to Hungarian immigrant parents in New York City. He attended New York public schools and New York University. During the Great Depression, Halpert was employed by the Works Progress Administration as a recreation worker, where he began collecting children’s rhymes and songs. At the suggestion of his former English professor, he began collecting folksongs in the New Jersey Pine Barrens from  to . His collecting came to the attention of anthropologist Ruth Benedict, who, along with ethnomusicologist George Herzog, encouraged Halpert to continue his New Jersey collecting as a graduate student at Columbia University. In the summer and fall of  Halpert made return visits to the Pines to expand his collecting to folktales. He also did some exploratory folklore collecting in the Ramapo Mountains. Halpert later collected folktales from West Virginia, the Ozarks, Mississippi, and Atlantic Canada. He died in St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.

David Steven Cohen

Halsey, William F., Jr. (b. Oct. , ;

The Rev. Edward W. Hall’s study in Saint John’s Episcopal Church, New Brunswick.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

d. Aug. , ). U.S. Navy admiral. William F. Halsey, Jr., was born in Elizabeth, the son of a U.S. naval officer; his ancestors were involved in the maritime whaling industry. Halsey’s naval career coincided with the modernization of the U.S. Navy and the expansion of its overseas interests. He graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in , served as a destroyer commander in the European area during World War I, and then embarked on training as a naval aviator, earning his wings in . When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor he was a carrier task force commander and remained so until May . From October

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Hamburg fringe, today this primarily residential community is becoming highly dense due to condominium and townhouse development in a once largely rural county primarily oriented to agriculture and natural resources. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Herriger, Roy, James G. Owens, and Denton E. Uptegrove, eds. The Story of Hamburg Borough. Ogdensburg: Colony Printing, . Hornor, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Wood, Marion E. All About Hamburg. McAfee: Country Cousin, .

G. Alex Ambrose

Hamilton, Andrew Adm. William F. Halsey, Jr., eating Thanksgiving dinner with the crew of the USS New Jersey, .

Courtesy Naval Historical Foundation and the National Archives and Records Administration.  until June  he commanded all military forces in the southern area of the Pacific Theater. From June  until the end of the war he commanded the U.S. Third Fleet in the Pacific, frequently using the battleship USS New Jersey as his flagship. He was present at the Japanese surrender ceremony on September , . Halsey was promoted to Fleet Admiral in December , and retired from the navy on April , . He then served as president of the International Telecommunications Laboratories from  until . Halsey, William F., and J. Bryan III. Admiral Halsey’s Story. New York: McGraw-Hill, . Potter, E. B. Bull Halsey. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, .

See also World War II

Rocco Tomazic

Hamburg.

.-square-mile borough in Sussex County. In the mid-eighteenth century this settlement was known as Wallings, after Joseph Walling, the earliest known pioneer. Toward the end of the eighteenth century it was called Sharpsboro after Sharp’s Iron Works, a mill along the Wallkill River, one of the few rivers of North America to flow northward. The name Hamburg (derived from the German name for “fortress’’) was first used in the s in reference to the Hamburg Iron Forge. Hamburg separated from New Town, Hardyston, and Vernon municipalities to eventually incorporate in . Hamburg is the site of river crossings by Gen. George Washington and reportedly by the Underground Railroad. In  the Hamburg Turnpike from Paterson, now State Route , was completed. The Gingerbread Castle, built in , a roadside attraction that is populated by fairy-tale characters, has given the borough an identity as “Children’s Town.’’Located in the northern exurban

(b. date unknown; d.

April , ).

Politician. Born in Scotland, Andrew Hamilton, an Edinburgh merchant, acquired a proprietary share in East Jersey and moved there in the summer of . He served as East Jersey’s deputy governor from March  to August , and its governor from April  to April , except for a brief period from  to . During the final two of these three administrations, he simultaneously held the governorship of West Jersey. Hamilton also served as deputy governor of Pennsylvania from November  until his death. Although he was a skillful leader, Hamilton nevertheless encountered a wide range of political problems, largely resulting from tensions between the proprietary governments of East and West Jersey, which he represented, and the Crown’s efforts to establish its authority more fully. Internal political strife, fueled by disputes between the proprietors and the assemblies over issues such as land titles and the collection of rents, likewise complicated Hamilton’s efforts to administer the provinces effectively. Hamilton’s death in April , with both East and West Jersey in political turmoil, marked the effective end of proprietary rule, an era that had concluded officially the previous fall with the appointment of Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, as New Jersey’s first royal governor. Pomfret, John E. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ———. The Province of West New Jersey, –: A History of the Origins of an American Colony. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Raimo, John W. Biographical Directory of American Colonial and Revolutionary Governors, –. Westport: Meckler Books, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also East Jersey; governor; West Jersey

which secured him an honored place among the heroes of U.S. and New Jersey aviation: he made the first round-trip airplane flight between New York City and Philadelphia, then considered a great distance. Taking off from Governor’s Island in New York harbor, he flew over the cities of Elizabeth, New Brunswick, and Trenton before landing successfully in Philadelphia. In early aviation, the normal method of navigation was to follow ground features such as railroad tracks; Hamilton followed the Pennsylvania Railroad mainline. Below him, a special train followed his progress. Along the route enthusiastic crowds of New Jerseyans cheered and stared. On the return leg, Hamilton, distracted by a misfiring engine over Metuchen, followed the wrong set of tracks. Looking for a safe place to land, he alighted in the swamps along the Raritan River in South Amboy. After waiting some hours for new spark plugs and a spare propeller, he resumed and successfully completed his recordbreaking flight. Charles Hamilton died in New York City. Reilly, H. V. Pat. From the Balloon to the Moon: A Chronology of New Jersey’s Amazing Aviation History. Oradell: HV Publishers, .

Jeanne Kolva

Hamilton, James

(b. Oct. , ; d. Mar.

, ). Painter. James Hamilton was born

in Entrien, near Belfast, Ireland, the son of David Hamilton and Isabella Winter. At fifteen he immigrated to America, settling in Philadelphia where he studied drawing with local artists and from English artists’ manuals. Hamilton was called “the American Turner’’ because of his interest in marine subjects and his free and loose painting technique. In the s he illustrated the published accounts of the Grinnell Expedition to the Arctic. His most famous works include The Breaking Up of an Iceberg in Melville Bay () and “The Rescue’’ in Her Arctic Dock (). Hamilton was married twice, to Elizabeth Deamer in the s, and Margaret C. Hakes in , and had a total of five children. During the s and s Hamilton painted many marine subjects and landscapes in New Jersey, particularly along the beaches and coastline at Atlantic City and Cape May, and in Cumberland County, which were close to his home and studio in Philadelphia. His work differed from the tight, precise style of his contemporaries. His almost impressionist view, with its free technique and soft light is clearly evident in such paintings as Atlantic City Beach and Bathers (), Summer Night, Cape May, New Jersey (), and Beach at Atlantic City. Hamilton died in San Francisco in , at the beginning of what was to have been a world tour.

John W. Raimo

James Hamilton, –: American Marine Painter. Brooklyn: Brooklyn Museum, .

(b. c. ; d.

Martin, Constance. James Hamilton: Arctic Watercolours. Calgary: Glenbow Museum, .

Aviation pioneer. On June , , Charles K. Hamilton accomplished a feat

Jan Kelsey

Hamilton, Charles K. Jan. , ).

See also art

Hammonton

Hamilton, John (b. date unknown; d. June , ). Judge and acting governor. The son

of proprietary governor Andrew Hamilton and a resident of Perth Amboy, John Hamilton was appointed to the colonial council in . In  he became a judge on the colony’s supreme court, and the next year president of the council. In the latter capacity he twice served as acting governor when the governor died, – and –. While in office Hamilton sent New Jersey troops to Albany (during the French and Indian War), and worked to suppress land riots at home. He is also credited with proposing the establishment of post offices in the American colonies. Keasbey, Edward Q. The Courts and Lawyers of New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Hamilton

(Atlantic

County).

.-square-mile township located approximately  miles west of Atlantic City in the southern part of the Pinelands. In land area, Hamilton Township is the largest township in the state. Mays Landing, which is located in Hamilton Township, is the county seat of Atlantic County. The community was established along the great Egg Harbor River and was once part of Gloucester County. The first recorded European settlers in the area arrived in . In , Capt. George May, an agent for the London Company, sailed up the Great Egg Harbor River. By , the center of town started being known as Mays Landing. In the eighteenth century, Methodists and Presbyterians made missionary trips into Atlantic County. The area known as Mays Landing was named Ilifftown after Edmond Illiff, who purchased , acres. In , the first railroad was built in the area, connecting Camden and Atlantic City. Passenger train service continued until , when bus lines replaced the trains. In , the Atlantic Brick Manufacturing Company was established, helping supply bricks which were used to build some of the grand Atlantic City hotels at the turn of the century. The township’s population doubled in the ten years after casino gambling was legalized in Atlantic City. Hamilton’s population in  of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income according to the  census was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Township of Hamilton Historical Society. Township of Hamilton: Atlantic County. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Mike Mathis

Hamilton (Mercer County).

The most southerly township in Mercer County, at . square miles it is the eighth largest in size in the state. Once known as the Yorkshire Tenth and, from  until its incorporation in , as Nottingham, its earliest names belie

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the origin of its first settlers. Quakers were the earliest predominant group. Drained by the Assunpink Creek; the Crosswicks Creek, which divides it from Burlington County on the south; and the Delaware River on the west; and additional streams, the township, which may have been named for Alexander Hamilton, includes White Horse, Haines Corner; Groveville, North Crosswicks, Mercerville, Edge Brook, Hamilton Square, and Quaker Bridge. Frequently overrun by foraging British soldiers during the American Revolution, skirmishes occurred at Crosswicks Creek bridges as the British marched to Monmouth from Philadelphia during June . Early industries naturally centered on milling. There was also candy, brick, harness, chair, and rubber goods manufacturing. Located between New York and Philadelphia, and adjacent to Trenton, Hamilton is one of the fastest-growing residential communities in the area. Grounds for Sculpture, located at the old state fairgrounds, the Sayen House and Gardens, Kuser Farm Mansion, and Veterans Park are important recreational locales. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

wounded man. “His countenance of death,’’recalled Hosack, “I shall never forget.’’Just before he became unconscious, Hamilton said, “This is a mortal wound, Doctor.’’ It turned out to be an accurate self-diagnosis. Hamilton was rowed back to Manhattan, where he died at about two o’clock the next afternoon. As for Burr, after he fired his shot he attempted to come over to the fallen Hamilton, reportedly with a look of regret, but was hustled away by his seconds. Dueling was a crime, and if he lingered at the scene he would be in danger of arrest. Although Burr was never indicted for the crime, his political career was ruined. After his vice presidential term ended he went into self-imposed exile in the American West, and then to Europe. One question that has lingered about the duel was whether Hamilton deliberately aimed his pistol away from Burr. The night before the duel, Hamilton had written a statement declaring his intention to “reserve and throw away my first fire.’’ It has also been speculated that Burr may have intended only to wound his opponent, but that the flintlock dueling pistols were so inaccurate that the ball struck a mortal wound despite his intentions. Whatever the truth about the intentions of the two principals, the duel at Weehawken was a tragic and wasteful event.

West, Helen Almy. A History of Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey. Trenton: Trenton Printing Company, .

Freeman, Joanne B. Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

Woodward, E. M., and John F. Hageman. History of Burlington and Mercer Counties, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Many of Their Pioneers and Prominent Men. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Rogow, Arnold. A Fatal Friendship: Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr. New York: Hill and Wang, .

Gail Greenberg

Syrett, Harold C., and Jean G. Cook. Interview in Weehawken. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, .

See also Burr, Aaron

Hamilton-Burr duel.

On July , , Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr fought a duel at Weehawken. Hamilton, forty-nine, was a leading Federalist and former secretary of the treasury. The New Jersey–born Burr, forty-eight, was vice president of the United States and leader of a Jeffersonian-Republican faction in New York politics. The two men were bitter political enemies. At a dinner party, Hamilton made derogatory remarks about Burr’s character. When the vice president learned of this insult, he demanded an apology. Hamilton refused, and after lengthy attempts at mediation failed, the two men agreed to meet on a popular dueling ground, a narrow stretch of level land on the Weehawken heights overlooking the Hudson River. The two principals, accompanied by their seconds, arrived at the spot at about : a.m. on that summer morning in boats rowed over from Manhattan. In accordance with the dueling code, they exchanged shots at each other from twenty paces apart. Hamilton missed; Burr did not. His shot hit Hamilton in the abdomen, above the hip. One of the men Hamilton brought with him to Weehawken was the prominent physician David Hosack, who examined the

Marc Mappen

Hamilton House Museum.

This early nineteenth-century, one-and-one-halfstory farmhouse, built in the Dutch style of northeastern New Jersey, features cut, tooled, and coursed brownstone laid in a Flemish bond pattern and a gambrel roof. The interior rooms depict different periods in which the occupying families—the Vreelands, Van Ripers, and Hamiltons—once lived. Purchased from a developer by the city of Clifton and then moved across Valley Road to its present site in Surgent Park, the house was dedicated as the Museum of the City of Clifton in May  and represents the farming community that once existed in the Acquackanonk area.

Read, Philip M. Clifton. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

See also historic sites

Marlene Craig

Hammonton.

-square-mile town in Atlantic County. Hammonton was settled by William Coffin in  at the crossing of the trails between the iron towns of Batsto and Weymouth and the shipbuilding center of Mays Landing. The town first developed

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Hampton Borough

around the sawmill and glass factory established by Coffin, but since has primarily been rooted in agriculture. Hammonton has been known as Peach City and has also been a center for production of blueberries. The town broke away from Mullica Township when it was separately incorporated on March , . In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Newton, has become one of Sussex County’s major commercial strips. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Honeyman, A Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr. Atlantic County Past and Present. Atlantic County: Atlantic County Cultural Heritage Commission, . Wilbur, W. H., and W. B. Hand. Illustrated History of the Town of Hammonton. Hammonton: Mirror Stream Printing, .

Britta M. Ipri

Hampton Borough.

A .-squaremile borough in Hunterdon County, located on the banks of the Musconetcong River. The town name was changed from Junction Borough by a resolution of the town council on February , . “Junction’’ referred to the meeting of the New Jersey Central Railroad and the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad in the village. Previous to the advent of railroads in  there was no settlement in the area. The new name honored Jonathan Hampton who donated land for a church. Originally the borough lay in two townships, Bethlehem and Lebanon. It was completed in its present form in  when land was ceded from Glen Gardner Borough and Bethlehem Township. Hampton began as, and remains, a small riverside village. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Snell, James P. The History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Hampton Township.

.-squaremile township in Sussex County. Located in the Kittatinny Valley, Hampton’s rolling landscape was cleared for farming by the late eighteenth century. Through the nineteenth and much of the twentieth centuries, agriculture remained the township’s primary occupation. The Paulinskill River flows through Hampton, and powered a number of nineteenth-century mills. Owing to the growth of nearby Newton in the mid-nineteenth century, Hampton was set off from Newton to form its own township in . It took its name from Jonathan Hampton, an early landowner who gave the land for the county courthouse. Much of Swartswood State Park is located in the township. There are also several residential lake communities, including Crandon Lakes and Lake Kemah. Route  in Hampton, north of

Hancock, Cornelia

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Dec. , ). Civil War nurse, teacher, and phi-

lanthropist. Born in Hancock’s Bridge, Salem County, Cornelia Hancock, descended from the Quaker founder of the village, lived in an area where runaway slaves were both hunted and protected. During the Civil War, Hancock supervised huge kitchens and hundreds of wounded or ill soldiers, as a volunteer, accompanying the Third Division, Second Army Corps until Richmond fell in April . She wrote to Salem County for help, and received clothing, blankets, and supplies, despite disapproval about her lifestyle alone among men in field hospitals. After the battle of Gettysburg, she nursed wounded soldiers from both sides. In gratitude, patients presented her with a silver medal. After the war, the Philadelphia Friends Association sent Hancock to Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, where she founded a school for fifty children, with no material except charcoal, which they used to write on the pillars of a white, bullet-ridden church. In the evening she taught sewing and the reading, writing, and arithmetic to adults. She remained the principal of the Laing School until , despite the fact that she and her coworkers were openly threatened by white southerners. Hancock went to England to study philanthropic work, and, upon her return to Philadelphia, she and her friend Edith Wright worked in a poor neighborhood in the southwest corner of the city to create a healthful, even profitable, small community. By , the residents of Wrightsville were homeowners, a triumph of Hancock and Wright’s crusade. Cunningham, John T. The New Jersey Sampler. Florham Park: Afton, . Jacquette, Henrietta Stratton, ed. Letters of a Civil War Nurse: Cornelia Hancock, –. . Reprint. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Civil War; Quakers

Doris B. Armstrong

Hancock, Joy Bright d. Aug. , ).

(b. May , ;

Naval officer. Joy Bright Hancock, born in Wildwood, was the daughter of William Henry Bright and Priscilla Buck. In  she enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve and

worked at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yards in Camden and then at the Naval Air Station in Cape May. She continued to work for the navy after the war. In the s she married first Charles Gray Little and then Lewis Hancock, both naval aviators who died in dirigible crashes. After traveling, in an effort to recover from the shock of having been widowed twice, and studying at the Crawford Foreign Service School, she conquered her fear of flight by earning a pilot’s license in . Hancock then returned to the navy, where she worked as a civilian employee. In  she joined WAVES, the Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Services unit, and by  had attained the rank of commander. After the war she continued to serve in the navy as director of the Women’s Reserve and later as director of women’s affairs when, in , by law women were integrated into the armed forces. A pioneer in both aviation and military service, she continued to fight for an expanded role for women in the armed forces. After retiring in  she married Vice Admiral Ralph A. Ofstie. ANB. Hancock, Joy Bright. Lady in the Navy: A Personal Reminiscence. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Hancock House.

In March  approximately thirty Salem County militiamen were massacred by Maj. J. G. Simcoe’s Queen’s Rangers in one of the most notorious atrocities of the American Revolution. Some of these Loyalist troops were neighbors of the men they stormed in William Hancock’s house at Hancock’s Bridge. Hancock, a Quaker and His Majesty’s judge of the Salem County Court, was not spared, even though he was loyal to the king. He and the majority of the men who sought refuge in the attic of his house were fatally bayoneted. The house is an outstanding example of South Jersey patterned brickwork, with a dominant zigzag design on its westerly wall, which bears the initials of William and Sarah Hancock and “,’’ the date of construction. The two-and-one-half-story main section has a restored pent roof between the firstand second-floor windows. The state of New Jersey purchased the house in  after an intense preservation campaign by the Salem County Historical Society. The society managed the house until , when the state resumed maintenance. Although the house was restored in the s, lack of funding forced its closure to the public in . In  a group of citizens interested in reopening the Hancock House formed the Friends of the Hancock House. The historic site was reopened on March , ,  years after the massacre, and continues to be owned and operated by the New Jersey Park Service.

Johnson, George Walter.  in : Patterned-Brick Houses of Salem County. Pennsville: Associated Printers, .

Hardwick Stewart, Frank H. Salem County in the Revolution. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Marlene Craig

Hancock’s Bridge.

See Lower Alloways

Creek.

Hanover Township.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. Hanover Township was incorporated on March , , but was inhabited as early as  by the Lenape Indians, who settled along the Whippanong River. Hanover began as the largest township in New Jersey, eventually becoming two communities known today as Whippany and Cedar Knolls. Cedar Knolls originated as a summer community and in the early s this section developed into a year-round community. Through the early years of Hanover Township the Whippany River attracted various industries such as iron forges, gristmills, cotton mills, and, in the mid-eighteenth century, paper mills. In  Robert McEwan came to Whippany from Scotland with his seven sons to take over the papermaking business. During this period the McEwans produced and sold the greater portion of all the pasteboard manufactured in this country. During the s, as the paperboard industry declined, technological, manufacturing, and light industrial companies such as Lucent/Bell Laboratories and Suburban Propane dominated the industrial makeup of Hanover Township. According to the  census, the population was ,. Of this,  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Helper, Steve, and Robert F. Krygoski. Hanover Township, Whippany, and Cedar Knolls. Portsmouth, NH: Arcadia, . Myrose, Elizabeth R. Along the Whippanong: A History of Hanover Township, New Jersey. Hanover: Hanover Township Committee, .

Robert F. Krygoski

Hanscom, Mary H.

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Mar. ). Labor leader. Born in Glasgow, Scotland, Mary H. Hanscom arrived in Newark at age twelve. In , as president of the all-female Traffic Telephone Worker’s Federation, Hanscom and the union’s , switchboard operators of the New Jersey Bell Telephone Company maintained picket lines in defiance of the New Jersey Public Utility Labor Disputes Act (), legislation that organized labor called unconstitutional. Facing heavy fines and jail sentences, the women challenged the antistrike law in court. Their solidarity prompted legislators to eliminate criminal penalties and reduce fines, although the compulsory arbitration statute remained intact. In June , Hanscom was elected to the executive board of the Communications Workers of America (CWA), a post she held until she retired in . Brooks, Thomas R. Communications Workers of America: The Story of a Union. New York: Mason/Charter, .

349

CWA at Fifty: A Pictorial History of the Communications Workers of America, –. Washington, D.C.: Communications Workers of America, AFL-CIO, CLC, . Foner, Philip S. Women and the American Labor Movement: From World War I to the Present. New York: Free Press, . Schacht, John N. CWA–University of Iowa Oral History Project. Washington, DC: Communications Workers of America, AFL-CIO, CLC, –.

See also labor movement

Evelyn M. Hershey

Hapgood, Powers (b. Dec. , ; d. Feb. , ). Labor leader. Powers Hapgood was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of a manufacturer who turned his plant over to his employees. Powers attended Harvard University, where he spent his senior year studying the “labor problem’’ in a Minnesota iron mine. He married Mary Donovan, the recording secretary of the Sacco-Vanzetti Defense Committee. Hapgood, active in the Committee of Industrial Organizations (CIO), ran for governor in both Indiana and Massachusetts and vice president of the United States as a Socialist candidate. Wherever there was labor unrest during the s, s, and s, Hapgood was usually there, and he spent weeks at a time in jail for various labor causes. In Camden, Hapgood directed the newly formed United Electrical and Radio Workers’ Union in its first big strike against the RCA Manufacturing Company in July . The RCA strike was marked by exceptional police brutality and mass arrests, including Hapgood’s. He spent several days in jail because he refused to pay the $, bond required by a Camden judge and upheld by New Jersey Supreme Court Justice Frank T. Lloyd. Eventually Hapgood’s bail was reduced to $ by the Federal District Court in Newark. He was released, and the union established its collective bargaining rights. Hapgood died of a heart attack in Indianapolis in . Bussell, Robert. From Harvard to the Ranks of Labor: Powers Hapgood and the American Working Class. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, .

See also labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

Harding Township.

.-square-mile township in Morris County with a post office in New Vernon. Over  percent of the land in this low-density residential community is open space in public or nonprofit ownership. It includes much of the Jockey Hollow section of the Morristown National Historical Park, nearly half of the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, and portions of two Morris County parks. English-speaking settlers from Newark and Elizabeth began farming here in the early eighteenth century and formed villages. New Vernon and Green Village remain, but Logansville and Pleasantville have vanished. Once part of Morris Township, this area was, from  to , the northern portion of Passaic

Church of Christ the King, New Vernon (Harding Township).

Courtesy Harding Township Historical Society, C.64.43. Photo: Eugene A. Shenesky, Jr. Township. Local estate owners who treasured its rural character led a separation from the southern portion, where a railroad and small industries were located. The new township was incorporated in  and named after then-popular president Warren G. Harding. In the s residents led the effort to designate the Great Swamp as a wildlife refuge, defeating a Port Authority plan to replace it with the metropolitan area’s fourth major airport. Harding’s population of , as counted by the  census is  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Adey, Dorothy. Harding Township, –. New Vernon: Harding Township Civic Association, . Cavanaugh, Cam. Saving the Great Swamp: The People, the Power Brokers, and an Urban Wilderness. Frenchtown: Columbia Publishing, . Hayward, Harold D. Harding, A Beautiful and Historic Township. New Vernon: First Presbyterian Church, . Murgatroyd, Edwin R. Annals of the Village and of the Presbyterian Church of New Vernon, New Jersey: An Address, June , . New Vernon: Archives Committee, First Presbyterian Church of New Vernon, .

Mary Prendergast

Hardwick. .-square-mile township in Warren County. One of the oldest townships in the county, Hardwick was established by royal charter in . Settlements include Squires Corner and Franklin Grove. The township shares its history and Delaware waterfront with the former Pahaquarry, which Hardwick annexed on July , . The Paulins Kill is the dividing line between Hardwick and neighboring Frelinghuysen. The old Minisink Indian trail bisects the township. The ruins of a nineteenth-century stone church have been placed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places.

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Hardy, Josiah

Also on the registers is the early nineteenthcentury Vass stone house. Nearby is the Warren County’s White Lake Natural Resource area. Geologically unique in the state, the lake gets its name from the bed of white marl. Since the early twentieth century the sparsely inhabited township has been popular for its camping, hiking, and other outdoor recreational facilities. The  census showed a population of , that was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Newark for the Pequannock Watershed, and many homes and farms were demolished. The twentieth century saw the growth of summer lake communities, including Beaver Lake, Lake Stockholm, and Lake Tamarack. The  population was ,,  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Haines, Alanson A. Hardyston Memorial. Newton: New Jersey Herald, . Wurst, Helen H. Hardyston Heritage in the Bicentennial Year. Stockholm: Hardyston Township Bicentennial Committee, .

Hardwick Township Chartered . Hardwick: Hardwick Township Historical Society, . Richards, Jay C. Flames along the Delaware. Belvidere: Jay C. Richards, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Hardy, Josiah

(b. c. ; d. ). Royal

governor. Josiah Hardy was the eldest son of Elizabeth Burchett and Sir Charles Hardy, a renowned British naval officer who also served as New York’s royal governor in the s. The Crown named Josiah New Jersey’s royal governor in . He quickly fell under the influence of such leading East Jersey proprietors as William Alexander, who claimed to be Lord Stirling, and Robert Hunter Morris. When Hardy reappointed Morris as Jersey’s chief justice with a “good behavior’’ commission, he immediately lost favor with the King’s Privy Council. This body insisted that tenure for all judicial commissions in America be limited to service during the “king’s pleasure.’’ The Crown feared the development of an independent judiciary in the colonies with the potential to defy imperial law. In February  Hardy turned the Jersey governorship over to William Franklin. Hardy’s brief tenure made him one of New Jersey’s most obscure governors. He never again held an imperial office in America. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

James Kirby Martin

Hardyston.

.-square-mile township in eastern Sussex County. Hardyston was set off from Newton Township in , taking its name from New Jersey governor Josiah Hardy. The eastern portion of the town is in the Highlands, while the western section is in the Wallkill Valley. Historically the town’s economy was dominated by mineral industries and agriculture. At least seven iron forges operated in the township between circa  and circa . There were also important iron mines, including the Edsall Mine. Limestone quarrying and processing was an important nineteenth-century industry, with large kilns operating at Hardystonville; limestone products are still an important export. Milling also played a significant role. By , much of the eastern portion of the town had been acquired by the City of

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Harker, Charles Garrison

(b. Dec. ,

; d. June , ). Soldier. Charles Garrison

Harker was born in Swedesboro and was orphaned at an early age. He worked as a clerk in a Mullica Hill store owned by Congressman N. T. Stratton, who arranged an appointment to West Point for the ambitious young man. Harker graduated in , sixteenth in his class, and then served on the frontier. Following the outbreak of the Civil War, Harker was commissioned colonel of the Sixth Ohio Infantry, distinguishing himself in a number of battles, including Chickamauga, where his heroism earned him promotion to brigadier general. He was killed in action at the battle of Kennesaw Mountain. Sifakis, Stewart. Who Was Who in the Civil War. New York: Facts on File, . Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, .

See also Civil War

Joseph G. Bilby

Harmony.

.-square-mile semi-rural township in Warren County. The township of Harmony was formed in  from portions of Greenwich and Oxford and is said to be named after pioneer Harmon Shipman. The landscape varies from a high of twelve hundred feet at Scott’s Mountain to the floodplain banks of the Delaware River. Villages within the township include Upper and Lower Harmony, Roxburg, Montana, and Brainards (named after the missionary brothers David and John Brainerd, who, in the eighteenth century, preached Christianity to the Lenape Indians and to the settlers). Montana, on Scott’s Mountain, earned an infamous reputation as a refuge for Tory sympathizers during the Revolutionary War, and as a hideaway for homemade distilleries during the Prohibition era. Still standing in  was the Roxbury Inn, a stagecoach stop, and a centuries old Quaker house near Montana. Harmony’s Fairground is the site of the annual county Farmer’s Fair. Merrill Creek Reservoir, a wildlife observatory with woodland trails, holds a giant reservoir that supplies water to the Delaware River during periods of drought, such as occurred in the fall of , , and .

In  the population of , was  percent white, and the median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Harmony Township One Hundred Twenty-fifth Anniversary, –. Harmony: Citizens Committee of Harmony Township, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Harrington Park. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County, named for the Harring family, the earliest known settlers. Harrington Township separated from Hackensack Township in . In  Harrington was reduced by half when Washington Township was carved from it. Incorporated in , the borough was enlarged to its present size when Washington Township ceded the land west of Bogert Mill Bridge, extending to Old Hook Road. Built by Abram Myers in , the Bogert Mill in Harrington Park was operated by John Jacob Bogert and his family from  until it was sold to the Hackensack Water Company in . Other early businesses included the Demarest Mill, used by the Major family as a glove factory. In  David Ward established a coal yard; the business was later sold to J. Westervelt, who operated it until his death in . The Park residential section, begun in the Depression, saw an increase in sales in the post–World War II housing boom. Today  percent of Harrington Park is residential, with only  percent commercial and borough property. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning Company, . Fiftieth Anniversary of Harrington Park, New Jersey, –. Harrington Park: Fiftieth Anniversary Committee, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . New Jersey Gazetteer. Wilmington, DE: American Historical Publications, .

Linda J. Barth

Harrison. .-square-mile town in Hudson County. The town is named after the ninth president of the United States, William Henry Harrison. Originally a part of the township of Lodi, the town was established by the legislature on February , , in the same bill that established Hudson County. On two occasions the town almost became a part of Essex County or the city of Newark. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, the town attempted to become a part of Essex County due to its geographical proximity to the city of Newark. After the bill won in the assembly over the governor’s veto, the bill was defeated by the senate. In  the city of Newark

Hart, John attempted to take over Harrison, as well as a number of other adjacent towns consolidated within it. This movement failed as well. In the later nineteenth and early twentieth century, the town’s industrial development was unparalleled and, in , President William Howard Taft dubbed the town the “Hive of Industry.’’ It was home to many large companies including the Crucible Steel Company, the largest plant in the town. During World War II, the plants in town employed , wage earners. By the s this number diminished to , and to the present day, the number continues to decline. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Mutz, Henry A., Harrison: The History of a New Jersey Town. Harrison: Town of Harrison, American Revolution Bicentennial Committee, . Robinson, Walter Francis, Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, . Van Winkle, Daniel, History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Winfield, Charles Hardenburg, History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time: Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, n.d.

Daniel R. Campbell

Harrison Township. .-square-mile township in Gloucester County. The first settlers in the area were Swedes who banded together during the late seventeenth century to farm and protect each other from Native American attacks. The township was taken from Greenwich and Woolwich townships in  and named Spicer, for one of its earliest settlers. The following year, in , it was incorporated and renamed Harrison in honor of the ninth president of the United States, William Henry Harrison. The Mullica Hill section takes its name from Eric Molica, a Swede who purchased a large tract of land in the late seventeenth century that became a settlement of farmers. Today it is considered the antique center of southern New Jersey. The township is still a farming community and is largely rural. Home to thousands of acres of peach and apple orchards, each spring hundreds flock to see the pink peach blossoms. Its main street features quaint mid-Victorian architecture and charming colonial homes. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

. Gloucester Library.

County

Historical

Society

Mickle, Isaac. Reminiscences of Old Gloucester. Philadelphia: Towsend Ward, . Stewart, Frank H., ed. Notes On Old Gloucester County, New Jersey. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Harshberger,

John

William

(b. Jan. , ; d. Apr. , ). Botanist. Born in

Philadelphia, John W. Harshberger nurtured a childhood interest in botany on family field trips in the Delaware Valley. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in  and completed his doctoral dissertation, “Maize: A Botanical and Economic Study,’’ the following year. Harshberger spent the majority of his career both as a professor of botany at the University of Pennsylvania’s School of Veterinary Medicine and an instructor of various sciences at Philadelphia’s Rittenhouse Academy. His major contribution to botanical scholarship, The Vegetation of the New Jersey Pine-Barrens (), represented the culmination of twenty-five years of research on the flora of southern New Jersey. Harshberger, John W. The Botanists of Philadelphia and Their Work. Philadelphia: T. C. Davis and Sons, . ———. The Life and Work of John W. Harshberger, Ph.D.: An Autobiography. Lancaster, PA: Lancaster Press, . ———. The Vegetation of the New Jersey Pine-Barrens: An Ecologic Investigation. Philadelphia: Christopher Sower, .

Peter Mickulas

Hart, George Overbury “Pop’’ (b. May , ; d. Sept. , ).

Artist. Pop Hart was born in Cairo, Illinois, and studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago ´mie Julian from  to  and at the Acade

351

in Paris in . Noted for his expeditions to Tahiti, North Africa, and Mexico, his art largely served as visual documents of his travels. Associated with the American Scene movement of the early twentieth century, Hart’s importance is based on his innovative work in watercolor and printmaking. Throughout his career, Hart maintained a studio in Coytesville, New Jersey, and was part of an artists’ colony in Fort Lee that included Walt Kuhn. Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Gilbert, Gregory. George Overbury “Pop’’ Hart: His Life and Art. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also art

Gregory Gilbert

Hart, John

(b. c. ; d. May , ).

Landowner and politician. Born and raised in Hopewell Township in Hunterdon County, John Hart, owner of mills and extensive farmlands, served from  to  as a representative in the General Assembly of the Province of New Jersey and as a judge of the common pleas. He took an organizing role in the county’s committee of correspondence and served in each of New Jersey’s provincial congresses. As one of the officials issuing currency, he affixed his signature to thousands of notes. Named as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress on June , , Hart is assumed to have been present in Philadelphia when the New Jersey delegation voted for independence; he signed the Declaration on August . Unanimously chosen for New Jersey’s first assembly and reelected twice as Speaker, he held the position faithfully until his final illness in . Appointed to the powerful Council of Safety, Hart served as that body’s treasurer and as commissioner of the Loan Office, where he acted in the critical role of state

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

George Overbury “Pop’’ Hart, Fort Lee Dock, . Watercolor and graphite,  / ×  / in.

“A Historic Weekend in Gloucester County.’’ Eagle Scout Service Project by William S. Entrekin,

Courtesy Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick. Gift of the Jeanne Hart Estate. Photo: Victor Pustai.

352

Harte, Bret

paymaster. John Hart filled these financial posts well, but he lacked the rhetorical and literary skills of the better-known founders. This, along with his death during the war and the lack of portraits or personal papers, leads to Hart’s relative obscurity among the signers. Hammond, Cleon E. John Hart: The Biography of a Signer of the Declaration of Independence. Newfane, VT: Pioneer Press, .

See also American Revolution

Mariam Touba

Harte, Bret

(b. Aug. , ; d. May ,

). Writer. The son of Henry and Elizabeth

Ostrander Harte, Francis Brett Harte grew up in New York and moved to California in . As Bret Harte, he is best known for his short stories on California’s gold rush era. A key figure in the “local color’’ school of American fiction, Harte captured the dialect and doings of the gold seekers, vigilantes, gamblers, and prostitutes that peopled California’s mining camps. Among his works are The Luck of Roaring Camp, The Outcasts of Poker Flat, and The Heathen Chinee. In , he married Anna Griswold, and in , returned to the East Coast. With his popularity flagging and debts mounting in , Harte moved to Morristown, where he resided until immigrating to Europe in . His  novella Thankful Blossom, published in the centennial Christmas edition of the New York Sun, was a historical romance set in Morristown during the winter of , when Gen. George Washington and his troops were headquartered there. Harte also wrote several poems and short essays based on Revolutionary-era Morristown, including Bret Harte’s Discovery, drawn from the recollections of a -year-old woman from Basking Ridge who had met Washington, and Caldwell of Springfield.

portion of the United States. Having earlier relocated to Orange, New Jersey, Hartford served twelve one-year terms as mayor of the town beginning in . Hartford married Josephine Ludlum in ; of their five children, three of his sons joined him in running A&P. In , he settled a series of legal disputes that had arisen following Gilman’s death in the previous year and incorporated his business in New Jersey, given its more amenable laws regarding corporations. Hartford retired in  and died the following year in Spring Lake.

O’Connor, Richard. Bret Harte: A Biography. Boston: Little, Brown, . Scharnhorst, Gary. Bret Harte: Opening the American Literary West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, .

See also literature

Kathryn P. Kimball

Hartford,

George

Huntington

(b. Sept. , ; d. Aug. , ). Businessman.

George Huntington Hartford was the son of J. Brackett Hartford, a merchant and farmer, and Martha Soren. Born in Augusta, Maine, he received a scant education before relocating to Boston, where he worked in dry goods. Around  he met George F. Gilman in New York, with whom he founded the Great American Tea Company. By directly importing tea, the partners managed to undercut their competitors, and the business (which became the Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company in ) soon thrived and expanded. When Gilman retired in , the firm had over seventy stores in the eastern

Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; The SandPaper, . ———. Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History of Long Beach Island, New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; The SandPaper, .

John Bailey Lloyd Adelman, M. A. A&P: A Study in Price-Cost Behavior and Public Policy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Lebhar, Godfrey M. Chain Stores in America, – . New York: Chain Store Publishing, .

See also Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Hartshorne, Richard

(b. Oct , ;

d. May , ).

Landowner and politician. Born near Leicestershire, England, Richard Hartshorne immigrated to Rhode Island in  and later settled in Middletown, Monmouth County, New Jersey. A prominent Quaker, he was host to English Quaker leader William Fox during his tour of the colonies in . He served on the governor’s council and as speaker of the Provincial Assembly. In , Hartshorne purchased Sandy Hook from the Lenape.

Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey. New York: Scribner’s, . ———. The Province of East New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Stillwell, John E. Historical and Genealogical Miscellany.  vols. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, .

Nathaniel H. Hartshorne Nissen, Axel. Bret Harte: Prince and Pauper. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, .

of inspiration and learning. The resort is primarily residential and has no other hotels. Harvey Cedars has a  winter population of , which is  percent white. It increases to , in summer. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Harvey Cedars.

.-square-mile borough on the north end of Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Its unusual name is derived not from a person named Harvey but from an early New Jersey industry, the harvesting of salt hay, a natural crop used as silage for cattle. It was cut and stacked in late summer in the marshes on both sides of the bay. When harvesters worked the barrier islands, they sought high places or hummocks in the marshes to make a camp or “harvest quarters’’ for a week or two. A splendid hummock of several acres on Long Beach opposite Barnegat with a fine growth of cedar trees on it got called “the Harvest Cedars.’’ The two words in combination were difficult to pronounce and the whole area became Harvey Cedars with a large hotel by that name and a Life-Saving Station. The well-preserved former Harvey Cedars Hotel, a sportsman’s haunt in the late nineteenth century, is now the Harvey Cedars Bible Conference, a perfectly preserved centerpiece of the resort attracting nondenominational visitors from all over the nation for a week or two

Hasbrouck Heights.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Hasbrouck Heights began as a Dutch farming community in the late seventeenth century. It became part of old Lodi Township in , and remained farmland until  when promoters began buying farms and selling lots. The Panic of  doomed the first development attempts, and in the s the locale became known as Corona because of another unsuccessful town building scheme, the Center Corona Land and Building Association. After , New York businessmen began converting farmland with streets, water mains, electricity, and suburban homes. Hasbrouck Heights incorporated as a borough in  and lost  acres to Teterboro in . Despite its small size, railroad and trolley connections to New York and Newark ensured that Hasbrouck Heights would thrive as a suburban community. By the early s, a majority of its male population commuted daily to New York City. It continued to grow as a bedroom community during the post–World War II suburban boom when its population doubled from , in  to a peak of , in . In , the population of , was  percent white, largely of Italian, Irish, German, and Polish ancestry;  percent Asian; and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hornor, Louise L. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book:  Edition. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Northern Edition. Neptune: National Resource Directories, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

hat manufacturing.

New Jersey was a leader in hat manufacturing between the s and the s. In , Hungarian freedom fighter Louis Kossuth made a triumphal visit to the United States, introducing the unstiffened or “soft’’ hat on this side of the Atlantic. Orange became the center of soft hat production. From the mid-nineteenth century through the first decades of the twentieth century, New Jersey had dozens of small hat factories, primarily in Orange and Newark. There

Haworth were few machines, for hatting was largely a handicraft trade. Using felt made from fur, men formed the hat bodies, curled the brim, and sanded the felt’s finish. Women added the ribbon and trim. Some journeymen hatters went into business for themselves, and the ease with which hatters moved between the status of journeyman and factory owner contributed to a craft culture. However, as entrepreneurs created national markets for hats, competitive pressures increased, and the hatters’ unions became centralized business unions, using consumer boycotts, the union label, strikes, and political action as tactics to win concessions for workers. The boycott of Frederick Berg’s Orange hat shop in  was prompted by the female trimmers’ effort to organize; the men’s local unions struck in support, asking neighbors to shun strikebreakers and calling on unionists around the country not to buy Berg’s hats. When the Berg boycott of  failed, the hatters’ unions courted employers with the promise of trade agreements that would guarantee labor peace under the protection of a union label. This strategy enabled the unions to dominate their industry until the Supreme Court, in Loewe v. Lawlor in , ruled that the boycotts were illegal restraints of trade under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Ironically, it was the most famous child of the Orange hatting industry, John B. Stetson, who defied the union’s tactics most successfully before Loewe v. Lawlor. Stetson left Orange for the West in the s because he had tuberculosis; as he traveled among the cowboys, he developed the wide-brimmed “Stetson’’ hat, and returned to Philadelphia to manufacture them in America’s largest nonunion hat factory. New Jersey hat factories remained vigorous until  when fur costs rose and demand declined. When five manufacturers imposed  percent wage cuts in , the union struck and the manufacturers joined the national Open-Shop Drive that committed employers not to deal with unions. Eventually, manufacturers closed their plants and moved to Connecticut. New Jersey’s hatting industry was dead.

much altered and enlarged. Haviland’s radial prison designs, incorporating the ideas of reformers such as John Howard, were influential worldwide. Although his Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia is generally considered to have had greater impact, the Trenton building was actually more widely published. Tatman, Sandra, and Roger W. Moss, Jr. Biographical Dictionary of Philadelphia Architects, –. Boston: G. K. Hall, .

See also architecture; prisons

Constance M. Greiff

hawks.

Hawks are birds of prey that are diurnal, or active by day. Fourteen species of hawks can be seen in New Jersey, all of them sharing traits such as keen eyesight, hooked beaks, and sharp, curved talons. They range in size from the American kestrel, a falcon weighing four ounces, to the bald eagle, which can weigh up to thirteen pounds and have a wingspan of seven feet. Most North American hawks breed in the region before migrating south for winter, although some, such as the rough-legged hawk, are migrants from arctic climes. During the fall, large numbers of hawks of many species migrate along the ridges of western New Jersey, coasting on thermals of rising warm air that buoy them upward, allowing them to soar southward with minimal energy expenditure. At this season, spectacular concentrations of hawks can be seen over Cape May. The most commonly occurring bird of prey in New Jersey is the red-tailed hawk, of the genus Buteo; others in this genus are the red-shouldered, broad-winged, and roughlegged hawks. The genus Accipiter includes the sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper’s hawk, and northern goshawk. (Although the red-tailed is the most numerous hawk all year long, the broad-winged and sharp-shinned hawks are

more numerous during migration.) Ospreys, or fish hawks, dive for fish. The other species of hawks in New Jersey are the peregrine falcon, merlin, and American kestrel (falcons), the bald and golden eagles, and the northern harrier. Poaching and loss of habitat have taken a toll on hawks, prompting federal and state protective laws in the mid-twentieth century. Ospreys, bald eagles, and peregrine falcons suffered severe population declines due to chronic DDT poisoning that impaired reproduction, and were almost eliminated as breeding birds in New Jersey. Since the banning of DDT in the s, all three species have made a comeback with human assistance. New Jersey hawks listed as endangered breeding species include the bald eagle, northern goshawk, northern harrier, red-shouldered hawk, and peregrine falcon. In addition, Cooper’s hawk and osprey are listed as threatened. Connor, Jack. Season at the Point: The Birds and Birders of Cape May. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, . Heintzelman, Donald S. Hawks and Owls of Eastern North America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also birds

Jon Blackwell

Haworth.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County, bordered by the Oradell Reservoir on its west. Dutch farmers settled in the region in the seventeenth century, and are the source of the name given to Schraalenburgh Road, a major thoroughfare since colonial times. Originally part of Harrington Township, Haworth was incorporated as a borough in , acquiring land from the northern portion of Dumont in the process. Although the origin of its name is unclear, it is thought to have been taken from Haworth,

Bensman, David. The Practice of Solidarity: American Hat Finishers in the Nineteenth Century. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

David Bensman

Haviland, John

(b. Dec. , ; d. Mar.

, ).

Architect. Born near Taunton, Somerset, England, Haviland immigrated to Philadelphia in . One of America’s first professionally trained architects, he designed buildings in a number of revival styles, but most significantly he introduced the Egyptian Revival style for major buildings. In New Jersey, he used this style for the Essex County Courthouse (, demolished ) and the New Jersey State Penitentiary at Trenton (–c. ), which still standing, although

353

Adult osprey near nest.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife.

354

Hawthorne

England, home of the authors Charlotte, Emily, ¨. and Anne Bronte In the late s the West Shore branch of the New York Central Railroad went through the area, and in  a station opened in Haworth. The town quickly became a railroad suburb as new residents moved in, primarily businessmen who commuted to New York City. An even larger spurt of growth took place after World War II as suburban growth escalated. Although service on the New York Central line was discontinued in the late s, and the train station was destroyed by fire in , the town is still a residential center for those who commute into New York City, only now they either drive or use New Jersey Transit buses. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Haworth  Diamond Jubilee. Haworth: Haworth Diamond Jubilee Committee, . Haworth: Fiftieth Anniversary, –. Haworth: Golden Anniversary Committee, . Phyfe, Helen McCulloch. The Haworth Story. Haworth: Rachel McC. Schmidt and Frederick W. Schmidt, .

Susan Chore

Hawthorne.

.-square-mile borough in Passaic County. The earliest European settlers were the Ryerson brothers, who established themselves in the area in . The borough still contains many American Indian and Dutch names that reflect its early heritage, such as Wagaraw (meaning “where the river bends’’), a major thoroughfare that runs along the Passaic River, and Goffle Park, which is derived from the Dutch word for “fork.’’ Originally known as Manchester Township, the borough was formed in  as a municipal corporation. For much of the borough’s history, the main industry was farming. It has grown into a mainly residential area with some industry concentrated on the southern end. Hawthorne’s history has been marked by a sensational murder case in , involving a prominent local judge, John S. Van Winkle, and his wife, who were murdered by John Johnston. Its best-known citizen is John William Rea, a popular vocalist, who was a member of the original Christy Minstrels and who performed in the United States and England during the mid-nineteenth century. Hawthorn’s main commercial activities are professional services and retail businesses. According to the  census, the population was ,. Of this,  percent was white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bergen County Historic Sites Survey. Hackensack: Bergen County Office of Cultural and Historical Affairs, –. Hawthorne, New Jersey, Tercentenary Souvenir Book. Hawthorne: Tercentenary Committee of the Borough of Hawthorne, .

Horner, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Northern Edition. Neptune: National Resource Directories, .

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Hayes, John William

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Nov. , ). Labor leader. Hayes was born

in Philadelphia, but after  he spent several years in Europe. Upon his return to the United States in  he briefly worked as a farmhand in Illinois and eventually became a brakeman with the Pennsylvania Railroad. In  he lost his right arm in an accident switching cars. Necessity then compelled him to become a telegrapher. In the meantime he had joined the Knights of Labor and became active in its operations. In  Hayes attended the national telegrapher’s convention as a delegate. The telegraphers called a general strike, and Hayes took a prominent part in the union’s action. When the strike failed, Hayes was blacklisted. With no more to lose, he returned east and settled in New Brunswick. There he married Nellie A. Carlen in , opened a grocery store, and kept his relationship with the Knights of Labor. In  he was elected to the general executive board of the Knights, and became an ally and confidante of General Master Workman of the Knights Terence Powderly. In  Hayes moved to Washington, D.C., and became the organization’s general secretarytreasurer and later served as a delegate to the Populist party convention in . In a surprising turn of events in  Hayes repudiated his friend Powderly and succeeded in ousting him from the Knights. With the removal of Powderly from office, the Knights began a slow decline. Hayes remained in control of the group until  when its Washington, D.C., offices were closed. Nevertheless, Hayes continued to call himself the general master workman and continued to publish the National Labor Digest, the Knight’s newsletter. In his later years Hayes became a business and real estate promoter in Maryland. One biographer observes that Hayes never displayed the idealism and reform consciousness that typified many early labor pioneers. DAB. Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement

, when she became its education and research consultant. She believed strongly that the blind should not be segregated in separate educational establishments; as a result of her influence, New Jersey provided state support and supervision of Braille classes in public schools. Her belief in the blind person’s right to work led in  to a commission that opened industrial jobs for the blind. Upon her retirement in , she returned to Minnesota, where she died the following year. History of the New Jersey Commission for the Blind and Visually Impaired. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Human Services, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Marion Mann Roberts

Hazardous Substance Management Research Center. Established in , the Hazardous Substance Management Research Center (HSMRC), a National Science Foundation, industry, and university cooperative center with headquarters at the New Jersey Institute of Technology, is the nation’s largest university-based hazardous waste management research program. HSMRC has undertaken research on engineering management of hazardous substances and on testing and evaluating waste treatment and remediation technologies. A database identifying proven technologies improves the ability of government and industry to manage hazardous wastes, to identify and remediate hazardous substance spills and sites, and to facilitate technology transfers among industry, government, universities, and the public. Princeton University, Rutgers University, Stevens Institute of Technology, the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, and Tufts University (Massachusetts) participate in the center. Programs housed in seven divisions undertake research on biological and chemical treatment technologies, health effects assessment, incineration processes, monitoring and assessment technologies and programs, physical treatment processes, public policy formation, and public education on hazardous substance issues. HSMRC collaborates with domestic and international organizations in research and education as well as participating in education programs in engineering and science for high schools, colleges, and teacher training.

Helen E. Sheehan and Richard P. Wedeen Robert C. Nelson

Hayes, Lydia Young

(b. Sept. , ; d.

Feb. , ). Advocate for the blind. After she

lost her sight in a farm accident in Minnesota, Lydia Hayes was sent for her education to the Perkins Institution, the Massachusetts School for the Blind. In  she organized the New Jersey Commission for the Blind in Newark and served as its chief executive officer until

hazardous wastes.

Hazardous wastes include byproducts from manufacturing and farming, municipal garbage wastes, and medical and radioactive wastes. Wastes spread through water, soil, and air. Industrial pollutants have consequences for both workplace and community environmental health. As one of the first industrial states, with urban

Heade, Martin Johnson residential neighborhoods housing workers of nearby manufacturers, New Jersey has significant social and historical linkages of workplace and environmental health. The state has  National Priority List (NPL) Superfund sites, out of , sites nationwide, designated by the Environmental Protection Agency. NPL sites rank high in scientific evaluation of their hazard and pose a threat to public health but are suitable for remediation. Government agencies, with university and private industry collaboration, develop technology, programs, and policies to identify and remediate sites. Brownfields—abandoned industrial, commercial, and railroad properties, situated on or near contaminated sites—are a primary focus. Of the seven hazards discussed below, mercury, dioxin, radium, lead, and chromium are identified at state Superfund sites at the locations identified and/or elsewhere, thereby testifying to the longevity of hazardous waste products in the environment. Mercury. Newark and the Oranges were centers of the hatting industry in the nineteenth century. Mercury was used in the process of preparing wool for hats; workers breathed in mercury nitrate vapors and became ill. Dr. J. Addison Freeman, a New Jersey physician, published the first comprehensive description of mercury poisoning in  in Transactions of the New Jersey State Medical Society. Dioxin. In the s dioxin was produced in Newark as a byproduct of Agent Orange, a herbicide used extensively during the Vietnam War. Medical research now shows the disease consequences of dioxin exposure. The Ironbound community, where the plant was situated, remains the storage site for dioxin wastes. Aniline Dyes. These dyes were produced at the DuPont plant (the Chambers Works) in Deepwater. Workers exposed to these dyes developed bladder cancer, a fact first described in Germany in . It was known to the company in the early s, yet production of the dyes continued. This case presents a classic example of industrial knowledge and inaction in protecting workers’ health. Candle Wax. Scrotal cancer occurred in workers engaged in the production of paraffin at the Standard Oil of New Jersey (now Exxon) Bayonne refinery in the s. It was similar to the scrotal cancers first noted by Percival Potts in . Identified by company physicians, efforts by Standard Oil to modify the work process led to protection of workers against this disease. Radium. Radium-containing paint was painted on watch dials by young women at the U.S. Radium Corporation, East Orange, during the s. Discovery of cancer in these women by the chief medical examiner of Essex County, Dr. Harrison S. Martland, revealed the hazards of radium; it is a medical landmark, linking radiation exposure to cancer.

Lead. Occupational and environmental exposure to lead are national issues. New Jersey’s urban centers have programs for lead remediation to protect children from deteriorating lead-containing house paint. In the s exposure of workers to tetraethyl lead took place at DuPont’s New Jersey plants and at Standard Oil of New Jersey Bayway plant in Elizabeth, leading to hallucinations, illness, and death. Chromium. Hudson County, especially Jersey City, was identified as the second largest site of chromium wastes in the world. Urban renewal, politics, and awareness of community-level exposures to toxins made the discovery and analysis of chromium wastes a unique case in environmental issues. The medical consequences of low-level environmental chromium exposure remain elusive, however. Sheehan, Helen E., and Richard P. Wedeen, eds. Toxic Circles: Environmental Hazards from the Workplace into the Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also brownfields; garbage; pollution; water

Helen E. Sheehan and Richard P. Wedeen

Hazlet.

.-square-mile township in Monmouth County. Originally, Hazlet, Aberdeen, Holmdel Township, Keyport, Matawan, Union Beach, and part of Keansburg Borough were collectively known as Raritan Township. In , Holmdel Township and Matawan were the first areas to break away. They were followed by Keyport in , Keansburg Borough in , and Union Beach in . These divisions left Raritan Township with a little more than  percent of its original thirty-five square miles. In , the post office and railroad station opened. The post office was given the name Hazlet, while the railroad station was named Holmdel, but both were still part of Raritan Township. The Hazlet area began as a farming community. Then, in the s, development of a large portion of farmland began. By the s approximately two-thirds of the area was known as Hazlet and one-third was known as West Keansburg. In , several municipalities were using the name Raritan. So, to avoid confusion, one Raritan Township was renamed Hazlet in honor of one of its prominent residents, Dr. John Hazlett. Today, Hazlet is mostly residential. There are many strip malls and a multitheater complex. The population of Hazlet was , in ;  percent of this population was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Longo, William B. Hazlet Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Barbara Pepe

Heade, Martin Johnson

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Sept. , ). Painter. During a career

355

spanning almost seventy years, Martin Johnson Heade became one of America’s finest specialists in landscape and still life. Although he was generally associated with the artistic communities of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and St. Augustine, Florida, he spent a period of his life and career in New Jersey. His mother originally came from Hunterdon County, and in , when Heade purchased property in Illinois, he listed Trenton as his address. It has also been reported that he worked in Trenton in  and again between  and . Born in Lumberville, Pennsylvania, Heade was the eldest of the eight children of Sarah Johnson and Joseph Cowell Heed (Heade adopted an early spelling of the name in ). He began his studies with Edward Hicks (– ), a Pennsylvania neighbor, preacher, and painter of religious and historical scenes. Around , Heade began a series of travels to Italy, France, and England, where he mastered his ability to paint portraits, genre, and allegory. After his return to the United States in , he established a studio in New York City. He appears to have moved frequently, but in  he again settled in New York, where he rented space in the renowned Tenth Street Studio Building, home to several artists associated with the Hudson River school. This led to the beginning of his concentration on landscapes, and by , a trip to Brazil inspired his fondness for tropical landscapes and hummingbirds. His acclaimed orchid-and-hummingbird paintings as well as still lifes of roses and other flowers became significant features of his work. In New Jersey, Heade’s fame rests on his paintings of meadows, particularly marshland located between Hoboken and Newark. Jersey Meadows with a Fisherman (, The Newark Museum) depicts a salt marsh within a composition dominated by a luminous sky; it is a major example of the flat, unbroken horizontal design found in many landscapes of the period. Indeed, it reflects Heade’s growing interest in “luminism,’’ a popular form of midnineteenth-century landscape painting, characterized by meticulously delineated shapes; by light, air, and diffused atmospheric effects; and by precisely measured spaces. This cool, hard technique, emphasizing extreme clarity, is also seen in the works of several important artists of the period including Fitz Hugh Lane (–), John F. Kensett (–), and Sanford R. Gifford (–). In , at the age of sixty-four, Heade relocated to St. Augustine, Florida, and married Elizabeth Smith. In , Henry Morrison Flagler, president of Standard Oil of New Jersey, opened St. Augustine’s magnificent Ponce de Leon Hotel, which included seven artists’ studios. An admirer of Heade’s work, Flagler invited the artist to occupy one of them. Heade died in St. Augustine in . Gerdts, William, Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

356

Headlee, Thomas J.

Stebbins, Theodore E., Jr. The Life and Works of Martin Johnson Heade. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Headlee, Thomas J.

(b. ; d. June ,

). Entomologist. Dr. Thomas J. Headlee was

appointed the second chair of the entomology department at Rutgers University in . He established a cranberry substation to study insect pest control, disease, culture practices, and fertilizers. Headlee developed the New Jersey light trap, a standard in insect collection today. He organized programs to combat Japanese beetle and gypsy moth infestations and directed antimosquito efforts into county units. He was instrumental in forming the New Jersey Mosquito Extermination Association. In , the Associated Executives in Mosquito Control in New Jersey was formed. These organizations still form the basis for organized statewide mosquito control in the twenty-first century.

Drawing of Exel triaxial helicopter, c. –.

Courtesy E. K. Liberatore.

Tim Casey

HealthCare Institute of New Jersey. Located in New Brunswick, the Healthcare Institute of New Jersey was launched in  to inform the public about New Jersey’s pharmaceutical and medical technology industries and the contributions these industries make to the state’s economy. To this end the institute works with the media, state government, trade and nonprofit organizations, and private citizens and businesses. The institute has sought legislation to promote expedition of the review process for new drugs. The twenty members of the HealthCare Institute of New Jersey are pharmaceutical and medical technology companies based in the state, where many of them have major research divisions: Amersham Health, Aventis Pharmaceuticals, BD, Berlex Laboratories, Bristol-Myers Squibb, C. R. Bard, Eisai, Johnson & Johnson, MedPointe, Merck, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, Novo Nordisk Pharmaceuticals, Organon, Pfizer, Pharmacia Corporation, Roche, Sankyo Pharma, Schering-Plough Corporation, Stryker Corporation, and Wyeth. A  study commissioned by the institute determined that the pharmaceutical and medical technology industries supported , jobs in direct and indirect employment across the state. See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

helicopters. New Jersey can be credited with most attempts to produce a hovering flying machine before the first successful helicopter flight in  (in Germany). Three are noteworthy: a Civil War project, another for World War I, and a venture of the period between  and . In  a Union army officer approved a proposal to construct a helicopter for the war,

a project later supported by Gen. Benjamin Franklin Butler. Work was postponed until the war’s end, when the project was undertaken privately, with engineer Lemuel W. Serrell in charge. The design itself was the invention of Mortimer Nelson. Essentially a rotor rig, the prototype was constructed and tested in Hoboken in . The -foot rotor was powered by a -horsepower steam engine (weighing  pounds). It was claimed that the rotor lifted , pounds turning  rpm: an optimistic result by modern standards. The “Hoboken project’’ was likely the first piloted helicopter effort in the United States. The  helicopter project was the work of Francis B. Crocker and Peter Cooper. Two -horsepower electric motors drove a counterrotating rotor rig of -foot diameter, turning  rpm. Static thrust measured was , pounds. The tests were conducted in Ampere (a part of the city of East Orange) in , after which the project was abandoned. The engineers had the correct analytical understanding of the important performance parameters, envisioning the rotor as a slow-turning, large-diameter rotating wing, rather than as the contemporary short, high-speed propeller. With the development of autogiro technology in the s, this project, if sustained, had the potential of being the first practical helicopter. The entrepreneur and inventor George Exel of Clifton built seven helicopters in three configurations. The first was a coaxial counterrotating rotor helicopter, tested between  and . Following this was the s development of his triaxial concept: a rotary aircraft engine was installed so the crankcase drove a large-diameter rotor while the crankshaft turned a propeller in counterrotation. Through the years Exel conducted

unpiloted tests at Teterboro Airport, in Montvale, and in Passaic. Though often modified, these machines proved to be highly unstable and uncontrollable (as were all the others of this era). In  the inventor built and flew a more conventional tail-rotor machine, his sixth. Finally at age seventy-four in , Exel built his seventh and last helicopter. No other individual in the United States prior to  was so committed to the idea of a hovering rotorcraft. Liberatore, E. K. Helicopters before Helicopters. Melbourne, FL: Krieger Publishing, .

See also aviation research

Eugene K. Liberatore

Helmetta.

.-square-mile borough in Middlesex County. George W. Helme, a former Confederate general during the Civil War, founded the Borough of Helmetta in , splitting it off from East Brunswick. He named the borough for his daughter, Etta. Helme had taken over a snuff factory owned by his fatherin-law in  and built it into what was to become the largest snuff mill in the world. Helme donated the borough’s water system and firehouse and built most of its homes. The snuff factory closed in . Helmetta’s population in  of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . See also George W. Helme snuff mill

Mark Wasserman

Henderson, David

(b. /; d. Sept. ,

). Manufacturer. David Henderson came

to America in , and by  he had arrived in Jersey City, where he ran a print shop for Archibald McIntyre’s lottery business and,

Henry Blank and Company perhaps in connection with his work, received a patent in  for improvements in lithography. He married McIntyre’s daughter, Anne Eliza, in . While in Scotland on his honeymoon, he persuaded his brother James to join him in a Jersey City venture to make stoneware and whiteware for household and tavern use. Henderson’s pottery was the first in the country to successfully produce ware on the English system of factory organization. The pottery was reorganized as the American Pottery Manufacturing Company in . Henderson died in a shooting accident in the Adirondack Mountains while prospecting for water to supply the iron factory he hoped to establish. Stradling, Diana, and Ellen Paul Denker. Jersey City: Shaping America’s Pottery Industry, –. Jersey City: Jersey City Museum, .

See also ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker

Henle, Carye-Belle

(b. Dec. , ; d.

July , ). Physician and radiologist. Born

in Greenville, Mississippi, and raised in New York, Carye-Belle Henle earned her medical degree at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in . She interned at Bellevue Hospital and became the first woman radiology resident at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York. She was board certified in radiology and a fellow of the American College of Radiology. In , Henle established a private practice in Newark, becoming New Jersey’s first woman radiologist. She was elected president of the New Jersey Radiological Society in , proclaimed ’s “Woman of the Year’’ by the New Jersey Medical Women’s Association, and named an officer of the national association. From  to , Henle was a radiology consultant for the Newark Department of Health and the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union. Hospital affiliations included Newark City Hospital and the College of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. For many years, Henle participated in the Radium Research Project of the New Jersey Department of Health and the Atomic Energy Commission, studying occupational cancers in New Jeresy’s radium watch dial painters. She received the Golden Merit Award of the Medical Society of New Jersey two years prior to her death from leukemia in . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also medicine and public health

Sandra Moss

Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc. The New Jersey Supreme Court’s ruling in Henningsen is probably its most important decision interpreting the common law. The facts of the case were clear: Helen Henningsen was injured when the ten-dayold Plymouth she was driving crashed as a result of defects in the vehicle’s steering system.

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She sued both Bloomfield Motors, which had sold the car to her husband, and the manufacturer, seeking reimbursement for medical expenses and the cost of repairs to the car. Yet if the supreme court adhered to established common-law principles, she would have been barred from recovery. The dealer was not liable because his liability extended only to injuries caused by his own negligence. And under the doctrine of privity, the manufacturer was liable only for injuries to parties with whom it had a direct contractual relationship, and it had no such relationship with the Henningsens. A unanimous supreme court, in an opinion written by Justice John Francis, nonetheless upheld Henningsen’s right to recover for her injuries. In doing so, it rejected the privity requirement and insisted that negligence was not the appropriate standard for determining liability. The court’s innovative ruling in Henningsen placed it in the forefront of common-law reform nationwide, as court after court followed New Jersey’s lead in jettisoning the privity requirement and the negligence standard. Within the state, the ruling in Henningsen committed the New Jersey Supreme Court to evaluating established common-law doctrines in the light of current conceptions of societal needs—an approach that was to become a hallmark of the court’s common-law jurisprudence.

Henry, Joseph. The Papers of Joseph Henry.  vols. Ed. Marc Rothenberg. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, –.

Lieberman, Jethro. The Litigious Society. New York: Basic Books, .

———. Scientific Writings of Joseph Henry.  vols. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Press, .

Tarr, G. Alan, and Mary Cornelia Aldis Porter. State Supreme Courts in State and Nation. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

———. A Scientist in American Life: Essays and Lectures of Joseph Henry. Ed. Arthur Molella. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also law

G. Alan Tarr

Henry, Joseph

(b. Dec. , ; d. May ,

). Physicist and writer. Born in Albany, New York, Joseph Henry was the son of William Henry and Ann Alexander. Between  and  he attended the Albany Academy, and in  he returned there to teach natural philosophy and mathematics. In  he married Harriet Alexander, and they eventually had four children. In  he became professor of natural philosophy at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). By the early s he received national and global recognition for his scientific discoveries. This recognition as America’s foremost physical scientist led to his selection as the secretary of the newly established Smithsonian Institution in . Head of the Smithsonian until his death, he was active in the emerging community of professional scientists. Henry’s major research interest was in electromagnetism. He first received widespread recognition in  for a paper that detailed the theory and construction of electromagnets capable of lifting great weight or of being energized at very long distances (the latter form of electromagnet later became the basis for Samuel F. B. Morse’s telegraph). In this period

he also discovered, independently of the British scientist Michael Faraday, the phenomena of induction (the production of a current in a secondary circuit by an electromagnet placed in a primary circuit) and self-induction (the production of a reverse current in the same circuit as an electromagnet). Henry’s work proved important to Morse’s development of the telegraph between  and . At first Morse could not build a telegraph that could work at distances greater than forty feet. By applying Henry’s discoveries, Morse increased its range to several miles, a commercially practical distance. Henry also wrote Morse a letter of endorsement that helped him to secure congressional funding to build his first telegraph line, which was completed in May . However, Morse soon became involved in bitter litigation over his patents, which led to his estrangement from Henry. Henry claimed that he had been responsible for the fundamental discoveries that made telegraphy possible, and that Morse merely applied and patented these discoveries. Morse accused Henry of assisting his rivals by downplaying Morse’s inventive talents. The dispute between the two men over the invention of the telegraph ended only with their deaths in the s.

Moyer, Albert E. Joseph Henry: The Rise of an American Scientist. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also science and technology

David Hochfelder

Henry Blank and Company. Born in Providence, Rhode Island, in , Henry Blank moved to Newark as a teenager and had his first experience with jewelry as an apprentice. In , following a brief career in the insurance business, he joined N. E. Whiteside and Company, a Newark-based jewelry manufacturer, as a junior partner. The firm, renamed Whiteside and Blank, later opened a sales office in New York. It incorporated in . Whiteside and Blank produced highquality gold and platinum jewelry and was one of few American firms making jewelry ` jour enameling. In , it bewith plique a came the sole American distributor for the expansion watch bracelet, patented in Germany. Its success spurred a significant growth in the company’s watch business: Whiteside and Blank became the first company to make ladies’ watches in the United States. The firm produced jewelry for the wholesale trade plus special designs for retail establishments such as Grant A. Peacock, Neiman Marcus, and Tiffany. In , Whiteside left the company,

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which then became Henry Blank and Company. In , Henry Blank became president of Cresarrow Watch Company, maker of the small Cresarrow movement. Upon Henry Blank’s death in , his son, Philip E., took over the company. Peter Blank was running the business when it closed its doors in , donating its archival material to the New Jersey Historical Society. Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also jewelry industry

Janet Zapata

Herald News. This daily and Sunday newspaper is owned by Macromedia and based in West Paterson. It resulted from the mergers of four earlier newspapers. The Passaic City Herald, founded August , merged in April  with the Passaic Daily News, founded August , becoming the Herald News. The Paterson Morning Call, founded October , merged in December  with the Paterson Evening News, founded December , becoming the Evening News. In September  the Herald News and Evening News merged, becoming the North Jersey Herald News. The newspaper’s name was shortened to the Herald News in . Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Harry Glazer

Herbert, Henry William

(b. Apr. ,

; d. May , ). Writer. The oldest son of the Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, William Henry Herbert was educated at home by private tutor until he attended Eton at the age of twelve. In , he graduated from Caius College in Cambridge. Herbert immigrated from his birthplace, London, England, to the United States in late  and settled near Newark. He taught Greek at a private school in New York City from  to . In , he was a founding editor of the American Monthly Magazine, to which he regularly contributed sketches and tales—many later compiled and republished as books. His first book was The Brothers: A Tale of the Fronde (); others included Cromwell () and Marmaduke Wyvil; or, The Maid’s Revenge (). His work also appeared in such literary magazines of his day as Literary World, the United States Democratic Review, and Putnam’s Monthly. Besides fiction, Herbert published strictly historical accounts on events and figures from Europe and the classical world, such as Captains of the Great Roman Republic and Henry VIII and His Six Wives. Under the pseudonym Frank Forester he published articles and books on hunting, fishing, and horsemanship. Popular titles published under this pen name include Manual for Young Sportsmen, Fish and Fishing,

and My Shooting Box. Herbert also published translations from Greek and French, and a collection of his poetry was published posthumously in . He died in New York City in . Adams, Oscar Fay. A Dictionary of American Authors. th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . Duyckinck, Evert A., and George L. Duyckinck. Cyclopaedia of American Literature. New York: Charles Scribner, .

chemical companies. The company has sold off its explosives factories and now exists as an international firm, Hercules Incorporated, headquartered in Wilmington, Delaware, with a wide variety of product lines, including specialty chemicals. Johnson, James P. New Jersey: History of Ingenuity and Industry. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications, .

See also chemical industry

Kathryn P. Kimball

Hercules Powder Company.

In the s, San Francisco’s Giant Powder Company opened an explosives plant in McCainesville (now called Kenvil), which grew into the Hercules Powder Company. After perfecting the creation of trinitrotoluene, or TNT, in , Thomas Coleman DuPont led the company bearing his name to acquire about sixtyfive of his competitors. But in  a Justice Department suit under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act forced DuPont to break the company’s operations in New Jersey into three branches: Hercules Powder Company; E. I. DuPont de Nemours Powder Company; and Atlas Powder Company. When America entered World War I in , Hercules became a major supplier of military explosives. The company produced the first U.S. cordite in World War I and would go on to produce the bazooka rocket in World War II. An explosion at Hercules Powder Company in Kenvil in  killed fifty-two, but employees had the line working eight days later. During the Second World War, Hercules produced a total of . billion pounds of explosives. The company’s early successes allowed it to expand, becoming one of the larger U.S.

Kitta MacPherson

Hereford Inlet Lighthouse.

The Hereford Inlet Lighthouse, built in , marked the entrance of the inlet for the small steamers navigating the coastal waters. It is the only lighthouse built in the Swiss Gothic style on the East Coast. First illuminated on May , , it was equipped with a fourthorder Fresnel lens. In  the lighthouse was decommissioned, its function taken over by a skeleton tower. Listed on the National Registry of Historic Places, the lighthouse is leased by the state to the City of North Wildwood, where it is located at First and Central Avenues. It has been restored and is surrounded by beautiful Victorian gardens.

Gately, Bill. Sentinels of the Shore: A Guide to the Lighthouses and Lightships of New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Holland, Francis Ross. America’s Lighthouses: Their Illustrated History since . Brattleboro, VT: Stephen Green Press, . Veasey, David. Guarding New Jersey’s Shore. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

See also lighthouses

Kim M. Ruth

Hermitage, The.

This National Historic Landmark located in Ho-Ho-Kus, Bergen

The Hermitage, Ho-Ho-Kus.

Courtesy Friends of the Hermitage, Inc.

Hershiser, Orel Leonard IV County, is an outstanding example of Gothic Revival architecture. It contains the core of a colonial home that was built around  and served as a headquarters for Gen. George Washington in July . Here, in , Theodosia Prevost married Aaron Burr. Elijah Rosencrantz, a country physician, bought the Hermitage in . His son ran a cotton mill on the property and hired the New York architect William Ranlett to renovate the family home in the s. The last remaining Rosencrantz, Mary Elizabeth, deeded the house and its contents to the state of New Jersey upon her death in . The Friends of the Hermitage have furnished the house in late Victorian style and have preserved a large clothing and archival collection. They conduct tours and offer extensive history education programs. See also historic sites

resources. They migrate south for the winter, and usually return in late March and April to begin breeding. While great blue herons nest in a few inland colonies mainly in tall trees, green herons often nest solitarily in reeds at both inland and coastal sites. The other species are mainly coastal, nesting in colonies that may reach several hundred pairs. Some colonies are traditional, reused annually for decades. The Stone Harbor colony, abandoned in the mid-s, had been in use for most of the twentieth century. Herons and egrets eat mainly fish but also a wide variety of other vertebrates (baby birds, snakes, mice, frogs). Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hancock, James, and James Kushlan. The Herons Handbook. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also birds, colonial; shorebirds

Joanna Burger

Henry Bischoff

herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are elegant, long-necked, long-legged wading birds that normally forage in aquatic habitats, mainly along the coast. The herons breeding in New Jersey include great blue heron (Ardea herodias), black-crowned (Nycticorax nycticorax) and yellow-crowned night (Nyctanassa violaceus) herons, tricolored (Egretta tricolor), little blue (Egretta caerulea), and green (Butorides virescens) herons, great egret (Ardea albus), snowy egret (Egretta thula), cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis), and glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus). Most herons and egrets breed in mixedspecies colonies, nesting in trees or shrubs on islands or other habitats that are inaccessible to mammalian predators. They nest in colonies to derive antipredator advantages, such as early warning of approaching predators, and to obtain information about food

Herpers Brothers.

Ferdinand Joseph Herpers is credited with opening the first factory in the United States devoted to the manufacture of jewelry findings. Born in  in Linz, Austria, at age fourteen he apprenticed in Bonn, Germany, and worked with jewelers in Cologne and Pforzheim where he learned the art of die-sinking. He immigrated to the United States in  and was hired by Downing and Company in New York City. Within a year, he went to Newark to work with Baldwin and Company In , he failed in his first attempt at setting up his own business, was forced to close his shop and took employment with a noted jewelry firm of the day, Durand and Carter. Ten years later, the indomitable Ferdinand Herpers tried once again; he opened a workshop in a small building at  Washington

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Street in Newark, where he started the first concern in this country for the exclusive manufacture of findings, that is, machine-made settings, galleries, pins, and other items required in the manufacture of jewelry. Within six years, his business had become so successful that he moved to a larger factory at  Crawford Street. By that time, his young sons, Henry and Ferdinand Jr., were part of the company. The year  marked a turning point in the jewelry industry. On September  of that year, Herpers patented the first prong setting for gemstones. Previously, gemstones had been mounted into collet or bezel settings, which enclosed the bottom of the stone. With the new settings, stones, especially diamonds, were held away from the mounting, allowing light to penetrate and enhance their brilliance. In the next twenty years, this type of mounting would come to be known as the “Tiffany setting,’’remaining to this day the preferred one, especially for rings. When Herpers retired in , succeeded by his two sons, the name of the business became Herpers Brothers. Like many Newark concerns, it maintained a sales office in New York City. By the first decade of the twentieth century, it boasted a line of “nearly three thousand varied articles,’’ supplying jewelry findings to many establishments including the Newark maker Enos Richardson, the New York establishments of Jacques and Marcus, Kirkpatrick and Company, and Tiffany and Company, and Philadelphia’s Caldwell and Company. In , a member of the firm, August Knaus, patented another important invention for the jewelry industry, the first safety catch, whereby a mechanism secured the pin from coming out of the clasp. That same year, the firm proudly exhibited a selection of their wares at the  Pan American Exposition in Buffalo. After the death of Henry Herpers in , Herpers Brothers was managed by his sons, Ferdinand and Henry, until the firm closed its doors in . Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also jewelry industry

Janet Zapata

Hershiser, Orel Leonard IV (b. Sept.

A great blue heron.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife.

, ). Major League baseball player. Born in Buffalo, New York, Orel Hershiser grew up in South Jersey, where he was an all-conference baseball selection for Cherry Hill East High School. He was his college team’s most valuable player at Bowling Green State University in Ohio, and also played professional minor league hockey for the Philadelphia Flyers organization. After college, he joined professional baseball as a pitcher. In , he had one of the best seasons of any pitcher in the history of the Los Angeles Dodgers, winning the Cy Young

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Award and the most valuable player award in both the National League championship series and the World Series. That season he broke the Major League record for consecutive scoreless innings by pitching fifty-nine innings without giving up a run; the streak included five straight shutouts. Nicknamed “the Bulldog’’ by former Dodgers manager Tommy Lasorda, he compiled a career record of  wins and  losses and had a lifetime earned run average of . in eighteen seasons with the Dodgers, Cleveland Indians, San Francisco Giants, and New York Mets. He is a threetime National League All-Star (–). Hershiser retired during the  season after returning to the Dodgers. He married Jamie Byars on February , , and they have two children. Hershiser, Orel, with Jerry B. Jenkins. Out of the Blue. Brentwood, TN: Wolgemuth and Hyatt, .

See also baseball

Rudy Larini

Hess, Leon

(b. Mar. , ; d. May , ).

Businessman. Born in Asbury Park to Russian immigrant parents, Leon Hess started his oil business during the Depression, delivering fuel oil from a second-hand truck. From  to , he served as head of transportation logistics and supplied oil for Gen. George S. Patton. After the war Hess married Norma Wilentz, the daughter of former New Jersey attorney general David Wilentz. In  Hess built a refinery in Port Reading, New Jersey. The first Hess gasoline station opened in , and in  the first toy Hess truck, an oil tanker, was produced. It was the first toy truck with lights and sounds and the first to come with batteries. In  Hess built one of the world’s largest refineries in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. He acquired Amerada in  to form the Amerada Hess Corporation. In March  Hess was part of a group that purchased the New York Jets football team, then called the New York Titans, out of bankruptcy. In  he assumed full ownership of the team and moved them from Shea Stadium to the Meadowlands. American Jewish Biographies. New York: Facts on File, .

See also oil refineries

America, about sixteen thousand were from Hesse-Cassel. Hence, the colonists referred to them as “Hessians.’’ In late December , after the British had successfully conquered New York City and all of New Jersey, a brigade of three Hessian regiments (some fifteen hundred men) under Col. Johann Gottlieb Rall occupied the exposed outpost of Trenton. In the early morning hours of December , , Washington’s Continentals surprised the Trenton garrison, killing or wounding  men and capturing some . From the  campaign until the end of the war, Hessians accounted for nearly half of the British forces in almost every battle or campaign of note. In New Jersey they would figure prominently in the Battle of Monmouth in June  and the Battle of Springfield in June . Of the thirty thousand who served in America during the Revolution, nearly seven thousand remained in the New World at war’s end, themselves becoming Americans. Atwood, Rodney. The Hessians: Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel in the American Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, . Fleming, Thomas J. The Forgotten Victory: The Battle for New Jersey, . New York: Reader’s Digest Press, . Kipping, Ernst. The Hessian View of America, – . Monmouth Beach: Philip Freneau Press, .

See also American Revolution; Trenton, Battles of

Richard Patterson

John Grier Hibben.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. quadrupled, thirty buildings were erected, the schools of architecture, engineering, and international affairs were created, and university admissions became more selective. ANB. DNB.

Hewitt, Abram Stevens (b. July , ; d. Jan. , ). Manufacturer, philanthropist,

and politician. Born in Haverstraw, New York, and educated at Columbia College, Abram S. Hewitt found success in business as proprietor of the Trenton Iron Works. Established in , the works made rails, wire, and beams used in building construction. During the s, Hewitt studied steel and iron production in Europe and pioneered the open-hearth process of steel production in America. A Democrat, Hewitt served in the U.S. Congress from New York and as mayor of New York City. In his later years, Hewitt supported the Cooper Union by donating generously to its endowment fund. See also iron industry

E. Richard McKinstry Krista Gulbin

Hibben, John Grier

(b. Apr. , ; d.

Hessians. Since George I, the monarchs of

May , ). Educator and college president.

Great Britain have descended from the House of Hanover. His grandson, King George III, was the first of the line to have grown up speaking English and not German. In , foreseeing that the rebellion in the American colonies would have to be fought longer and over more territory than originally expected, the government of Britain turned to its long-standing allies among the hundreds of German city-states and concluded treaties with six for entire regiments to serve in America. Of the thirty thousand or so German auxiliaries that served in

Born in Peoria, Illinois, John Grier Hibben was both president and valedictorian of the Princeton University Class of . After attending Princeton Theological Seminary, he was ordained a Presbyterian minister in , but pursued an academic career and received his Ph.D. in philosophy from Princeton in . Nationally respected as a scholar, notably because of his book Hegel’s Logic (), he was also popular with students. During his presidency of Princeton University (–), the campus area doubled, the endowment

Leitch, Alexander. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also Princeton University

Eric v. d. Luft

High Bridge. .-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. As part of Lebanon Township the area gained importance, and the name Union Forge, in  when an iron works by that name was established. Robert Taylor became its superintendent in . A Patriot, Taylor acquired the works from the Loyalist owners and produced cannonballs for Gen. George Washington’s artillery. The development of the region and the fortunes of the Taylor (later Taylor-Wharton) Iron Works were intertwined well into the twentieth century. (It ceased operations in .) In  the Central Railroad of New Jersey spanned the South Branch of the Raritan with a high bridge, a name soon applied to the region, then part of Clinton Township. Its population was swelled by Irish railroad workers who settled there to work in the iron works. A Catholic church was established in . Shortly after the community split from the surrounding townships, forming High Bridge Township, which was truncated to its present boundaries and incorporated as a borough in . During the twentieth century, High Bridge became increasingly residential with predominately single-family dwellings. Compact, it experienced little growth during the housing boom

higher education of the late twentieth century. Its  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Moreau, D. H. Traditions of Hunterdon. Flemington: D. H. Moreau, Publisher, . A Pictorial History of High Bridge. High Bridge: High Bridge Historical Society, . Schmidt, Hubert G. Rural Hunterdon. Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

New

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Taylor-Wharton Two-Hundredth Anniversary. High Bridge: Taylor-Wharton Iron and Steel Company, .

Frank A. Curcio

higher education.

In the autumn of  there were , students at fifty-six degree-granting institutions in New Jersey. The College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, opened in  as the first college chartered in New Jersey and the fourth in the colonies. Disagreement within the Presbyterian Church influenced Princeton’s opening. Old Lights opposed revivalists and rejected ministers if not graduates of Harvard, Yale, or European institutions. Their actions prompted revivalists (New Lights) to negotiate a college charter. Like other colonial colleges, Princeton primarily produced ministers, but it also educated professional men and public officials. Although Oxford and Cambridge furnished the model for most colonial colleges, a Scottish influence predominated at Princeton, Kings College (later Columbia University), and William and Mary. Institutions in Aberdeen and Edinburgh were deeply influenced by newer tendencies in science and philosophy and transmitted those ideas to America. The second New Jersey college, the eighth in the colonies, was established in , when the Dutch Reformed Church founded Queen’s College in New Brunswick. Queen’s became Rutgers College in , taking the name of a benefactor, Col. Henry Rutgers. The LandGrant College acts of  and  nourished the roots of state universities nationally, but their development required financial support from state legislatures. In  Rutgers received a federal land-grant designation for its agricultural college. In  that branch of the institution was designated the State University of New Jersey, but it was not until  that the entire institution carried that title. The Roman Catholic Church founded New Jersey’s third college, Seton Hall, in . It was named after Mother Elizabeth Ann Bayley Seton, the first American-born saint, and a pioneer in Roman Catholic education. Seton Hall subsequently became a university, but unlike its predecessors it retains its religious affiliation. From  to , six more independent colleges were created: Rider, Centenary, Drew (as a Methodist seminary), Bloomfield, Stevens Institute of Technology, and Saint Peter’s. All

continue to operate, and two, Drew and Rider, are now universities. Stevens also offers doctoral degrees. The nineteenth century ended with the founding of the College of Saint Elizabeth in . The five remaining independent colleges in the state—Georgian Court, Felician, Monmouth, Caldwell, and Fairleigh Dickinson— opened in the first half of the twentieth century. Monmouth and Fairleigh Dickinson subsequently became universities. While independent colleges greatly outnumbered public institutions until the twentieth century, the seeds of public activity were planted in . Three cities founded normal schools for the training of teachers to respond to the burgeoning demands of the free public schools. These institutions flowered into state colleges and universities, known as Trenton State College (now the College of New Jersey), Kean University, and William Paterson University. In the early s, three additional normal schools opened and, like their predecessors, expanded to become state colleges and universities: New Jersey City University, Rowan University, and Montclair State University. In  the state funded two additional colleges to promote the liberal arts, Ramapo College and Richard Stockton State College. Thomas Edison State College, the last of nine state colleges, opened in . Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the first distinct and separate technical school in the United States, opened in  in New York. Once underway, the technical movement gained momentum with the opening of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in . New Jersey’s Stevens Institute of Technology was part of this movement, opening in , and in  the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) opened its doors in Newark. Today NJIT is one of three public research universities in the state, along with Rutgers and the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ). UMDNJ was formed in  following several mergers and acquisitions. Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry was acquired by the state in  and renamed New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry. In  Martland Hospital in Newark was also acquired by the state and became the medical school’s primary teaching facility. Shortly thereafter, Rutgers Medical School was merged with the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry to become UMDNJ. Martland was closed in  through the Newark Agreement, clearing the way for creation of a major academic health center. The last sector of higher education developed in New Jersey was the public twoyear college. Nationally, community colleges multiplied in the s to meet the postwar population bulge. In  New Jersey’s legislature endorsed the creation of community colleges. Following passage of the act, New Jersey opened eighteen community colleges,

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fourteen between  and  and the remaining four from  to . Union County College had opened in  as the extension of a public school. In  Atlantic County, which had a community college, and Cape May County, which did not, joined forces to form Atlantic Cape Community College, with campuses serving both counties. Raritan Valley Community College, founded in the s, also serves and is supported by two counties, Somerset and Hunterdon. New Jersey thus has nineteen community colleges to serve its twenty-one counties. New Jersey also has eight specialized religious colleges: Assumption College for Sisters; Philadelphia Biblical University; Beth Medrash Govoha; New Brunswick Theological Seminary, the first theological seminary in the nation; Princeton Theological Seminary; Rabbi Jacob Joseph School; Rabbinical College of America; and Talmudical Academy. Three degree-granting, proprietary institutions complete the list of New Jersey institutions of higher education: Berkeley College, DeVry College of Technology, and Gibbs College. New Jersey’s institutions of higher education are under a tripartite system of supervision. In  Gov. Christine Todd Whitman, who ran on a platform of tax reduction, recommended the elimination of the former coordinating board for higher education. The bureaucracy was reduced and greater autonomy was given to the institutions. Boards of trustees govern their institutions; the Commission on Higher Education provides systemwide coordination, research, advocacy, planning, and policy development, advised by the Presidents’ Council. Brubacher, John S., and Willis Rudy. Higher Education in Transition. th ed. New Brunswick: Transaction, . Lynch, James M. Born of Necessity: The Two-Year College in New Jersey. Vineland: Standard Publishing Company, . Sammartino, Peter. A History of Higher Education in New Jersey. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, .

Martine Hammond-Paludan Higher Education Institutions in New Jersey . Assumption College for Sisters, Mendham . Atlantic Cape Community College, Mays Landing, Atlantic City, and Rio Grande . Bergen Community College, Paramus . Berkeley College, West Paterson, Waldwick, and Woodbridge . Beth Medrash Govoha, Lakewood . Bloomfield College, Bloomfield . Brookdale Community College, Lincroft . Burlington County College, Pemberton . Caldwell College, Caldwell . Camden County College, Blackwood, Camden, and Cherry Hill . Centenary College, Hackettstown . College of New Jersey, Ewing . College of Saint Elizabeth, Morristown . County College of Morris, Randolph Township

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. Cumberland County College, Vineland . DeVry College of Technology, North Brunswick . Drew University, Madison . Essex County College, Newark . Fairleigh Dickinson University, Teaneck, Hackensack, and Madison . Felician College, Lodi . Georgian Court College, Lakewood . Gibbs College, Piscataway and Montclair . Gloucester County College, Sewell

. New Jersey City University, Jersey City . New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark . Ocean County College, Toms River . Passaic County Community College, Paterson . Philadelphia Biblical University, New Jersey Campus, Liberty Corner . Princeton University, Princeton . Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton . Rabbi Jacob Joseph School, Edison . Rabbinical College of America, Morristown . Ramapo College of New Jersey, Mahwah . Raritan Valley Community College, North Branch . Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, Pomona . Rider University, Lawrenceville and Princeton . Rowan University, Glassboro . Rutgers, The State University, New Brunswick, Newark, and Camden . Saint Peter’s College, Jersey City and Englewood Cliffs . Salem Community College, Carneys Point . Seton Hall University, South Orange . Somerset Christian College, Zarephath . Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken . Sussex County Community College, Newton . Talmudical Academy, Adelphia . Thomas Edison State College, Trenton . Union County College, Cranford, Elizabeth, Piscataway, and Scotch Plains . University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark and Piscataway . Warren County Community College, Washington . William Paterson University, Wayne

. Hudson County Community College, Jersey City and West New York . Kean University, Union . Mercer County Community College, Trenton and West Windsor . Middlesex County College, Edison . Monmouth University, West Long Branch . Montclair State University, Upper Montclair . New Brunswick Theological Seminary, New Brunswick

.-square-mile lake community in eastern Vernon Township, Sussex County. Formerly an area of mountain farms, the community was started in  by Seckler and Sheppard, Inc. Its name derives from its location near the highest point in the Highlands. By , it consisted of over a thousand summer homes, four artificial lakes, and thirty-two miles of private roads. Highland Lake, one and a half miles long, is the largest body of water in the community. Originally a seasonal resort, better highway access and population growth have caused it to become increasingly a year-round bedroom suburb. Residents belong to the Highland Lakes Country Club and Community Association, which manages the community’s roads, lakes, and recreational facilities, which include beaches, tennis courts, a clubhouse, and boating docks. Nearby lake communities sharing the Highland Lakes postal address include Barry Lakes, Lake Wanda, and Cliffwood Lake.

Dupont, Ronald J., Jr. Vernon Two Hundred: A Bicentennial History of the Township of Vernon, New

Hightstown Jersey, –. McAfee: Friends Dorothy E. Henry Library, .

of

the

Highland Lakes, –. Highland Lakes: Highland Lakes Country Club and Community Association, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Highland Park. .-square-mile borough in Middlesex County. Highland Park, a suburb of New Brunswick and a bedroom community for Rutgers University, is linked to the city by the Albany Street Bridge and situated atop the wooded bank of the Raritan River. The sparse seventeenth- and eighteenth-century farmsteads of European settlers were partitioned during the mid-nineteenth century into estates for wealthy families. The Livingston Homestead, listed in the New Jersey and National Registers, is the best example. The town’s main commercial street, Raritan Avenue, became increasingly residential after electric trolleys provided convenient transportation in . Highland Park seceded from Raritan Township on March , . Exponential growth occurred between  and  as hundreds of single-family houses surrounded the estate houses and filled subdivisions including the Viehmann Tract, Riverview Terrace, East New Brunswick Heights, and Livingston Manor, Watson Whittlesey’s private development. In , two inventors resided here: Band-Aid creator Earle E. Dickson and Flako Products packaged mixes originator Arthur McCallum. In addition, the borough was home at various times to two Nobel Laureates, Selman Waksman and Arno Penzias. The borough’s most eminent mayor, Robert Wood Johnson, Jr., served from  to . The predominantly residential borough was also home to several factories, including Turner Tubes (–), the Janeway and Carpender Wallpaper Company (–), and John Waldron Company (–). The  census recorded a population of ,:  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent black. The median household income for  was $,. For complete census data, see chart, . Isaacs, Edward R. A Brief History of the Borough of Highland Park, Middlesex County, New Jersey. New Jersey: E. R. Isaacs, . Kolva, Jeanne, and Joanne Pisciotta. Highland Park, New Jersey. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . This Is Highland Park. Highland Park: League of Women Voters, .

Jeanne Kolva

Highlands.

The Highlands, as they are known in New Jersey, are more widely known as the Reading Prong of the New England Upland, an extension of hard crystalline rocks reaching almost to Reading, Pennsylvania. The Highlands encompass about one-eighth of the state’s total area and form a belt ten to twentyfive miles wide. The average elevation is about one thousand feet above sea level, so that they are, indeed, “highlands’’when viewed from the

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lower Ridge and Valley Province that lies to the northwest, or from the Piedmont Province, which lies to the southeast. Several long, narrow, generally northeast-southwest-trending valleys stand at  to  feet below the uplands. Valleys, such as Long Valley and the Musconetcong Valley, are structural and are underlain with limestones and shales. Musconetcong Mountain and Schooley’s Mountain are examples of the upland surfaces in this region. Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; physiography

Peter O. Wacker

Highlands Borough.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Highlands was first settled in  by Richard Hartshorne but not incorporated until March , . It is home to the Twin Lights Lighthouses, built in . Clamming was originally the primary industry, and even today, there are about one hundred clammers supporting families. Highlands’ industrial base expanded to include fishing along the Raritan River and Sandy Hook Bay. Tourism is also part of Highlands’ industry, mainly consisting of visitors to Sandy Hook and the Twin Lights lighthouses. In the first half of the twentieth century, Highlands consisted of a large number of bungalows that were rented or owned by summer residents. Today, there are about one thousand summer residents. The residences on the hillside of Highlands are larger homes, while the seaside residences are mainly smaller bungalows. A growing number of condominiums are being constructed. The population of Highlands was , in  and  percent of the residents were white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Highlands, NJ: –. Highlands: Boro of Highlands, . King, John P. The Highlands. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Salter, Edwin. A History of Monmouth and Ocean Counties. Bayonne: E. Gardner and Sons, .

Barbara Pepe

High Point.

High Point is the ,foot summit of Kittatinny Ridge in Wantage and Montague townships, Sussex County, the highest elevation in New Jersey. Overlooking the Delaware Valley and nearby glacial Lake Marcia, the locale was popular with picnic groups by the s. In  it became the site of the High Point Inn, a large resort. The property was purchased in  by the Kuser family of Bernardsville, and from  to  it was the summer home of Col. Anthony R. and Susie Dryden Kuser. The Kusers acquired considerable acreage, and in  they gave an estate of , acres to the state of New Jersey as High Point State Park. The High Point Inn, remodeled in  as Kuser Lodge, became park headquarters. The large mansion was razed in

High Point Monument, from the program used to commemorate the laying of the monument cornerstone, .

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, High Point State Park.

. In  the Kusers donated High Point Monument, a -foot obelisk, as a Veterans Memorial to mark High Point. High Point State Park was improved with plans by the Olmsted brothers, and later by the Civilian Conservation Corps. A portion of the park (, acres) is now designated as a State and National Historic District for its reflection of historic recreational trends. The John Dryden Kuser Natural Area is widely noted for its unique flora. Dupont, Ronald J., Jr., and Kevin Wright. High Point of the Blue Mountains. Newton: Sussex County Historical Society, . New Jersey Walk Book. Mohegan Lake, NY: New York– New Jersey Trail Conference, .

See also geography; Kittatinny Region

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Hightstown. .-square-mile borough in eastern Mercer County, surrounded by East Windsor Township. Situated on the Inner Coastal Plain, the terrain of Hightstown is nearly flat, varying from less than  to more than  feet above sea level. Located at Exit  of the New Jersey Turnpike, Hightstown is bisected by New Jersey Route  and Mercer County Route . It is home to the Peddie School, a prestigious private secondary school founded in . Hightstown emerged in the eighteenth century as the village that grew up around the gristmill built by John Hight in – and his nearby tavern. Today Hight’s millpond is Peddie Lake. Hightstown grew into a sizable town after the arrival of the Camden and Amboy Railroad in , which led to Hightstown’s incorporation as a borough in . Further growth was encouraged by the

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completion of the Pemberton and Hightstown Railroad after the Civil War. The Hightstown Rug Company was the borough’s largest from the early twentieth century through the s was, which at its peak employed about four hundred people. Today the East Windsor regional public school system and the Coca-Cola Corporation are the largest employers. The borough is also home to the Meadow Lakes retirement community. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

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Orr, John W., Jr. Reflections from the Shrine: An Anecdotal History of Hightstown and East Windsor. Hightstown: Longstreet House, .

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highways. If the United States is the home of the highway, New Jersey is its hearth. The state’s roads are the busiest in the nation. Its , roadside miles get  million vehicletrips a day, and the state has more drivers per square mile than any other. Probably the bestknown New Jersey highway is the New Jersey Turnpike, but New Jersey’s central transport role was set early in the country’s history. Even as a colony, New Jersey served as a transit zone; its Kings Highway linked two of the most vital urban centers, Philadelphia and New York, as well as points farther north and south. New Jersey’s colonists gradually filled an area already inhabited by the Lenape, who had their own well-worn network of paths connecting village or campsites with coastal areas. Transportation was an important concern for colonial governments. Both East and West Jersey charters required that land be set aside for road development, and early legislation formalized responsibility for road designation and maintenance. Drawing on English practices, town, and later county, committees designated locations while the local population did construction and maintenance. The early roads widened and smoothed Lenape trails already broken into the soil. The earliest colonial settlements hugged the waterways, and the roads complemented them as a means of transportation. The heavier the load, the easier it was to move it by water; the early highways, often waterlogged, rutted, or filled with stumps, were dangerous and slow. As settlement spread across the colony, however, the road system extended out from the water. Roads filled with walkers, horses, carts, wagons, and stages, and roadside businesses, like inns, profited. New Jersey’s agricultural and mineral wealth got to market. Road locations depended on government requirements and the resource base driving the economy. The legislative split between Perth Amboy and Burlington required good roads. These roads overlapped the Philadelphia–New York route. This northeastsouthwest spine of the state, with its produc-

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tive agriculture and industrious towns like Elizabeth and Newark, captured much of the increasing population and trade, and developed the most complex set of roads. Iron in the northwest and Pine Barrens in the southeast triggered road development, but as the iron depleted these roads fell out of use. During the American Revolution, troops moved up and down the roads of New Jersey. In the early nineteenth century New Jersey followed its neighbors in granting charters to corporations to improve roads—through use of macadam and later planks, improved

grading, and straightening. The first toll road, the Morris Turnpike, opened in . It connected the upper Delaware River (and western iron) to Newark Bay. Seventy-five more turnpikes and plank roads followed between  and . The turnpikes largely improved existing roads, instituting a user-pays system. But the toll roads were generally poor investments, requiring heavier and more frequent maintenance than anticipated. After midcentury, roads faded in importance, serving more local needs; canals and railways surpassed them in efficiency for moving goods and

Hillsborough people. Late nineteenth-century turnpike legislation provided for government acquisition of neglected toll roads. Trucks and cars revived the importance of New Jersey’s roadways in the early twentieth century. Across the country, demand grew for more and better—hard-surfaced, allweather—roads and for shifting some of the fiscal responsibility to higher levels of government. During World War I New Jersey’s roads were heavily used; they supplemented the overtaxed national rail service that was to transport munitions to the coast. Truck traffic punished the surface of roads; following the war, the state moved to improve them. New Jersey established its highway department in . Between  and , the number of surfaced roads in New Jersey doubled. New York’s new tunnels and bridges and its congestion spurred suburbanizing of population and business. As roads improved, the state economy specialized in expanding fields: light manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, electronics, plastics, chemicals—in essence, small shipments of high-value goods that required frequent and flexible service. The new, improved highways sped up travel—the newly constructed Pulaski Skyway, for example, cut travel time from Newark to Jersey City from twenty-five minutes to five—but also generated more traffic and accidents. Road designers experimented with traffic circles or cloverleafs to cut the number of intersections. Divided highways and reinforced concrete barriers (so-called Jersey barriers) protected motorists from oncoming traffic. Road labeling was rationalized to make signage predictable and road names (now numbers) distinct. Some ambitious highway plans were developed but shelved temporarily for lack of funding. For example, in  the Regional Plan Association proposed a limited-access beltway whose New Jersey portion would make a circular swing from the new Outerbridge Crossing to the northern Rockland County border. Construction slowed during World War II, but exploded afterward. Under Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll (–) the New Jersey Turnpike, the Garden State Parkway, Interstate —that is, the beltway proposed in — and Interstate  were begun. By the end of the s much of the state’s modern highway mileage was committed. The only major project to originate subsequently was the Atlantic City Expressway, a forty-four-mile road from Philadelphia to Atlantic City. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s  Interstate Highway Act changed the face of the nation’s highways, but in New Jersey it expanded rather than began and connected the system of highspeed, wide, limited-access roads. New Jersey’s highways are integral to long-distance, regional, and cross-state movement. Some are mainly toll supported (the New Jersey Turnpike, for example) and others free, some straight-line and others beltway. They intersect with ports, railheads, and airports.

Innovations and improvements continue: radio-sign control systems for speed and emergency warnings, road sensors to pick up road congestion, separate truck and car lanes, and noise barriers. The network’s robustness is part of the state’s decentralized pattern. Each new or completed highway meant accompanying residential and nonresidential development. Heavy travel loads stimulated calls for new roads. Once built, the new roads found demand higher yet—thus, for example, the New Jersey Turnpike, since its official opening in , has regularly increased in width (adding lanes), not length. By the end of the twentieth century, any major road proposal drew strong opposition. In this long-settled and heavily populated state, a new road pattern inevitably harmed some: bypassing established businesses, worsening air quality, adding noise, altering habitat, and obliterating historical, aesthetic, or cultural sites. New Jersey’s highways continue to reflect, remake, and challenge the state. Genovese, Peter. Roadside New Jersey. Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

New

Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Rockland, Michael Aaron, and Angus Kress Gillespie. Looking for America on the New Jersey Turnpike. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Garden State Parkway; New Jersey Turnpike; transportation; turnpikes

Deborah Epstein Popper

Hilfers, Henry F. (b. ; d. ).

Labor leader. Henry F. Hilfers was born in Hanover, Germany, and was brought to Newark by his parents at the age of three. He followed his father’s trade of cigar maker, and in that field he rose to prominence in New Jersey’s state labor councils. In  he was elected recording and financial secretary of the Cigar makers Union and held that position for many years. In  he became secretary of the New Jersey State Federation of Labor and remained affiliated with it until his death. He was always noted for his organizing abilities. Hilfers was an outspoken critic of the Volstead Act, which prohibited the production and consumption of alcoholic beverages. In  he testified before the U.S. Senate against the act, claiming the law discriminated against the common man and had led to an unprecedented rise in the crime rate. Vigilant in his defense of the laboring class, he was often asked to write articles on the laborer’s point of view for New York and New Jersey newspapers. See also labor movement

Robert C. Nelson

Hill, Lauryn (b. May , ).

Musician. A native and resident of South Orange, Lauryn Hill initially emerged as the prominent vocalist in the influential hip-hop group the Fugees, whose  album The Score won two Grammys. Shortly thereafter, Hill founded the Refugee Camp Youth Project which focuses

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on improving the quality of life for innercity children. In , her self-produced solo debut, The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, was a critical and commercial success, winning five Grammys and establishing Hill as a crossgenre artist of deep talent and wide-ranging appeal. With the future of the Fugees in doubt, she continues to record as a solo artist. See also pop music

Bruce Hanson

Hill, Peter

(b. ; d. ). Clockmaker. Peter Hill was born into slavery in Burlington Township, New Jersey, in the household of clockmaker Joseph Hollinshead, Jr., a Quaker. Hollinshead trained Hill as a clockmaker and, in , freed him and helped him set up a clock- and watchmaking shop in Burlington. Hill thus became the state’s first African American clockmaker. His business prospered enough for him to purchase the freedom of his wife, and eventually to establish another shop nearby in Mount Holly. Hill is buried in the Friends’ Burial Ground near the Friends’ Meeting House in Burlington. At least five of his tall case clocks survive today. See also clockmaking

David A. Norris

Hillier Group. Robert Hillier was born in  in Toronto, Canada, immigrated to the United States in , was naturalized in , and received a B.A. and an M.F.A. from Princeton University. The Princeton-based architect opened his firm in , which was later expanded to include six nationwide branch offices. From  to  he was president of the Hillier Group, and in  he was elected chairman of the board. He is an adjunct member of the faculty at the School of Architecture at Princeton University. At present the Hillier Group is the fourth largest architectural firm in America, employing  persons, with projects around the world. Principal New Jersey work by the Hillier Group includes the Rutgers University Athletic Center in Piscataway, the Justice Complex at Trenton, the Beneficial Campus Complex at Peapack-Gladstone, the New Jersey State Aquarium at Camden, the New Jersey Institute of Technology’s School of Architecture, the Lawrenceville School, and the Peddie School. See also architecture Charles F. Cummings

Hillsborough.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. After  increasing numbers of Dutch from Brooklyn, Long Island, and Staten Island bought land throughout the Raritan Valley, planting their large broods (as well as their black slaves) on sprawling farms. Originally part of the Western Precinct, Hillsborough was formed by royal charter in  and incorporated February , . The township is composed of numerous villages: Clover Hill, Zion, Royceville, Wood’s Tavern, Flagtown, South Branch, and Neshanic (from the Native American Nisha Hannek, meaning

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Hillsdale

“two rivers’’). Hillsborough’s name may refer to the Sourland Mountains, , acres of which are included in the Sourland Mountain Preserve (partly in Montgomery Township). One of the notable landmarks of the South Branch Historic District is the Federal-style home of Peter D. Vroom, New Jersey governor – and –. Duke’s Park on Route  is the township’s showpiece. Built by tobacco king James B. Duke beginning , this ,-acre estate is famous for its artificial lakes and hills, flower gardens, and conservatory. Numerous farms still exist, but they are rapidly giving way to single-family homes, townhouses, apartments, industry, and commercial uses. Population in  of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Becknell, Ursula C. Hillsborough: An Architectural History. Hillsborough: Township of Hillsborough Historic Preservation Commission, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Lawton, Eileen K., ed. Hillsborough Bicentennial Commemorative Journal, –. Hillsborough: Hillsborough Bicentennial Committee, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Hillsdale.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The citizens adopted the name Hillsdale after the Hillsdale School, which was built on Pascack Road in ; the name also describes the town’s geographic location. The historic railroad station, built in , was also named Hillsdale. On March , , Hillsdale Township was incorporated having been carved out of Washington Township. In  River Vale was given more land and what remained was Hillsdale as it exists today. Early in the twentieth century there was a widespread feeling that Hillsdale had outgrown the township form of government. The Civic Association petitioned the Township Committee in  and on March , , an act incorporating the Borough of Hillsdale was passed by the legislature and later adopted by citizen vote. This largely residential community, home to Pascack Valley High School, features homes in the style of the original Dutch architecture and an active business district. Memorial Field, Veterans Park, and Beechwood Park offer many recreational amenities; the latter contains a bandshell for summer concerts. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hillside.

.-square-mile township, formed from Union Township in . Hillside is located along the Elizabeth River in northern Union County. The earliest homesteaders came from the nearby settlements of Elizabeth and Newark in the latter part of the seventeenth century and named their areas Woodruffs Farms in the south and Lyons Farms in the north; the latter eventually became Hillside. As the names imply, it was a largely agricultural community until the beginning of the twentieth century. Now a bedroom community, there are excellent transportation links to Newark and New York City’s Port Authority Terminal. Historic Evergreen Cemetery, founded  and listed in the National Register of Historic Places in , contains the remains of Mary Mapes Dodge, author of Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates and Newark-born Stephen Crane, author of The Red Badge of Courage. The Bristol Myers Company has been in Hillside since ; its present research and development plants are involved in vitamins, toiletries, and analgesics. The Western Electric engineering division of Bell Laboratories in Hillside developed the Telstar communications satellite program in . The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . McClow, Arnold H. From Lost Saybrook and Lyons Farms to Hillside: A Pictorial History. Virginia Beach, VA: Donning Company, . Turner, Jean-Rae. Along the Upper Road, History of

Hillside, New Jersey. Hillside: Hillside Rotary Club, . Woodruff, George Coyne. History of Hillside. Hillside: Hurden-Looker Post , American Legion, and the Hillside Times Publishing Company, .

Gail Greenberg

Hindenburg disaster.

The crash of the German dirigible Hindenburg at Lakehurst Naval Air Station on May , , was a welldocumented catastrophe. Caught on film and radio, the disaster marked the end of commercial passenger service in lighter-than-air crafts. The Hindenburg was the largest rigid airship ever built. Its increased size was a design response to the crash of the British rigid airship R- in October . In that incident a minor crash resulted in the ignition of the highly flammable hydrogen lifting gas, resulting in the deaths of forty-eight persons onboard. German designers decided that the Hindenburg would use inert and nonflammable helium instead. As a lifting gas, however, helium is only  percent as efficient as hydrogen. The Zeppelin company, owners of the Hindenburg, had to resolve two issues with the United States: they needed helium and they needed landing rights at Lakehurst Naval Air Station. Following a personal plea to President Franklin Roosevelt, they obtained the landing rights but failed to obtain the helium. In  the United States was the sole producer of commercial helium worldwide. The Helium Control Act of  reserved all production for the U.S. government and prohibited export. Zeppelin reverted to using hydrogen. The Hindenburg was launched in April . That year it successfully completed ten scheduled round-trip flights between

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . New Jersey Gazetteer. Wilmington, DE: American Historical Publications, .

Linda J. Barth

The doomed dirigible Hindenburg.

Photo by Jay W. Sterner. Photo Copyright 2003 Todd L. Sherman.

historical societies Germany and the United States. At the time no commercial airplane was capable of making a nonstop transatlantic crossing. Rigid airships were faster than ocean liners. Since the start of Zeppelin’s commercial operations in , over twenty-three-hundred flights had been conducted without loss of life. Commercial lighter-than-air operations were proving to be a financial success for Zeppelin and a propaganda showpiece for the Nazis. On its last voyage, the Hindenburg took off on May , , from Frankfurt and had an uneventful Atlantic crossing. When approaching Lakehurst, the Hindenburg delayed landing waiting for a thunderstorm to pass. Although the atmosphere was still electrically charged, the weather continued to improve. By : p.m. the Hindenburg had come to a near stop in front of the mooring mast, and the landing ropes were dropped to the ground. A radio reporter, Herbert Morrison, began a commentary on the Hindenburg’s arrival. His live broadcast has immortalized the event. At : p.m. there was a burst of flame on top of the rear section of the Hindenburg. Thirty-four seconds separated the first spark from final destruction. Thirty-six of the ninety-seven persons onboard were killed. Investigations into the cause of the disaster focused on either sabotage or electrostatic ignition of leaking hydrogen gas. In  William D. Van Vorst and Addison Bain concluded that the flammable reflective aluminum paint used on the Hindenburg was what initially caught fire, not the hydrogen. Due to the wide coverage of the disaster in the U.S. media, helium was eventually made available to Germany for use on the Hindenburg’ssister ship, Graf Zeppelin II, then under construction. The shipments were stopped in March , however, when Germany invaded Austria. Botting, D. Dr. Eckener’s Dream Machine: The Great Zepplin and the Dawn of Air Travel. New York: Henry Holt, . Collier, Basil. The Airship: A History. New York: Putnam, . Dick, H. G., with D. H. Robinson. The Golden Age of the Great Passenger Airships “Graf Zeppelin’’ and “Hindenburg.’’ Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, . Jackson, Robert. Airships: A Popular History of Dirigibles, Zeppelins, Blimps, and Other Lighter-Than-Air Craft. New York: Doubleday, .

See also airships

Rocco Tomazic

Hinduism. One of the world’s oldest religions, Hinduism traces its origins to the period from  to  b.c.e. In many ways, it is as much a way of life—reflected in the wisdom, philosophy, and teachings of sages over the years—as it is a religion. Hindu philosophy is based on ancient scriptures called the Vedas ( to  b.c.e.), which prescribe a way of living one’s life. The Vedas describe one’s dharma, the right way to live a life; artha, ways to attain success in life; and karma, the law of cause and effect by which individuals

create their own destiny to reach nirvana, when one’s soul is liberated from the life cycle. While the Vedas are the purview of the learned, the day-to-day rules to practice Hinduism are best depicted in mythological Hindu epics, such as the Mahabharata, Bhagavad Gita, and Ramayana. Hindus believe in one Supreme Being but worship many different gods and goddesses, each symbolizing a different physical form of the Supreme. In New Jersey, the number of persons practicing Hinduism has increased with the recent immigration from India; there are now more than fifteen Hindu temples and congregations across the state. Some of the older and larger congregations include the Balaji Temple in Bridgewater, Chinmaya Mission in Cranbury, Durga Temple in South Brunswick, Hindu Community Centers in Garfield and Kearny, the Hindu Temple in Berlin, Shree Ram Mandir in Metuchen, Shree Sanatan Mandir in Parsippany, the Swaminarayan Temple in Woodbridge, and Ved Mandir in Milltown. Bouquet, Alan Coates. Hinduism. New Hutchinson’s University Library, .

York:

Richardson, E. Allen. East Comes West: Asian Religions and Cultures in North America. New York: Pilgrim Press, .

See also religion

organic chemistry, mathematics, and physics at the University of California at Los Angeles before pursuing music study privately. For forty-one continuous seasons from  to , Hines was a dominating bass at the Metropolitan Opera who sang Mephistopheles in Faust  times, Ramfis in Aida  times, and Sarastro in The Magic Flute  times. In , he produced at the Met his own composition, I Am the Way, an opera about the life of Christ, an expression of his personal faith. In , he married Italian soprano Lucia Evangelista (–); in the s, they moved to South Orange and later Scotch Plains to raise four sons. Hines has tirelessly lobbied for opera and arts funding in the Garden State and was active in saving Newark’s Symphony Hall from destruction. He also hosted several roundtable discussions for critics and performers. In  he founded the Newark-based Opera Music Theatre International, which trains young singers. Davis, Peter. The American Opera Singer: The Lives and Adventures of America’s Great Singers in Opera and Concert from  to Present. New York: Doubleday, . Hines, Jerome. This Is My Story, This Is My Song. New York: Fleming H. Revell, .

See also opera

Willa Conrad

D. C. Agrawal

Hi-Nella.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. In  Lucious Parker started a real estate development in a section of Clementon Township and called it Hi-Nella Estates, in part for his wife, Nella. The following year, when Clementon Township split into five boroughs, Hi-Nella, which then consisted of approximately fifty houses, was to have joined three other municipalities to form one borough. A dispute broke out over an important tract of land and Hi-Nella was allowed to form its own division. Today, there are  residential parcels,  farms, one industrial tract, and  commercial parcels. This quiet suburban community has streets bearing Native American names, such as Nokomis, Pocahontas, and Navajo. Many of the original homes remain; a number of lots were subdivided in the s for small Cape Cod residences. Nonetheless, houses do not turn over much, possibly due to the fact that the populace enjoy a rural atmosphere while having the convenience of three major highways nearby. The year  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M., and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gail Greenberg

Hines, Jerome

(b. Nov. , ; d. Feb. ,

). Opera singer. Born Jerome Albert Link

Heinze, the son of Russell Heinze and Florence Link of Hollywood, California, Hines studied

367

Hiram Blauvelt Art Museum.

See

Blauvelt House and Art Museum.

historical societies. Statewide: New Jersey Historical Society. Countywide societies: Atlantic, Bergen, Burlington, Camden, Cape May, Cumberland, Gloucester, Hunterdon, Monmouth, Ocean, Passaic, Salem, Somerset, Sussex, Union, and Warren. Local societies: About three hundred local historical societies are active in New Jersey’s twenty-one counties. Also, many specialized historical societies—not enumerated below—are also active, with areas of concern that include ethnic and religious history, railroad and industrial history, maritime history, medical history, and postal history. Atlantic County: Absecon, Estell Manor, Great Egg Harbor Township, Hammonton, Linwood, Longport, Newfield, Port Republic, and Somers Point. Bergen County: Allendale, Alpine, Bergenfield, Dumont (Old Schraalenburgh Hist. Soc.), Elmwood Park, Englewood, Fort Lee, Franklin, Garfield, Glen Rock, Harrington Park, Hillside, Mahwah, Maywood (English Neighborhood Hist. Soc.), Midland Park, North Arlington, Oakland, Pascack, Ramsey, Ridgewood (Paramus Hist. Soc.), Upper Saddle River, and Wyckoff. Burlington County: Beverly (Riverfront Hist. Soc.), Bordentown, Burlington City, Chesterfield Township, Indian Mills, Lumberton, Mansfield Township, Marlton, Medford, Moorestown, Mount Holly, Mount

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Historical Society of Haddonfield

Laurel, Rancocas, Roebling, Southampton Township, Springfield Township, Tabernacle Township, Westhampton Township, and Willingboro. Camden County: Barrington, Berlin (Long-AComing Hist. Soc.), Collingswood (Newton Colony Hist. Soc.), Gloucester City, Haddonfield, Haddon Heights, Haddon Township, Maple Shade, Merchantville, Pennsauken, and Voorhees Township. Cape May County: Cape May City, Ocean City, Wildwood, and Wildwood Crest. Cumberland County: Gouldtown, Mauricetown, Maurice River Township, Millville, and Vineland. Essex County: Belleville, Bloomfield, Cedar Grove, Glen Ridge, Irvington, Little Falls, Livingston, Millburn–Short Hills, Montclair, Nutley, Roseland, and West Caldwell. Gloucester County: Harrison Township, Monroe Township, Washington Township, and Wenonah. Hudson County: Bayonne. Hunterdon County: Alexandria Township, Califon, Frenchtown, Holland Township, Lambertville, Union Township (Clinton), and West Portal. Mercer County: Ewing Township, Hamilton Township, Hightstown–East Windsor, Hopewell Township and Pennington (Hopewell Valley Hist. Soc.), Lawrence Township, Princeton, Trenton, and West Windsor. Middlesex County: Cranbury, Dunellen, East Brunswick, Helmetta, Jamesburg, Highland Park, Metuchen and Edison Township, Milltown, Monroe Township, North Brunswick, Old Bridge Township, Perth Amboy, Piscataway Township, Plainsboro, Sewaren, South Brunswick Township, and Woodbridge Township. Monmouth County: Allentown–Upper Freehold, Atlantic Highlands, Colts Neck, Fair Haven, Farmingdale, Hazlet Township, Holmdel, Howell Township, Keyport, Little Silver, Long Branch, Manasquan, Matawan, Middletown Township, Neptune Township, New Shrewsbury, Ocean Grove, Oceanport, Red Bank, Shrewsbury, Tennent (Battleground Hist. Soc.), Tinton Falls, Wall Township, and West Long Branch. Morris County: Boonton, Chatham Borough, Chatham Township, Chester, Denville, Dover, Florham Park, Gillette, Hanover Township, Harding Township, Ironia, Jefferson Township, Kenilworth, Montville Township, Mount Arlington, Mountain Lakes, Parsippany–Troy Hills Township, Rockaway Township, and Wharton. Ocean County: Barnegat, Barnegat Light, Beach Haven (Long Beach Island Hist. Assn.), Berkeley Township, Brick Township, Brielle (Union Landing Hist. Soc.), Eagleswood Township, Lacey Township, Lakewood, Manchester Township, New Egypt, Ocean Gate, Point Pleasant, Stafford Township, and Tuckerton. Passaic County: Ringwood (North Jersey Highlands Hist. Soc.)

Salem County: Lower Alloways Creek, Oldmans Township, Pennsville Township, and Pilesgrove-Woodstown. Somerset County: Basking Ridge, Bernards Township (Hist. Soc. of Somerset Hills), Branchburg, Franklin Township, Griggstown, Hillsborough Township, Montgomery Township, North Plainfield (Blue Hills Hist. Soc.), Scotch Plains and Fanwood, Somerville, South Bound Brook, and Warren Township. Sussex County: Hardyston Township, Montague Township, Ogdensburg, Vernon Township, and Walpack Township. Union County: Berkeley Heights, Clark, Cranford, Mountainside, New Providence, Plainfield, Rahway, Roselle, Roselle Park, and Westfield. Warren County: Allamuchy, Frelinghuysen Township, Hackettstown, Hope, Phillipsburg, and White Township.

Robert W. Craig

Historical Society of Haddonfield. Founded in  to research and promote area history, the organization today manages two structures. Greenfield Hall is a furnished mid-nineteenth-century Georgian-style mansion with an extensive boxwood garden planted circa . Tours are available. The Samuel Mickle House, built as a saddlery in , is locally known as the Hip Roof House because of its architecture. Later used as a residence, it was moved next to Greenfield Hall in . Both are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The society’s comprehensive research library, containing photographs, maps, wills, genealogical material, and other historic materials, is open to the public.

Gail Greenberg

Historical Society of Princeton. Founded in , the Historical Society of Princeton (HSP) maintains a museum and library dedicated to interpreting the history of Princeton. The society’s headquarters, Bainbridge House, is one of the best-preserved examples of Georgian architecture in the area. HSP displays its permanent collection there, mounts special exhibitions, and issues a journal and newsletter. It also sponsors preservation activities, local walking and bus tours, out-of-town tours, lectures, films, and other educational programs. HSP preserves more than forty thousand artifacts, manuscripts, glass-plate negatives, photographs, decorative arts objects, artworks, and articles of clothing dating from the seventeenth century to the present.

Gail F. Stern

Historic

Cold

Spring

Village.

Founded in , Cold Spring Village is an open-air living history museum in Cape May committed to the preservation and interpretation of a rural South Jersey community

of the mid-s. It contains twenty-five restored buildings situated on a twenty-twoacre wooded site. Historically costumed interpreters demonstrate and discuss the lifestyles, political and social issues, trades, and crafts of the time period. Special events are held throughout the season, and a comprehensive educational program is offered all year, including site visits, classroom visits, and teleconferencing capabilities. Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also historic sites

Anne Salvatore

historic preservation.

The organized public and private movement to identify, document, protect, preserve, rehabilitate, restore, and use New Jersey’s historic places, and by that means to help bring to people’s everyday lives both an appreciation of history and a sense of orientation in place and time— together these all constitute historic preservation. Historic places are the buildings, structures, sites, landscapes, and districts that have been strongly associated with the important events of the past, with individuals who have shaped history, as well as properties that have architectural or archaeological importance. Historic preservation activities and projects are carried out by individuals, private nonprofit organizations, private for-profit companies, foundations, and public agencies on the local, county, state, and national levels. The Historic Preservation Office in the Department of Environmental Protection is New Jersey’s lead agency in preservation matters. Concern for New Jersey’s historic landmarks is almost as old as interest in the state’s history itself. Supporters of preservation, however, remained unorganized until after the Civil War. In , concern over the fate of the Ford Mansion, Gen. George Washington’s winter headquarters at Morristown, began a fifty-year period during which preservation efforts were focused almost exclusively on saving threatened individual buildings of great importance, restoring them to their original appearance, and interpreting their history for tourists and visiting schoolchildren. The preservation movement broadened during the twentieth century as both architects and the federal government became involved. In , the Morristown National Historical Park was created by the National Park Service—the first such park in the nation. Also that year, the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) was formed to furnish work to unemployed architects during the Depression. HABS teams took photographs and made measured drawings of about  historic buildings in New Jersey, more than in all but three or four other states. After World War II, New Jersey’s preservation movement was extended further to embrace historic districts and buildings of local significance. This broadening was aided

historic sites by public reaction to the massive demolition wrought by the postwar federal urban renewal and interstate highway programs, both of which were pushed with a single-minded determination that did not take historic places into account. In  New Jersey, already looking ahead to its Tercentenary in , began a long-term project to identify and evaluate historically and architecturally important places and buildings, the beginning of an effort that still continues today. In  a law was passed to provide real-estate tax exemption to nonprofit owners of historic buildings. After the National Historic Preservation Act was adopted by Congress in , launching the modern era of preservation as an environmental movement, New Jersey responded in  by establishing the New Jersey Historic Trust and the New Jersey Historic Sites Council. The legislature also responded by establishing the New Jersey Register of Historic Places in , making historic preservation official policy for New Jersey governments— state, county, and municipal. Beginning with Haddonfield in , municipalities also began to adopt ordinances that permitted local designation and regulation of historic properties in private ownership. The legal basis for such ordinances remained unclear, however, until  when the Municipal Land Use Law was amended to encourage them. Today, over one hundred municipalities in New Jersey administer historic preservation ordinances, and many others have historic preservation advisory committees.

Civil War, Lossing’s preservationist sentiment eventually spread to become a prevailing attitude. In New Jersey, four prominent citizens in Morristown founded the Washington Association of New Jersey in  to preserve the Ford Mansion, which had been Washington’s winter headquarters in –. Rockingham in Somerset County, where Washington wrote his “Farewell Orders to the Armies’’ in , was bought by a similar group formed in  for that purpose.

major national monuments to local house museums. In New Jersey, a rich array of buildings, sites, and landscapes important for their history and/or architecture are open for public visitation. They are the building blocks of heritage tourism. In  Benson Lossing published a field guide in which he recorded the many places that had figured in the American Revolution. He deplored the conditions in which he found the historic buildings on these sites. After the

HISTORIC SITES

369

RINGWOOD MANOR HOUSE

STEUBEN HOUSE

GROVER CLEVELAND BIRTHPLACE OLD DUTCH PARSONAGE

N

WALLACE HOUSE ROCKINGHAM

BOXWOOD HALL

DRUMTHWACKET TWIN LIGHTS

Bassett, William B., comp. Historic American Buildings Survey of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

FERRY HOUSE

Craig, Robert W., comp. New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places, –. Trenton: Historic Preservation Office, .

TRENTON BATTLE MONUMENT

CLARKE HOUSE

CRAIG HOUSE

Robert W. Craig

ALLAIRE VILLAGE

Historic Preservation Office.

The Historic Preservation Office (HPO), in the Division of Parks and Forestry of the Department of Environmental Protection, is New Jersey’s lead agency in matters of historic preservation. Created by federal legislation in , the state office was opened in . It administers the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places with respect to New Jersey. The HPO reviews how projects proposed to be carried out, funded, or licensed by federal, state, county, or municipal governments would affect historic properties, and negotiates to eliminate or reduce harm to those properties, including archaeological sites. The HPO also administers a federal program that offers investment tax credits for the rehabilitation of historic buildings used for business or residential rental purposes.

INDIAN KING TAVERN

WALT WHITMAN HOUSE

BARNEGAT LIGHTHOUSE BATSTO VILLAGE HANCOCK HOUSE SOMERS MANSION

Robert W. Craig

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historic sites.

Historic sites form that part of the larger historic preservation movement that focuses on the interpretation of specific places to the public. Sites vary from

20 miles

Only State-administered sites are shown More information: http://www.state.nj.us/dep/forestry/histsite.htm @Rutgers, The State University

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historic sites

Historic Sites Site

Location

Features

Abraham Clark House Acorn Hall Allaire Village*

Roselle Morristown Allaire State Park

Replica of farmhouse and museum. 1850s Italianate house. Headquarters of the Morris County Historical Society. 1830s village and iron works.

Allen House Atsion Village Bainbridge House Ballantine House

Shrewsbury Atsion Princeton Newark (in the Newark

Eighteenth-century tavern. Monmouth County Historical Association. Remains of eighteenth-century community and gristmill. Museum. Headquarters of the Princeton Historical Society. 1885 Victorian mansion.

Barnegat Lighthouse* Batsto Village* Battle Monument

Museum) Barnegat Light Batsto Trenton

Maritime site. Early iron and glass industry site. Tower commemorates site of Revolutionary War battle.

Alpine (Palisades Interstate Park)

Colonial house located at the foot of the Palisades, near where the British climbed up to attack Fort Lee in 1776. Palisades Interstate Park Commission.

Blackledge-Kearney House Botto House/American Labor Museum

Haledon

Site of meetings during the 1913 Paterson silk strike.

Boxwood Hall* Buccleuch Mansion

Elizabeth New Brunswick

Buckelew Mansion (Lakeview) Burrowes Mansion

Jamesburg Matawan

Home of Elias Boudinot, president of the Continental Congress. Eighteenth-century mansion maintained by the city of New Brunswick. Tours by the DAR. Mansion, c.1690. Built in 1723. Matawan Historical Society.

Caldwell Parsonage Campbell-Christie House Camp Merritt Memorial

Union River Edge

Revolutionary War site. Union Township Historical Society Museum. Colonial house.

Monument Cannon Ball House (Abraham Hutchings House) Cannon Ball Museum (Osborne House)

Cresskill

County historical site. Location of WWI training camp.

Springfield

Revolutionary War site.

Scotch Plains

Revolutionary War site.

Cape May Light House Museum Centennial Cottage

Cape May Ocean Grove

Nineteenth-century lighthouse. Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts site. Ocean Grove Historical Society.

Clarke House* Clinton Historical Museum

Princeton

Site of the Battle of Princeton, 1777.

Village Cornelius Low House Museum

Clinton Piscataway

Contains mill and other nineteenth-century buildings. 1741 Georgian mansion overlooking Landing Lane on the Raritan River. Middlesex County historical site.

Covenhoven House Craftsman Farms

Freehold Parsippany–Troy Hills

1752 building. Monmouth County Historical Association. Gustav Stickley’s home and crafts center.

Craig House* Demarest House Dey Mansion

Freehold River Edge Wayne

Farmhouse that served as hospital during the Battle of Monmouth, 1778. 1678 Dutch colonial house. Moved to this site from New Milford. 1740s house.

Dr. William Robinson Plantation Drake House Drumthwacket* East Jersey Old Town

Clark Plainfield Princeton Piscataway

Restored farmhouse. 1745 farmhouse. Historical Society of Plainfield. Current governor’s mansion. Collection of restored and re-created buildings. Middlesex County historical site.

Edison Memorial Tower Edison National Historic Site

Menlo Park/Edison West Orange and Llewellyn

Location of Menlo Park laboratory where Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. Thomas Edison’s laboratory complex and Glenmont, his home.

Ellarslie Emlen Physick Estate

Park Trenton Cape May

1848 Italianate villa, now a city museum in Cadwalader Park. 1879 Victorian house. Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts.

Ferry House* Ford-Faesch House Fort Delaware; Finns Point National Cemetery

Washington Crossing State Park Hibernia Island in the Delaware River, Delaware; Pennsville

Assembly point for Continental troops during the Battle of Trenton. 1768. Historical Society of the Rockaways. Prison used during the Civil War for Confederate soldiers. Those who died are buried at Finns Point.

Fort Lee Historic Site Fosterfields Living History Farm Garretson Forge and Farm

Fort Lee

Revolutionary War site and museum. Palisades Interstate Park Commission.

Morristown Fairlawn

Nineteenth-century working farm. Morris County Park site. Dutch colonial farmstead, c.1750. Bergen County historical site.

Gibbon House Grover Cleveland Birthplace*

Greenwich Caldwell

1730 building. Cumberland County Historical Society. Birthplace of the American president. (continued)

historic sites

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Historic Sites (continued) Site

Location

Features

Haddon Fire Co. No. 1 Hamilton-Burr duel monument

Haddonfield

1765 building. Museum.

Weehawken

Memorial of 1804 duel.

Hancock House* The Hermitage Historic Cold Spring Village Historic Speedwell

Hancock’s Bridge Ho-Ho-Kus Cold Spring Morristown

1734 house. Site of British massacre of American troops, 1778. House where Aaron Burr was married; remodeled in the 1840s. Reconstructed nineteenth-century farming community. Site of ironworks and first public demonstration of the telegraph.

Holmes-Hendrickson House Hopper-Goetschius House Museum Howell Living History Farm

Holmdel

1754 Dutch farmhouse. Monmouth County Historical Association.

Upper Saddle River Titusville

Eighteenth-century house. Early twentieth-century working farm.

Indian King Tavern* Israel Crane House James and Ann Whithall House

Haddonfield Montclair

Meeting place of New Jersey legislature during the Revolution. Home of Revolutionary War figure. Montclair Historical Society.

National Park

Served as field hospital after 1777 battle of Red Bank.

James Fenimore Cooper House James Lawrence House John Gill House Kearny Cottage Kirch-Ford House

Burlington Burlington Haddonfield Perth Amboy Warren

Birthplace of the novelist. Home of War of 1812 hero. 1747 building. Haddonfield Historical Society. 1781 building. Eighteenth-century home. Warren Township Historic Sites Committee.

Kuser Farm Mansion Lacey School House Museum Lambert Castle

Hamilton Lacey Township Paterson

1892 house. City historic site. 1860 schoolhouse. 1892 mansion, now a museum. Passaic County Historical Society.

Littell-Lord Farmhouse Museum Longstreet Farm Macculloch Hall Marlpit Hall

Berkeley Heights Holmdel Morristown Middletown

Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century farmhouse. Living history farm from the 1890s. Built by the founder of the Morris Canal. 1685 Dutch colonial building. Monmouth County Historical Association.

Rahway

Eighteenth-century stagecoach stop. Rahway Historical Society.

Merchants and Drovers Tavern Metlar House/Peter Bodine House

Piscataway

Eighteenth-century house. Piscataway Historical Society.

Middlebrook Encampment Millbrook Village

Bridgewater Delaware Water Gap National

Winter camp of the Continental Army, 1778. Washington Park Association. Collection of late nineteenth-century buildings.

Recreation Area Westfield

1740s house.

Museum Monmouth Battlefield State

Millville

WWII training center for pilots.

Park Morristown National Historic Park (Ford Mansion; Fort

Freehold

Site of battle, June 28, 1778.

Nonsense; and Jockey Hollow) Morven Nassau Hall New Sweden Farmstead

Morristown Princeton Princeton Bridgeton

Twice the winter headquarters for George Washington and the Continental Army. Home of the Stocktons, built 1701. Former governor’s mansion. Main building at Princeton University, originally built 1756. Re-created seventeenth-century Swedish farmhouse and outbuildings.

Old Barracks Museum Old Dutch Parsonage*

Trenton Somerville

Site of 1776 and 1777 battles. Home of two Revolutionary War ministers.

Old School House Old Schoolhouse Museum Old Stone House Museum

Mount Holly Ridgewood Ramsey

1759 schoolhouse 1870s one-room schoolhouse. House and inn, c. 1740.

Paterson Museum Peachfield Plantation Pomona Hall Proprietary House Red Bank Battlefield and Fort

Paterson Mount Holly Camden Perth Amboy

Site of the Rogers Locomotive Works. 1725 farmhouse. Managed by the National Society of Colonial Dames of America. Eighteenth-century Georgian house. Camden County Historical Society. Built in 1760s for New Jersey’s royal governors.

Mercer Ringwood Manor House* Rockingham* Schuyler-Hamilton House

National Park Ringwood State Park Kingston Morristown

Revolutionary War site on the Delaware River. Ironmaster’s home. George Washington’s last military headquarters during the Revolution. Here Alexander Hamilton courted his wife, Elizabeth Schuyler, in 1780.

Shadow Lawn

Long Branch

1920s mansion now used by Monmouth University.

Miller-Cory House Millville Army Air Field

(continued)

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Historic Speedwell

Historic Sites (continued) Site

Location

Features

Silas Riggs House

Ledgewood

Somers Mansion*

Somers Point

Eighteenth-century saltbox house. King Store 1815. Roxbury Township Historical Society. Oldest building in Atlantic County.

Spy House, Shoal Harbor Museum State House Steuben House*

Port Monmouth Trenton River Edge

Colonial house, part of Thomas Whitlock homestead, 1663–1703. Original section built 1790s; additions in 1890s and 1990s. Gift to Baron von Steuben for service in the Revolutionary War.

Greenwich Middletown

C. 1650 cabin. Cumberland County Historical Society. 1853 house. Monmouth County Historical Association. 1885 one-room schoolhouse. Memorial to 1776 battle.

Tunis-Ellicks House

Old Bridge Washington Crossing State Park New Vernon

Farmhouse, c.1800. Harding Township Historical Society.

Twin Lights* Van Riper–Hopper House Van Veghten House Van Wickle House Wallace House*

Cheesequake State Park Wayne Bridgewater Somerset Somerville

Maritime museum. 1786 Dutch colonial farmhouse. Wayne Historical Commission. C. 1720 house. Somerset County Historical Society. Early eighteenth-century Dutch colonial house. George Washington’s headquarters, winter 1778.

Walt Whitman House* Waterloo Village

Camden Stanhope

Poet’s home. Site of nineteenth-century businesses, Morris Canal, and a re-created Lenape village

Westervelt-Thomas Barn Wheaton Village Wildwood Naval Airstation William Trent’s House Woodruff House and Eaton

River Edge Millville Cold Spring Trenton

Nineteenth-century farm building. Re-created glassmaking center of the 1880s. WWII hanger containing historic airplanes and artifacts. 1719 Georgian house.

Store Museum Wortendyke Dutch Barn

Hillside Park Ridge

1900s store. Hillside Historical Society. Bergen County farm site, c.1750.

Swedish granery Taylor-Butler House Thomas Warne Historical Museum Trenton Battle Monument*

Sources: Mark Di Ionno, A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2000); Barbara Hudgins and Patrick Sarver, New Jersey Day Trips: A Guide to Outings in New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, 10th ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2004); Michael Lewis, ed., National Geographic Guide to America’s Historic Places (Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1996); Barbara Westergaard, New Jersey: A Guide to the State, 2d ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998); Arline Zatz, New Jersey’s Special Places: Scenic, Historic, and Cultural Treasures of the Garden State (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 1990). * State site.

Maxine N. Lurie Women took responsibility for many of these organizations. Hereditary societies, such as the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR), arose in the s and afterward. Several chapters bought and restored historic buildings to use as chapter houses and house museums. These buildings also provided opportunities to display period furnishings and artifacts. Their interiors were preserved or restored to reflect the periods during which the houses were built. County historical societies began to appear in the s. Today, eighteen New Jersey counties have countywide historical societies, several of which operate restored historic houses. After  local historical societies also began to form, and the rise of parks departments encouraged municipalities and counties to acquire and restore historic sites. In  the state of New Jersey bought its first historic property, the Indian King Tavern in Haddonfield, where in  the legislature adopted the Great Seal of New Jersey. During the next fifty years more than two dozen additional properties would be acquired. The

state at first appointed advisory commissions to oversee each site. However, as the number of properties grew, the coordination of so many commissions became burdensome. The legislature responded in  with a law establishing the New Jersey Commission on Historic Sites, composed of three members responsible for all state-owned historic properties. The National Park Service also became involved in operating historic sites in New Jersey. Federal legislation created the nation’s first national historical park at Morristown in , which included the Ford Mansion and the Wick House. In time, the federal government also came to operate the Edison National Historic Site, Ellis Island, the Statue of Liberty, and the Sandy Hook lighthouse. After World War II, the variety of historic sites continued to expand. New Jersey designated Fort Mott in Pennsville as a state park and acquired Atsion and Batsto, two bog iron furnaces. Through the state tercentenary years of the s and the national bicentennial years of the s, local house museums proliferated, even as “older’’ historic sites were not

always properly cared for. Few historic properties can be maintained on revenues generated from admissions, and by  the situation was so dire at some sites that journalist Tom Dunkel asked if New Jersey was becoming “a state of ruins.’’ Since then, the New Jersey Historic Trust has provided several infusions of grants to support restoration work. The Garden State Preservation Trust, created in , promises more funding for several years, but continued capital funding for historic sites remains an issue for concern. Mills, W. Jay. Historic Houses of New Jersey. . Reprint. Union City: William H. Wise, .

Marlene Craig

Historic Speedwell. This .-acre site in Morristown, part of the Morris County Park System, is located on a portion of the homestead farm of Judge Stephen Vail, builder and proprietor of the Speedwell Iron Works in the early s. In the foundry and machine shops, iron bars (“pigs’’) were converted into consumer goods ranging from nails to engine

historiography

Ad for Speedwell Iron Works.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. parts. In  the Speedwell works built the engine for the Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic. The Historic Speedwell site includes the Vail House, as remodeled by Judge Vail in the s, and the Telegraph Factory, a National Historic Landmark, where Vail’s son Alfred worked with Samuel F. B. Morse to perfect the electromagnetic telegraph in . There, on January , , Stephen Vail, who had bankrolled the project, sent the first message by telegraph: “A patient waiter is no loser.’’The first public demonstration took place at the Telegraph Factory on January . Other original buildings are the Wheel House, containing a twenty-four-foot overshot waterwheel; the Granary; the Homestead Carriage House; and the  Carriage House. Other buildings have been moved to the site from the oldest section of Morristown: the Ford Cottage (c. ) built by Gabriel Ford, Jr., grandson of Jacob Ford, builder of the mansion that served as Washington’s headquarters in the winter of –; the L’Hommedieu House (early nineteenth century); and the Moses Estey House (late eighteenth century). Cavanaugh, Cam, Barbara Hoskins, and Frances D. Pingeon. At Speedwell in the Nineteenth Century. Morristown: Speedwell Village, .

See also historic sites; Vail, Alfred

Cam Cavanaugh

historiography. New Jersey’s written history starts with reports by early explorers and the charters creating New Netherland, New York, and then New Jersey. Some of these documents first appeared in a collection compiled by Aaron Leaming and Jacob Spicer in , but the story of the state’s past begins with Samuel Smith’s History of . In the process of telling his story, Smith incorporated

some early documents into his work, thereby assuring their survival. Ever since, historians of the state have pursued the separate but related tasks of collecting and editing materials, and then using them to explain to popular and scholarly audiences what happened in New Jersey’s past. Historiography, or the history of history itself, traces what they have done. The interpretation of the state’s history has followed a pattern similar to that of American history as a whole. In the beginning, all historians were amateurs; only in the late nineteenth century did history become a profession in the United States. Other trends are discernible as well. Primary interest centered on political and military affairs at first; then economic issues (and interpretations) predominated, only to be supplanted by social history, followed by a concern with race and gender. Today, Smith’s quill pens have been replaced by computers, and although historians still write on paper, they now also speak through films, audio tapes, and electronic texts. Historians of New Jersey have responded to all of the trends in American history, although producing fewer works and words than those of Massachusetts or Virginia, states with longer colonial periods. Nevertheless, the record that New Jersey’s historians have compiled of the state’s long and interesting past and of its legacy of diversity can provide many hours of pleasure and enlightenment for interested readers. William Bradford wrote his History of Plymouth Plantations and James Smith his History of Virginia during the earliest years of the colonies they helped found. New Jersey residents waited much longer. Two West Jersey Quaker politicians, Aaron Leaming and Jacob Spicer, put together their collection of New Jersey’s founding documents and laws

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prior to  and published them in  as Grants, Concessions, and Original Constitutions of the Province of New Jersey. They provided a record useful for lawmakers then and for historians ever since. Thirteen years later Samuel Smith, also a West Jersey Quaker, wrote a history from the “discovery of America’’ to , History of the Colony of Nova-Caesarea, or New Jersey. He included a geographical description of the province, comments on Indians, and a few recent “occurrences.’’ As was common at the time, he quoted extensively from the documents he used and thus preserved their content. References to the state appear in several textbooks in the period that followed, but the next full history was Thomas F. Gordon’s History of New Jersey (), which carried the story to . Gordon’s work was succeeded in  by John W. Barbor and Henry Howe’s Historical Collections of the State of New Jersey. Its purpose was “to give an account of the most important and interesting events which have occurred . . . together with geographical descriptions and numerous engravings.’’ An outline of the state’s history was followed by sections on counties and towns. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the state had been served by part-time historians who were collectors. They left a relatively sparse but very important record. Subsequently, other amateurs committed their time and energy to two interconnected objectives: the organization of the New Jersey Historical Society, and the publication of both records and narratives. In January  a few men braved a snowstorm to meet in Trenton and discuss the creation of an association. A month later, in better weather, they elected officers who resolved “to discover, procure and preserve whatever relates to any department of the history of New Jersey—natural, civil, literary, or ecclesiastical.’’ They soon started a journal, originally called Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society, containing the minutes of their meetings. Today, renamed New Jersey History, it is the oldest such periodical in the country. Two early members of the society, William A. Whitehead and William Nelson, took up the task of collecting and writing. Together they spent seventy years laboring in the field of New Jersey history. Whitehead was described as using “patience, perseverance and zeal’’ to explore “the labyrinth of the early Colonial history of New Jersey, in musty manuscripts and dusty records.’’ Nelson was simply “tireless.’’ In addition to writing articles and books, they produced twenty-four volumes of the society’s multivolume Collections and New Jersey Archives, which contain records from the colonial period, their main focus. At the beginning of the twentieth century, two professional historians used the resources that had been collected to write political histories of early New Jersey: Edwin F. Tanner, The Province of New Jersey – () and Edgar J. Fisher, New Jersey as a Royal Province,

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historiography

– (). These histories were followed by Donald L. Kemmerer’s Path to Freedom: The Struggle for Self-Government in Colonial New Jersey, – (), which carried the tale up to . The story here, reflecting the times, concerned economic conflict in the colony between wealthy proprietors and poor settlers, and the colonists’ search for political freedom. The new century also brought several successive efforts to produce multivolume, multiauthor editions that would encapsulate the history of the state. First to appear was New Jersey as a Colony and as a State ( vols., ), edited by Francis Bazley Lee, a lawyer. Next came New Jersey: A History ( vols., –), edited by Irving Kull, a professor of history at Rutgers University. In  William Starr Myers, a Princeton University political scientist, edited The Story of New Jersey ( vols.). Perhaps surprising to those who think social history started in the s, all three collections contained chapters on such topics as transportation, everyday life, agriculture, and industry. Lee made the wider perspective explicit when he stated that his volumes would show New Jerseyans’ “daily lives, in brief what they did, and how, under religious, political, economic, or social impulses, they acted.’’ Editors of the three sets also deliberately expanded the story of the state beyond the colonial period to the present. In the period after World War II, the number of books devoted to New Jersey history increased dramatically, a consequence both of the appearance of a new generation of well-trained amateurs and professionals and of interest fostered by celebrations of the state’s tercentenary and the bicentennial of the American Revolution. Important here were the interests of Richard P. McCormick and Donald Sinclair, a historian and a librarian, respectively, at Rutgers University, and of John T. Cunningham, a newspaper reporter in Newark. From  onward, McCormick produced such scholarly works as Experiment in Independence: New Jersey in the Critical Period – (), History of Voting in New Jersey (), and Rutgers: A Bicentennial History (). Sinclair collected materials now housed in Rutgers Library’s Special Collections and University Archives, and then produced one detailed bibliography after another for researchers, including an index to New Jersey biographies and one to New Jersey History. Cunningham has written hundreds of articles and more than forty books on the state, including This Is New Jersey () and New Jersey: America’s Main Road (), and repeatedly revised textbooks used in kindergarten through twelfth grade. He once described himself as the “retailer’’ and McCormick the “wholesaler’’ of state history. As important as the written record he produced was McCormick’s suggestion that the state celebrate its tercentenary. The success of that project led to the formation of the New Jersey Historical Commission. In addition,

McCormick, Sinclair, and Cunningham served both the old Historical Society and the new Historical Commission. To their work can be added that of Thomas Fleming, who in  wrote a one-volume history, as part of a series on all the states. The state’s tercentenary project resulted in some  municipal programs,  proposed local histories, and a -volume series on the state. The series was edited by Richard M. Huber and Wheaton J. Lane, who managed to coax thirty-six authors into completing their assignments in just two years (–). The books were both chronological, summarizing aspects of the colonial period and the Revolution, and topical, dealing with such subjects as religion, labor, urbanization, banking, and the arts. The range and scholarship remain impressive, although the books overlooked race and gender—both topics just appearing on historians’ radar screens. The heightened interest in the state’s history that grew out of the tercentenary celebrations led Gov. Richard Hughes to establish the New Jersey Historical Commission in . In  the commission began to publish its Newsletter and to provide grants for research and public programs. To celebrate the bicentennial of the Revolution, the commission published a series of pamphlets about numerous aspects of that event, including such traditional political topics as the state constitution of  and the coming of the war, but considering as well the role of African Americans and of women. The broadening scope of forays into the state’s past is even more obvious in the New Jersey History series, a set of eleven brief books published by the commission from  to . These cover the expected topics, such as military history and politics, but also the new: women, ecology, and ethnicity. All were written by professional scholars. In addition to these brief books, important work as been done on African Americans in the state by Clement A. Price in Freedom Not Far Distant: A Documentary History of Afro-Americans in New Jersey (), by Giles Wright in Afro-Americans in New Jersey: A Short History (), and by Larry Greene in a long article in the special issue of the Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries devoted to the topic in . The New Jersey Women’s Project labored to find those left out of “his’’story, producing Past and Promise (), a collection of biographies of women both famous and previously obscure. Since , both state and national funding has enabled academically trained historians to produce documentary collections using modern scholarly standards that emphasize comprehensiveness and detailed annotation. Among published collections of papers and records relating to New Jersey are those of Lewis Morris ( vols., –), governor of the colony from  to ; William Livingston, the first state governor ( vols.

–); and Woodrow Wilson, progressive state governor and U.S. president (vols. –  and  deal with New Jersey). There is also Larry Gerlach’s New Jersey in the American Revolution, –: A Documentary History (). Ongoing projects include the papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, advocates of women’s rights, and the records of Thomas A. Edison, inventor. To conclude that the professionalization of history in the twentieth century means that professors with specialized degrees have taken over the production of all state history would be incorrect. Avocational historians are still hard at work, many helping Arcadia Publishing produce numerous illustrated volumes on towns and cities in the state. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, even as scholars and others interested in history continue to produce books and articles, they have also turned to the production of multimedia works on the state. Innovative projects include films, audiotapes, and electronic texts. The Historical Commission has worked with New Jersey Network (NJN) to produce two film series: Around and About New Jersey for young students about places in the state, and New Jersey Legacy, projected to survey the entire history of the state chronologically. In addition, NJN has produced documentary films like Opportunity of a Century (), about the writing and impact of the state’s  constitution. The Historical Commission has also turned out a number of audiotapes on ethnic topics, including Coming from India. In the mid-s, Rutgers University Radio and TV Network began producing and distributing New Jerseytimes, half-hour-long audiotapes about the state’s history, people, and places. Other New Jersey historical materials also appear in electronic form, from documents placed on state government Web sites to Electronic New Jersey, created by and for high school teachers with the assistance of Rutgers University. This discussion of New Jersey historiography has traced just the outline of work done over the past  years. Numerous additional articles and monographs can fill in the patterns discussed: the shift from amateur to professional historians, and from political history, primarily about the colonial period, to numerous topics and efforts to reach as close as historians can to the present while keeping their perspective. Not mentioned has been the tendency of New Jersey historians, through all these changes, to complain about the lack of materials on their state. In a  article that asked, “Does New Jersey Scorn History?’’ Harry Emerson Wildes concluded that, compared with regions that “prize their history,’’ it did. The New Jersey History Task Force in  echoed his conclusion. With so much written, why the complaints? The answer is that, despite the wealth of materials, great gaps in the record leave much to be done by future historians of the state, whether professionals or

history fascinated amateurs. The history of New Jersey has not all been written.

NEW YORK

EARLY EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN THE REGION

Maxine N. Lurie

43) e (17 e Lin

history.

New Jersey’s history following the arrival of Europeans can best be thought of in terms of three long, overlapping eras. First, during the initial period of settlement and adjustment, which lasted until , the colonies of East Jersey and West Jersey were created and then merged as New Jersey, the thirteen colonies separated violently from Great Britain, and the new state of New Jersey formulated its first constitution and then modernized its initial frame of government with a new constitution. Second, the era from the s until the end of World War II was characterized by the growth of an urban industrial economy, which drew its workforce primarily from European immigration. Third, the post–World War II era has been marked by a shift of population from cities to suburbs, the emergence of a new style of candidate-oriented (rather than party-oriented) politics, and the rapid growth of Asian, African American, and Hispanic populations in the state. Before the s, numerous distinct groups of Algonquian-speaking natives lived in what Europeans would call East and West New Jersey. The Lenape, or Delaware (terms adopted after European contact), were Woodland Indians who lived by hunting, gathering, fishing, and horticulture. Never numerous, the population succumbed to disease and warfare, until there were fewer than three thousand Lenape by the eighteenth century. European settlement on their hunting lands forced many to move westward to Pennsylvania. In the nineteenth century, others would migrate to Ontario, Canada, and to the territories that would become Wisconsin and Oklahoma. (In the twentieth century there would remain a small, but growing, number of people living in New Jersey who identified themselves as Delawares.) The initial European settlement of the land between the Hudson and Delaware Rivers occurred piecemeal. The Dutch, the Swedes, and then various groups of English moved into the region between the s and the s. The Dutch initially settled at New Amsterdam (Manhattan) and then moved across the Hudson, where they eventually established () a garrison outpost at Bergen. The Swedes moved north from Fort Christina (in Delaware) and in  established an outpost in southern New Jersey. Connecticut Puritans established Elizabethtown in ; Baptists and Quakers settled at Monmouth; and yet another group of Puritans in  purchased land from the Lenape Indians that they would rename Newark.

EAST NEW JERSEY

renc Law

Lurie, Maxine N. New Jersey and You—Learning Together: Texts for Teaching New Jersey Studies, – . Exhibition catalog. Special Collections and University Archives, Alexander Library, Rutgers University, .

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Bergen (1660) Newark (1666)

Elizabeth Town (1664)

New Amsterdam (1626)

Woodbridge (1666) Perth Amboy (1683) Piscataway (1666)

PENNSYLVANIA

Middletown (1665) Shrewsbury (1665)

Farnsworth's Landing (1682)

Burlington Island (1626)

Burlington (1678) Philadelphia (1682) Fort New Gothenburg (1643)

Cooper's Ferry (1681) Fort Nassau (1626) Woodbury (1683)

Fort Christina (1638)

Raccoon (1670s)

Salem (1675)

WEST NEW JERSEY

Greenwich (1675) N

DELAWARE

0 Town Bank (1685)

20 miles

© Rutgers, The State University of NJ

English settlement followed upon Great Britain’s assertion of its right to the entire New Jersey–New York area—still largely inhabited by various Native American peoples and claimed by the Dutch. In  Charles II, king of England, granted the region to his brother, James, duke of York, who then sent a fleet to New York and forced the Dutch to surrender their territorial claims. James conveyed his land grant in what would become New Jersey to two English noblemen, George Carteret and John, Lord Berkeley, and they, in turn, conveyed their rights to two sets of proprietors. In  the proprietors agreed to

a formal division of the colony: the Carteret claim became East Jersey; and the Berkeley claim, West Jersey. East Jersey remained for several decades a region of scattered English and Dutch settlements, each with its own distinctive ethnic and religious traditions. West Jersey initially developed under the auspices of Quaker proprietors, with the population centering around Burlington. In  the British Crown formally reunited East and West Jersey into the single royal colony of New Jersey. Two specific legacies of this initial settlement era shaped much of New Jersey’s colonial history. The agricultural promise of the region

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history

attracted settlers who profitably mixed livestock and grain production. Wealthier farmers used servants and slaves. An influx of immigrants, drawn by the prospect of relatively free, productive land, and a high birth rate pushed the population from about , European Americans and African Americans in , to more than , by the middle of the eighteenth century, and to around , by the conclusion of the American Revolution. Slightly fewer than  percent of New Jersey’s residents were black, and through mid-century most of these were slaves. The first U.S. Census in  listed the state as having approximately , people, of whom about , were slaves and almost , were free blacks. The other major legacy of the settlement period was an atmosphere of contention. Some of that contention was owing to the insecurity of land titles; some to the resentment that settlers felt toward paying rent to the proprietors; and some to the arrangement that gave the royal governor of New York jurisdiction over New Jersey until . New Jersey was also one of the primary sites for the religious revivals that swept through most of the colonies in the mid-eighteenth century. Both the Presbyterian and the Dutch Reformed churches participated in the New Jersey revivals, and the Great Awakening spurred religious leaders to found the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in  and Queens College (Rutgers) in  for the better training of ministers. New Jersey did not play a leadership role in the colonial opposition to British imperial policy in the s and early s. The colony protested the British Stamp Act of  and staged its own “tea party’’ in response to the Tea Act of . But under the leadership of William Franklin, the colony’s last royal governor, New Jersey moved more haltingly toward independence than most other colonies. New Jersey’s Provincial Congress finally ordered Franklin arrested in June . Its members then drafted the constitution of , which placed most power in the hands of an annually elected legislature and deprived the governor (an office associated with British “tyranny’’) of most of the traditional prerogatives of executive authority. Not all New Jerseyans followed the revolutionaries into war with Great Britain. The state was the site of some of the key battles of the Revolution and of a protracted civil war between Patriots and Loyalists. All the while, many New Jersey Quakers did their best to remain neutral. In the winter of –, after their defeat in New York City, George Washington’s forces retreated across New Jersey into Pennsylvania, and then won a daring counterattack at Trenton in late December and another victory at Princeton in early , before wintering at Morristown. Among the dozens of skirmishes and battles in New Jersey thereafter, the most notable took place

at Monmouth in , and twice more the Continental Army wintered in the state. Once the war was over, New Jersey played a crucial role in the process that replaced the Articles of Confederation with a new national Constitution. At the Constitutional Convention of , William Paterson of New Jersey presented the so-called small-state plan for representation in the national legislature. The Great Compromise that the delegates finally agreed upon incorporated Paterson’s proposal to give each state equal representation (in the Senate) alongside the large-state plan for proportional representation by state population (in the House of Representatives). Another important part of Paterson’s proposal, recognition of the supremacy of federal over state law, became a key clause in the new document. New Jersey was the third state to ratify the Constitution. In the early decades of the new Republic, New Jersey experienced the same rambunctious politics as other states. As criticism of the policies of George Washington’s administration grew in the s, New Jersey citizens split between the pro-administration Federalist party and the Democratic-Republican opposition. The rivalry energized the electorate. The Democratic-Republicans responded with the innovative procedure of calling a statewide convention in  to agree on principles and select candidates. Soon thereafter, the party introduced a legislative caucus to decide on appointments—among the first use of such organizational techniques in the nation. But as Federalist strength melted away nationwide at the conclusion of the War of , the Democratic-Republicans fragmented into local factions. In the late s and early s new parties, with national affiliation, were organized in New Jersey to support and oppose the presidency of Andrew Jackson. Jackson’s supporters called themselves Democrats; their opponents adopted the name of Whigs. Both parties were organized through a system of caucuses, conventions, and committees (much like political parties today), both formed key alliances with major economic interests in the state (the Democrats with the Camden and Amboy Railroad), and both routinely gained the support of almost half the electorate in statewide elections. Closely contested elections frequently drew three-quarters of the electorate to the polls. Once again, New Jersey’s experience paralleled that of the nation as a whole. New Jersey finally caught up with most other states in  by revising its Revolutionary-era constitution. The new document made the governorship elective and removed property qualifications from the franchise, but still left free black males disfranchised. New Jersey not only took longer to revise its first constitution than most of the original thirteen states, but it also moved more slowly to end slavery than other northern states. Not until  did the legislature

pass a gradual emancipation act—which did not end slavery. The act freed children born to slave mothers only after the individuals reached adulthood. Between the early nineteenth century and the mid-twentieth century, New Jerseyans created and lived in an increasingly urban, industrial economy. Machines driven by waterpower, steam, and eventually electricity replaced handwork. Artisan shops gave way to factories. Farm villages were transformed into manufacturing cities, and the children of farm families moved to the cities to find wage work. There they were joined by ever greater numbers of immigrant workers. By the early twentieth century, New Jersey had become among the most urban, industrial, and ethnically diverse states in the nation. A modest iron industry had flourished in New Jersey during the colonial era, and in the s the Society of Useful Manufactures had tried to establish British-style textile factories in Paterson, but it was not until the early nineteenth century that an urban manufacturing economy emerged. Following British designs, American manufacturers first began to massproduce textiles. Industrial innovation quickly spread to other sectors. Paterson, to take one example, began as a textile center and then in the s became the site of Thomas Rogers’s locomotive works. Shortly thereafter, John Ryle introduced silk manufacturing to Paterson—the industry with which the city would be associated for the next century. Trenton would become known for ceramics and the Roebling wire-rope works; Newark, for leather goods, shoes, and beer; New Brunswick, for rubber products. Later in the century, Thomas Edison would pioneer the development of the research laboratory at Menlo Park and later West Orange, and large chemical and pharmaceutical enterprises would locate in the state. The growth of an urban, industrial economy was fueled by several factors. In  workers completed the Morris Canal in North Jersey, built to connect the industries of Essex County with the coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania. The Delaware and Raritan Canal, finished in , was more successful and merged with the rival Camden and Amboy Rail Road to control traffic in the New York–Philadelphia corridor. The building of turnpikes, canals, and, increasingly, railroads connected urban industrial centers to resources and markets and stimulated economic growth. Of perhaps even greater importance was the influx of European immigrants, who provided most of the labor for the state’s industrial economy. The economy shaped New Jersey’s political system well into the twentieth century. Politics was decentralized. Power resided in counties and cities, not the state, and parties were aligned with agricultural interests in rural counties or business interests in industrial cities. Democrats contested with Republicans (who had emerged as the opposition party in  and replaced the defunct Whig party of

Hobart, Garret Augustus the s). Both local parties leaned toward the more conservative wings of their national counterparts. When the sectional crisis came, political leaders backed the northern war effort only reluctantly, but the state did supply almost seventy thousand men to the Union Army. After the war, politicians kept taxes low, but efforts toward social reform lagged behind those in other northeastern states, and graft was common. In the twentieth century, the themes of reform and boss rule are best reflected in the careers of Woodrow Wilson and Frank Hague. Wilson first won national acclaim in  as the progressive (Democratic) governor of the state. Under Wilson, New Jersey compiled a regulatory and reform record that rivaled such other progressive states as New York, Wisconsin, and California, a record that launched his successful drive for the presidency. Yet Wilson’s accomplishments did not end graft and corruption or dilute the power of local political bosses. Hague, who served as the Democratic mayor of Jersey City from  to  and as political boss of Hudson County for that same period, used his Irish Catholic power base not only to control local politics but also to gain patronage power from the state and national Democratic parties. Hague’s withdrawal from politics after World War II signaled both the eclipse of traditional machine politics in New Jersey and the undermining of the urbanindustrial economy that had supported such political organizations. The post–World War II era witnessed a fundamental reworking of governance in New Jersey. In  a state constitutional convention redrafted New Jersey’s frame of government. Legislative terms were lengthened, the governor was made eligible for reelection, the amendment process was simplified, the court system was rationalized, and an antidiscrimination clause was added to the state bill of rights. U.S. Supreme Court decisions in the mid-s forced the state to redraw assembly and senate districts to equalize the population represented by each district. Voters amended the state constitution to allow gambling, and in  the first casinos opened in Atlantic City. The ruling by the state supreme court in Robinson v. Cahill promised every child a “thorough and efficient’’ education and led to New Jersey’s first, modest income tax in . The constitutional changes in the post– World II era were paralleled by dramatic changes in where and how New Jerseyans lived. Large numbers of residents left the state’s traditional urban-industrial core and moved to the suburbs. Industries that had fueled New Jersey’s nineteenth-century economic growth—silk, textiles, steel, ceramics— were devastated during the Great Depression and never completely recovered. The agricultural sector continued to shrink as land was gobbled up for new housing developments and farming moved out of state. The spread of population was facilitated by the completion

of the New Jersey Turnpike in , the final construction of the Garden State Parkway in , and the subsequent building of several interstate highways. By the late twentieth century, New Jersey had become the most densely populated state in the nation, and most of its residents lived in the suburbs and worked in light industry or in the service sector. New sources of immigration, especially from Asia and the Caribbean, kept the state among the most diverse in the nation. The postwar transition to a suburban economy was neither smooth nor without costs. Much of New Jersey’s black population lived in the urban centers, drawn there as other immigrant groups had been by the promise of industrial jobs. Unlike other immigrant groups, however, blacks faced systematic housing and employment discrimination. When industrial decline and white flight to the suburbs undercut urban economies, blacks were left with even less opportunity. The frustration of discrimination and limited economic prospects boiled over in the urban riots of the mids, which devastated cities like Newark and Plainfield. Although New Jersey cities have subsequently profited from a number of high-profile redevelopment projects—the arts center in Newark, the aquarium in Camden, minor league baseball in Trenton—they remained unequal partners in the general prosperity of the state in the late twentieth century. In the three eras of its history, New Jersey has matured from an ethnically diverse set of farming communities, to a leader in the urban-industrial economy of the nineteenth century, to a state whose high-density population and mix of suburban and urban living defines the direction of much of the rest of the United States. Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey: From High Point to Cape May. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Fleming, Thomas. New Jersey: A Bicentennial History. New York: W. W. Norton, . Lurie, Maxine N., comp. A New Jersey Anthology. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Murrin, Mary R., and Stanley N. Whorton, eds. New Jersey History Series.  vols. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, –.

Paul Clemens

Hobart, Garret Augustus ; d. Nov. , ).

(b. June ,

Lawyer, businessman, politician, vice president of the United States. Of English and Dutch ancestry, Garret A. Hobart was the son of Addison Hobart and Sophia Vanderveer, and was born and raised in Long Branch. He graduated with honors from Rutgers College in  and moved to Paterson, where he studied law under Socrates Tuttle, a distinguished member of the Passaic County bar, and later entered into a partnership with him.

377

In , Hobart married Jennie Tuttle, the daughter of his law partner. The promising young lawyer began his political career as city counsel of Paterson in . The next year, he was elected to the state assembly and subsequently served as Speaker in . Twice elected state senator from Passaic County, Hobart presided over the New Jersey Senate in  and . He distinguished himself as a state legislator and sponsored important legislation concerning the oversight of county officials and the reduction of state indebtedness. A loyal party man, Hobart served as chairman of the state Republican committee from  to . He was also a delegate-at-large to five successive Republican national conventions. His ascendancy in state politics was remarkable. He once commented that he made politics his recreation; his main interests were business and corporate law. Hobart served on the board of directors of numerous banks and railroads. He was connected at one time with sixty business corporations. In , he became president of the Passaic Water Company. By , Hobart had made his fortune and was regarded as the foremost Republican in New Jersey. That same year he secured the gubernatorial nomination for his friend John W. Griggs, who ran a spirited contest. Hobart, successfully managing the Griggs campaign, thus helped the Republicans to recapture the governorship for the first time since . While attending the Republican national convention at St. Louis in , Hobart was nominated for vice president and ran on the ticket with William McKinley. The hot-button issues in the presidential campaign were the tariff and the currency. No Republican was more outspoken in upholding the gold standard than Hobart. In his acceptance speech he declared, “An honest dollar, worth one hundred cents everywhere, cannot be coined out of fifty-three cents of silver, plus a legislative fiat.’’ While campaigning in Newark, he remarked, “When the result of the election is finally and fully known, the greatest lesson in political morality will be taught that was ever taught in America.’’ During his two years in Washington, Hobart presided over the Senate with such ability that U.S. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts credited him with having “restored the Vice Presidency to its proper position.’’ He cast the deciding vote in the Senate against the bill granting the Philippines independence. When his health deteriorated in the spring of , Hobart went to Long Branch to recuperate. Failing to improve, he returned to his home in Paterson, where he died the following November. He was buried at Cedar Lawn Cemetery in Paterson. His place on the Republican ticket was taken by Theodore Roosevelt. Hogarty, Richard A. Leon Abbett’s New Jersey: The Emergence of the Modern Governor. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, .

378

Hobart, Jennie Tuttle

Magie, David. Life of Garret Augustus Hobart: Twentyfourth Vice President of the U.S. New York: Putnam, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton. Trenton: John L. Murphy, .

Richard A. Hogarty

Hobart, Jennie Tuttle (b. Apr. , ; d. Mar. , ). Philanthropist, antisuffragist, and wife of U.S. vice president Garret A. Hobart. Raised in Paterson, Esther Jane (Jennie) Tuttle married Paterson attorney, Garret A. Hobart, in July . With her dedication to home, husband, and benevolence, she exemplified nineteenth-century womanhood. Her husband built a highly successful career as a corporation attorney and rose rapidly in Republican politics to become president of the New Jersey Senate in . Jennie Hobart’s community service at this time peaked with the founding of the Children’s Day Nursery (Memorial Day Nursery) of Paterson in , one of the state’s earliest daycare centers, designed to serve the children of Paterson’s mill workers. Hobart was vice president of the center for fifty years, and became honorary president in . In  she donated land, a large bequest for a new building, and a sizable operating endowment in memory of her daughter, who had died of diphtheria. In , Garret Hobart, a strong gold standard supporter, was elected vice president of the United States on William McKinley’s Republican ticket. The Hobarts and the McKinleys became close friends and, because of Mrs. McKinley’s poor health, Jennie Hobart frequently acted as official White House hostess. But Garret Hobart’s poor health forced the family to return to Paterson in the fall of , where he died of heart disease. Left a prominent and wealthy widow at age fifty, Jennie Hobart became a champion of traditional values at a time when Paterson’s history was marked by rapid change and social unrest. In  she organized the Paterson branch of the New Jersey Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NJAOWS), served on the state board as a vice president, and worked for the defeat of the New Jersey woman suffrage amendment in the fall of . After the outbreak of World War I in Europe, Hobart turned the energies of the Paterson branch of NJAOWS to organizing relief work to benefit France and Belgium. By  thousands of garments and dollars had been collected for war relief. In  Hobart helped organize Paterson chapters of the American Red Cross and encouraged further war relief work by residents under Red Cross auspices. In  King Albert of Belgium conferred on her the Chevalier de l’Ordre de Leopold for her service. During the s and s, Hobart helped in the development of a county park system and the Passaic County Park Commission, which her son chaired. She supported the

Passaic County Historical Society and endorsed the establishment of its museum and headquarters at the Lambert Castle in Garret Mountain Park. She donated the family’s collection of paintings to Paterson’s Danforth Memorial Library in . Hobart received statewide recognition for her public-spiritedness in June ; Rutgers University awarded her the honorary doctor of philanthropy degree with the citation as one who had taken a “living interest in social enterprises.’’ Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Delight Wing Dodyk

Hoboken. .-square-mile city in Hudson County. The first European sighting of what would become Hoboken occurred in  when Henry Hudson dropped the anchor of the Half Moon just off what First Mate Robert Juet called “a very good piece of ground’’ across “from the island called Manhatta.’’ The name Hoboken first appeared on a deed dated July ,  to Michael Pauw, the burgomeister of Amsterdam who was also a member of the Dutch West India Company. Eleven years later, Teunissen Van Putten leased Hoboken, cleared the land for a farm, and built not only the first house in the future city but also the first “brew house’’ in North America. The Van Putten farmhouse lasted only until February  when it was burned in a war between the Dutch and the Native Americans. In , Samuel Bayard, a nephew of New Netherland governor Peter Stuyvesant, bought Hoboken for £. But, when the Bayard family remained loyal to the British in the Revolution, the property was confiscated. Col.

John Stevens purchased Hoboken in  for $, and founded the village of Hoboken. Reserving a portion of the land for himself, Stevens developed the land and initiated a ferry service between Manhattan and Hoboken. The Stevens family dominated Hoboken for more than a century. John Cox Stevens, a son, was the major owner of the yacht America and a founding member of the New York Yacht Club. Edwin A. Stevens, another son, founded Stevens Institute of Technology with a bequest in his will. In the first half of the nineteenth century Hoboken was a playground for New Yorkers, who took the ferry to enjoy the city’s shaded lanes and fabled River Walk that led to the equally storied Elysian Fields. In the second half of the century, however, Hoboken changed from a sleepy resort to a major seaport and industrial center. On March , , Hoboken was incorporated as a city. By  the population, augmented by German, Irish, and Italian immigrants, swelled to ,. In , Hoboken was the major port of embarkation for two million doughboys and contributed World War I’s enduring slogan— “Heaven, Hell, or Hoboken.’’ The city’s two shipbuilding yards contributed to the World War II effort as well. The last hurrah of the shipping industry in Hoboken was captured in the  motion picture On the Waterfront starring Marlon Brando, but the departure of the shipping lines in the s relegated Hoboken to urban decay. That changed in the late s when the city’s proximity to Manhattan and its brownstone architecture attracted young professionals who transformed Hoboken into a boom city. Among Hoboken’s firsts are the zipper, the ice cream cone, the Oreo cookie, baseball (first played at Elysian Fields on June , ), and Yale-Princeton and Harvard-Princeton football. It is also, of course, the birthplace of Frank Sinatra. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Moller, George Long. Hoboken of Yesterday. Hoboken: G. L. Moller, –. Shaw, William H., comp. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. . Reprint. Englewood: Bergen Historic Books, .

Leonard Luizzi

hockey.

Alfred Stieglitz, City of Ambition, (Hoboken) . Photogravure print,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy George Eastman House, Rochester, NY.

By some accounts ice hockey was first played by the MicMac Indians of Nova Scotia and first encountered by whites in the early s. However, others insist that the sport has its roots in Europe, combining the ancient Irish game of hurling and British field hockey, which European settlers played on the frozen ponds that were common near their new Canadian homes.

Hoffman, Frederick Ludwig Origins aside, hockey’s popularity quickly migrated southward into New England and eventually into New Jersey, whose ponds, lakes, and rivers made excellent playing surfaces for many weeks each winter. Although equipment was rudimentary and the game lacked organization, hockey grew as a recreational pastime. Its acceptance as a competitive, interscholastic, and organized sport, however, was slow in coming. The indoor surfaces necessary for serious competition were expensive to build, and the big three sports, basketball, football, and especially baseball, held the attention of sports participants and spectators. Two factors were instrumental in changing a New Jerseyan’s approach to hockey: the creation of the New Jersey Devils and the introduction of the in-line roller skate. John McMullen purchased the Colorado Rockies of the National Hockey League in . That purchase led to the establishment of the Devils, named after the mythical resident of the Pine Barrens. The team received a lukewarm reception during its first few seasons, mainly because the New York Rangers, a charter member of the NHL since , played just ten minutes away. But within six years wins came to outnumber losses, and the Devils became a viable opponent for the Rangers, both on the ice and in the hearts of New Jersey fans. At the same time one of the most revolutionary inventions in mainstream sports hit the streets with a flourish. Although conventional four-wheel roller skates had existed for many years, it was difficult to adapt them to hockey. Most readily available roller skates lacked the maneuverability of ice skates. The in-line roller skate changed all that. It had a snug, ski boot–like shoe mounted to a chassis, whose four silicone rubber wheels rotated on ball-bearing hubs. Hockey could now be played on any flat paved surface at any time by anyone. At the same time major retailers were offering a full array of hockey equipment, which formerly had been very difficult to find. The Devils have directly helped kids learn hockey by providing roller hockey equipment to towns and organizations that sponsor organized leagues and clinics. The explosion in roller hockey was transferred immediately to ice hockey. Ice rinks were constructed all over the state to accommodate the huge demand for ice time. Since then, playing surfaces have been in use twenty-four hours a day. Players and parents are routinely expected to travel many miles at any hour to take advantage of game or practice time on the ice. Local towns and private clubs provide the real backbone of amateur hockey in New Jersey by offering the sport to all ages, starting at age five and including senior leagues where players collecting social security are not uncommon. Interscholastic competition among high schools is growing yearly. At the end of the season, the state champion is crowned in the Continental Airlines Arena.

According to USA Hockey, the governing body of all amateur hockey in the United States, , players were registered for the – season in Delaware, eastern Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. Of these,  were girls and women playing in New Jersey. During the – season New Jersey alone had , registrations, including  female players. The greatest percentage increase each year, for the last three years, has been for female players, coaches, and referees. Yannis, Alex. New Jersey Devils. Mankato, MN: Creative Education, .

See also sports

Harry Williamson

Hodge, Charles

(b. Dec. , ; d. June

, ).

Theologian. Born in Philadelphia to Hugh Hodge and Mary Blanchard, Charles Hodge graduated from the College of New Jersey (Princeton University) in  and Princeton Theological Seminary in . Hodge married Sarah Bache, with whom he had eight children, in . Sarah died in ; he married Mary Hunter Stockton in . Hodge spent almost his entire career teaching at Princeton Seminary. A staunch defender of Calvinism, he had a formative influence on both the Presbyterian Church and nineteenthcentury American theology through his writings and editorship of the Biblical Reportory and Princeton Review. Hodge, A. A. The Life of Charles Hodge. New York: Charles Scribner, . Wells, David F. Reformed Theology in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, .

See also Presbyterians; Princeton Theological Seminary

P. C. Kemeny

Hoeber, Arthur

(b. ; d. Apr. , ).

Painter, writer, and lecturer. Born in New York City, Arthur Hoeber was educated in the New York City school system and received his earliest art training at the Art Students League. During the mid-s he studied in Paris un´on Ge ´ro ˆ me. His favorite subjects der Jean Le were the tidal wetlands of Cape Cod, Long Island, and New Jersey. He was noted for his use of light and color. An example of his work is Salt Marshes of Northern New Jersey. Hoeber was one of the first members of an art colony that thrived in Nutley during the early years of the twentieth century. Regarded as a fine critic and writer, he served as an art critic for the New York Times and the New York Globe. He died in Nutley. See also art

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also be processed into consumer drug products. Hoechst began producing commercial pharmaceuticals in , and in  Hoechst named Herman A. Metz, a drug manufacturer in Newark, as its American representative. In the early s, Hoechst acquired Cassella Dye Works, where chemist Paul Ehrlich was under contract. In  Ehrlich and his associates developed Salvarsan (arsphenamine), the world’s first successful treatment for syphilis. Metz held the American patent for this important drug, affirming Hoechst as a significant presence in New Jersey’s drug industry. Rebuilding after World War II, Hoechst acquired other sites and affiliates. Among the most noteworthy were the partnership with the French company Roussel Uclaf, and the  purchase of the U.S. pharmaceutical company Marion Merrell Dow. The merger of Hoechst Marion Roussel and Rhone-Poulenc Rorer in December  created Aventis Pharmaceuticals, headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. Aventis is consolidating its North American operations into two sites in Bridgewater, which together should accommodate more than three thousand employees. See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Hoffa, Jimmy

(b. Feb. , ; d. July ,

Labor leader. On July , , labor racketeer, ex-convict, and former Teamsters Union president Jimmy Hoffa vanished after leaving a Detroit-area restaurant where he had gone to meet gangster associates. No one was ever convicted of the crime and his body was never found, but it is assumed that he was murdered in a gangland rubout. The considerable speculation about his fate included notions that his corpse had been disposed of in a river, building foundation, fat rendering plant, or similarly ignominious resting place in locations such as Michigan, Georgia, Florida, and New Jersey. But one speculation remains most common: Hoffa was interred in the Meadowlands in East Rutherford in the concrete foundation of Giants Stadium—perhaps near section  or under the goalposts—which was under construction at the time. No real evidence supports the theory that Hoffa’s mortal remains are in New Jersey, much less under Giants Stadium, and it seems unlikely that Hoffa’s murderers would have gone to the bother and risk of transporting his body from Michigan to the East Coast. Yet what began as a joking speculation has become an oft-repeated New Jersey urban legend. ?).

Robert C. Nelson

Hoechst.

In , German chemist Eugen Lucius founded Meister, Lucius, and Company, a dyeworks, at Hoechst am Main, Germany, just as coal tar dyes were giving the textile industry a boost. The use of carbolic acid as a disinfectant showed that coal tars could

Sloane, Arthur. Hoffa. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Hoffman, Frederick Ludwig (b. May , ; d. Feb. , ). Actuary and public health advocate. The son of Augustus F.

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Hoffman, Harold G.

and Antoinette von Laar Hoffman, Frederick Ludwig Hoffman was raised in Varel, near Bremen, Germany, and attended school until he was fifteen. In  he immigrated to the United States, where he ultimately established himself in the field of life insurance and became well known for his publications on the mortality statistics of southern blacks. In  he married Ella George Hay of Americus, Georgia; they had six children. In  Hoffman joined the Prudential Insurance Company as an actuary in its Newark home offices. Promoted to statistician in  and third vice president in , he remained with the firm until  and subsequently served as consultant until . Throughout that time he was recognized as one of America’s leading statisticians and insurance specialists. After compiling an exceptional library of statistical works and health reports at the Prudential, he analyzed those resources to produce a vast number of authoritative publications on diseases in the United States. Among the most notable were his  study of tuberculosis in the “dusty trades’’ and an extended educational campaign against cancer. After leaving the Prudential, Hoffman remained active in several other fields and avocations. He died in San Diego, California, after a long illness. See also insurance industry

James H. Cassedy

Hoffman, Harold G.

(b. Feb. , ; d.

June , ). Governor, state commissioner,

banker, and military officer. Harold G. Hoffman was born in South Amboy to Frank and Ada (Thom) Hoffman. Educated locally, he graduated from public high school in . As a high school student, Hoffman worked as a local sports reporter and as a stringer for the New York Times. After graduation, he worked as a full-time reporter for the Perth Amboy Evening News, eventually becoming that paper’s sports editor. In , Hoffman enlisted in the Third New Jersey Infantry unit to fight in World War I. He quickly rose through the ranks and was discharged as a captain in July . Back in civilian life, he married Lillie Moss; they had three daughters: Ada, Lillie, and Hope. Hoffman was appointed treasurer of the South Amboy Trust Company and in due course became its executive vice president. Among other positions, Hoffman was also employed as president of the Hoffman-Lehrer Real Estate Corporation and director of the Investor Building and Loan Association. In , Hoffman was chosen as treasurer of South Amboy. He was elected to the New Jersey Assembly in  and . The following year, Hoffman, a Republican, was overwhelmingly elected to a two-year term as mayor of South Amboy, a traditional Democratic stronghold. His electoral success continued in  when he won his bid for Congress from New Jersey’s Third District; he was subsequently reelected in .

Recognized as a rising star in the state’s Republican party, Hoffman was appointed to a four-year term as commissioner of motor vehicles in , a position that served as a launching pad for his  gubernatorial bid. In the crowded Republican primary, Hoffman scored a convincing victory, gathering more votes than his three challengers combined. In the general election, Hoffman defeated Democrat William L. Dill to become New Jersey’s forty-ninth governor. Hoffman’s immediate challenge as governor was to deal with the lingering effects of the Depression. More than a half-million New Jersey residents were directly dependent upon public relief programs. To meet this demand for public service jobs, Hoffman pushed a  percent sales tax through the legislature. This deal was strongly opposed by the emerging reform wing of the Republican party, which capitalized on the public outcry against the tax to force its repeal in October . This defeat, coupled with a series of other missteps, severely hampered Hoffman’s ability to influence state policy throughout the remainder of his term. After leaving office in , Hoffman was appointed director of New Jersey’s Unemployment Compensation Commission (UCC). In , he unsuccessfully ran in the Republican gubernatorial primary. Hoffman’s tenure at the UCC was interrupted from  to , when he took leave to serve in the army. He retired as a colonel and then resumed his position at the UCC. Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll later appointed Hoffman as director of the newly established Division of Employment Services. In March , Gov. Robert Meyner suspended Hoffman from his position amid allegations of financial irregularities. On June , Hoffman died of a heart attack. Later that summer, prosecutors released details of the case against Hoffman, who had embezzled hundreds of thousands of dollars from the South Amboy Trust Company and the Division of Employment Services. Crystal, George. This Republican Hoffman: The Life Story of Harold G. Hoffman, a Modern Fighter. Hoboken: Terminal Printing and Publishing, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Joseph R. Marbach

Hoffmann–La Roche. Fritz Hoffmann began a pharmaceutical firm in Basel, Switzerland, in , naming it after himself and his wife, Adele La Roche. In , the company opened an office in New York City. The New York City division moved to a farm in Nutley in , where it established an independent research facility to develop new drugs. Hoffmann–La Roche became New Jersey’s first major manufacturer of vitamins. In , Tadeus Reichstein led a Swiss research team

in exploring the properties of vitamin C and took out patents for the large-scale production of the vitamin with Hoffmann–La Roche. Reichstein won the Nobel Prize in . By , Hoffmann–La Roche was manufacturing vitamin C by the ton, and was also producing synthetic vitamin B (thiamine) and vitamin B (riboflavin). In  Hoffmann–La Roche began manufacturing synthetic vitamin A. The company developed a new sulfa drug, Gantricin (sulfisoxazole), in . Isoniazid, a new antituberculosis drug codiscovered by Squibb and Hoffmann–La Roche, went into clinical trials in . Pioneering work in psychotropic drugs led to Roche’s introduction of Librium (chlordiazepoxide) in  and Valium (diazepam) in . The Roche Institute of Molecular Biology, charged with research and development, was established in Nutley in . In , Roche acquired Syntex, the manufacturer of the anti-inflammatory Naproxen; today, EC-Naprosyn, which relieves arthritic pain, is one of Hoffmann–La Roche’s best-selling drugs. Another acquisition, Genentech, a leading biotechnology firm, produces human growth hormone (hGH). In  Roche launched Xenical (orlistat), an anti-obesity drug, in the United States. Current research at Roche is geared toward treating AIDS, Parkinson’s disease, and breast cancer, and toward increasing the success rate of transplants. The company conducts a number of initiatives, including the “Medicaid Managed Care Education Program,’’ which educates women living with HIV, and “New Choices, New Responsibilities,’’ which encourages thousands of New Jersey students to explore bioethics issues. Carpenter, Kenneth J. The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Swann, John P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in TwentiethCentury America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Ho-Ho-Kus.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County, situated between the Ho-HoKus Brook and the Saddle River. Although spellings vary, “Ho-Ho-Kus’’ is an adapted form of a Lenape name for the brook. It has been known as Paramus, Hoppertown, New Prospect, Orvil, and Undercliff. The Hopper family was associated with the town’s business center. Albert Zaborowsky (later Zabriskie) was the first European to own property in HoHo-Kus. Other settlers entered the area and a church was established near the site of today’s Old Paramus Church by . Although the early economy was agricultural, the Paramus Post Road was a vital route between New York and Albany. Stagecoaches operated along this route, and

Holland, John P. Ho-Ho-Kus was the first stopover. In  rail service was established along this route and visitors from New York began to build summer homes—the beginnings of the borough’s affluence. Dams were constructed along the brook creating lakes. Water power, recreation, and mill industries flourished. A racetrack and county fairgrounds (–) attracted visitors from around the state. Trolleys connecting Paterson with Suffern, New York, were operated from  through . By the midtwentieth century the small borough had been built out. Today, Ho-Ho-Kus remains an upscale commuter town. The population in  of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ho-Ho-Kus. Ho-Ho-Kus: Ho-Ho-Kus th Anniversary Committee, . Hudson, Sue F. Background of Ho-Ho-Kus History. HoHo-Kus: Women’s Club of Ho-Ho-Kus, .

Timothy S. Corlis

Holderman, Carl

(b. Jan. , ; d. Apr.

, ). Labor leader. Carl Holderman was

born in Hornell, New York, and entered the labor market after two years of high school when he became a messenger for the Erie Railroad. In , after securing employment in the silk industry and its unions, he began his rise. As an organizer for the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), he believed strongly in labor’s role in politics and often appeared before the New Jersey state legislature to express labor’s views on impending bills. In August  Holderman was active in a nationwide strike called by the Textile Workers Organizing Committee of the CIO. He represented , silk mill employees in Paterson and effectively coordinated their strike with other strikes in New England and the South. Conditions and wages in Paterson and elsewhere were deplorable; the nationwide strike resulted in higher wages and better working conditions. By September more than fifty-five thousand laborers returned to work in the mills nationwide. Later, because of his leadership in the silk strike and his increasing influence in the CIO, Holderman was denounced by Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City as a communist. During World War II, Holderman served in a number of war-related capacities. In  he was elected president of the New Jersey Council of the CIO and held that office until  when he became Gov. Robert Meyner’s commissioner of labor. Holderman’s appointment to the governor’s cabinet was controversial, but Meyner remained firm in his commitment. In , not long after taking office, Holderman threatened to stop highway construction when it became apparent that contractors were ignoring the safety of workers. The contractors capitulated, and construction continued. Holderman was serving his second

term in Meyner’s cabinet and lived in Nutley at the time of his death. See also labor movement; silk industry

Robert C. Nelson

Holding Company Act of 1889. Modern corporate law, and the controversies surrounding modern corporate law, were born in New Jersey in . In the half-century before the enactment of the law, some jurisdictions had allowed certain corporations or classes of corporations to hold the stock of other corporations. The Holding Company Act of New Jersey was the first to allow almost every corporation to buy and sell the stock of other corporations, thus allowing virtually all incorporated businesses themselves to be bought and sold. This law thus opened up new possibilities of monopoly, on the one hand, and vertical integration and managerial flexibility, on the other. The New Jersey act had its origins in the needs of the myriad trusts being formed in the late s, which became common in the following years, and in the fertile imaginations of the lawyers for those trusts. The American Cotton Oil Trust instigated the enactment, though lawyers from Sullivan and Cromwell, a prominent firm in New York City, thought up the idea of a holding company to replace the legal device of the trust. Both devices allowed corporate entities to combine their operations under a unified management, but the holding company was a less cumbersome mechanism. The trusts existed because certain industries had huge overcapacities that had made profitable operations impossible. Management wanted to return those industries to profitability by limiting productive capacity, thereby limiting output, causing prices to rise to profitable levels. These activities met the definition of monopoly. The Holding Company Act did not become immediately popular. It took the activities of James B. Dill, a New Jersey lawyer, to popularize the holding company in general and New Jersey’s law in particular. He formed a firm that specialized in incorporating businesses in New Jersey, including businesses that had previously been organized as trusts, which also persuaded corporations and trusts organized under the laws of other jurisdictions to change their jurisdiction of incorporation to New Jersey. New Jersey gained a certain measure of infamy from these reincorporations, becoming known as the home for trusts, shorthand for monopolies. Indeed, the journalist and muckraker Lincoln Steffens, abetted by information provided by Dill himself, guaranteed that the device would be universally known through his writings, most famously exemplified by his article in McClure’s in which he labeled New Jersey a “Traitor State.’’ However New Jersey suffered under that label, the state was willing to do so for a powerful political reason—the fees from incorporation replaced much of the need for New Jersey to tax its

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own citizens. These links between the politics of taxation and the role of monopoly in the American economy, and the resulting perception of a corrupt deal between the legislature and the recipients of corporate charters, ultimately created a large domestic political issue for Gov. Woodrow Wilson, whose presidential race in  had been affected by New Jersey’s reputation. Before becoming president he had persuaded the New Jersey legislature to enact the “Seven Sisters Laws’’ in , which effectively limited the formation of holding companies in New Jersey. Nonetheless, New Jersey repealed the new laws soon thereafter. Meanwhile other states, notably Delaware, had enacted statutes that were modeled on New Jersey’s original law and had then refined those laws. As a result, far fewer businesses chose to incorporate in New Jersey after enactment of the Seven Sisters Laws, many corporations changed their state of incorporation from New Jersey to Delaware or other states with similar laws, and New Jersey incorporation revenues fell. Delaware became the leading jurisdiction for incorporation of large concerns. Lamoreaux, Naomi. The Great Merger Movement in American Business, –. New York: Cambridge University Press, . Winter, Ralph K. “State Law, Shareholder Protection, and the Theory of the Corporation.’’Journal of Legal Studies  (): –.

See also law

Gregory A. Mark

Holland, John P.

(b. Feb. , ; d. Aug.

, ). Inventor. Born in Liscannor, County

Clare, Ireland, to John Holland and Mary Scanlon Holland, John P. Holland and his brothers did not learn English until they were old enough to attend school. The Christian Brothers who educated him encouraged his interest in the sea and science, and he eventually joined the order and became a teacher. However, ill health forced him to resign in . When he sailed for Boston to join his widowed mother and a brother, he carried with him a sketch for his first submarine. In Boston, Holland resumed his affiliation with the Christian Brothers and was assigned as a lay teacher at Saint John’s parochial school in Paterson. He continued to refine his submarine plans, often using the classroom blackboard to work out the mathematics of his projects after the school day had ended. He offered his plans to the Navy Department in , but the plans were rejected, although “praised for ingenuity.’’ On May , , Holland brought his first experimental submarine to the Passaic River in a wagon pulled by sixteen horses. After floating for a few minutes, the four-ton vessel sank to the bottom of the river. Undaunted, he raised it, made repairs, and two weeks later retested it successfully, with the submarine staying submerged for an hour. He then scuttled Boat No.  to keep its secrets from rivals.

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Holland entity in . The boundaries have remained constant since then. Holland’s location along the Delaware River makes for a good site for an electrical generating plant, which is its major industry. Within this township of farms and single residences is the full-scale Voldendam Dutch Windmill, the only authentic working windmill in New Jersey. Holland Township also boasts of the Reigel Ridge complex, a recreational facility, which was built in the s by the Reigel Paper Company for its workers. This beautiful site was a model for corporate social awareness in the United States. Today it is owned by the township. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

John Holland, father of the modern submarine, c. .

Photo: Kathleen W. Perlett. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens Holland was financed by the New Jersey– based Fenian Brotherhood, a militant IrishAmerican group that sought a machine capable of conducting raids against the mighty British Navy. In , Holland married Margaret Foley of Paterson. A year later, the U.S. Navy asked Holland to resubmit his submarine plans and then offered him a contract to build one. The submarine failed because of the navy’s modifications to Holland’s design. To prove his theories were correct, he privately built the Holland VI and launched it successfully in . This first vessel in the American submarine fleet became the prototype for the submarines later built by the United States, Great Britain, Germany, Russia, and Japan. The navy purchased six other submarines from Holland’s company. He quit the submarine business in  and died in obscurity in Newark of pneumonia in .

Holland Tunnel.

The Holland Tunnel crosses the Hudson River between Jersey City and Canal Street in lower Manhattan. Constructed between  and  at a cost of $ million, by New Jersey and New York state commissions working jointly, the tunnel is named for its chief engineer, Clifford Holland, who died before it was completed. Opened in

November , the two-tube vehicular crossing was then the longest underwater tunnel in the world, with its north tube measuring , feet. Finding ways to ventilate automotive exhaust fumes and bring in fresh air was a major challenge; experts from Yale University and the U.S. Bureau of Mines helped design a successful system that was then widely emulated in the United States and beyond. Once opened, the Holland Tunnel attracted thousands of cars and trucks a day, and its tolls generated a large net revenue. Foreseeing the possibility of destructive competition with its own George Washington Bridge, the Port of New York Authority was successful in merging the two agencies and gaining control of Holland Tunnel revenues, which were then used to construct the Lincoln Tunnel, Newark Airport, and other projects. Traffic through the tunnel in  was ,, vehicles. Bard, Erwin W. The Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Doig, Jameson W. Empire on the Hudson: Entrepreneurial Vision and Political Power at the Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Mysak, Joe, with Judith Schiffer. Perpetual Motion. Santa Monica, CA: General Publishing Group, .

See also Port Authority of New York and New Jersey; transportation

Jameson W. Doig

Holly, Henry Hudson (b. ; d. Sept. , ). Architect and author. Descended from

Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Morris, Richard K. John P. Holland, –: Inventor of the Modern Submarine. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, .

See also shipbuilding

Kitta MacPherson

Holland. .-square-mile township located in the northwesterly section of Hunterdon County bounded by the Delaware River on the west, the Musconetcong River on the north, and on the south and east by the township of Alexandria. On April , , Holland was formed by the legislature out of Alexandria Township, and then, on March , , restored it to Alexandria only to re-create it once again on March , . Land was ceded to create Milford Borough as a separate political

Located in West Orange, Glenmont was designed in  by Henry Hudson Holly and was home to Thomas A. Edison from  until his death in .

Courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site, West Orange.

Home News Tribune a prominent Stamford, Connecticut, family, Henry Hudson Holly and his family relocated to New York with his father, William Welles Holly, a New York City alderman in the s. In , Holly was an apprentice to Gervase Wheeler and studied architecture in Europe. At the end of , he was accepted into the new American Institute of Architects. During the s, Holly married Sarah L. Barrow, a writer of children’s books, and published Holly’s Picturesque Country Seats (). This book portrayed his medieval revival architecture and featured a house located near the Morris and Essex Railroad in South Orange. Church Architecture () and Modern Dwellings in Town and Country () followed. His last volume, which included Queen Anne designs, justified the adaptation of European architectural forms to fit an American climate and lifestyle. He wrote, “common sense should be at the base of all true art, as well as of all true living and thinking.’’ During the s, Holly designed three houses in Montclair and Glenmont in Llewellyn Park, which in  would become the home of Thomas A. Edison. In light of his books’ popularity, it is likely that many New Jersey towns contain Holly-inspired houses. Clark, Clifford Edward. The American Family Home, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Holly, Henry Hudson. Holly’s Picturesque Country Seats: A Complete Reprint of the  Classic. New York: Dover, .

See also architecture

Jeanne Kolva

Holmdel.

.-square-mile township in Monmouth County. Holmdel Township was located in the western section of Middletown that was part of the original Monmouth Patent of . It was originally known as Brays Meeting House. Then, in the late s, it was known as Baptisttown because of the large number of Baptist settlers. In the early s, the name Holmdel was given to the area in honor of the Rev. Obadiah Holmes and his descendants, who were influential landowners. In , Holmdel became part of Raritan Township but in , Holmdel separated from Raritan Township and incorporated as a township. There were two major industrial companies in Holmdel during the early twentieth century—Lily Tulip Cup Corporation and Mattel Toys. Both these companies moved out in the s. Today, Holmdel is home to various Lucent Technology sites. In , residential development of vacant land began. By ,  percent of barren land,  percent of agricultural land, and  percent of forest area had been developed. Holmdel Township is a growing, rural-suburban community. The population of Holmdel Township was , in :  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Ceres, Gerald. Holmdel and Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Pleasant

Valley.

Martin, David G. General James Longstreet and His New Jersey Relations. Hightstown: Longstreet Press, .

Barbara Pepe

383

Moore, Wayne D. “Written and Unwritten Constitutional Law in the Founding Period: The Early New Jersey Cases.’’ Constitutional Commentary  (): –. Scott, Austin. “Holmes v. Walton: The Early New Jersey Precedent.’’ American Historical Review , no.  (Apr. ): –.

See also law

Holmes, Asher

(b. Feb. , ; d. June

Wayne D. Moore

, ).

Revolutionary War patriot. Asher Holmes was born on the family farm in Marlboro to Samuel and Huldah (Mott) Holmes. He married Sarah Watson in ; they had four children. In  he joined the Committee of Correspondence and the Committee of Observation and Inspection. Later, he became colonel of the Monmouth County militia and participated in the battles of Germantown, Princeton, Trenton, and Monmouth. He was the first sheriff of Monmouth County after the Revolutionary War and a member of the state legislative council from  to . He died at the family homestead (Old Kentuck) on Pleasant Valley Road in Marlboro. Beekman, George C. Early Dutch Settlers of Monmouth County, New Jersey. . Reprint. New Orleans: Polyanthos, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County New Jersey. . Reprint. Cottonport, LA: Polyanthos, .

See also American Revolution

Nathan Handlin

Holmes v. Walton.

Holmes v. Walton was a court case decided by the New Jersey Supreme Court on September , . In addition to being among the earliest known precedents for judicial review in the United States, the decision offers other important insights into judicial practices at the time. The judges protected judicial processes from a perceived encroachment by the legislature, and they relied on extratextual sources of law to interpret the New Jersey constitution’s most fundamental guarantee. In , the New Jersey legislature had passed a law to discourage and penalize trading with the enemy during the Revolutionary War. Based on this statute, Elisha Walton seized valuable goods in the possession of John Holmes and Solomon Ketcham. The  law allowed either party at the resulting trial to demand “a Jury’’ and required the judge “to proceed in all other Respects’’ as set forth in a “small causes act’’ of . Among other things, that act established procedures for trials by six jurors. The trial court followed those procedures, resulting in a jury verdict in Walton’s favor. On appeal, the justices of the New Jersey Supreme Court reversed this judgment. The available evidence indicates that they interpreted the  New Jersey constitution’s guarantee of “the inestimable right of trial by jury’’ as requiring twelve jurors in cases like Holmes. The legislature apparently acquiesced in this interpretation.

Homasote.

Homasote, a manufacturer of wallboard and building materials, was founded in  by Eugenius H. Outbridge in West Trenton, where it is still based today. Originally called the Agasote Millboard Company, it made fiberboard roof panels for train cars and automobiles. One of its products, known as Homasote, was so successful that the company was renamed for it in . The company now uses as much as  tons of newsprint a day, which is recycled into wallboard products. Homasote products have been used in such diverse places as World War I field hospitals, Adm. Richard Byrd’s Antarctic camps, and sets constructed for MTV.

David A. Norris

Home for Disabled Soldiers.

The New Jersey Home for Disabled Soldiers opened on July , , in Newark, to treat sick and disabled Union Army soldiers who had served in the Civil War. The oldest continuously operating state-founded home for veterans, it antedated the establishment of federal national asylums. In , the home moved to a new, state-built complex in Kearny. In , the facility relocated to Menlo Park, where it now serves as a long-term care facility run by the New Jersey Department of Military and Veterans Affairs. Throughout its history, the home has served sick, injured, homeless, and aged veterans. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Helen E. Sheehan and Richard P. Wedeen

Home News Tribune. Newspaper publisher Hugh Boyd learned the printer’s trade in Belfast before coming to America in  and beginning a family ownership of the Home News of New Brunswick that endured until . Operations were shifted in  from the crowded downtown area to the city’s edge as latter-day Boyds focused attention on booming suburbs and highway shopping centers. Other papers were similarly focused, like the Woodbridge News Tribune, itself a transplant from Perth Amboy. Home News circulation began to slip, from , in  to , nine years later. In  the newspaper was purchased by the Asbury Park Press, Inc. Two years later the Home News was merged with another Asbury Park Press newspaper, the News Tribune, to form the Home News and Tribune, simplified in  to the Home News Tribune. All were acquired in  by the Gannett Company.

384

Homer, Winslow

Kull, Irving Stoddard, ed. New Jersey: A History. Vol. . New York: American Historical Society, . Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Edward A. Jardim

Homer, Winslow

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Sept. , ). Painter. One of America’s finest

artists, Winslow Homer was born in Boston to Charles Savage Homer, a hardware importer, and Henrietta Maria Benson Homer, a watercolor painter. After an apprenticeship to a Boston lithographer, J. H. Bufford, he moved to New York City in , where he studied at the National Academy of Design and with the French painter Frederick Rondel. During the Civil War, Homer served as an artistcorrespondent for Harper’s Weekly in New York and provided lithographs for Louis Prang and Company in Boston. In , he was made a full academician at the National Academy of Design. In , Homer traveled to Paris, where he was exposed to the realism of Gustave Courbet and the bold paintings of Edouard Manet. He returned to the United States before the advent of impressionism in ; yet his later works exhibit many of the light effects of that French art movement. Although he took space in New York’s Tenth Street Studio Building, he made annual summer visits to Lake George and Saratoga as well as to Long Branch, New Jersey. There he produced one of his finest early seascapes, Long Branch, New Jersey (). In , he settled in Cullercoats, a North Sea British village, where he painted watercolors of the hazardous life of the local fishermen. A year later, he returned to the United States, settling in Maine, where he died in . Cikovaky, Nicolai. Winslow Homer. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Barbara J. Mitnick

home rule.

Home rule is the tradition that local governments—county, municipal, and school district—should dominate New Jersey’s political life, be responsible to their respective communities, and be free to act without state interference. Its origins are somewhat obscure but reach back into the colonial period. Contributing to its development were the community-centered philosophies of the Puritans and Presbyterians who settled in East Jersey, and of the Quakers who were prominent in West Jersey. The approach was strengthened by local opposition to rule by the Proprietors and the Crown, and by the fact that townships and counties were the functioning governments of the time: building roads and bridges, caring for the poor, settling disputes, and providing meeting places where public interests and opinions could be expressed.

Embryonic when the nineteenth century began, home rule was well established as political doctrine by century’s end. State government under New Jersey’s  and  constitutions was rarely dynamic. Local governments, by default, were left to meet the challenges of a developing urban-industrial society. Citizens had little faith in the New Jersey legislature, which catered to the railroads, utilities, and industrial magnates, and periodically interfered with city governments for partisan purposes. “Dillon’s Rule,’’ the  judicial doctrine that municipalities are mere creatures of the state legislature, thus did not sell well in New Jersey. Indeed, a series of  amendments to the state constitution were designed primarily to prevent the state from interfering with local institutions and operations. The home rule tradition also became an adjunct to New Jersey’s evolving public school system. Nineteenth-century legislatures allowed communities to establish schools, levy local property taxes for their support, and control them through elected school boards. An  constitutional amendment, declaring that the state legislature should provide for the support of the public schools, did little to counter the ingrained notion that education was a community responsibility and prerogative. Subsequent legislatures unwittingly encouraged school decentralization. An  law, allowing each borough to have its own schools, led to the breakup of many large townships. Twenty-eight new boroughs appeared in Bergen County alone, each with an autonomous school board. The twentieth century witnessed major legal enhancements to the doctrine of home rule. A  law, titled the Home Rule Act, provided broad grants of authority to New Jersey municipalities. (Almost all of the state’s land lies within the boundaries of its  incorporated municipalities.) The  constitution declared that “the provisions of this constitution and of any law concerning municipalities . . . or concerning counties shall be liberally construed in their favor.’’ The Optional Municipal Charter Law of  and the Optional County Charter Law of  give local voters opportunities to change their forms of government. A  constitutional amendment bars state government from “unfunded mandates,’’ that is, those imposing new burdens on local governments and property-tax payers without public hearings and a “threequarters affirmative vote’’ of both houses of the legislature. These legal moves are as much a reflection of New Jersey’s political culture as they are a foundation for its operations. The astute politician quickly learns that tampering with home rule is tantamount to political suicide. Critics argue that the tradition discourages efforts at municipal and school district consolidation, regional planning, and services, and instead promotes expensive and

inefficient government and parochial land use and educational policy. There is, however, little chance of major change so long as home rule retains its present status as untouchable political dogma. Karcher, Alan J. New Jersey’s Multiple Municipal Madness. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Reock, Ernest C., Jr., and Raymond Bodnar. The Changing Structure of New Jersey Municipal Government. Trenton: County and Municipal Government Study Commission, . Wolfe, Albert J. A History of Municipal Government in New Jersey since . Trenton: New Jersey State League of Municipalities, .

See also law; municipal government

Richard J. Connors

Honeywell International. Honeywell International, a multinational industrial conglomerate, was created in  when AlliedSignal in Morristown merged with Honeywell Inc. The origin of Honeywell International dates to  when the Butz ThermoElectric Regulator Company was established to manufacture the forerunner of the thermostat. In , after several name and ownership changes, the firm merged with a Wabash, Indiana, firm, Honeywell Heating Specialties Company, and became the MinneapolisHoneywell Regulator Company. By World War II the company had acquired other related firms, continued producing domestic and industrial control systems, and expanded into defense contracting. After it was renamed Honeywell Inc. in , the firm expanded further, with defense and aerospace subsidiaries becoming major sources of revenue during the s. The Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation was formed in  from five companies by Washington Post publisher Eugene Meyer and scientist William Nichols. Its goal was to challenge German superiority in the chemicals industry. The firm soon became a leading manufacturer of chemicals and, during the Depression of the s, steadily paid dividends to its stockholders. In , renaming itself Allied Chemical Corporation, the firm moved to its Morristown headquarters. Growing primarily through acquisition, it became Allied Corporation in , purchased Bendix, a major aerospace and automotive company in , and became AlliedSignal in  after it merged with the oil- and gas-producing Signal Companies. Honeywell International is headquartered in Morristown on Columbia Turnpike. Producing a vast array of industrial, automotive, aerospace, and chemical products around the world, the firm is one of New Jersey’s top sixty employers. See also aviation industry; chemical industry Elaine L. Schwartz

Hopatcong. .-square-mile borough in Sussex County located on the northwestern

Hopewell Township (Mercer County) shore of Lake Hopatcong, the largest lake in the state. Originally part of Byram Township, Hopatcong seceded and incorporated in  as the Borough of Brooklyn. Three years later the name of the borough was changed to Hopatcong. In  the hamlets of Byram Cove and Northwood were annexed to Hopatcong. Between –, the number of hotels in the borough increased dramatically from three to more than forty. During its heyday as a summer vacation spot in the early twentieth century, Hopatcong hosted many vaudeville and burlesque performers. The borough was also home to the prolific inventor Hudson Maxim during the first quarter of the twentieth century. Tourism declined during the Depression and Second World War and later many vacationers went to the Poconos or the Catskills, rather than staying in New Jersey. In the s and s the borough experienced residential growth and today most residents live in Hopatcong year-round, although there are still summer visitors. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Beck, Henry Charlton. Tales and Towns of Northern New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kane, Martin. Hopatcong: A Century of Memories. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

See also Lake Hopatcong; Maxim, Hudson

Cynthia Hammell

Hopatcong, Lake. Hope.

See Lake Hopatcong

.-square-mile rural township in Warren County, created from parts of Oxford and Knowlton townships in . Initially called Greenland after its first settler, Samuel Green, Jr., a Moravian convert who invited the religious sect onto his lands in , it was renamed after the village of Hope, a former Moravian religious community. The Moravians were in Warren County for thirtynine years, yet left a legacy that has lasted for centuries. Today visitors can see the homes and buildings where the Moravians lived and worked. The gristmill built in – is still standing as well as others in the original or restored state. The village of Hope is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. The township is a mixture of farms and residential housing. In the Mount Hermon area of the township even earlier remains have been discovered. The skeleton of Cervalces scotti, a giant elk-moose that roamed the area during the ice age between ten thousand and seventy thousand years ago, was described by Professor William Scott of Princeton University in . The  census records the population of , as  percent white. Median household

income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . The Moravian Contribution to the Town of Hope. Hope: Hope Historical Society, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Hopewell Borough.

.-square-mile borough in Mercer County. Farms were first established here by Europeans around  along the route linking the Trenton Road with the Lower Millstone Valley. In the mideighteenth century, a village emerged around the intersection of this road with routes leading to Princeton and over Sourland Mountain. The Hopewell Baptist Church, led by Daniel Eaton, underpinned the village’s development in the s and s through its establishment of a school, parsonage farm, and meeting house, and the community was known primarily as Hopewell Meeting House into the early nineteenth century. The Hopewell Baptist Academy (–) was the first Baptist secondary school in America and the forerunner of Brown University. A prominent resident during the American Revolution was John Hart, a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Hart’s home stands on Hart Avenue. In the early nineteenth century, expansion of the village, known dually as Columbia and Hopewell, was sustained by the Franklin and Georgetown Turnpike, laid out around . From the s, as the name Hopewell gained primacy, the railroads prompted intensified growth, which led to the village’s incorporation in . Residential expansion continued through the twentieth century and the village today is characterized chiefly by late nineteenth- and twentieth-century singlefamily homes, a few older dwellings, and several community, commercial, and industrial premises, mostly along the main streets and rail corridor. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hunter, Richard W., and Richard L. Porter. Hopewell: A Historical Geography. Titusville: Hopewell Township, . Lewis, Alice B. Hopewell Valley Heritage. Hopewell: Hopewell Museum, . Seabrook, Jack, and Lorraine Seabrook. Hopewell Valley. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Richard W. Hunter

Hopewell Township (Cumberland County). -square-mile municipality in the western part of the county. The Cohansey River forms the eastern and southern border of the township; it is part of the Delaware River watershed. In , Hopewell celebrated the th anniversary of its formation as a precinct of Cumberland County on January , . John Hart, perhaps the township’s most famous native son (born here in

385

), was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. By the mid-nineteenth century, observers found Hopewell to be distinguished by “fine agricultural soil, covered with well-tilled farms, and neat and commodious residences.’’ Into the twentieth century, the township remained agricultural, with peach orchards and nurseries predominating. By , there was a growing business and commercial base centered along Route , Shiloh Pike, and much of the land had been developed for residential use. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Hopewell Township: A Brief Early History. Hopewell: Hopewell Township Committee, . Horner, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Burt Doremus

Hopewell County).

Township

(Mercer

.-square-mile township. The township has been part of Burlington, Hunterdon, and now Mercer counties. It was incorporated by royal charter in . Farms were first established around  within a ,-acre tract acquired by Daniel Coxe, a governor of West Jersey. English settlers dominated initially, relocating mostly from East Jersey, Long Island, and the lower Delaware Valley. Farmers of Dutch, Huguenot, German, Scots-Irish, Irish, and Scottish descent also settled here in colonial times, providing a culturally mixed agrarian base that persisted into the early twentieth century. By the mid-eighteenth century villages like Pennington and Hopewell had emerged at key road intersections in the rural landscape. More than twenty water-powered mills throughout the township supported agricultural processing and also helped to spur village growth. Settlement in the western section of the township was influenced by the Delaware River. During the Revolutionary War the township was crisscrossed by American and British forces. In the s, the construction of the Delaware and Raritan Feeder Canal stimulated the growth of Titusville and Bernardsville (today’s Washington Crossing). Twenty years later, the coal-carrying Belvidere Delaware Railroad was built alongside the canal. In the s, the Mercer and Somerset and the Delaware and Bound Brook, two rail lines vying to link Philadelphia and New York, were built across the midsection of the township. These railroads fostered industrial development, village growth, and the emergence of a commuter population. In the early twentieth century the automobile ushered in full-blown suburban development, a trend that has continued to the present day.

386

Hopkins, Alison Low Turnbull

In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ege, Ralph. Pioneers of Old Hopewell. Hopewell: Race and Savidge, . Hunter, Richard W., and Richard L. Porter. Hopewell: A Historical Geography. Titusville: Hopewell Township, . Lewis, Alice B. Hopewell Valley Heritage. Hopewell: Hopewell Museum, . Seabrook, Jack, and Lorraine Seabrook. Hopewell Valley. Charleston: Arcadia, .

Richard W. Hunter

Hopkins, Alison Low Turnbull

(b.

May , ; d. Mar. , ). Suffragist. Alison

Turnbull was raised in Morristown and lived there also after her marriage to New York insurance executive, John A. H. Hopkins. She was active in Morristown social and charitable affairs and executive chairwoman of the State Charities Aid Society, but by  she committed herself fully to the woman suffrage movement. When the congressional committee of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) split away to become the independent and more militant Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage (CU), Hopkins became a member of its executive committee. The CU, led by New Jerseyan Alice Paul, was a small, Washington-based group devoted to lobbying for a woman suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Early in , Hopkins became the president of the New Jersey branch of the CU. After the failure of the  New Jersey woman suffrage referendum, the NJCU merged with the National Women’s Party (NWP), and Hopkins was elected to the NWP executive board. Hopkins was part of the

Alison Hopkins.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

NWP’s inner circle and in early  joined picketers outside the White House in Washington on behalf of the suffragist cause. On Bastille Day, July , , women walked two by two carrying signs that read “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity’’ and “How Long Must Women Wait for Liberty?’’ to the White House gates; sixteen leaders, including Hopkins, were arrested for unlawful assembly and sentenced to sixty days in the Occoquan Workhouse in Maryland. Appalled by prison conditions, Hopkins’s husband protested to President Woodrow Wilson, and Hopkins was released after three days. She used her arrest and her pardon to further the cause and, by herself, stood at the White House gates. She continued to work for suffrage until both houses of Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment, then spearheaded NWP lobbying efforts on behalf of ratification by the New Jersey state legislature in February . Hopkins continued to live at Featherleigh Farms in Morristown until the house was destroyed by fire in . Sometime after she was divorced in , she moved to New York City. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Janet Frances Gibbs

Hopkinson, Francis (b. Oct. , ; May , ). Lawyer, judge, and musician. Francis

Hopkinson was born in Philadelphia, the son of Thomas Hopkinson and Mary Johnson. He attended the College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania), graduating in its first class in , and then studied law. As a young man he engaged in both mercantile and legal business and also served as a customs collector. In  Hopkinson married Ann Borden of Bordentown, where they moved about five years later. His father was prominent in Pennsylvania politics, hers in New Jersey business. A trip to England led to acquaintance with important figures there. The convergence of political connections led to an appointment to the Royal Council of New Jersey in , but Hopkinson soon resigned, having become a strong Whig supporter of the American Revolution. He represented New Jersey in the Second Continental Congress, signed the Declaration of Independence, and helped draft the Articles of Confederation. Hopkinson later returned to Pennsylvania where he served first as a judge on the state admiralty court and then on the U.S. District Court for eastern Pennsylvania. Besides a political and legal career Hopkinson is remembered for his paintings and music, as well as prose and poetry writings. He drew portraits, including at least one of himself, played both the organ and harpsichord, and collected anthems and hymns. His “My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free’’() is regarded as the first secular song composed by an American. Hopkinson used his skill with the pen to write a number of satires poking

Robert Edge Pine, Francis Hopkinson, n.d. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection, Atwater Kent Museum of Philadelphia.

fun at the British, and at times he combined this with his talent as a musician. One of his efforts, popular among patriots during the Revolution, is “The Battle of the Kegs’’ (). It described the British “in a fright’’ frantically firing at kegs, which the soldiers were convinced contained some new rebel weapon, as they floated down the Delaware River toward Philadelphia. One stanza reported: The cannons roar from shore to shore, The small arms make a rattle; Since wars began I’m sure no man E’er saw so strange a battle. Later a Federalist supporter of the new Constitution and involved in plans for a parade in Philadelphia to celebrate its ratification, he authored “The New Roof,’’ an allegory comparing the document to a building that did not leak, and also set that to music. Hopkinson clearly used his literary talents for political purposes, first to gain support for the Revolution and then for the Federalists. A truly versatile man, Hopkinson also helped design the seal of the state of New Jersey, as well as other government seals, and claimed credit for the American flag—the one that first had alternating red and white stripes and a field of blue stars. Interested in science and mathematics, he corresponded with Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Rush about many topics. Rush described him as a “little below the common size’’ but important for “the irresistible influence of the ridicule which he poured forth from time to time, upon the enemies of those great events.’’ Hastings, George. The Life and Works of Francis Hopkinson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .

horse Sonneck, Oscar G. T. Francis Hopkinson: The First American Poet-Composer, – and James Lyon, Patriot, Preacher, Psalmodist, –. . Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, .

Finkelman, Paul, ed. Slavery and the Law. Madison, WI: Madison House, .

Whitney, David C., ed. Founders of Freedom: Lives of the Men Who Signed the Declaration of Independence. Chicago: J. G. Ferguson, .

Paul Axel Lute

Williams, Earl P., Jr. “The ‘Fancy Work’ of Francis Hopkinson: Did He Design the Stars and Stripes?’’ Prologue: Quarterly of the National Archives , no.  (spring ): –.

See also American Revolution

Maxine N. Lurie

Hornblower, Joseph Coerten

(b.

May , ; d. June , ). Lawyer and judge.

Born in Belleville, Joseph Hornblower was the youngest child of Josiah Hornblower and Elizabeth Kingsland. He studied law in the office of David B. Ogden in Newark. In , he was admitted to the bar and married Mary Burnet, by whom he had eight children. His first wife died in , and Hornblower married Mary Ann Kinney in . He taught law briefly at Princeton, was a delegate to the New Jersey Constitutional Convention of , the first president of the New Jersey Historical Society, and a founding member of the American Bible Society. Hornblower, who served as chief justice of New Jersey from  until , is known for his decision in the case of State v. Sheriff of Burlington (). Hornblower’s decision freed an alleged fugitive slave on the grounds that the New Jersey law under which the supposed owner was claiming him was unconstitutional because it did not allow for trial by jury. Hornblower’s opinion also argued that the federal Fugitive Slave Act of  was beyond the powers of Congress to enact. Ernst, Daniel R. “Legal Positivism, Abolitionist Litigation, and the New Jersey Slave Case of .’’ Law and History Review  (): –.

See also slavery

Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey. Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey (BCBSNJ), a not-for-profit organization headquartered in Newark, is the state’s largest health insurer. Horizon BCBSNJ traces its roots to  when, as Associated Hospitals of Essex County, it offered the first multihospital, prepayment system in the country. Its logo was a blue cross. The organization laid the cornerstone for the health insurance industry as we now know it. In , the Medical Surgical Plan of New Jersey, symbolized by a blue shield, was created specifically to cover medical and surgical services. Blue Cross introduced the first health maintenance organization in New Jersey in . Blue Cross and Blue Shield merged in . Until , BCBSNJ served as New Jersey’s “insurer of last resort’’ in the individual market, which means the company provided health care coverage for anyone regardless of medical condition. Legislation was enacted that same year to reform the individual health care coverage market, requiring all health coverage carriers in New Jersey to share in the individual market. Over the years, the organization has produced a complete managed-care strategy. It created hospital, dental, pharmacy, and physician networks, and introduced HMO Blue (now Horizon HMO) as its premier managedcare coverage. BCBSNJ’s managed-care programs feature one of the largest networks of hospitals and physicians in the state, managed dental and prescription benefit programs, and strategic partnerships with other leading organizations to ensure comprehensive support for its managed-care programs. In , the company adopted a new name and logo—Horizon Blue Cross Blue Shield of New Jersey—to create a unified brand identity for its subsidiaries and expanded operations. These include Horizon HMO, Horizon Healthcare Dental Services, Horizon Healthcare Insurance Agency, Horizon Casualty Services, Horizon POS (Point of Service), Horizon PPO (Preferred Provider Organization), Horizon Direct Access (Open Access), Horizon MSA (Medical Savings Account), Traditional Indemnity Plans, and Magellan Behavioral Health. Horizon Blue Cross Blue Shield of New Jersey provides health care coverage for over . million people. The company has annual revenues of over $. billion and employs about , people. See also insurance industry

Stephen Maynard Joseph C. Hornblower, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

horse. The horse was named the official state animal in . Horses have played a key

387

role in the history of New Jersey, and the state’s equine industry continues to thrive. The industry is invaluable in retaining open agricultural acreage in the most densely populated state in the nation. The equine industry ranks third in the state’s agricultural economy, contributing $ million annually to the total gross product. New Jersey has been long recognized as one of the nation’s most sophisticated equine industry states. It has more horses per square mile than any other state, and offers unusually varied opportunities for people interested in horses. The  Equine Survey, commissioned by the New Jersey Department of Agriculture, estimated the value of horses and horse-related assets to be $. billion. In  New Jersey had , equine animals housed in , facilities located on , acres. These figures are lower than in , partly because of social and economic pressures, including restrictive zoning, land-use and waste management, loss of trails, high property and labor costs, and animal welfare issues. Monmouth County ranks first in number of horses, value of equine inventory, and number of equine facilities. Of the $ million spent in New Jersey in , $ million was by racetracks, $ million by New Jersey owners and operators, and $ million by out-of-state owners and operators. Major expenditures included labor, animal purchases, boarding of animals, feed, and bedding. The horse industry employs , people. The  state equine survey listed , racing horses—standardbreds for harness racing and thoroughbreds for flat racing— or  percent of the total; , nonracing horses ( percent); , ponies ( percent); and  donkeys and mules ( percent). Both standardbred and thoroughbred racing have long and prestigious histories in the Garden State. The first parimutuel racetrack in New Jersey, Freehold Raceway, featured harness racing in . The development of the New Jersey Sire Stakes program in , which raised the purse structure for harness horses bred, trained, and raced in the state, increased the quantity and quality of standardbreds. Harness racing currently dominates racing in the state. Most competitive and highquality standardbred racing in the world is featured at the Meadowlands Racetrack, which opened its doors to the public in . The Meadowlands Racetrack and Monmouth Park are owned by the state and operated by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority. The Meadowlands is home to the Hambletonian (harness racing’s premier race for three-year-old trotters), and Monmouth Park is home to the Haskell for thoroughbred horses. Both events offer purses in excess of one million dollars. New Jersey has also long been a center for horses in nonracing sport and recreation. The United States Equestrian Team (USET) has its headquarters at Hamilton Farm in Gladstone.

388

horseshoe crab

The USET is the nonprofit organization that selects, trains, equips, finances, and promotes equestrians at the highest possible standard to represent the United States in international competition, including the Olympic Games. In  the -acre Horse Park of New Jersey at Stone Tavern was incorporated. This park, created through public and private partnership, recognizes the importance of the horse industry and demonstrates the state’s commitment to it. Rutgers University’s Equine Science Center, which houses the nation’s largest faculty at a land-grant institution that has no veterinary school, concentrates on ensuring the vitality and viability of the New Jersey horse industry, and conducts preventive research to give horses and equestrians a high quality of life and performance. Zatz, Arline. Horsing Around in New Jersey: The Horse Lover’s Guide to Everything Equine. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Karyn Malinowski

horseshoe crab.

Even though horseshoe crabs breed from Maine to Yucatan along the Atlantic Coast, the largest concentration breed along Delaware Bay and the New Jersey Shore. Horseshoe crabs are not true crabs; they are arthropods, along with insects, spiders, scorpions, and true crabs. Most crabs have five pairs of legs, whereas horseshoe crabs have seven under their shell, which is called a carapace. Horseshoe crabs have a deep brown, dome-shaped bell, with a long spike protruding from the rear, and they derive their name from the horseshoe-shaped rim along the front of their shell. They are called living fossils because they have remained on Earth relatively unchanged for  million years. Many species of horseshoe crabs once roamed the ancient seas, but only four species remain today, and three of these breed in the Far East. During most of the year, horseshoe crabs travel along the bottom of the sea just off the coasts; in the winter they lie half-buried in the mud, hibernating until spring. The massing of horseshoe crabs for breeding is one of the truly spectacular natural events in New Jersey, or indeed along the entire Atlantic Coast. From late April to early June, thousands of females gather in the shallow offshore waters along beaches and backbays, pursued by males churning in the water. The females release a pheromone that may attract up to eight or ten males. As late May approaches, the females come ashore in the surf during high tides to dig up their nests in the sand and lay up to twenty thousand eggs at the high tide line. A male clinging to her back deposits sperm as the eggs are laid. The eggs, deposited in an eight-inch-deep hole, look like little bits of slightly green or opaque tapioca, and those that are uncovered by other digging females drift to the surface and form thick windrows of eggs. This massive food supply attracts over a million shorebirds from mid-May to early June, the largest spring concentration

in the United States. Females can lay several times, and may lay up to eighty thousand eggs a season. With the receding tide, some are stranded, and each year up to  percent of the females die along the shore. In thirty days the eggs hatch, the tiny larvae dig their way out of the sand and begin to search the bottom of the bay for worms and other food. The young crabs molt frequently, and their dried shells can often be found along Jersey beaches. Males reach sexual maturity when nine years old, but females require ten years. Females are as much as  percent larger than males and weigh four to six pounds. Adult crabs were used as fertilizer by the American Indians, and today are used as bait for catching eels and conch, and in medicines. They are model animals for the study of eyes, and the chitin shell has been used to make chitin filament for suturing wounds, which enhances healing by  to  percent. Their most important medical contribution is Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate, a clotting agent that is derived from the crabs’ copper-based blood and produced by many companies in Cape May. Only females can be used for this operation, but they are released unharmed within a few hours. Their populations, however, are threatened by commercial fishing interests, toxic chemicals, and by oil spills in Delaware Bay. Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Joanna Burger

hospitals and hospital systems. Health care was rudimentary in eighteenthand nineteenth-century New Jersey. Individuals were more often cared for at home using

folk remedies than treated by physicians, who were scarce and resorted to only by the sickest of patients. During the Revolutionary War, military hospitals were established to care for sick and wounded soldiers. There were general military hospitals at Hackensack, Newark, Morristown, Princeton, Trenton, and Middlebrook (Bound Brook). Flying hospitals (mobile units), regimental hospitals, and various improvisations were located in Fort Lee, Paramus, Mendham, Basking Ridge, Pluckemin, Elizabethtown, Perth Amboy, New Brunswick, Piscataway, Somerset Court House (Millstone), Westfield, Burlington, and Bordentown. Depending on need, these facilities were staffed or abandoned, with the injured moved to other locations. But New Jersey had no permanent hospitals before , when the Sisters of the Poor of Saint Francis founded Saint Mary’s Hospital in Hoboken. A number of New Jersey cities attempted to establish hospital facilities during the s, but without much success. Some, such as Newark and Jersey City, established city dispensaries that catered to the needs of the sick-poor. Middle-class and upper-class New Jerseyans relied on private physicians and home nursing care. The first city hospital was Jersey City Hospital, established . Private hospitals, many of them sectarian, were founded during the same period, often beginning as dispensaries: Saint Barnabas Hospital (), Saint Joseph’s Hospital in Paterson (), Saint Francis Hospital in Jersey City (), German Hospital, now Clara Maass Medical Center, in Belleville (), Paterson General Hospital (), and Orange Memorial Hospital (). These early hospitals were all established in four counties—Hudson,

Hackensack Hospital (now Hackensack University Medical Center), Hackensack, c. .

Courtesy Hackensack University Medical Center.

hospitals and hospital systems

389

Hospitals in New Jersey, 2000 (Hospitals are listed alphabetically within county.) Atlantic

Essex

. Atlantic City Medical Center–City Division, Atlantic City . Atlantic City Medical Center–Mainland Division, Pomona . Bacharach Institute for Rehabilitation, Pomona . Shore Memorial Hospital, Somers Point . William B. Kessler Memorial Hospital, Hammonton

. . . . . . .

Bergen . Bergen Regional Medical Center, Paramus . Christian Health Care Center, Wyckoff . Englewood Hospital and Medical Center, Englewood . Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack . Holy Name Hospital, Teaneck . Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation– Kessler North, Saddle Brook . Pascack Valley Hospital, Westwood . The Valley Hospital, Ridgewood Burlington . Deborah Heart and Lung Center, Browns Mills . Hampton Behavioral Health Center, Westampton . Lourdes Medical Center of Burlington County, Willingboro . Virtua Memorial Hospital–Burlington County, Mount Holly . Virtua West Jersey Hospital–Marlton, Marlton . Voorhees Pediatric Rehabilitation Hospital, Marlton Camden . Ancora Psychiatric Hospital, Ancora . Cooper University Hospital, Camden . Kennedy Memorial Hospital–Cherry Hill Division, Cherry Hill . Kennedy Memorial Hospital–Stratford Division, Stratford . Our Lady of Lourdes Medical Center, Camden . Virtua West Jersey Hospital–Berlin, Berlin . Virtua West Jersey Hospital–Camden, Camden . Virtua West Jersey Hospital–Voorhees, Voorhees Cape May . Burdette Tomlin Memorial Hospital, Cape May Court House Cumberland . South Jersey Bridgeton . South Jersey Millville

Healthcare–Bridgeton, Healthcare–Millville,

. . . . . . . .

Clara Maass Medical Center, Belleville Columbus Hospital, Newark East Orange General Hospital, East Orange Essex County Hospital Center, Cedar Grove Hospital Center at Orange, Orange Irvington General Hospital, Irvington Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation– Kessler East, East Orange Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation– Kessler West, West Orange Mountainside Hospital, Montclair Newark Beth Israel Medical Center, Newark Saint Barnabas Medical Center, Livingston Saint James Hospital, Newark Saint Michael’s Medical Center, Newark University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–University Hospital, Newark Veteran Affairs Medical Center (East Orange), East Orange

Gloucester . Kennedy Memorial Hospital—Washington Township, Turnersville . Underwood-Memorial Hospital, Woodbury Hudson . . . . . . . . .

Bayonne Hospital, Bayonne Christ Hospital, Jersey City Greenville Hospital, Jersey City Jersey City Medical Center, Jersey City Meadowlands Hospital Medical Center, Secaucus Palisades Medical Center, North Bergen Saint Francis Hospital, Jersey City Saint Mary Hospital, Hoboken West Hudson Hospital, Kearny

Hunterdon . Hunterdon Medical Center, Flemington . Senator Garrett W. Hagedorn GeroPsychiatric Hospital, Glen Gardner Mercer . Capital Health System–Fuld Campus, Trenton . Capital Health System–Mercer Campus, Trenton . Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital at Hamilton, Hamilton . Saint Francis Medical Center, Trenton . Saint Lawrence Rehabilitation Center, Lawrenceville . Trenton Psychiatric Hospital, West Trenton . University Medical Center at Princeton, Princeton Middlesex . JFK Medical Center, Edison . JFK Medical Center–Johnson Rehabilitation Institute, Edison

. Raritan Bay Medical Center, Perth Amboy . Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, New Brunswick . Saint Peter’s University Hospital, New Brunswick . University Behavioral HealthCare, Piscataway Monmouth . Bayshore Community Hospital, Holmdel . CentraState Healthcare System, Freehold . Meridian Hospitals–Jersey Shore Medical Center Division, Neptune . Meridian Hospitals–Riverview Medical Center Division, Red Bank . Monmouth Medical Center, Long Branch . Patterson Army Community Hospital, Fort Monmouth Morris . The Atlantic Rehabilitation Institute, Morristown . Chilton Memorial Hospital, Pompton Plains . Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital, Greystone Park . Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation– Kessler Welkind, Chester . Morristown Memorial Hospital, Morristown . Saint Clare’s Hospital–Boonton, Boonton . Saint Clare’s Hospital–Denville, Denville . Saint Clare’s Hospital–Dover, Dover Ocean . Community Medical Center, Toms River . HealthSouth Rehabilitation Hospital of Tom’s River, Toms River . Kimball Medical Center, Lakewood . Ocean Medical Center, Brick . Saint Barnabas Behavioral Health Center, Toms River . Southern Ocean County Hospital, Manahawkin Passaic . Barnert Hospital, Paterson . The General Hospital Center at Passaic, Passaic . Passaic Beth Israel Hospital, Passaic . Saint Joseph’s Hospital—Wayne, Wayne . Saint Joseph’s Regional Medical Center, Paterson . Saint Mary’s Hospital–Passaic, Passaic Salem . The Memorial Hospital of Salem County, Salem . South Jersey Healthcare–Elmer, Elmer Somerset . Carrier Clinic, Belle Mead . Matheny School and Hospital, Peapack . Somerset Medical Center, Somerville

390

hospitals and hospital systems

Hospitals in New Jersey, 2000 (Hospitals are listed alphabetically within county.) (continued) . Muhlenberg Regional Medical Center, Plainfield . Overlook Hospital, Summit . Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital at Rahway . Runnells Specialized Hospital, Berkeley Heights . Summit Hospital, Summit . Trinitas Hospital–Jersey Street Campus, Elizabeth

. Veteran Affairs Medical Center (Lyons), Lyons Sussex . Newton Memorial Hospital, Newton . Saint Clare’s Hospital–Sussex, Sussex Union . Children’s Specialized Hospital, Mountainside

. Trinitas Hospital–Williamson Campus, Elizabeth . Union Hospital, Union

Street

Warren . Hackettstown Community Hackettstown . Warren Hospital, Phillipsburg

Hospital,

Source: Data adapted from the New Jersey Hospital Association’s Web site: http://www.njha.com.

HOSPITALS

105

SUSSEX

104

PASSAIC 12

79

MORRIS

WARREN

83

85

115

84 80

81 82 78 116

106 110 114 107 UNION 109 111

101 58

112

103

SOMERSET

HUNTERDON

66 67

102

57

11 13 BERGEN 92 6 97 95 93 94 10 96 8 9 7 41 39 34 ESSEX 55 31 56 54 HUDSON 36

68

51

49 52 50 53

32 40 43 42 44

108 113

33 35 38 37 45

71

100

69 70

61

75

MIDDLESEX

64

72 77

MONMOUTH

MERCER 59 63 60 65

48

76

73

62

74 88

16

89

17

OCEAN

14 21 26 24

CAMDEN 22

47

18 19

27

GLOUCESTER

86 90 87

BURLINGTON

23

15 25

46 20

98

91

5

SALEM 99

ATLANTIC 3 30

29

2 1

CUMBERLAND

4 N

CAPE MAY 28

0

20 miles

Source: Karen Reeds' "A State of Health" © Rutgers, The State University of NJ

Essex, Passaic, and Mercer. Newark City Hospital was not founded until . During the period –, Camden, Union, Burlington, and Middlesex counties established their first hospitals, and by the end of the nineteenth century, hospitals had been founded in the rural counties of Sussex, Warren, Hunterdon, Ocean, Cape May, Gloucester, and Salem. While general hospitals developed slowly following the Civil War, New Jersey established its first psychiatric hospital much earlier. Due to the efforts of nursing reformer Dorothea Lynde Dix, the New Jersey legislature established the New Jersey Lunatic Asylum in  at Trenton. The mentally disabled were previously confined to almshouses and jails. Additional state hospitals for the mentally disabled followed: Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital in Morris Plains (), Marlboro Psychiatric Hospital in Monmouth County (), and Ancora Psychiatric Hospital in Camden County (). Following the establishment of Trenton Psychiatric Hospital, county governments determined there was insufficient care of the mentally disabled and began founding county hospitals. Essex County first established an asylum in rented quarters in Newark, later moving to Verona and building Overbrook Hospital in . Other counties soon followed suit. New Jersey hospitals during the twentieth century saw tremendous growth as their numbers increased and the quality of services expanded. Specialized hospitals were founded to provide health care for infectious diseases, rehabilitation, children’s services, and cancer treatment. Level I trauma centers were created at Newark’s University Hospital, New Brunswick’s Robert Wood Johnson University Medical Center, and Camden’s Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center. A late twentieth-century development was the change from traditional insurance policies to managed care contracts, which forced many independent hospitals to join together and form large health-care systems. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Cowen, David L. Medicine in Revolutionary New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Persing, Virginia. Celebrating Innovative Leadership in Healthcare: Honoring the Vision to Serve the Community and Its People with Commitment, Compassion,

Howell, Richard

391

ers’ first sales and building operations center was located in Toms River. Initially, the Hovnanians concentrated on building inexpensive, single-family homes; by , however, the firm had begun to focus on condominiums, a relatively new concept. In  and , Kevork’s brothers left to form their own building companies. Led by Kevork Hovnanian, Hovnanian Enterprises expanded to Florida, Texas, Georgia, and Pennsylvania during the s. In , the firm offered for sale its first large development for more affluent consumers with four- and five-bedroom homes on three-quarter acre lots in Monmouth County. Having become a publicly owned corporation in , Hovnanian Enterprises trades on the New York Stock Exchange. Its business is primarily the design, construction, marketing, and financing of single-family homes, and townhouses and condominiums in planned residential communities in eleven states. Headquartered in Red Bank, with about  employees, it is the largest homebuilder in New Jersey. Ara Hovnanian, the son of its founder, is its president and CEO.

Hackensack University Medical Center, Hackensack, c. .

Courtesy Hackensack University Medical Center.

Elaine L. Schwartz and Quality Care. Chatsworth, CA: Published in cooperation with the New Jersey Hospital Association by Windsor Publications, . Reeds, Karen. A State of Health: New Jersey’s Medical Heritage. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also medicine and public health; mental hospitals

Lois R. Densky-Wolff

house sparrow.

Throughout the year, the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) is a common and widely distributed species in New Jersey. It is native to the Old World (known there as the English sparrow) but was introduced into the New York metropolitan area in the early s. It nests in a wide variety of natural or artificial cavities (e.g., in trees, buildings, birdhouses). As an aggressive nester it takes over nest cavities of various native birds, including bluebirds and house wrens. The sparrow usually has three to seven eggs per clutch, with two broods per year. In fall and winter, large numbers gather at evening roosts in cities.

Leck, Charles F. The Status and Distribution of New Jersey’s Birds. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds

Charles F. Leck

Houston,

Whitney

Elizabeth

(b. Aug. , ). Singer, actress, and model.

Born in East Orange to a musical family, Whitney Houston is one of the most important vocalists active in popular music, a true “pop diva.’’ Her mother, Emily “Cissy’’ Drinkard, was a gospel/soul singer and minister of music at New Hope Baptist Church, and her cousin,

Dionne Warwick, was an international pop star. Whitney Houston married rap performer Bobbie Brown in ; their daughter, Bobbi Kristina, was born in . Beginning in , Houston modeled for national magazines, including Seventeen and Glamour. She appeared on television in the early s on Silver Spoons, Gimme a Break, and As the World Turns. Clive Davis signed her to Arista Records in  and has managed her career since that time. Her recorded albums are Whitney Houston (), Whitney (), I’m Your Baby Tonight (), The Bodyguard (), Waiting to Exhale (), The Preacher’s Wife (), My Love Is Your Love (), and Whitney: The Greatest Hits (). She has had important roles in the films The Bodyguard (), Waiting to Exhale (), The Preacher’s Wife (), and Cinderella (). Ever since the release of her first album, Houston has enjoyed international popularity. She has won numerous awards, including six Grammys since , and has achieved record-breaking sales of several albums and singles. She founded the Whitney Houston Foundation for Children and actively pursues charitable work both in Newark and the international community. Ammons, Kevin, and Nancy Bacon. Good Girl, Bad Girl: An Insider’s Biography of Whitney Houston. Secaucus: Birch Lane Press, Carol Publishing Group, . Savage, Jeff. Whitney Houston. Parsippany: Dillon Press, .

See also pop music

Roger H. Wesby

Hovnanian Enterprises.

Originally Hovnanian Brothers, Hovnanian Enterprises was established in  by Kevork Hovnanian and his three younger brothers, emigrants fleeing the Iraqi Revolution of . The broth-

Howarth, Ellen Clementine (b. May , ; d. Dec. , ). Poet. Born in Cooperstown, New York, to a family in near poverty, Ellen Howarth was forced to leave school at age seven and work in a factory. In , she married Joseph Howarth, a printer, and moved to Trenton. She began contributing poems to local magazines and eventually gained a national audience for her Civil War–era verses, many of which were set to music. Her best known poems are “Tis But a Little Faded Flower,’’ and “Thou Wilt Never Grow Old.’’ A collection, Poems, was published in . Musgrove, Eugene R. Poems of New Jersey. New York: Gregg Publishing, .

See also poetry

James F. Broderick

Howell, Richard (b. Oct. , ; d. Apr. , ). Governor and soldier. Richard Howell was the son of Ebenezer Howell and Sarah Bond. He became an attorney in . During the Revolutionary War he served in the New Jersey Brigade and saw action in the Canadian campaign of  and the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth. He resigned his commission as major in  and then briefly did intelligence work for Gen. George Washington. Howell married Keziah Burr in . A resident of Trenton, he practiced law after the war. Howell, elected to nine one-year terms, served as governor from  to . He led the New Jersey militia into western Pennsylvania during the Whiskey Rebellion of . Although a staunch Federalist, Howell had broad popular appeal. Pasler, Rudolph J., and Margaret C. Pasler The New Jersey Federalists. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

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Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Harry M. Ward

Howell. .-square-mile township in Monmouth County. Howell was named for Gov. Richard Howell in  when it separated from Shrewsbury Township. Splits into Brick, Lakewood, and Wall townships and Farmingdale Borough between  and  decreased the original land area. Within the township, bog iron furnaces (Williamsburg Forge, Monmouth Furnace, Howell Works— successive ventures that are now part of Allaire State Park) manufactured charcoal. The  discovery of marl, a greensand fertilizer, boosted the land’s fertility for farming and provided a marketable product. Other early industries include cranberry harvesting, a drumhead factory, blasting powder manufacturing, and a brickyard. The tuberculosis Preventorium, operated by the states of New Jersey and New York for fifty years, moved to the township from Lakewood in ; the buildings are now the municipal offices. Large Jewish, Russian Orthodox, and Buddhist Kalmuk communities live mostly in the West Farms and Freewood Acres sections. In  the state bought the Jewish Community Center and surrounding homesites for the -acre Manasquan Reservoir created in . By , the formerly rural township was  percent residential. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Donahay, Alma. History of Howell. Adelphia: Howell Historical Society and Committee, . Dubrovsky, Gertrude Wishnick. The Land Was Theirs: Jewish Farmers in the Garden State. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, . Navarra, Tova. Howell and Farmingdale: A Social and Cultural History. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Susan Hamburger

Huddy, Joshua

(b. Sept. , ; d. Apr. ,

). Tavern keeper and Revolutionary War

soldier. Joshua Huddy was born in Salem, the oldest of seven brothers and the grandson of Col. Hugh Huddy, a judge from Bergen County. He was married twice: first to the widow Mary Borden around , and then in  to the widow Catherine Applegate Hart. Huddy was a resident of Colts Neck; his home was located on what is now the intersection of Hyler’s Mill Road and Route . In , Huddy joined the New Jersey militia and was appointed captain of artillery in , a one-year appointment. On July , , he joined the Essex County militia and served under Col. Asher Holmes at the battles of Haddonfield and Monmouth. From March to

December , he served as a captain in the Monmouth County militia. With help from a petition to Congress by residents of Monmouth County, Huddy was given command of the Toms River blockhouse on February , . Built five years earlier on the northeast corner of what is now the intersection of Main and Water streets, the blockhouse protected the valuable salt supply from Loyalist attack. On March , , Loyalists surprised the garrison at the blockhouse and demanded Huddy’s surrender. Huddy refused, and fighting erupted. Outnumbered almost six to one, the small militia force defended the blockhouse until they ran out of ammunition. The battle ended with the blockhouse, saltworks, and all but two houses burned to the ground. Huddy was taken prisoner and brought to the Sugar House prison in lower Manhattan. While Huddy was in custody, a Monmouth County Tory, Philip White, died at the hands of the rebels. In retaliation, Huddy was taken from his Manhattan prison and brought by water to a makeshift gallows at Gravelly Point in New Jersey, near the foot of the Navesink Hills, where he was hanged. When Huddy’s body was found, patriots carried it from the gallows to Monmouth Court House. After he lay in state for two days he was given a hero’s funeral in Old Tennant burying ground. There was an important aftermath. Gen. George Washington demanded the British surrender the Loyalist officer who had conducted Huddy’s execution. When the demand was refused, a British captain in American custody, Charles Asgill, was selected by lot to be executed. After international protest, Asgill was released, and Huddy became known as the last casualty of the American Revolution.

then sailed as far south as the James River region of the newly established Virginia colony, but turned north again without landing, and continued on to Delaware Bay. Finding navigation there difficult, Hudson ventured further north and entered what is now New York Bay. Hudson piloted the Half Moon along the river that would bear his name as far north as Albany. Along the way, attempts to trade with local Indians turned violent, and Hudson’s men, repelling an ambush, killed several Indians. In October , Hudson set sail for the return trip to Europe. Although summoned to Amsterdam, upon his arrival in Dartmouth he was detained by English authorities for “voyaging to the detriment of the country’’ and never returned to Holland. In his absence, his Dutch crew brought the Half Moon home. By , Hudson had secured English support for a fourth voyage, but after a mutiny he was set adrift in northern Canada where he disappeared. Hudson’s claim of the North American territory between Cape Cod and the Delaware Bay on behalf of the Dutch East India Company, while disputed by the English, laid the foundation for the establishment of New Netherland in . First named the North River, later Mauritius, the name Hudson River became the common English designation afterward.

Bill, Alfred Hoyt. New Jersey and the Revolutionary War. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Hendrik Edelman

Langguth, A. J. Patriots: The Men Who Started the American Revolution. New York: Poseidon Press, .

See also American Revolution

Barbara Pepe

Hudson, Henry (b. /; d. c. ).

Explorer. Sixteenth-century merchants had long sought a northwestern or northeastern trade route to China. Several British and Dutch efforts failed, although valuable geographical and commercial information was gathered. In  and  English sailor Henry Hudson explored both routes unsuccessfully. Lacking English sponsorship for a third attempt, Hudson agreed to sail for the Dutch East India Company in . With a crew of ten English and ten Dutch sailors, Hudson departed Europe on De Halve Maen (the Half Moon) in April . When sailing first northeast he encountered storms, and then turned westward, crossed the Atlantic, and arrived in present-day Nova Scotia in July. Continuing south, Hudson traded with native North Americans from Maine to Cape Cod. He

Jameson, J. Franklin, ed. Narratives of New Netherland –. . Reprint. New York: Barnes & Noble, . Johnson, Donald S. Charting the Sea of Darkness: The Four Voyages of Henry Hudson. Camden, ME: International Marine, . Otto, P. “The Origins of New Netherland: Interpreting Native American Responses to Henry Hudson’s Visit.’’ Itinerario  (): –.

See also New Netherland

Hudson

City

Savings

Bank.

Founded in  in the town of Hudson, which merged into Jersey City in , the Hudson City Savings Bank, an independent bank, grew slowly until , when the New Jersey state legislature allowed banks to expand outside their home counties. Hudson City Savings moved its headquarters to Paramus in , and currently has branches in fourteen counties, including twenty-three offices in Bergen County. By , Hudson City was the largest savings institution in the state, having almost $. billion in assets and eighty branches with nearly $ billion in deposits. See also banking

Ann Kessler

Hudson County.

.-square-milecounty on a peninsula located in New Jersey’s northeast corridor, on the western shore of the Hudson River, opposite Manhattan. The water boundaries of the county are: the Hudson River on the east, the Kill Van Kull on the

Hudson Dispatch

HUDSON COUNTY

Jersey City

0

15

county seat

miles

south, the Hackensack River on the northwest, the Passaic River on the west, and Newark Bay on the southwest. Hudson County was established on February , . It was named after the great river and its namesake, the English explorer Henry Hudson. In September of  Hudson and his crew from the ship Half Moon, working for the Dutch East India Trading Company, sailed up what was then known as the North River, anchoring at a cove near the present-day Weehawken and Hoboken dividing line. There are twelve municipalities in Hudson County. They are Bayonne, East Newark, Guttenberg, Harrison, Hoboken, Jersey City (the county seat), Kearny, North Bergen, Secaucus, Union City, Weehawken, and West New York. Hudson County government operates within a “County Executive Plan’’ under the Optional Charter Law of the State of New Jersey. The county executive, an elected position, is head of the executive branch of the county governing body, and the nine-member Board of Chosen Freeholders, also an elected body, is the legislative branch. Hudson County is one of the major transportation hubs of the United States. Major roads and crossings include the Holland and Lincoln tunnels and Bayonne Bridge to New York; the New Jersey Turnpike; Interstates , , and ; and U.S. Routes  and . Mass transit connections consist of New Jersey Transit buses and trains to New York City and New Jersey suburbs; Port Authority Trans Hudson (PATH) commuter trains to New York City; passenger ferry service to New York; and

the .-mile-long Hudson-Bergen Light Rail Transit System. Hudson County has greatly influenced national and New Jersey history. During the first half of the twentieth century, Hudson County played an important role in the lives of millions of immigrants to this country. After being processed at the Ellis Island Immigration Center, ferries would take immigrants to the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, at what is now Liberty State Park in Jersey City, where they bought train tickets for connecting destinations throughout the United States. Others began new lives by settling in Hudson County and working at any number of the then plentiful factory, railroad, or port jobs. Hudson County was the site of many historic events and “firsts.’’ The village of Bergen, one of the earliest permanent settlements in America, now part of Jersey City, became New Jersey’s first municipal government on September , . New Jersey’s first school and church were also established at Bergen. On August , , Jersey City was the site of the Battle of Paulus Hook, a significant Revolutionary War engagement. Maj. Henry “Light Horse Harry’’ Lee, father of the Civil War’s Gen. Robert E. Lee, led a daring assault on a British fort on the Hudson River shore. Modern Jersey City was begun in April of  through a land purchase made by the Associates of the Jersey Company, a New York business group, led by the company’s attorney Alexander Hamilton. On July , , Hamilton was mortally wounded in a duel with Aaron Burr at Weehawken. Hamilton’s son Philip, using the same pistols that would later take the life of his father, was killed in a duel at the same spot in Weehawken on November , . On June , , the Phoenix, built by Col. John Stevens of Hoboken, became the first steamboat to be navigated in open sea. The first baseball game played under modern rules took place at the Elysian Fields in Hoboken on June , . Jersey City’s American Pottery Company, in , was the first in America to produce pottery cast in a mold. Thomas Edison’s first incandescent light bulb factory opened in Harrison in . On June ,  Mary Philbrook of Hoboken became the first women to be a lawyer in New Jersey. Mary Norton of Jersey City became the first woman to be elected to Congress from the eastern United States on November , . Hudson County is home to four colleges: Hudson County Community College, New Jersey City University, Saint Peter’s College, and Stevens Institute of Technology. Shipping, factory production, rail freight, and the embroidery industry dominated Hudson County’s economy for most of the twentieth century. At one time the following companies and consumer products hailed from Hudson County: Colgate-Palmolive, Maxwell House Coffee, Dixon Pencils, Tootsie Roll, Franco-American, Holland-America Line, Hamburg-American Line, Cunard Line,

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American Can Company, Emerson Radio, Western Electric, P. Lorillard Tobacco, Standard Oil, and Otis Elevator, among others. Hudson County is now a growing center to finance, insurance, real estate, television and radio stations, and website businesses. Corporations such as Paine Webber, Merrill Lynch, MSNBC, Bank of Tokyo, Dean Witter, and USA network are now part of the business community. Tourism has become a new component of the Hudson County economy. Such attractions as Liberty State Park in Jersey City, the most visited park in the state park system, Liberty Science Center, Spirit Cruises, the designer clothing outlets in Secaucus, and the shops and dining in Hoboken have helped to generate over $ million in tour and travel revenue annually. Hudson County ranks as the most densely populated county in New Jersey, with the fourth largest population. It also stands as the eighth most racially diverse county population in the United States. Although Hudson County’s population is just . percent of New Jersey’s total population, it represents . percent of the state’s total of new immigrants. By , Hudson County had a total population of ,, of which  percent was white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wilstach, Paul. Hudson River Landings. New York: Tudor Publishing Company, . Winfield, Charles H. History of the County of Hudson. New York: Kennard and Hay Printing Company, .

William J. La Rosa

Hudson County Community College. This two-year public coeducational institution, located in Jersey City, was founded in  as the Hudson County Community College Commission. The school was part of an educational consortium before it was granted approval to award associate degrees and professional certificates under its own name by the New Jersey Board of Higher Education during the – academic year. Hudson County Community College (HCCC) has also operated through contractual arrangements for facilities and faculty with local four-year institutions, including New Jersey City University and Saint Peter’s College. The six-acre main campus hosts about thirty-two hundred students a semester. See also higher education

Alan Delozier

Hudson Dispatch. More than any other daily newspaper in New Jersey, the Hudson Dispatch had a Front Page aura about it. Founded in  as a Democrat-oriented sheet, it operated from its Union City perch amid a climate

394

Hudson River

suffused with political malfeasance, some of which rubbed off—the paper was often dubbed the “Hudson Disgrace,’’ a rag that dispensed “All the News That Money Can Buy.’’ Circulation plunged from thirty-nine thousand in  to thirty thousand by , and a year later the Dispatch was absorbed by its longtime rival, the Newhouse-owned Jersey Journal. Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Edward A. Jardim

Hudson River. From its headwaters near Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks of New York, the Hudson River flows south  miles to New York Bay. The drainage area is , square miles. The Hudson is navigable for oceangoing vessels as far upstream as Albany. Tides go up the river as far as Troy ( miles), thereby making the Troy–New York City portion an estuary. The Mohawk River in New York is the major tributary. The Hudson forms the boundary between New Jersey and New York in its downstream reaches. The Palisades, a prominent ridge along the New Jersey side of the Hudson, is composed of a very resistant rock called diabase. Although the river was sighted by Giovanni da Verrazano in , it is named after Henry Hudson, an English navigator working for the Dutch who explored the river in  as far upstream as the current city of Albany. See also rivers

Robert M. Hordon

Hughes, Betty Sullivan Murphy (b. Jan. , ; d. Oct. , ). Columnist, TV talk show host, and wife of governor. Betty Sullivan

was born in Bradley Beach to Joseph R. and Helen Barrett Sullivan. She graduated from Trenton’s Cathedral High School and the New Jersey College for Women (now Douglass College, at Rutgers University). Her first marriage was to air force captain William M. Murphy. The couple had two children, William M. (Michael) and Patrick. William died in a plane crash in the Azores in  before the birth of their third child, Timothy. In  Betty Murphy married Richard J. Hughes, a widower with four children— Richard, Robert, John, and Mary. Together Betty and Richard had three children—Brian, Helen (Honey), and Thomas More Hughes. In , her husband was elected governor of New Jersey. (He later served as chief justice.) As first lady, Hughes hosted Lady Bird Johnson at the  Democratic National Convention held in Atlantic City. An individualist, she made headlines for serving hamburgers and potato salad to President Lyndon Johnson and Alexei Kosygin during the  Glassboro Summit. She wrote a column entitled “Bulletin from Betty’’ and hosted a talk show on WCAU Channel  in Philadelphia called “Betty Hughes and Friends.’’

Carol C. Cronheim

Hughes, Richard Joseph

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Dec. , ). Governor and chief justice.

Richard Hughes was born in Florence, New Jersey, the son of Paul and Veronica (Gallagher) Hughes. He was educated at Cathedral High School, Trenton, at Saint Charles and Saint Joseph’s colleges, and received his LL.B. from New Jersey Law School in . In  he married Miriam McGrory, who died in , survived by a daughter and three sons. In  he married Elizabeth (Sullivan) Murphy,

Thomas Cole, The Pic-Nic, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in. The painting depicts a bucolic scene on the Hudson.

Courtesy Brooklyn Museum of Art, A. Augustus Fund B, 67.205.2.

a widow with three boys. Together they had three children; a daughter and two sons. As a young adult Hughes set out on a long and distinguished political career. In  the Democratic candidate for Congress in New Jersey’s Fourth District, he lost to Republican D. Lane Powers. From  to  he was an assistant U.S. attorney. Together with Thorn Lord, who had been his superior as U.S. district attorney, Hughes then helped revitalize the Mercer County Democratic organization, which won control of the county in . In the same year he was appointed to the bench in Mercer County, moving in  to New Jersey Superior Court and in  to the latter’s appellate division. With the strong support of Lord and Mercer County Democrats, Hughes became his party’s gubernatorial candidate in . An outgoing, personable, and tireless campaigner, Hughes defeated Republican James Mitchell by less than , votes. The new governor’s initial priorities drew upon those of his predecessor, the popular Robert Meyner, and included transportation modernization and state aid to education. But, unlike Meyner, Hughes was an avowed liberal activist. He proposed a broad expansion of government programs and new state taxes to finance them. Hughes felt that the state’s reliance on excise and nuisance taxes did not provide enough money to meet what he believed were the needs of a modern society and (especially) New Jersey’s cities. His programmatic aggressiveness brought him into frequent conflict with the state GOP, moderate leaders in his own party, and, at times, the general public. This was especially true in the area of public finance. In , a Hughes-sponsored bond issue of $ million for capital improvements was rejected in a public referendum. His  proposal for a state income tax went nowhere. After his impressive reelection victory in  over Republican Wayne Dumont, Jr., Hughes again pushed for an income tax to expand the state’s revenue base. The Senate stymied this move. With reluctance, the legislature then authorized a  percent state sales tax and proposed a constitutional amendment, approved by the voters in , which authorized a state lottery. Assured of substantial new income, Hughes devoted his second term to new and enhanced government programs. In addition, New Jersey saw the creation of such agencies as the departments of transportation, community affairs, and higher education, as well as the offices of public defender and consumer protection. The parallels between the Hughes approach and the Great Society of President Lyndon Johnson are striking. In  Hughes resumed his law practice for a short time. In  he was appointed, with Senate confirmation, chief justice of the state supreme court by Republican governor William Cahill and remained in that position until retirement in . As chief justice,

Hunt, Ezra Mundy Hughes was guided by the same philosophy of liberal activism that marked his terms as governor. The Hughes court significantly expanded the reach and influence of the judiciary in such areas as civil liberties, land use, and public education. The court’s demand that urban schools receive greatly increased state funding led, ironically, to the establishment of a state income tax in . In old age, Hughes continued to maintain an active political, cultural, and business schedule. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard J. Connors

Hungarian Reformed Church. After the major influx of Hungarians to the state that occurred in the wake of the unsuccessful Hungarian Revolution of –, a total of twenty-two Hungarian Reform congregations were founded in New Jersey. Of that number only fifteen churches were active in . Nine of them conduct worship services in Hungarian and English, while the other six now have services only in English. As in their native land, one-fourth of the Hungarian immigrants arriving in New Jersey were Protestants and adherents of the Reformed Church of Hungary, which is Calvinist in theology and polity. In the United States the first recorded Hungarian Reformed worship service was conducted on April , , in New York City by Gedeon Acs, chaplain of Gov. Lajos Kossuth of Hungary. On the basis of historical ties with American denominations, the Hungarian Reformed congregations in New Jersey and across the country were first organized and affiliated in three denominational bodies: the Calvin Synod Conference of the United Church of Christ; the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America; and the Reformed Church in America. In  a fourth denominational group developed when representatives of six Hungarian Reformed congregations assembled in Trenton to organize the Free Magyar Reformed Church as a denomination. Later, it was named the Hungarian Reformed Church in America. Butosi, John. “The Calvin Synod: Hungarians in the United Church of Christ.’’ In Hidden Histories of the United Church of Christ. New York: United Church Press, . Dikovics, John. Our Magyar Presbyterians. New York: Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., . Komjathy, Aladar. “The Hungarian Reformed Church in America: An Effort to Preserve a Denominational Heritage.’’ Th.D. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, . Toth, Alexander. “The Hungarian Work in the Seminary.’’ In History of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church in the United States, – : Evangelical and Reformed Church, –. Lancaster, PA: Rudisill and Company, .

See also religion

August J. Molnar

Hungarians. The Hungarians, or Magyar people, speak a language that belongs to the Uralic language family. The closest linguistic relatives of the Magyars in Europe are the Finns, Estonians, and Lapps. The  U.S. Census counted , residents of Hungarian ancestry in New Jersey, which was . percent of the total of ,, in the United States. Among the soldiers serving in George Washington’s campaign against the British in New Jersey during  was the remarkable ´ts de Hungarian cavalry officer Michael Kova Fabricy. The Continental Congress commissioned him “Colonel Commandant’’ to organize and train the cavalry unit of the Pulaski Legion. Following the violent defeat of Hungary’s bid for independence from Austria in – , a significant number of Hungarian exiles—soldiers, military officers, political leaders, and other professionals—emigrated to the United States. Louis Kossuth, the exiled leader of the short-lived Hungarian Republic, toured the United States in – as the guest of the nation and spoke to audiences in Trenton, Newark, and Jersey City. The names of parks and streets in numerous New Jersey cities and towns commemorate his visit. During the Civil War some eight hundred officers and veterans of the Hungarian War of Independence joined the Union Army. Emigration on a large scale from Hungary to the United States began in ; however, repatriation from the United States to Hungary was also significant. Some , people, more than one-quarter of those who emigrated, returned to Hungary between  and . In New Jersey, Hungarian immigrants founded hundreds of societies, many Christian churches (Roman Catholic, Reformed, Presbyterian, Lutheran, Baptist, Byzantine Catholic) and Jewish synagogues, newspapers, social centers, athletic and political clubs, scientific and educational groups, choruses and singing societies, self-culture and theater groups. They settled primarily in Alpha, Caldwell, Carteret, Elizabeth, Flemington, Fords, Franklin, Garfield, Jersey City, Keasbey, Manville, Newark, New Brunswick, Paulsboro, Perth Amboy, Phillipsburg, Rahway, Roebling, South River, Trenton, Union, Wharton, and Woodbridge. New Brunswick has been referred to as the “most Hungarian city in the United States.’’ Two major financial institutions established by and for Hungarians were chartered in New Jersey. The Hungarian Reformed Federation of America, a fraternal life insurance organization with a national constituency, was founded  in Trenton and a hundred years later had assets of $ million. Magyar Savings Bank, opened in New Brunswick in , had assets of $ million at the end of the twentieth century. Following World War II, thousands of displaced Hungarians arrived from camps in Europe and settled in New Jersey and

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other states. In October and November , when Hungarians fought to free themselves from Communist and Soviet domination, some , Hungarians—university students, young professionals, skilled technicians, and industrial workers—left their native land. Camp Kilmer in New Jersey became a reception center for the Hungarian Escapee Program established in the United States. During  and  the program resettled more than , Hungarian escapees in America. Prior to World War II, Hungarian language and cultural heritage had been taught as a part of the educational programs at Protestant and Catholic churches. Beginning in , the Hungarian language was once again offered as an elective subject at Saint Ladislaus School in New Brunswick and at Saint Stephen School in Passaic. Hungarian Scout programs and Saturday language classes also were organized in New Jersey communities. Academic interest in Hungarian studies has been supported by the American Hungarian Foundation, which in  initiated and funded a program in that area at Rutgers University. In  the foundation built and opened its museum, library, and archives facility in New Brunswick. An Institute of Hungarian Studies was established at Rutgers in . Other notable New Jerseyans of Hungarian birth or descent include Theodore Puskas, who collaborated with Thomas Edison; Eugene P. Wigner, Nobel Laureate in physics; John von Neumann, mathematician of the computer age; and Charles Tolnay, the Michelangelo scholar. Others are baseball player Joe Medwick of Carteret and Ernie Kovacs, film and television comedian born in Trenton. Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, . ´rdy, Steven Be ´la. The Hungarian-Americans. Va Boston: Twayne, .

See also ethnicity

August J. Molnar

Hun School.

The Hun School of Princeton is an independent, coeducational, college preparatory residential and day school, where traditional values complement progressive instruction. Founded in  by Dr. John Gale Hun, a mathematician then teaching at Princeton University, the school includes a middle school and an upper school encompassing grades six through twelve and one postgraduate year. Students come from across the nation and around the world. The faculty ratio is : with a student body of about . See also education

Aimee Pereda-Kuc

Hunt, Ezra Mundy (b. Jan. , ; d. July , ). Physician and public health official.

The son of Holloway W. Hunt and Henrietta Mundy, Ezra Mundy Hunt graduated from Princeton University in  and the College of

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Hunter, Andrew

Physicians and Surgeons with an M.D. in . In  he married Emma L. Ayres of Rahway. After her death he married Emma Reeves of Alloway. Hunt was the president of the Medical Society of New Jersey in ; chairman of the sanitary commission of  and health commission of ; and founder of the New Jersey Sanitary Association in . In  Hunt began a crusade that led to the formation in  of the New Jersey Board of Health, which he served as secretary. In  he was elected president of the American Public Health Association, that organization selected him as an outstanding pioneer in the field of public health in . Alewitz, Sam. Ezra Mundy Hunt: A Life in Public Health. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Rogers, Fred B. Help-Bringers: Versatile Physicians of New Jersey. New York: Vantage Press, .

See also medicine and public health

Sam Alewitz

Hunter, Andrew

(b. ; d. Feb. ,

). Clergyman, educator, and military chap-

lain. Andrew Hunter was the son of David Hunter and Martha McIlhenny Hunter of York, Pennsylvania. He spent much of his teenage years with his uncle, the Rev. Andrew Hunter, minister of the Greenwich (New Jersey) Presbyterian Church. Hunter was educated at the Presbyterian academy of the Rev. Enoch Green at Deerfield and then at the College of New Jersey. He graduated from Princeton in  and was licensed to preach by the Philadelphia Presbytery in . One year later he married Ann Riddell. During the Revolutionary War Hunter served as a chaplain in both the New Jersey militia and the Continental Army. Following the war, Hunter directed educational academies for boys in three South Jersey towns—Bridgeton, Woodbury, and Bordentown. He also supplied Presbyterian pulpits in Blackwood and Woodbury. Hunter was actively involved in New Jersey politics and was connected for most of his adult life with the College of New Jersey (Princeton), which he served as a trustee and a professor of mathematics and astronomy. One year after the death of his first wife, Anne, in , he married Mary Stockton, the daughter of famed New Jersey political leader Richard Stockton. In  he was appointed senior chaplain to the U.S. Navy, a position he held until his death in . See also Presbyterians

John Fea

Hunter, Robert

(b. ; d. Mar. , ).

Colonial governor and military officer. The son of James and Margaret (Spalding) Hunter of Edinburgh, Scotland, Robert Hunter married Elizabeth (Orby) Hay and was the father of four children. Following almost two decades as an officer in the British military, Hunter obtained the position of lieutenant governor of Virginia.

Sir Godfrey Kneller (attributed), Robert Hunter, c. . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy New-York Historical Society, Accession Number 1937.321, Negative Number 7221. Before he could assume that post, however, the ship on which he sailed to America was captured by the French in . Shortly after Hunter’s release as part of a prisoner exchange in , he received an appointment as governor of New York and New Jersey. Arriving in the colonies in June , the personable Hunter found himself in a complicated environment. In particular, the factionalism that had plagued New Jersey for much of its early history called upon all of Hunter’s political skill, as Anglican and Quaker-led parties battled for supremacy in the provincial council. Exhausted by these intrigues, Hunter returned to England in . In  he exchanged the governorship of New York and New Jersey with William Burnet, in return for Burnet’s office of comptroller of the customs. Hunter was later named governor of Jamaica and served in that capacity from  until his death.

under the ownership and governance of William Penn and his associates—known as proprietors—from  until  when the Jerseys were reunited under one royal governor. Hunterdon’s original boundaries were Assunpink Creek on the south, New York State border on the north, on the west the Delaware River, and on the east the East-West Jersey line. Consisting of Amwell, Hopewell, and Maidenhead (Lawrence) townships plus Trenton, it presented a vast rolling wilderness to the first settlers. The original county seat was at Trenton, where a courthouse and “gaol’’ were erected. Due to the great distance from the upper county and abominable traveling conditions, the county seat was moved to Flemington in . A new courthouse was erected and opened there in . That structure, which included a jail, burned on February , . The cornerstone for a second courthouse was laid in May of . A “country’’ Greek Revival style architecture courthouse was erected on the foundation of the earlier building. Long recognized as the place where the Lindbergh kidnap trial took place, the  courthouse was in use until  when a larger modern Justice Complex was dedicated. Morris County, including the area of the future Warren and Sussex counties, was established out of the northern regions of Hunterdon on March , . June , , saw the formation of Sussex County out of Morris County. Warren was set off from Sussex on November , . Lastly Mercer County was born of Hunterdon’s most southerly regions on

HUNTERDON COUNTY

Lustig, Mary Lou. Robert Hunter, –, New York’s Augustan Statesman. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, . Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Scribner’s, .

Flemington

Scanlon, James E. “English Intrigue and the Governorship of Robert Hunter.’’ New York Historical Society Quarterly  (July ): –. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John W. Raimo

Hunterdon

County. This .square-mile county was named for royal governor Robert Hunter. Hunterdon County was formed from the northern part of West Jersey, including a portion of Burlington County, on March , . West Jersey was

0

15 miles

county seat

Hunterdon Museum of Art February , . Thus we have a county that birthed five counties and shrank from approximately , square miles to  square miles within  years. Both the Delaware and Raritan rivers drain the streams and creeks of Hunterdon. Musconetcong River, Hakihohake, Lockatong, Wickecheoke, and Alexauken creeks, with all branches, drain the western county to the Delaware. Easterly draining to the South or North branches of the Raritan River are Lamington River, Rockaway Creek, and Neshanic River with their related brooks and streams. Lenape tribes were the original occupants of Hunterdon, with Round Valley traditionally recognized as the stronghold of the Indian kings. In Hunterdon, with its fast-flowing waterways, rolling hills and valleys, and fertile soils, the Lenape had abundance of food as well as protection from enemies. Generations of Hunterdon farmers plowing their fields have discovered spear points, ax heads, and grindstones identified as dating from , to , years old, certainly a testimony to longterm Native American inhabitation. Permanent European settlement dates to circa . English, Scots, Scots-Irish, and some French migrated from other more southerly West Jersey settlements. Pushing up the valley of the Raritan from New York, Monmouth, and Somerset counties were Dutch farmers. They settled primarily in Readington Township and fanned out along the central section of the county. Palatine Germans moved overland to inhabit the upper county inclusive of Tewksbury and Lebanon townships, as well as several areas along the West Jersey “Society’s Line.’’ As the population grew, so did the need for political division and governance. Readington Township was the first new township in Hunterdon. It was formed by royal charter July , , followed by Lebanon and Bethlehem townships c. , Kingwood , Tewksbury , Alexandria , Delaware and Raritan , Clinton Township , Franklin , East Amwell and West Amwell , Union , and Holland . Lambertville, Hunterdon’s only city, dates to March , . Along with townships, various boroughs and towns have incorporated to make twenty-six separate government units. During the Revolutionary War, Hunterdon was the largest and most populous county in New Jersey. It literally was “the breadbasket of the Revolution’’ owing to numerous mills located on dozens of creeks and rivers along with the excellent wheat crops that fed the mills. It was in “old’’ Hunterdon that the Battle of Trenton, the turning point of the Revolutionary War, took place. Hunterdon’s economic, social, and political development was based on rural agriculture. Over the centuries, political leaders have traditionally included the outstanding farmers. With the many changes that have contin-

uously affected the agricultural industry, the flexibility of Hunterdon farmers has prevailed and the county remained strongly agricultural in nature. When railroading burst upon the scene in the s, markets to the east were opened to farm products. Similarly, the post– World War II extension and expansion of major state highways, that is, Routes , , and , served to move farm produce even more quickly to the urban areas. The last quarter of the twentieth century has brought the most dramatic changes ever in the county. Many family farms were sold. The new crop—large-lot housing developments. The completion of Routes  and  allows for commutable distance to businesses located to the east. Corporations in need of more land opted for the pastoral settings of Hunterdon for expansion. Hunterdon has become world headquarters to Merck. Belle Mead Corporation continues to construct office buildings. Exxon and FosterWheeler have located close to the superhighways. State laws have demanded “fair share’’ high-density housing; therefore, each township has felt the pressure of sudden development. County population grew from a minuscule , in  to , in , a greater increase of inhabitants in those twenty years than all the years since . In spite of the mounting land pressures Hunterdon farmers are joining in state, county, and municipal programs aimed at permanent land preservation for future generations. Currently Hunterdon ranks first in the state in the number of qualified farms receiving farm assessments. Horses, exotic vegetables, landscape flora, and orchards have replaced dairy and field crop farming. The beautiful rolling hills of Hunterdon continue to appeal to those seeking open space and a more bucolic type of life. In , the total county population was ,. Ninety-four percent of the county was white. The median  household income was $,. The First  Years of Hunterdon. Flemington: Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Schmidt, Herbert G. Rural Hunterdon. Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

New

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Hunterdon Historical Museum. The Red Mill on the Raritan River in Clinton, built by Ralph Hunt as a woolen mill circa , is the centerpiece of the museum complex, which includes the buildings and facilities of a nineteenth-century limestone quarry, now known as the James R. Marsh Park. Over the years, the mill building evolved in shape and size, and was used successively for wool, plaster, grist, talc, and graphite processing and

397

peach basket production, as well as for generating electricity and for pumping water. During the middle of the twentieth century, the mill stood idle and derelict. It was bought in  by a group of local citizens and incorporated as the Clinton Historical Museum for the preservation of regional trades and crafts but it is now known as the Hunterdon Historical Museum. With more than forty thousand artifacts, the museum collection chronicles more than  years of county history. Also on the museum’s ten acres of grounds, embraced by Spruce Run and the Raritan, is the Bunker Hill Schoolhouse, brought from Alexandria Township in , and a replica of a log cabin. See also museums

William M. Gordon

Hunterdon

Medical

Center.

Hunterdon Medical Center was founded in  and was opened in  by local residents and business leaders. At that time, Hunterdon was the only county in New Jersey without a hospital. Its founders wanted a medical center that would be the primary source of health care in a rural community with a mission not only to help the sick but also to improve the health of all residents, regardless of ability to pay. Affiliation with a medical school offered tertiary care services. The hospital’s Family Practice Residency Program is one of the oldest in the country for the training of family physicians. Four family health centers offer comprehensive health services to residents in their communities. Today the Medical Center is a -bed nonprofit community hospital, providing a full range of preventive, diagnostic, and therapeutic inpatient and outpatient services. The Medical Center provides comprehensive oncology services through the new Hunterdon Regional Cancer Center, mobile intensive-care paramedic teams, and a full array of diagnostic services through the Department of Medical Imaging. The Medical Center’s Maternity and Newborn Care Center includes twenty private labordelivery-recover-postpartum (LDRP) suites. A newly constructed Health and Wellness Center integrates fitness, disease prevention, and health enhancement. Curry, Hiram B., et al. Twenty Years of Community Medicine: A Hunterdon Medical Center Symposium. Frenchtown: Columbia Publishing, . Trussell, Ray Elbert. Hunterdon Medical Center: The Story of One Approach to Rural Medical Care. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Avrum Katcher and Patricia A. McKiernan

Hunterdon

Museum

of

Art.

Founded in  as the Hunterdon County Art Center, this museum in Clinton is housed in an  stone gristmill that was placed on the National and State Historic Registers in . As part of its mission to “enhance and encourage appreciation of, understanding of

398

Hunterdon Plateau

and involvement with the arts,’’ the museum organizes contemporary art exhibitions, interpretive programs, studio art courses, and community events for thousands of children and adults each year. See also museums

Marjorie Frankel Nathanson

Hunterdon Plateau.

The broad, relatively flat Hunterdon Plateau, with an average elevation of – feet, is located in southwestern Hunterdon County. It is primarily underlain by the resistant rocks of the Lockatong argillite and baked shale formations. The highest elevation (nearly  feet) is found about one mile south of Pattenburg, thereby making the plateau one of the highest areas within the Piedmont Physiographic Province, one of the major landform units within the state. Wells drilled on the plateau generally have low yield, as the argillite and baked shale rocks are very dense, with limited fracturing for groundwater storage and transmission. Kelland, Frank S., and Marylin C. Kelland. New Jersey, Garden or Suburb?: A Geography of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; physiography

Robert M. Hordon

hunting.

Despite great population density, overdevelopment, and the destruction of wildlife habitat, traditional hunting sports remain important to New Jersey’s cultural heritage. The hunting of game birds and animals is controlled through a comprehensive set of state and federal regulations and laws based on conservation, scientific wildlife management, and safety. The responsibility for formulating and enforcing regulations and

conservation policies rests with the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection’s Division of Fish and Wildlife, which acts upon recommendations from the New Jersey Fish and Game Council. In addition, the hunting of waterfowl and migratory birds is controlled by specific federal regulations. The sport of hunting contributes significantly to the New Jersey economy. In  hunting was responsible for $. million in retail sales, $. million in sales tax revenue, $. million in state income taxes, and , jobs. Deer hunting alone has accounted for as much as . million person-days of recreation in a single season. Hunting in New Jersey falls into three categories: deer, small game, and migratory birds. Each category involves one or more game birds or animals and a regulated season or seasons. Hunting takes place on private property owned by licensed individuals or clubs or by other landowners who grant permission, and on public lands such as designated state and county parks, state forests, national recreation areas, and refuges. Hunters also use Wildlife Management Areas formerly designated as public hunting and fishing grounds. Areas open to public hunting are most abundant in the northwestern and southern portions of the state. Hunting for white-tailed deer is popular, giving participants the opportunity to harvest large animals that provide high-quality, lowfat food. Deer hide and antlers are also valued. Collectively, the designated deer hunting seasons permit the use of various weapons, including shotgun, bow and arrow, and muzzleloading rifle, to take both deer with antlers and deer without them. Small game hunting includes seasons for upland birds such as pheasant, quail, ruffed grouse, chukar partridge, woodcock, and wild turkey in addition to animals such as fox,

Anon., The Hunting Party, New Jersey, c. -. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Schwartz, 1979 (1979.299). Photo Copyright Metropolitan Museum of Art.

rabbit, squirrel, raccoon, woodchuck, and coyote. Upland game birds and cottontail rabbits are prized for their food, and the fur and feathers of most species are also valued. In “upland hunting’’ the hunting of certain species with trained hunting dogs is allowed for sport and conservation. In waterfowl hunting, ducks and geese are taken from water and wetland areas. Some gunning techniques involve the use of decoys, which have a longtime relation to New Jersey folk art. The Barnegat Bay sneakbox, a special all-weather hunting boat, is also part of the state’s folk art heritage.

Joseph Marty Boa

hurricanes.

When the tropical regions become excessively hot, a mechanism is needed to carry the heat away and distribute it across the planet. The tropical cyclone, a name given to all circulating weather systems over tropical waters, becomes that mechanism. Tropical cyclones form in seven tropical ocean basins. The Atlantic basin, most familiar to New Jersey residents, is composed of the North Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. It averages around sixty tropical waves a season that move off the African coast with the potential to strengthen. A tropical depression is born when clouds and thunderstorms become organized with a distinctive circulation and sustained winds up to  miles per hour. Once the winds reach  miles per hour, it is classified as a tropical storm and named. The naming of tropical storms began in  using only female names, but this practice was changed in  to alternating male and female names. The final but most furious stage in the life cycle of a tropical cyclone is the hurricane, packing winds of  miles per hour. Hurricanes are classified according to the Saffir-Simpson scale. A minimum hurricane, category , has sustained winds of  to  miles per hour, but within days can intensify to category  strength with sustained winds over  miles per hour, capable of causing catastrophic damage in coastal areas. Storm surge is the greatest threat to life and property along the immediate coast, while torrential rains causing serious flooding are the greatest threat to areas well inland. Damaging winds and possible tornadoes can occur in the coastal and inland areas. The official hurricane season in the Atlantic basin begins June  and ends November . On average, ten tropical storms will form and six become hurricanes. While most hurricanes remain over the oceans, posing a threat to the major shipping lanes, some do make landfall. However, nearly  percent of the residents of New Jersey living in the threat area have never experienced even a category  storm. The last hurricane to make landfall in New Jersey was on September , , near Brigantine. There have been some very frightening moments in

Hyatt, John Wesley recent years, but the storms veered out to sea, just delivering fringe effects to the barrier islands. Storms of recent memory that have either caused damage or forced New Jersey coastal residents to evacuate include the Great Atlantic Hurricane of September ; Hurricane Belle of August , ; Hurricane Gloria of September , , and Hurricane Bob of August , . In September , category  Hurricane Floyd weakened to a tropical storm as it approached the southern New Jersey coast; yet it was still responsible for the most costly weather disaster in the state’s history, inundating inland areas of central and northern New Jersey, but sparing the barrier islands. Savadove, Larry, and Margaret Thomas Buchholz. Great Storms of the Jersey Shore. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, .

See also floods; nor-easters; weather

James A. Eberwine

Hutcheson, Martha Brookes

(b.

Oct. , ; d. July , ). Landscape archi-

tect. Martha Brookes Hutcheson graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in  with a degree in landscape architecture. In , she and her husband, William Anderson Hutcheson, moved to a farm in Morris County near Gladstone. She designed important gardens in the Northeast, and in  was elected to the American Society of Landscape Architects. Her book, The Spirit of the Garden (), based on the transformation of open fields of her farm near Gladstone into classical gardens using English and Italian concepts of pools, stone walls, and vistas, expressed her philosophy that the “natural scene should blend with the cultivated.’’ Hutcheson, Martha Brookes. The Spirit of the Garden. Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, .

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also gardens, public

Sharon M. Doremus

Hyatt, John Wesley

(b. Nov. , ; d.

May , ). Inventor. John Wesley Hyatt was

the son of blacksmith John Wesley Hyatt and Anne Gleason. Born and raised in Starkey, New York, he received a modest education in local ordinary schools before relocating to Illinois at the age of sixteen. Hyatt married Anne E. Taft in  and had two sons. He first worked as a printer but soon displayed a talent for invention. While working in Albany, New York, he attempted to create a substitute material for manufacturing billiard balls, then made of expensive ivory. Along with two brothers, he formed the Embossing Company of Albany and received a patent for his production of nitrocellulose in . Although the new material, dubbed “celluloid’’ by his elder brother Isaiah, produced billiard balls of indifferent quality, Hyatt saw promise in the material and continued to experiment until he achieved a workable formula. With the assistance of New York backers, he opened a manufacturing plant in the Ironbound section of Newark in the early s. By focusing on technical problems in production (especially in the area of equipment development), Hyatt received more than sixty patents for celluloid between  and . Throughout this career, Hyatt—usually working with his brother—displayed a consistent interest in problems of a technical nature that offered the promise of financial reward. During the s he developed a new filtration system that greatly increased the efficiency of the water purification process for industrial as well as residential use and formed the Hyatt

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Pure Water Company. After achieving success with his system in the United States, Hyatt introduced it to Europe in . Years of work on the problem of sugar cane refining led to the development of the flexible roller bearing, which had the advantage of allowing both slippage and bending without breakage. Hyatt received patents for the invention in  and , and organized the Harrison-based Hyatt Roller-Bearing Company in , where he remained as the firm’s general manager until . Although his work on roller bearings was originally stimulated by the developing bicycle industry in the s, his designs found their greatest application within the automobile industry when Alfred P. Sloan took over for Hyatt. His work on sugar refining finally paid off in  when he developed a machine that was lighter, less expensive, and more efficient than existing equipment. In addition to being easier to clean and maintain, Hyatt’s device also produced cane residue that was dry enough to use as fuel. Among some other notable inventions credited to Hyatt are a billiard ball manufacturing machine (), a machine that produced schoolroom slate (), a new substance—“bonislate’’—that was useful in manufacturing items such as buttons and knife handles (), an improved sewing machine with the capacity for fifty lockstitches at once (), and a machine capable of straightening steel shafting (). Hyatt was awarded the Perkin Medal of the Society of Chemical Industry (London) in . He died in Short Hills. ANB. Friedel, Robert. Pioneer Plastic: The Making and Selling of Celluloid. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, .

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

I iceboating.

Iceboating had come to the Hudson River from northern Europe by the mid-eighteenth century. The early American iceboats evolved from boxlike crafts into sleek ones nearly seventy feet long, which often required professional crews. In the nineteenth century iceboating was a sport of the very wealthy, who sailed on the Hudson, Delaware, Shrewsbury, and Navesink rivers. The North Shrewsbury Ice Boat and Yacht Club, founded in Red Bank in , is one of the oldest iceboat clubs in the world. Arthur Liebers reports that in  the iceboat Clarel traveled the two-and-a-half-mile Shrewsbury River course at  miles per hour. By the s, thanks to the development of smaller and more maneuverable iceboats that could be built in home workshops, the sport expanded beyond the wealthy few. Modern competitive iceboats costing between $, and $, can reach speeds of fifty to sixty miles per hour; more expensive models can reach one hundred. The North Shrewsbury Ice boat and Yacht Club hosts two iceboat regattas, the annual John Darling Memorial Pennant and the National Sweepstakes, which attract iceboat competitors from as far away as Vermont and Ohio. Other New Jersey iceboat clubs have been organized at Lake Hopatcong and Budd Lake. See also sports

Pamela Cooper

ice cream.

New Jersey holds a place in the history of ice cream, although that place is often disputed. It is a fact that one Nancy W. Johnson invented the first hand-cranked ice cream maker in . For many years, she was widely described as a New Jersey woman who failed to get a patent. In fact, records show that she was issued a patent (No. ) and, moreover, the patent application lists a Philadelphia address for her. Whether she ever lived in New Jersey is not known. A bigger controversy surrounds the invention of the ice cream cone, which historians agree was popularized at the  World’s Fair in St. Louis. Although many sources give credit to a man named Ernest A. Hamwi as the ice cream cone’s inventor, there are other contenders. The most credible claim is that of Italo Marchiony, who arrived in Hoboken from Italy in . He sold ice cream from a pushcart on Wall Street in New York, and in  received a patent for an oven that made edible waffle cups, which he had been making since . But since his invention produced cups 400

Iceboating on the Navesink River.

Courtesy Randall Gabrielan. and not rolled cornucopias, some ice cream historians balk at giving him credit for the ice cream cone’s invention. Vendors at the St. Louis fair other than Hamwi also claimed to have first matched ice cream with a waffle rolled into a horn. Abe Doumar, a Syrian from Hoboken who sold souvenirs at the fair, claimed that he was the first to suggest to a waffle concessionaire that he roll up his waffles and fill them with ice cream. It is known that a grateful waffle maker gave Doumar one of his ovens, and Doumar eventually went into the business of peddling cones on Coney Island. David Avayou was a Turkish immigrant who claimed that he developed the recipe for making and rolling waffle cones at the fair in an imitation of paper cones he saw used in France. He later opened a string of ice cream shops in Atlantic City. Ancestors of present-day New Jerseyans who immigrated to these shores in the early part of the twentieth century may have had their first taste of American ice cream at Ellis Island. Meals and accommodations were provided to those who were detained overnight, and in  the commissioner of Ellis Island decreed that they should be given a taste of something truly American: ice cream. From the early s into the s the children of Scotch Plains were treated annually to free ice cream, which was dispensed through the school system there in keeping with provisions of a trust fund left for that distinct purpose by a man named J. Ackerman Coles, a local humanitarian. Today, on hot summer days, New Jersey’s  million residents consume over  million ice cream cones. Dickson, Paul. The Great American Ice Cream Book. New York: Atheneum, . Funderburg, Anne Cooper. Chocolate, Strawberry, and Vanilla: A History of American Ice Cream. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, .

The Latest Scoop. Washington, DC: International Ice Cream Association, .

Pat Tanner

identity.

See image.

Ill, Edward J.

(b. May ,  ; d. June

, ).

Surgeon. The son of Karl Fridolin Ill, a refugee German physician practicing in Newark, Edward Ill graduated from the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in . After advanced studies in Austria and Germany, he returned to Newark in  as a specialist in surgery, obstetrics, and gynecology. Ill was a surgical innovator and was among the first Americans to perform major gynecological operations. He was president of the Medical Society of New Jersey () and

Dr. Edward Ill.

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark.

image first president of the Academy of Medicine of New Jersey (). He championed free hospital care for the poor, supported professional training for nurses, and was active in Newark civic affairs. In , the Academy of Medicine established the Edward J. Ill Award for service to the profession.

Sandra Moss

image. New Jersey has arguably the most uncertain image of the fifty states: it is the fifth smallest, yet its terrain encompasses mountains, beaches, and everything in between; it fancies itself a “garden,’’ yet it is heavily industrialized and beset with environmental problems; its people live largely in small towns and suburbs, yet it is the most densely populated state, more densely populated than India; it is the second most affluent, yet the degradation of its cities is unsurpassed. Most states have something characteristic about them: Maine, the rockbound coast; Iowa, corn. New Jersey is immensely diverse, but it is difficult to name something that typifies it, unless it is the New Jersey Turnpike. “We have a confused image,’’ writer Fletcher Knebel once observed. “We’re a little of this, a little of that.’’ A little of this, a little of that can be, nevertheless, a virtue. Boosters have often celebrated New Jersey as the most representative, the quintessentially American state. One historian calls it “a Mirror on America.’’ But New Jersey’s variety has also inspired television documentaries with such titles as New Jersey, Who Am I? And the Encyclopaedia Britannica depicts no other state as suffering from an identity crisis. New Jersey’s identity was muddled from the start. In , the duke of York ceded New Jersey to two aristocratic supporters whose portions were later sold to two proprietary groups. William Penn, involved in both proprietorships, reassured potential settlers, “That there is such a province as New Jersey is certain.’’ In fact, there were two colonies, East and West Jersey, with capitals in Perth Amboy and Burlington. Until recently small offices were maintained in those towns by the descendants of the East Jersey and West Jersey proprietors. And there has long been a not entirely fanciful movement in largely rural South Jersey (which, since the state is laid out northeast to southwest, conforms closely to the old colony of West Jersey) to secede and form a political entity separate from industrial North Jersey (which more or less conforms to the old colony of East Jersey). The East Jersey and West Jersey colonies were dominated by New York and Philadelphia, respectively, which increased their estrangement. Even after they were united in a single colony in , the legislature met alternately in Perth Amboy and Burlington, and, until , the governor resided in New York City. Queen Anne, to discourage squabbling, ordered that “no Person keep any press

for printing’’ because of the “great inconveniences [that] may arise by the Liberty of Printing in Our said Province.’’ This made New Jersey dependent from the start on New York and Philadelphia’s media, a situation that has largely continued to the present day. It was New Jersey’s dependence on those cities, and the widespread conception of the state as little more than a corridor between them, which occasioned the remark, attributed to Ben Franklin, that New Jersey is like a barrel, tapped at both ends. Bracketed by New York and Philadelphia, New Jersey has provided those cities with their food, their gasoline, their bedrooms, their dumping grounds, and the highways and rail lines that link them. In short, New Jersey has been something of a colony of those two cities. Literary critic Edmund Wilson expressed this sense of inferiority when he said that there are “only two cities in New Jersey: New York and Philadelphia.’’ And historian John Cunningham has argued that if New Jersey has an uncertain identity, it is largely due to the fact that “the rising sun throws New York’s shadow over the state, the setting sun bathes New Jersey in the shade of Philadelphia.’’ The state has also long been the victim of snobbery from across the rivers that border it. Herbert Mays, a prominent New York magazine editor, liked to say, “As far as I’m concerned, the United States of America ends at the Hudson River’’; and across the Delaware, in Pennsylvania, New Jersey motorists have long been greeted by billboards announcing “AMERICA STARTS HERE.’’ These competing chauvinisms exacerbate the already existing tendency of many New Jerseyans not to identify closely with their state. Those residing near New York or Philadelphia often think of themselves as living not in New Jersey but in the suburbs of those cities, in “Greater New York,’’ in “Greater Philadelphia.’’ They read New York or Philadelphia magazine rather than

401

New Jersey Monthly. They consider New Jersey provincial, a nice place to live but you wouldn’t want to visit there. They would apply to New Jersey Gertrude Stein’s famous remark about Oakland: “There’s no there there.’’ New Jersey’s identity problem is, in part, self-inflicted. It has not sufficiently fostered strong political, cultural, and commercial institutions that would provide a focus or sense of community with which citizens might identify. As an example, the state exports  percent of its students to out-of-state colleges. There is much local pride, but the state still exemplifies Episcopal bishop George Washington Doane’s  lament: “We have well nigh forgotten that we have a history. We have almost lost the very sense of identity. We have no center.’’ The governor’s mansion is located not in the state capital, Trenton, but in Princeton; the Garden State Arts Center (described by Rutgers University professor Angus Gillespie as “a cultural pit stop’’) is not only located in a rural area off a Garden State Parkway exit but was recently renamed, for a fee, the PNC Bank Arts Center; and the state’s commerce and industry spreads out along its highways and in rings around its cities. The many jokes about New Jersey with the punchline “Which exit?’’ suggest that key to the state’s identity problem may be its extreme decentralization. Also important is New Jersey’s conflict between its pastoral ideal and its industrial reality. In The Machine in the Garden, Leo Marx writes about the contradiction in the American mind between “rural myth and technological fact.’’ If this is true of America in general, it is especially true of the Garden State. Nowhere more than in New Jersey has the machine invaded the garden. A central irony of New Jersey is that its claim to being the Garden State appears most often on the license plates of its seven million motor vehicles.

Cartoon poking fun at New Jersey’s image as an undesirable place to be.

Copyright the New Yorker Collection, 1977. Jack Ziegler from Cartoonbank.com.

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immigration

There is something to the garden claim. The lovely and unique Pine Barrens occupy one-fourth of the state. New Jersey has vital blueberry and cranberry farms and is second in the nation in raising thoroughbred horses. It may be polluted, but it is overrun with wildlife. Nevertheless, it exhibits a certain insecurity about its garden status when it is moved to color the asphalt hillsides of the Garden State Parkway green, spray-paint the grass alongside the New Jersey Turnpike in times of drought, and apply the name “Jersey Gardens’’ to the largest outlet mall in the state. Such activities inspire derision and have much to do with the prominence of the Jersey joke. Truckers routinely mock the Garden State claim when they refer to the “Garbage State’’ on their C.B. radios. New York comedians seemingly could not function without jokes such as: “The only difference between New Jersey and a banana republic is that New Jersey doesn’t grow any bananas.’’ The longrunning television program, Saturday Night Live, rarely has gotten through an entire program without a New Jersey putdown, most notably Gilda Radner’s now classic refrain, “New Jersey, it makes me wanna die.’’ In his movie Sleeper, Woody Allen cracked, “I believe there’s an intelligence to the universe, with the exception of certain parts of New Jersey.’’ New Jersey has often been put down on Broadway as well. In Damn Yankees, Lola fears “banishment to New Jersey,’’while in Annie the young heroine announces she would “rather be dead’’ than live in New Jersey. A review of the play I Love My Wife complained that it achieved the impossible: “to make life in New Jersey even worse than it is.’’ New Jersey has been the target of novels as well. Wilfred Sheed, in his novel The Hack, writes, “The whole country was suffering from creeping New Jersey.’’ In Ursula Perrin’s Heart Failures, the heroine exclaims, “God knows why I live in New Jersey, the most crowded, neurotic, polluted, corrupt, carcinogenic state in the Union, with no traditions or character, only lots of six-lane highways and fast food places.’’ New Jersey is a little like the comedian Rodney Dangerfield: it hasn’t gotten much respect. Jokes and derisive comments assume New Jersey is unhip, bourgeois, undistinguished, the beginning of flyover country. But the Jersey joke sometimes tells us as much about those who tell it as about the object of their humor. New Yorkers in particular scapegoat New Jersey for their city’s shortcomings. The Village Voice, complaining about the quality of Italian food in Manhattan, attributed it to “some common sauce pipeline snaking under the Hudson from Bayonne.’’ At one time it was not New Jersey but Brooklyn which inspired instant laughter. Brooklyn was considered the epitome of everything middle class. Writer Tom Fleming has observed, “It would be in bad taste to

pick on Brooklyn today. It’s such a social ulcer there’s nothing funny about it.’’ Could there be a connection between the Jersey joke and New Jersey’s relative health as a society; as long as they are making fun of you, you are probably doing well? Whatever the state’s problems, most New Jerseyans are happy with life here, and, according to Eagleton Polls of recent years, becoming happier. New Jersey seems, for the majority of its citizens, what colonial governor Jonathan Belcher once described as “the best country . . . for middling fortunes.’’ There is also a recent upsurge of spirit in New Jersey. Many good things have happened: Atlantic City, once a tattered seaside resort, is now an entertainment mecca; one of the world’s great sports complexes has risen heroically from the Meadowlands swamps and attracted quality professional teams; Hoboken has been transformed from a near slum into a fashionable address; statewide broadcast and print media have been radically upgraded; Newark airport has become one of the most attractive and best managed aviation facilities in the nation; magnificent arts complexes have been created in New Brunswick and in Newark; several new minor league baseball stadiums have been built; New Jersey medical centers have begun to rival New York’s and Philadelphia’s; the Supreme Court has ruled that the greater part of Ellis Island is actually in New Jersey; and the immensely successful television show, The Sopranos, has made New Jersey life, even at its rawest, fashionable around the nation. Clearly the state has been going through something of a renaissance. In her  State of the State address, Gov. Christie Whitman announced that “nobody’s

laughing at New Jersey anymore.’’ And in  she recorded a series of radio spots that alluded to the “Which exit?’’ jokes by saying, “We love our exits.’’ It is significant that Whitman did not evade, but embraced, the very New Jersey that comedian George Carlin once called “the tollbooth capital of the world.’’ In so doing, she reflected a new attitude of New Jerseyans toward their state, represented by the commonly available T-shirt, “New Jersey: Only the Tough Survive.’’Whitman was dealing with New Jersey life in an authentic manner, not unlike that of the person who has most raised New Jersey’s estimate of itself in recent years: Bruce Springsteen. In his songs, Springsteen has celebrated New Jersey as it is rather than as one might wish it to be. He has made it fashionable to hail from a place “where the great black rivers flow,’’ from which one might be “Born to Run.’’ His songs have found beauty in those very aspects of New Jersey which once gave rise to the Jersey joke. As Saturday Night Live alumnus Joe Piscopo has said, “With the advent of Springsteen, Jersey jokes just didn’t work.’’ “He made it cool to be from New Jersey,’’ Robert Santelli of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Museum has added. “He put us on the map.’’ One journalist echoed this sentiment in a  article titled “In This Age of Irony, New Jersey Is (Gasp) In.’’ “The state,’’ she wrote, “is now the ultimate in reverse chic.’’ Not entirely tongue in cheek, another journalist wrote that year, “Jersey is the only state that so overpowers its namesake that you can drop the New when referring to it. Try that with Hampshire, York, or Mexico. No one has heard of those places. Other than Texas, Jersey is the only state to have a cohesive, distinct personality.’’ Suddenly the state with a little of this, a little of that has become fashionable. Everyone seems to agree that there is now more than a little there here. Whether New Jersey continues to be seen this way in the future, only time will tell. New Jersey’s image might improve permanently once it gave up calling itself “The Garden State,’’ thereby eliminating the preoccupation with whether it is a state of vegetable farms or tank farms. New Jersey needs to celebrate a more unequivocal aspect of its character. Why not say “The Bill of Rights State’’ on all those license plates? New Jersey was the first state to ratify the first ten amendments to the Constitution, quite possibly the finest feature of American civil life. That’s something about which all New Jerseyans justifiably might feel proud. See also illustration, color section; Jersey jokes

Michael Aaron Rockland

immigration. Old tavern door showing a gentleman’s pride in being a New Jersey resident, c. s.

Photo: Kathleen D. Whelan. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

From the earliest colonial years to the present, New Jersey has been a magnet for immigrants. The first European settlers were Dutch, accompanied by people from other places who came by way of Holland. Along the Delaware River, a small

immigration

Image Not Available

Alfred Stieglitz, The Steerage, . Silver gelatin developed-out print-waxed,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Alfred Stieglitz Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Photo Copyright 2002 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art.

group of Swedes and Finns established the first settlement. The British conquest of New Netherland in  brought an inflow of persons of English background from Long Island and New England, as well as some immigrants from England, into East Jersey. Additionally, Scots arrived in East Jersey and English Quakers in West Jersey. A smaller number of English settlers came from Barbados and brought with them slaves of African origin. Other settlers, including the Jersey Dutch, also obtained slaves from the West Indies and Africa. By , , slaves lived in New Jersey. In the eighteenth century a growing number of Scots-Irish and Germans were attracted to New Jersey. There was also a scattering of Swiss, Welsh, and Catholic Irish settlers in the province by the time of the American Revolution. Throughout the colonial period most of the people who came to New Jersey did so to obtain land and engage in agrarian economic activity.

Between  and  only a small number of immigrants arrived in the new Republic, mostly from England, Ireland, Germany, and France. After , with no federal restrictions on immigration, the United States experienced its first major wave of newcomers. New Jersey, situated between the major ports of New York City and Philadelphia, and offering good farmland and emerging industries, absorbed many of these new people from abroad. In the first two decades of this wave, the immigrants were primarily rural Irish fleeing potato blight and famine, and Germans seeking to escape political conflict and inadequate economic opportunities. By , there were , foreign-born Irish in New Jersey and , Germans. The majority of the Irish were poor, whereas the Germans arrived in New Jersey with more varied skills and economic resources. Immigration from Ireland and Germany continued through the second half of the

403

nineteenth century. By  there were , German and , Irish foreignborn persons in the state. In addition, some , people from England came to New Jersey between  and . The English, Scots, Welsh, Irish, and Germans constituted  percent of New Jersey’s foreign-born population in . By that year there were also several thousand immigrants from Holland, Switzerland, France, Austria, Hungary, Russia, Italy, and Canada. In all, the foreign stock, that is, first- and second-generation immigrants, made up approximately  percent of New Jersey’s population by the turn of the century. After , the number of immigrants arriving in the United States from southern and eastern Europe increased markedly. During this second significant wave of immigration, New Jersey was again an important destination, ranking fifth among the states in the number of newcomers received. The largest number of the new immigrants came from southern Italy. There were in addition many Poles, Russians, Jews, Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, and Slovaks. Some German, Irish, and Dutch immigrants also continued to arrive, along with a considerable number of people from Scandinavia, the Baltic region, the Balkans, Ukraine, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. Some newcomers also came from Asia Minor, the Caribbean islands, and the Bahamas. Most of these immigrants came for better economic opportunities, although some, like the Jews and Armenians, were fleeing religious and ethnic persecution. A considerable number of the economically motivated newcomers arrived with the intention of working for a limited period of time and then returning to their homelands. Many did so, but a large majority remained and formed families. In the years after  the federal government gradually placed more restrictions on immigration, seeking to deny entry to criminals, prostitutes, contract laborers, anarchists, the mentally deficient, victims of certain diseases, and Chinese laborers. An immigrant station was established in  on Ellis Island in New York Harbor, close to New Jersey, to enforce these regulations. In  immigrants were required to be literate in at least one language. Then in the s Congress set quotas for many countries, which favored immigrants from northern and western Europe, greatly limited those from southern and eastern Europe, and prohibited admission to most Asians. The annual limit was lowered to some , immigrants overall from the countries given quotas. Western Hemisphere countries were not limited by quotas. The new laws reduced the number of immigrants in the latter part of the s, and arrivals were further decreased by the depression of the s and World War II in the first half of the s. After , a renewed flow of immigrants came to the United States from northern and western Europe. Displaced persons from war-torn central and eastern Europe were

REGION OF BIRTH OF FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION, 2000

PASSAIC

SUSSEX

N

BERGEN

ESSEX

HUNTERDON MORRIS

HUDSON

UNION SOMERSET

Foreign-Born Population as a Percentage of Total Population

WARREN

Europe Asia Africa Latin America

1850 MIDDLESEX

1860 1870 1880

MERCER

MONMOUTH

1890 1900 1910

CAMDEN

1920

BURLINGTON

OCEAN

1930 1940

GLOUCESTER

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

SALEM

0 CUMBERLAND ATLANTIC

In

2

ew 0, N 00

Jerse

LATIN AMERICA 43%

10 miles

10

15

y's fo reign-born populati

28% AS IA

0

5

20

on c am

EUROPE

25

ef

r om

24%

30

:

AFRICA 4%

CAPE MAY

Source: U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov Only data for the four largest contributing regions of birth are shown. @Rutgers, The State University

Inductotherm Industries admitted as refugees, as were Hungarians who fled after the failed  revolt against Soviet troops. A large number of Cubans were granted refugee status after Fidel Castro came to power in the late s. With leadership from Congressman Peter Rodino of New Jersey, crucial changes to federal laws in  altered the course of immigration in the United States and New Jersey. Quotas favoring certain countries were abolished; instead, up to , persons annually from each country in the world would be considered, and preference would be given to family reunification and to persons with designated job skills. Through the last third of the twentieth century some immigrants continued to come from Europe, and a number arrived from Africa, but a large majority were immigrants from the Americas and Asia. By , there were ,, persons of Hispanic origin and , Asians in New Jersey. If the undocumented could be counted, the numbers would be higher. Again, New Jersey is a major destination in this wave of immigration, receiving the fifth largest number of newcomers among all the states. The Hispanic immigrants in New Jersey have come primarily from Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Colombia, but there are residents in the state from every country in Latin America and the Caribbean. Most Asians have come from India, China, the Philippines, and Korea, though again there are immigrants in New Jersey from every other country on that continent. Although the motivating factor for most of the persons in this third major wave of immigration continues to be economic, refugees from political, religious, and ethnic persecutions also find homes here. In attracting immigrants from every country in the world, New Jersey has become an international mosaic.

on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. While digging in a droughtdrained pond (now known as Mastodon Pond) in , farmer Abraham Ayers discovered an exceptionally large mastodon and fragments of smaller ones. Standing eight feet, six inches tall and ten feet long, the mastodon skeleton was acquired by Harvard University and displayed in its Museum of Comparative Anatomy. The drained swamp areas of the township are fertile grounds especially suited for growing vegetables such as celery and onions. Although small patches of truck farming and landscaping industry still exist, the area is mainly suburban with the inhabitants commuting to work outside the area. According to the  census the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

405

of New Jersey. On September , , the General Assembly convened there again, declaring New Jersey a state rather than a colony, and mandating this new legal status be reflected in “all commissions, writs and indictments.’’ It is reputed that the New Jersey Council for Safety, an organization created to deal with residents who jeopardized American independence, was organized at the inn in . In  Indian King Tavern became the first State Historic Site. The restored building operates as a museum and features reconstructed tavern rooms. Bassett, William B. Historic American Buildings Survey of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Boyer, Charles S. Old Inns and Taverns in West Jersey. Camden: Camden County Historical Society, . Lundin, Leonard. Cockpit of the Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Evelyn Stryker Lewis Historic Sites of Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Indian King Tavern.

Located in Haddonfield, this inn was a roadside stop for travelers on the Kings Highway. Built in  and later enlarged, the three-story brick-and-stucco building is a classic example of eighteenth-century tavern architecture. It uses a central hall plan and boasts both gabled and pent roofs. During the Revolution, the inn was the scene of several historic decisions. In May of , the inn’s second-floor assembly room (then the largest nonreligious hall in the state) hosted the New Jersey Legislative Council and General Assembly, which adopted Frances Hopkinson’s design for the Great Seal

Indians.

See American Indians; Asian Indians; Lenape.

Inductotherm

Industries. The world’s leading manufacturer of inductionheating furnaces and other specialty equipment for the metals and foundry industries, Inductotherm Industries is based in Westampton, Burlington County. The firm was founded in  by graduate engineer Henry Rowan and his wife, Betty, in their home’s garage. The firm grew as it pioneered development of high-temperature electrical induction furnaces, and by  had expanded from the original plant in Delanco, Burlington County to the current Westampton site. Rowan remains as chairman and minority owner; the corporation owns more than fifty firms worldwide with , employees and

Espenshade, Thomas, ed. Keys to Successful Immigration: Implications of the New Jersey Experience. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, . Shaw, Douglas V. Immigration and Ethnicity in New Jersey History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also demography; ethnicity

Henry Bischoff

Independence. .-square-mile township in Warren County. Named in celebration of America’s hard-fought, hard-won freedom from Great Britain, Independence was created from Hardwick in . The township shares a portion of the Jenny Jump mountain range with neighboring Frelinghuysen. Historic areas include Great Meadows, formerly Dansville; Vienna; Petersburg, formerly Cat Swamp; and Bear Swamp, which is bordered by the fabled Shades of Death Road. The  Great Meadows railroad station on the old Lehigh and Hudson line has been restored and is listed

Indian King Tavern, Haddonfield.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

406

industrial architecture

an estimated $ million in  sales. In , Glassboro State College was renamed Rowan University in the Rowans’ honor after their $ million gift to fund an engineering school at the university.

Jim Donnelly

industrial architecture.

The buildings that housed New Jersey’s industries span hundreds of years and reflect the state’s contribution to the United States’ economic vitality. Forges and mills are among the earliest surviving structures. In Hope, an experimental Moravian community founded in , a three-story mill of rough-cut limestone was constructed with a mill-race of approximately one thousand feet, cut from a slate ledge. The mill, designed by Christian Christianson, ground flour on four sets of stones. It was completed in  by master mason Philip Maixel and master carpenter Joseph Grotz. The mill was key to the settlement’s survival since it provided income and grain for the farming community. It housed a blacksmith’s shop in its basement. The town also had a sawmill, wagonmaker’s shop, tannery, and brewery. The clustering of such essential trades along a stream is seen in other early communities as well, such as Montville, where a sawmill, tannery, and brewery were located. The force of the wind was also utilized at Paulus Hook, where, in , Isaac Edge constructed a seven-story gristmill replicating one owned by his family in Dorsetshire, England. In colonial times, the domestic manufacture of iron was important. The first iron forge was located at Tinton Falls circa . There, a complex including the forge, blast furnace,

manor house, and separate dwellings for the workers occupied six thousand acres. In the s, American leaders, recognizing the importance of national self-reliance, founded the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures (SUM) at Paterson. Harnessing the power of the Great Falls of the Passaic River, a manufacturing district was established. Set along a series of raceways, brick factory buildings later housed textile mills, the Rogers Locomotive Works, and other factories. These structures were built largely of brick, with segmentally arch-headed bays of windows. The discovery of iron in the bogs of south and central New Jersey was key to certain types of manufacturing. Allaire Village preserves a group of workers’ homes and shops about the central furnace, with a forge and blacksmith shop. The manufacture of glass and iron took place in Batsto Village. An ample supply of cedar wood for keeping the furnaces burning and silicates in the sandy soil provided the natural resources for extracting iron from the soil and creating glass. Many of the early glass manufacturing sites have been lost to fire, since they were made of wood. During the mid-nineteenth century, industrial works took the form of complexes organized around specific functions. The more established works featured prominent offices facing the streetscape, often with signage or lettering applied directly to the facade. The Murphy Varnish Company of Newark, opened in , occupied two blocks with buildings of various revival styles. The Singer Sewing Machine Plant occupied its waterfront location in Elizabeth with an extensive, threeand-a-half-story Second Empire facility in the s. The buildings housing industries

evolved to provide flexibility by featuring overhead cranes to support machinery, and had monitor roofs with long, horizontal openings to ventilate and provide light. Iron beams that could span long distances made this possible. The Trenton Iron Company developed the first structural iron beams in . Advances in the strength of iron rope were pioneered by John A. Roebling, who moved his wirerope manufacturing plant to Trenton in . The increased safety of elevators, directly related to the development of wire rope, made it possible to build larger warehouses and factories. Eventually, large industrial chimneys, durable and capable of venting acid-gas, became a standard sight at many of New Jersey’s industrial buildings in the early twentieth century. These familiar, cylindrically shaped structures also bore corporate emblems laid in contrasting brick. Thomas A. Edison built laboratories at West Orange in . In a complex of specific brick buildings including physics, chemical, and metallurgy labs and shop buildings, teams of chemists, machinists, and engineers worked together to develop and plan the massproduction of Edison’s inventions. As New Jersey’s population increased, so did its need for potable water. The functional and picturesque buildings of the Hackensack Water Company represent an important time in the development of scientific treatment of the water supply for thousands of people. The medieval-inspired water tower at West New York, the plant, office, and pump house of the water company, all of brick, reflect advances in health and safety. The influence of the Bauhaus, a German design movement in the s, was felt in New Jersey’s industrial buildings, as steel-frame construction became prevalent, allowing for the use of bands of windows to illuminate spaces. As businesses proliferated, the concept of an industrialized zone became part of city planning in the s. Corporate identity was expressed in headquarters buildings, often positioned in front of the manufacturing works and designed to communicate a corporate identity to the public. The  complex built in Summit for the CIBA Corporation combines self-contained corporate and manufacturing in a gated, campuslike setting. In its New Brunswick headquarters building, designed by I. M. Pei, the Johnson & Johnson Company, another pharmaceutical giant, begun in the nineteenth century in rented space in a former wallpaper manufacturing building, communicates corporate and technological innovation. Bradley, Betsey Hunter. The Works: The Industrial Architecture of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Hudson and Manhattan Railroad Powerhouse, Jersey City, . Designed by Robins and Oakman and built in  for the ancestor of today’s PATH, the powerhouse is on the National Register of Historic Places.

Photo: Leon Yost.

Johnson, James P. New Jersey History of Ingenuity and Industry. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications, .

See also architecture

Patricia F. Colrick

Inman, Henry

Ingersoll, Charles

407

(b. Oct. ,  ; d.

Sept. , ). Watch manufacturer. Ingersoll

was born in Delta, Michigan, but spent most of his life in New Jersey, living in East, South, and West Orange and Montclair. With his brother Robert he developed “the watch that made the dollar famous’’ and brought quality timepieces within the reach of millions. The company’s first watch was produced in , and Ingersoll was said to have produced more than fifty million watches by . The factory was in Chambersburg, near Trenton. Ingersoll’s dollar watch was so closely tied with its price that when, by , the watch could no longer be made to sell for that price, the company could not survive. Drost, William E. Clocks and Watches of New Jersey. Elizabeth: Engineering Publishers, .

See also clockmaking

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Ingoldesby, Richard

(b. date unknown;

d. Mar. , ). Military officer and royal gover-

nor. Few facts are available regarding Richard Ingoldesby’s early years, although he may have been the son of Capt. Thomas Ingoldesby, who served in the parliamentary army during the English Civil War. Ingoldesby was married and the father of one daughter, Mary, and perhaps others. After a military career in England, Ingoldesby arrived in New York in January  to assist in the suppression of Leisler’s Rebellion. His time in New York included about a year during which he served as interim chief executive following the death of Gov. Henry Sloughter in summer . During the next decade Ingoldesby performed various military duties in New York and eventually returned to England, where he sought political preferment. In November  he was named lieutenant governor of New Jersey and New York. Although he had little opportunity to exercise political authority in either the Cornbury or Lovelace administrations, Ingoldesby succeeded Lovelace as New Jersey’s chief executive upon the latter’s death in May . Ingoldesby’s administration was of little consequence and notable primarily for bitter political wrangling over an ultimately abortive British/American military invasion of Canada. Ingoldesby left office in April , following the revocation of his commission as lieutenant governor the previous fall. His last years were spent serving in an inconspicuous military role in New York. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John W. Raimo

Inman, Henry

(b. Oct. , ; d. Jan.

, ). Painter. Henry Inman was born in

Utica, New York, the son of William and Sarah

Henry Inman, The Children of Bishop George Washington Doane, . Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1959 Louis Bamberger Bequest Fund, 59.83. Inman. His father, an English land agent, had immigrated to America in . Inman attended the school of the Rev. Daniel R. Dixon and studied with an itinerant drawing master. The family moved to New York City in . Two years later Inman began a sevenyear apprenticeship with John Wesley Jarvis, the city’s leading portrait painter. He traveled with Jarvis as more an assistant than an apprentice, painting the backgrounds and drapery for Jarvis’s portraits. While working with Jarvis, Inman developed a specialty in miniature painting. According to Inman, he began his career as a professional portraitist in . In  Inman established his own studio with Thomas Seir Cummings as his apprentice and subsequent partner. Inman turned miniature painting over to Cummings, who became the most noted miniaturist in New York. In the same year Inman married Jane Riker O’Brien, and they had six children. Inman’s work was first exhibited by the American Academy of Fine Arts in , and in the following year the Academy made him a member. During this period Inman also designed illustrations for several of James Fenimore Cooper’s works, although he remained first and foremost a portraitist. A founder of the National Academy of Design in , Inman served as its first vice president. His portrait of actor William Charles Macready as William Tell exhibited in  established Inman as the leading portraitist in New York. He received commissions from civic organizations and prominent people including philanthropist Henry Rutgers.

In  Inman moved to Philadelphia and formed a partnership with engraver Cephas G. Childs to produce lithographs designed by Inman. The firm of Childs & Inman also reproduced many of Inman’s portraits. While in Philadelphia Inman received several notable commissions including the full-length portrait of William Penn, which is in Independence Hall, and a portrait of Chief Justice John Marshall. He also began a major project that would involve him for the rest of his career: the painting of the engraver’s copies of Charles Bird King’s portraits of American Indians for the publication of History of the Indian Tribes of North America. In  Inman purchased the -acre Sterling Farms in Mount Holly. While there he painted Self Portrait in a Top Hat and several portraits, among them was one of his friend and neighbor George Washington Doane, the Episcopal bishop of New Jersey. Inman sold his New Jersey property in  and ended his partnership with Childs. Upon returning to New York, he reclaimed his position as the city’s preeminent portrait artist and received commissions to paint various prominent clergymen and public figures, including Vice President Martin Van Buren. He also painted literary and historical subjects and received the prestigious commission for a historical painting for the U.S. Capitol rotunda, although he never completed this work. During the s he produced Mumble the Peg and several other narrative paintings. In  Inman went to England to paint the poet William Wordsworth and several other notable figures.

408

Inness, George

In ill health, Inman returned to New York in  and died the following year of asthma and heart problems. Originally buried in Brooklyn, Inman was moved in  to his final resting place beside his daughter, Mary Inman Coddington, in Hazelwood Cemetery in Rahway. Bolton, Theodore. “Henry Inman, An Account of His Life and Work.’’ Art Quarterly  (): –. Gerdts, William H. The Art of Henry Inman. Washington, DC: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, . ———. “Henry Inman in New Jersey.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (July ): – .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Inness, George

(b. May , ; d. Aug. ,

). Painter. Undeniably the finest Ameri-

can landscape painter of the late nineteenth century, George Inness was the fifth child of a prosperous merchant of Scottish descent. Born in Newburgh, New York, he moved with his family to Newark in . Inness’s formal education took place at Newark Academy, but he made little progress and ultimately quit. He dreamed of becoming a painter, but at the age of fourteen, his father set him up in a grocery business to “cure’’ this preoccupation. The enterprise, however, failed after Inness managed to conceal paints and canvases behind the counter and ignore customers entering the store.

About , after he finally accepted his son’s determination to study art, the elder Inness placed him with Jesse Barker, a local teacher. He subsequently learned engraving at the New York firm of Sherman and Smith and by the mid-s entered the studio of the French landscapist, Regis Gignoux. From Gignoux, Inness achieved an understanding of color and composition, but his exposure to prints after paintings by European Old Masters, along with the American Hudson River school landscapes of Thomas Cole and Asher B. Durand, provided his most important early sources. Beginning in , Inness began to exhibit in New York at the National Academy of Design and the American Art Union. Although he then worked in a style somewhat akin to the Hudson River school, his paintings were more idealized and subjective. Soon his talent was noticed by the auctioneer, Ogden Haggerty, who financed his first study trip to Italy in  after his marriage to Elizabeth Hart (an early marriage to Delia Miller had ended with her death). In , after the birth of two daughters, the family traveled to Paris, where Inness found great kinship with the moody and dramatic landscapes of the Barbizon School. During this trip George Inness, Jr., his first and only surviving son, was born. Upon their return to the United States in , the Inness family settled briefly in Brooklyn and then in Massachusetts. During this period Inness painted one of his finest

early works, The Lackawanna Valley (c.) executed in a style that would change radically after he met the artist William Page following the family’s move to Eagleswood, New Jersey, in ; this influence affected the tone and expressiveness of his later work. This second New Jersey period ended in , when the family moved back to Brooklyn where they were living when Inness was made a full national academician in . By , the family had taken up residence in Rome; eight years later, they returned to the United States and settled in Montclair. In , Inness became a founding member of the Society of American Artists. He died in  during a visit to Bridgeof-Allan, Scotland. Cikovsky, Nicolai, Jr. The Life and Work of George Inness. New York: Garland, . ———, and Michael Quick. George Inness. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, . Inness, George, Jr. Life, Art, and Letters of George Inness. New York: Century, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Insley, Albert Babb

(b. Apr. , ; d.

). Painter. Albert Insley was born in Or-

ange. After practicing photography, architectural drawing, and becoming an accomplished player of the cello, organ, piano, and viola, Insley found himself as a painter. An artist of the Hudson River school, the self-taught Insley was admittedly influenced by two American painters—Jasper F. Cropsey and George Inness.

George Inness, On the Delaware River, c. –. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Brooklyn Museum of Art 13.75, Special Subscription Funds.

Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences Through the s and early s, he worked his landscapes in the American Barbizon style. In the early part of the twentieth century, his paintings reflect impressionistic landscapes and marine scenes of northern New Jersey, the Hudson River, as well as scenes of New York Harbor, the Palisades, and Brooklyn. Blankenship, Roy. The Delicate Palette of Albert Insley, –. Edited by Ruth Jillya Kaplan. Wilmington, DE: Roy Blankenship, .

See also art

Cynthia Hertlik

Institute for Advanced Study. The Institute for Advanced Study’s primary purpose is the support and facilitation of advanced learning in a wide range of fields through research and scholarship. The institute has no formal routine, and is free of all teaching and degree-granting obligations. Founded in , it is home to a small number of permanent faculty and welcomes more than  visiting members each year. The visiting faculty members come from across the United States, and one-third come from Europe and Asia. Originally, the institute supported only the fields of pure mathematics and mathematical physics, but now other disciplines within natural science, historical studies, and social sciences are also studied. Newark department store mogul Louis Bamberger and his sister Caroline Bamberger Fuld endowed the institute, and both the Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Corporation made important early contributions. The institute provides housing for visiting fellows, who spend up to one year pursuing their intellectual interests. The environment also encourages interaction among the scholars

from a variety of disciplines. All the work is of a theoretical bent; the institute has no significant laboratory facilities. Noted educator Abraham Flexner was its first director, serving from its inception in  until . J. Robert Oppenheimer filled the position from  to . Among the many noted mathematicians and physicists who have served on the permanent faculty are Niels Bohr, Freeman Dyson, ¨ del, John von Neumann, and Oswald Kurt Go Veblen. Other faculty members include cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz and diplomat and Soviet specialist George Kennan. The institute faculty has hosted more than a dozen Nobel laureates and many Wolf, MacArthur, and Fields Medal winners. Most of the faculty are members of the National Academy of Sciences or the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Though it is administratively distinct from Princeton University, there have been close ties between the two institutions since the institute’s founding. The institute’s first home was within the university’s Fine Hall, where Albert Einstein, perhaps the most famous faculty member to serve at the institute, worked until the construction of Fuld Hall in . The institute now occupies several buildings on a largely wooded square-mile tract a short distance from Princeton’s Graduate College. Institute faculty members have library privileges at the university, and in  the institute donated its Gest Oriental Library, one of the world’s largest collections of rare Chinese books and manuscripts, to the university. More recently, the university has financially supported efforts to protect the institute’s large tract of woods from development. The Institute Woods are crisscrossed with trails

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that are open to the public, and are widely known for their bird-watching opportunities, with nearly two hundred species observed during spring migration. Leitch, Alexander, ed. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Porter, Laura Smith. “From Intellectual Sanctuary to Social Responsibility: The Founding of the Institute for Advanced Study.’’ Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, . Regis, Ed. Who Got Einstein’s Office?: Eccentricity and Genius at the Institute for Advanced Study. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, .

Daniel J. Linke

Institute of Jazz Studies. In  jazz scholar Marshall Stearns founded the Institute of Jazz Studies in his Greenwich Village apartment. Before he died in , he designated Rutgers University to be the permanent home of the collection. Since then, Stearns’s collection has grown into what is believed to be the largest jazz archive and public-access jazz research facility in the world. The institute boasts a collection of more than one hundred thousand sound recordings, from piano rolls and cylinders to compact and laser discs; it owns recordings in every format and everything from the Victrola to the most modern technology to play them on. Jazz artifacts at the institute include a manuscript by Louis Armstrong, which became part of his biography, plus saxophones of the great horn players Lester Young and Ben Webster. Also included are Miles Davis’s green trumpet and a fake gardenia that Billie Holiday wore in her hair, as well as research files on individual performers and related topics, and more than thirty thousand historic photos. In addition, the institute is the home of the personal collection of the great jazz composer and arranger Mary Lou Williams.

Kimberly Brown

Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences. The Institute of Marine and

Fuld Hall, Institute for Advanced Study, c. .

Courtesy Archives of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton.

Coastal Sciences (IMCS) at Rutgers University, established in , provides education, research, and service in estuarine, coastal, and ocean environments. IMCS is dedicated to developing, communicating, and understanding change and sustainability in marine and coastal ecosystems, and to shaping future directions for the use and protection of vital marine and coastal resources. IMCS offers an undergraduate major in marine sciences, a graduate program in oceanography, and a precollegiate program to enrich science education in New Jersey classrooms. In addition to the major center in New Brunswick, facilities in Tuckerton, Bivalve, New Lisbon, Cape Shore, Cape May, and Sandy Hook extend activities throughout the state. See also Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

J. Frederick Grassle

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insurance industry

insurance industry.

Since the nineteenth century, New Jersey has been the home state and Newark the home city of a great many insurance companies, including the largest in the United States, Prudential Insurance. In , a group of stockholders met in a Newark tavern and organized the state’s first insurance company, the Newark Banking and Insurance Company. Elisha Boudinot was the company’s first president. The firm survived into the late twentieth century as the National Newark and Essex Banking Company. Fire was a great risk in towns built of and heated with wood, and most of the early insurance companies in New Jersey (and the rest of the United States) provided fire insurance. New Jersey’s first fire insurance company was the Newark Mutual Assistance Fire Assurance Company, founded in  with Joseph C. Hornblower as secretary. Hornblower, an attorney, operated the company out of his law office. The New Brunswick Fire Insurance Company and the Camden Fire Insurance Company were founded in , followed by the Camden Fire Insurance Association in , the American Mutual Insurance Company of Newark in , and the Merchants and Manufacturing Fire Insurance Company of Newark in . The Newark Firemen’s Insurance Company, founded in , was one of only a few New Jersey insurance companies that used a “fire plate’’ or shield to mark covered properties. That company grew into Firemen’s Insurance, one of the state’s largest insurance companies. One of the state’s most specialized insurance businesses was the New Jersey Plate Glass Insurance Company, founded in . The firm both sold and insured plate glass. Life insurance was rare in America before the mid-nineteenth century. As religious objections subsided and more people moved away from their extended families and social networks into the growing cities, a boom in life insurance began. New Jersey’s first life insurance company, the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company (MBL), was founded in Newark in . Robert Livingston Patterson, a New York merchant, traveled to England to study that country’s life insurance companies. He attempted to start a life insurance company in New York, but was halted by competitors and instead opened his firm in Newark. The company prospered and grew for well over a century. It was the eighteenth-largest insurance company in the United States when it collapsed in  after a set of real estate investments went sour. MBL was placed under state supervision until its assets and policies were assumed by a subsidiary of SunAmerica late in . John Fairfield Dryden founded the Prudential Insurance Company of America in the basement of a Newark bank in . The original name was the Widows’ and Orphans’ Friendly Society, but the company adopted its current name in . Dryden studied the

Prudential Assurance Company in England, which specialized in selling inexpensive policies to working-class people, and adopted the same concept for his American company. Until , Prudential sold only what it called “industrial insurance.’’ Premiums were as little as three cents a week, and were collected personally by company agents. The company’s first death claim came to just ten dollars. Prudential grew quickly, expanding into New York and Philadelphia in  and selling its millionth policy in . By the s, counting customers enrolled in group plans, it covered one in five Americans. In , Prudential surpassed Metropolitan Life to become the largest insurance company in the United States. A large number of fraternal organizations offer life or other forms of insurance to their members. Many of them were founded between  and  and originally were set up by members of particular ethnic groups. The first hospital and medical insurance company in the state was Associated Hospitals of Essex County, incorporated in . It is now known as Horizon Blue Cross Blue Shield of New Jersey, the not-for-profit organization that is now the state’s largest health insurer. Mandatory auto insurance was discussed by the New Jersey legislature as early as the s. Controversies over New Jersey’s auto insurance rates, which are the highest in the nation, have preoccupied voters in recent years. The state’s high density of vehicles, large numbers of uninsured drivers, costs of nofault insurance (passed into law in ), and high rates of automobile theft and insurance fraud, have all been cited as contributing factors to the high rates of motor-vehicle insurance in the state. Until the s, most insurance companies sold only one kind of insurance. New laws permitted some companies to deal in other lines of insurance, and “multiple-line’’ companies came to dominate the industry. Many companies, including some of New Jersey’s oldest insurers, disappeared during a trend of mergers and acquisitions later in the twentieth century. Five insurance companies incorporated in New Jersey are among the state’s top employers: Prudential, Chubb (founded in ), Horizon Blue Cross Blue Shield of New Jersey, New Jersey Manufacturers Insurance Company (founded in ), and Selective Insurance Group (founded in ). The New Jersey Department of Banking and Insurance (DOBI), founded in , regulates insurance in the state. Before , the New Jersey secretary of state served as an ex-officio insurance commissioner under an  law. Regulation of insurance companies tightened after . The legislature passed a Code of General Insurance Laws in , and passed more laws after a series of hearings investigating abuses in the life insurance industry in . In , the department made New Jersey the first state in the Union to eliminate

mention of race, color, or creed in application forms used by insurance companies in the state. In , the DOBI was split into separate banking and insurance components, but the two were combined again on July , . The reorganization was touted as both a costsaving move and an acknowledgment of the growing convergence of banking and insurance activities. At its reorganization, the department’s  employees were responsible for regulating , insurance companies with a premium income of $. billion, and , insurance licensees. The governor appoints the department’s commissioner, who must be confirmed by the state senate. Banking and insurance each have their own division in the department, each of which is headed by a division director. The DOBI also regulates the real estate industry. Responsibilities of the Division of Insurance include licensing of insurers, reviewing and approving insurance forms and rates, monitoring the financial solvency of insurance companies, protecting consumers from unlawful practices, and rehabilitating or liquidating insolvent insurers. French, Bruce H. Banking and Insurance in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

David A. Norris

Interlaken.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County on a peninsula surrounded by the Ironwell and Romaine’s Creek branches of the Deal Lake. Once part of a -acre tract purchased by Gavin Drummond in  from the twenty-four East Jersey proprietors, Interlaken was formed from  acres later purchased by Dr. Francis and Fannie Weld in , who are credited with naming the tract “Interlaken’’ after the community in Switzerland. After initial attempts to raise cattle, Weld joined with a group of three partners forming the Interlaken Land Development Company to begin the residential development of the tract. In , large cement gates were erected to mark the eastern entrance to the community. A train station operated from  to  at the eastern end of Grasmere Avenue. In  an air meet was held in the open field on the western end of the tract, featuring famous flyers of the day with Wilbur Wright in attendance. In  the community seceded from the Township of Ocean, taking the borough form of government. The community is strictly singlefamily residential homes with businesses of any kind restricted by borough ordinance. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Edelson, Marjorie, and Kay Zimmerer. An Historic Perspective of the Township of Ocean. Ocean Township: Township of Ocean Historical Society, . Sylvester, Marie A., Around Deal Lake. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Marie A. Sylvester

Intracoastal Waterway

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International Union of Electrical Workers. Chartered in November , the International Union of Electrical Workers (IUE) dislodged the leftist United Electrical Workers (UE) as the dominant electrical industrial union in New Jersey. After a period of sustained growth through the early s, national membership in the IUE has declined from , to ,—owing to the global economy and outsourcing of production. In  the IUE consolidated New York and New Jersey into IUE District Three, headquartered in East Rutherford. New Jersey’s IUE membership currently stands at twenty thousand. IUE roots in the Garden State are firm. Founding IUE president James B. Carey was born in Glassboro. The union established labor education programs and funded a labor library at Rutgers University during the s and s. New Jersey’s electrical workers held rank in the -day Westinghouse strike (–) and the GE national strikes of  and . In  IUE members occupied the GE plant in Bloomfield to protest the closing of the plant. The IUE has been a force in state politics. It has succeeded in electing members to the New Jersey state assembly and to prominent positions within the New Jersey State Industrial Union Council. Filippelli, Ronald L., and Mark D. McColloch. Cold War in the Working Class: The Rise and Decline of the United Electrical Workers. Albany: State University of New York Press, . Schatz, Ronald W. The Electrical Workers: A History of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse, – . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also labor movement

James P. Quigel, Jr.

interurban railways. Although New Jersey was never the heartland of the electric intercity railway, it briefly became a popular form of transport. Near the close of the nineteenth century, Americans began to use electric-powered intercity railways (in reality, rural trolleys) as a transition between the horse and buggy and the automobile and bus. These upstart companies frequently installed track and overhead wire along a public road that connected several communities and perhaps served a cemetery, amusement park, or campground. In the mid-s one of these pioneer roads opened between Bridgeton and Millville in the south-central part of the state, and it later extended to Bivalve, an active oystering port. As replacement technologies made rapid, long-distance interurban railways fully practical, a transport revolution was at hand—interurban railways appeared to be the wave of the future. More ambitious projects followed in both the nation and the state; between  and  several important electric intercity railways appeared in New Jersey, including the Atlantic City and Shore Railroad Company, North Jersey Rapid Transit Company, and New Jersey Interurban Company.

Public Service Corporation railway trolleys at Broad and Market streets, Newark, .

Courtesy North Jersey Electric Railway Historical Society, Rahway. Francis Collection, Negative 1357.

It was the Public Service Corporation of New Jersey (PSC), however, that constructed the state’s most significant network. By the early years of the twentieth century this firm operated an array of street railways in Jersey City, Newark, and in other parts of North Jersey. Although some of these “car lines’’ were intercity and contained sections of private rights-of-way, they were never considered to be bona fide interurban railways, largely because of their cheap construction, inexpensive rolling stock, and overall trolleylike qualities. Nevertheless, PSC arguably developed true interurban railways. Between  and  the company constructed the Camden and Trenton Railway, a distinctive feature of which was its nonstandard gauge of five feet, the wider gauge of the Camden city lines. When the Camden and Trenton Railway opened, it was possible for travelers to make a through trip between Camden and Jersey City with a change of cars in Trenton. Few people made such a trip, however, since it required nearly nine hours—much slower than the competing steam railways. Sensing the popularity of longdistance service, PSC built a new line on mostly private rights-of-way between Trenton and the North Jersey area. On July , , what became known as the Fast Line opened, and soon connectors allowed the heavy steel passenger equipment to enter Perth Amboy and Carteret. The Fast Line failed financially, in part because of the growing popularity of the private automobile. In the s and early s the company reduced service, in places substituting buses, and finally abandoned the trackage. A similar fate befell the other interurban

railways in the Garden State; abandonments became ubiquitous. The New Jersey Interurban Company, for example, which connected Port Murray and Phillipsburg, folded in , nineteen years after it opened. What occurred in New Jersey happened elsewhere, with the exception of that small group of interurban railways, mostly in the Midwest and West, which established a profitable carload-freight business. Hilton, George W., and John F. Due. The Electric Interurban Railways in America. Stanford: Stanford University Press, .

See also light rail; transportation

H. Roger Grant

Intracoastal Waterway. Often abbreviated as ICW, the Intracoastal Waterway allows boats to travel inside the barrier islands all along the East and Gulf Coasts of the United States. It is a joining of bays, sounds, rivers, estuaries, and man-made canals that provides an integrated waterway unequaled anywhere in the world. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the increase in commercial traffic on the water, as well as the heightening interest in pleasure boats, induced the state of New Jersey and finally the federal government to recognize the need for this inside waterway system between the mainland and the barrier islands. In  New Jersey began dredging a channel north from Cape May. By  the New Jersey section of the Intracoastal Waterway reached  miles from Cape May to the northern end of Barnegat Bay. That same year

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Inventors Hall of Fame River to Sandy Hook Bay. Although the Intracoastal Waterway provides a protected thoroughfare for most boats, parts of the waterway have constraints for some due to water depth or mast heights, which are limited by fixed bridges.

MANASQUAN

INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY

Launer, Donald. A Cruising Guide to New Jersey Waters. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Jersey Shore; marinas

Donald Launer N

Inventors Hall of Fame. In  Philip Atlantic City

ATLANTIC OCEAN 0 CAPE MAY

10 miles

© Rutgers, The State University

the state obtained a right-of-way for a land cut that would extend this waterway from Bay Head, at the north end of Barnegat Bay, to the Manasquan River and Manasquan Inlet. This man-made canal would be known as the Point Pleasant Canal. The state kept digging this canal until World War I forced suspension of the operation. Digging resumed after the war, and in February , with appropriate ceremonies, the Manasquan River and Barnegat Bay merged; but within a few months after the opening of the canal, Manasquan Inlet had closed. Some blamed the unpredictable Atlantic Ocean; others blamed it on the canal, suggesting that the new waterway diverted so much water that there was not enough to keep the inlet open. Finally a joint county, state, and federal program was undertaken to cut through the dunes and beach and create a -foot-wide inlet enclosed by stone jetties. The new inlet was completed and opened in . The ICW proved its worth a few years later when, during World War II, it allowed oil barges and other commercial traffic to move inland, safe from the marauding U-boats that were hugging the New Jersey coast and the approaches to New York Harbor. The New Jersey section of the ICW, from Manasquan to Cape May, is covered by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration charts # (Sandy Hook to Little Egg Harbor) and # (Little Egg Harbor to Cape May). On these charts the waterway is shown as a magenta line, with mileage markers at five-mile intervals. Aids to navigation on this New Jersey section of the Intracoastal Waterway are sequentially numbered from the Point Pleasant Canal south to Cape May. The ICW was never completed from the Manasquan

Sperber, a patent lawyer and an alumnus of the New Jersey Institute of Technology, began a campaign to acknowledge top inventors who improved the state’s standard of living. Two years later, a panel of industrial leaders and academics inducted Thomas Edison, Albert Einstein, and nine others. More than two hundred past and present inventors have been honored since then in exhibits at NJIT’s Guttenberg Hall in Newark and on a Web site hosted by the school. Inventions cited by the Hall of Fame range from television to ice cream cones and golf tees.

Kevin Coughlin

Irish.

The arrival of immigrants from Ireland has been a feature of New Jersey history from earliest times. Insignificant in the seventeenth century, stronger in the eighteenth, exceptional in the nineteenth, and undimmed in the twentieth, the Irish presence has shaped the politics and culture of the colony and the state. In turn, the Irish were themselves shaped by New Jersey, some embracing it as a freer place than the country they left behind, others taking longer to warm to it. The relationship between host and settler, never easy, was fraught with tension for many years. Seventeenth-century settlement was patchy and in some ways only marginally Irish. Quakers under the leadership of Robert Lane of Dublin established themselves in West Jersey (now Camden County) in . Irish mainly in the sense of prior residence in Ireland, they most likely traced their real roots to England. Other settlements also originated in a desire for religious freedom: a group of Baptists came from Tipperary to live in Cohansey, Salem County, in . Later they were joined by Presbyterians, probably from Ulster. Individuals as well as communities made their way to East and West Jersey, eager for the enrichment that early colonial America seemed to promise. Dennis Lynch acquired  acres in Cape May from the West Jersey Company in ; John White of Carlow acquired , acres in Gloucester County in . An occasional Jacobite may also be noticed in late seventeenth-century deeds. William Golden, an officer in the defeated army of King James at the Battle of the Boyne,

acquired more than , acres at Egg Harbor in Cape May in . Eighteenth-century migration, mainly but not exclusively of Scots-Irish Presbyterians, was altogether more impressive. Drawn to New Jersey for a variety of reasons—religious tolerance, economic freedom, ample land— they settled in places that still bear their names: Hackettstown in Morris County, founded by Samuel Hackett of Tyrone in the s; and Flemington in Hunterdon County, founded by Thomas Fleming, also of Tyrone, in . They were a rough-and-ready bunch. In  James Logan, provincial secretary of Pennsylvania, hoping that his fellow Ulster natives who had settled in the Quaker colony would move elsewhere, complained that they were “troublesome settlers to the government and hard neighbors to the Indians.’’ Many did leave Pennsylvania, crossing into central New Jersey to settle along the Millstone, Raritan, and Passaic rivers. Most fell into the category of “middling folk’’: at the lower end of the scale, they were indentured servants, weavers, small farmers, and teachers; slightly higher up, preachers, lawyers, and merchants. A scattering of Irish Catholics also lived in the colony in the eighteenth century. From  to  a German missionary, Father Ferdinand Farmer, tended to a small flock— perhaps a hundred or so—in the far-flung villages and homesteads of northwestern New Jersey. Most of these settlers were ironworkers employed by the Ringwood Company thirty-six miles north of Newark. Estimates vary as to the number of Catholics in New Jersey at the end of the eighteenth century, ranging between  and . The Scots-Irish contribution to the Revolution was notable. Patriot leader William Paterson was born in County Antrim. John Neilson, member of the Continental Congress, was the son of Belfast parents. Irishmen also featured prominently in the Revolutionary army, so much so that in March  Washington, fearing that their restlessness might lead to mutiny, organized a Saint Patrick’s Day ball at Morristown. It was, even Tories conceded, a triumph. Nothing in the eighteenth century prepared New Jersey—or the rest of the United States—for the scale of Irish migration in the century that followed. Even before the Great Famine (–)—the result of devastating and continued failure of the potato crop in Ireland—migration was on the rise. Newark’s first Catholic parish was created as early as  to cope with the influx. In Paterson the Friends of Ireland—part social club, part ginger group supporting Andrew Jackson for the presidency—numbered eightyfive in . Irish labor was largely responsible for the building of the Morris Canal in the s, the Delaware and Raritan Canal in the s, and the Morris and Essex Railroad in the s and s. Precisely as industrialization gathered speed in New Jersey, a

iron industry ready supply of Irish brawn—and sometimes brain—arrived to help it along. “New Jersey is rapidly becoming a great manufacturing state . . . a place of resort for emigrants for seeking work,’’ noticed Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley in . “The emigration is again flowing in upon us,’’ he wrote to the rector of All Hallows College in Dublin in . “I was never more in want of good zealous priests.’’ The famine Irish huddled together. A rural, Catholic people suddenly transplanted to an urban, industrial state, they congregated for comfort in various little Irelands: the Ironbound in Newark, the Fourth Ward in Trenton (“Irishtown’’ in the s), the “Dublin’’ sections of Paterson and Morristown, and the Horseshoe in Jersey City. Solace was sought in the usual places—the parish, the pub, the political meeting. Eventually the sheer scale of the migration transformed New Jersey’s social geography. In , there were , Catholics in the state, served by  priests,  of them from Ireland. By , there were , Catholics,  churches,  priests, and a seminary, Seton Hall College. In  there were  priests and  churches. Many of the clergymen were Irish-born or the children of Irish immigrants. By the end of the nineteenth century an Irish establishment had begun to emerge. Ecclesiastically, they were the most dominant group in the state—a fact occasionally resented by Germans and Italians, the former in particular. Politically, they were a force to be reckoned with, especially in Newark, Jersey City, and Trenton. Socially, they seemed almost respectable. As new ethnicities swamped the state, especially immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, the Irish looked not so threatening as before. The twentieth century magnified these trends. Irish political dominance, for good or ill, came to be associated with the urban machines of larger-than-life figures like “Big Jim’’ Smith of Newark, Thomas McCran of Paterson, and (boss of bosses) Frank Hague of Jersey City. A parallel development was Irish participation in unionism and labor politics. The Paterson silk strike of , the Gloucester City trolley strike of , and the Camden shipyard strike of  all owed something to Irish industrial activism. The price of this success was diminished ethnic identity. “Irishness’’ lost much of its social salience in an era of suburbs. It was a reason for Saint Patrick’s Day celebrations, or perhaps the motivation for a trip to Europe— little more. When Irish Americans achieved the highest office in the state with the gubernatorial victories of Richard Hughes in  and William Cahill in , a once marginal group had come into its own. For all that, their Irishness, by now attenuated and sentimental, seemed hardly very Irish any more. Glazier, Michael, ed. The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, .

Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Dermot Quinn

iron industry.

The mining and manufacturing of iron was important to New Jersey for over two centuries. Large bodies of quality ore and numerous manufacturing facilities, in combination with New Jersey’s strategic location, established the state’s importance as an iron producer to the nation. New Jersey iron was integral to agriculture, construction, transportation, and weaponry from colonial times to the beginning of the twentieth century. Iron ores are common throughout New Jersey, from magnetite and hematite in the north to the bog iron more common in the south. While New Jersey Indians used powdered ore for pigments, they had no knowledge of refining the metal. Northern iron resources may have been explored by European settlers as early as , but the first known ironworks in the state was James Grover’s circa  Tinton Furnace, in today’s Monmouth County—one of the first furnaces in the country. In the north, the  Troy forge was the first recorded refinery. It appears that the first serious exploitation of northern New Jersey iron deposits began at this time. Ore was first mined informally under “forge rights,’’ whereby ore was extracted by private forgemen, mining for their own personal use and not for resale, from properties such as farms that were not operated as formal mines. The property owner would make a small additional income, and the forgeman

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would get the ore cheaper than buying it from a mine. The southern iron works relied on scattered but sometimes extensive bog ore deposits. The first was discovered near Shrewsbury in Monmouth County. The two largest, covering sixty square miles each, were along the Mullica and Wading rivers. The first established mine in the north was the circa  Dickerson Mine in Morris County. Subsequently, ore explorations resulted in the opening of numerous additional mines. The largest ones produced over , tons per annum at their peak, with ore quality frequently comparable to the best in the world. Ironworks began with bloomery forges for wrought iron, and larger furnaces for cast iron—both charcoal fueled. There were perhaps two hundred of these operations in the state. The introduction of hot-blast furnaces and anthracite fuel in the s made many manufactories obsolete. They were also very dependent on ease of transportation, market fluctuations, and other economic conditions. Periodic financial depressions put many out of business. Most of the surviving enterprises closed with the s opening of the Lake Superior ore beds, which could be quickly, easily, and more safely strip mined, and which were closer to ship transport. Much of the refining process for New Jersey ores was already in the hands of Pennsylvania iron companies that had bought out owners of the more productive Garden State mines. A few iron mines and furnaces attempted to take advantage of bullish iron markets into the twentieth century. However, these markets rarely lasted, and the industry eventually died. The largest of the surviving mines,

Andover Iron Company Furnace, Phillipsburg, .

Courtesy of Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, DE.

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Irvington

IRON INDUSTRY c. 1800

TROY FORGE

TINTON FURNACE

Rolling & Slitting Mills Bog iron ore IRON MINES Magnetite ore Hematite ore

population increased farms were established, homes built, and a separate town took shape (traditionally ). Eventually, the Camp family owned one-third of current Irvington, and starting about  the settlement was called Camptown. The popularity of Stephen Foster’s Camptown Races prompted residents to rename their village in  to honor Washington Irving, and the federal government changed the post office name of the unincorporated village of Camptown to Irvington on November , . Irvington remained a section of Clinton Township until becoming independent in . Fertile land made produce farming the primary industry in Irvington until competition from southern crops destroyed the market. Renowned strawberry and greenhouse flower industries continued into the twentieth century, and then were replaced by industry and workers spreading out from Newark. Olympic Park, a picnic ground frequented by German Americans, developed into a major amusement park after  with numerous attractions, including the world’s largest swimming pool. Today Irvington is home to a number of light industries as well as being a dense residential community plagued by urban decay. In , the population of , was  percent black and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Siegel, Alan A. Irvington. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . ———. An Outline History of Irvington, New Jersey. Irvington: Irvington Historical Society, . ———. Out of Our Past: A History of Irvington, New Jersey. Irvington: Irvington Centennial Committee, .

James A. Kaser

N

0

20 miles © Rutgers, The State University

at Mount Hope and Hibernia, saw their last major production in the s. Despite later attempts to revitalize their operations, only Mount Hope remains in operation—now for quarrying mineral products other than iron. McCormick, Richard. New Jersey from Colony to State, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Pierce, Arthur. Iron in the Pines. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also metalworking; minerals; mining

Kevin C. Perry

Irvington.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. Initially used for pasture and wood lots by Newark landholders, as the town

Iselin. .-square-mile section of Woodbridge Township in Middlesex County. First occupied by European farmers in the seventeenth century, a settlement developed at the T intersection of today’s Green Street and Chain O’ Hills Road. The town received its charter on June , , under the name “Perrytown,’’ perhaps named for the tavern keeper of the inn at the intersection. On April , , a religious group called the Union Society filed for a name change to Unionville. This name lasted until the s, when the town was renamed Iselin for Adrian George Iselin, a successful New York stockbroker and philanthropist. There are several conjectures as to why the town was renamed in Iselin’s honor. According to one version, it was because Iselin was instrumental in establishing an exclusive finishing school for girls in the town, in another, because he subsidized the erection of a new train station (the railroad company subsequently changing the station name to Iselin). Today, the station in Iselin, now called MetroPark, is a park-and-ride rail station, dedicated in , that services the Northeast Corridor and has been responsible for the growth of the office and industrial

Italians complex also known as MetroPark. This, in part, has been responsible for the  percent increase of the East Asian Indian community in the area since . Perry, Tex, and David T. Miller, Sr. A History of Iselin, New Jersey. Colonia: St. George Press, .

Patricia M. McGuire

Islam. Islam, the submission of the individual will to the will of Allah (God), is based on the seventh-century teachings of its Arab founder, the Prophet Muhammad ibn ’Abdullah, as recorded in the Holy Qur’an. Muslims (adherents to Islam) believe that Islam represents Allah’s last revelation to humankind, following in succession the prophets of Judaism and Christianity. The five pillars of Islam require that Muslims confess their faith in Allah, pray five times daily, fast during the month of Ramadan, give to charity, and make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetimes. In the United States in , although population estimates of religious affiliation are imprecise, there were between  and  million Muslims. Reflecting the ethnic, cultural, and political diversity found across the United States and the world, New Jersey Muslims have been actively building Islamic communities since the s. One of the earliest was the Black Nationalist Moorish Science Temple of America, founded in Newark in . In  a missionary group from India, the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam, began converting European and West Indian immigrants in Gloucester. Both of these communities continue today, although they, like the Shi‘i and the Nation of Islam, are small in comparison with the majority orthodox communities of Sunni Muslims. With significant populations of African Americans, and with an increasing number of Middle Eastern and African immigrants since the s, New Jersey cities such as East Orange, Jersey City, Newark, New Brunswick, Paterson, and Trenton, as well as their surrounding suburbs, are major centers for Sunni Islamic worship, community services, and schools. In  an estimated , Muslims lived in New Jersey. Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck, and Jane Idleman Smith, eds. Muslim Communities in North America. Albany: State University of New York Press, . Hasan, Asma Gull. American Muslims: The New Generation. New York: Continuum, . Turner, Richard Brent. Islam in the African American Experience. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, .

See also religion

Khalil G. Muhammad

Island Heights.

.-square-mile borough located near Toms River in Ocean County. Dotted with Victorian-style homes, Island Heights overlooks the Toms River. The first inhabitants were the Lenape Indians, who came to fish. In , the Dillion Family purchased the “island’’ (it is really a

part of the mainland), but they were banished at the end of the eighteenth century for being Loyalists. In the early s, shipping became lucrative. When land erosion silted up the waterway, it made navigation difficult and shipping declined. In the late nineteenth century, a group of Methodists purchased the land and formed the Island Heights Association. The intention was to promote a Christian camp meeting ground. The prohibition of the sale and consumption of alcohol remains in effect today. In the early twentieth century, John Wanamaker, a Philadelphia retail merchant, purchased thirteen acres to provide a two-week summer camp to his employees under the age of eighteen. The camp regime consisted of morning military drills and afternoon leisure activities. The town of Island Heights has taken ownership of the abandoned campsite; future plans involve a cultural center. In spite of the population increase and passage of time, small family-owned businesses still continue to flourish in this quaint shore town. The population in  of , was  percent white and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ocean County Historical Society. Along the Toms River. Dover, NH: Arcadia Publishing, . Zulker, William Allen. John Wanamaker—King of Merchants. Wayne, PA: Eaglecrest Press, .

Joyce Kane

Israel Crane House.

The home of the Crane family in Montclair was constructed in  by Essex County entrepreneur Israel “King’’ Crane. Crane established a prosperous general store in Montclair and built a toll road from Newark to Caldwell. The original Federalstyle house was later remodeled in the Greek Revival style to include a raised, flat roofline, a columned front porch, and distinctive openwork wrought iron grills. The Crane House was moved from Glen Ridge Avenue to its present Orange Road location in  by the Montclair Historical Society, which uses the house as its headquarters.

Groff, Sybil McC. New Jersey’s Historic Houses: A Guide to Homes Open to the Public. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, .

See also historic sites

Evelyn Stryker Lewis

Italians.

Italians are the largest ethnic group in New Jersey today, constituting nearly  percent of the state’s population. Yet they hardly figure at all in the early history of New Jersey, even though one of the first Italian New Jerseyans, Giovanni Battista Sartori, established the first Catholic church in New Jersey and the first spaghetti factory in the United States, both in Trenton around . In the census of  only  New Jerseyans were recorded as born in Italy. That number would rise dramatically in the last decades of the nineteenth century. In 

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there were , Italians in Newark alone, with new immigrants arriving daily in large numbers. The state’s population of Italian immigrants reached a peak in , when , New Jerseyans listed Italy as their place of birth. Although the number of New Jerseyans actually born in Italy has since declined to , (according to the  census), the number of persons claiming Italian ancestry continues to grow impressively. Thus, in the decade between  and , the total population of New Jersey’s Italian Americans rose from ,, to ,,. Many of New Jersey’s first Italian immigrants in the s settled in southern New Jersey, where they worked as agricultural laborers in towns like Vineland and Hammonton. From the s onward, many Italians from the Philadelphia area worked as migrant laborers during the summer in the fields of south Jersey. But by the s, with the start of the great wave of Italian immigration, most of New Jersey’s Italian newcomers found work in the urban construction trades–even though most of them had had experience only in agricultural work in rural areas of southern Italy. The life they found here was memorably described in Pietro di Donato’s novel Christ in Concrete (), about the struggle of an Italian family to survive in Newark. Other cities that received large numbers of immigrants were Trenton, Jersey City, Paterson, Hoboken, Union, and Camden. In New Jersey, as elsewhere, Italians from the same regions or towns tended to settle together, in what have been called “urban villages.’’ Thus Newark’s First Ward had a heavy concentration of immigrants from the province of Avellino, in the Neapolitan hinterland; Trenton became home to many Italians from the province of Potenza; Hoboken received many Italians from Malfetta in Puglia; and a large group from Vasto, in Abruzzo, settled in Union City. Some Italians in New Jersey’s cities were active in socialist and anarchist causes and also in the nascent labor movement. Paterson, in particular, was a hotbed of anarchism. It was in Paterson that Gaetano Bresci, who would assassinate Italy’s King Umberto I in , learned his anarchist doctrine and also acquired the fatal revolver. Italians in New Jersey have had a historically interesting relationship with the Roman Catholic Church. In the s and early s Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist missionaries were able to find significant numbers of converts among the Italian immigrants. The Catholic Church responded by establishing “Italian’’ parishes with Italian-speaking priests. At first these were not always successful. In a candid letter of  an Irish American priest who had learned Italian in Genoa and been assigned to an Italian parish in Newark requested transfer to an “English’’ parish, because “I have a sort of dread of the Italians . . . I have spent days plucking up courage to call on families that were being perverted from the

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Ives, Charles Edward newspaper, La scopa (The Broom), was published in Paterson by Francesco Pitea. And the antifascist historian Gaetano Salvemini made a public address in Hoboken. After Pearl Harbor and Mussolini’s declaration of war on the United States, support for fascism quickly disappeared. More than , New Jersey Italian Americans served in the U.S. armed forces in World War II. Gay Talese’s remarkable family history, Unto the Sons, which is centered on his youth in Ocean City, describes the awkward but substantial patriotism of Italian Americans during the war. The postwar years brought prosperity to many Italian Americans, who in large numbers moved out of New Jersey’s major cities to the suburbs. Those years, too, saw significant numbers of Italians enter state and national politics, a generational cohort that was led by U.S. Representative Peter Rodino. After decades of successful assimilation into an American culture that they also in large part helped to create (in music, note Frank Sinatra and Bruce Springsteen—Italian on his mother’s side), New Jersey’s Italians are increasingly asserting their own cultural identity and proudly exploring their rich history. Immerso, Michael. Newark’s Little Italy: The Vanished First Ward. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Starr, Dennis J. The Italians of New Jersey: A Historical Introduction and Bibliography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

William J. Connell

Ives, Charles Edward

(b. Oct. , ;

d. May , ). Composer. Charles Ives served

Feast of Saint Gerard, Newark, .

Courtesy Newark Public Library. faith, [but] time and again I . . . have walked past their houses for the want of courage to enter.’’ In  a parishioner in Jersey City (Gersori Citi ) wrote to Bishop Winand M. Wigger, criticizing an Italian priest who had abandoned his Italian church, leaving “many weak and under the slavery of the Americans.’’ Yet, the creation of specifically Italian parishes and also the extensive work of the sisters of the Filippini Order, who arrived first in Trenton in , encouraged the overwhelming majority of Italians to remain Catholic. In more recent times, parishes such as Saint Lucy’s and Saint Rocco’s in Newark continue to serve as religious and cultural focuses for many of the state’s Italian Americans. During the fascist period in Italy, the government of Mussolini received substantial

support from Italians in New Jersey. Fascist “circles’’were established in Camden, Garfield, Hackensack, Hoboken, Jersey City, Montclair, Nutley, Orange, Trenton, West Hoboken, and West New York. Contacts between the fascist regime and New Jersey Italians were even encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church in the s and s, after the Italian government’s Concordat with the Vatican. In  Bishop Thomas Walsh led a delegation of Boy Scouts of the Fascisti League of North America on a visit to Rome and Mussolini. Ten thousand people attended a fascist rally in Morristown in , held on the grounds of the Filippini Sisters at Villa Walsh. In those same years, however, Italians active in labor unions and the socialist movement spoke out against Mussolini and fascism. An antifascist

from  to  as organist of Bloomfield’s Presbyterian “Church on the Green.’’ His father was an unconventional town bandmaster in Danbury, Connecticut. Ives similarly remained a nonconformist, building on a solid musical education at Yale with explorations into new forms and rhythms. A successful insurance business allowed him to support his family and remain unfettered by the musical establishment. After business hours, he composed three symphonies and dozens of songs and chamber and piano pieces. He lived to see his work performed by leading artists and to receive a Pulitzer Prize. Burkholder, J. Peter, ed. Charles Ives and His World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Feder, Stuart. The Life of Charles Ives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Rossiter, Frank. Charles Ives and His America. New York: Liveright, .

See also classical music

Maureen Dillon

J Jackson. At . square miles, the largest township in Ocean County. Incorporated in March , Jackson was settled by the English in  after New York governor Richard Nicoll ousted Peter Stuyvesant, ending Dutch sovereignty in colonial New Jersey. Nicoll gave the Monmouth Patent to twelve Englishmen from Long Island, granting them the eastern half of the township in what was then Monmouth County. The township, named in honor of former president Andrew Jackson, included the lower portions of Freehold and Upper Freehold townships and the northern end of Dover Township. In , part of the original township was set aside to create Plumstead Township, and in , the township became part of Ocean County. In , Jackson Township acquired a portion of the western section of Howell Township. Jackson’s colonial industries included agriculture, forestry, charcoal manufacturing, and cranberry production. After World War I, poultry farming dominated. Cassville is noted for its Russsian settlement; onion-domed Saint Vladimir’s Church is open for tours. Today, Jackson is a suburban township that includes retirement communities as well as the Great Adventure entertainment theme park. The population of Jackson according to the  census was ,, and was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

during World War II. He married Bernidine Rosenbaum and they had two daughters. In  Jacobs served as a delegate to the state constitutional convention and was instrumental in revising the antiquated court system. In  Gov. Alfred Driscoll appointed him to the superior court and in  to the supreme court, where he served until mandatory retirement in . As a judge, Jacobs was noted for keen intellect and prolific writing. Never hesitant to initiate reform, he declared, “When a doctrine of law is unfair, it must be changed into a concept that serves today’s society.’’ His decisions led to the establishment of the right of tenants to sue landlords, teachers to obtain reasons for dismissal, and prisoners to receive justification for parole denial. Pollock, Stewart G. “Celebrating Fifty Years of Judicial Reform under the  New Jersey Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

See also chief justice of the supreme court

Robert J. Martin

Jacobsen, Antonio Nicolo Gasparo (b. Nov. , ; d. ). Painter. Born in Copenhagen, Denmark, Antonio Jacobsen became known as the “Audubon of Steam Vessels.’’ More a musician by profession than an artist, Jacobsen became a student of realism at the Royal Academy in Copenhagen. In  he immigrated to the United States to escape service in the Franco-Prussian War. He worked as a safe decorator for the Marvin Safe Company in New York City. A few years later, Jacobsen began to paint portraits of the ships owned by the Old Dominion Steamship Line. In the years between  to  he painted more than , portraits. His images of the ships were often based on the plans and blueprints supplied by the builders of the ships. Sail and steam, commercial and naval, large and small, all manner of

craft found representation in Jacobsen’s work. His clients—mostly ships’ officers, crewmen, and owners—demanded accuracy. And accuracy was what they received. So well, in fact, did he document this parade of ships, and New York’s importance as a port, that he deserves the dual titles of marine historian and marine artist. Although he probably never visited Louisiana, Jacobsen received many painting commissions between  and  from shipping lines based there, including the Central American Steamship Company, the Morgan Line, and the New Orleans–Belize Royal Mail Company. These companies often asked Jacobsen to render the image of a particular ship for each port where the companies maintained an office. Consequently, it was relatively common for him to paint numerous portraits of the same ship, only in different settings. In , he moved to West Hoboken and set up a studio from which he painted a variety of marine and ship portraits. According to Who Was Who in American Art “in his later life, his daughter, Helen, helped paint the sky and water of his pictures. His son Carl even painted some of his own ship portraits.’’ Most of his paintings are signed and his address was often included as well. This is thought to have been a method of advertisement. During all but his last few years, Jacobsen enjoyed a comfortable lifestyle, which reflected the financial success of his life’s work. He died in West Hoboken in . Jacobsen, Anita. From Sail to Steam: The Story of Antonio Jacobsen, Marine Artist. Staten Island, NY: Manor Publishing, . Sniffen, Harold Scott. The Checklist: Paintings and Sketches by Antonio N. G. Jacobsen, – . New York: Smith Gallery, .

See also art

Stephen Maynard

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, David T., Sr. A Brief History Jackson Township, New Jersey. Jackson: Jackson Township Historic Commission and Preservation Society, .

Sagan T. Sanderson

Jacobs, Nathan L. (b. Feb. , ; d. Jan. , ). Lawyer, jurist, and chief justice of

the New Jersey Supreme Court. Born in Russia, Nathan L. Jacobs immigrated to America at an early age and attended public schools in Bayonne. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in  and earned an LL.B. and an S.J.D. from Harvard Law School in . After admission to the New Jersey bar in , he practiced law in Newark with Arthur Vanderbilt, future chief justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court, and later held several governmental positions, including state attorney in the Office of Price Administration

Antonio Jacobsen, E. M. Millard, . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Mariners’ Museum, Newport News, VA. 417

418

Jacobson, Joel R.

Jacobson, Joel R.

(b. July , ; d. Dec.

, ). Labor leader and public official. Joel

Jacobson was born in Newark and graduated from New York University with a degree in journalism in . He became involved in the labor movement as an organizer with the International Ladies Garment Workers’ Union. Following military service in World War II, he quickly rose to become a major figure in New Jersey’s industrial union movement. As an executive vice president of the New Jersey Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and as president of the New Jersey Industrial Union Council, he played a central role in the rivalry between New Jersey’s young industrial unions and the older unions of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in the s and s. He also served as community relations director for Region  of the United Auto Workers from  to . The s saw Jacobson serve in a series of political appointments. After three years of service on the state’s Board of Public Utilities, he was appointed New Jersey’s first energy commissioner in , a post from which he attacked major oil companies for price gouging. In  Gov. Brendan Byrne’s appointment of Jacobson to the Casino Control Commission spurred a contentious senate confirmation hearing. His careful scrutiny of casino practices and outspoken criticisms contrasted strongly with the board’s traditional deference to the industry’s leaders. In  he was appointed by a federal judge to be trustee of Union City’s Teamsters Local  under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) statutes. The notoriously mob-dominated local was then controlled by confederates of gangster Anthony Provenzano. Jacobson’s efforts to purge the union of the mob while encouraging “democratic, militant trade unionism’’ among its members did not satisfy Judge Harold A. Ackerman, who replaced Jacobson a year later with Somerville lawyer Edwin Stier. Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

Clayton Sinyai

James, duke of York D. Sept. , ).

(b. Oct. , ;

Lord High Admiral of the British Navy, Lord Proprietor of New York, and later King James II (–). The second son of King Charles I, James, duke of York, and his older brother Charles spent much of their youth in exile in France and the Netherlands after their father’s regicide, trying to muster a force that would bring the monarchy back to power and the English Civil War to a close. In , Charles II was restored to his father’s throne, giving James control of the royal navy, which he reorganized and used to encourage English trade and colonization. The duke helped to organize the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa (later the Royal African Company) and the Morocco Company,

which strengthened the Crown’s monopolies in many areas of trans-Atlantic commerce, including the African slave trade. As the country eased back into monarchal rule, James and his brother turned their attention across the Atlantic Ocean to England’s American colonies: Puritan New England was operating nearly autonomously of the mother country, and the Dutch had settled on land that England claimed, but had been unable to develop during their years of political turmoil. By allying himself with merchants, traders, and members of Parliament opposed to the economically powerful Dutch, James soon stood at the head of a powerful faction that recommended military action against the Dutch colonies in New Netherland. In September , Col. Richard Nicholls, commanding a fleet of three English battleships, sailed into the Dutch port of New Amsterdam, where his men outnumbered Dutch troops by nearly two to one. The town surrendered immediately, and was soon renamed New York. Earlier, in March , Charles II had granted to his brother James a large swath of land encompassing what is now New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, as well as Maine and other areas north of the original New England colonies. Within two months, James had transferred his rights over a portion of that territory to his friends Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. The land was “to be called by the name or names of New Cæserea or New Jersey,’’ after Carteret’s Isle of Jersey home. Colonel Nicholls, who had already begun selling some of the New Jersey lands when he heard of the Berkeley-Carteret grant, protested to James that he was giving up the best part of his territory. He suggested that Berkeley and Carteret would not be able to make the best of the region’s potential, but the duke refused to rescind his gift. James stayed out of the political and legal struggles in New Jersey. Only once did he step in: to support Sir George’s cousin Philip Carteret in his efforts to recapture his governorship, after one disgruntled New Jersey faction tried to establish Sir George’s son James as a more tractable governor. James is best known for his brief but ignominious stay on England’s throne. Crowned in  after his brother’s death, James was unpopular, both for his absolutist tendencies and his open Catholicism. In , he was deposed by his daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, and was forced to spend the rest of his life in exile. Boyd, Julian P., ed. Fundamental Laws and Constitutions of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Miller, John. James II. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Kristen Block

Jamesburg.

.-square-mile borough in southern Middlesex County. Jamesburg was first settled in the late s by a Scotsman, William Davison, in proximity to the Manalapan Brook. In  the Camden and Amboy Railroad, which crossed the upper part of town, changed the future of Jamesburg, increasing travel and commerce and assuring it would not pass into oblivion as many early grist- and sawmill sites had. It was incorporated in  when it split off from the township of Monroe. The borough was named for James Buckelew, landowner, pioneering farmer, and enterprising businessman. He also built his own school to which “all children were welcome.’’ The cornerstone read “James B’’ and the growing settlement soon became known as James B. or Jamesburg. In early days it was home to the world’s largest shirt factory (Downs, Gourlay, and Finch established ). Other industries were Kerrs’ Butterscotch Company and the railroad, which employed about three hundred people. Today the borough is primarily residential with many fine shops lining its business district. The  census showed the population of , to be  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hill, T. Wilton. Jamesburg, New Jersey: Historical Address. Philadelphia: Allen, Lane, and Scott’s Print House, . Kerwin, Louise M. One-Hundredth Anniversary, – : The Story of Jamesburg. Jamesburg: Jamesburg Historical Society, .

Nancy J. Luberecki

James J. Howard Marine Sciences Laboratory. Through the efforts of Dr. Lionel A. Walford, the Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory was established in  under the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. The laboratory was housed in the former Fort Hancock Army Hospital, which was designed by Stanford White in the s on Sandy Hook. Destroyed by fire in , the original laboratory was rebuilt in  near the old site and renamed the James J. Howard Marine Sciences Laboratory, after the U.S. representative for New Jersey’s d District who led the rebuilding effort. A new laboratory was constructed in . The lab is part of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries, U.S. Department of Commerce. The mission of the research conducted at the lab is to characterize coastal marine habitats and understand habitat ecology with respect to management of fishery resources.

Catherine Noonan

James Lawrence House.

The James Lawrence House, located at  High Street, Burlington, is a two-and-one-half-story structure attached to the James Fenimore Cooper

Japanese House. Hugh Hartshorne, a Burlington colonial official, had the house built around . The architect is unknown. Major renovations altered the house in about  and , and twice in the s. The association of James Lawrence, the U.S. naval hero, with the house is minimal. Lawrence was born there and lived in the house with his father and siblings until the age of twelve. As commander of the USS Chesapeake, Lawrence was mortally wounded in a naval battle in  and earned lasting fame with his final command, “Don’t give up the ship!’’ Ownership of the house changed frequently over the years. William Marrs acquired the property in  and four years later deeded it to his five sisters, Sophia, Margaret, Sara, Annie, and Jessie Marrs. In  the three surviving sisters deeded the property to the state of New Jersey. The Burlington County Historical Society maintains and operates the Lawrence House for the state. The interior of the house, which is open to the public, is furnished to a circa  style. Contents include some Lawrence family furniture and wood from the Chesapeake. The gold medal commissioned by Congress to honor Lawrence for his heroism in sinking the HMS Peacock () is displayed under glass. Photographs of ships named for Lawrence hang in various rooms. See also historic sites

Norman V. Blantz

Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum. The Zimmerli Art Museum at Rutgers University was founded in  as a small art gallery on the New Brunswick campus. The museum has been expanded five times since its inception. With approximately fifty thousand works of art, and with a total of , square feet of exhibition space, the Zimmerli Art Museum is now ranked, according to the Association of Art Museum Directors’  statistics survey, among the top  percent of university museums in the nation. The museum’s extensive and varied permanent collections include concentrations in nineteenth-century French graphics, Russian and Soviet art, twentieth-century American art, and contemporary printmaking. With almost twenty thousand works of art from the Norton and Nancy Dodge Collection of Nonconformist Art from the Soviet Union, along with the George Riabov Collection of Russian art, the museum houses the largest collection of Russian art outside Russia. The permanent collection also features a survey of Western art from the fifteenth century to the present, with an American art collection of painting and sculpture highlighting mid-twentieth-century surrealism and abstraction. Other significant collections include American Stained Glass, Rutgers University Collection of Illustrations for Children’s Literature, Women Artists, and Japonisme. See also museums

Phillip Dennis Cate

James Wilson Marshall House. The boyhood home of James Wilson Marshall (–), the first person to discover gold in California, is located on Bridge Street, the main thoroughfare of Lambertville. The Federal-style brick house was built in  by Marshall’s father, Philip, who operated his wheelwright shop on the same property. The Marshalls were among the earliest European settlers in the area, and their original homestead, Round Mountain Farm (still known as Marshall’s Corner), is located in Hopewell Township, Mercer County, approximately nine miles east of Lambertville. In  Marshall’s father died, and the house and property were sold to pay debts. James traveled west, settled in California in , and at Sutter’s Mill in January  discovered the gold that made him famous. In  the Marshall House was deeded to the New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic Development by its then owner, the Church of Saint John the Evangelist. Currently, the Lambertville Historical Society rents the house for use as its headquarters. The Marshall House is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. Gay, Theressa. James W. Marshall, the Discoverer of California Gold: A Biography. Georgetown, CA: Talisman Press, .

See also historic sites

Marlene Craig

Janifer, Clarence Sumner

(b. ;

d. Nov. , ).

Physician and public health official. A native of Newark, Clarence Sumner Janifer graduated from New York Homeopathic Medical College in . He began practice in Newark in , specializing in pediatrics. He successfully challenged

Dr. Clarence S. Janifer, c. .

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark.

419

the status quo by becoming the first African American member of the Medical Society of New Jersey (founded in ) in . As a medical officer with an American infantry unit, Janifer was awarded the French Croix de Guerre for bravery during the First World War. He was employed for over forty years by the Newark Health Department, earned two master’s degrees in health, and was one of two African American physicians who integrated the staff of the Newark City Hospital in . Hutner, Geraldine R. “Crossing the Color Barrier in New Jersey.’’ New Jersey Medicine  (): –.

Sandra Moss

Japanese. The first Japanese in New Jersey were students who came to New Brunswick in the s to study at Rutgers College and Rutgers Grammar School (now Rutgers Preparatory School). At the end of the Tokugawa era and early Meiji period, local and central governments encouraged study abroad as part of Japan’s drive to acquire Western knowledge. Rutgers College had close ties with the Dutch Reformed Church, whose missionaries, such as Guido Verbeck, were active in Japan during the Meiji period. The missionaries’ influential role as educators encouraged many of their students to choose Rutgers as their study destination and led to a strong New Jersey– Japan educational exchange. After their studies, some of the first students gained social distinction in Japan; the best known of all was Matsukata Kojiro, who became an industrial entrepreneur and major art collector. Others less fortunate, such as Kusakabe Taro, died while attending Rutgers and were buried in the Willow Grove Cemetery in New Brunswick. The tradition of educational exchange is maintained today, involving the city of New Brunswick and Rutgers University and the cities of Fukui and Tsuruoka and Fukui University. The second Japanese influx occurred between  and , when citizens of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast settled at Seabrook, forty-five miles south of Philadelphia, to work at the farm and food-processing plant owned by Charles F. Seabrook. These Japanese Americans had been subjected to a series of security measures that culminated in forced removal from their homes into internment camps. When the U.S. Army reversed its internment policy in , the War Relocation Authority, the civilian agency created to care for the evacuees, relocated four generations of Japanese Americans, approximately twenty-five hundred people, to southern New Jersey. This group, the largest incoming ethnic group in the area at the time, arrived from camps in Arkansas, Arizona, and California. The community thrived until the late s, then declined as the younger generation left the farm to seek educational and professional opportunities elsewhere. Today, only few people of Japanese ancestry remain in the Seabrook area.

jazz

420

The third significant influx of Japanese consists mainly of corporate business people and their families. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, they established temporary residence in Fort Lee and its vicinity during their overseas assignments in the New York area. The economic expansion of Japanese companies in the United States in the s and early s brought a record number of Japanese into Fort Lee, Cliffside Park, and Edgewater, where Japanese-oriented businesses, services, specialty stores, and restaurants thrive, making the area a Japanese enclave in the state. In addition to proximity to New York City and affordable real estate, the presence of a Japanese school in Fort Lee, operated according to Japanese Ministry of Education curricular standards, has been an important attraction for Japanese families with school-age children. In , the total population of Japanese citizens in New Jersey was ,. Burks, Ardath W., ed. The Modernizers: Overseas Students, Foreign Employees, and Meiji Japan. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, . Noguchi, Rei R. Seabrook: A New Beginning. Upper Deerfield: Seabrook Educational and Cultural Center, .

See also ethnicity

Kayo Denda

jazz.

Legend has it Sarah Vaughn was “discovered’’ at Harlem’s Apollo Theatre. But back in Newark, some folks tell another story. Vaughn grew up singing with the Mount Zion Church choir and when she was about seventeen, local concert promoter Carl Brinson gave the eager girl with extraordinary range her big shot. He hired her to sing at the old Picadilly, on Peshine Avenue, “the first modern nightspot in Newark to welcome blacks,’’ Brinson said. Brinson, known as “Tiny Prince,’’ said he knew Vaughn was going places, even when others—like his business partners— weren’t so sure. “Sarah, to them, sang off-key,’’ he said. Vaughn would soon after win the amateur night contest at the Apollo in , and continue her rise to international fame, eventually earning the nickname “The Divine One.’’ There are other Jersey jazz angels: Count Basie grew up in Red Bank. And many a career was nurtured around the state and launched from places like Paterson and Trenton, once destinations for the jazz elite. By the s, Newark was a destination for blacks heading north during the Great Migration. Newark nightlife was brimming with vaudeville, theater, and music. On Thanksgiving of , the empress of the blues, Bessie Smith, performed at the Orpheum Theater (now the offices of the Star-Ledger). In this time of Prohibition speakeasies were just about everywhere. And for many in the black community, an evening’s entertainment came in the form of a “house rent’’ party. For just a quarter admission, revelers enjoyed liquor and live jazz. Fats Waller and the Newark stride pianist

Donald “The Lamb’’Lambert played house rent parties and Ike Quebec, the legendary tenor saxophonist, launched his career at one. With the end of Prohibition, Newark’s nightlife blossomed even more. In , according to Barbara Kukla, it had more saloons per capita than any other American city. Music was everywhere, spilling from storefront churches, neighborhood barbecues, and street corners. “Newark used to be the swingingest town,’’ said singer Carrie Smith, who grew up in Newark and now lives in East Orange. “If you had any talent at all, you came through Newark and [then] you’d go to New York. Little Jimmy Scott, all those cats, everybody came through Newark.’’ A kind of synergy with New York fed the Newark scene. “There were a lot of people from Jersey that hung out in New York to get inspiration from the city,’’ said jazz singer-pianist Andy Bey, a Newark native who began performing at age five and like Vaughn, attended the city’s famed Arts High School. “But Newark had its own thing because it wasn’t as competitive in a sense, it was a small town where you could work and survive, because there was always something to play.’’ Jersey also benefited from New York’s law banning performers with criminal records from playing there. Stars like Billie Holiday and Charlie Parker came across the river to perform. Parker made his first record with his own band in Newark, with the Savoy Record Company, in November . The band: Dizzy Gillespie, Max Roach, and Miles Davis. Later, in the s, Newark became a stop on the “Chitlin’ Circuit,’’ a network of nightclubs and bars in cities like Buffalo, Cleveland, and Philadelphia, featuring mostly black performers playing for black customers. The Hammond organ became a signature sound on the scene, after jazz musicians like Wild Bill Davis and Bill Doggett co-opted the instrument from black churches. “Newark had a jazz club on every other corner and that [organ jazz] was really the thing out there. They were trying to make it go over big,’’ said Jimmy McGriff, a renowned jazz organist who began playing Newark in . He wistfully remembers the clubs on the circuit: Sparky J’s, Midas Gold, Mr. Wes, The Key Club. “You had to work Newark, no way around it,’’ said McGriff. All those clubs were gone by the early s, as the music’s popularity waned. Other New Jersey industrial cities can boast of notable jazz pasts, too. “The city of Paterson had a booming, groovy jazz scene going in the s Jazz Age,’’ said Terence Ripmaster, a former history professor at William Paterson University. Duke Ellington and Cab Calloway played Paterson’s Alexander Hamilton Hotel in the s and s. At Sandy’s Hollywood Brick Bar in Paterson, crowds—including a young guitarist named Bucky Pizzarelli—gathered to hear the great Joe Mooney, a blind man who could play the accordion with one hand and also played organ

and piano. The music tradition seeped into nearby Clifton in the s, with the opening of the Clifton Tap Room. By then, interest in jazz was on the wane and top stars would come to Paterson for little pay, including Coleman Hawkins, Ben Webster, and Sonny Rollins, said the club’s owner, Amos Kaune. Atlantic City was also a jazz destination for decades, where acts like Willis “Gatortail’’ Jackson played in the s. Sammy Davis, Jr., Carmen McRae, Cannonball Adderley, and Slide Hampton all played clubs there, and Count Basie and Duke Ellington performed at the famous Steel Pier. The s were quiet years for jazz, but educational programs continued to develop and today attract students from around the country and even the world. The state boasts two universities offering respected jazz education programs: Rutgers and William Paterson. The world’s largest public-access jazz archive is in Newark at Rutgers University, as is one of the nation’s best-known jazz radio stations, WBGO-FM (.). In , Rutgers began offering a master’s degree in jazz history and research. Today scores of jazz musicians, many of them also teachers at these and other schools, call the state home. They cite its proximity to New York, plus a lively smattering of jazz clubs, festivals, and new and old fans around to keep the music alive. Nowadays, jazz is not as popular and Jersey cities do not often draw top talent. But the state lays claim to a rich history and a legacy that began in the early days of the jazz age. Kukla, Barbara. Swing City: Newark Nightlife, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Kimberly Brown

JCP&L.

See Jersey Central Power and Light

Company.

Jefferson.

-square-mile township in Morris County. Jefferson was formed from portions of Roxbury and Pequannock townships in . Located in the rugged central Highlands, it includes both densely developed areas and large tracts of open space. Iron mining and forging played an important role in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with at least eight forges in operation here. The mountainous terrain rendered agriculture of lesser importance. In the twentieth century, Jefferson has seen the development of numerous lake communities, as well as the establishment of large areas of open space for recreation and water supply. Mahlon Dickerson Reservation was named after a New Jersey governor, a native of the town. Much of the northern portion of the township is occupied by the Pequannock Watershed and Oak Ridge Reservoir. The southern portion of the town borders on Lake Hopatcong. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Jelliff, John

421

Hires, Mary Maw. Jefferson Township, –. Jefferson: Jefferson Township Historical Society, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, . Honeyman, A. Van.Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Jehovah’s Witnesses.

This religious denomination, which lays heavy stress on the Second Coming of Christ, has had a congregation in Newark since . Adherents share a central concern regarding the end of this world, a battle of Armageddon wherein angels of Jehovah-God will destroy Satan and establish a millennial Kingdom on earth. Consequently many Witnesses have dissociated themselves from most forms of ecclesiastical, political, and commercial power in order to prepare themselves for the imminent return of divine order. Such convictions have resulted in refusals to salute national flags, register for the military draft, bear arms, or accept blood transfusions. Witnesses call their places of worship Kingdom Halls, where all their services, led by unsalaried ministers, are open to the public. Central headquarters of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society is in Brooklyn, New York, where publications such as The Watchtower and Awake! are printed for worldwide distribution. New Jersey has been the scene of numerous legal battles over the rights of freedom of speech and religion. Jehovah’s Witnesses gained wide public attention in  at a general convention at the Asbury Park Casino, and generally negative reactions to the group’s ideology grew alongside resentment of such aggressive evangelical tactics as house-to-house visitations and sale of literature. Public hostility led to political opposition and police harassment in attempts to impede large rallies, notably one held in Plainfield during the summer of , with arrests and charges of disorderly conduct. Several U.S. Supreme Court decisions have upheld Witnesses’ rights, and social antagonisms have subsided in recent decades. Official statistics for  indicate , active members worshiping in seventeen languages in over three hundred congregations throughout the state.

Curry, Melvin D. Jehovah’s Witnesses: The Millenarian World of the Watch Tower. New York: Garland, . Holden, Andrew. Jehovah’s Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. New York: Routledge, . Penton, James M. Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, .

See also religion

Henry Warner Bowden

Jelliff, John

(b. July , ; d. July ,

). Furniture designer and manufacturer.

Furniture warehouse of Newark cabinetmaker John Jelliff, – Broad Street, Newark, .

Courtesy Newark Museum. Photo: Armen, 1970.

John Jelliff was a cabinetmaker and furniture designer in Newark from the mid-s until his retirement in the late s. He was born and raised in Saugatuck, Connecticut, the son of Hezekiah Jelliff, of Huguenot ancestry, and Nancy Bennett, a Quaker. John was apprenticed to Alonzo W. Anderson, a carver in New York City in . Two years later his apprenticeship was transferred to Lemuel M. and Daniel B. Crane, cabinetmakers in Newark. John was made a freeman in Newark in , and married Mary Marsh of Elizabeth the next year. Of their ten offspring, three sons died as children, and seven daughters lived to adulthood. Jelliff opened his factory in , with Thomas L. Vantilburg as his partner. They advertised in the Newark City Directory as “Manufacturers and Dealers in Cabinet Furniture, Mahogany Chairs, Sofas, Mattresses, etc.’’ The great Newark fire of  and the national financial panic of  strained the partnership, which was dissolved in . From that point on John Jelliff and Company operated on Newark’s Broad Street. In the s and s Jelliff and Company produced rosewood, mahogany, and walnut furniture in the romantic fashions of the pre–Civil War era: rococo (modern French), Elizabethan, Gothic, and Renaissance. In  Henry H. Miller joined the firm, and would remain as a business partner until the firm closed. In Jelliff and Company’s early period the firm’s clientele was probably local. A large collection of pencil sketches and drawings in Jelliff’s hand survives, showing that he was the firm’s chief designer, and also suggesting the

range of styles and forms the firm produced in this period. By the end of the s John Jelliff and Company had become the leading furniture manufacturer in New Jersey. Jelliff and Company’s furniture probably began to gain national currency after the Civil War, when eastern products were shipped west and south by railroad in ever-increasing quantities. Jelliff undoubtedly took advantage of New York City’s many wholesalers and their distribution system. Jelliff rosewood parlor suites in the newly fashionable “neo-grec’’ style of the late s were purchased for upscale houses all across the country—probably as “New York’’ furniture. In his  The Industrial Interests of Newark, N.J., William Ford reported that “fully one half of the sales (of Jelliff and Company) are made outside of Newark, and largely to citizens of New York City. . . . In addition, sales are made in Washington, Richmond and farther South.’’ By  the Jelliff factory in Newark had trebled in size. It covered , square feet, and employed a staff of forty-five men doing an annual business of $,. Because of a stomach disorder, Jelliff began to withdraw from active furniture-making in the s. He did not retire completely until , and then remained an active advisor until . In , aged eighty, Jelliff died at his Italianate villa on Johnson Avenue in Newark. MacDonald, William H. Central New Jersey Chairmaking of the Nineteenth Century. N.p., . White, Margaret E. Early Furniture Made in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, .

Ulysses Grant Dietz

422

Jennings, Samuel

Jennings, Samuel

(b. date unknown;

d. ). Politician. Samuel Jennings was an En-

glish Quaker farmer and merchant who took up residence in West Jersey in . He initially served as deputy governor for Edward Byllynge, but then sided with the colonists in a dispute over who had the right to control the government, even accepting election as governor by the assembly. Replaced by John Skene in , he was active in the West Jersey Council of Proprietors, and served as speaker of the West Jersey assembly. He became embroiled in the bitter politics of the s, and defended his actions in a pamphlet, Truth Rescued from Forgery and Falsehood. After , when West and East Jersey were reunited, he was first a member of the council, then speaker of the assembly and bitter opponent of Lord Cornbury. Bonomi, Patricia. The Lord Cornbury Scandal: The Politics of Reputation in British America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Pomfret, John. E. The Province of West New Jersey, –?: A History of the Origins of an American Colony. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Jensen, Alfred

(b. Dec. , ; d. Apr. ,

). Painter. Born in Guatemala and raised mostly in Denmark, Alfred Jensen’s early career was spent as an art consultant to Saidie Adler May, a collector with whom he toured Europe in the s and s, buying works by the modern masters. Jensen did not start painting seriously until the s, and emerged in the s with his brightly colored geometric paintings composed of signs, numbers, or symbols. A contemporary of the abstract expressionists, his richly textured paintings aspired to the same sublime message. Embedded in his numbers or hieroglyphs was the notion that underlying the chaos of the visual world lay a powerful, unrelenting universal order. Alfred Jensen lived in Glen Ridge from  until his death in . Cathcart, Linda, and Marcia Tucker. Alfred Jensen: Paintings and Diagrams from the Years –. Buffalo: Albright-Knox Art Gallery, .

See also art

Joseph Jacobs

Jersey barrier. The tapered concrete barrier that is used in many narrow highway medians to prevent vehicle crossovers into oncoming traffic is called a Jersey barrier. The tapered design redirects a vehicle hitting it: the vehicle’s wheels and sheet metal on the impacting side ride upward to prevent vehicle rollover. The barrier was developed over fifty years ago by the New Jersey state highway department to minimize the number of outof-control trucks penetrating the median and eliminate the need for costly and dangerous steel guardrail median barrier maintenance in high-accident locations with narrow medians.

McDevitt, Charles H. “Basics of Concrete Barriers.’’ Public Roads Magazine , no.  (March–April ): –. Ray, Malcolm H., and Richard G. McGinnis. Guardrail and Median Barrier Crashworthiness: A Synthesis of Highway Practice. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, .

See also highways

Scott M. Kozel

Jersey Blues.

New Jersey infantry troops have been referred to as “Jersey Blues’’ since at least , the year Col. Peter Schuyler of Newark brought his regiment home from upstate New York and a year’s service in the French and Indian War. In  the Jersey Blues were reviewed by Gen. Thomas Gage in New Brunswick. A Civil War correspondent from the Philadelphia Inquirer described the Jersey Blues in May  as “worthy descendants’’ of Revolutionary heroes. There is even a song called “Jersey Blues,’’ the authorship of which is attributed by some to Richard Howell, New Jersey’s third state governor. To arms once more, our hero cries, Sedition lives and order dies; To peace and ease then bid adieu And dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue. Dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue, Jersey Blue, Jersey Blue, And dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue. Since proud ambition rears its head, And murders rage, and discords spread, To save from spoil the virtuous few, Dash over the mountains, Jersey Blue. Roused at the call, with magic sound, The drums and trumpets circle round, As soon the corps their route pursue— So dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue. Unstain’d with crimes, unus’d to fear, In deep array our youths appear, And fly to crush the rebel crew, Or die in the mountains, Jersey Blue. Tho’ tears bedew the maidens’ cheeks, And storms hang round the mountains bleak, ’Tis glory calls, to love adieu, Then dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue Should foul misrule and party rage With law and liberty engage, Push home your steel, you’ll soon re-view Your native plains, brave Jersey Blue Dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue, Jersey Blue, Jersey Blue, And dash to the mountains, Jersey Blue. No one can agree about the origin of the nickname. Various theories maintain that the troops were named for Blue Mountain, or that

Uniforms of the New Jersey Regiment, the “Jersey Blues’’ (–).

From Military Uniforms in America: Era of the American Revolution, 1755–1795. Courtesy Company of Military Historians and the Department of the Army, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY. their courage was “True Blue,’’ or that the color of their uniform made them distinctive. And “Jersey Blue’’ is also a color. A  general order declared that the coats of the New Jersey Continental Line should be “dark blue, faced with buff.’’ In  the legislature designated the official state colors to be “buff and Jersey Blue.’’ Gilman, C. Malcolm. The Story of the Jersey Blues. Red Bank: Arlington Laboratory for Clinical and Historical Research, . Howell, Richard. “Jersey Blues.’’ Pennsylvania Archives, d ser., vol.  (): .

See also French and Indian War; National Guard

Grace-Ellen McCrann

Jersey Central Power and Light Company. More than , customers in northwestern and south-central New Jersey are provided with electricity by Jersey Central Power and Light Company (JCP&L). It is a subsidiary of GPU Energy, which is a subsidiary of GPU. JCP&L originated in  from the consolidation of numerous small utilities within speculator Howard Hopson’s Associated Gas and Electric Company. After Hopson’s conglomerate went bankrupt, JCP&L was united with two Pennsylvania utilities (Metropolitan Edison and Pennsylvania Electric) to form General Public Utilities in . The nation’s first commercial nuclear power plant, the Oyster Creek Generating Unit, was constructed by GPU within JCP&L’s service territory at Lacey Township, near Toms River. GPU was also the owner of Three Mile Island Unit , the site of the nation’s worst nuclear accident, which occurred on March , . After the enactment of federal and state legislation authorizing utility deregulation,

Jersey City Medical Center GPU organized unregulated subsidiaries to use various assets (such as consumer information databases and utility right-of-ways) of JCP&L and its sister utilities to engage in data processing, real estate investment, and other unregulated activities. In early , JCP&L’s affiliate GPU Telecom announced its “strategic plan of becoming one of the telecommunications infrastructure providers of choice in the Eastern United States.’’ Gray, Mike, and Ira Rosen. The Warning: Accident at Three Mile Island. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also energy industry

Stephen Marshall

Jersey City. .-square-mile city, the seat of Hudson County. Originally part of the Dutch colony of New Netherland, Jersey City is situated on a peninsula between the Hudson and Hackensack rivers, directly opposite lower Manhattan. After conflicts with Lenape on the lowland shore, in  Dutch farmers established on Bergen Hill (the beginning of the Palisades) the first local government, school, and church in New Jersey. The  purchase of land and ferry rights at Paulus Hook, the point of land closest to Manhattan, by a group of New York real estate investors prefigured Jersey City’s historic and ongoing role as an adjunct to Manhattan business interests. In  Jersey City (Paulus Hook) was incorporated independent of Bergen Township, but by  Jersey City, Bergen, and three other villages, Van Vorst, Hudson, and Greenville, had consolidated into the present Jersey City. Attracted by its proximity to New York markets, in the second half of the nineteenth century, three major railroads (Pennsylvania, Jersey Central, Erie) built down to the Jersey City shoreline, slicing or tunneling through Bergen Hill, filling in underwater lands, spreading railroad yards, shops, warehouses, terminals, and piers along the entire waterfront. The enormous need for labor to build this railroad complex was filled by thousands of immigrants, some German but mostly Irish Catholics who flooded the city beginning in the s. The native-born Protestant population strained to maintain its control over the city’s institutions, aided by Republican state legislators who in  gerrymandered the city’s Democratic (mainly immigrant) voters into one horseshoe-shaped district. It was from this Irish enclave (“the Horseshoe’’) that legendary Hudson County Democratic leader Frank Hague rose, working his way up from City Hall custodian to mayor by . Hague’s thirty-year rule was criticized for its collection of kickbacks and repression of dissent, but he maintained the loyalty of voters by providing safe streets, city jobs even during the Depression, and free medical care for all in the landmark Jersey City Medical Center complex. He was able to do this with the help of WPA programs which rewarded Hague’s ability to

deliver the state’s Democratic vote to Franklin Roosevelt. One of those WPA projects was Roosevelt Stadium, where Jackie Robinson broke the color line in professional baseball in . Hague’s defeat in  was partially due to his refusal to give more than token recognition to other ethnic groups that, beginning in the s, had built substantial communities (Polish, Italian, Slavic, Ukrainian, Russian) often around their parish churches and schools. A strong Catholic school system developed, topped by Saint Peter’s College, a Jesuit institution chartered in , the same year the city established its first public high school. New Jersey City University (), which grew up out of a teachers’ college, and Hudson County Community College () all offer higher education to a largely workingclass student body. After changes in transportation technology brought the failure of railroads, newcomers were still drawn by abundant factory jobs that Jersey City offered. Major industries like Colgate-Palmolive, Lorillard, Swift, and Emerson were attracted by easy access to land and sea transport and a plentiful labor supply. Descendants of Bergen County slaves had lived in the area since the seventeenth century, and significant migration of African Americans from the South followed both world wars. Hispanic and Asian immigrants came in growing numbers to this gateway city in the late decades of the twentieth century. Beginning in the s, the closing of factories and the departure of middle-class property owners to the suburbs eroded the city’s tax base; infrastructure and public spaces were neglected, and the city’s public image reached a nadir in  with the conviction of top Jersey City officials for federal crimes. The quality of education in the city’s public schools as measured by test scores and truancy rates deteriorated to the point where the state carried out the first takeover of public schools in . But the major resource of the city—its shoreline a five-minute ride to Manhattan through the PATH (rail tunnel) or the Holland or Lincoln vehicular tunnels—revived the city’s fortunes in the s and s. Major financial institutions began to relocate their back-office operations to Jersey City, where rents and taxes were much lower than Manhattan’s. Office towers and luxury housing replaced abandoned railroad yards and rotting piers. The old Erie railroad yards became Newport, a city within a city with a shopping mall, restaurants, and hotels. At Exchange Place, where the Pennsylvania Railroad had discontinued its commuter services in the s, skyscrapers and a waterfront park transformed the landscape, and ferries once again carried workers across the Hudson. Along with the new, something of the old was preserved: the giant Colgate clock, the fourblock long Pennsylvania reel-to-keel terminal converted to the Harborside Financial Center,

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the remodeling of old factories into condos and coops, the painstaking restoration of brownstones for the thousands of new urbanites who wanted Manhattan views for half the cost. Most dramatic of all, the Jersey Central Railroad property, desolate and garbagestrewn for decades, was reborn as Liberty State Park in , an -acre site with unequalled views of the New York skyline. Visitors feel as if they can touch the Statue of Liberty, less than , feet away, and ferries take passengers from the carefully restored railroad terminal to the Statue and to Ellis Island. In , the first leg of the projected . mile Hudson-Bergen Light Rail Transit System began its north-south run along the coastline, linking ferries, buses, and rail passenger routes, and carrying thousands of commuters to work on both sides of the Hudson. The continuing vitality of the Jersey City waterfront links its past with the future of the metropolitan region. In , out of a population of ,,  percent of residents was white,  percent was black,  percent was Asian;  percent was of Hispanic origin (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Connors, Richard J. A Cycle of Power: The Career of Jersey City Mayor Frank Hague. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . Lovero, Joan Doherty. Hudson County: The Left Bank. Sun Valley, CA: American Historical Press, . Petrick, Barbara Burns. Church and School in the Immigrant City: A Social History of Public Education In Jersey City, –. Metuchen: Upland Press, .

See also illustrations, color section

Barbara Petrick

Jersey City Medical Center.

Purchased by the city in , the site at Montgomery Street and Baldwin Avenue in Jersey City has been the site of three hospitals. The current Medical Center complex was begun in  and completed in . Mayor Frank Hague was instrumental in its conception and planning and architect John T. Rowland designed the majority of the buildings, which totaled over a dozen. In , midway through the construction, President Franklin D. Roosevelt presided over the dedication ceremony of the Hudson County facility. In  the Jersey City Medical Center became a teaching affiliate of Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Today, the Medical Center maintains a full complement of inpatient services and is one of the largest providers of ambulatory care in the region, with over , outpatient visits annually. This -bed facility serves the region as the Children’s Hospital of Hudson County, Regional Level II Trauma Center, Teaching Cancer Hospital, Regional Perinatal Center, and the Regional Open Heart Surgery Center. It also offers a broad spectrum of primary care, specialized pediatrics and adult outpatient

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Jersey City Museum Littoral Society, and the New Jersey State Federation of Sportsmen. JCAA also sponsorsfisheries tournaments and tries to improve youth participation and education programs. See also fishermen’s associations

Bonnie J. McCay

Jersey Devil.

Jersey City Medical Center.

Courtesy Jersey City Free Public Library. services. The center is the Advanced Life Support provider for Hudson County and Basic Life Support provider for the cities of Jersey City and Secaucus. Greiff, Constance M., ed. The Jersey City Medical Center: Preliminary Case Report. Princeton: Heritage Studies, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Cynthia Harris

fishing clubs to form and promote a consensus on matters relevant to saltwater anglers. Particularly important issues are recreational fishing rights and environmental quality. Its members have served on many state and regional fisheries and environmental management bodies. It often works in partnership with other fishing and conservation groups, including Clean Ocean Action, the American

A legendary creature of South Jersey, native to the Pine Barrens, the Jersey Devil is said to have the head of a horse, the torso of a man, the wings of a bat, the legs and hooves of a goat, and a long serpentine tail. The story, which exists in different versions, has been in oral circulation since the devil’s reputed birth in . Like other legends, the story has been passed down within families—father to son or mother to daughter—generation after generation. To this day, there are active tradition-bearers who grew up with the story in family, home, and community. According to one version, the Jersey Devil was born to Jane Leeds, who lived with her husband, Daniel, near a swamp along the Mullica River. The couple had a large family of twelve children, requiring an exhausting amount of effort and attention. When Jane Leeds learned that she was pregnant with her thirteenth child, in a moment of understandable weakness and anger, she prayed, “Lord, I hope this one is not a child. Let this one be a devil!’’ Unfortunately, her prayers were answered. Shortly after the creature was born, he escaped into the Pines where he has lurked and terrified the people of South Jersey ever since. Over the years, there have been many eyewitness sightings of the Jersey Devil, some by respectable members of society. Yet there has

Jersey City Museum. The Jersey City Museum opened as a historical museum in  in the city’s public library. It is best known for its collection of paintings by nineteenthcentury American artist August Will, documenting the changing landscape of Jersey City. Much of the museum’s activities were curtailed during the s. Through community effort it underwent revitalization in the mids, when a professional staff was hired and the work of cataloging the collection and mounting exhibitions progressed. In , the city donated a building to the museum for its relocation. After renovation, the new facility opened in , continuing its mission of exhibiting historical art and artifacts relating to the area and work by contemporary artists demonstrating the cultural and artistic diversity of the region. See also museums Marion Grzesiak

Jersey Coast Anglers Association. The Jersey Coast Anglers Association (JCAA), a nonprofit organization, was started in  by more than seventy-five saltwater

Tom Van Pelt, The Jersey Devil Skeleton, a representation sculpted from animal bones found in the Pine Barrens of South Jersey.

Photo courtesy Tom Van Pelt.

Jersey Shore never been any hard evidence or scientific proof of the creature’s existence. So far, for example, there have been no reliable plaster casts of footprints or confirmed photographs. The lack of evidence does not disprove the existence of the creature, however, so philosophically it remains an open question. What interests folklorists is the question of why the stories persist and even flourish. For some, the story undoubtedly had a childrearing function, to protect young children from the real dangers of the Pines. A parent might say, “Be sure to get home before nightfall, or the Jersey Devil will get you!’’ Others in the Pines, engaged in illegal activities, such as smuggling or bootlegging, might want to frighten outsiders and discourage intruders by promoting the story of a fearsome monster. The Jersey Devil remained an obscure regional legend until , when there was a rash of sightings in South Jersey, widely reported in newspapers. Capitalizing on the sudden interest, an enterprising Philadelphia businessman staged a hoax. He charged admission to the public to view a kangaroo with green stripes and fake wings, which he called “The Jersey Devil.’’ In the mid-s, a National Hockey League team relocated to the Meadowlands and took the name the New Jersey Devils, an interesting development because a North Jersey team was taking the name of a South Jersey legend. One result was that a creature from agricultural and rural South Jersey was suddenly catapulted into statewide attention and into the realm of popular culture. It is now possible to find Jersey Devil T-shirts, bumper stickers, postcards, posters, and even namesake cocktails. McCloy, James, and Ray Miller, Jr. The Jersey Devil. Wallingford, PA: Middle Atlantic Press, . McMahon, William. Pine Barrens Legends, Lore, and Lies. Wallingford, PA: Middle Atlantic Press, .

See also folklore

Angus Kress Gillespie

Jersey Glass Company. Located in the Paulus Hook section of Jersey City near the Morris Canal, from  to , this important glassworks produced a varied range of fine and utilitarian household objects as well as druggists’ wares. George Dummer was the principal developer. Trained as a glass cutter, he was a seller of imported glass and ceramics in Albany and New York City. After setting up the factory, Dummer maintained the company sales office across the Hudson River in lower Manhattan. The operation was immediately successful and by the s employed  workers. Its products, mostly blown and cut glass, included flute glasses, wine goblets, bowls, decanters, compotes, lampshades, pitchers, and paperweights. While the company’s products earned many awards in its lifetime, its few surviving pieces are recognized almost solely through association with Dummer family descendants. The exceptions

are a number of oblong, pressed-glass salt dishes, marked “Jersey Glass Co Nr N. York.’’ The business existed under various names, including George Dummer and Company and P. C. Dummer and Company (Phineas Cook was the younger brother of George). Dummer also founded the short-lived Jersey Porcelain and Earthenware Company on an adjacent lot. In , a sugar refinery was erected on the site, removing most traces of both operations. Parts of the factory’s foundation were excavated in  and . Pepper, Adeline. The Glass Gaffers of New Jersey. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, .

See also glassmaking

Thomas Strider

Jersey jokes. Among the fifty states, New Jersey is notorious as the object of humor. In these jokes, New Jersey is depicted as an unfashionable place pervaded by criminality, dim-wittedness, and pollution. Jersey bashing has a long history. In , the magazine Picturesque America observed that ever since New Jersey became a state, “it has been the butt of sarcasm and wit of those who live outside her borders.’’ Perhaps the first Jersey joke was a remark (often attributed to Benjamin Franklin, though no evidence links him to it) that New Jersey was a barrel tapped at both ends. Besides being a put-down, the remark is quite astute. New Jersey has long been dominated by New York and Philadelphia, which, like urban centers since time immemorial, regard themselves as hubs of sophistication, surrounded by an ignorant hinterland. There seems to be a human need to find places and peoples to feel superior to, and for much of the nation, unassuming, hardworking New Jersey has filled the bill. Examples of the New Jersey joke abound. In Woody Allen’s  movie Sleeper, a character explains his philosophical view that the universe is guided by an intelligent force—except in certain parts of New Jersey. In the  comedy Heartbreakers, a sleazy character is asked if he can cover up a suspicious death. “I’m from New Jersey aren’t I?’’ he replies, as if this subject were taught in the state’s schools. In a New York nightclub, a comic asks if anyone in the audience is from New Jersey. When hands go up, he snaps back, “Whatsamatta, bowling alleys closed tonight?’’ An Internet site presents the official New Jersey state motto as “I don’t have to show you no $#%&# motto!’’ A joke asks why New Jersey has more toxic waste dumps than any other state while California has more attorneys. “Because New Jersey got to choose first’’ is the punch line. New Jerseyans (who, surveys indicate, have a high level of satisfaction with their state) occasionally strike back. In , the New Jersey Devils hockey team journeyed to Toronto for a play-off series with the Maple Leafs.

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A deodorant company ran advertisements in the city’s newspapers showing a stick of deodorant and a map of New Jersey. The tag line read, “Unfortunately, there are some smells even we can’t do anything about.’’ The acting governor of New Jersey issued a protest, and the CEO of the deodorant firm apologized for its “disrespectful and disparaging’’ advertisement. New Jersey won that round, but it appears likely that the state will continue to be subjected to Jersey jokes. A Texas magazine, in fact, has begun a movement to designate the first week of July every year as “Be Kind to New Jersey Week,’’ a proposal that is itself a Jersey joke. Garden State residents weary of this sort of abuse might do well to adopt the stoic attitude of a New Jersey magazine editor, who observed with a shrug, “So New Jersey gets dissed. So what?’’ Dalton, Mike. The New Jersey Joke Book. Secaucus: Carol Publishing Group, .

See also image

Peter Genovese and Marc Mappen

Jersey Journal. The first issue of what was then called the Evening Journal was published on May , , by Major Z. K. Pangborn and Captain William B. Dunning. A partial interest in the newspaper was sold to Joseph Albert Dear, who was a former editor of the Jersey City Times. The newspaper proclaimed that it wanted to promote equal rights for all Americans, including freed slaves. The name of the newspaper was changed in  to the Jersey Journal. In  the offices were moved from their original location at  Exchange Place in Jersey City to  Journal Square, where they have remained. In  a  percent share of the newspaper’s publishing company, the Evening Journal Association, was sold to S. I. Newhouse. By  Newhouse owned  percent of the newspaper and it became part of the family’s Advance Publications newspaper group. The Jersey Journal’s weekday circulation was forty-four thousand in , but with dwindling circulation in , the company offered staff buyout packages and mandated some union employee layoffs in an effort to save the newspaper from closing down. See also newspapers Shannon E. Martin

Jersey Shore. The attractions of the Jersey Shore can be understood by arriving early on a summer day at one of its beaches. Footprints have been washed away by the night’s tides, and the white sand is fresh and cool, awaiting its new arrivals. Surfers and fishermen are among the first to come, often at sunrise, since their activities benefit from a lack of crowds. Walkers arrive next. Ambling along on the sloping sand is a challenge, but the orange ball of the sun and gray-green waves are spectacular rewards. When the lifeguards

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Jersey Shore

Crowds enjoy the beach in Belmar on Labor Day weekend, .

Courtesy The Star-Ledger. take up their posts, the pace quickens. Families arrive; children enter the water. Slowly the beach is covered by paraphernalia: blankets, towels, umbrellas, boogy boards, tubes, water wings, toys, folding chairs, coolers, hats, reading material. A beach volleyball game is organized; a prodigious quantity of sunblock is applied. The heat of the sun and the energy of the people reach their apex in the early afternoon. Then, as the sun loses its intensity, bathers begin to leave. Soon the lifeguards go off duty. At dusk the fishermen, surfers, and walkers return and, at night, teenagers seek summer romance on the dark beach and under the boardwalk. Many citizens of New Jersey, this highly industrialized and most densely populated state, gleefully load up their cars each summer and head “down the Shore’’ to repeat a version of this ritual day-at-the-beach (the Shore has such prominence in the New Jersey imagination that Shore is conventionally capitalized). While Shore denizens come from many states and even foreign countries to vacation at one of the forty-some Shore towns, New Jerseyans are its principal users, since most can reach the Shore by car in little more than an hour. Nineteenth-century poet Walt Whitman believed it was the “sea-side region that gives stamp to Jersey,’’ and he was right. Some New Jerseyans even buy a special Shore license plate to affirm this essential connection. Visitors have considerable choice about where to stop on New Jersey’s long coastline. Along its -mile length, the Shore has seven distinct areas: Sandy Hook, the Northern Shore, Barnegat Island (until  a peninsula), Long Beach Island (LBI to regulars), Atlantic City, the Southern Shore, and Cape May. Some authorities consider the easternmost portion of the Pine Barrens, around the estuary of the Mullica River, an eighth area,

and a number of inland towns, with no ocean or even bay frontage, also fancy themselves part of the Shore. Thus, the limits of the Jersey Shore are somewhat open to interpretation. Each area, town, and city at the Shore has a unique character, and vacationers often return to the same place each summer, generation after generation. Philadelphians, not surprisingly, favor the Southern Shore and Cape May. And religious and ethnic groups long ago settled or populated favorite areas, giving such towns as Ocean Grove, founded by Methodists, and Spring Lake, the so-called Irish Riviera, a particular cultural flavor. For those who come to the Shore principally for sun and ocean, the summer months are best. Beginning with Memorial Day, the pace accelerates rapidly. High school promgoers, for whom an overnight at the Jersey Shore is a rite of passage, are early summer visitors. Then come homeowners to check for damage and to sweep out the sand that enters everywhere. They are quickly followed by day visitors, who must contend with each town’s rules with regard to parking, beach access, and purchase of beach passes. Then, there are the seasonal renters, who stay in everything from motels and the barracklike bungalows of Normandy Beach and Lavallette to elegant homes they contracted for in the dead of winter. Some Shore residents distastefully term the day-trippers “Shoobies’’ or “Bennies.’’ Every vacation community has its own language for the summer folk it both needs and dreads. Shoobies is an antique term for day visitors who brought their lunch in shoeboxes. Bennies is a mostly southern Shore term of disputed origin for visitors who usually change into their bathing suits out of the trunk of their car, somehow hosing themselves off after a day at the beach.

Middle-class shoregoers, whether day, seasonal, or residents, give the Jersey Shore its character. The Shore has its mansions, such as those in Mantoloking and Deal, and it has poverty, such as the depressed areas of Atlantic City behind the casinos and much of Asbury Park. But it is distinct from more upscale East Coast resorts like the Hamptons and Cape Cod by virtue of its predominantly middle-class character. Alice Logan, an actress and writer who visited Long Branch in , observed that the town “is perhaps best in accord with the spirit of American institutions than any other of our watering places.’’ Sir Alfred Low, an English writer in the early twentieth century, called Atlantic City “the Middle-Class Playground,’’ and the same can be said of most of the Shore today. The Jersey Shore has also been derided for this very middle-class aspect and for being overdeveloped and tawdry. Similar labels have long been applied to New Jersey as a whole, especially by the New York media, and the Shore’s image parallels the state’s. Not surprisingly, the music of the man most responsible for the renaissance of New Jersey’s image was inspired by his Jersey Shore heritage. Bruce Springsteen came out of the Shore rock ’n’ roll club culture of the s, a culture that still produces fine musicians. While many saw the overdeveloped boardwalks or the abandoned buildings of Asbury Park as the worst of the Shore, Springsteen, born in Long Branch, saw these aspects as key to its allure. Such songs as “Fourth of July, Asbury Park (Sandy),’’ “Tunnel of Love,’’ and the Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J. album suggest that the Shore has a distinct and vital culture of its own. This culture has a long history. American Indians were the first to come to the Jersey Shore, but were pushed off the land by European settlers who established whaling, clamming, and salt mining businesses. The Jersey Shore as resort began in the s, when the first hotels were built. Rail links made it possible for large numbers of people to travel to the Shore. Earlier, the difficult journey in carriages or boats made the trip too uncomfortable for all but the most adventurous. Soon places such as Long Branch set up “bathing huts’’ under the bluffs made famous in Winslow Homer’s  painting Long Branch, New Jersey. In these huts, vacationers could rent “bathing dresses’’ and emerge properly covered. Increasingly, many wealthy and famous guests came to the Shore, including Presidents Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield (in a failed attempt to recover from an assassin’s bullet), Chester Arthur, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, and Woodrow Wilson. The Shore became generally available to the middle class only with the building of federal and state roads such as the Garden State Parkway. The Jersey Shore as past and present-day visitors and residents know it was not always

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in its present location. Geologists believe that, in a late glacial age, it was some ninety miles inland, and this explains the immense sandiness of the Pine Barrens, which occupy much of the southeast quadrant of the state. Today, except for the section from Manasquan to just above Long Branch in the north, Cape May in the south, and numerous tidal inlets, the Shore’s form is that of a bow-shaped, almost complete barrier island coast. This formation has created two Shore environments and cultures, bay side and ocean side. New Jersey Bayshore areas, such as Barnegat Bay, Great Bay, and Sandy Hook Bay, are especially enjoyed by boaters, water skiers, and wind surfers and harbor the New Jersey section of the Intracoastal Waterway, a north/south boat route extending all the way to Florida. The Shore is under constant assault from the elements, even on a sunny day, and beach accretion and erosion constantly revise the Shore’s map. The spectacular hurricanes that occasionally hit sometimes shift the real estate map of the Shore as well, destroying countless oceanside homes. The town of Loveladies on Long Beach Island, for example, contains homes built almost exclusively after , the year a storm wiped out much of the town. Navigational technology has decreased the number of shipwrecks, but the Jersey coast is full of dangerous shoals and sandbars, and experienced fishermen, pleasure boaters, and swimmers have too often underestimated its challenges. Many also underestimate the fragile nature of the Shore, and the ease with which its amenities can be spoiled, not just by acts of God but by acts of man. Visiting Wildwood in , ornithologist Charles Conrad Abbott declared, “I am at last in a bit of Jersey’s primeval forest’’; but those “wild’’ woods were soon replaced by homes. Today, numerous state parks and nature preserves at the Shore protect its trees, waters, beach grasses, dunes, and birds from pollution, depletion, or extinction. The bays’ salt marshes harbor countless bird species such as egrets and herons. Like their human counterparts, some birds, such as the red knot, use the Shore as a mere stopover, while others nest year round. Sandy Hook has the magical Holly Forest, a sanctuary for the curious, ocean-stunted holly trees and for migrating birds who take advantage of its location on the Atlantic Flyway. In Avalon, the World Wildlife Fund owns a thousand acres of wetlands; and the Trust for Public Land has designated thousands of acres of the Shore for protection. Despite these efforts, many Shore bird, bog turtle, and horseshoe crab populations are dwindling. The Jersey Shore is balancing with difficulty a push for development with a pull for preservation, as the importance of a clean, thriving Shore to the state’s sense of itself becomes clearer. The medical wastes that in the late s forced the closing of some Jersey beaches created publicity that fostered

change. But the threats to the environmental health of the Shore are many and complex. So, while there is a Shore Preservation Fund which allocates millions for sand replenishment along the coast, the systematic destruction of sand dunes to build the original boardwalks was an act of environmental folly that wounded the Shore grievously. The future of the Shore is important not only for recreation but for the economic wellbeing of New Jersey. Atlantic City’s casinos and the Shore generally are the first and second most profitable state tourist destinations. Other beach towns besides Atlantic City that capitalize on their boardwalks are Point Pleasant Beach, Seaside Heights, Ocean City, and Wildwood. These boardwalks and their amusements attract enormous crowds of people. For lovers of kitsch, the boardwalks are replete with folk sculptures and paintings, fantastic in their gaudiness. Seaside Heights may be the acme of what people most like and dislike about the Jersey Shore. Yet for many families, these are the principal towns they head for each summer for a two-week vacation, saturating themselves with beach time by day and boardwalk time and junk food by night. The largest number of Jersey Shore visitors head to Atlantic City. Originally tourists traveled to Atlantic City for the water and the Boardwalk promenade, the first at the Shore. However, after giving the world saltwater taffy, rolling Boardwalk chairs, the Miss America Pageant, Lucy, the sixty-five-foothigh elephant museum and national landmark (in nearby Margate), as well as the street names for the popular board game Monopoly, Atlantic City became a depressed resort. Since , when legalized gambling was initiated in Atlantic City after a statewide referendum, the city’s main attraction has been its casinos and hotels with twenty-four-hour-a-day entertainment. In his  movie Atlantic City, the French director Louis Malle captured the moment when the then-rundown city evolved from backwater to glitzy casino boomtown. Revenues from gambling in Atlantic City now exceed those of Las Vegas. Although it still has many extremely poor neighborhoods, Atlantic City’s hotels, convention centers, and casinos are booming. Buses whose only stop is “Atlantic City’’ regularly take passengers with rolls of quarters for a day of gambling at casinos such as the Trump Plaza or the Taj Mahal, the world’s largest casino complex. Reporting on another Shore town in , the writer Stephen Crane noted that on its boardwalk “there are a number of contrivances to tumble-bumble the soul and gain possession of nickels.’’ Updated for inflation, that’s a good description of Atlantic City’s casinos today. Atlantic City hosted over  million visitors in , making it the nation’s premier tourist destination. There are, however, many New Jerseyans who require more than a day trip to Atlantic City or a two-week vacation elsewhere, and who desire the sights and sounds of the ocean

year round. Residence in the Shore areas of Monmouth, Ocean, Atlantic, and Cape May counties allows them to enjoy the quiet beauty of the Shore’s off-season. This beauty is especially evident in September, when the crowds are gone and the ocean is still warm enough for swimming. Many who work in the Shore’s marine industries have always been residents. But beginning in the s, the populations of the Shore communities grew rapidly, with much of it from senior citizen communities. Younger people have also settled full time on the Shore. Condominiums are going up rapidly everywhere. Other Shore communities have, instead, discovered the virtues of architectural preservation. Cape May, like the northern Shore town of Ocean Grove, was an early convert to its benefits. Its large stock of Victorian housing and hotels was renovated in the s and s, making it, as it was early in the Shore’s life, a renowned tourist destination for shoregoers who enjoy architecture and antique shops. Like Atlantic City, Cape May illustrates that many come to the Shore for attractions other than sand and water. Yet, for most, the beaches are the Shore. Whether boating, swimming, fishing, surfing, reading a book, or just watching a child build a sandcastle at water’s edge, the beaches unite disparate towns and Shore lovers in the elemental enjoyment of beach culture. And each year millions get in their cars, turn on some tunes, and head to pristine and undeveloped Island Beach State Park, to Manasquan, or to another of New Jersey’s Shore communities. There they can indulge their fascination with the simple power of water and the great mystery of waves endlessly beating on a long, sandy coast. Roberts, Russell, and Rich Youmans. Down the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Santelli, Robert. Guide to the Jersey Shore. th ed. Chester, CT: Globe Pequot Press, . Wilson, Harold. The Story of the Jersey Shore. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also boardwalks

Patricia M. Ard

Jersey Shore Medical Center. This -bed acute care facility in Neptune traces its roots to Ann May Hospital, which was founded in Spring Lake between  and  to provide homeopathic nursing care. In  the hospital moved to Neptune, where physical additions and an increased range of services resulted in the creation of Jersey Shore Medical Center–Fitkin Memorial Hospital. With over thirty cardiologists on staff, JSMC is a center for cardiac services, including myocardial revascularization. The facility is also a regional trauma center. JSMC is affiliated with the Cancer Institute of New Jersey and is a member of the University Health System, comprising New Jersey’s major teaching hospitals.

Jewish Historical Society of Central Jersey Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Pamela Cooper

jewelry industry. Through the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth, Newark was a major national jewelry center. The industry originated in , when Epaphras Hinsdale established the country’s first factory manufacturing only jewelry. Until then, jewelry had been “bespoke’’—made to order. The Newark jewelry industry began as small shops that gradually expanded into partnerships. Apprentices, many emigrating from Germany, worked for these companies and either stayed at the same company until they retired or went on to form their own establishments. Hinsdale’s shop served as a paradigm for the jewelry manufacturing industry. John Taylor became a partner in  and, after Hinsdale’s death in , took Isaac Baldwin into the business. Together Taylor and Baldwin radically changed the way jewelry was made. They introduced machines into the process, established markets across the country serviced by traveling salesmen—also known as jobbers—and opened a sales office in New York City. Many Taylor and Baldwin apprentices, including James Madison Durand of Durand and Company, Aaron Carter of Carter, Gough, and Company, and William Riker of Riker Brothers later became prominent jewelers. Large-scale manufacture of jewelry in this country began in the s. As the nation expanded from coast to coast, people wanted to show off their rising prosperity. To meet the increasing demand for jewelry, innovators

Durand and Company, Newark, gold testimonial medallion made for Mayor Thomas B. Peddie, .

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Vivian Sauvage and his sisters, 1937, 37.590A.B.

devised machines to speed manufacturing. William C. Edge of William C. Edge Company is credited with forty to fifty inventions, including techniques and machines that reduced the cost of woven chains from a dollar per foot to two cents per foot. George Krementz, founder of Krementz and Company, revolutionized the manufacture of the collar button so that it could be made in one piece in either rolled gold plate or ten- to eighteenkarat gold. Halsey Larter of Larter and Sons created the spring-back stud to secure the stud in the shirt. Herpers Brothers, a findings manufacturer, contributed two breakthrough advances. Its founder, Ferdinand Herpers, patented the first prong setting for gemstones, and an employee, August Knaus, introduced the first safety catch. Newark manufacturing jewelers not only distributed their jewelry to retail outlets around the country but also made exclusive jewelry for prominent retailers. These included Tiffany and Company, Starr and Marcus, and Theodore B. Starr in New York; Bailey, Banks, and Biddle and Caldwell and Company in Philadelphia; Bigelow and Kennard in Boston; Duhme and Company in Cincinnati; Jaccard and Company in St. Louis; M. W. Galt and Brothers in Washington, D.C.; and Samuel Kirk and Son in Baltimore. The Newark jewelry industry grew rapidly. In  there were thirty factories. By , the total annual product of all the jewelry manufacturers amounted to $ million, a sum matched by only one other Newark manufacturing industry, leather making. That same year, the Newark Industrial Exhibition was held, providing the first opportunity for jewelers to show off their wares to the public. Nine jewelers contributed exhibits. One of these was the display of Durand and Company’s case of diamonds and exquisitely fine jewelry, valued at some $,. In , Carter, Howkins, and Sloan (later known as Carter, Gough, and Company) became the largest jewelry factory in the world, boasting an annual output of $ million. Newark jewelers designed distinctive jewelry to be worn during the day by “average’’ Americans of both sexes. They did not attempt to compete with designs by New York makers whose jewelry glittered with elaborate gemstones and diamond patterns. Newark jewelry was typically realized in sterling silver, ten-, fourteen- and eighteen-karat gold, and platinum. It was often enameled and set with gemstones and freshwater pearls. This was tasteful jewelry that a relatively large segment of the population at the turn of the last century could afford. Diamonds served as “sparkle points,’’ glittering in the new incandescent light. In the nineteenth century, fashionable designs for women included mourning jewelry as well as necklaces, lockets, rings, and bracelets featuring cameos, mosaics, coral, pearl, and jet. Brooches were enameled or set with colored gemstones. The period’s interest

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in nature was reflected by a plethora of animal designs—insects, birds, lizards, bats, and the mythological griffin—and flowers, the perennial favorite. Art nouveau jewelry was produced by many houses; Rikers Brothers and Whiteside and Blank, for example, made ` jour enameling, and jewelry with plique a two silver-making firms, Unger Brothers and William B. Kerr Company, dominated the market for sterling silver buckles and belt pins. Other makers produced accessories such as chatelaines, vanity cases, card cases, spectacle cases, cigarette boxes, match safes, lorgnettes, posy holders, folding fans, and bib and napkin clips. Larter and Sons, Carrington and Company, and others specialized in men’s jewelry— collar buttons, sleeve buttons, sleeve links, stud sets, watch chains, watch fobs, belt buckles, suspender buckles, rings, and scarf pins. Whitehead and Hoag Company concentrated on fraternal jewelry and badges. In the twentieth century, as styles changed, Newark jewelers adapted their stock to include rectilinear art deco designs. The industry had continued to grow impressively. By  there were  factories with , employees. By ,  percent of the fourteen-karat gold jewelry and  percent of the eighteen-karat gold jewelry made in this country was produced in Newark. In that year, just before the stock market crash, the city housed  manufacturing jewelers with an annual product of over $ million. Soon afterward, as the country entered the Great Depression, demand for high-quality merchandise dropped, and many jewelers were forced out of business during the s. Those who survived turned their production to less expensive merchandise. For example, by the end of the s, Krementz and Company had converted a majority of its stock to rolled-gold-plate jewelry. The s brought renewed, though temporary, vigor to the industry. Less formal, sportier modern styles dominated Newark jewelry. In  the annual product amounted to $ million. Within ten years, however, the figure had dwindled to $ million. Some jewelers closed their doors, while others relocated nearby. Jabel, for example, moved to Irvington, Larter and Sons to Laurence Harbor, and Erwin Reu to Springfield. Krementz and Company, which remains as one of the last jewelers in Newark, is a worthy symbol of what was once a true golden age for the city. Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also metalworking; silversmithing; watchmaking

Janet Zapata

Jewish Historical Society of Central Jersey. Founded in  by Ruth Marcus Patt, the society is located in New Brunswick and serves all of Central New Jersey. Its mission is to promote, research, and

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publish all facets of the history of the Jewish community in the Central Jersey region. It maintains a research library with book and manuscript collections, mounts exhibitions, sponsors lectures, holds genealogy workshops, and publishes a newsletter and a series of pamphlets relating to New Jersey history and bibliography. Publications include those on the Sephardim of New Jersey, the Jewish experience at Rutgers University, and the Workmen’s Circle in New Jersey. Patt, Ruth Marcus. New Jersey Jewish History: A Bibliographical Guide. New Brunswick: Jewish Historical Society of Central Jersey, .

Ronald L. Becker

Jewish Historical Society MetroWest. Founded in  by

of

Ruth Fein and affiliated with the United Jewish Federation of MetroWest, the society is located in Whippany and serves all of Essex and Morris counties and the surrounding region. It maintains a research library with archival collections, books, newspapers and indexes, maps, audiovisual materials, and oral history interviews. The society also mounts exhibitions, sponsors lectures, holds workshops, and publishes a newsletter. It sponsored a major exhibition in  and commissioned a comprehensive history of the Jewish community of MetroWest in . Helmreich, William B. The Enduring Community: The Jews of Newark and MetroWest. New Brunswick: Transaction, . Newark Public Library. Lasting Impressions: Greater Newark’s Jewish Legacy—An Exhibition in the Galleries of the Newark Public Library, April , –July , . Newark: Newark Public Library, .

Ronald L. Becker

Jews. The Garden State’s community of Jews, , strong in , was built principally from three successive waves of emigration to the United States. Sephardic Jews, expelled from Spain and Portugal, were the first to arrive. By , the merchant Aaron Louzada and his family—generally agreed to be New Jersey’s first Jewish settlers—had built a home in Bound Brook. Sephardic Jews were followed in the s by German Jews and, in the s, by eastern European Jews fleeing oppression. Most of the arrivals in the third wave were processed on Ellis Island. Contrary to popular belief, two-thirds of the twelve million immigrants who came through Ellis Island first set foot in America not on Manhattan, but in New Jersey. They were ferried to the Central New Jersey Railroad Station in Jersey City, where they took trains to points in New Jersey and elsewhere in the United States. The majority of New Jersey’s immigrant Jews settled in poor, ghettolike sections of cities often referred to as “Jewtowns.’’ The Third Ward of Newark was home to most of the city’s Jews in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; by , there were , Jews in Newark and fifty synagogues.

Jules Nelson at his bar mitzvah, New Brunswick, .

Courtesy Archives of Jewish Historical Society of Central Jersey, New Brunswick.

Many of the talents that Jews brought from abroad found ready employment in the growing industrial and commercial enterprises of Newark. The poverty of the initial immigrants only increased their desire to succeed through education. This central value of Jewish life helped move the immigrants up the economic ranks from peddlers to store owners to entry into the professions. Networks of family, friends, and often strangers provided assistance for Jews to move to the state and then to colonize its cities and, later, its suburbs. Other New Jersey cities also had thriving Jewish communities. For example, the state’s first congregation, B’nai Jeshurun, was founded in Paterson in . In the early decades of the twentieth century Jews were prominent in Paterson manufacturing industries and were instrumental to the growth of the American labor movement. Nathan Barnert, who immigrated to the United States in  as a poor boy of eleven, made his fortune in Paterson and was twice elected mayor of the city. Many Jewish and non-Jewish institutions founded through his philanthropy persist to this day. Jews sought freedom from urban constraints by moving to the suburbs. Jewish settlement in Newark’s surrounding towns, such as Hillside, Livingston, and the Oranges, had been occurring steadily from the s through the s, but accelerated after the Newark riots of . Similarly, Cherry Hill saw a large influx of Camden’s Jews, Princeton and surrounding towns received Jews from Trenton, and many of New Brunswick’s Jews crossed the Raritan to adjoining Highland

Park. In his  novella Goodbye, Columbus, Philip Roth, a Newark native, described the common pattern of generational movement of Jews in New Jersey: “The old Jews like my grandparents had struggled and died, and their offspring had struggled and prospered, and moved further and further west, towards the edge of Newark, then out of it, and up the slope of the Orange Mountains, until they had reached the crest and started down the other side, pouring into Gentile territory as the Scotch-Irish had poured through the Cumberland Gap.’’ Jews experienced anti-Semitism once their numbers increased to a substantial presence in the state and as they infiltrated “Gentile territory,’’ but it was mild compared with the brutality they had suffered abroad. Part of the Jews’ success in the United States and in New Jersey resulted from their conviction that they were here to stay—there was nowhere to go back to. As Jews became middle and upper middle class, they established vacation traditions on the Jersey Shore in such towns as Bradley Beach, Deal, Long Branch, and Atlantic City, and inland at resort towns such as Mount Freedom and Lakewood. “Bagel Beach’’ was the name that locals in the s gave to Bradley Beach because of the large number of Jews who summered there. Despite such singling out, New Jersey’s secular liberalism made it a relatively safe and welcoming haven for the successive waves of Jewish immigrants. Not all Jewish New Jerseyans began their American sojourn in the cities; quite a number of immigrants became farmers. Jews had largely been precluded from landownership in Europe, leaving them with a lasting hunger for agricultural enterprise. Although their children and grandchildren would usually enter the professions and the arts, almost  percent of New Jersey’s chicken and egg farmers by mid-twentieth century, as well as a substantial number of the state’s dairy farmers, were Jews. A German Jewish philanthropist, Baron Maurice de Hirsch, helped establish agricultural colonies such as Alliance, Woodbine, Carmel, and Rosenhayn, most in south Jersey. The farmers organized cooperatives and agricultural schools, which contributed enormously to agricultural science and the state’s status as the Garden State. But farmwork was grueling. “With criminals they lock them up and throw away the key,’’ joked Sam Epstein, a farmer in Dover Township for forty-four years, “but with this farm, we locked ourselves in and threw away the key.’’ Like Epstein, many of the later Jewish farmers were Holocaust escapees or survivors. One of these escapees was Albert Einstein, who became director of the School of Mathematics of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, founded by New Jersey Jewish philanthropists Louis Bamberger and his sister Caroline Bamberger Fuld. At the time, Princeton University, like many colleges,

Johns-Manville Corporation placed unofficial quotas on Jewish admissions. Einstein’s international fame, and his efforts before, during, and after World War II to assist Jewish refugees, helped to lessen antiSemitism. “We have no other means of selfdefense than our solidarity,’’ Einstein asserted. Although New Jersey still has a high number of anti-Semitic incidents, the crimes are usually anonymous, a far cry from the pre–World War II days when a thousand Nazi Bund members marched openly at Camp Nordland in the town of Andover in Sussex County. At the end of the twentieth century, five Jewish historical societies existed to preserve and perpetuate the history of Jews in New Jersey. But, as is often said, it is when an ethnic group begins to preserve its history that it is in danger of decline. Intermarriage is common, and the fear that Jews will be quietly absorbed through assimilation is a real one. However, Orthodox and Hasidic communities thrive in such towns as Deal, Morristown, Highland Park, and Tenafly. There are no fewer than twenty-two Lubavitch communities in New Jersey. At Rutgers University, Hasidim have built a thriving Chabad house on campus. Similarly, small groups, such as the Reconstructionists and New Jersey’s lesbian and gay havurah, are creating new traditions that include women in all aspects of worship. Indeed, women increasingly serve as rabbis in less traditional Jewish congregations. Further, many secular Jews actively participate in Jewish life through Jewish community centers. The Children of Abraham have established a thriving presence in the state and will continue to meld the temporal and the sacred as they add to the vitality and diversity of New Jersey life. Ard, Patricia M., and Michael Aaron Rockland. The Jews of New Jersey: A Pictorial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Dubrovsky, Gertrude Wishnick. The Land Was Theirs: Jewish Farmers in the Garden State. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, . Helmreich, William B. The Enduring Community: The Jews of Newark and MetroWest. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, . Patt, Ruth Marcus. The Jewish Scene in New Jersey’s Raritan Valley, –. New Brunswick: Jewish Historical Society of Raritan Valley, .

See also ethnicity

Medical Center to form the Solaris Health System; Muhlenberg Hospital, founded in , is a -bed university-affiliated teaching medical center located in Plainfield. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Bruce R. Cowen

J. L. Mott Company.

This company, which manufactures plumbing supplies and sanitary fixtures, was founded as the J. L. Mott Iron Works in Mott Haven, New York, in . In  it was the first company to make bathtubs out of cast iron with a baked-enamel finish, a type of tub that eventually replaced baths of all other types. As modern sanitary plumbing became standard during the early s, plumbing companies made alliances with and eventually bought the potteries that were making toilets, tubs, and sinks. In , J. L. Mott Iron Company bought the Trenton Fire Clay and Porcelain Company—a firm begun in  by Edward David for making firebricks and later bought by O. O. Bowman in —to form the Mott Company of New Jersey. Bowman’s company claimed to be the first in America to make a bathtub of clay. About , the operations of the Mott Haven, New York, plant were transferred to new quarters in Trenton near the pottery branch of the business. The company was known from  for having made the largest bathtub in the White House and perhaps the world. Built to accommodate the portly President William H. Taft, the tub could hold four men of average size. Labor unrest, nationalization of the industry, and a shifting geographical base for sanitary production during the s undercut Mott’s profitability. In debt in , Mott sold out to Lail Pottery Corporation of Louisville, Kentucky, which drastically cut the size of Mott’s workforce. Despite this severe cost-cutting measure, the company did not survive through the s.

Stern, Marc J. The Pottery Industry of Trenton: A Skilled Trade in Transition, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker

jockey legislature. Patricia M. Ard

JFK Medical Center. Founded in , the JFK Medical Center is located in Edison. It currently provides  medical-surgical beds and  beds in the Johnson Rehabilitation Institute. The rehabilitation institute’s Center for Head Injuries has pioneered in head trauma evaluation and treatment. The New Jersey Neuroscience Institute, which is a nationally recognized center for the diagnosis, treatment, and study of neurological disease, is also located at JFK. The Family Practice Center at JFK provides a residency training program for family physicians. In , JFK Medical Center joined with Muhlenberg Regional

Most citizens of New Jersey in  strongly opposed the legalization of gambling at horse-racing tracks. Evangelical Protestants, especially, objected to it on moral grounds. On the other hand, several prominent Democratic legislators, including Assembly Speaker Thomas Flynn, were employed at the racetracks in Gloucester, Monmouth, and Guttenberg, and all legislators were given free passes to the tracks. Dubbed by the media as the “jockey legislature,’’ the lawmakers ignored overwhelming public opinion and pushed through a bill to legalize betting on horses. Although Gov. George Werts rejected the legislation, the “jockey legislature’’ quickly overrode his veto. The political backlash of an angry electorate in the fall

431

elections of  gave the Republicans control of both the assembly and the senate. Hogarty, Richard A. Leon Abbett’s New Jersey: The Emergence of the Modern Governor. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, . Noble, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton.  vols. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, –.

See also gambling

Richard A. Hogarty

John Harms Center for the Arts. Located in Englewood, this not-for-profit theater originally opened in  as a silent movie and vaudeville theater. With seating for ,, the current center presents a variety of entertainment, including solo performers, jazz, ballet, and folk music. First named “The Plaza,’’ the theater has undergone two major renovations. After the  reconstruction it was renamed “The Englewood Plaza,’’ used for classical music concerts, and run as a nonprofit organization by John Harms. The latest renovation, begun in , was completed in . Renamed for the local impresario, the center is also home to a performing arts school.

Nan Childress Orchard

Johns-Manville Corporation. Johns-Manville was incorporated in  after the merger of the H. W. Johns Manufacturing Company (founded in  by Henry Ward Johns), a producer of asbestos insulation, roofing, and textile materials, and the Manville Covering Company (founded in  by Charles B. Manville). The firm specialized in the integrated production of asbestos products and broke ground for a factory in the northeastern part of Hillsborough Township, Somerset County, in , which in  was officially incorporated as the Borough of Manville. Although the firm enjoyed success under the active management of the Manville family—becoming a publicly held corporation in —it was subject to a series of lawsuits (beginning circa ) regarding asbestosrelated deaths. Concern centered around two diseases: asbestosis, a nonmalignant scarring of the lungs that resulted from continued exposure to loose, airborne asbestos fibers; and mesothelioma, a type of cancer centered in chest cavities that usually kills within a year of diagnosis. After Dr. A. J. Lanza of Metropolitan Life completed a four-year study of the effects of worker exposure to asbestos in , the company attempted to have the report’s negative implications downplayed. During World War II the firm was a leading supplier of asbestos, and thousands of defense workers were exposed to the material. By the s these workers were filing compensation claims based on exposure to asbestos in increasing numbers. Although the firm remained profitable throughout the s and

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Johnson, Eldridge Reeves

s—diversifying into areas such as carpeting, gypsum, and fiberglass—health concerns persisted, and in  the company finally began placing warning labels on its asbestos products. In  the firm lost its final appeal in the case of Clarence Borel v. Fibreboard Paper Products Company, et al. and was found guilty of contributory negligence. By  the company estimated that the $ million available in primary liability coverage would be exhausted within two years and the firm’s insurer, Travelers, declined to renew coverage; Manville was thus forced to self-insure. Although business development continued—including the  acquisition of Olinkraft, a forest-products firm—by  the firm was a defendant in over , asbestos-related suits and juries were making large punitive-damages awards. In August  Manville filed for protection under Chapter  of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. After repeated delays, a reorganization plan was finally proposed in February  in which the company was split into two firms—the first to handle business operations and the second to handle claims relating to personal injury and property damage. Although the plan proved popular among claimants, the company—which had finally left the asbestos business for good in — paid a heavy price for its years of intransigence. While the firm emerged from bankruptcy in  and rapidly regained its financial health with a series of new product lines, stockholders and employees alike remained deeply disaffected by the company, as did the general public: the firm ranked dead last in the annual Fortune magazine poll of America’s most-admired companies between the years  and . Brodeur, Paul. Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial. New York: Pantheon Books, .

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Johnson, Eldridge Reeves

(b. Feb. ,

; d. Nov. , ). Inventor and manufac-

turer. Born in Wilmington, Delaware, Eldridge Reeves Johnson was the only son of carpenter Asa S. Johnson and Caroline Reeves. He married a distant cousin, Elsie Reeves Fenimore, on October , . They had one son, Eldridge Reeves Fenimore Johnson. Johnson became a machinist’s apprentice in Philadelphia in . In  Johnson moved to Camden, where he opened his own machine shop in . In  Johnson became interested in the gramophone, a disc-talking machine invented by Emile Berliner. He redesigned the gramophone’s spring motor and sound box, and developed an improved process for manufacturing disc records. During the late s Johnson’s shop manufactured gramophones for the Berliner Company. Following complicated litigation, Johnson gained control of Berliner’s patents and, in October , organized the Victor Talking Machine Company. Under Johnson’s

leadership, the Camden-based firm became one of the largest talking machine producers in the world. In  Johnson unveiled Victor’s signature product, the Victrola, a gramophone encased in an attractive wood cabinet. Johnson retired in  and died at his home in Moorestown in .

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, one of the nation’s largest philanthropies.

Barnum, Frederick O., III. His Master’s Voice in America. Camden: General Electric, .

Johnson & Johnson.

Baumbach, Robert W. Look for the Dog: An Illustrated Guide to Victor Talking Machines. Woodland Hills, CA: Stationary X-Press, .

See also Victor Talking Machine Company

Leonard DeGraaf

Johnson, Enoch L.

(b. Jan. , ; d.

Dec. , ).

Politician. The son of county sheriff and Republican leader Smith Johnson, Enoch L. Johnson, or “Nucky,’’ as he was known to local supporters, rose to prominence in statewide Republican circles after successfully managing the gubernatorial campaign of Walter Evans Edge in . In , U.S. Treasury agents described Johnson as “the virtual dictator’’ of Atlantic County, and one of a triumvirate that controlled the Republican party in the state. During the Prohibition era speakeasies, brothels, and gambling parlors flourished in Atlantic City, and Johnson’s income from the protection of these illegal activities was estimated to be in excess of $, per year. To reformers, Johnson was a scoundrel and a rogue, but to many he was a benevolent boss whose legendary generosity endeared him to legions of his poor constituents. A widower, Johnson kept company with beautiful showgirls and sported a trademark red carnation. Rumors of his connections with the criminal underworld and his lavish spending in the nightclubs of Atlantic City and New York gave him celebrity status, and made him the target of frequent investigations by state and federal authorities. On May , , a federal grand jury indicted Johnson on charges of income tax evasion. On July , , he was convicted, fined $,, and sentenced to ten years in the Federal Penitentiary at Lewisberg, Pennsylvania. After serving four years he was paroled and lived quietly in Atlantic City until his death in .

Martin Paulsson

Johnson, Robert Wood, Jr.

(b. Apr.

, ; d. Jan. , ). Manufacturer and phi-

lanthropist. Born in New Brunswick to Robert Wood Johnson, the founder of the healthcare company Johnson & Johnson, and Evangeline Armstrong Johnson, Robert Wood Johnson, Jr., attended Lawrenceville School and Rutgers Preparatory School, but did not attend college. Johnson joined his father’s factory at age seventeen and took over the direction of the company in , leading it through a period of rapid growth. After his service as a brigadier general in World War II he became known as General Johnson. Upon his death Johnson left his fortune—more than $ billion—to the

Foster, Lawrence G. Robert Wood Johnson: The Gentlemen Rebel. State College, PA: Lillian Press, .

Kitta MacPherson The world’s most comprehensive and broad-based manufacturer of health-care products, Johnson & Johnson was founded in  in New Brunswick by three brothers. Since then the firm has grown to include  operating companies in fifty-one countries, with $. billion in sales and , employees. The development of the first ready-made, ready-to-use surgical dressings by the company marked not only Johnson & Johnson’s birth, but also the first practical application of the theory of antiseptic wound treatment. Robert Wood Johnson joined forces with his brothers, James Wood Johnson and Edward Mead Johnson, and fourteen employees on the fourth floor of a small building that was once a wallpaper factory. Their first products were improved medicinal plasters containing medical compounds mixed in an adhesive. Then a revolutionary surgical dressing was quickly developed and placed on the market. The company was a pioneer in the promotion of antiseptic surgical procedures. In  the first president, Robert Wood Johnson, died. James W. Johnson succeeded his brother and was president until . International growth began in earnest in  with an around-the-world trip by the two sons of Robert Wood Johnson, who returned from abroad convinced that the company needed to expand its worldwide presence. Also during this time, the company stepped up its efforts to diversify its product line, introducing its best-known and most widely used products— Band-Aid Brand adhesive bandages—as well as new personal-care products, including Johnson’s Baby Cream. Robert Wood Johnson, Jr., son of founder Robert Wood Johnson, who later became known as General Johnson after service as a brigadier general in World War II, took over direction of the company in . He brought a vigorous new business philosophy to the organization. During World War II, company workers produced gauze bandages, gas masks, and artillery shells for the military. A Milltown factory produced one of the armed forces’ largest reserves of industrial tape. The company was family owned until it was listed on the New York Stock Exchange in  under the symbol JNJ. General Johnson resigned as chairman of the board of the company in . He was succeeded by Philip B. Hoffmann (– ), James E. Burke (–), and Ralph S. Larsen, who was elected chairman and CEO in . In , the company weathered a storm that might have put a smaller firm out of business. Seven people in the Chicago area died from taking Johnson & Johnson’s

Jones, Joe ( Joseph John) Extra-Strength Tylenol Capsules, poisoned by an unknown criminal who had tampered with the product. The company staged a nationwide recall, redesigned the package with a triple safety seal, and reintroduced it to the public. For its behavior, the company won uniform praise from newspapers across the country. Within a year, Tylenol was back to its preeminent position in the market. By , the company’s pharmaceutical business, which included Janssen Pharmaceutica, McNeil Pharmaceutical, and Cilag, had become its fastest-growing sector. Today, the company manufactures products that serve a broad segment of medical needs. They range from baby care, first aid, and hospital products to prescription pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, and products relating to family planning, dermatology, and feminine hygiene. Foster, Lawrence G. Johnson & Johnson: A Company That Cares. New Brunswick: Johnson & Johnson, .

See also illustration, color section; pharmaceutical industry

Kitta MacPherson

Joint Companies. Joint Companies was the name given to the holding company

that controlled the two internal transportation improvements—the Delaware and Raritan Canal and the Camden and Amboy Railroad—that traversed the central part of New Jersey, connecting New York City with Philadelphia. The two companies were created on the same day in February . In , the state legislature granted the two companies a monopoly over all transportation between New York and Philadelphia. In return for this grant, the state received one thousand shares of stock in the company and a guarantee of $, annual payments in dividends. Concerns about the monopoly were raised both by individuals who felt that the company had corrupted the state legislature and by other entrepreneurs who wanted to build competing lines, and became one of the chief political issues in mid-nineteenth century New Jersey. In  the Pennsylvania Railroad bought the Joint Companies, ending forty years of controversy. Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse: Travel and Transportation in New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Levine, Peter. The Behavior of State Legislative Parties in the Jacksonian Era: New Jersey, –. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

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See also Camden and Amboy Railroad; Delaware and Raritan Canal

Herbert B. Ershkowitz

Jones, Joe ( Joseph John)

(b. Apr. ,

; d. Apr. , ). Painter and muralist. The

son of a house painter, Joe Jones, a self-taught, politically radical muralist from the Midwest, made his name with a cycle of four paintings depicting the wheat harvest for a St. Louis store, and as a WPA muralist. During World War II, he worked as an illustrator for Life magazine. In the forties, his work became more abstract and minimalist. Paintings after  are lightly sketched New Jersey landscapes, made primarily along the Shore. He lived on Blackberry Lane in Morristown during his later years with his wife, Grace Adams Jones. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Joe Jones and J. B. Turnbull: Visions of the Midwest in the s. Milwaukee: Marquette University’s Haggerty Museum of Art, . Pohl, Frances K. In the Eye of the Storm: An Art of Conscience, –. San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

K Kalm, Peter (Pehr)

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Nov. , ).

Botanist and travel diarist. Peter Kalm arrived in Philadelphia on September , , and remained in North America until . A student of famed Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus, his trip was sponsored by the Swedish Academy of Science. His purpose was to search for plant species that could be of economic benefit to Sweden and her domain in Finland. Kalm kept a travel diary, not only dealing with his botanical quest, but also detailing everyday life in the areas he visited. On his return to Swedish Finland, where he became a professor at Abo (Turku) University, he published his travel diary, which was subsequently translated into English. His writings are especially valuable to students of New Jersey cultural history. He resided in what is now Swedesboro in the winter and spring of –, and traveled between Philadelphia and New York, all the while describing the countryside and the activities of its inhabitants. Recognizing the value of his discoveries, Linnaeus named the beautiful mountain laurel Kalmia latifolia in his honor. Kalm, Peter. Travels into North America. Trans. John Reinhold Forster. Intro. by Ralph M. Sargent. Barre, MA: Imprint Society, .

See also travel accounts

Kalmyk dancers.

Photo: David Sanderson.

United Nations, most of the displaced Kalmyks were brought to the United States during  and . The breakup of the Soviet Union at the end of the twentieth century has brought a new wave of Kalmyk immigrants to America. They tend to settle near earlier groups in order to have access to ongoing cultural, religious, and language resources. In , New Jersey’s

Kalmyk population was estimated to number around three thousand. See also ethnicity

Sagan T. Sanderson

Karagheusian Rug Mill.

Founded in  by Armenian immigrants who were established Oriental rug merchants in New York City, the A. & M. Karagheusian Rug Mill in

Peter O. Wacker

Kalmyks. The majority of Kalmyk people in the United States today live either in the Howell-Jackson area of central New Jersey or in the metropolitan Philadelphia area. These descendants of the Mongolian people who once conquered much of Eurasia speak a dialect of Mongolian, although most Kalmyks also speak Russian. Their religion is Tibetan Buddhism, and the Kalmyks currently maintain three Buddhist temples in New Jersey and one in Philadelphia. Today’s Kalmyk Americans are descendants of two groups that escaped their homeland, the Kalmyk Republic on the northern shore of the Caspian Sea in southeastern Russia. The first group fled to western Europe in , pursued by the Bolshevik Army. A second group escaped during World War II, when Stalin ordered the abolition of the Kalmyk Republic and exiled the Kalmyk people to Siberia. In Europe, the Kalmyks became stateless refugees, living in displaced persons camps in Munich, Germany. Originally refused entry into the United States because of Asian exclusion laws, the Kalmyks were reclassified as Caucasians. With the help of the Tolstoy Foundation, church organizations, and the 434

The burling department of the Karagheusian Rug Mill, Freehold, c. .

Courtesy Monmouth County Historical Association Library and Archives, Freehold.

Kean, Thomas Howard Freehold grew to become one of the largest in the world. To start, thirty-one looms and a community of skilled weavers were brought from England. By , the rug mill employed half of Freehold’s workforce and ran over two hundred looms. Rugs were produced for home furnishings and for the commercial trade, most notably for Radio City Music Hall in . The rug mill closed its doors in , due to rising labor costs, the introduction of new technologies, and changing consumer taste.

Lee Ellen Griffith

´, Joseph Karge

(b. July , ; d. Dec.

, ). Soldier and educator. A native of

´ was a Prussian Poznan, Poland, Joseph Karge army officer, but a Polish nationalist. Arrested for revolutionary activity in , he escaped to New York City, where he opened a language ´ was apschool in . In October , Karge pointed lieutenant colonel of the First New Jersey Cavalry. He was commissioned colonel of the Second New Jersey Cavalry in September  and commanded that regiment until the end of the Civil War, when he received the brevet (honorary) rank of brigadier general. He was a professor of modern languages at Princeton University from  until his death. Kajencki, Col. Francis C. Star on Many a Battlefield: Brevet Brigadier General Joseph Karg´e in the American Civil War. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Pyne, Henry R. Ride to War: The History of the First New Jersey Cavalry. Edited and with an introduction and notes by Earl Schenck Miers. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Civil War

Joseph G. Bilby

Katzenbach, Marie Louis Hilson (b. Dec. , ; d. Feb. , ). Educator. Al-

though she lacked a formal degree, Marie Louis Hilson Katzenbach devoted her public life to the cause of education. She started work at the Trenton Public Library as an apprentice and worked her way up to become head of the catalog department, and acting librarian-inchief for the summer of . At eighteen Katzenbach had followed her mother onto the board of the Union Industrial Home, an institution for orphaned children, and worked to correct what she saw as its deficiencies, including a need for the children’s education in public schools. In , she joined the home’s board of managers, a position she would hold for fifty years. With her major concern for educating disabled and emotionally disturbed children, Katzenbach also worked for over fifty years with the State School for the Deaf in Trenton, helping to plan the Sullivan campus and the present buildings. In  the school was renamed in her honor. Katzenbach helped to found the Mercer County Child Guidance Center and in , served as its president. Perhaps her greatest achievements occurred as a member of the New Jersey Board

of Education, to which she was appointed in . Opportunities for higher education in New Jersey were limited at this time, and Katzenbach was instrumental in the formation of the state college system; during her tenure three two-year normal schools were transformed into four-year state colleges and three more state colleges were founded. Through her efforts, major college course revisions were implemented and the county college program was begun. In  as a delegate from Mercer County, Katzenbach was elected vice president of the state Constitutional Convention, and was in large part responsible for wording giving women equal rights in the New Jersey State Constitution. She was given many awards for her efforts for women and children, including honorary doctorates from Douglass College in  and the Newark College of Engineering in , and the first annual Higher Education Service Award in . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Blair T. Birmelin, Daryl Boylan, and Lumina Pacheco

Kavanaugh, William Francis Sept. , ; d. Oct. , ).

(b.

Labor leader. William Francis Kavanaugh was born in Jersey City, the son of James and Mary Ryan Kavanaugh. His first wife, the former Elizabeth McAuley, died in . He married Alice Josephine Woods in . In  the young Kavanaugh gained a measure of fame as part of the vaudeville song-and-dance team of Sheehan and Kavanaugh; later, he was part of the Mobile Four quartet. In between theater jobs Kavanaugh worked as a waiter. After meeting labor activist Samuel Gompers, he became deeply interested in the labor movement. In  Kavanaugh organized Local  of the Hotel and Restaurant Employees’ International Alliance and Bartenders’ International League (HREIABIL) in Jersey City. He was the president and business agent of the local until . As an international representative and organizer for the union, he traveled through the United States and Canada. In  Kavanaugh was in Atlantic City to organize hotel and restaurant employees. The meeting hall was surrounded by the city police, which discouraged workers from attending, and Kavanaugh made an impassioned speech to the policemen to persuade them to unionize. Police commanders quickly withdrew their men, which permitted the original meeting to go on. Kavanaugh was the president of the New Jersey Federation of Trades and Labor Unions before it was reorganized as the New Jersey Federation of Labor; he then served as the NJFL secretary from  to . He was the secretary-treasurer of the Union Label League of Jersey City from  to , and also held

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the posts of president and secretary-treasurer of the Central Labor Union of Hudson County. Kavanaugh helped organize the Labor Institute at Rutgers University. He retired from union activities in . See also labor movement

David A. Norris

Kean, John

(b. Dec. , ; d. Nov. , ).

Businessman and politician. John Kean was the son of John and Lucy Kean. Born at Ursino, an ancestral estate near Elizabeth, Kean studied at private schools and attended Yale College before graduating from Columbia University’s Law School in . Preferring to engage in business, farming, banking, and manufacturing concerns instead of law, he held the directorships and presidencies of several corporations, including the Manhattan Trust Company and the Elizabethtown Gas Company. He won election as a Republican to the U.S. House of Representatives, holding a seat from  to  and  to . In  he chaired the Republican State Committee. Unsuccessful in a bid to secure the governorship in , Kean helped to revise New Jersey’s judicial system and subsequently served in the U.S. Senate from  until . He died of Bright’s disease at his country home, Liberty Hall, in New Jersey, leaving a legacy as a member of one of New Jersey’s prominent political families.

Leonard Schlup

Kean, Thomas Howard

(b. Apr. ,

). Governor, state assemblyman, and edu-

cator. Thomas Howard Kean was born in New York City to one of New Jersey’s prominent families. He was the fifth of six children of future congressman Robert Winthrop Kean and Elizabeth Stuyvesant Howard Kean. Kean graduated from Princeton University, taught at St. Mark’s School, and received his M.A. degree from Teachers College of Columbia University before seeking public office. Elected to the state assembly in , Kean rose rapidly though its ranks. Five years later, he was its Speaker. Kean authored bills that created the Equal Opportunity (Scholarship) Fund, the Clean and Safe Streets Act, New Jersey’s first urban aid bill, and statutes designed to protect the environment. As minority leader from  to , Kean influenced legislative proceedings through his understanding of its procedures. Kean, a Republican, lost a congressional primary to Millicent Fenwick in  and the  gubernatorial primary to Raymond H. Bateman. In the  governor’s race, he defeated James Florio by the second smallest margin in the state’s history (, votes). He was reelected four years later in its largest landslide victory, winning  percent of the vote. Inaugurated during a recession, Kean walked a line between the conservative Reagan administration that was cutting back on

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Keansburg

federal aid and an activist Democratic assembly willing to increase state spending. He settled on a strategy that acquiesced to modest tax increases in order to support education and social programs he favored. Though critical of Ronald Reagan’s environmental and transportation policies, Kean embraced the president’s “New Federalism,’’ arguing that the states could get by with less from Washington, provided governors controlled how federal money was spent. During his second term, economic recovery helped ease Kean’s budgetary problems. Courting new firms and investors, Kean kept business tax rates lower than those of neighboring states. He nurtured partnerships between universities and industry to accelerate New Jersey’s transition from a traditional manufacturing base to a technology/service economy. Intended to jump-start tourism, the slogan “New Jersey and You: Perfect Together’’ became synonymous with his administration. Kean’s highest priority was education. He introduced the first “alternative route’’ teacher certification program in the country, raised teacher salaries, launched teachers’ “academies’’ and “Governor’s Schools’’ for gifted high school students, and spearheaded the first state takeover of an entire city school system (Jersey City). Before welfare reform had become a national concern, Kean made continued welfare benefits contingent on acceptance of work or training. Kean invested heavily in cleanups of oceans, streams, and toxic dumps, relieved prison overcrowding, and financed infrastructure revolving funds, then a new concept. He also set aside millions of acres of freshwater wetlands and pushed for a new performing arts center in Newark. Though consistently popular, Kean angered some economic leaders when he divested the state’s portfolio of holdings in companies that conducted business with apartheid South Africa. He antagonized much of his party when he reappointed Chief Justice Robert N. Wilentz, in spite of his opposition to the jurist’s rulings. After leaving public office, Kean assumed the presidency of Drew University. In December , President George W. Bush appointed Kean chairman of the commission investigating the events leading up to the September  terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center. Kean, Thomas H. The Politics of Inclusion. New York: Free Press, .

See also governor

Alvin S. Felzenberg

Keansburg. .-square-mile borough on Raritan Bay in Monmouth County. This area was known as Waycake (numerous spelling variations exist) during the seventeenth century and Granville in the nineteenth. In the late nineteenth century the present name was adopted in honor of Congressman (later Senator) John Kean.

Keansburg experienced limited growth until the early twentieth century, when the visionary William Gehlhaus acquired an extensive waterfront tract, sold housing lots, built hotels, operated a steamship line, and opened boardwalk amusements. The town attained a great popular appeal as a blue-collar resort due to its proximity to New Jersey’s urban north, pricing practices geared to the masses, and an ample number of bars. The Depression hurt tourism, but it surged during World War II. After the war travel patterns changed after the  opening of the Garden State Parkway made more southerly resorts accessible. Cottages suitable for summer use were converted to year-round occupancy; many became substandard. That led to a s urban renewal project, the vanguard of efforts to upgrade housing. Reduction of the number of liquor licenses contributed to enhancing the quality of life, as Keansburg at the end of the twentieth century became less of a day-trip resort destination and more of a residential community. Keansburg’s  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Keansburg. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Randall Gabrielan

Kean University.

Founded in  in Newark as an educational training school, or normal school, for Newark public school teachers, by the mid-s the institution had evolved into Newark State Teachers College, or Newark State, as it was popularly known. The college continued to broaden its courses in the liberal arts and sciences and, in , conferred its first baccalaureate degrees. Fourteen years later, in , the college launched its first graduate program, offering a master’s degree in elementary education. By the mid-s, it became apparent that the Newark facilities could no longer accommodate a growing student population. Unable to expand in the city, the college moved in  to a new campus in Union, fifteen miles away. The campus occupied  wooded acres of the historic Kean family estate then known as Green Lane Farm. New facilities, built to meet the needs of a more diversified curriculum, initially could serve several thousand students. Across Morris Avenue from the new campus was Liberty Hall, a mansion once occupied by New Jersey’s Revolutionary-era governor, William Livingston, a Kean family ancestor. No longer in Newark and no longer exclusively focused on teacher training, the institution formally changed its name to Kean College of New Jersey in . In  the college purchased the thirty-acre site known as East Campus from the Pingry School. The college continued to expand under Presidents Eugene G. Wilkins (–) and Nathan Weiss (–). Under Weiss, the

college began to greatly enhance its baccalaureate and master’s programs while moving into noneducation programs in such areas as liberal studies, management, public administration, nursing and allied health fields, computer sciences, and technology. In the s college enrollments expanded to approximately twelve thousand undergraduate and graduate students per year—roughly the enrollment number of the late s as well— and it developed as a vital regional, cultural, and economic force. In the s Elsa Gomez (–) and Henry Ross (– ) served as president and interim president of the institution. In  President Ronald L. Applbaum (–) led a successful effort to achieve university designation (conferred by the New Jersey Commission on Higher Education), and the institution became Kean University. At the same time, Applbaum launched the Gateway Institute for Regional Development at Kean, which formalized the important role the institution was playing in regional economic growth. As a part of its request for university designation, the president and board of trustees also created the Nathan Weiss School (now College) of Graduate Studies. In  Frank J. Esposito was appointed interim president, and in  Dawood Farahi was elected as the university’s seventeenth president. Kean, Robert Winthrop. Fourscore Years : My First Twenty-four. N.p. : By the author, . Raichle, Donald R. From a Normal Beginning : The Origins of Kean College of New Jersey. Rutherford : Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Weiss, Nathan. At the Center of the Storm : Reflections of a State College President. Metuchen : Upland Press, .

See also higher education

Frank J. Esposito and Mark E. Lender

Kearny, Philip ).

(b. June , ; d. Sept. ,

Civil War general. Philip Kearny was born in New York City, the scion of great wealth and social position. He was the nephew of Gen. Stephen W. Kearny, a hero of the Mexican War, and his goal from boyhood was to be a soldier. Because his mother died when he was young, he made his home with his maternal grandfather and attended private schools. He graduated from Columbia University in , studied law, and traveled extensively. In  he inherited a million dollars from his grandfather and at once launched himself on a military career. An accomplished horseman, Kearny was commissioned second lieutenant in the First United States Dragoons in . Two years later he attended the French Cavalry School at Saumur and saw action with the Chasseurs Afrique in Algiers in . Returning to America, he was made aide-decamp successively to Generals-in-Chief of the Army Alexander Macomb and Winfield Scott. He then married and began a family. In , Kearny’s company served as escort to General Scott in the advance on Mexico

Keith, George

437

Constructed after the Civil War, the New Jersey Home for Disabled Soldiers at Kearny housed veterans until  when it was closed. The building no longer exists.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Military and Veterans Affairs, Trenton. Gen. Philip Kearny at the Battle of Seven Pines, .

From The History of Newark by Joseph Atkenson, 1878.

City. Fighting at Churubusco, Kearny’s left arm was shattered and had to be amputated; his gallantry won him the brevetted rank of major. Kearny resigned his commission in . He traveled around the world, and lived the life of a gentleman on his New Jersey estate. He went abroad again in  and, during the Italian War, fought with Napoleon III’s Imperial Guard at Magenta and Solferino, holding the reins in his teeth during cavalry charges. At the outbreak of the Civil War, he returned home and was among the first brigadier generals appointed, taking command of a brigade of New Jersey regiments. During the Peninsular campaign in the spring of , he was promoted to division command in the Third Corps, and on July  was made a major general. He saw action at Seven Pines and Second Bull Run. At Ox Hill (Chantilly, Virginia), while trying to align his troops at night during a rainstorm, he rode into a line of Confederate soldiers and was fatally shot as he spurred his horse to escape being captured. Kearny’s remains were removed from Trinity Churchyard in  and reinterred at Arlington National Cemetery. De Peyster, John Watts. Personal and Military History of Philip Kearny. Newark: Bliss and Company, . Werstein, Irving. Kearny, the Magnificent: The Story of General Philip Kearny, –. New York: John Day, .

See also Civil War

Barbadoes Neck until  when it was changed to Lodi; then in  it became part of Harrison, and finally in  it was named in honor of Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, a distinguished Union officer killed in the Civil War in . During the Revolutionary War, the Battle of Schuyler Heights was fought here and the area was captured temporarily by British troops. When the industrial revolution arrived, so did Scottish immigrants, lured by the town’s thread and knitting mills. Since the early part of twentieth century, Kearny has experienced significant industrial growth and is home to port operations, trucking, and many manufacturing companies. In recent years town has experienced a increase in immigration; however, its unique Scottish influence remains. Robert Burns’s birthday is still celebrated here every year. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent black. Twenty-seven percent of the total population was Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Krasner, Barbara, and the Kearny Museum. Kearny. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Mutz, Henry A. Harrison: The History of a New Jersey Town. Harrison: Town of Harrison, American Revolution Bicentennial Committee, . Robinson, Walter Francis. Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, . Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

William Gordon

Vilardi, Emma May. Heritage and Legacy. Kearny: Kearny Centennial Commission, .

.-square-mile town in Hudson County, founded in . Kearny was originally settled in  by Capt. William Sandford after he purchased all of the land now known as Kearny, Harrison, and East Newark. The town was known at the time as New Barbados Neck. The area’s place name remained New

Daniel R. Campbell

Kearny.

Keith, George

(b. c. ; d. Mar. , ).

Religious leader. George Keith was born in Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. He received a good education in preparation for the Presbyterian ministry, graduating from

Marishcall College, Aberdeen, with an M.A. He converted to Quakerism sometime before , when he was imprisoned for his beliefs. Keith soon emerged as one of the most able defenders of Quakerism, publishing many tracts. In  Keith immigrated to New Jersey, where he became surveyor-general of East Jersey and drew the dividing line between East and West Jersey. In  he moved to Philadelphia and became master of the Quaker school, but spent most of his time traveling on behalf of Friends and engaging in disputes with their opponents. Keith discovered what he saw as unsound doctrine among Delaware River Valley Friends and sought to reform practices by requiring all Friends to assent to a creed. In  Keith became the central figure in a schism of Friends. He insisted that the issue was basic Christian beliefs; they responded that the dispute was over Keith’s overbearing personality. When Keith published his account of the controversy and began meeting separately with his followers, termed Christian Quakers, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting declared him out of unity. The Keithians then criticized Quaker roles in politics and holding of slaves. In  Keith returned to England, seeking vindication. After being disowned by the London Yearly Meeting, Keith became a minister for the Church of England and in  returned to New Jersey and Pennsylvania seeking to persuade his followers and Quakers to become Anglicans. Saint Mary’s Church in Burlington claims him as a founder. Animosity between the followers of Keith, including Thomas Budd, and the main body of Friends continued for many years. Frost, J. William, ed. The Keithian Controversy in Early Pennsylvania. Norwood, PA: Norwood Editions, . Kirby, Ethyn Williams. George Keith. New York: Appleton-Century, .

See also Quakers

J. William Frost

438

Kempson, Julia Hart Beers

Kempson, Julia Hart Beers

(b. Dec.

, ; d. Aug. , ).

Painter. A longtime resident of Metuchen, Julia Hart Beers Kempson was one of the nation’s first women landscape painters and a strong advocate of art education for women. She was the tenth child and sixth daughter of James and Marion Hart, who had emigrated to the United States from Paisley, Scotland, eventually settling in Albany, New York. The younger sister of the well-known second-generation Hudson River school painters William Hart and James MacDougal Hart, Kempson studied with her brothers in New York City. She was influenced by their reverence for America’s wilderness; all three painted outdoors, directly from nature. In  she married her first husband, George Washington Beers, a well-known journalist with the Albany Evening Journal. The couple had two children, Marion and Kathryn. In , after her husband died, she moved with her mother and her two daughters to the Brooklyn, New York, home of her older brother, William. She then began a serious career as a painter, sharing a New York City studio with James. From  to , along with her brothers, she arranged for parties of women to accompany them on sketching trips throughout Vermont and New York’s Adirondack Mountains. In , Kempson (as Julia Hart Beers) exhibited her first painting at the Brooklyn Art Association, and for the next twenty-one years, she continued to show her work there. From  to , she exhibited her landscapes at the National Academy of Design. She was also a painter of still lifes, which were featured at the Boston Athenaeum, among other venues. In , she married Dr. Peter Tertius Kempson, a British-born physician, and the couple settled in his Metuchen home, Fir Tree Cottage. There she established a studio, where she continued to paint, teach, and exhibit her work. But after her second husband died in , she and her daughter Kathryn relocated to Mount Vernon, New York, near the home of her eldest daughter, Marion, who had married and settled there in . In , Kempson died in Trenton while visiting relatives. She is buried in the Presbyterian Cemetery in Metuchen. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Kenilworth. .-square-mile borough in north-central Union County. Kenilworth, originally a pre-Revolutionary farming community, was acquired in the late s by a group of real estate developers who called the property New Orange. The area was renamed after England’s Kenilworth Castle and Sir Walter Scott’s novel Kenilworth, and in  was incorporated as the borough of Kenilworth.

Kenilworth was home to John Jay, the first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court; Kensington Riding Academy; and Upsala College. Inventor Thomas Edison often visited Kenilworth, and famed aviator James Doolittle crashed his experimental plane there in  while attempting an emergency landing in foggy conditions. Doolittle credited the accident with reinforcing his commitment to developing blind-landing instrumentation for all-weather flying, one of his most significant aeronautical achievements. A primarily residential community composed of mostly middle-income, single-family households, Kenilworth in  had  businesses, including the world headquarters of pharmaceutical firm Schering-Plough. The population in  of , was  percent white. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Economic and Demographic Profile of Kenilworth, New Jersey. Union: Union County Economic Development Corporation, . Kenilworth: Celebrating Seventy-five Years, –. Kenilworth: Seventy-fifth Anniversary Committee, .

Shirley Boyden Maxwell

Kennelly, Arthur Edwin

(b. Dec. ,

; d. June , ). Engineer. Born in Bombay,

India, to British parents, Arthur Edwin Kennelly was educated in England, Scotland, France, and Belgium. He started as an operator for the Eastern Telegraph Company in England and rose to senior ship electrician. In  he traveled to the United States, where he worked from  to  as Thomas A. Edison’s principal electrical assistant. He designed electrical generating and transmission apparatus to be manufactured by General Electric Company, and developed a way to analyze alternating current (AC) circuits. While working for Edison, Dr. Kennelly kept detailed records and sketches of each of his experiments, filling six volumes. From  to  he worked as a consulting engineer at General Electric Company. In , he co-discovered (with English mathematician, Oliver Heaviside) the ionized upper atmosphere invisible layer that surrounds the Earth and deflects radio waves, then called the “Kennelly-Heaviside Layer,’’ now called the E region of the ionosphere. From  to  he was a professor at Harvard University and from  to  at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he was also chairman of the faculty. See also science and technology

Vincent M. Altamuro

Kenney, John Andrew

(b. ; d.

). Surgeon, medical editor, and hospital founder. Born in Virginia, John A. Kenney graduated from Leonard Medical School in Raleigh, North Carolina, in . Invited by Booker T. Washington to the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, he became medical director

and chief surgeon at the John A. Andrews Hospital and founded and directed a nationally acclaimed postgraduate training program for African American physicians. In , Kenney insisted that the new Veterans Administration hospital in Tuskegee be staffed by black physicians, and a death threat from white supremacists forced him to flee. Kenney resettled in Newark, entering private practice in . In , responding to a lack of hospital facilities for blacks, he founded the private, thirty-bed Kenney Memorial Hospital in Newark. He donated the hospital to the community in . In , Kenney was president of the National Medical Association and, from  to , the influential editor of the association’s journal. In , Kenney left Newark to resume directorship of the hospital in Tuskegee. He was a sharp critic of Red Cross prohibitions on interracial blood transfusions during World War II. Kenney spent his final years in Montclair. Gamble, Vanessa Northington. Making a Place for Ourselves: The Black Hospital Movement, –. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Sandra Moss

Kenny, John V.

(b. Apr. , ; d. June ,

).

Mayor and political leader. John V. Kenny first gained recognition as a ward leader in Jersey City under Mayor Frank Hague. After being passed over to succeed Hague in , Kenny broke with the powerful boss. He launched the Freedom Ticket to unseat Hague’s successor, Frank Hague Eggers, in . His fusion slate of commission candidates, which included an anti-Hague Democrat (James F. Murray), a Republican (Donald Spence), an Italian American (Louis Messano), and a Polish American (Charles Witkowski), appealed to Jersey City’s multiethnic population. Kenny won easily, his supporters storming city hall on election night carrying a coffin on which was written, “Here lies the remains of the Hague Machine.’’ After winning a second term in , Kenny unexpectedly resigned, though he remained the head of Hudson County’s Democratic party organization. He continued to wield considerable power throughout Hudson County until November , when he, Jersey City mayor Thomas Whelan, and ten other officials were indicted on extortion charges. Because of failing health, Kenny was given a severance from the trial. He later officially retired from county politics, pleaded guilty to the charges, and was given a suspended sentence. John V. Kenny died in , his political dynasty brought down by corruption. Connors, Richard J. A Cycle of Power: The Career of Jersey City Mayor Frank Hague. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . Hoffman, Paul. Tiger in the Court. Chicago: Playboy Press, . Smith, Thomas F. X. The Powerticians. Secaucus: Lyle Stuart, .

Kenneth French

Kieft, Willem

Kent Place School. This private nursery, elementary, and secondary school in Summit was founded by a group of businessmen and lawyers who sought to provide their daughters with a college preparatory education. The school opened in September . Still located on its original site, which had been the summer home of James Kent, the chancellor of the state of New York and a law professor at Columbia University, Kent Place was originally a boarding and day school. The boarding division was eliminated in . Today, with a student population of approximately six hundred, Kent Place is the only nonsectarian, independent college preparatory day school for girls in New Jersey. See also education Elaine L. Schwartz

Kerney, James

(b. Apr. , ; d. Apr.

, ). Newspaper editor and political con-

sultant. Born in Trenton to Irish immigrant parents, James Kerney attended Saint Paul’s School in Princeton and night classes at Trenton High School, where he learned typing and stenography. After working as a grocer and a carriage maker, he became a political reporter for the Trenton True American. In  he was named managing editor of the Trenton Evening Times and became an influential figure in state Democratic politics. He was a close friend and advisor to Woodrow Wilson throughout his career. In February , Wilson sent Kerney to Europe as director of the American Committee on Public Information. Kerney’s book, The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson, published in , chronicles Wilson’s career from his nomination as governor of New Jersey in  to his death in . Kerney, James. The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson. New York: Century, .

private, nonprofit Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation in  in West Orange. Kessler received international acclaim for his team approach to rehabilitation (medical, social, psychological, and vocational), and his insistence that severely disabled people can achieve physical and economic independence. He wrote five books on rehabilitation medicine, Peter Stuyvesant and His New York (), and his memoirs, The Knife Is Not Enough. Kessler, Henry H. The Knife Is Not Enough. New York: W. W. Norton, .

Karen Reeds

Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation. The creation of the Kessler Institute for Rehabilitation in West Orange in  marked the realization of the dream of Henry H. Kessler, M.D., Ph.D. It was also the beginning of a revolutionary concept of rehabilitation throughout the world. Dr. Kessler, a native of Newark, had gained international recognition for his work in orthopedics and rehabilitation at a time when most of his contemporaries were concerned only with a disabled person’s physical well-being, ignoring the emotional, social, and vocational aspects. Dr. Kessler was a driving force in the movement toward a “team approach’’ for rehabilitating a disabled person. The Kessler Institute has consistently been recognized as one of the nation’s leading rehabilitation hospitals and in  was one of only nine federally designated model systems for the treatment and research of traumatic brain and spinal cord injuries. The institute also has offices in Chester, East Orange, and Saddle Brook. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

(b. Apr. , ; d.

Jan. , ). Physician, surgeon, and pioneer in rehabilitation medicine. Henry H. Kessler’s father, Simon, was an itinerant carpenter, and his mother, Bertha Portugese Kessler (whose father had emigrated after surviving a Romanian pogrom), worked in a hat factory. Kessler and his wife Jessica Winnick had three children; his second marriage was to Estelle Cohen. Kessler attended Newark public schools, DeWitt Clinton High School in New York, and Cornell University. Kessler’s degrees included an M.D. (Cornell University, ), and an M.A. and Ph.D. (Columbia University,  and ). Kessler served as a volunteer (under the noted reconstructive surgeon Fred Albee) and later as medical director at the New Jersey Workmen’s Compensation Bureau’s Newark clinic, where he developed new cineplastic surgical techniques and prosthetics. After serving as a navy orthopedic surgeon in World War II, Kessler founded the

Keyport. .-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Keyport was formed as a town within Raritan (now Hazlet) Township in  and reorganized as a borough in . Thomas Kearney began accumulating hundreds of acres in ; the family estate in time was known as Key Grove. Located on Matawan Creek near the Raritan Bay settlement of Browns Point, the tract was sold in . Its buyers promptly built houses, a hotel, and maritime trade facilities including a dock. Keyport began taking water commerce from Middletown Point (Matawan) and soon supplanted that older port. Other waterfront businesses prospered including the harvesting and shipping of Chingarora oysters and shipbuilding. Trade prospects were enhanced in  when the Freehold and New York Railway reached Keyport. The thriving town developed other industry and became home to numerous educational, civic, and social organizations, including churches of many denominations. The Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company, a major manufacturer in the early aviation era, located here in , testing seaplanes on the nearby bay. As mercantile trade migrated to the highways and local industry declined in the post–Garden State Parkway era, Keyport promoted waterfront charm and an appeal as an art and antiques center at the end of the twentieth century. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Regan, Timothy E. Keyport. Vol. . Dover, NH: Arcadia, . ———. Keyport in the Twentieth Century. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Randall Gabrielan

Bruce R. Cowen

Martin Paulsson

Kessler, Henry H.

439

Keuffel and Esser.

Two German immigrants, William Keuffel and Hermann Esser, founded this precision-instrument manufacturing company in Hoboken in . “K&E know-how’’ established a reliable standard for mathematical and engineering tools. Keuffel and Esser became the dominant slide rule maker in the United States and expanded to Montreal. Under price pressure, the company had to switch to all-plastic models. K&E was purchased and reorganized as Cubic Precision, and during the s and s it served the U.S. defense industry. Brunson Instrument Company, which acquired Cubic Precision in , continues to manufacture many of the original K&E/Cubic Precision products under the name Brunson Instrument Company New Jersey. It is located in Carlstadt.

Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Deborah S. Greenhut

Kieft, Willem

(b. Sept. ; d. Sept. ,

). Director general of New Netherland. Not

much has been said in favor of the dictatorial Willem Kieft, except that he was loyal to the goals of the Dutch West India Company in defending, by threat and by demand at least, the boundaries of New Netherland against the incursions of the English in Connecticut and on Long Island, and of Swedes on the Delaware. Of patrician (though not noble) lineage, he ruled the colony virtually by fiat, allotting himself two votes on the ruling council and the only other member one vote, and resisting the colonists’ demands for their civil liberties. The year after taking office in , he aggravated relations with the local Indians, resulting in violent Dutch and Indian wars lasting for five years, with repercussions for another twenty years. In  he authorized a brutal massacre of the Weckquaskee Indians at Pavonia (Jersey City) that inspired all the Indian tribes in the area to join together to fight the Dutch, resulting in some sixteen hundred

440

Kiersted, Sarah

Indian casualties and the virtual decimation of New Amsterdam. Kieft’s misguided Indian policy so severely impeded the development of the colony’s prospects that the Dutch West India Company finally removed him from office in . Kieft died while returning to the Netherlands when his ship went down in the Bristol Channel.

listed as a private and quickly rose to the rank of sergeant in the th Infantry. While scouting for entrenched German machine gun nests near the Ourcq river in France, he was killed by a bullet to the head on July , . To reward his valor, Kilmer was buried alongside officers and was posthumously awarded the Croix de Guerre by the French government.

Jameson, J. Franklin, ed. Narratives of New Netherland, –. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, .

Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

O’Callaghan, E. B., ed. Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York. Albany, .

Covell, John E. Joyce Kilmer: A Literary Biography. Brunswick, GA: Write-Fit Communications, .

See also New Netherland

Holliday, Robert Cortes, ed. Joyce Kilmer. New York: Doran, .

Firth Haring Fabend

Kiersted, Sarah

Kilmer, Annie Kilburn. Memories, of My Son, Sergeant Joyce Kilmer. New York: Brentano’s, .

(fl. mid-seventeenth cen-

Kilmer, Kenton. Memories of My Father. New Brunswick: Joyce Kilmer Centennial Committee, .

tury). Early Dutch settler and interpreter for

the Lenape. In , Sarah Kiersted, a Dutch New Netherland housevrou, learned the Lenape language and interpreted for the Lenape leader Oratam in his troubled dealings with the Dutch. In turn, in , Oratam presented Kiersted with , acres of land that extended from the Hackensack River to Overpeck Creek, an area now encompassing all of Ridgefield Park and parts of Teaneck and Bogota. In an unusual gesture, his gift was confirmed by Gov. George Carteret in  after the English captured New Netherland. Huston, Geraldine. Oratam of the Hackensacks. Teaneck: N.p., . Smith, Samuel. The History of the Colony of Nova Caesaria, or New Jersey. Trenton: W. S. Sharp, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Oratam

Herbert C. Kraft

Kilmer, Joyce

(b. Dec. , ; d. July ,

). Poet, journalist, and soldier. Alfred Joyce

Kilmer is best known for penning the lines “I think that I shall never see/A poem as lovely as a tree.’’ Born in New Brunswick to Frederick Barnett Kilmer, a chemist, and Annie Ellen Kilburn, a composer and minor poet, Kilmer felt a close affinity with the Irish community’s spirit and literature, and often spoke of himself as being half-Irish (although his own ancestry was principally English and German). Kilmer studied at Rutgers University and subsequently Columbia University. After graduating with an A.B. in , he married Aline Murray, a poet and stepdaughter of Henry Mills Auden, Harper’s Monthly Magazine editor, and they had four children together. For immediate financial support, Kilmer taught Latin to high school students in Morristown. Seeking work closer to New York’s literary scene, Kilmer began writing for magazines as a reviewer and editor. He worked on the Standard Dictionary between  and , preparing new definitions and revising current ones for the upcoming edition. During this period, Kilmer started writing poetry, culminating in his first book, Summer of Love (). In ,

See also poetry

Melissa Fabros

Joyce Kilmer enlisted in the army during World War I, where he rose to the rank of sergeant before being killed in .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

he became literary editor for Churchman, an Episcopalian magazine, and then with the New York Times in the Sunday magazine and book review divisions. His immense success with “Trees’’ came in . The poem was first published in the highly regarded Poetry: A Magazine of Verse, which was also publishing the work of Robert Frost and Ezra Pound. Generally regarded as excessively sentimental, “Trees’’ never won critical acclaim. Nevertheless, the public embraced Kilmer and his poetry. His renown was solidified with his second volume, Trees and Other Poems (), along with his numerous and lively journalistic essays, interviews, and poetry lectures. He later wrote The Circus and Other Essays () and Literature in the Making, by Some of Its Makers (), a collection of interviews with famous writers of the era. Returning to verse in , Kilmer published his last major collection, Main Street, and Other Poems. In , his daughter was stricken with infantile paralysis, which moved Kilmer to renounce his Episcopal faith. He became an ardent Catholic, writing “Easter Week’’ in support of the Irish Easter Week Rebellion of , and “The Cathedral of Rheims.’’ Kilmer’s commitment to Catholicism can also be seen in The Courage of Enlightenment: An Address () and Dreams and Images: An Anthology of Catholic Poets (), which he edited. Stirred by the sinking of the Lusitania, Kilmer wrote the poem “The White Ships and the Red’’ for the New York Times, but he longed to support the U.S. war effort more directly. Too eager to undergo officer training, he en-

Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson

(b. Jan. ,

; d. Dec. , ).

Soldier. Hugh Judson Kilpatrick was born near Deckertown and graduated from West Point in . He was named lieutenant colonel of the Second New York Cavalry, and rose to brigadier general in June . By the end of the Civil War in  he was a full major general of volunteers, one of only two native-born New Jerseyans to reach that rank. Kilpatrick’s rapid rise in rank was due mostly to his native aggressiveness. He was nicknamed “Little Kil’’ and “Kill-Cavalry’’ because of the way his men wore out their horses. He was also reported to be a braggart and a womanizer. Kilpatrick was largely responsible for the attack that resulted in the death of Brig. Gen. Elon Farnsworth at Gettysburg, and then in February  led a disastrous raid on Richmond that resulted in the death of Col. Ulric Dahlgren. In April  Ulysses S. Grant sent him to William Tecumseh Sherman’s army in Georgia for the rest of the war. Sherman said of him, “I know that Kilpatrick is a hell of a damned fool, but I want just that sort of man to command my cavalry.’’ After the war Kilpatrick embarked on a tumultuous career in politics. He died while serving as U.S. minister to Chile in .

Jackson, William J. New Jerseyans in the Civil War. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Martin, Samuel J. Kill-Cavalry: The Life of Union General Hugh Judson Kilpatrick. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, . Warner, Ezra. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, .

See also Civil War

David G. Martin

King’s College.

In  Percy Crawford (–) purchased property in Belmar for a Bible college and missionary training institute. King’s College formally opened its doors two years later. Crawford had emerged as one

Kinsey, Alfred Charles of the most innovative fundamentalist ministers and religious radio broadcasters of the s. He led evangelistic youth rallies all along the East Coast, directed a teen conference center in the Poconos, and reached thousands through his Young People’s Church of the Air program. In , for tax reasons, he moved King’s College to an estate outside of New Castle, Delaware. Carpenter, Joel. Revive Us Again : The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism. New York : Oxford University Press, .

Peter J. Wosh

Kingsley, Sidney

(b. Oct. , ; d. Mar.

, ). Playwright. Sidney Kingsley was born

Sidney Kirshner in New York City, the son of Robert and Sophie Kirshner. He graduated from Cornell University in  and married actress Madge Evans in . His plays included the Pulitzer Prize–winning Men in White (), Dead End (), The Patriots (), Detective Story (), and Darkness at Noon (). He also worked briefly as a film scriptwriter. Appointed by Gov. Brendan T. Byrne, Kingsley served as the first chairman for the New Jersey Motion Picture and Television Commission (–), which has been highly successful in attracting the film and television industries to New Jersey. Until his death, Kingsley owned an eighteenth-century home in Oakland, New Jersey. Couch, Nena, ed. Sidney Kingsley: Five Prizewinning Plays. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, . Demastes, William W., ed. American Playwrights, –: A Research and Production Sourcebook. Westport: Greenwood Press, . Obituary. Star-Ledger, Mar. , .

Nena Couch

Kingston.

An unincorporated village bisected by the Old King’s Highway, now Route  Franklin Township (Somerset County) and South Brunswick Township (Middlesex County). Settled in , the village became a crossroads for travel between Philadelphia and New York City due to its location on the Millstone River. During the American Revolution, troops led by George Washington marched through Kingston after the Battle of Princeton and later en route to the Battle of Monmouth. Construction of the Delaware and Raritan Canal in  and a railroad spur from the main line brought increased commercial activity to the area. One of the first commercial uses of the telegraph was at Kingston. Lock number  is the halfway point on the forty-four-mile main Delaware and Raritan Canal. Today, the lock tender’s house and the telegraph-toll house stand on the towpath side of the canal near bridge number . A quarry began operation in  and continues today. The Withington Estate (Heathcote Farm) Historic Site, Kingston Village Historic District, the Kingston Mill Historic District (Princeton Township), and the Lake Carnegie

Historic District (Princeton Township) and Rockingham State Historic Site help preserve the village as rural residential. Beck, Henry Charlton. The Jersey Midlands. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Menzies, Elizabeth G. C. Millstone Valley. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Muser, Jeanette K. Rocky Hill, Kingston, and Griggstown. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Jeanette K. Muser

Kingwood. -square-mile township in Hunterdon County bounded on the north by Alexandria Township, on the east by Franklin Township, the south by Delaware Township, and the west by the Delaware River. The civil history of Kingwood Township dates from  when it was formed out of Bethlehem Township. In  part of Kingwood was cut off to Franklin Township; again in  a portion of the township was ceded to Milford Borough. Early settlers included the Bray family, whose son, Daniel, led the effort to secure all of the Durham boats on the Delaware as far up as the Lehigh River in Pennsylvania for the famous crossing of the Delaware and subsequent victory for Gen. George Washington’s army at Trenton in . Kingwood’s early colonial mills were located mainly in the Milltown section, which was along the scenic Lockatong Creek, an excellent millstream that races down the steep stone outcroppings to the Delaware River. Today Kingwood’s business ventures are mainly agricultural in nature. Farms and single-family residences predominate. The  population was , people;  percent of the residents is white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Kinnan, Mary Lewis

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Mar. , ).

Indian captive. Mary Lewis was born in New Jersey just as the French and Indian War was ending. After her marriage she moved to the West Virginia frontier, where in  she was taken captive by a Shawnee band. After her three years of captivity she wrote (in ) a brief account notable for its neutral, if not sympathetic, depiction of native lifestyle. Lewis drew parallels between the suffering of Native Americans and that of contemporary Christian women. In recent decades her story has been recognized as an early feminist statement, as well as an important contribution to narratives of captivity. Kinnan, Mary Lewis. A True Narrative of the Sufferings of Mary Kinnan; who was taken prisoner by the Shawnee Nation of Indians on the thirteenth day of May, , and remained with them till the sixteenth

441

of August, . Elizabethtown: Printed by Shepard Kollock, .

Marshall Becker

Kinnelon.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. Kinnelon was set off from Pequannock Township in . Located on the eastern rim of the Highlands and on the Pequannock River, it is mountainous, and, while heavily developed, it contains notable open spaces. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the iron industry was important, and included Charlotteburg Furnace. In , the Kinney family established a large estate, Kinnelon, from which the town later took its name. In the early twentieth century the estate was transformed into a luxury real estate development, Smoke Rise, noted for its large, upscale homes. The development occupies a large portion of the township. Other lake communities, including Fayson Lakes, followed, along with considerable suburban growth after World War II. Today the borough is primarily a residential area for middle- and upperincome families. Among the borough’s open spaces are Silas Condict Park ( acres) and Pyramid Mountain Natural Historical Area, which covers over , acres and includes two significant glacial erratics, Tripod Rock and Bear Rock. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Meyer, Lucy A. Kinnelon: A History. Kinnelon: Kinnelon Bicentennial Committee, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Kinsey, Alfred Charles

(b. June ,

; d. Aug. , ). Entomologist and sex re-

searcher. Alfred Charles Kinsey was born in Hoboken. His career as the most important collector of human sex histories was inspired by bitter memories of his troubled adolescence. He was the precocious son of Alfred Seguine Kinsey, a professor of engineering at Stevens Institute of Technology who insisted that his son follow his example in all things, and Sarah Ann Charles, whose submissive piety provided no relief from paternal domination. In revolt against his father’s worldview, Kinsey left New Jersey after his second year at Stevens to pursue a career in biology at Bowdoin College (B.A. ) and Harvard University (Ph.D. ). He became world famous as a professor at Indiana University by applying the research methods that he developed to study the evolution of gall wasps to the study of human sexual behavior. “The Kinsey Reports’’—Sexual Behavior in the Human Male () and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female ()—challenged traditional religious values by documenting stark contrasts between human actions and professed values, and provided Kinsey with a bully pulpit to express his anger over the suffering caused

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Kipp, Charles John The thirty-six-mile-long ridge in New Jersey continues northward as Shawangunk Mountain in New York, and southward as Blue Mountain in Pennsylvania. Kittatinny Valley is ten to thirteen miles wide and is located between Kittatinny Mountain on the west and the New Jersey Highlands on the east. The valley is underlain by less-resistant shale and limestone. The region was glaciated and is noted for its scenic views, especially at the Delaware Water Gap. Schuberth, Christopher J. The Geology of New York City and Environs. Garden City, NY : Natural History Press, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York : Crane Russak, .

See also Delaware Water Gap; geography; High Point; physiography

Robert M. Hordon

Knights of Labor.

Dr. Charles J. Kipp.

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark. by sexual repression. Kinsey married Clara McMillen, a graduate student in chemistry at Indiana University, on June , . They had four children and enjoyed a successful partnership that helped to legitimize Kinsey’s research interests. Jones, James H. Alfred C. Kinsey: A Public/Private Life. New York: W. W. Norton, .

James Reed

Kipp, Charles John

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Surgeon. Founder of the char-

itable Newark Eye and Ear Infirmary in , Charles John Kipp was known as one of the foremost oculists in America, and a dexterous surgeon. Born in Germany, Kipp graduated from the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in . He was a Civil War battlefield surgeon and medical director of the Freedman’s Bureau of Indiana. He was president of many organizations, including the Society for the Relief of Widows and Orphans of Medical Men of New Jersey (), the Medical Society of New Jersey (), the American Ophthalmological Society (), and the American Otolaryngological Society (). Kipp was instrumental in founding Babies’ Hospital in Newark () and the New Jersey Sanatorium for Tuberculous Diseases at Glen Gardner that opened in .

Sandra Moss

Kittatinny Region.

The Kittatinny Region is part of the Valley and Ridge Province in northwestern New Jersey. Kittatinny Mountain is underlain by very resistant sandstone and conglomerate, and contains the highest point in the state (High Point, at , feet).

The Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor was founded in Philadelphia in  by nine tailors who were former members of a local garment cutters’ association. Led by Uriah S. Stephens, the Knights of Labor began life as a secret organization but evolved into one of national significance, and in  discarded its cloak of secrecy to better pursue its grand plan of building labor solidarity. The Knights, unlike many other labor organizations, welcomed all industrial workers, including women, African Americans, and even employers in what was to be a union of both skilled and unskilled workers; only lawyers, stockbrokers, bankers, doctors, professional gamblers, and liquor manufacturers were excluded. This sense of solidarity was reflected in its motto: “An injury to one is an injury to all.’’ The Knights sought legislative and educational means to effect change and became a champion of the eight-hour workday, equal pay for the sexes, nationalization of the railroad and telegraph industries, the formation of cooperatives, creation of a national bureau of labor statistics, and the implementation of a graduated income tax. The organization was also a staunch opponent of child and convict labor. With regard to labor agitation, the Knights favored boycotts and arbitration over strikes, although its members conceded that strikes were sometimes necessary. Indeed, despite this tendency for compromise over confrontation, the Knights actively engaged in industrial action and won important labor victories in the s. These successes included strikes against the Union Pacific in  and the Wabash Railroad the following year. Under the leadership of Terence V. Powderly, the Knights reached the zenith of their popularity by , when the organization claimed a total membership of ,. New Jersey, with its strong industrial, immigrant, and urban character, figured prominently in the Knights’ history. In  Trenton stonecutters organized one of the first Knights locals outside of Philadelphia, and thereafter

the state’s industrial communities, including Newark, Paterson, and Trenton, were home to a number of union members. By , the Knights of Labor included between  percent and  percent of manufacturing workers in the Garden State. Two events in , however, marked a turn in the fortunes of the Knights: first, its failure in the Missouri Pacific strike; and second, its association (at least in the public’s mind) with the Haymarket riot in Chicago. The Knights lost significant prestige and the schism between inclusive unionism and craft unionism widened. By the end of the nineteenth century, the cohesion and influence of the Knights had waned. Suffering from internal factionalization, mismanagement, the loss of strikes, and growing competition from Samuel Gompers’s powerful craft union, the American Federation of Labor, the Knights’ membership shrank to just , in . Within the next decade it faded from the landscape of American labor. Despite its gradual disappearance, the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor succeeded in advancing the cause of labor in crucial ways both in New Jersey and on the national stage. It wielded substantial influence and, for a time, served as a real check to the power of industry in America’s Gilded Age. Most importantly, it fostered cohesion among vastly disparate groups of workers, and, in so doing, promoted a new vision of labor solidarity. Fink, Leon. Workingmen’s Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, . Voss, Kim. The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Weir, Robert E. Beyond Labor’s Veil: The Culture of the Knights of Labor. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, .

See also labor movement

Brigitte Koenig

Knowlton.

.-square-mile semi-rural township in Warren County. Originally known as Knoll-Town because of the numerous limestone knolls or outcroppings scattered throughout the area, Knowlton was separated from Oxford Township in . Major villages and settlements include Ramsayburg, Delaware or Delaware Station, Columbia, Hainsville (formerly Sodom), and Warrington. Early settlers relied at first on ferries to get across the Delaware River to neighboring Pennsylvania and later on pedestrian, railroad, and highway bridges. The old covered bridge from Columbia to Portland, Pennsylvania, survived Delaware floods in  and  but succumbed in , totally destroyed by the floodwaters of Hurricane Diane. The Warrington stone bridge is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places along with the octagon-shaped schoolhouse

Konrad, Adolf (in use between  and ). The Delaware Post Office structure, built in , is the oldest post office in New Jersey on its original site. The nineteenth-century cluster of mining villages in a rustic atmosphere prevail today; its citizens enjoy the simple country ambiance of yesteryear while earning their livelihood elsewhere. According to the year  census the population of , was  percent white. The median household () income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Historical Sites of Knowlton Township. Knowlton: Knowlton Bicentennial Committee, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Know-Nothings. The origin of the popular name for individuals loosely united in opposition to immigration and Catholicism comes from a story told about the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. When asked about their organization, members of this secret society would respond, “I know nothing.’’ In the s and s, at a time when the old party organizations were fragmenting under the pressure of the slavery issue, Know-Nothings generally belonged to fraternal organizations, such as the Order of United Americans, the Order of United American Mechanics, and the Order of Junior Mechanics. Politically, they constituted the American party, also known as the American Republican party, which had a branch in each of New Jersey’s counties by . Like the party, the Order of the Star-Spangled Banner—a society so secret that its  by-laws do not even mention its name—was dedicated to ensuring that only native-born Protestants were elected to office. A New Jerseyan, Charles Deshler of New Brunswick, served as national corresponding secretary. The formation of the American party was a response to the tremendous increase in the number of foreign-born immigrants, particularly in cities of the Northeast. In New Jersey, where that number doubled between  and , the immigrants were primarily Irish and German, and many of them were Catholic. An attack by Know-Nothings on Saint Mary’s Church in Elizabeth in the early s was averted only by the quick thinking of the pastor. The September , , attack on Saint Mary’s Church in Newark was the result of conflict between members of the American party, who were parading in celebration of the anniversary of the first session of the Continental Congress, and workers from the Halsey and Taylor factory on Shipman Street, who were mostly Irish and German immigrants. Animosity had simmered since the previous March, when the three fire brigades closest to the factory had ignored an alarm there, allegedly because the brigades were essentially Protestant clubs. In the street, the hurling of taunts

by the factory workers turned into rock throwing, and the marchers, whether on impulse or following a plan, attacked the church. At the end of the riot, the church lay in ruins, one Irishman was dead, and another lay mortally wounded. The Know-Nothings enjoyed some political success in New Jersey. A member of the American party was elected to the state assembly in . By the fall of , a state council of the American party had been organized in New Jersey. In  Know-Nothing candidates won the mayorship of Trenton, a seat in the state senate, and six seats in the assembly. The political zenith of the KnowNothings in New Jersey came in , when William A. Newell, a candidate of the “Opposition’’ party—composed of Republicans, former Whigs, and American party members, all opposed to the Democrats—was elected governor, and the party took four seats in the senate and fifteen in the assembly. In the  elections they took three senate seats. Soon after, the party fell into decline, and by  it was extinct at the state and national levels. Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Schwartz, Joel. “‘The Overturnings in the Earth’: Fireman and Evangelicals in Newark’s Law-andOrder Crisis of the s.’’ In Cities of the Garden State: Essays in the Urban and Suburban History of New Jersey, ed. Joel Schwartz and Daniel Prosser. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, .

Augustine J. Curley

Kollock, Shepard

(b. Sept. ; d. July

, ). Printer, soldier, and local official.

Shepard Kollock was born in Lewes, Delaware, and learned the printer’s trade from his uncle William Goddard of Philadelphia. In  Kollock went to the West Indies for his health and worked there as a printer, but returned to America to serve in the army during the Revolutionary War, rising to first lieutenant. He married Susan Arnett in  and together they had eight children. Kollock resigned from the military in  and opened a printing shop in Chatham. He began publishing the New Jersey Journal that year, espousing revolutionary fervor. He secured necessary cloth and other rag material to make paper from the army in nearby Morristown and subsequently maintained his own paper mill on the Rahway River. After the war he moved to New Brunswick and then Elizabeth, and for a time ran a satellite press in New York City. Many of Kollock’s imprints were religious in nature. He was active in his profession until . Kollock was an aide to two New Jersey governors, postmaster of Elizabeth from  to , and a judge of the court of common pleas of Essex County for thirty-five years. Anderson, John. Shepard Kollock, Editor for Freedom: The Story of the New-Jersey Journal in Chatham, –. Chatham: Chatham Historical Society, .

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Hutchinson, Elmer T. “A Pioneer New Jersey Printer.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (Apr. ): –. ———.“Products of Shepard Kollock’s Press, – .’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (Apr. ): –.

See also newspapers

E. Richard McKinstry

Konrad, Adolf (b. Feb. , ). Painter. Known as the “painter laureate of Newark,’’ Adolf Konrad was born in Bremen, Germany, one of four children of Roman and Katherine Konrad. His father was a translator of Slavic languages and an employee of the shipping firm North German Lloyd. In , after recognizing Adolf’s artistic ability, he sent him to the Scharrelman Schule. In the same year, the family made its first trip to Germany’s Worpswede art colony, where artists were painting works infused with idealism and nature. By , as rampant inflation and unrest under the Weimar Republic escalated, Roman moved his family to Elizabeth, New Jersey. Adolf continued his art education at the Fawcett Art School and at the Newark School of Fine and Industrial Arts, primarily under Bernar Gussow. In  Konrad and fellow students Bernard Rabin and Nathan Krueger launched the “Cooperative Gallery’’ in their classroom. By , after the gallery’s name was changed to “Rabin and Krueger’’ and it had acquired its own space, it became an important meeting place for notable artists of the early twentieth century, including Joseph Stella and Reginald Marsh. In the same year Konrad began experimenting with modern movements including cubism, particularly in depictions of buildings composed of overlapping shapes. This interest was further intensified in  after he won a scholarship to the Cummington School in Massachusetts, where he studied with Herman Maril. In  Konrad joined the Easel Project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), creating paintings displaying a personal form of realism that combined flat picture planes with an empirical form of perspective. He drew his subject matter from the world around him, particularly Newark, and incorporated symbolism and images reflecting “the sacred in the everyday,’’ similar to the metaphysical paintings of the Italian painter, Giorgio de Chirico. This study led to Konrad’s masterpiece of the period, End of Day (), which reveals mysterious lighting and lonely figures within a desolate city square containing Newark’s deserted Javas Bread Company building. In  Adolf and his wife, Helen, moved to Morristown, where he began to depict Victorian period architecture along with symbolic and nostalgic imagery. In Anniversary (), he depicted a Succasunna house with a group of imagined and almost transparent family members, who appear to merge with the

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Korean War sula to invade the Republic of Korea (ROK) in the south. By August , the NKPA had pushed ROK and U.S. troops into the southeast. After an amphibious landing at Inchon on September , , U.S. forces took Seoul around September –, and the U.S. Eighth Army began driving north, crossing the th parallel on October . The Chinese People’s Volunteer Army (Chinese Communist) joined the NKPA to push back the Eighth Army advance on November , . After withdrawing to Wonju in January , the Eighth Army turned north again, regaining Seoul on March , , and reaching a position north of the th parallel in June. Intermittent fighting continued until a peace agreement was signed on July , , ending the Korean War in stalemate. More than , New Jerseyans served in the Korean War, of whom  lost their lives. Three New Jerseyans received the Congressional Medal of Honor: Army Sergeant First Class Nelson V. Brittin of Audubon; Marine Corps Private Hector A. Cafferata, Jr., of Montville; and Army First Lieutenant Samuel S. Coursen of Madison. Hastings, Max. The Korean War. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

Adolf Konrad, Quartet, . Lithograph,  ×  / in.

c Adolf Konrad, Special Collections of the Newark Public Library. Signed
architecture. With furniture and photographs displayed in the foreground, Konrad presented material for dreams and memories— the invention of a scenario of a lost way of life. In recent years Konrad’s travels have inspired works including Mexican, Italian, and North African iconography, including street scenes, musicians, architecture, and ruins. After Helen’s death in , Adolf married Adair Blackwing, an artist and craftsperson who maintains her own studio on the grounds

of the couple’s home in Asbury (Franklin Township). There he continues to explore new directions—including still life and a noted series of works recalling the theme of the French painter Edouard Manet’s Luncheon on the Grass. See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Korean War. On June , , the Communist North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) crossed the th parallel on the Korean penin-

The Korean War Memorial in Atlantic City.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Lender, Mark Edward. One State in Arms: A Short Military History of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Pamela Cooper

Kovacs, Ernest Edward ; d. Jan. , ).

(b. Jan. ,

Television and radio personality, director, and writer. Ernie Kovacs was born in Trenton, the son of Hungarian American parents, Andrew and Mary (Chebonick) Kovacs. Educated at different public schools in his home town, Kovacs graduated from Trenton Central High School in . He subsequently attended various theatrical academies, but his contraction of pneumonia in  led to a recovery period that lasted nearly two years. Kovacs was back in Trenton by , where he produced plays for local civic organizations prior to obtaining a position as announcer and special events director at radio station WTTM-AM. He was also a newspaper columnist for the daily Trentonian. In , Kovacs wed Bette Lee Wilcox. They divorced five years later, but he retained sole legal custody of their two daughters. The lure of a new medium led Kovacs to Philadelphia, where he became a pioneer in the field of morning television programming on station WPTZ from  to . Viewers of his programs during the s grew accustomed to seeing innovative comedy sketches created by the man whose trademark moustache, ever-present cigar, and sign-off phrase “It’s Been Real’’ became nationally famous. Kovacs’s personal motto, “Nothing in Moderation,’’ also carried over to his television work, which typically featured unusual camera angles, creative editing techniques, odd sound effects, and original scriptwriting to enhance the “improv’’ feel of content, which would

Krementz and Company Walley, David. The Ernie Kovacs Phile. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

Alan Delozier

Kranich, Edward

Ernie Kovacs, c. . Kovacs’s zany humor made him a national television star.

Courtesy Edie Adams Archives, Los Angeles.

be termed “avant-garde’’ by later observers of his work. Memorable characters including Mr. Question Man, Percy Dovetonsils, and the Nairobi Trio became synonymous with Kovacs during his television career. Between  and  Kovacs directed several different programs on the NBC, CBS, and DuMont television networks where he gained national exposure through such daytime shows as Ernie in Kovacsland, Kovacs on the Corner, and the prime-time Ernie Kovacs Show. Kovacs remarried in , to singer Edie Adams; together they had one daughter. A year later, he became the morning radio announcer for WABC-AM in New York City, and also hosted the NBC Tonight show part-time from  to . Early in , the “No Dialogue’’ episode of the new Ernie Kovacs Show garnered an Emmy award nomination and Life magazine cover for its creator. In the wake of this success, a motion picture contract with Columbia Studios was signed later that year. Kovacs eventually starred in ten different films between  to , including Operation Mad Ball, Bell, Book, and Candle, and North to Alaska, where he often received third or fourth billing in the credits. During this period he also wrote two books, a novel entitled Zoomar, released in , and How to Talk Gin, which saw print in . In conjunction with his movie and publishing work, Kovacs hosted the television quiz show Take a Good Look along with monthly specials on the ABC network, until a car accident claimed his life. Enshrined in the Television Arts and Sciences Hall of Fame, Kovacs’s creative legacy and influence has lived on in the subsequent work of countless television comedians, producers, and writers.

(b. ; d. ).

Painter. Edward Kranich immigrated to the United States from Germany around –, and settled with his parents in Elizabeth, where his father worked for the firm of Kranich and Bach piano manufacturers. By  Kranich had moved to Morristown and established a studio in Washington Hall, facing the Green. In the late s he was advertising in the local newspaper as a landscape and ornamental painter, and sought commissions to paint views of homesteads in the community. In addition, he devoted his talents to painting ornamental window shades and decorative signs. Some of Kranich’s landscapes are broad, panoramic views, quite topographical in nature, with roads, streams, and ground relief depicted with considerable accuracy. The artist achieved a romantic aura in these paintings by framing scenes with lush foliage, and setting small figures in a darkened foreground. Classic examples of this style are View of Morristown from Fort Nonsense (two views, c. ) and View of Morristown from the Hill Behind Presbyterian Church (c. ). A series of homestead views was painted of the farms and homes of leading citizens in the Morris County area. Examples include The Pitney Farm in Mendham, The Sycamores in Morristown, and The Tucker Farm in Morris Township, all of which are standing today. Kranich gave close attention to the architectural details of the houses, barns, and fencing. The scenes are populated with small figures of children, couples, dogs, cows, and horses, adding a naive charm to the paintings. He also painted several commercial establishments, including a panoramic view of the Speedwell Iron Works along the Whippany River in Morristown, and the Heath House resort hotel on Schooley’s Mountain. By , Kranich and his wife, Vashti, returned to Elizabeth. He continued as an artist there until his death in , with occasional visits to Morristown for sketching and painting. He passed on his skills in the fine and decorative arts to his children, six sons and a daughter, who became artists and artisans. They were listed in the Elizabeth directories until  as “painter,’’ “sign painter,’’ “ornamental painter,’’ “fresco painter,’’ “crayon artist,’’ and “decorator.’’ Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Simon, Richard C. Edward Kranich and the NineteenthCentury Landscape. Morristown: Macculloch Hall Museum, .

See also art

Richard C. Simon

Krementz and Company. Rico, Diana. Kovacsland: A Biography of Ernie Kovacs. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, .

Krementz and Company grew to become the dominant jewelry manufacturer in Newark in the twen-

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tieth century while remaining under family management. Its founder, George Krementz, was born in Wiesbaden, Germany, in , and came to the United States that year as an infant with his family. At the age of eighteen, he entered the jewelry trade, first as an apprentice and then as a jeweler before opening a business with Stephen Alling and Alfred Van Cleve Genung. In , he formed Krementz and Company with his cousin, Julius Lebkuecher, whose experience in business management and sales enabled Krementz to devote his inventive talent to creating new products and the machines to make them. In , Krementz and Company moved into a remodeled factory at  Chestnut Street. Two years later, the company opened a sales office in New York, which was subsequently moved to its factory in Newark in . With business continuing to grow, the firm reopened a New York office in . George Krementz was a genuine inventor. In , he patented the Krementz onepiece collar button, which catapulted the company to international prominence. By , the company was producing most of the collar buttons in the world. He also patented the one-piece bean-and-post cuff button and the bodkin vest button. In the mid-s, Julius Lebkuecher’s son, Carl, joined the company, soon followed by George Krementz’s sons, Richard and Walter M. Upon the deaths of their fathers, the sons took control and, in , Krementz and Company was incorporated with each family receiving half the company stock. In , the company was split: the Lebkuecher family (renamed Lester in ) assumed most of the manufacturing of gold jewelry under the name Lester and Company; the Krementz family carried on the popular gold-clad line (gold overlay) under the name Krementz and Company. From the s through the s, Krementz and Company acquired several Newark manufacturing jewelers, including Bippart, Griscom, and Osborn known for art nouveau jewelry; Carter, Gough, and Company famous for quality gold and platinum jewelry; Eckfeldt and Ackley; Jones and Woodland with expertise in precious gemstone jewelry; Abelson and Braun with a bridal business; Allsopp-Steller with a medium-priced jewelry line; M. and N. Company, a ring manufacturer; and George O. Street. In the next two decades Krementz acquired George Schuler and Company, from Pleasantville, New York; Lester and Company; Frank Krementz Company (formed by George Krementz’s brother); the Improved Laminated Metals Company of Providence, Rhode Island; and McTeigue and Company of New York City with an -karat gold and diamond jewelry line. In , Shiman and Company was acquired for its -karat gold religious jewelry. In , the McTeigue and Company division was sold to Tiffany and Company.

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Krol, Bastiaen Janszen

In , Krementz and Company moved into a larger administrative and manufacturing facility at  McCarter Highway. Richard Krementz, grandson of the founder, presides over the five divisions of the company selling its products under three names: Shiman (-karat gold religious jewelry), Krementz and Company (gold overlay and electroplated brass line), and Krementz Gemstones (karat gold and platinum colored gemstone jewelry). Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also jewelry industry

as a key organizer of the  Armory Show, which was considered his major accomplishment. He also advised wealthy collectors, including Lillie P. Bliss and John Quinn, about art purchases. After suffering a nervous breakdown and failing health, Kuhn died in White Plains, New York. Adams, Philip Rhys. Walt Kuhn, Painter: His Life and Work. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, . Brown, Milton Wolf. The Story of the Armory Show. d ed. New York: Abbeville Press, .

See also art

Joanne M. Zangara

Ku Klux Klan. The second Ku Klux Klan Janet Zapata

Krol, Bastiaen Janszen

(b. ; d.

). Director general of New Netherland. A

velour worker in the fabric industry, Bastiaen Janszen Krol’s career in New Netherland began in  with his appointment as a ziekentrooster, or comforter of the sick, in Fort Orange (Albany). In , he became the Dutch West India Company’s commissary, or agent, at Fort Orange, and in  commander of the fort. As agent to Kiliaen van Rensselaer, he selected the location of the vast patroonship of Rensselaerswyck and negotiated its title with the Indians. On van Rensselaer’s recommendation Krol was appointed acting director general of the colony in , and served in that position until a replacement arrived the following year. Returning to Fort Orange, Krol served there as commander from  to . De Jong, Gerald F. The Dutch in America, –. Boston: Twayne, .

flourished between the two world wars, attracting about three million members and wide popular support. Like the Klan during Reconstruction, it was a secret organization, often armed and violent, dedicated to white supremacy and the rule of a traditional elite. It had many friends in Congress and state legislatures, elected thousands of local officials, and controlled several state governments, North and South. The new Klan had roots in evangelical Protestantism, anti-Catholic nativism, moral reform movements, anti-Semitism, racial theories, and anti-intellectualism. It appealed to millions with its insistence on a strict moral code and its equation of religious fundamentalism with “% Americanism.’’ It set out to unite white Protestants in a nationalist crusade against corrupting alien forces, which it identified as Catholic and Jewish immigrants, African and Asian Americans, labor unions and urban politicians, liberals and radicals,

and secularists and internationalists. And it assumed extralegal authority to enforce its values. In New Jersey the Klan recruited about sixty thousand members. In every county, thousands of men and women in hoods and robes held parades and burned crosses. They appeared at church services, often at a minister’s invitation; many congregations were divided between pro- and anti-Klan factions. Klan members rallied to defeat the presidential candidacy of Alfred E. Smith, a Catholic, in . They helped persuade Congress to enact more restrictive immigration laws, setting national quotas based on eugenic theories that some respected institutions and organizations in New Jersey helped to propagate. They worked successfully to place Klansmen in local office, especially in law enforcement, and to drive out teachers, farmers, businessmen, and residents who were not white Protestants. The Klan fought to maintain racial segregation in New Jersey’s schools, housing, employment, and public facilities. Klansmen were recruited to help break strikes. They promoted state laws for Bible reading and prayer in the schools, condemned the teaching of evolution during the Scopes trial, and pursued violators of Prohibition and Sabbath laws. They threatened or beat people for moral transgressions like adultery, lewdness, and racial mingling, and they terrorized black migrant workers. Like Klan affiliates elsewhere, the New Jersey Klan, led by Grand Dragon Arthur H. Bell, kept its membership and its internal affairs secret. It spread its message at local “klaverns,’’ through published bulletins and letters to members, and in national Klan periodicals

Van Laer, A.J.F., ed. Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts. Albany: State University of New York, .

See also New Netherland

Firth Haring Fabend

Kuhn, Walter Francis

(b. Oct. , ;

d. July , ).

Painter, cartoonist, and designer. Walt Kuhn was the son of Francis Kuhn and Amelia Hergenhan, who operated businesses in the Red Hook section of Brooklyn, New York. Educated in private schools, Kuhn left Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute at age sixteen. After studying art in Europe for two years, Kuhn returned to Manhattan in  and made a living selling cartoons to Life and Puck magazines and to several newspapers. Though his work was based in New York, Kuhn spent two summers in Cherry Hill (now North Hackensack). He was married to Vera Spier in Hoboken on February , , and they lived for ten years in Fort Lee. The Kuhns had one child. Kuhn exhibited his paintings throughout his life, and is recognized for his portrayals of clowns and circus performers. His promotional abilities were evident in his roles as a founding member and secretary of the Association of American Painters and Sculptors, and

A Ku Klux Klan gathering in Point Pleasant c. s, where even the horses were hooded.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

Ku Klux Klan and a network of friendly magazines. Among the Klan’s most ardent advocates was the evangelist Alma B. White, founder of the Pillar of Fire Church in Zarephath and editor of a monthly magazine, The Good Citizen. In  the Democratic National Convention narrowly defeated an anti-Klan resolution, and the Republicans avoided the issue. The Democratic presidential candidate, John W. Davis, opened his campaign with an antiKlan speech in Sea Girt. The state’s parties and most of their officeholders dissociated themselves from the Klan; some leaders in both parties were among its strongest opponents. The enemies of the New Jersey Klan also included many white Protestants, much of the press, and a wide range of civic orga-

nizations. Black, Catholic, and Jewish leaders fought the Klan’s efforts to exclude their people from American society. In cities with strong Catholic influence, mayors and police made the Klan unwelcome. Its activities were sometimes met by violence, most notably in the Perth Amboy riots in . The Klan had an ambivalent attitude toward the American proponents of fascism, with whom it shared political and racial ideas but often not the same national loyalties. In  the New Jersey Klan’s rally with the German-American Bund at the Bund’s Camp Nordland in Andover received the attention of a congressional hearing in Newark. This spotlight on its activities contributed to the organization’s decline, which had begun in the

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late s and was caused by a series of violent crimes, scandals, and internal disputes, as well as by greater resistance and a new political atmosphere in the Great Depression. After World War II a new, far weaker Klan, active in some New Jersey towns, became part of a network of militant racist groups that remains on the American scene. Chalmers, David M. Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. d ed. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, . Jackson, Kenneth T. The Ku Klux Klan in the City, –. New York: Oxford University Press, . MacLean, Nancy. Behind the Mask of Chivalry: The Making of the Second Ku Klux Klan. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Bernard Bush

L labor movement.

From a relatively diverse agricultural economy producing grains and livestock for the South, New England, and the British West Indies, New Jersey became in the nineteenth century an important center for both industry and commerce. Textile mills, iron and steel foundries, and later silk, porcelain, and pottery manufacturers became part of the urban New Jersey landscape. Canal building in the first half of the nineteenth century and railroad construction in the second half linked the state to local, New York, and Philadelphia markets. Although there is evidence of some trade union activity in the decades following the American Revolution, unions of artisans, shoemakers, harness makers, and saddle makers became a force in Newark in the s. They engaged in strikes and in  established the Newark Trades Union, a coalition of over sixteen artisan unions. As was true of New York and Philadelphia at the time, Newark was a center of one of the United States’ first labor parties, the Working Man’s Party, which had an intermittent existence in the city through the s. It advocated public education, an end to debtors’ prisons, a ten-hour workday, and the abolition of convict labor in manufacturing. These artisan unions and incipient labor parties in New Jersey and elsewhere collapsed in the face of periodic economic crises. Founded in  by Uriah Stephens, a New Jersey–born tailor, the Knights of Labor became the most important national labor organization in U.S. history in the late nineteenth century. It was a major force in New Jersey in the s, founding organizations that later became the basis for the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in the state. Unlike its AFL successors, the Knights of Labor actively organized female and black workers. The first socialist party in U.S. history, the Socialist Labor Party, was founded in Newark in the aftermath of the suppression of the National Railroad Strike in . From the s to World War I, the AFL-affiliated New Jersey Federation of Labor (NJFL) organized skilled workers and became the battleground between conservative business unionists, who followed an exclusionary policy toward the unskilled, women, and blacks, and socialist trade unionists, committed in principle to broader, more inclusive unions. Building trades unions, a stronghold of business unionists, emerged as the leading force on city central labor councils and in the state federation in this period. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a trade union founded by socialists and 448

other radicals in Chicago in , sought to organize textile factory workers in the state. The Wobblies launched a series of strikes in  in Paterson and in other New Jersey towns. Although some of these small strikes were successful at negotiating contracts, employers often reneged on agreements. A major strike in  involved leading figures in the IWW, including Big Bill Haywood, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Carlo Tresca, and John Reed. Nearly , strikers were arrested. The strike’s defeat had negative national consequences for the IWW, but the pageant held by New York writers and artists at Madison Square Garden in support of the strike represented the first major coming together of trade unionists and intellectuals in a solidarity campaign in U.S. labor history. The IWW, the Socialist party, and subsequently the new Communist Party, USA, faced widespread repression by business and government during wartime and the postwar Red Scare. Conservative business unionists in New Jersey allied themselves with the Woodrow Wilson administration and experienced important gains during the war, only to see those gains lost because of postwar repression and the antilabor policies of conservative Republican national administrations in the s. Through its Trade Union Educational League, however, the Communist Party developed an overall strategy of building industrial unions, “boring from within’’ the established unions to achieve that end, and developing class consciousness and militancy within the labor movement. In  Communists led one of the most important strikes in the United States in the decade, the Passaic silk industry strike. Like the later textile strike at Gastonia, North Carolina, it was defeated, but provided experience for many who would later build the industrial unions of the Committee on Industrial Organization (CIO) in the s. The Great Depression produced both an upsurge of workers seeking to organize unions and the New Deal government, which in  enacted the National Labor Relations Act. The act established for the first time in U.S. history a democratic system permitting workers to choose union representation. It also introduced important changes to labor law, making illegal many of the worst employer abuses. At the AFL convention of  in Atlantic City, John L. Lewis of the mineworkers led a walkout of industrial unionists. He formed the CIO, and began in earnest the organization of massproduction workers and the unskilled, which had been both delayed and defeated for half a century. In New Jersey, the Textile Workers Organizing Committee and the Left-led United Radio, Machine, and Electrical Workers (UE) were the most important industrial unions in state campaigns. The UE won important victories at RCA’s Camden plant in  and at Westinghouse and General Electric plants in Trenton. Johnson & Johnson, a powerful corporation

in New Brunswick, successfully evaded unionization, however, first by organizing directly controlled “company unions,’’ then by establishing indirectly controlled “independent unions’’ that on paper conformed to the NLRB Act. National CIO victories against General Motors and United States Steel, the two largest industrial corporations in the world in , represented a qualitative breakthrough for the American labor movement. Although many strikes were defeated, the period saw the passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act (), which established minimum wages and the forty-hour workweek in the United States. Congresswoman Mary Holmes Norton of Jersey City, as chair of the House Labor Committee, was the most important congressional figure involved in the development of the Fair Labor Standards Act. Mayor Frank Hague was successful in using the Jersey City police force to fight CIO organizers in . However, the U.S. Supreme Court, in a landmark decision, Hague v. CIO, declared that peaceful picketing was a protected right. Hague v. CIO was an important victory for the labor movement, whose right to picket had long been challenged by state and local laws and ordinances. The labor movement grew even more substantially in New Jersey than nationally during World War II, as the number of members in CIO unions tripled. During the cold war era, however, the Taft-Hartley law () restricted union growth and instigated anticommunist, anti-radical purges in CIO unions particularly (one of its most important clauses barred Communist party members from holding union office). Over time this weakened the labor movement nationally and in New Jersey. The UE, a Left- and Communist-led union, had been one of the most powerful in the state. After workers refused to remove its leftist leaders, a rival union, the International Union of Electrical Workers (IUE), was formed. By the s, government-induced purges, dual unions (which were created to weaken existing unions by competing for membership), and raids caused the number of workers in New Jersey unions to drop by  percent, losses that were about half the national average, but still substantial. While New Jersey labor was able for decades to hold its own, TaftHartley encouraged employers to relocate to relatively cheap labor southern and southwestern “right to work’’ states, especially as industrial air-conditioning technology made that more practical. Nevertheless, compared to many states, New Jersey labor remained strong. This was due to a number of factors. First, the UE and other Left-led unions, including a collection of leftist unions that formed CIO District , remained on the scene in New Jersey more than in other states. Also, the AFL-CIO merger, established nationally in , was not implemented in New Jersey for a number of years. When the merger finally was completed, a state Industrial Union Council continued

Lake Hopatcong to exist as a check on conservative business unionism. The establishment of the Communications Workers of America (CWA), which joined the CIO in , and its organization of Bell Telephone and other workers, was a postwar bright spot for labor. The CWA was led by Joseph Beirne, an ardent anticommunist but also a militant industrial unionist. The CWA was to play a major part in organizing both state employees and high-tech workers after , when the shift of industrial jobs to both “right to work’’ states and abroad greatly affected New Jersey. Other white-collar unions, most importantly the American Federation of State County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) and the New Jersey Education Association (NJEA) grew substantially and became important forces in the state labor movement after . New Jersey benefited from the fact that prominent trade unionists often held important positions in state governments. Carl Holderman, a founder of the CIO in New Jersey, served as commissioner of labor and industry in the administration of Gov. Robert Meyner (–). Other prominent trade unionists were able to influence the Democratic administrations of Richard Hughes, Brendan Byrne, and James Florio, while lobbying effectively with the “liberal Republican’’ administrations of William Cahill and Tom Kean. Unlike most other states, New Jersey labor was able to prevent the establishment of a conservative antilabor government in Trenton until Christine Todd Whitman’s election in . Labor contributed to New Jersey’s emergence at the beginning of the twenty-first century as the state with the highest median family income in the country. New Jersey also maintained some of the most advanced state and local social welfare and health care systems in the United States, although it lagged behind other industrial states in support of higher education.

Today, Lacey has one of the oldest continuously operated nuclear plants in the country. Recreational fishing still draws retirees and vacationers. People also come to Lacey to explore the New Jersey Pinelands, , acres of which are preserved, including the Forked River Mountains (two geological formations that rise  feet above sea level). In  the population of Lacey Township was , and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book,  Edition. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Turp, Dr. Ralph K. Lacey Township: People and Progress. Egg Harbor City: Laureate Press, .

Patricia Johnson

Lacroix, Paul

(b. ; d. ). Painter. Paul Lacroix, likely of French background, is believed to have immigrated to the United States during the late s. He is known for his delicate still-life paintings of fruit, vegetables, and flowers in natural settings, which are typical of mid-nineteenth century American still-life painting. Although Lacroix also painted landscapes, still-life painting was clearly his strength, and his work using this theme is considered to be among the better examples from this time. He seems to be New Jersey’s first still-life specialist. More is known about his painting than his life. From the late s to , Lacroix lived in New York City and exhibited his work there. He then resided in Hoboken’s artistic community from  to , at a time when the town was known for providing a quieter setting for artists who also wanted access to New York City. He died in  at Saint Luke’s Hospital in New York City. Gerdts, William H. Painters of the Humble Truth: Masterpieces of American Still Life, –. Columbia: Philbrook Art Center with University of Missouri Press, .

See also art

Clemens, Paul. The Uses of Abundance. Trenton: New Jersey State Historical Commission, . Cunningham, John T. New Jersey: America’s Main Road. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, . Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Norman Markowitz

Lacey.

-square-mile township in Ocean County, plus . square miles of water, situated along the coast of Barnegat Bay. Lacey was incorporated in  from three older towns: Bamber, Lanoka Harbor, and Forked River. The area was settled in colonial times: a sawmill was built on Cedar Creek in  and a salt works in . A Revolutionary War veteran, Gen. John Lacey, founded Ferrago Forge in . Early industries included lumbering, fishing, shellfishing, cranberry farming, and tourism. In the nineteenth century the township was serviced by two railroads: the Tuckerton Railroad and the Jersey Central.

Joanne M. Zangara

Lafayette.

-square-mile township in central Sussex County. Lafayette was set off from Newton Township in . The village of Lafayette, located in the center of the township on the Paulinskill River, was named for the marquis de Lafayette at the time of his visit to America in . The Paulinskill provided power for mills and a foundry at the village in the nineteenth century. The Sussex Railroad reached the village in , which encouraged dairying. A former flour mill, the Lafayette Mill, is now converted to antique shops. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the township was predominantly agricultural; there was also a notable slate quarry. Recent decades have seen commercial and residential growth. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income

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() was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Everitt, Alex, and Brian McCann. LaFayette Township, New Jersey. Lafayette: LaFayette Committee for the Bicentennial Celebration, . Honeyman, A Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Lake Denmark Naval Ammunition Depot. Lightning struck the Naval Ammunition Depot, located in Rockaway Township, at approximately : p.m. on July , , igniting a fire. Three subsequent explosions involved approximately . million pounds of TNT. The blasts killed nineteen people and injured thirty-eight while destroying approximately $ million worth of navy property and causing more than $ million in damage at neighboring Picatinny Arsenal. Damage to surrounding properties brought the total to an estimated $ million. The depot saw limited activity during World War II and closed in , but the navy used the site for rocket testing from  until .

Patrick J. Owens

Lake Hackensack.

An extinct glacial lake in northeastern New Jersey, Lake Hackensack is now occupied by the Hackensack Meadowlands. It was located east of the Watchungs, west of the Palisades, and north of Staten Island. Lake Hackensack, like the other sixtyfive glacial lakes in northern New Jersey, was formed during the Ice Age, when massive ice sheets dammed streams. The two largest glacial lakes in the state were Lake Passaic and Lake Hackensack. They were eventually drained as the outlets were exposed during the ice retreat about ten thousand years ago. One of the outlets for Lake Hackensack is located in a large gap in the Palisades at the boundary between Jersey City and Bayonne.

Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; lakes

Robert M. Hordon

Lake Hopatcong.

Covering , acres (. square miles) and  miles of shoreline at an elevation of  feet, Lake Hopatcong in Morris and Sussex counties is the largest lake in New Jersey. Occupying several smaller glacially created natural lakes, the present lake was enlarged artificially in . The usable capacity is . billion gallons, and the maximum depth is  feet. Although Lake Hopatcong is used primarily for recreation, water has been diverted from it to supply northeastern New Jersey during drought emergencies. The flow from the lake is regulated as it empties into

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Lakehurst

lakes. Lakes are inland bodies of water that

A group of sailboats racing on Lake Hopatcong, .

Photo: Pim Van Hemmen. Courtesy The Star-Ledger. the Musconetcong River, which flows into the Delaware River. Kelland, Frank S., and Marylin C. Kelland. New Jersey, Garden or Suburb?: A Geography of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, . Wacker, Peter O. The Musconetcong Valley of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also glaciation; lakes

Robert M. Hordon

Lakehurst.

.-square-mile borough situated in the heart of Manchester Township, which is  square miles, in Ocean County. Incorporated in , the borough had by then become a winter resort. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Lakehurst’s major industry was a rope factory, which burned down in . Until the s, it was the site of one of the largest shop areas of the Central Railroad of New Jersey. From  to , the Pine Tree Inn, a luxurious winter resort hotel, was here. Now on the site is the borough’s elementary school. Lakehurst’s greatest fame began prior to the First World War with the establishment on its outskirts of an ammunition proving ground for the Russian imperial government. It soon became a chemical warfare testing center for the U.S. Army, and then became Camp Kendrick. In , the navy purchased the base for a Naval Air Station. It became known as the base for lighter-than-air craft. On May , , the Hindenburg, attempting a landing, exploded and burned, killing thirtysix people. Today, tourists see a modest stone marker where the Hindenburg fell. In what had been the oldest Roman Catholic church in Ocean County, Old Saint John’s Church, is the Lakehurst Historical Society Museum,

which opened in . Among its artifacts are charred remnants of the Hindenburg. Lakehurst is surrounded by a number of senior retirement communities, each having from , to , residents. In  its , residents were  percent white and  percent black. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dewey, Willian S. Early Manchester and William Torrey. Manchester: Manchester Publishing Company, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Schmidt, R. Marilyn. Exploring the Pine Barrens of New Jersey. Barnegat Light: Barnegat Light Press, .

Jerome E. Klein

fill depressions in the earth’s surface. They are generally too deep to allow vegetation to cover the entire surface, and may be either fresh water (as all are in New Jersey) or saline (e.g., Great Salt Lake in Utah). Ponds are usually small, shallow lakes, but there is no specific size or depth that is used to distinguish them. The primary source of water for a lake is precipitation, either in the form of direct runoff by streams that drain into the depression or by groundwater that slowly seeps into the lake. Lakes are unevenly distributed on the earth’s surface. Nearly half of the world’s lakes are in Canada, and Minnesota is proud of its reputed , lakes. Large parts of the world were covered by huge ice sheets, which advanced several times during the past . to . million years, a period known as the Ice Age. Indeed, most of the world’s lakes were formed as a result of the movement of continental ice sheets. The northern third of New Jersey was glaciated during the Ice Age, and holds all of the sixty natural lakes in the state (e.g., Budd Lake in Morris County). All of the lakes in the southern part of the state are artificial (e.g., Union Lake in Cumberland County). Whatever the nature of their origin, all lakes are ephemeral features on the earth’s surface. In contrast to many other landforms on the earth, such as mountains and valleys, lakes are very transient. Outlet erosion, natural and anthropogenically induced sedimentation, water diversion, and nutrient inflow inexorably lead to a relatively short life-span of only hundreds to thousands of years, as compared to millions of years for mountains. Reservoirs are artificial lakes, which range from small farm or fish ponds of about an acre to massive impoundments such as Wanaque Reservoir in Passaic County. Reservoirs are built for hydropower, water supply, flood

Fifteen Largest Lakes in New Jersey

Municipality

County

Ownership

Surface area in acres

Mount Arlington Clinton Wanaque

Morris Hunterdon Passaic

Public Public Public

2,685 2,350 2,310

Union East Brunswick Millville City

Hunterdon Middlesex Cumberland

Public Public Private

1,275 1,000 920

Boonton Reservoir Greenwood Lake

Parsippany–Troy Hills West Milford

Morris Passaic

Private Public

780 720

Mohawk Lake Culvers Lake Splitrock Reservoir

Sparta Frankford Rockaway

Sussex Sussex Morris

Private Public Private

700 692 640

Tappan Lake Reservoir Point View Reservoir Swartswood Lake Green Pond

River Vale Wayne Stillwater Rockaway

Bergen Passaic Sussex Morris

Public Private Public Private

550 512 505 500

Name Lake Hopatcong Round Valley Reservoir Wanaque Reservoir Spruce Run Reservoir Dallenback Pond Union Lake

Harbans Singh

Lakewood Blue Claws

CULVERS LAKE MOHAWK LAKE

GRENWOOD LAKE

WANAQUE RESERVOIR TAPPAN LAKE RESERVOIR

GREEN POND

SWARTSWOOD LAKE POINT VIEW RESERVOIR

LAKE HOPATCONG

451

Many lakes are subject to excessive inputs of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) from agricultural runoff and inadequately treated wastewater from septic disposal systems. This form of biological enrichment is known as eutrophication, which results in undesirable algal growth. One example of a lake undergoing eutrophication is Spruce Run Reservoir in Hunterdon County. Horwitz, Elinor L. Our Nation’s Lakes. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, .

See also geography; glaciation; rivers

Robert M. Hordon

SPLITROCK RESERVOIR SPRUCE RUN RESERVOIR

BOONTON RESERVOIR

Lakewood.

.-square-mile township in Ocean County. Successively, Three Partner’s Mill, Washington Furnace (–), and Bergen Iron Works (–), the town was renamed Bricksburg in  to attract farmers. In winter  New Yorker Charles Henry Kimball decided to make it a winter resort. Promoters convinced the state legislature to change the name to Lakewood in . Originally part of Shrewsbury Township in Monmouth County, Lakewood Township separated from Brick Township in . The heyday of Lakewood as a winter resort of the rich and famous began in  with the construction of the Laurel-in-the-Pines and Lakewood hotels. George J. Gould and John D. Rockefeller built their estates (now Georgian Court College and Ocean County Park, respectively) at the turn of the twentieth century. Between  and the s nearly one hundred hotels served a large Jewish clientele. In the s–s Jewish settlers migrated from New York to become poultry and egg farmers. With the drastic decline of the hotel business since the late s, the township revitalized itself with a large industrial park. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

ROUND VALLEY RESERVOIR

DALLENBACH POND

UNION LAKE

N

Axel-Lute, Paul. Lakewood in the Pines: A History of Lakewood, New Jersey. South Orange: Privately published, .

0

20 miles

Major lakes in terms of surface area. @Rutgers, The State University

control, navigation, low-flow maintenance for water quality purposes, recreation, or any combination thereof. There are , lakes in New Jersey. Only  lakes have a surface area larger than  acres. In terms of surface area, the largest lakes entirely in New Jersey are Lake Hopatcong in Sussex County (, acres), which was built in  for recreation, and Round Valley

Reservoir in Hunterdon County (, acres), which was built in  for water supply. In terms of volume, some of the largest reservoirs in the state that were built primarily for water supply include Round Valley in Hunterdon County ( billion gallons), Wanaque Reservoir in Passaic County (. billion gallons), and Spruce Run in Hunterdon County ( billion gallons).

Freedman, Morris. “The New Farmers of Lakewood: A Jewish Community on the American Soil.’’ Commentary  (): –. Pictorial Album of Lakewood, New Jersey. Toms River: Ocean County Historical Society, .

Susan Hamburger

Lakewood Blue Claws. The Lakewood Blue Claws, a minor league professional baseball team, play in the Class-A South Atlantic League as an affiliate of the Philadelphia Phillies. They began in the league in  at newly opened First Energy Park in Lakewood. First Energy Park includes picnic areas, luxury boxes, and party decks. The Blue Claws play a -game regular season schedule, which runs from April to September, and

452

Lambert, Catholina

the team is operated by American Baseball Company, LLC. See also baseball

Alaya, Flavia. Silk and Sandstone: The Story of Catholina Lambert and His Castle. Paterson: Passaic County Historical Society, .

See also silk industry

Brian McGonigle Flavia Alaya

Lambert, Catholina d. Feb. , ).

(b. Mar. , ;

Silk manufacturer. Born in Gooseye (Yorkshire), England, Catholina Lambert was the first son of poor paper-mill hands who apprenticed him to cotton mills in Derbyshire when he was ten. Arriving in New York City in , Lambert headed for Boston to be apprenticed to early silk entrepreneurs Tilt and Dexter, who put him in charge of their New York outlet as soon as he turned twenty-one. When he bought out the branch within three years, they financed him as a pioneer silk maker in Paterson. With his new wife, Isabella (Belle) Shattuck, he began in  to acquire property with the intention of settling. The Civil War economy and postbellum demand for domestic silk boosted the fortunes of Dexter, Lambert, and Company. Lambert became rich, successfully dodging labor battles in Paterson by taking some silk operations into rural Pennsylvania as early as . But his stunning rise was star-crossed: six of his eight children died between  and . He submerged his grief by acquiring art and designing and building a Yorkshire-style castle to showcase it. His intransigence during Paterson’s Great Silk Strike of  secured his reputation as a hardliner, but the cost was high, and the onset of World War I left him with a mortgage of more than $ million, then the largest ever in Passaic County. He auctioned his collections in  to avert bankruptcy, and lived in the Castle with the family of Walter, his only remaining child.

Lambert, John

(b. Feb. , ; d. Feb.

, ).

Politician. John Lambert was born in Lambertville, the son of Gershom and Sarah (Merriam) Lambert. In  he married Susannah Barber; together they had seven children. He married a second time to Hannah Dennis, with whom he had six children. Lambert, who inherited a considerable family estate at an early age, served in the New Jersey general assembly from  to , and again in . He was a member of the New Jersey state council from  to , becoming vice president of that body in . A Jeffersonian Republican, he acted as governor from October  to October , while an election between Federalist and Republican gubernatorial candidates was contested in the New Jersey legislature. Lambert later served as a member of Congress from New Jersey between  and , and in the U.S. Senate from  until his retirement in . He died near Lambertville. Prince, Carl E. New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

John W. Raimo

Lambertus C. Bobbink Memorial Rose Garden. This half-acre rose garden is situated within Thompson Park in Lincroft. Named for Geraldine Thompson, who bequeathed her estate to Monmouth County in , this large park received the rose garden as a gift from Dorothea Bobbink White and her husband, George White, in . The

Whites wanted to honor Dorothea’s late father, Lambertus C. Bobbink, a well-known rosarian and nurseryman. The Lambertus C. Bobbink Memorial Rose Garden is both a trial site and demonstration garden for the All-American Rose Selections. Visitors can enjoy the original roses, as well as new varieties, and a gazebo and fountain. Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Daniel J. Lurie

Lambertville.

.-square-mile city in Hunterdon County. Located where an Indian trail crossed the Delaware River, Lambertville was settled by Europeans in the s. Commercial access was increased first with the completion of the Delaware and Raritan Canal feeder line in , and then with the arrival of the Belvidere and Delaware Railroad line in . The availability of transportation led to the development of numerous industries, including lumbering, sawmills and gristmills, and paper, iron, and rubber manufacturing. The resulting growth led to incorporation as a borough in , and then designation as a city in . The late twentieth-century decline in manufacturing brought significant changes to this riverside city. Tourism has replaced factories in its economy. Today the many buildings from the mid-s that remain are part of an important historic district. They have been restored and converted to use as restaurants, lodging, antique shops, and art galleries and studios, all of which attract numerous visitors to the town. Also of historic significance is a site used by George Washington for his headquarters twice during the Revolution, a cemetery where Capt. George Coryell (who served under him) is buried, and a museum once the home of James Marshall, who discovered gold in California in . In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Mastrich, James,Yvonne Warren, and George Kline. Lambertville and New Hope. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Snell, James P. Somerset and Hunterdon Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Warren, Yvonne N., and Lou Toboz. Lambertville. Somerville: Aesthetic Press, .

Yvonne N. Warren

When Lambert Castle Museum in Paterson was first built in , it was known as Belle Vista.

Courtesy Passaic County Historical Society, Paterson.

Lamb Studios. Lamb Studios is an ecclesiastical art firm, the oldest continuously operating stained glass studios in the United States. Originally named the J & R Lamb Studios, it was established in New York City in  by the English brothers Joseph (– ) and Richard (–) Lamb. The Lambs had for their credo “the beautifying of churches,’’ and expanded rapidly to become a

Landis, Charles K. large and well-known firm, chosen by the U.S. government as one of four studios to represent American achievements in stained glass at the Paris International Exposition of . (Their prize-winning window, Religion Enthroned, is at the Brooklyn Museum.) “Specialists in Ecclesiastical Art, Church and Memorial Work,’’ the brothers produced countless works and whole interiors for churches, chapels, libraries, and private homes in mosaic, marble, carved wood, metal, and stained glass. The brothers came to the United States from England with their parents when their father, a landscape architect, was engaged to lay out Niblo’s Garden, an exhibition hall and open-air theater. Joseph returned to England, where, influenced by a religious and Gothic revival, he made his life’s work the decoration of churches. After an apprenticeship with an established glassmaker, he returned to New York and with Richard founded the Studios in Greenwich Village, moved to Carmine Street, and established workshops in the Dutch Reformed Church building on Sixth Avenue and on Downing Street. Charles Rollinson Lamb (–), son of Joseph, trained extensively as an artistarchitect and for his eventual position as head of the firm. His brother, Frederick Stymetz Lamb, after study in Paris, became head designer and overseer of the shop of skilled craftsmen. Charles’s artist wife, Ella Condie Lamb (–), an important designer, was one of two women accepted by the National Society of Mural Painters. The firm employed leading artists such as Walter Crane; many artisans and artists who would later become well known apprenticed at J & R Lamb. Charles, famous for innovative ideas in city planning and as designer of the Dewey Arch, erected by the National Sculpture Society, was an eloquent spokesman for the City Beautiful. He became president of the influential Municipal Art Society in . Under the presidency of Charles’s son, Karl Barre Lamb (–), the Studios survived the Depression and moved to Tenafly. Charles’s daughter, Katharine Lamb Tait (–), became the studio’s head designer after World War II. In , on its one hundredth anniversary, the Voice of America chose J & R Lamb as an example of a small business in the United States for a broadcast in eleven languages to Europe and beyond the iron curtain. Donald Samick, the present owner, learned all aspects of ecclesiastical decorating and bought the firm after the death of Karl Lamb. Faithful to spiritual expression through the arts and crafts and custodian of almost  years’ work, he is devoted to the preservation of old works and the creation of inspiring modern furnishings and windows for houses of worship. See also architecture; illustration, color section Barea Lamb Seeley

Jacob Landau, Winged Defeat, n.d. Watercolor,  / ×  in. unframed.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1965 Mrs. Felix Fuld Bequest Fund, 65.123. Photo: Witt, Jan. 1966.

Landau, Jacob

(b. Dec. , ; d. Nov. ,

). Artist. Jacob Landau was an expressive

figurative painter, printmaker, and illustrator who taught at the Pratt Institute from  to . Born in Philadelphia to poet Samuel LevLandau and Deana Kitaynick, he attended the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art and studied painting under Franklin Watkins. After U.S. Army service in Europe (–), he married Frances Paul in  and lived in avant-garde Paris from  through . In  he moved with his family to Roosevelt, New Jersey, to join that town’s artistic community. His vigorously drawn, representational images gave full expression to his deeply felt and unrelenting humanism, seen most vividly in his commemorative “Frances Cycle’’ (– ). See also art

453

the town grew and prospered. Landis, however, wanted to work alone, and since the new Glassboro-Millville Railroad had just opened upper Cumberland County, he was able to accumulate over thirty thousand acres of almost uninhabited pinelands. He created a grid-road system, and at the center of this immense tract (after , Landis Township) he located a one-square-mile town center, Vineland. In  Landis put his technical and social ideas into action. Small farms ( to  acres) specializing in grapes and other fruit and vegetable crops were sold through a national and international publicity campaign. Requirements that purchasers build within a set time blocked land speculation. Setback requirements, an innovative sanitation code, and mandatory shade tree planting in the town created a very distinctive settlement. The town center was complemented by the founder with free school lots, a public park, and a community cemetery. He was equally innovative in social planning. A popular “local option’’ kept out saloons and liquor stores, and his strong support for cultural institutions led to many such associations, including the Vineland Historical and Antiquarian Society (), the second oldest historical society in New Jersey. His advertisements and public speaking drew in , to , initial settlers, and when in-migration slowed at the end of the first decade, he reached out to Ireland and, more successfully, to Italy for new population. Both Vineland and its founder achieved international recognition as an experiment in “social science.’’ All of this activity and experimentation generated enemies and critics. In  he had married Clara F. Meade, who bore him four sons. When Uri Carruth, editor of an opposition newspaper, attacked her in print, Landis shot him on March , . This incident almost ended Landis’s career because Carruth

Jeanne Kolva

Landis, Charles K.

(b. Mar. , ;

d. June , ). Real estate developer, lawyer,

town founder, and social engineer. Charles K. Landis was the son of Michael G. and Mary Lewis (Quinn) Landis of Philadelphia; his father was a merchant and railroad contractor in Pennsylvania and Georgia. Charles studied law in Philadelphia and was admitted to that profession in . Legal work introduced him to the real estate potential of southern New Jersey, which was just being opened to specialized agriculture with the coming of railroads. In  he joined with another young lawyer, Richard J. Byrnes, and founded the agricultural town of Hammonton, in Atlantic County. Using a formula of modest investment for smaller vegetable-and-fruit truck farms, an extensive advertising campaign in the Northeast, and warm climate as an inducement,

Charles K. Landis.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

454

land riots

died from his wound in October. Landis was tried for first-degree murder. He was acquitted under a temporary insanity defense, but the sensational trial and verdict damaged his reputation. Nevertheless, he remained an active and prominent citizen of Vineland for the next quarter of a century. In  Landis took his town-founding model to the Jersey Shore. The purchase of Ludlam Island, imposition of an urban grid, a strict sanitation code, and an almost immediate connection to the mainland by railroad () established Sea Isle City. By the s it had two railroad connections, and the sale of house lots at reasonable rates made it a success. Landis died in , leaving a powerful imprint on southern New Jersey seen today in extensive farmlands and orchards, and in four viable towns: Hammonton, Vineland, Landisville, and Sea Isle City. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. . Reprint. Woodbury: Gloucester County Historical Society, .

Robert L. Schuyler

land riots.

Land riots in New Jersey between  and  were the result of legal confusion within the colony’s land tenure system, conflicts over control of natural resources, a deep cultural chasm between the yeomanry and gentry, and a fundamental disagreement over the origins of property rights. The twenty-eight years of low-level violence were punctuated by bitter intensification between  and . From the epicenter in Newark Township, acts of collective violence quickly spread from the New York border south to Trenton. Hundreds of yeomen engaged in violence against the colony’s gentry, their clients and tenants, and royal officials. The violence subsided in the early s, then erupted again briefly in  and . Conflicting property titles and the government’s chronic inability to establish firm boundaries for the colony lay beneath this perpetual crisis. These problems encouraged two violent rebellions against the proprietary government in the seventeenth century (–  and –), the second of which helped to force the proprietors of East and West Jersey to surrender their governing powers to the British Crown. The disputes continued, however, and by the mid-eighteenth century ownership of well over , acres within nine major tracts in northern New Jersey was in dispute. The Elizabethtown Tract, a ,-acre band stretching east-west across the colony, was the largest of these, but , contested acres in Newark Township were at the center of the eighteenth-century disputes. Central to the disputes was the refusal of the colony’s Puritan, Dutch, and ethnically mixed populations to recognize the legal

Northern New Jersey: Forcible Crowd Actions, –.

From Proprietors, Patronage, and Paper Money: Legislative Politics in New Jersey, 1703–1776 by Thomas L. Purvis, 1986. Courtesy Rutgers University Press.

primacy of the duke of York’s grant in  of West and East Jersey to John, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret, respectively. The yeomen maintained that alternate royal grants, the purchase of land directly from Native Americans, and squatting provided legal title to the contested lands, a claim vigorously denied by the original proprietors’ legal descendants in the eighteenth century. The conflict pitted those who believed in authority-driven ideas about property rights against those who believed that possession and improvement established legal rights. A dramatic increase in the value of natural resources and land, a rapid population rise, and a vigorous legal offensive spearheaded by James Alexander, attorney for the Board of Proprietors of East Jersey, the colony’s

major gentry landholding company, led to a renewal of property-related violence by . An intensification of the proprietors’ legal efforts to recover the contested lands in the early s led threatened yeomen in the colony’s northern counties to combine to defend local property rights by force of arms if necessary. The arrest of a timber cutter for trespass in Newark Township in early September  brought a crowd of  to the Newark jail. The rioting crowd freed the man, wounded several officials, and vowed further violence should others opposed to the gentry’s property claims be arrested. A string of similar actions followed. At one point in the summer of  a crowd of disgruntled yeomen threatened to burn the colony’s capital of Perth

Lange, Dorothea Amboy after freeing an antiproprietor activist from that town’s jail. The violence began to ebb after . The appointment of New Englander Jonathan Belcher as royal governor in mid- and the rise of militant new leaders who frightened the majority of yeomen in the antiproprietor coalition were the key factors in this change. Belcher had cultural and religious ties to the Puritan yeomen who were spearheading the collective violence. He ably used his position to defuse tensions, and by  the crisis was over, even though the disputes and low-level violence continued until  and flared again in –. Most of the conflicts were never formally resolved, but the American Revolution brought a gradual end to attempts by the Board of Proprietors to recover the disputed lands. Landsman, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . McConville, Brendan. These Daring Disturbers of the Public Peace: The Struggle for Property and Power in Early New Jersey. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Purvis, Thomas. Proprietors, Patronage, and Paper Money: Legislative Politics in New Jersey, – . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Nicolls patents

Brendan McConville

land use. Law and policy on land use is influenced by three separate New Jersey institutional systems. One system consists of the direct regulation of land usage through zoning and other laws. Another flows from the various incentives and disincentives created by the tax code. The third, often thought to be the most influential of all, is the result of decisions made about spending for roads, sewer lines, and other forms of infrastructure. The State Planning Act and the Municipal Land Use Law provide the formal structure for controlling land use policy. The former, adopted in , created the State Planning Commission to oversee a process of state planning. The result was the State Development and Redevelopment Plan (SDRP), first promulgated in  and revised in . The SDRP stresses efforts to revitalize older urban areas, encourages the siting of new developments in or near areas where development already exists, and recommends that development in outlying areas be concentrated in “centers’’ whose environs are kept free of low-density “sprawl’’ development. The State Planning Act does not provide any explicit enforcement mechanism for the SDRP, however, and this question of enforcement is just beginning to be considered judicially. The Municipal Land Use Law (MLUL), adopted in , codified a large body of statutes that had grown piecemeal over the preceding fifty years. Like the State Planning Act, it provides a mechanism for making land use law and policy, but unlike its counter-

part, control of that mechanism is delegated to New Jersey’s  municipalities, rather than placed in a state-level agency. The MLUL authorizes municipalities to adopt, among other things, master plans, zoning ordinances, laws governing the subdivision of land for development, and historic preservation. It also authorizes the creation of planning boards, boards of adjustment, and historic preservation commissions to oversee this process. A key provision of the MLUL permits the granting of variances from the strict application of local land use rules. This approach has resulted in an extremely fluid process in which the municipality’s regulations are often perceived by applicants as little more than a first offer, subject to negotiation until a mutually satisfactory use of the land is determined, or, in the case of impasse, to resolution in courts. Because of the absence of any coordinating state agency with oversight of local land use decisions, the state courts may be regarded as an integral part of this decentralized system. Numerous other procedures supplement these general systems of policy making. The Council on Affordable Housing, for instance, reviews municipal low-income housing plans for compliance with the Mount Laurel doctrine, and its determinations can have a significant impact on how a municipality’s land uses evolve. The state controls three regional commissions that directly oversee the land use in the Hackensack Meadowlands, the Pinelands, and the Coastal Zone. The Department of Environmental Protection (overlapped by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in many respects) enforces state and federal environmental laws dealing with air and water quality and protection of wetlands. The granting or denial of permits by these agencies has significant influence on land use policy. The state also directly or indirectly subsidizes development and redevelopment activity through grants and loans to lower-income home buyers and to businesses proposing to locate or expand in New Jersey. Less obvious are the ways in which land use policy is affected by tax and infrastructure decision making. As a consequence of policies designed to keep state taxes relatively low, local governments in New Jersey must shoulder a disproportionate share of the overall cost of government through property taxation. This, in turn, encourages fiscal zoning, also called the ratables chase. Municipalities use the powers delegated to them by the MLUL to encourage development that will yield property tax revenues in excess of the cost of providing municipal services, especially schools. In many suburban areas, this has shaped land use policies favoring lavish corporate headquarters and regional shopping malls over all forms of residential use, and expensive singlefamily homes on large lots (derided by critics as “starter castles’’ or “McMansions’’) over inexpensive multifamily dwellings. Tax policy also tends to exacerbate the vicious cycle of

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urban disinvestment, as residents and businesses flee high taxes and shrinking services, thereby ensuring that taxes will remain high and services poor, and also encouraging the relentless development of open space at the fringe of metropolitan areas. Tax policy can also be used affirmatively to implement land use policy, for instance by granting tax abatements or other forms of tax relief to encourage urban redevelopment, or by artificially lowering the assessed value of farmland to encourage its continued use for that purpose. The state’s largest tax relief program, however, providing property tax rebates to homeowners and renters, is at best neutral in terms of land use policy and arguably is skewed toward wealthier suburban homeowners. Infrastructure decisions also weigh mightily on land use policies. “If you build it, they will come’’ is a slogan that probably has more relevance to land use policy than to baseball. It is well understood that the massive federal and state road-building program undertaken after World War II was essential to opening the suburbs, breaking the older land use pattern of high-density living in cities and railroad suburbs. When an interstate highway interchange is built in a previously rural area, the cluster of road-dependent uses that springs up around it becomes almost inevitable. Similarly, once water lines and sewage treatment capacity are made available for the first time, pressure to use those services (and help pay for them) increases. Moreover, land with access to modern infrastructure is generally more valuable than land without such service, and when that increase is reflected in property tax assessments, a selffulfilling prophecy sets in: the land must be used more intensively in order to pay the higher taxes. A potentially key use of the SDRP will be to guide state decisions about infrastructure in order to break out of this cycle, but it remains to be seen whether the political will to do so can be found. State Planning Commission. New Jersey State Development and Redevelopment Plan. Trenton: Office of State Planning, . Williams, Norman, Jr. “The Three Systems of Land Use Control.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (): – .

See also land use map, color section; public trust doctrine

John M. Payne

Lange, Dorothea

(b. May , ; d. Oct.

, ). Photographer. The daughter of Henry

Nutzhorn and Joan Lange, Dorothea Lange was born in Hoboken and grew up there and in Weehawken and Highwood. At age seven she contracted polio, which left her with a permanent limp. Her father abandoned the family when she was twelve. Renowned through her photographs (–) for the Resettlement Administration and the Farm Security Administration, Lange’s Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, , an unforgettable Great

456

Lappawinso and Tishcohan

Larison, Cornelius Wilson

(b. Jan.

, ; d. Apr. , ). Physician, writer, edu-

cator, and reformer. Cornelius Wilson Larison was a resident of Ringoes, and a man of many interests. He is best known as an advocate of spelling reform, and he produced books, pamphlets, and magazines written in a simplified phonetic spelling of his own devising. Among his twenty-four books, for example, were A List of Wurdz Hwich Ar Not Alwaz Pronunst in the Sam Wa and Speling-Reform Jemz. Larison received an M.D. from Geneva (New York) Medical College in . As a physician (or as he spelled it, “fysician’’), he advocated health reforms and published a short-lived Jurnel of Helth. He had strong views on education, and was the principal and chief instructor of a private school, the Ringoes Academy of Science and Art, at which he presented his own unorthodox ideas about science and society. The quintessential eccentric, Larison lived a long and happy life pursuing his various enthusiasms. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Weiss, Harry B. Country Doctor: Cornelius Wilson Larison of Ringoes, Hunterdon County, New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

Marc Mappen

Larson, Emil J.

Paul S. Taylor, Dorothea Lange in Texas on the Plains, c. .

Courtesy the Dorothea Lange Collection, Oakland Museum of California, City of Oakland. Gift of Paul S. Taylor.

Depression icon, appeared on a  U.S. postage stamp. Lange’s book American Exodus (), with text by her second husband, sociologist Paul Schuster Taylor, was about migrant workers in California and is considered a classic in its genre. Lange returned to New Jersey to photograph migrant berry pickers and Jersey Homesteads (later Roosevelt) in . The Library of Congress and Oakland Museum are major repositories of her work. Heyman, Therese Thau, Sandra S. Phillips, and John Szarkowski. Dorothea Lange: American Photographs. San Francisco: San Francisco Museum of Art/Chronicle Books, . Levin, Howard M., and Katherine Northrup, eds. Dorothea Lange: Farm Security Photographs, – . Glencoe, IL: Text-Fiche Press, . Meltzer, Milton. Dorothea Lange: A Photographer’s Life. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Lappawinso

and

Tishcohan

(fl. eighteenth century). Lenape leaders. Lappawinso and Tishcohan, brothers, were elders of the Toms River band of Lenape, the native peoples of southern New Jersey. By  they

were making extended hunting trips across the Delaware River. In  they sold their land rights in the Toms River area, and soon after took up permanent residence in the Forks of Delaware in Pennsylvania. There, in , they participated in an irregular land transfer known as the “Walking Purchase,’’ in which several natives from New Jersey sold lands in Pennsylvania. This notorious deal involved sale of land without clear Indian title, staked out by runners (rather than walkers). In the course of their dealings with the Pennsylvania government the brothers frequently visited Philadelphia. William Penn commissioned portraits of both to be painted by Gustavus Hesselius, the foremost artist of the region. The Penn family donated these paintings, providing valuable records of native life, in the mid-nineteenth century to the Penn Historical Society. Becker, Marshall Joseph. “Teedyuscung’s Youth and Hereditary Land Rights in New Jersey: The Identification of the Unalachtigo.’’ Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey  () : –.

See also Lenape

Marshall Joseph Becker

(b. ; d. ).

Glassblower. Emil J. Larson and his family came to White Mills, Pennsylvania, from Sweden. His father worked as a glassblower for C. Dorflinger and Sons, and Emil and his brothers were apprenticed there. Larson, a gifted blower, stayed until Dorflinger closed in . From  to , he was chief gaffer at H. P. Sinclaire and Company in Bath, New York. Larson then moved to New York City to work for the Quezal Art Glass and Decorating Company. When it closed, he became gaffer in Victor Durand’s art glass shop in Vineland, where he remained until it closed in . He operated his own glassblowing shop in Vineland until his retirement in the mids. See also glassmaking

Jane Spillman

Larson, Morgan Foster ; d. Mar. , ).

(b. June ,

Governor and engineer. Morgan Foster Larson was born in Perth Amboy, the son of Peter Larson and Regina Knudson Larson. His father emigrated from Denmark as a young man, and worked as a blacksmith. Larson graduated from Cooper Union Institute with a degree in engineering in , after years of working all day in Perth Amboy and commuting to New York City for night classes. In  he married Jennie Brogger; after her death and while governor, he married Adda Schmidt. After two of his brothers were killed in an accident in  he helped raise and educate their seven children.

Latinas/os From  to  Larson worked as a county and city engineer. In  he entered politics and, although a Republican in strongly Democratic Middlesex County, was elected a state senator. There he quickly rose to become majority leader and then president of the senate. Larson entered politics in the s just as use of automobiles became increasingly common and as New Jersey residents began to use them to commute from suburbs to their jobs on roads that were inadequate for this new purpose. That, and his civil engineering background, gave him an interest in transportation, which in turn contributed to his increasing political success. Larson joined with others in the New Jersey senate to push for construction of the George Washington Bridge to Manhattan, the Outerbridge Crossing and Goethals bridges to Staten Island, and, in , passage of a law creating a state highway system. Popular with fellow Republicans in the Senate and in Middlesex County, and pictured as a “regular guy’’ in the press, Larson became a candidate for governor in . His bid for office was helped in the primary election when Frank Hague, the enormously influential Democratic boss of Hudson County, urged Democrats to cross party lines and vote for Larson on the assumption he would be the easier Republican to beat in the fall election. Initially emphasizing improvements in the state’s water supply and in transportation as campaign issues, Larson later turned to Hague’s power and political corruption as the major concerns. Voters responded and elected him by a significant margin of , votes. Unfortunately Larson came to office as the Great Depression hit New Jersey with increasing force. A conservative Republican in the Herbert Hoover mold, he was unprepared to deal with this disaster and often unable to work with politicians in the New Jersey legislature despite having served in the senate. He blundered over patronage appointments, losing political capital with fellow Republicans. His one success was in dealing with New York State on the proposal to build the Lincoln Tunnel. Larson’s was a frustrating and generally unproductive governorship, which put an end to his political career. In the years that followed he worked as an engineer with the Port Authority, the state Department of Conservation, and the state Water Policy and Supply Council, but never again held elective office. Larson died at seventy-eight in Perth Amboy. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Maxine N. Lurie

Latifah, Queen

(b. Mar. , ). Singer, actor, and talk show host. Born Dana Owens in Newark, Queen Latifah later lived in Irvington,

East Orange, and Wayne. Her stage name is derived from an Arabic word meaning delicate and sensitive. One of the hip-hop world’s most charismatic and positive-minded artists, her biggest accomplishment as a rapper was helping to introduce a feminist viewpoint into a traditionally male-dominated genre. Her  debut album All Hail the Queen (featuring the hit single “Ladies First’’) made her a star, but her biggest hit was “U.N.I.T.Y.,’’ from ’s Black Reign. The song won a Grammy for best solo rap performance. As an actor, she appeared in the sitcom Living Single and the movies Set It Off, Jungle Fever, Living Out Loud, Juice, and Bringing Down the House. Perhaps because of her rap career, she is often typecast as an outspoken, assertive character. Through Flavor Unit, her Jersey City–based record and management company, she has championed artists like East Orange’s Naughty By Nature, Jersey City’s Apache, and Newark’s Lords of the Underground. Her syndicated talk show, The Queen Latifah Show, debuted in . Through it, she gave artists valuable television exposure and explored a variety of issues, both humorous and serious. After the cancellation of her talk show in , Queen Latifah returned to acting, garnering Academy Award and Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress for her  role in Chicago. Latifah, Queen, with Karen Hunter. Ladies First: Revelations of a Strong Woman. New York: William Morrow, 

See also pop music

Jay Lustig

Latinas/os.

Having left their home countries for a variety of political and economic reasons, Latinos have made many contributions to New Jersey’s economy and culture and created vibrant communities. According to the  census,  people born in Mexico,  born in Puerto Rico, and  born in Central and South American countries lived in the state. By , those populations had grown to , Puerto Ricans,  Mexicans, and , people from Central and South American countries. Today, Latinos represent a rapidly growing and increasingly diverse group in New Jersey. During and after World War II, many Puerto Ricans were recruited through contract labor programs run by the governments of the United States and Puerto Rico. During the war, Puerto Ricans came to New Jersey to work in the food-processing industry with employers such as the Campbell Soup Company in Camden. After the war, they were hired for seasonal farmwork, including jobs at the Glassboro farm labor camp. As U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans could remain on the mainland at the end of their contracts. Others came looking for work without contracts. Many women worked in the garment industry, while men worked in hotels, restaurants, and manufacturing. Some opened small grocery stores and restaurants.

457

By , , Puerto Ricans lived in New Jersey, with , in Newark, , in Jersey City, , in Paterson, and , in Hoboken. In Newark, Puerto Ricans participated in Catholic and Protestant religious activities; community-based organizations such as Aspira, Inc. of New Jersey and the Field Orientation Center for Under-Privileged Spanish (FOCUS); electoral and radical politics, such as the Young Lords; and community events, such as the Puerto Rican Parade. Puerto Rican communities also emerged in Camden, Perth Amboy, Vineland, Dover, and elsewhere. Cuban immigration increased after the Cuban Revolution in . The  Cuban Refugee Program brought many Cubans to Union City and West New York, where industrial jobs were available. Others joined family and friends. By , , Cubans lived in New Jersey, the second largest community after Florida’s. Hudson County had , Cuban residents, with , in Union City and , in West New York. In Hudson County,  percent of Cuban men and women worked in manufacturing jobs. By , there were  Cuban-owned businesses in the state, including retail and trade services, clothing stores, beauty parlors, supermarkets, travel agencies, funeral homes, restaurants, and small markets. Cuban-owned manufacturing firms were primarily garment shops that employed Cuban women. As early as , Cubans in West New York were active in the Catholic Church; some had joined a religious organization, a Cuban political organization, a parent-teacher association, or a Democratic or Republican club. In electoral politics, Robert Menendez, born in New York City and raised in Union City, served as mayor of Union City and was elected as a Democrat first to the New Jersey state legislature and then, in , to the U.S. Congress. According to the  census, New Jersey’s Latino population numbered ,,, an increase of about  percent since . Puerto Ricans, still the largest group, accounted for , of the total, and there were , Cubans. Yet the Latino population had become more diverse, with the Mexican population increasing dramatically to , and “other’’ Latinos to ,, a figure that includes immigrants from the Dominican Republic as well as Central and South American countries. ´s, Carlos E., ed. Regional Perspectives on the Corte Puerto Rican Experience. New York: Arno Press, . Griffith, David, and Ed Kissam. “A Labor Force in Transition: Farmworkers in the New Jersey Nursery Industry.’’ In Working Poor: Farmworkers in the United States. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, . Prieto, Yolanda. “Cuban Women in New Jersey: Gender Relations and Change.’’ In Seeking Common Ground: Multidisciplinary Studies of Immigrant Women in the United States, ed. Donna Gabaccia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Whalen, Carmen Teresa. From Puerto Rico to Philadelphia: Puerto Rican Workers and Postwar

458

Laurel Lake

Economies. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

See also Cubans; ethnicity; Mexicans; Puerto Ricans

Carmen Teresa Whalen

Laurel Lake.

See Commercial Township.

Laurel Springs.

.-mile-borough in central Camden County. A milling industry began here in the early eighteenth century on the banks of the Timber Creek, and in  a gristmill and sawmill passed to Ephraim Tomlinson III, a descendant of an early settler. The small community that grew up around the mills was named “Laurel Mills,’’ for the predominant vegetation. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad erected a station near the community soon after ; Laurel Lake and nearby Crystal Springs made the area a popular family-oriented resort. Believed to have therapeutic value, the spring was often visited by Walt Whitman in an attempt to cure his rheumatism. Here he wrote portions of Specimen Days, extolling the beauty of the lake and its environs, and revised Leaves of Grass. Advertisements extolling the scenic countryside stimulated real estate development. Renamed Laurel Springs for the lake and healing spring waters in , the community separated from Clementon Township and incorporated as a borough in . In  the state planning commission ranked Laurel Springs d among the state’s  most distressed towns, based on eight socioeconomic indicators, a ranking disputed by borough officials. The  population was , and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Boyer, Charles. Old Mills of Camden County. Camden: Camden County Historical Society, . Bryson, George S. Celebrating Life in Laurel Springs, –. Laurel Springs: Laurel Springs Bicentennial History Committee, .

Gail Greenberg

Lautenberg, Frank R.

(b. Jan. , ).

Businessman and U.S. senator. The son of immigrants, Frank R. Lautenberg was born in Paterson and attended Nutley High School. Upon graduating, he enlisted in the Army Signal Corp and served during World War II. After his tour of duty, Lautenberg took advantage of the GI Bill and graduated from Columbia University in , earning a degree in economics. In the early s Lautenberg and two others founded Automatic Data Processing (ADP). At ADP, Lautenberg served as president from  to , and as chairman and CEO from  until . Prior to holding elected office, Lautenberg’s public service included appointments to the boards of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the New Jersey Economic Development Authority. In  Lautenberg successfully ran for U.S. Senate, upsetting Republican Millicent Fenwick, thus

becoming New Jersey’s first Jewish senator. Lautenberg was reelected in , defeating Peter M. Dawkins, and again in , when he narrowly defeated former Speaker of the New Jersey Assembly Garabed Haytaian. In  he announced that he would not seek a fourth term and that he would retire from politics. In , however, Lautenberg agreed to replace scandal-plagued Democratic U.S. Senator Robert Torricelli on the ballot one month prior to the November election. Lautenberg won, and returned to the Senate in . Salmore, Barbara G., and Stephen A. Salmore. New Jersey Politics and Government: Suburban Politics Comes of Age. d ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, .

Joseph R. Marbach

Lavallette.

.-square-mile borough located in Ocean County. Lavallette was founded in  and incorporated December , , splitting off from Dover Township. An s development known as St. Elmo (Westmount) was incorporated into the borough in . Directors of the Barnegat Land Improvement Company developed “Lavallette City by the Sea,’’ named after company secretary A.T. Lavallette’s illustrious father, Adm. Elie La Vallette, commander of the U.S.S. Constitution. The development was initially accessible only by water. The railroad arrived in , a road from Bay Head in , and a bridge across the bay at Seaside Heights in . As access became easier, the population grew. The population of approximately  in  increased as the borough changed to become largely yearround. Lavallette benefited from its location on both the bay and ocean, as a resort community attracting tourists and also supporting a thriving fishing industry (the fish pounds were part of the Chadwick Fisheries) and boat building, including the classic skiffs built by Charles M. Hankins. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

“Lavallette Centennial, –.’’ Supplement, Ocean County Review, Aug. , .

Kathleen Ferris Heim

law.

Law in New Jersey shares a number of attributes with law in other U.S. states, but it also has many unique characteristics. New Jersey law has its earliest origins in English law, transplanted to what is now New Jersey according to the terms of royal grants issued to the colonial proprietors. Beginning in , the Proprietors of New Jersey, and then the separate colonies of East and West Jersey, issued a number of “concessions’’ and constitutions that provided for elected legislatures, with power to enact laws “agreeable’’ to English law. By  East and West Jersey were rejoined under royal rule, and governed by royal instructions to the

governor of the province. The Queen’s Instructions of  authorized a general assembly for lawmaking, and formed the basis for New Jersey law until independence. In  a committee of New Jersey’s Provincial Congress drafted a constitution for the state that was adopted on July , . This constitution, together with those of  and , form the basis for New Jersey law today. The  constitution stipulated that previous colonial laws would continue in effect until revised or replaced. In the s William Paterson codified the old statutes, and when completed his work was adopted by the legislature. At the local level, municipal and county governments enact legislative law through the passage of ordinances. Local governments do not have any power to legislate other than that delegated to them by the state legislature. In other words, there is no constitutional home rule for local government in New Jersey, although there is a strong political culture of home rule whereby the legislature tries in most cases to respect local government discretion. Areas such as zoning, parking, certain environmental controls, and trash removal are examples for which local governments legislate by enacting ordinances authorized by their delegated legislative powers. The New Jersey legislature remained the dominant branch of government under the  state constitution—more so than in most other states—even having the power to appoint the governor. Under the  constitution it retained its dominance, appointing most other officials as well as passing laws with very little in the way of limitation. In , the constitution brought the executive and judicial branches to more equal status, but the legislature retained its broad lawmaking power. Legislative law, referred to as statutes, originates as bills, and must pass both the General Assembly and State Senate and be signed by the governor. Judicial law refers to the binding effect of decisions made by the courts, particularly appeals courts. New Jersey’s court system is generally considered to be among the best in the nation based upon its organization, unified management, and quality of its judges. This reputation has grown since the adoption of the  state constitution, one of the most important features of which was a newly designed court system. Judicial decisions not only settle the dispute before the court, but serve as precedent in future cases. The New Jersey courts have authority to make commonlaw decisions, which are based on earlier judicial precedent in areas where there is no applicable statute. These decisions have the force of law, but can be changed by the legislature if it disagrees with them. The New Jersey Supreme Court has been a leader in innovative common-law decisions since the s. For example, the court was a leader in liberalizing the tort law rules by which persons recover

Lawrence, Ethel Robinson financially from injuries or death from accidents and defective products. State courts also engage in interpretation of state and federal statutes and local ordinances. These authoritative interpretations have binding legal effect, but, as in the case of common law, can be changed by the legislature through a contradictory statutory amendment if it disagrees. New Jersey courts also interpret the state and federal constitutions in cases where they are said to apply. These interpretations are also binding and have the force of law but, in contrast to judicial decisions on common-law and statutory interpretation, ordinarily cannot be changed by the legislature through statutory enactment. Judicial interpretations of the state constitution may, however, be changed by amending it through a process of proposed amendments and voter ratification. This has been quite rare in New Jersey. The New Jersey Supreme Court’s interpretations of the state constitution, often recognizing constitutional rights that are more protective than federal constitutional rights enforced by the U.S. Supreme Court, have served as models throughout the country. This movement, with its origins in the s, is referred to as the New Judicial Federalism. Examples of areas in which the supreme court has recognized state constitutional rights beyond the federal constitutional minimum standards are school finance, free speech, abortion rights, low-income housing rights, and rights of criminal defendants. In New Jersey the state constitution authorizes the supreme court, rather than the legislature, to adopt rules of procedure for lawsuits in the courts, including such important matters as class actions, as well as rules for the licensing and discipline of lawyers. These rules have the force of law. The New Jersey governor, considered the most powerful state executive in the nation, is the only official elected statewide and possesses extensive appointment and veto power. The governor can issue executive orders, covering a very wide range of topics. New Jersey governors have made extensive use of this power. If these orders arise from the governor’s authority contained either in the New Jersey constitution or in statutes passed by the legislature, they have the force of law. Executive orders, however, may not conflict either with statutes passed by the legislature or with interpretations of statutes or common-law decisions rendered by the courts. Administrative agencies at the state level are created by statutes that often empower the agency to promulgate rules or regulations to further implement the statute’s purpose or the agency’s mission. This is referred to as delegated legislative authority. When a New Jersey agency adopts rules or regulations according to the required procedure, and within the scope of the delegated authority contained in the statute, they have the force of law. For example, environmental regulations issued by

the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) are binding if they were adopted according to the prescribed procedure and relate to an area the legislature has delegated to the DEP to regulate. Law in New Jersey may emanate from different levels of government (local, state, or federal) and from the different branches of government in varying forms: legislative statutes, judicial decisions and rules, executive orders, and administrative regulations. These differing forms of law, with their origins in different levels of government, provide a complex hierarchy of binding legal rules applicable in the state. Boyd, Julian P. Fundamental Laws and Constitutions of New Jersey, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Williams, Robert F. The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Rev. ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also constitution; criminal code

Robert F. Williams

Lawnside.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. The exact origins of the community are not clear, but people of African descent settled the area as early as the s. As abolitionism spread in the region, free blacks and escaped slaves settled in the community. Reportedly the community was associated with the Underground Railroad, the clandestine network that led slaves to freedom. The settlement was usually called Snow Hill, although Free Haven was sometimes used. Forty-six local men joined the Union forces during the Civil War. Residents operated

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numerous businesses and fraternal orders and lodges. As the twentieth century dawned, the community had its own elementary school, sent representatives to Centre Township council, and supported three churches. The name Lawnside was adopted in . Incorporated from remnants of Centre Township and parts of Barrington Borough on March , , Lawnside is the only African American municipality organized as such in New Jersey and the northeastern United States. The borough is dominated by single-family homes with a median value of $,. The population in  was ,;  percent of the residents were black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dent, David L. In Search of Black America: Discovering the African-American Dream. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Dorwart, Jeffery M., and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, . Smiley, Charles C. A True Story of Lawnside. Camden: Robert C. Wythe, Jr., .

Linda P. Waller

Lawrence, Charles B.

(b. c. ;

d. ).

Painter. Charles B. Lawrence was born and raised near Bordentown. A painter of landscapes, portraits, and copies, he studied with Gilbert Stuart and Rembrandt Peale. Lawrence’s earliest exhibited paintings were of Bordentown; one was engraved in the Port Folio in July . Lawrence moved to Philadelphia by , where he regularly exhibited new works at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts until . He stopped painting by about . Lawrence’s art rarely rises above the workmanlike, but he survived as a painter for almost twenty years in an era when American patrons supported few professional artists. Dunlap, William. History of the Rise and Progress of the Arts of Design in the United States. New York: Dover, . Nygren, Edward J., ed. Views and Visions: American Landscape before . Washington, DC: Corcoran Gallery of Art, .

See also art

Kenneth John Myers

Lawrence, Ethel Robinson , ; d. July , ).

Postcard of Lawnside with a photograph of an early twentieth-century automobile.

From Greeting from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike.

(b. Mar.

Civil rights activist. Ethel Robinson Lawrence and her mother, Mary Robinson, were charter members of the Burlington NAACP, which desegregated movie houses and drug stores in Burlington and Moorestown in the early s. In , Lawrence made a request for a zoning variance that would permit the construction of lowand moderate-cost housing in Mount Laurel. When the township refused her petition, Lawrence, with the support of the southern Burlington County NAACP and Peter O’Connor and Carl Bisgaier of the Camden Regional

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Lawrence, James

Legal Services, led a campaign that went straight to the New Jersey Supreme Court. In its  Mount Laurel decision the court ruled that all communities in the state should provide for low- and moderate-income housing. Kirp, David L., John P. Dwyer, and Larry A. Rosenthal. Our Town: Race, Housing, and the Soul of Suburbia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Mount Laurel cases

Gary Hunter

Lawrence,

James

(b.

Oct.

,

;

British frigate Shannon. Mortally wounded, he told his crew, “Don’t give up the ship,’’ which became the War of  slogan. The British won this engagement on June , , and three days later Lawrence died of his wounds. Temporarily buried in Halifax by the British, his body was taken to New York in September , where he was reburied at Trinity Churchyard. Gleaves, Albert. James Lawrence, Captain, United States Navy, commander of the “Chesapeake.’’ New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, .

See also War of 1812

d. June , ). Naval officer. James Lawrence

was born in Burlington. His mother, Martha Tallman, died when he was a child, and his father, John Lawrence, a Loyalist, fled to Canada after the Revolution, leaving James to be raised by his half-sister, Elizabeth. He lived from  to  in Woodbury with his brother, studying law, but when his father died in , Lawrence opted to study navigation. He joined the navy in  as the Quasi-War began with France and saw service in the Caribbean. During the Tripoli War, Lawrence participated as first lieutenant on the ketch Intrepid, commanded by Stephen Decatur. His first command was the schooner Enterprise, and later a gunboat that bombarded Tripoli. When his gunboat reached Cadiz, he faced the humiliation of the British forcing him to release three crewmembers who claimed British citizenship. When the War of  began, Lawrence, in command of the sloop Hornet, captured the British brig Dolphin and the privateer John in July . After failing to capture the Bonne Citoyenne in Bahia in December , the Hornet attacked the British brig of war Peacock in February  and defeated it. Promoted to captain in March , Lawrence took command of Chesapeake in May. Off Boston, Lawrence engaged the

Harvey Strum

Lawrence, Josephine

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Author. Josephine Lawrence

was born in Newark to Dr. Elijah Lawrence and Mary Barker, and grew up in the city. She attended Barringer High School, where she won her first writing prize. In  she became an editor at the Newark Sunday Call, and later the Newark Evening News. During her career she wrote more than one hundred children’s books and thirty-three adult novels, including Years Are So Long (filmed as Make Way for Tomorrow in ). Her series of stories entitled “The Man in the Moon,’’ illustrated by Johnny Gruelle of Raggedy Ann fame, broke ground when in  it was the first ever to be read to children over the radio. Nobel Prize-winning author Sinclair Lewis, in a  Newsweek column entitled “Vie de Newark,’’ praised her ability to capture, in incredible detail, the life of the everyday man: “The world of [Lawrence] is America, superlatively.’’ In  she married Arthur Platz. Lawrence died in New York City in . Lewis, Sinclair. “Vie de Newark.’’ Newsweek, Mar. , . Mainero, Lisa, ed. American Women Writers. Vol. . New York: Ungar, .

Christine V. Baird

Lawrence House.

See James Lawrence

House.

Lawrence Township (Cumberland County). .-square-mile town-

Gilbert Stuart, Master Commandant James Lawrence, United States Navy, . Oil on wood,  /  ×  / in.

Courtesy U.S. Naval Academy Museum, Annapolis, MD.

ship on the Delaware Bay in the southwestern part of the county, formed from Fairfield Township in . Over  percent of township land is vacant; only  percent is in residential use and less than  percent is used for farming. Cedarville, named for the creek around which it was located and settled sometime in the eighteenth century, is a major locale in the township; sawmills and gristmills, agriculture and oystering were the main industries. An early schoolhouse in the eastern part of the township gave rise to Centre Grove. The Centre Grove School, built in , was moved in  and is now at Wheaton Village. The Howell Farm, Cedarville, established on land purchased before  and continuously owned since  by a member of the Howell

family, is said to be the oldest farm and homestead still in the same family line in Cumberland County. The farm produces salt hay, soybeans, alfalfa, and beef cattle. The ,-acre Nantuxent Wildlife Management Area is known for its hiking and birding activities. Birds often seen here include the sandhill crane, great horned owl, screech owl, snow goose, gyrfalcon, and goshawk. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Middleton, Kathleen M., comp. Lawrence Township. Bath, England; Augusta, ME: Alan Sutton; Dover, NH: Distributed by Berwick Pub., .

Gail Greenberg

Lawrence Township (Mercer County). .-square-mile township located between Trenton and Princeton. In  George Keith surveyed the line dividing New Jersey into East and West Jerseys. The Province Line would later form the eastern boundary of the township. The rich hardwood forests along the Assumpink Creek had long provided a bountiful home for the Lenape Indians. During the s English settlers bought land in the area and in  formed the township of Maidenhead, named for a village in England. In , “for reasons of delicacy’’ residents petitioned the legislature to change the name to Lawrence, in memory of Capt. James Lawrence, a naval hero of the War of . During the eighteenth century the village of Lawrenceville became the nucleus of the rural farming community that comprised Lawrence Township. Lawrenceville School was established in , but the township remained unchanged until early in the twentieth century when it began to develop into a suburb of Trenton. The process of suburbanization accelerated after World War II and by  Lawrence Township was an ethnically diverse community of , ( percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian). In addition to the Lawrenceville School, Lawrence Township is also home to Rider University and the Educational Testing Service. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Pictorial History of Lawrence Township, –. Lawrence: Lawrence Township Council, . Tyler, Donald H. Old Lawrenceville Early Houses and People. N.p., .

Martin Paulsson

Lawrenceville.

See Lawrence Township

(Mercer County).

Lawrenceville School.

A private, coeducational, secondary boarding school located in Lawrence Township, the

leather industry Lawrenceville School was founded in  as the Maidenhead Academy by Isaac Van Arsdale Brown, the pastor of the local Maidenhead Presbyterian Church. Beginning with nine boys, the school soon acquired a national reputation and began to draw students and faculty from all over the United States. In  the village of Maidenhead was renamed in honor of Capt. James Lawrence, naval hero of the War of , and the Maidenhead Academy became the Lawrenceville School. During the s, the campus underwent a major expansion and architectural renovation, with buildings designed by Peabody and Stearns and the grounds designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. During this physical renovation, headmaster Dr. James Mackenzie instituted curricular reforms and a new house system modeled after English public schools. The campus today centers on a circular green and has been designated a National Historic Landmark. During the twentieth century, the school expanded steadily and acquired an international reputation for academic excellence and educational reform. In  the Lawrenceville School became coeducational; it now enrolls around  students in grades nine through twelve from all over the United States and twenty-seven foreign countries. Mulford, Roland J. History of the Lawrenceville School, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Slaymaker, S. R. Five Miles Away: The Story of Lawrenceville School. Lawrenceville: Lawrenceville School, .

See also education

Marty Paulsson

Lawrie, Gawen

(b. date unknown; d. ).

Proprietor and deputy governor. A London merchant, probably of Scot background, and a Quaker, Gawen Lawrie was involved in West and East Jersey. First serving as one of three trustees for bankrupt Edward Byllynge, he then purchased shares in both provinces. In  he was appointed deputy governor of East Jersey, moving to Elizabethtown and then Perth Amboy, where he directed initial construction of this harbor city on the Raritan. Lawrie was caught in an ongoing struggle between the proprietors and settlers over the Nicolls patents and payment of quitrents. After being charged with reserving prime lands for himself, failing to get the Fundamental Constitutions accepted, and not sending detailed reports back to England, he was replaced as resident governor by Lord Neil Campbell in . Promfret, John. The Province of East New Jersey, – : The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

League of Women Voters. Founded in Newark in April  as a successor to the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association, the League of Women Voters of New Jersey is

a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization whose purpose is to promote political responsibility through informed and active participation of citizens in government. During the s, the league played an active role in political education, including setting up “citizenship schools’’ to educate the new women voters. The league also advocated legislation to shorten the workday, establish a minimum wage commission, outlaw night work for women in factories, and regulate sweatshop industries. In , the league supported the establishment of the Bureau of Women and Children, with a woman head, as part of the New Jersey State Department of Labor. The league also began an educational campaign for permanent registration for elections, and lobbied for the optional use of mechanical voting machines. During the s, in spite of the Depression, several of the league’s earlier legislative efforts reached fruition. A minimum wage for women and minors was established in , and a bill enforcing the Night Work Act of  was passed in . New initiatives included support of slum clearance and low-cost housing, social security, and unemployment compensation. In the mid-s, the league launched an antipatronage campaign and promoted a referendum setting up a Civil Service Commission. Most notably, the league was involved in the movement to revise the New Jersey constitution. In , the league reorganized and strengthened its Voters Service program. From this year dates the systematic administration of candidate questionnaires and organization of debates. During the s, membership grew, as leagues were organized in new suburban communities. In , concerned with the effects of low rainfall combined with the growth of population and industry in the state, the league began to study how to develop an adequate water supply for all New Jersey residents. The league also questioned the impact of growing population on the state’s education infrastructure, supporting a bond issue for expansion of the state colleges in  and a school construction program in . In , the league advocated the establishment of regional planning boards to address problems (such as traffic congestion) that were the result of uncoordinated growth. Although the suburban leagues continued to expand during the s, it was at the expense of the older, urban leagues, whose membership, diminished by the flight to the suburbs, faced worsening social problems. In , New Jersey city leagues took part in the Core City Project, which aimed to increase membership through strengthening community ties. Meanwhile, the league worked at the local and state levels to support the programs of the Office of Economic Opportunity and the creation of the New Jersey State Division on Civil Rights. Beginning in the s, membership in the suburban leagues began to decline as

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more women were working outside the home and had less time for volunteer activities. To counter this trend, the leagues began to schedule more evening meetings and introduced several new program areas. They placed more emphasis on women’s issues, addressing in particular women’s rights in divorce, and campaigning for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment. In the s and s, new initiatives included school district regionalization, campaign finance and health care reform, reproductive rights, and gun control. The League of Women Voters Education Fund of New Jersey, which enabled the league to raise money for its educational activities, was established in . Gordon, Felice. After Winning: The Legacy of the New Jersey Suffragists, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hill, Patrick. “Finishing the Fight: Has Politics Left the League of Women Voters Behind?’’ New Jersey Reporter (Oct. ): –. League of Women Voters. Spotlight on New Jersey Government. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Leaming’s Run Botanical Gardens. A thirty-acre, privately owned site located in Swainton, Middle Township, this property has been called one of the most beautiful gardens in the United States. The grounds include twenty-five annual gardens with themes such as the Yellow, Red, and Blue Garden, Evening Garden, and Reflecting Garden. In August, hundreds of hummingbirds visit the site. The grounds also contain a colonial farm with a replica of a  whaler’s home, the only one in the state, as well as a cottage garden that consists of common eighteenth-century herbs. Christopher Leaming owned the property in , and it was purchased in the s by Jack Aprill. Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Ellen Hostetter

leather

industry. The Lenape Indians were the earliest leather manufacturers in New Jersey, using uncomplicated methods to tan animal hides (including those of deer). Cattle, the major source for most leather production, and water to aid in the tanning process and power the mills were plentiful throughout colonial New Jersey. Slaughterhouses and tanneries were frequently located side by side, often in labor-rich residential areas. In , the first recorded New Jersey tannery was established in Elizabethtown by John Ogden. Two tanneries were located in Newark in the latter part of the seventeenth century and in the early s, the “Swamp,’’ a watering place for livestock at today’s Washington and Market streets, was inhabited by leather tanners.

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Lebanon Borough Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

See also shoemaking

Gail Greenberg

Lebanon Borough.

Workers at the John Nieder Tannery, Newark, c. .

Courtesy Newark Public Library.

Samuel Quay built tanneries in Allentown in ; they operated until . Morehousetown, now part of Livingston Township, had an important shoemaking industry that provided many pairs of footwear for the Continental Army. At the close of the eighteenth century, leather became an important industry in Newark. The Rev. Moses Combs created an industrial climate in the city, hiring hundreds of workers to manufacture footwear that he exported to the South. In  Seth Boyden developed the process of making patent leather, establishing the first factory for this product in Newark. Forty years later New Jersey produced  percent of all patent leather made in America, most of it in Newark. By then, New Jersey ranked ninth in the country in leather production, with  tannery establishments. In  half of Newark’s industrial output was leather goods. Although the Panic of  caused the closing of many shoe factories in Newark, the city continued to produce over  million pairs of shoes each year. New England took the lead in shoe production, however, while Newark dominated in tanning. Trade with the southern states became increasingly important, even during the Civil War; the Confederacy required a steady supply of shoes and saddles for its army. Leather products ranked among the five most important industries in the Garden State, valued at over $. million; luggage production alone accounted for  percent of the national output. In the same period, Newark began to produce specialty leathers such as reptile

and alligator skins and goods from imported leathers. Luggage, harnesses, saddles, handbags, and patent leather production replaced boots and shoes in importance after the Civil War. In , leather production continued to be the leading industry in Newark; the city ranked fifth nationally in leather production, an industry valued at close to $ million. Yet within a century the industry would become a minor one. The automobile made the manufacture of harnesses and saddlery obsolete. Before World War II, the five largest leather manufacturers, by number of employees, were located in Camden, Newark, New Brunswick, and Trenton. In  the state produced  percent of all upholstery leather in the United States;  percent of all kid leather produced in the country came from Camden. Eventually, auto upholstery would become a major product of tanneries. Today the leather industry in New Jersey is a minor one, facing strong competition with Third World nations. According to the  U.S. Economic Census of Leather and Allied Products Processing, New Jersey ranked thirteenth in measure of output, valued at $,,. Accounting for the general decline was the substitution of cheaper synthetic materials and the negative effect the industry has had on the environment and human lives due to the release of noxious odors and harmful tanning byproducts into groundwater. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

.-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County, originally in the section of Lebanon Township that became Clinton Township in , where it remained until incorporating separately in . Lebanon was settled by German immigrants— a (German) Reformed Church was founded in  and constructed its first building in . Lebanon was a post town by . When the post office moved to a stage stop along the Easton-Brunswick Road, there was a call to rename the area Jacksonville, after Andrew Jackson. The names coexisted until Lebanon won out with the coming of the Central Railroad of New Jersey in . The freight station and peach exchange made Lebanon an important transportation center during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, shipping up to twenty boxcars of peaches a day during the harvest. After a blight destroyed the peach orchards, the community settled into a mixed residential and service sectors. It formed its own telephone company in  and remains an important landmark for automobile travelers, a status begun with pre– World War I autoists. It is the gateway to Round Valley Recreation Area. A compact community of primarily singlefamily dwellings, its  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Lebanon Township, Two Hundred Years. Lebanon Township: Lebanon Township Historical Society, . Moreau, D. H. Traditions of Hunterdon. Flemington: D. H. Moreau, . Schmidt, Hubert G. Rural Hunterdon. Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

New

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Frank A. Curcio

Lebanon Township.

Originally a huge township that encompassed most of the northwesterly regions of Hunterdon County, Lebanon is . square miles in area. The township was created as a political entity in  and incorporated in . Lebanon’s northerly border is the Musconetcong River, which separates it from Warren County. Portions of the township were partitioned off to create other boroughs and townships up until . Early industry included the Allan and Turner iron works, the first iron forge in America. The furnace was located at Andover where the iron ore was loaded on mules and horses and transported down to Lebanon to the forge. Robert Taylor took charge of the iron industry about the time of the Revolution. An ardent patriot, he had cannonballs

Lee, Jarena

463

cast for Washington’s army and shipped them in wagons to New Brunswick, Trenton, and Philadelphia. Today no large industry exists in Lebanon Township; it is a residential and farm community. The  population was , persons;  percent of the residents were white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

commander-in-chief. His severest critics charge that Lee was a traitor, secretly allied with the British. The weight of the evidence is that Lee was no traitor and no coward—although neither was he a military genius. His action at Monmouth was a reasonable, if somewhat timid, response to a difficult battlefield situation.

Lebanon Township, Two Hundred Years. Lebanon Township: Lebanon Township Historical Society, .

Alden, John Richard. General Charles Lee: Traitor or Patriot? Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, .

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Murrin, Mary R., and Richard Waldron, eds. Conflict at Monmouth Court House. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Thayer, Theodore. The Making of a Scapegoat: Washington and Lee at Monmouth. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, .

See also New Hampton School Museum

See also American Revolution; Monmouth, Battle of

Stephanie B. Stevens

Marc Mappen

Le Blanc, Antoine

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Murderer. On September ,

, Antoine Le Blanc, a French immigrant, was executed on a gallows in Morristown. He had been convicted of brutally murdering three people on a farm where he had been employed as a laborer. An estimated crowd of ten thousand people gathered on the Morristown Green to watch the hanging. After the execution Le Blanc’s corpse was given to a group of physicians who conducted experiments by passing electric currents through the body. Subsequently, his skin was removed and sent to a local tannery, where it was made into items such as wallets, pouches, and book covers, described in a contemporary newspaper account as “charming little keepsakes.’’ It has been argued that this unusual treatment of the corpse was due to the hatred felt in the community for a murderer who was a Catholic and a foreigner. Cavanaugh, Cam. In Lights and Shadows: Morristown in Three Centuries. Morristown: Joint Free Public Library of Morristown and Morris Township, . Cunningham, John, and Donald Sinclair. Murder Did Pay: Nineteenth-Century New Jersey Murders. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Marc Mappen

Lee, Charles

(b. Feb. , ; d. Oct. , ).

Soldier. Born to a prominent English family, Charles Lee rose to the rank of colonel in the British Army. He was retired on half-pay after the Seven Years’ War in . A man of strong liberal sentiments, he settled in America in  with the purpose of helping the colonists. When war erupted he lobbied the Continental Congress to be appointed one of the commanders of the newly created American army, and because of his military experience was named a major general. Within a short period of time he became second in command to Gen. George Washington. Lee performed well on campaigns in Massachusetts and South Carolina, but in December  he was captured at an inn at

Lee, Jarena (b. Feb. , ; d. date unknown). B. Rushbrooke, Caricature Portrait of Lee, with Small Dog, eighteenth century. Engraving by A. H. Ritchie, ,  ×  in.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark. Basking Ridge by a detachment of British cavalry, and held prisoner until his exchange in the spring of . He rejoined the Continental Army at a crucial moment in the war: British commander Sir Henry Clinton had evacuated Philadelphia and was marching across New Jersey toward New York with his army of , British and Hessian soldiers. Washington gave Lee the command of an advance force of , Continentals and , Jersey militia, which was to catch up to Clinton. Washington, with the remaining , Continentals, followed behind. On the morning of June , , Lee clashed with the enemy near Monmouth Court House. When Washington arrived at Monmouth a few hours later, he saw soldiers from Lee’s command streaming to the rear in apparent disorder. In one of the most dramatic incidents of the war, Washington angrily confronted Lee in the midst of the battle and berated him for his retreat. After an angry exchange of letters following the battle, Lee was court-martialed for disobeying his orders to attack, for conducting an “unnecessary, disorderly, and shameful’’ retreat, and for disrespect to his commander. Lee was found guilty and cashiered from the army. After a futile effort to have Congress overturn the verdict, he died in disgrace in Philadelphia. Historians have been sharply divided over the character and accomplishments of Lee. His partisans say that he was a talented officer who, outnumbered by the enemy at Monmouth, was performing a skillful strategic withdrawal to a better position when he was interrupted by Washington. His enemies say that Lee was an arrogant, incompetent, and cowardly officer, who was jealous of Washington and sought to replace him as

Preacher. Born to free African American parents in Cape May, Jarena Lee experienced deep spiritual struggles that caused her to read the Bible and visit churches of various Christian denominations. Lee’s conversion experience took place during a period of early nineteenthcentury American revivalism, when thousands were converted in meetings marked by intense emotion, often accompanied by visions, dreams, and temporary debility or illness. In the Methodist tradition that Lee joined, both men and women spoke in church, despite traditional injunctions against women speaking during public worship. Feeling called to

Jarena Lee, .

Courtesy Library Company of Philadelphia.

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legislature

preach, Lee was able to obtain permission from the African Methodist Episcopal church, although she was never granted a license. She traveled thousands of miles from Canada to the mid-Atlantic states and on to the frontier in western New York and Ohio, often preaching several times a day. Her autobiography documents engagements in many New Jersey towns, including Trenton, Princeton, Burlington, Salem, Woodstock, and Snow Hill. Andrews, William, ed. Sisters of the Spirit: Three Black Women’s Autobiographies of the Nineteenth Century. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

The Lehigh and New England used several –– locomotives of this camelback design.

John P. Schartz Collection, Courtesy Robert E. Mohowski.

Constance Escher and Carolyn DeSwarte Gifford

legislature. See General Assembly; Office of Legislative Services; State Senate. Lehigh and Hudson River Railroad. This railroad crossed northwestern New Jersey from Easton, Pennsylvania, to Maybrook, New York, serving Phillipsburg, Belvidere, Andover, Port Morris, Sparta, and Franklin. It was what was called a bridge railroad, meaning that its purpose was to connect other railroads, in this case the Pennsylvania, Reading, Lehigh Valley, and Lackawanna in the south to the New Haven in the north. From Maybrook, trains rolled across the Hudson River on the New Haven’s Poughkeepsie Bridge Route into southern New England. The Lehigh and Hudson River Railroad was busy through the s, running sixteen through freights each way each day. It was profitable, too, as through trains received from other railroads ran solid for the entire length without any terminal expense. Traffic dwindled as connecting lines began to merge, especially after the New Haven became part of Penn Central in . Traffic was down to four trains or fewer each day by , when it became part of Conrail and much of it was abandoned. Drury, George, comp. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads. d ed. Waukesha, WI: Kalmback Books, . Saunders, Richard, Jr. The Rebirth of the American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

connect Harrisburg and Boston. It was constituted as the Lehigh and New England in . In , most of its stock was purchased by its principal shipper, the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company. It remained a profitable heavyduty coal hauler into the s, but when the mines it served closed in , its owner petitioned to abandon it. The Central Railroad of New Jersey purchased a few of its routes in Pennsylvania, but all service in New Jersey ended in . Kulp, Randolph L. History of the Lehigh and New England Railroad Company. Allentown, PA: Lehigh Valley Chapter, National Railway Historical Society, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

Lehigh Valley Railroad.

Originating in Pennsylvania as the coal-hauling Delaware, Lehigh, Schuylkill, and Susquehanna, the company was acquired by an industrialist, Asa Packer, who then created the Lehigh Valley Railroad in . Crossing New Jersey in  and extended to Buffalo in , the company had , miles of track. The Pennsylvania Railroad operated LV’s passenger trains from Newark into Jersey City and later into New York City. The Black Diamond, the John Wilkes, and the Maple Leaf were its popular trains. The railroad became freight-only in  and was absorbed into Conrail in . Its route from Newark to Phillipsburg continues as a busy freight corridor for Conrail successor, Norfolk Southern Corporation.

Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

Lehigh and New England Railroad. The Lehigh and New England Railroad crossed northwestern New Jersey on its way from the coalfields around Tamaqua, Pennsylvania, to Maybrook, New York, and a junction with the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad. Its purpose was to bring coal into southern New England. In New Jersey it served Columbia, Augusta, Sussex, and Wantage. It evolved from a project chartered in  to

PHILLIPSBURG N

0

LEHIGH VALLEY RAILROAD

THREE BRIDGES 10

miles

BOUND BROOK

PERTH AMBOY

© Rutgers, The State University

Yungkurth, Chuck. The Steam Era of Lehigh Valley. Andover: Andover Junction Publications, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

Lehman

Architectural

Group.

After graduating from the Cornell University School of Architecture, William E. Lehman established his own architectural firm, William E. Lehman, Architect, in his native city of Newark in . In  Lehman’s brother David J. Lehman, who studied architecture at the University of Pennsylvania, joined the firm. William E. Lehman’s son, William E. Lehman, Jr., and his nephews, John E. and Thomas C. Lehman, have carried on the business. The Lehman family has been active in real estate development in the Newark area, establishing the United States Realty and Investment Company in . In its early years, the Lehman firm concentrated almost exclusively on private homes, apartment buildings, and theaters. In the s, however, Lehman turned toward commercial and industrial structures, such as the Goerke Department Store, the United States Trust Company Building, and the Progress Club. By , Lehman architects had designed over five thousand buildings. In  the firm, having been known as Lehman Architectural Partnership since , was renamed the Lehman Architectural Group. See also architecture

Ulana Zakalak

Lehrman, Daniel S.

(b. June , ;

d. Aug. , ). Psychobiologist. After graduat-

ing from the City College of New York, Daniel S. Lehrman received a doctoral degree from New York University in . He was founder and director of the Institute of Animal Behavior, Rutgers University–Newark. His pioneering studies of ring dove reproductive behavior established the field of behavioral neuroendocrinology. He was an influential theorist of behavioral development, species-typical behavior, ethology and comparative psychology,

Lenape and parental behavior in birds and mammals. Lehrman was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a visiting scientist at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, and founder and editor of Advances in the Study of Behavior.

Jay S. Rosenblatt

Lemelson, Jerome (b. July , ; d. Oct. , ). Inventor and philanthropist. Jerome

Lemelson was born and raised on Staten Island, the oldest of three sons. He demonstrated an aptitude for invention while still in his youth, designing and building model airplanes and developing an illuminated tongue depressor for his physician father. After high school, his studies at New York University were interrupted by service in the Army Air Corps during World War II. He returned to graduate in  with master’s degrees in aeronautical and industrial engineering. In  Lemelson married Dorothy Ginsberg, an interior decorator. They settled in Metuchen and had two sons. In the attic of this home Lemelson maintained an informal laboratory where he could work on his inventions. Lemelson initially pursued a career as an industrial engineer, but by the late s was successful enough as an independent inventor that he was able to apply himself to inventing full-time. Describing his inventions as solutions for problems he saw in the world around him, Lemelson always carried around a notebook in which he recorded his ideas and had friends sign as witnesses. Most of his early inventions were toy and novelty items, but he soon branched into industrial technologies. Lemelson’s first significant commercial success was the automatic warehousing system, which was licensed by Triax Company of Cleveland in . Because of the costs involved in applying for patents, Lemelson early in his career began a lifelong practice of writing his own applications and often doing his own legal work. His first experience with patent infringement involved an idea for a cut-out face mask that could be printed on the back of a cereal box. Although his invention had been patented and then rejected by a major cereal manufacturer, the company proceeded to manufacture cereal boxes with face masks printed on them. This case was dismissed on appeal, but Lemelson eventually turned to litigation in more than twenty cases in order to protect his ideas. Some of his critics in the corporate world argued that Lemelson manipulated the system by filing patents for ideas that were not yet technologically feasible. Lemelson, in turn, criticized corporations for their “notinvented-here’’ attitude, a resistance to embracing ideas from independent inventors. His personal experiences and ultimate financial success turned Lemelson into a staunch advocate for the rights of the independent inventor. He also worked to strengthen federal

legal protections for patents and served on the Patent and Trademark Office Advisory Committee from  to . In the mid-s the Lemelsons moved to Princeton and eventually to Nevada, where he remained until his death. Lemelson was one of America’s most prolific inventors, holding over five hundred patents for a diverse set of inventions which included a talking thermometer, the magnetic tape drive used in Sony Walkman tape players, and brakes for in-line skates. His “machine vision device,’’ which made it possible for machines to read bar codes, was a huge financial success. It enabled him to establish the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Foundation, which provided $ million to the Smithsonian Institution to establish the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation; it also funds the annual $, Lemelson-MIT prize for outstanding inventors. Brown, Kenneth A. Inventors at Work: Interviews with Sixteen Notable American Inventors. Redmond, WA: Tempus Books of Microsoft Press, .

See also science and technology

Michele Rotunda

Lenape. The native people of New Jersey, whose name means “real or original people,’’ are also called Delaware Indians. Presumably, they descended from earlier groups, known only from archaeological traces. The Lenape spoke two dialects: Munsee in the northern part of their range, and Unami in the southern. The population was divided into bands, each consisting of related families, which occupied traditional territories. Selected from female lineages, the chiefs were males, chosen for their wisdom, leadership, and success in hunting. They guided, rather than ruled, their people. Important decisions were announced only after consulting with village elders. The Lenape lived primarily by foraging. Water transportation was by dugout canoe, rather than canoes fabricated from birch bark. There was an extensive network of overland trails. Hunting, both communal and solitary, was practiced with bows and arrows. The Lenape hunted deer, bears, other mammals, and birds. In communal hunts, the animals were driven by fire to waiting hunters. The Lenape also devised animal traps. Fish, including shad and sturgeon, were speared, harpooned, netted, or captured in weirs. Shellfish were gathered both on the seacoast and from fresh waters. The Lenape also harvested nuts and berries. Later, certain groups began planting corn, beans, and squash. Surplus food was sometimes stored in subterranean pits, which later were used for refuse disposal and even for burials. The dead were often buried in flexed postures, sometimes with a few grave offerings. The men hunted and fished, engaged in trading, and made equipment. The women

465

Late prehistoric ceramic vessel from southwestern New Jersey.

Courtesy Woodruff Museum of Indian Artifacts/Bridgeton Public Library. Photo: R. Alan Mounier. tended to gardening, cooking, housekeeping, and childcare. They also prepared skins. The males wore loincloths, while females wore skirts. Both usually went about bare-breasted, but might wear sashes or headbands. In winter, cloaks of fur or turkey feathers provided warmth. Buckskin moccasins protected their feet, and leggings were sometimes worn. Houses were constructed from bent saplings and covered with bark. The largest houses sheltered several related families, the smallest, perhaps only one or two people. Sweat lodges were used for purification. The Lenape made clay containers, cooking pots, and smoking pipes, some of which were ornately decorated. They fashioned bowls and utensils from wood and gourds. Foodstuffs were ground using mortars and pestles of wood or stone. Cordage, fabrics, and nets were fabricated from plant fibers or sinew, while wooden splints, rushes, or cornstalks were woven into baskets and mats. Woodworking tools, knives, and weapon tips were made from stone, bone, and antler. The latter materials also served for making awls, skewers, and needles. Paint from mineral and plant pigments was used for adornment, along with feathers, porcupine quills, and beads of shell (wampum) and bone. Many people kept personal items— pipes, tobacco, and fetishes, for example—in small leather or fur pouches. Ritual masks were carved from wood or woven from plant materials. The Lenape had a complex religion, according to which a Creator made the universe and gave spiritual life to everything in it. Another deity protected the animals of the forest. A personal spirit or totem, the Lenape believed, guided most people. The growing population of European settlers eventually displaced most of the Lenape to midwestern states and Canada, where their descendants still reside. Between  and , as many as three hundred Indians occupied the Brotherton reservation at Indian Mills. A few remain in New Jersey today.

466

Lenape stone

Kraft, Herbert C., ed. A Delaware Indian Symposium. Anthropological Series, . Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, . ———. The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Newcomb, William W., Jr. The Culture and Acculturation of the Delaware Indians. Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, . Weslager, C. A. The Delaware Indians: A History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Indians

R. Alan Mounier

Lenape

stone. The Lenape stone, an engraved slate tablet . inches long and . inches wide, was discovered by Bernard Hansell in , near Doylestown, Pennsylvania. Today it is in the collections of the Mercer Museum in Doylestown. The stone’s surface is almost entirely covered by carvings. Those on the front depict an encounter between a mammoth and a group of stick-figure American Indians. On the obverse, the carvings include a turtle, a tobacco pipe, fish, teepees, and other symbols. Coming to light in the midst of great debate regarding the earliest human presence in the Delaware Valley, the stone seemed to support the coexistence of ancient Native Americans and longextinct animals like mammoths. Most scholars of the time, including Charles Conrad Abbott, a major proponent of “paleolithic’’ settlement in the New World, believed it fraudulent. Today it is generally believed to be a fake, although the exact circumstances of its manufacture remain unknown. Richard F. Veit

Lenox, Walter Scott

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Jan. , ).

Pottery manufacturer and designer. Walter Scott Lenox was born in Trenton. In  he apprenticed to Elijah Tatler, an English china decorator then working for the Trenton Pottery Company. After several years operating his own decorating firm, Lenox became art director first for Ott and Brewer and, later, for Willets Manufacturing Company. At both companies he developed a line of exquisite artware. In  he founded Ceramic Art Company, which later became known as Lenox China. He gradually became blind beginning in , but continued to run his company with the aid of others. Lenox died in Trenton in . Denker, Ellen Paul. Lenox China: Celebrating a Century of Quality, –. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum and Lenox China, .

See also Lenox China

Ellen Paul Denker

Lenox

China. Headquartered in Lawrenceville, with its principal factory in Pomona, Lenox China is the premier fine china tableware and giftware manufacturer in the United States today. The company was founded in Trenton in  as the Ceramic

Service plate made by Ceramic Art Company, Trenton, and decorated by Bruno Geyer. The plate is one of a set of eighteen made for Gov. Franklin Murphy, c. . Bone china, d.  / in.

Courtesy Lenox Brands Archives, Lawrenceville. Art Company by Walter Scott Lenox, Jonathan Coxon, and several investors. Lenox founded the company to prove that an American pottery could survive with artware as its only product. Until that time, imported ceramics had prevailed as artware, while American potteries were content to produce utilitarian, sanitary, and common tableware. Lenox’s enterprise attracted some of the finest craftsmen from America and Europe. The earliest wares were primarily ornamental, including vases, tea sets, dressing table paraphernalia, and the like. The china body was similar to the ivory porcelain that is called “Trenton’’ and it was decorated with elaborate painted, enameled, and gilded ornamentation. China painters identified with the Ceramic Art Company include William and George Morley, Hans Nosek, Sigmund Wirkner, and Lucien Boullemier. About , Charles Fergus Binns, later director of the School of Clayworking and Ceramics at Alfred, New York, developed for Lenox a white bone china body for tableware. The first product in this new body (called Lenox China) was fancy service plates with elaborate hand-painted decoration made on special order for elite customers, such as New Jersey governor Franklin Murphy. In , the company decided to embark on a new product line, changing the company’s name to Lenox China and shifting production emphasis to tableware. In anticipation of this change, Frank Graham Holmes was hired as chief designer in . Educated at the Rhode Island School of Design, Holmes continued to design for the company until his death in . In , the first stock pattern, “The Virginian,’’ was introduced. Well-known patterns from this era of the company’s production include “Ming’’ () and “Autumn’’ (), which is still made. The commission

to make a large service for the White House in  ensured the company’s worldwide reputation, and the pottery continued to make table services for the White House throughout the twentieth century. After World War II, the company began aggressive national advertising and greatly changed production and marketing of its dinnerware. A standard place setting was reduced to five pieces and adoption of the bridal registry meant that the purchase of a dinner service was divided among many wedding guests. As a result of these changes, production expanded greatly and a new factory was built in Pomona in . Manufacturing continued in Trenton until . Executive offices and design facilities were moved to Lawrenceville in . Today, the company also maintains two china factories in North Carolina. Lenox China now boasts the largest share of the American dinnerware market. However, artware (now called giftware) has continued to be made throughout the company’s history. The most significant artware was a line of delicate figurines designed by Patricia Eakin and made from about  through the early s. Denker, Ellen Paul. Lenox China: Celebrating a Century of Quality, –. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum and Lenox China, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker

Leon, “Southside’’ Johnny

(b. Dec.

, ).

Singer and songwriter. Born John Lyon, Southside Johnny Leon grew up in Ocean Grove. He gravitated to the Asbury Park club scene in the late s, where he began a lifelong musical association with other Asbury Park mainstays Bruce Springsteen, Little Steven Van Zandt, and Gary Tallent. The first version of the Asbury Jukes came together in . Drawing as much from R&B and soul as traditional rock, the band’s sound revolved around Southside Johnny’s passionate lead vocals and its high-powered horn section. Springsteen’s success helped the band land a record deal with Epic, and its Van Zandt– produced debut album, I Don’t Want to Go Home, came out in . The band received radio airplay with songs like “I Don’t Want to Go Home,’’ “Talk to Me,’’ “Trapped Again,’’ and the Sam Cooke cover “Havin’ a Party.’’ The Asbury Jukes developed a reputation as a top live act, but never reached an E Street Band level of popularity. The lineup has changed many times over the years, with key players including guitarists Billy Rush and Bobby Bandiera, keyboardists Kevin Kavanaugh and Rusty Cloud, trombonist Ritchie “La Bamba’’ Rosenberg, saxophonist Ed Manion, and trumpeter Mark Pender. See also pop music

Jay Lustig

Leonia.

.-square-mile borough in eastern Bergen County. First settled by Dutch and

Lewis, Henry Jay, Jr. English farmers in the seventeenth century, the community benefited from its proximity to the Hudson River. Washington’s army retreated through Leonia on November , . Three pre-Revolutionary War homes still remain. The town was known as the English Neighborhood until formally named Leonia in  and remained primarily a farming community until it became a borough on December , . At that time artists, academics, and business professionals built fine homes in the town. Between  and , the population quadrupled as the introduction of subways, trolleys, and ferries facilitated the commute to and from New York City. A substantial number of academics settled in the town, accounting for its nickname “the Athens of the East.’’ Five Nobel Prize–winning scientists have lived in the borough. It is home to the state’s oldest theater company, the Players Guild of Leonia, which performs in a former Civil War Drill Hall. Leonia has seven parks and a sixteen-acre Green Acres forest. The community is primarily residential with single-family homes predominating. Over forty languages other than English are spoken by residents. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian (primarily Korean), and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median family income was $, (). For complete census figures, see chart, . Karels, Carol. The Leonia Line. Leonia: C. Karels, . ———. Leonia Legacies. Leonia: C. Karels, . Know Your Town. Leonia: League of Women Voters, . Village, Junction, Town: Leonia, –. Leonia: Social History Project, .

Carol Karels Lutchen

lesbians, gays, and bisexuals. The lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) population in New Jersey is spread throughout the state, in every city, town, and hamlet. Although larger concentrations can be found in a few towns, there are no gay neighborhoods as such. For the organized LGB community, the main political association is the New Jersey Lesbian and Gay Coalition. Founded in , this umbrella organization is composed of local LGB groups and individual members, and functions as a political advocacy and unifying force for the community. The Personal Liberty Fund, the coalition’s tax-exempt arm, concentrates mainly on education projects, such as voter issues, a religious directory, and a youth resource directory. The oldest LGB organization in the state, the Rutgers undergraduate group, was started in . The oldest nonstudent local group, the Gay Activist Alliance in Morris County (GAAMC), has been meeting weekly at the same location in Morristown since its inception in . Between  and , the LGB community in New Jersey made important strides in

the area of civil rights, gaining protections that nongay citizens have long possessed and often take for granted. For example, LGB people were specifically protected in legislation on bias crimes () and domestic violence (). An amendment in  to New Jersey’s antidiscrimination law added the words “affectional and sexual orientation’’ to the list of characteristics that cannot be used to discriminate against individuals in employment, public accommodations, and credit services. The phrase “affectional orientation’’ protects those who may not be, but are perceived to be, gay. On other fronts, the amended Rules of Professional Conduct () for the courts made it improper for judges, lawyers, and other court personnel to engage in discriminatory conduct based upon sexual orientation, and police academies began to include training to help officers overcome myths about the LGB population. In  Governor James Florio signed the first proclamation declaring June to be lesbian and gay pride month.

David C. Morris

Lever, Richard Hayley (b. Sept. , ; d. Dec. , ). Painter and lecturer. Hayley

Lever was born in Adelaide, Australia, and studied art in Cornwall, England. He immigrated to the United States in  and lived for a number of years in Caldwell. Lever was best known for his postimpressionist marine scenes, such as Belleville, New Jersey (). His work won a number of awards, including the Carnegie and Edwin Palmer prizes of the National Academy (), and the gold medal of the Panama-Pacific Exposition (San Francisco, ). His marine paintings were noted for their vibrant color and their sense of movement. Lever was an instructor with the Newark Arts Club and the Art Students League in New York City. He died in Mount Vernon, New York, at the age of eighty-two. See also art

Robert Nelson

Levittown.

The Levitt brothers created the prototypical post–World War II suburban housing development, consisting of inexpensive dwellings mass-produced in an assemblyline fashion. This method was economical but provided little variety, prompting critics to equate architectural with demographic homogeneity. The .-square-mile development in Burlington County was the last of three Levittowns, following Long Island, New York, and Bucks County, Pennsylvania. By , the Levitts had purchased nearly all of Willingboro Township, a sparsely settled agricultural area. Unlike earlier Levittowns, which overlapped municipalities, this development comprised an entire town. The Levitts constructed eleven thousand homes in ten neighborhoods, each served by an elementary school, playground, and swimming pool. They also built community-wide facilities, including shopping centers, a library, a high school, and

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parks. Instead of providing only one house style, which had drawn much criticism, the Levitts offered three house styles. Levittown opened to buyers in . By  the population was ten thousand. In  a referendum vote renamed the township Levittown, but in  the name was changed back to Willingboro Township. Originally restricted to whites only, Levittown was successfully integrated in , and thus avoided the anti-integration violence that plagued the Pennsylvania Levittown. In  the population of , was  percent black and  percent white. In  the median family income was $,. Gans, Herbert J. The Levittowners. New York: Pantheon, . Jackson, Kenneth T. Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also suburbanization; Willingboro

Stacy E. Spies

Lewis, Carl

(b. July , ). Athlete. Born in Birmingham, Alabama, Frederick Carlton Lewis moved as a boy to New Jersey, where both of his parents became track and field coaches as well as teachers in Willingboro. Before he graduated from Willingboro High School in , Lewis gained wide notice for performances in the two events that would make him legend: the -meter dash and the long jump. Lewis entered the University of Houston on an athletic scholarship and qualified for the  Olympics, but great expectations were foiled when the United States boycotted the Moscow games over the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Nonetheless, a profusion of Olympic gold medals followed: four in  in Los Angeles, two in Seoul in , two more in Barcelona in , and a ninth in Atlanta in . That final gold medal came when Lewis, at the age of thirty-five, leaped nearly twenty-eight feet to become only the second competitor in history to triumph in the same event in four consecutive Olympiads. Some reporters in his own country perceived “King Carl’’ as brash, but fans abroad cheered him enthusiastically, as when he set a record of . seconds in the -meter run in Seoul to confirm his status as “the world’s fastest human.’’ Lewis, Carl, and Jeffery Marx. Inside Track: My Professional Life in Amateur Track and Field. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

See also track and field

Edward A. Jardim

Lewis, Henry Jay, Jr.

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Conductor and double bass

player. Henry Jay Lewis, Jr., the only child of Henry J. Lewis, an automobile dealer, and Mary Josephine Lewis, a registered nurse, was born in Los Angeles and studied at the University of South Carolina. Drafted into the army in , he conducted the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra in Stuttgart, Germany,

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Liberty

until , when he joined the Los Angeles Philharmonic. He was the first African American conductor to win a major conducting post (New Jersey Symphony Orchestra [NJSO], –) and to conduct at the Metropolitan Opera (La Boh`eme in ). Also one of the first black instrumentalists (double bassist) to play with a major American orchestra (Los Angeles Philharmonic in ), Lewis was a co-founder of the Los Angeles Chamber Orchestra in . He returned to the Metropolitan Opera to conduct, among other operas, Carmen fifty-nine times (many with mezzo-soprano Marilyn Horne, to whom he was married –, and with whom he had one daughter). In New Jersey Lewis was vital in repairing the orchestra’s relationship to Newark by offering free concerts in the park, touring the orchestra throughout the state, and speaking from the stage. His tenure was marked by artistic growth, but also labor upheaval, including several musicians’ strikes. He was first to take the NJSO to Carnegie Hall () and the Kennedy Center (); under his baton, the orchestra grew from having a $, budget and twentytwo concerts per year, to a $. million budget and one hundred performances each season. He maintained a notable international conducting and recording career, particularly in opera. Henry Jay Lewis, Jr., died in New York City. See also New Jersey Symphony Orchestra

income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Willa Conrad

Laura Levine

Liberty.

-square-mile township in Warren County. Formed in  from sections of Oxford and Hope townships, Liberty shares many physical and historic features with neighboring townships. In the mid-twentieth century the skeleton of the Bojak Mastodon, carbon-dated to  b.c.e, was found in Liberty. It has been speculated that this was the big game hunted by the people of the Paleo period, which predates the Lenape Indian Woodland period. Shades of Death Road leads to Marble Hill where rose quartz was mined. Townsbury was settled by the Town brothers around . This former farming community straddles the Pequest River. The Pequest Trout Hatchery and Natural Resource Education Center lies within Liberty and adjoining Mansfield, Oxford, and White townships. Mountain Lake, once a popular resort area, is located on a plateau section of Jenny Jump mountain range. The lake is a natural spring-fed body of water that was surrounded by a community of summer homes and resort hotels at the end of the nineteenth century. The hotels are now gone and the summer cottages have turned into year-round homes. The community is residential with the people earning their living outside the community. According to the  census the population of , was  percent white. The median household

Historic Sites of Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Liberty Hall. The country estate built in  by William Livingston—New Jersey’s first state governor, a member of the First and Second Continental Congresses, and a delegate to the Constitutional Convention—began as a fourteen-room Georgian-style manor house and served as Livingston’s home until his death in . The house was later expanded and rebuilt as a fifty-room Victorian Italianate mansion by Col. John Kean and was known as the Livingston-Kean House until . Designated a National Historic Site in , Liberty Hall, in Union near Kean College, is now a public museum of New Jersey history. The site includes the mansion and twentythree acres of grounds and gardens, which contain many species of plants and trees, including one of the oldest trees in the state. Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Prince, Carl E., et al., eds. The Papers of William Livingston.  vols. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, –.

See also historic sites

Liberty Science Center.

A science museum, located at Liberty State Park in Jersey City, this center is dedicated to the exploration of nature, humanity, and technology. Sparked by a series of  Star-Ledger articles, the Liberty Science Center (LSC) was

incorporated in  after intensive study by the Research and Development Council of New Jersey. Encouraged by a $ million capital campaign, receiving funds from corporations such as Exxon and Warner Lambert and foundations such as Geraldine R. Dodge and Victoria, and with the donation of state acreage at Liberty State Park, the facility opened its doors to visitors on January , . In  a Partnership Program with urban school districts was launched to help New Jersey schools in meeting the new core standards. By spring , Liberty Science Center welcomed its five-millionth guest, making it one of the tristate region’s most visited family attractions. Within its towers and domes overlooking New York Harbor are contained three handson exhibit floors that provide learning experiences on the environment, health, and invention. The Kodak Omni Theater, a giant screen production, and the J. D. Williams Science Theater offer vivid views of innovations in science. LSC has become a popular attraction for schoolchildren in the region, offering a direct exploration of textbook knowledge. See also museums

Richard Cummings

Liberty State Park.

Among the attractions of Liberty State Park, located east of Jersey City on ,-plus acres, are the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, which houses exhibits about the history of the railroad and the park; an interpretive center, which has an auditorium and offers educational programs to the public and school groups; a thirtysix-acre natural area of marshes; the Liberty Science Center museum; a two-mile waterfront Liberty Walk promenade and picnic area; an eighty-eight-acre green park of lawns and

The Central Railroad of New Jersey terminal, now part of Liberty State Park.

Courtesy Highwing Aerial Photography.

Library Company of Burlington flowers; a Columbus monument; a flag plaza; bike paths; and boat docks and ferry service to the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island. The park opened to the public on Flag Day, June , . Anderson, Elaine. The Central Railroad of New Jersey’s First  Years, –: A Historical Survey. Easton, PA: Center for Canal History and Technology, .

See also Ellis Island; Liberty Science Center; state parks

Vincent M. Altamuro

libraries. The state of New Jersey offers its citizens a rich array of well over one thousand libraries. This total includes school media centers, public libraries, academic and research libraries, archival collections, government and corporate libraries, historical societies, and many other specialized libraries in law, medicine, engineering, and art. Statesupported cooperative networks provide wide public access to these resources and those beyond the state’s boundaries. The history of New Jersey’s libraries closely parallels that of libraries elsewhere in the United States. In colonial times, library companies, paid for by private subscription, were established in Trenton (), Burlington (), and later in Shrewsbury, Haddonfield, Mount Holly, New Brunswick, and Newark. While these libraries catered to the reading interests of the privileged, popular reading was supported by commercially operated circulating libraries in Elizabeth and Newark as early as . More libraries of both types were established after the Revolution, followed in the s by more educationally oriented apprentices’and mechanics’libraries in Trenton, Burlington, Elizabeth, and Newark. The State

Library was founded in  and a state librarian was appointed in . Princeton (the College of New Jersey, founded ) and Rutgers (Queen’s College, founded ) are among the oldest colleges in the United States. Libraries were established at each school soon after its founding. Initially, the collections consisted mainly of gifts, which were of rather limited usefulness. The college libraries were soon supplemented by the libraries of several students’associations, which provided more popular books and periodicals. Today, both Princeton and Rutgers maintain major research libraries, with many subject collections of international significance. A system of state colleges emerged from the founding of state normal schools in Newark (now Kean University) and Trenton (now the College of New Jersey) after . They were followed by Montclair (), Glassboro (now Rowan) (), William Patterson (), Jersey City (), Stockton (), and Ramapo (). Several private colleges were established as well: Seton Hall (), Rider (), Drew (), Centenary (), Bloomfield (), Monmouth (), and Fairleigh Dickinson (). All the colleges created substantial libraries for use by faculty and students. Public access to books was provided with the establishment of library associations in Newark and Trenton after , but it was the recognition that libraries would need government support in order to provide wide public access to educational resources that created the impetus for substantial public library growth. State aid for school libraries was established in , and the State Library Act of  gave each municipality the right to start a public library. New Brunswick (),

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Paterson (), Newark (), and Trenton () were among the major cities to take advantage of the act, and Newark’s librarian, John Cotton Dana (–), provided invaluable leadership in the development of public library service in the state. Thirty-five libraries were constructed in New Jersey communities in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries through the philanthropy of millionaire Andrew Carnegie. The New Jersey Library Association was founded in . A Public Library Commission, headed by Sarah Byrd Askew, was established in  to coordinate and support public libraries. In  county libraries were established to provide additional library services. Major company libraries were established at Prudential (), Bell (), and Esso (), illustrating New Jersey’s early leadership in corporate research. Librarian education in the state began with a series of summer programs in ; these programs continued until . In  the New Jersey College for Women, part of Rutgers University in New Brunswick, established a bachelor’s library degree program. The Graduate School of Library Service at Rutgers opened in New Brunswick in ; it offered a master’s degree in library science (M.L.S.) and began to offer doctoral degrees in . In  these programs were incorporated into the newly created School of Communication, Information and Library Studies at Rutgers University. In  the State Library and Archives became part of the state’s Education Department. State Librarian Roger McDonough provided leadership in statewide library development not only during his official tenure from  until  but well beyond that time. Major library legislation enacted in , followed by the Library Network Law of , provided a regional approach to multitype (academic, school, public, special, and corporate) library networks with strong financial support from the state. A decline in Education Department support for the State Library during the s led to substantial staff and service reductions. In  the State Library came under the administration of Thomas A. Edison State College. Beckerman, Edwin, ed. A History of New Jersey Libraries, –. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, .

Hendrik Edelman

Library Company of Burlington.

Exterior of the New Jersey State Library, Trenton.

Photo: Cindy Warrick.

Chartered by King George II in , the Library Company of Burlington is the oldest continuously operated library in New Jersey and the seventh oldest in the nation. The original charter still hangs on the building’s interior balcony. It was also the first public library in that borrowing privileges were extended to nonmembers, and the first to print a catalog (), which listed the original  books in its collection. About half were donated by John

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Lichtenstein, Roy

Smith, a prominent Burlington Quaker. The library first opened in the parlor of Thomas Rodman, whose home was located on High Street. Daniel Bacon, the first librarian, was paid five pounds a year. The first book borrower was William Franklin, the last royal governor of New Jersey. In , the library erected its first building on land donated by Gen. Joseph Bloomfield, later a governor of New Jersey. The one-story frame building opened in  and served the town for seventy-five years until , when the current sandstone structure was built at  West Union Street.

William M. Gordon

Lichtenstein, Roy (b. Oct. , ; d. Sept. , ). Painter. Roy Lichtenstein was born to middle-class parents in Manhattan, and as a sixteen-year-old, he took classes under Reginald Marsh at the Art Students League. His art education at Ohio State University (– ) was interrupted by U.S. Army service in Europe, where he redrew cartoons for Stars and Stripes. He returned to complete his BFA in  and MFA in , the same year of his first one-man show in Cleveland. In  he was an engineering draftsman for Republic Steel in Cleveland, and held other commercial art jobs in the industrial Midwest. His paintings and prints of the s were expressive abstract versions of mundane items such as dollar bills and machine parts. In  he became an assistant professor of art at the State University of New York in Oswego. In what would become an all-important move to New Jersey in , Lichtenstein relocated to Highland Park. He was an assistant professor of art at Douglass College, where he taught design. He met the innovative artists Allan Kaprow, Robert Watts, and George Segal, who already were known in the New York art world, and who wholeheartedly supported his explorations into the enlarged comic book imagery that would make him famous. Look Mickey () was the first of many paintings that incorporated recomposed imagery predominantly from the world of commerce. His  sold-out show at the Castelli Gallery introduced a new artistic point of view and Pop art sensibility to the world. His statement from a  interview best explains the new concept. “Pop art is industrial painting. America was hit by industrialism and capitalism harder and sooner, and its values seem more askew. I think the meaning of my work is that it is industrial, it’s what all the world will soon become.’’ After resigning from Douglass College in , Lichtenstein moved to New York, where he continued to produce hand-drawn cartoon paintings with bold outlines, vivid colors, and stylized forms that simulated the mechanical reproduction techniques of industrial printing processes. By  he reinvented abstract expressionist brushstrokes through his painstaking Benday-dot painting process.

Not shying away from his commercial art roots, he designed ceramic tableware for the Durable Dish Company. Lichtenstein represented the United States in the  Venice Biennial. His works have been the subject of many exhibitions throughout the world including  and  retrospectives by the Guggenheim Museum. His late career works were complex fractured compositions of interiors. Lichtenstein’s contributions to pub¨ sseldorf, Tel Aviv, lic art include murals in Du Singapore, and New York, and posters for entertainment events and political campaigns. Along with his fellow pop artists Andy Warhol, Jim Dine, and Claes Oldenburg, he was instrumental in the renewal of interest in American representational art, after decades of abstraction. Roy Lichtenstein died in New York City. Coplans, John. Roy Lichtenstein. New York: Praeger, . Lippard, Lucy. Pop Art. New York: Praeger, . Marter, Joan, ed. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Jeanne Kolva

lifeguarding. Ocean lifeguarding in New Jersey started in  in Atlantic City, where police officers became “constables of the surf’’ by changing into bathing attire during the “bathing hours’’ of eleven a.m. to one p.m. Other municipalities followed suit with volunteer lifeguards who pulled people from the surf for tips. The first organized lifeguard service started in  in Atlantic City. Paid lifeguard crews were common by the s, although early crews were concentrated in popular oceanside resorts such as Ocean City, Wildwood, Cape May, Ocean Grove, and Asbury Park. Modern ocean rescue crews are organized along New Jersey’s approximately  miles of

coastline, working beaches from Sandy Hook to Cape May. The season for lifeguards usually begins Memorial Day weekend and extends through Labor Day—sometimes a bit beyond. New Jersey ocean lifeguards seasonally make approximately seventy thousand rescues and have compiled an excellent record of service. Often the summer season is marked with no drownings at lifeguard-protected beaches. The majority of ocean drownings occur during nonprotected hours or in nonprotected areas. Modern lifeguards are well equipped with rescue devices. The basic rescue apparatus is the Rescue Flotation Device (RFD). This is a cylindrical plastic can about thirty inches long, usually red, with handle grips molded into the sides. It is connected to the rescuer by a short line and shoulder sling. The victim grasps the handles and is towed to safety by the lifeguard. Often RFDs are connected to -foot lengths of rescue line so that victims can very quickly be pulled to shore by a second, land-based lifeguard. Other common devices include rescue kayaks and paddleboards, both of which can handle heavy surf conditions. Many crews now use Jet Skis—powered personal watercraft with attached rescue sleds—to reach victims. These machines, which can navigate in extremely heavy surf and reach speeds of more than fifty miles per hour, are particularly effective offshore rescue devices. Other crews utilize Inflatable Rescue Boats (IRBs), small, fast, seaworthy pontoon boats with outboard motors. Modern crews also use radio communications, four-wheel-drive vehicles, and quad all-terrain vehicles to reach victims quickly, especially in remote areas. Lake, pond, swimming pool, and water park lifeguards make use of rescue tubes, softer foam versions of the RFD. They may also employ other devices, such as toss lines and shepherd’s crooks (long poles with hooks that cradle victims). Training requirements for lifeguards are rigorous. Most open-water lifeguards in New Jersey are certified by the United States Lifesaving Association. Lake, pond, pool, and water park guards are certified by the American Red Cross. Additional certifications are usually required in first aid and CPR. Rescue watercraft operators must have New Jersey boating safety certificates. See also Jersey Shore

Michael Fowler

Atlantic City’s first full-time lifeguards, Dan Headley and Nick Jefferies, c. .

Courtesy Vicki Gold Levi.

Life-Saving Service. A national organization that served the needs of mariners in distress between  and , the Life-Saving Service, the precursor of the U.S. Coast Guard, developed in New Jersey. Although there is some debate as to who should be credited, William A. Newell, a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, is generally thought of as the founder of the Life-Saving Service. He witnessed a tragic shipwreck just three hundred yards off the coast of Long Beach Island, and

lighthouses

Surfmen wearing cork lifejackets pose with their lifecar, surfboat, and beach carts at the Long Branch Life-Saving Station, c. .

Courtesy American Heritage Engravings. Collection of Stanley Jergensen.

he was reminded daily of the loss of life— he lived next door to the cemetery in which the thirteen victims were buried. Newell petitioned Congress in  for the establishment of a Life-Saving Service, and it was quickly approved. By the spring of , under the direction of Revenue Marine Captain Douglass Ottinger, eight stations were established along the coast of New Jersey, each equipped with a surfboat, rockets, carronades, beach apparatus carts, rescue lines, and other lifesaving equipment. They operated much as volunteer rescue squads, responding when needed to stricken ships. By , there were fourteen stations in New Jersey; since they were sometimes located in remote areas, a full-time keeper was appointed at $ a year. In , Sumner I. Kimball, then head of the Revenue Marine Corps, was appointed general superintendent of the Life-Saving Service. He substantially upgraded the entire operation by staffing the stations full time and providing the men with military-style uniforms and rigorous training. Equipment was improved, and the Life-Saving Service expanded to both coasts and the Great Lakes region. New Jersey eventually had forty-two stations, from Sandy Hook to Cape May, at a typical distance of three miles apart. Unique lifesaving devices were used to rescue shipwreck victims. The process typically began with a signal flare from the stricken ship. The rescuers would respond with horsedrawn beach apparatus carts. The Lyle gun, a large-bore, short-distance cannon, would fire a shot line to the ship. Heavier lines were then drawn taut between the ship and the shore-

based rescuers. They would rapidly pull a Francis life car, an eleven-foot, sealed, doubleended boat packed with four to six victims, from the ship to shore. Its first test came quickly—in January , two hundred people were rescued from the British emigrant ship Ayershire off the coast of Manasquan. In later years, the life car was replaced with a single-person breeches buoy. This was a lifering device outfitted with canvas pants and connected with lines from ship to shore. By the turn of the twentieth century, the role of the service began to diminish significantly. Bigger, better constructed ships, with powerful engines and improved navigational and communication devices, made shipwrecks far less likely. The end came in  with the merger of the civilian LifeSaving Service and the military Revenue Cutter Service into what became the U.S. Coast Guard. The Life-Saving Service under the direction of Kimball compiled an impressive record of , rescues between  and . Applegate, Lloyd R. A Life of Service: William Augustus Newell. Toms River: Ocean County Historical Society, . Barnett, J. P. The Lifesaving Guns of David Lyle. South Bend, IN: South Bend Replicas, . Merryman, James H. The United States Life-Saving Service, . . Reprint, Golden, CO: Outbooks, . Shanks, Ralph, Wick York, Lisa Shanks, eds. The U.S. Life-Saving Service: Heroes, Rescues, and Architecture of the Early Coast Guard. Petaluma, CA: Costano Books, .

See also U.S. Coast Guard

Michael Fowler

471

lighthouses. Shipwrecks were all too common in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries along the wide sandy beaches of the Atlantic Coast of New Jersey and the shallow waters of the Delaware and Raritan Bays. To make the waters safe for mariners and to aid commerce, lighthouses were constructed on the shores and lightships were stationed in the waters surrounding New Jersey. In , merchants of New York City petitioned the New York legislature to hold public lotteries to raise funds for the construction of a lighthouse on Sandy Hook at the entrance to New York Harbor. One of eleven colonial lighthouses, the Sandy Hook Lighthouse was first lighted June , . On August , , the ninth act of the newly formed Congress of the United States, and the first to make provision for any public works, created the Lighthouse Establishment as part of the federal government. It accepted title to and jurisdiction over the lighthouses then in existence, providing the states ceded the sites to the government. The Sandy Hook Lighthouse is the oldest operating lighthouse in the country. The state’s second lighthouse was built at Cape May in , marking the eastern entrance to Delaware Bay. Eventually toppled by erosion, it was rebuilt further inland in , and again, in its present location, in . A pair of octagonal towers (Twin Lights) was constructed on the Highlands of Navesink in  for ships making first landfall off the New Jersey Coast on their way to New York City. A -foot tower built in  marking Barnegat Inlet proved inadequate; when threatened by erosion in , it was replaced by the -foot tower that exists today. The Absecon Lighthouse was first lighted on January , , as a coastal lighthouse. A number of lightship stations also existed, including Scotland, Sandy Hook, Ambrose, Five Fathom Bank, Brandywine Shoal, Upper Middle, and Northeast End. The last lightship in New Jersey waters was WLV , which served on Five Fathom Bank, –. The vessel was eventually returned to New Jersey waters on February , , when it was sunk as part of the artificial reef program. New Jersey was an important proving ground for lighthouse technology. In , the Sandy Hook Lightship was the first U.S. lightship to be placed on an outside station, in the Atlantic Ocean off Sandy Hook. Prior to this, lightships were used only in protected waters. The first Fresnel lens (a lens designed to focus light into a narrow beam—the lower the order, the larger the lens) to be used in the United States was installed at the Twin Lights of Navesink in . The  Brandywine Shoal Lighthouse was the first U.S. lighthouse to be built using the screw pile. Each foundation leg, or piling, was tipped with a large metal auger that acted as a screw when turned down into the soft floor of Delaware Bay. The lighthouse was then constructed on the platform joining the legs. A pioneer of many subsequent

472

light rail

lighthouses around the nation, the one at Brandywine Shoal survived the action of waves and ice floes until , when a larger lighthouse made of reinforced concrete, which still serves today, replaced it. In , Twin Lights became the first coastal lighthouse in the United States to use a mineral oil (kerosene) as an illuminant. In , an electric arc lamp was installed in the south tower of Twin Lights, becoming the initial primary lighthouse in the country to use electricity and the only shore station to have a power plant for making its own electricity. In , the first radio fog signals in the United States were placed in commission at the Ambrose Channel Lightship and at Sea Girt Lighthouse. During the s, the lighthouse service sought to automate lighthouses, reducing the need for lighthouse keepers and thus reducing operating costs. The first attempts were made circa – at lighthouses on Delaware Bay, with experiments using acetylene gas at the Cohansey, Egg Island, and East Point lighthouses. As electricity became available in an area, lighthouses were electrified and the keepers removed. Ironically, the last lighthouses in New Jersey to be automated were those of Delaware Bay, which were electrified in –, and the Ambrose Light Station off Sandy Hook in . Coinciding with the automation of lighthouses was the removal and replacement of lightships with automated large navigational buoys, or LNBs. In , control of U.S. lighthouses was turned over to the Coast Guard. During World War II, many lighthouses were dimmed so as not to aid enemy U-boats operating off the coast. Improvement in navigational technology during that war diminished the need for many of the lighthouses after the war. With automation came a decline in the condition of lighthouse structures. During the twentieth century, many of the lighthouses in New Jersey were lost to various fates, including fire (Cohansey, ; Egg Island, ), demolition by the government (Finns Point Front Range, ; Cross Ledge, circa ), or were left to deteriorate (East Point near Heislerville; Finns Point Rear Range near Pennsville). Increased interest in lighthouses and maritime history beginning in the s has resulted in efforts by various individuals and groups to save or rehabilitate lighthouses. There are twelve lighthouses in New Jersey that still exist on land. One New Jersey lighthouse, formerly the Sandy Hook North Beacon, was moved to Jeffrey’s Hook on the Hudson River, where it became famous as the subject of a children’s book by Hildegarde H. Swift, The Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Gray Bridge. Gately, Bill. Sentinels of the Shore: A Guide to the Lighthouses and Lightships of New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Gowdy, Jim, and Kim Ruth. Guiding Lights of the Delaware River and Bay. Egg Harbor City: privately printed, .

Holland, Francis Ross. America’s Lighthouses: Their Illustrated History since . Brattleboro, VT: Stephen Green Press, .

LIGHTHOUSES

Veasey, David. Guarding New Jersey’s Shore. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, .

Kim M. Ruth Lighthouses of New Jersey Atlantic Coast Region Absecon Lighthouse (E, L, P) Barnegat Lighthouse (E, L, P) Hereford Inlet Lighthouse (E, L, P) Little Egg Harbor Lighthouse (Tucker Island Lighthouse) (N) Ludlum Beach Lighthouse (F, L, P) Sea Girt Lighthouse (E, L)

SANDY HOOK

NAVESINK TWIN LIGHTS

BARNEGAT

Atlantic Coast/Delaware Bay Cape May Lighthouse (E, L, P) Delaware River and Bay Brandywine Shoal Lighthouse (E, O) Cohansey Lighthouse (N) Cross Ledge Lighthouse (F, O) Deepwater Point Front Range Lighthouse (Tinicum Island Front Range Lighthouse) (N) Deepwater Point Rear Range Lighthouse (N) East Point Lighthouse (formerly Maurice River Lighthouse) (E, L) Egg Island Point Lighthouse (N) Elbow of Cross Ledge Lighthouse (N) Finns Point Front Range Lighthouse (N) Finns Point Rear Range Lighthouse (E, L, P) Fort Mifflin Bar Cut Range (N) Horseshoe Range, East Group (N) Maurice River Range Lights (N) Miah Maull Lighthouse (E, O) Ship John Shoal Lighthouse (E, O) Tinicum Island Rear Range Lighthouse (E, L) Sandy Hook Region Ambrose Tower (N) Bergen Point Lighthouse (N) Chapel Hill Lighthouse (Chapel Hill Rear Range Lighthouse) (E, L) Conover Beacon (Chapel Hill Front Range Light) (E, L) Great Beds Lighthouse (E, O) Navesink Twin Lights (E, L, P) Passaic Lighthouse (N) Point Comfort Front Range Lighthouse (Bayside Beacon) (N) Sandy Hook East Beacon (Sandy Hook North Beacon, Little Red Lighthouse and the Great Gray Bridge, Jeffreys Hook Beacon) (E, L, M) Sandy Hook Lighthouse (E, L, P) Sandy Hook West Beacon (Sandy Hook South Beacon) (N) Waackaack Rear Range Lighthouse (Point Comfort Rear Range Light) (N) Key E: still exists F: only foundation remains I: parts exist incorporated into a home L: onshore, accessible by land M: moved, relocated to another state N: no longer exists

ABSECON N

HEREFORD INLET

0

20 miles

CAPE MAY

Only lighthouses open to the public are shown. @Rutgers, The State University

O: offshore, accessible by boat P: regularly open to the public R: private residence

light rail.

New Jersey’s first street railway began operation on March , . Horsecar lines spread in populated areas of the north and in Camden in the south. As technology advanced in the nineteenth century, steam dummies (steam-driven streetcars) were tried in  and cable cars in , but companies ultimately reverted to horse-drawn power. The Newark and Bloomfield Street Railway experimented with electric power on June , ; in  legislation was enacted requiring streetrailway companies to electrify. In  a new company, operating in Passaic, Garfield, and Clifton, successfully ran electric cars. Traction combines developed until Thomas N. McCarter merged street railways with his electric and gas Public Service Corporation, resulting in  miles of electric lines. Having been introduced in , buses replaced streetcars on all but one line (the Newark City Subway) by . In , the state formed New Jersey Transit, taking over commuter rail and most bus operations. Redevelopers of the major cities again looked to streetcars, now called light rail. In , for the first time in sixty-five years, the HudsonBergen light-rail line opened, to be followed by extension of the Newark City Subway, the South Jersey Light Rail (diesel light rail), and the Union County line.

Conniff, James C. G. The Energy People: History of PSE&G. Newark: Public Service Electric and Gas, .

Lindbergh, Charles Hamm, Edward, Jr. The Public Service Trolley Lines in New Jersey. Polo, IL: Transportation Trails, .

See also interurbans; transportation

James Greller

limestone sinks.

The Kittatinny Valley of northwest New Jersey contains natural depressions known as sinks, sinkholes, or dolines, which form when acidic groundwater dissolves the underlying carbonate bedrock and forms cavities into which the overlying soil eventually subsides or collapses. Sinkholes occur in “karst’’ landscapes, which are areas underlain by dolomite, limestone, marble, or gypsum, characterized by pinnacle and trough topography, blind valleys, caves, sinkholes, and a unique hydrologic system typified by sinking streams and springs. Many of the sinks contain ponds, particularly north of the Wisconsinan terminal moraine, within small valleys defined by exposed and buried ridges of bedrock draped by shallow glacial till. Water levels in sinkhole ponds fluctuate seasonally, creating a special type of vernal pond that supports unusual flora and fauna.

Wolfe, P. E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane, Russak, .

See also geology

Robert J. Canace and Kathleen Walz

Lincoln, Mordecai

(b. Apr. , ;

d. May , ). Iron master. Mordecai Lincoln

was born in Hingham, Massachusetts, and is remembered as the great-great-grandfather of Abraham Lincoln. The descendant of an English family that arrived in Massachusetts in , he settled with his brother Abraham near Imlaystown in Monmouth County, where they were hired to manage an iron forge owned by Justice Richard Saltar. Mordecai married Saltar’s eldest daughter, Hannah, prior to . They had many children, including the president’s great-grandfather, John, born May , . One bit of surviving evidence of the Lincoln family’s presence in New Jersey is a sandstone marker in a Monmouth County cemetery that bears the inscription: “Deborah Lincon, Aged Y, M, May , .’’ Mordecai Lincoln died in Amity, Pennsylvania.

The borough is crossed by both Routes  and , which has led to heavy residential development. The current economic base of the borough is residential, retail, and commercial. Some open space remains, notably Great Piece Meadows, along the Passaic River. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income () was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Kimbark, L. S. A History of Beavertown and Lincoln Park. Lincoln Park: Mayor and Council, Borough of Lincoln Park, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Lincoln Tunnel. A vehicular tunnel under the Hudson River connects Weehawken to New York. It was designed by engineers Othmar H. Ammann and Ralph Smillie for the Port of New York Authority and named for Abraham Lincoln. The Lincoln Tunnel is a vital link between New Jersey and midtown Manhattan. It forms part of New Jersey Route , which connects the tunnel to U.S. Routes  and , U.S. Route , and the New Jersey Turnpike. The tunnel also connects directly via ramps in Manhattan to the Port Authority Bus Terminal () providing ready access for commuter buses. The Lincoln Tunnel is the world’s only three-tube underwater vehicular tunnel facility. The center tube () is , feet long. The north tube (), whose completion was delayed for years, is , feet long. A later expansion program added the south tube (), which is , feet long. The tubes are  feet in diameter and are made of shield-driven cast

iron. Each tube carries a two-lane roadway  feet,  inches wide. The three tubes provide important flexibility in traffic handling, since the two lanes of the middle tube can be switched jointly in either direction, or separately to two-way operation, to respond to changes in traffic flow. Doig, Jameson W. Empire on the Hudson: Entrepreneurial Vision and Political Power at the Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, .

See also transportation

P. Gerard Nowicki

Lincroft.

See Middletown.

Lindbergh, Anne Morrow (b. June , ; d. Feb. , ). Writer. Born in Englewood, to Dwight Morrow, a banker, and Elizabeth Cutter Morrow, Anne Morrow married Charles A. Lindbergh in . Several flights with her husband as co-pilot and radio operator resulted in works such as North to the Orient () and Listen! the Wind (). Gift from the Sea (), a collection of essays, remains her most enduring work. She also wrote The Steep Ascent (), a novella, and Dearly Beloved (), a novel. Five volumes of her diaries and letters were published between  and . The volume Hour of Gold, Hour of Lead () deals with the kidnapping of their oldest son from the Lindberghs’home near Hopewell. Davidson, Cathy N., and Linda Wagner-Martin. The Oxford Companion to Women’s Writing in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, . Milton, Joyce. Loss of Eden: A Biography of Charles and Anne Lindbergh. New York: HarperCollins, .

Mary McAleer Balkun

Lindbergh, Charles

(b. Feb. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Aviator. Charles Lindbergh was

Tolzmann, Don Heinrich, ed. Abraham Lincoln’s Ancestry: German or English? Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, . Weeks, Daniel J. Not for Filthy Lucre’s Sake: Richard Saltar and the Antiproprietary Movement in East Jersey, –. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, .

John Fabiano

Lincoln Park. .-square-mile borough in northeastern Morris County, at the confluence of the Pompton and Passaic rivers. The town saw its first European settlement by the end of the seventeenth century. In the s, the Morris Canal passed through the town; traces of the canal can still be discerned. Originally known as Beavertown, and part of Pequannock Township, it was renamed Lincoln Park in  and incorporated as a borough in .

473

Charles Lindbergh during a visit to Caldwell Airport, c. s.

Courtesy Newark Public Library.

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Lindbergh kidnapping case

born in Detroit, Michigan, and raised in Little Falls, Minnesota. He gained worldwide fame in  after making the first solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean in his single-engine airplane, the Spirit of St. Louis. In  he married Anne Spencer Morrow of Englewood Cliffs. In March , the Lindberghs’ infant son was kidnapped from their newly built mansion in Mercer County, near Hopewell. He was later found dead in the woods a few miles away. Bruno Richard Hauptmann of the Bronx was arrested and convicted of the “crime of the century.’’ Following Hauptmann’s sensational murder trial in Flemington, the Lindberghs fled to Europe. They returned to the United States in , three years after Hauptmann’s execution at the state prison in Trenton. In the years that followed, Lindbergh was a prominent figure in the America First movement, which opposed the United States’ entrance into World War II. After Pearl Harbor he worked to develop better airplanes for the war effort, and continued to be involved in the aviation industry for the rest of his life. After their return from Europe the Lindberghs lived on Long Island, in Connecticut, and had homes in Europe and Hawaii. They returned to New Jersey primarily to visit Morrow relatives in Englewood Cliffs. Lindbergh died in  in Hawaii. He was survived by his wife and five children. Berg, A. Scott. Lindbergh. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, . Milton, Joyce. Loss of Eden: A Biography of Charles and Anne Lindbergh. New York: HarperCollins, .

Jim Fisher

Lindbergh

kidnapping

case.

Around nine o’clock on the night of March , , someone placed a homemade ladder against the side of the home of Charles and Anne Lindbergh, climbed to the second story, and entered the nursery through a window. The abduction of twenty-month-old Charles Lindbergh, Jr., took place at the Lindbergh estate in the Sourland hills, not far from Hopewell. At the scene, the police found the three-piece wooden ladder, a chisel, and a handwritten ransom note demanding $,. The note, left in the nursery, contained misspelled words (“gute’’ for “good’’) and a symbol composed of two intersecting circles and three holes. A month after the abduction, following involved negotiations with the kidnapper, John F. Condon, an intermediary for the Lindberghs, turned over $, to a shadowy figure in a Bronx, New York, cemetery. The ransom package was made up of numerous gold notes of large denomination. On May , , ten weeks after the kidnapping, the baby’s partially decomposed remains were found in a shallow grave off a back road two miles from the Lindbergh mansion. The investigation, led by the New Jersey State Police (NJSP), was painstaking and dogged, but plagued by thousands of false suspects and wild-goose chases. Had H. Norman

Posters circulated in the hopes of finding twenty-month-old Charles A. Lindbergh, Jr., who was kidnapped from his Hopewell home on March , .

Courtesy New Jersey State Police Museum, Trenton. Schwarzkopf, the founder and head of the NJSP, been given a free hand, the kidnapper would have been arrested in the cemetery when he showed up for the ransom money. Colonel Lindbergh, fearing for the life of his first-born son, had held the police at bay until the ransom was paid. After the child was found dead, Colonel Schwarzkopf took control of the investigation, but the trail had grown cold. During the next two and a half years the NJSP, aided by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the New York City Police, searched in vain for the kidnapper. The focus of the investigation gradually shifted to New York City because the kidnapper was spending the ransom bills in the Bronx and Manhattan. In September , a Manhattan gas station attendant penciled a customer’s license number on the $ ransom bill used to pay for gasoline. The car, a  Dodge, belonged to Bruno Richard Hauptmann, a carpenter from the Bronx who was living in the United States illegally and had an extensive crime record in his home country of Germany. Hauptmann was in possession of a $ ransom bill at the time of his arrest. Following Hauptmann’s incarceration, the police found $, of Colonel Lindbergh’s ransom money hidden in the suspect’s garage. Further investigation revealed that Hauptmann had quit working as a carpenter the very day the ransom was paid in the Bronx cemetery. During the next two and a half years, in the midst of the Great Depression, he had spent $,, losing much of it in the stock market. This amount, added to the cash found

in Hauptmann’s garage, matched the ransom given to the kidnapper in April . On January , , Hauptmann was put on trial for murder at the Hunterdon County Court House in Flemington. The sensational trial lasted six weeks and produced headlines all over the world. Eight handwriting experts testified that Hauptmann had written the fourteen ransom notes received from the kidnapper. A federal wood expert affirmed that the kidnap ladder had been fashioned with the defendant’s carpenter tools and that one of the boards in the ladder, rail , had once been a floor plank in the attic of Hauptmann’s home. Having connected Hauptmann to the ransom notes, the ransom money, and the kidnap ladder, the government rested its case. In his defense, Hauptmann tried to account for his whereabouts on the dates in question and claimed that the money in his garage had been left in his care by a business associate, now dead. Hauptmann’s lead attorney tried to convince the jury that the kidnapping was an inside job, implicating the Lindbergh servants, John Condon, and others. The defense attorney failed miserably, putting on the stand a motley assortment of crackpots, criminals, and liars. Hauptmann himself made an unsympathetic witness and got caught in several lies when he took the stand. Without qualified experts to counter the prosecution’s handwriting and kidnap ladder witnesses, the Hauptmann defense degenerated into tragic burlesque, then collapsed. On February , , the jury found Bruno Richard Hauptmann guilty of first-degree murder and sentenced him to death in the electric chair. Following a series of appeals and reprieves, and a false confession from a disbarred attorney who had himself been abducted and forced to confess, Hauptmann was executed at the state prison in Trenton on April , . Only a handful of people stood outside the death house that night and, when told of Hauptmann’s execution, quickly dispersed. Beginning in the mid-s, the “crime of the century’’ became a target of revisionists, who offered up a variety of unorthodox theories, including the notion that the Lindbergh baby had not been murdered. Hauptmann’s widow, Anna, added fuel to the controversy by filing a series of wrongful death lawsuits against the state of New Jersey and others. Although she lost these cases, many supporters still believe that her husband was an innocent man, railroaded to his death. By the end of the twentieth century, the Lindbergh case had been the subject of fifteen books, one feature movie, and several television documentaries. To many, notwithstanding the O. J. Simpson case, it remains the crime of the century. Anyone interested in the Lindbergh case can visit the New Jersey State Police Museum and Learning Center at the state police headquarters in West Trenton. All of the key

Lionel Corporation evidence is on display, along with thousands of documents pertaining to the investigation and trial. Fisher, Jim. The Ghosts of Hopewell: Setting the Record Straight in the Lindbergh Case. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, . ———. The Lindbergh Case. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Gardner, Lloyd. The Case That Never Dies: The Lindbergh Kidnapping. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Kennedy, Ludovic. The Airman and the Carpenter: The Lindbergh Kidnapping and the Framing of Richard Hauptmann. New York: Viking, .

Jim Fisher

Linden.

.-square-mile city in Union County. Prior to European settlement the land comprising modern Linden was used as hunting grounds by the Lenape Indians. They crossed these lands to reach their fishing areas; many of their trails became today’s roads. Saint George Avenue, Tremley Point Road, and the Lower Road were a part of the Minisink Trail. Originally part of Elizabethtown, a community established in , Linden was incorporated as a separate town in  and as a city in . The city’s government is composed of a mayor and a city council. Early village life developed around the Wheatsheaf Tavern, built in  on Saint George Avenue at the corner of Chestnut Street (now Roselle). There are two explanations of the city’s name. One is that a Mrs. Tenney, who lived on Dark Lane (now Park Avenue) did not like the name of the road in front of her house, so she just hung out a sign with the name Linden Road. Another suggests that the new German residents of the city had a special fondness for the linden tree, and the city was named in honor of the tree. Basically an agricultural area (the last farm disappeared in ), the character of the community began to industrialize in –  with the coming of the railroad and the arrival of companies such as the Standard Oil Company and, in , the General Motors automobile assembly plant. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

from Clementon Township and incorporated in , a building surge did not begin until after World War II. It was then notable as the residence of marine Lt. Carlton Rouh, a World War II Congressional Medal of Honor winner who threw himself on a Japanese grenade to save his men. Growth was spurred after  by the opening of the PATCO High-Speed Line linking Lindenwold and Philadelphia. As a result, twenty-three apartment complexes make up half of the borough’s housing and resident turnover is high. Nonetheless, the Ephraim Tomlinson II homestead, built in  and enlarged in , one of the oldest homes in the country, remains in private hands. During the s, Lindenwold was among several lower Camden County towns that experienced cross-burnings by the Ku Klux Klan. Today, however, Lindenwold has one of the most diverse populations among the county’s municipalities. The year  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Shayler, Charles W. History of Lindenwold. White Horse: White Horse Historical Society, .

Gail Greenberg

Linwood.

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County. Originally part of Gloucester County, the area was first settled by Europeans in the late seventeenth century. The settlement became known as Leedsville during the late eighteenth century. Most of the inhabitants of the area were engaged in farming or farm-related endeavors, but baymen and shipbuilders also prospered in the area because fish, clams,

and oysters were highly marketable commodities in New York and Philadelphia. Because another Leedsville existed in New Jersey, the U.S. Postal Service in  asked residents to change the name of the town. They chose the name Linwood. The city removed itself from Egg Harbor Township and became incorporated as Linwood Borough in . In , ordinances were passed by the Borough Council, which brought gas, electric, telephone, water, and transportation services to the community. Rail lines began serving the community beginning in the late nineteenth century. Shortly after World War I, growing prosperity on both the mainland and the island communities led to the first of a series of housing booms that erupted intermittently for the next seventy years. Linwood’s population in  of , residents was  percent white. Linwood’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Kirk, James B., Jr. From Leedsville to Linwood: A Brief History of Linwood, New Jersey. Published at www.linwoodnj.org.

Mike Mathis

Lionel Corporation.

The largest toy train manufacturer in the world for much of the twentieth century and one of the most important toy makers, the Lionel Corporation was established by Joshua Lionel Cowen in New York in . Lionel set up a factory in Newark in  and moved to Irvington three years later. In , Lionel began building a plant on the border of Hillside and Irvington, where it remained until . During World War II, when federal restrictions halted production of electric trains, Lionel made

Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . This Is Linden. Linden: League of Women Voters, .

Patricia M. McGuire

Lindenwold. .-square-mile borough in Camden County. In  the community was named by Wimer Bedford, developer of the Lindenwold Estate Company, for the German word for linden trees. Naming north-south streets for poets and those on the east side for trees, Bedford sold lots for country homes. Although the community separated

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Cover of the  Lionel Train catalog.

Courtesy Lionel.

476

Lipman, Wynona Moore

instruments for the military. At its peak after the war, Lionel employed more than two thousand men and women. In  General Mills purchased the rights to manufacture and sell Lionel trains and moved the production facilities to Michigan. Businessman Richard Kughn bought the rights from General Mills in  and formed a new company, Lionel Trains, Inc., which he ran until , when he sold the company to a group of investors. The original Lionel Corporation, bereft of its famous train business, went into the retail toy business, operating Lionel Kiddie City stores until the early s when it filed for bankruptcy and was dissolved.

sculptures radiate to define multiple spatial planes as they stretch from floor to ceiling, some with heights of  feet. In , New Jersey Meadows, only twelve feet tall, was commissioned for the Newark Museum. Dean, Andrea Oppenheimer. “Richard Lippold’s Wired Universe of Gold and Silver.’’ Smithsonian Magazine , no.  (): –. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also sculpture

Jeanne Kolva

Lipton Tea.

See Thomas J. Lipton

Company.

Roger Carp

literature. Lipman, Wynona Moore

(b. ;

d. May , ). Politician. Born in LaGrange,

Georgia, Wynona Moore Lipman attended Talladega College in Alabama, Atlanta University in Georgia, and Columbia University in New York, where she received a Ph.D. She received a Fulbright scholarship to study at the Sorbonne in Paris and became fluent in French, later assisting Martin Luther King with his doctoral language requirement. After serving as an Essex County freeholder, in  Lipman became the first African American woman elected to the New Jersey senate. Lipman served nine terms representing the th Legislative District. She was the longestserving member of the senate, and often the only woman. An advocate and leading voice for women and children, Lipman authored tough domestic violence laws, including a bill that increased the penalties for adults who patronized child prostitutes, and legislation that provided safety and support for children of troubled families. She helped create the state commission on sex discrimination, a body she chaired for thirteen years, and she sponsored legislation that expanded state contracts for under-represented business owners. Lipman, a diminutive, articulate woman, was nicknamed “Steel Magnolia.’’ Montclair University issued her an honorary degree in , and the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University established the Senator Wynona Lipman Chair in . Chasan, Alice. “The Iron Magnolia: Wynona Lipman Makes Her Mark.’’ New Jersey Reporter , no.  (): –.

Regina Jennings

Lippold, Richard

(b. May , ).

Sculptor and teacher. Born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Richard Lippold has had two distinguished careers, one as a teacher, and the other as a creator of space-age, strung-wire sculptures in public places. He received an industrial design degree from the Art Institute of Chicago in , and taught design and art in Michigan and Vermont before heading Trenton Junior College’s Art Department from  to . His commissioned abstract wire

New Jersey literature, with a singularly long and rich history, has one grave handicap: almost every widely recognized writer who has contributed to it has been identified more quickly with another state or label. Yet James Fenimore Cooper (Leather-Stocking Tales) was born here; Alexander Hamilton (The Federalist) married and was fatally shot here; Jonathan Edwards (“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God’’) died here; Washington Irving (“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow’’) began his serious literary career in Newark; poet Marianne Moore lived in Chatham; F. Scott Fitzgerald (The Great Gatsby) attended Princeton; Herman Melville (Moby-Dick) frequently visited his Metcalf grandchildren in South Orange; Mark Twain (Adventures of Huckleberry Finn) called himself “the Bishop of New Jersey’’; Thomas Nast (cartoonist) sharpened his humor in the state, while the Gilbreth family (Cheaper by the Dozen) exemplified it; Walt Whitman (Leaves of Grass) retired and wrote his last important work here; and Toni Morrison (Beloved) won her Nobel Prize while living here. Every other year, the Dodge Poetry Festival at Waterloo reenergizes and disseminates “American Poetry’’ here. In fact, a high percentage of American writers in every genre have lived defining episodes of their lives in New Jersey. The first historically important and uncontested New Jersey writers are a pair of Quakers, Elizabeth Ashbridge and John Woolman. Both wrote autobiographically. Ashbridge, the older of the two, was a rebellious British lass who eloped at age fourteen, was disowned by her father and quickly widowed, and sold herself as an indentured servant to finance passage to the New World. She then bought herself out of such servitude and supported herself in New York as an entertainer. She married a second husband named Sullivan, but then adopted—against the wishes of that husband—the Quaker persuasion. Eventually she settled in Freehold, and subsequently kept school in successive Jersey towns while living as a Quaker “minister.’’ Tracing her travels by foot through “the Jerseys,’’ as East and West Jersey were long known, she wrote Some Account of the Fore Part of the Life of Elizabeth Ashbridge, Written by Her Own Hand Many Years Ago

(), which was reissued in . This astonishingly forthright record of female spunk, domestic violence, public ridicule, colonial poverty, resilience, and self-empowerment against all odds is also prophetic of the crucial contributions Jersey Quakers would make to the women’s movement; for only egalitarian Quakers encouraged women to speak out in public before the twentieth century, and many groups stigmatized the women who dared. John Woolman, born on Rancocas Creek and living all his life in Burlington County, produced the Journal, first published in Philadelphia two years after his death. Woolman, who saw his antislavery and pacifism tracts reprinted throughout England and the colonies, is the first American writer to exert a personal influence on both sides of the Atlantic. The Journal was lauded by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Charles Lamb, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and John Greenleaf Whittier, and illustrates Quaker “plain style’’—undecorated and therefore unarguable. In his Journal Woolman recorded his everyday “leadings’’ about such issues as slavery and materialism, as his “Inner Light’’ illuminated his concerns. Woolman’s life models a “right way’’ to treat those with whom one disagrees: with patience, loving tolerance, and firmness. His opposition to slavery derives from his sense of the equalizing presence of God in every person, whether slave or free. He established the theoretical framework from which abolitionists and more recently civil rights workers argued their radical reforms. Pacifist Woolman’s refusal to pay taxes levied to finance the French and Indian War () anticipated Henry David Thoreau’s “Civil Disobedience’’ by more than ninety years. The human right Thoreau claimed for a conscience to consider itself “a majority of one’’ is clearly set by Woolman’s example. Further, Woolman’s A Plea for the Poor () created goals for American social reforms for the next two hundred years. New Jersey produced her share of radical writing. Indeed, Thomas Paine wrote the most famous lines of the Revolution while trying desperately to rally troops for Gen. George Washington as they retreated through Jersey from Fort Lee: “These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph.’’ Further along in that first number of The American Crisis, Paine hopes for “some Jersey maid to spirit up her countrymen,’’ like Joan of Arc. Concomitantly, Philip Freneau, first a student at the College of New Jersey (Princeton) and later a farmer at Mount Pleasant, served the Patriot cause by putting Paine’s revolutionary feeling into poems, and his venom into satires on the Tories. He is the prototype for the state’s spirited public poets.

Lithuanians In the nineteenth century, distinctive New Jersey literature swirls around “the woman question.’’ Indeed, New Jersey writers range from antisuffragist Rebecca Harding Davis (Life in the Iron Mills), who summered fortyfive years on the Jersey Shore at Point Pleasant, to writer of landmark suffragist tracts, Lucy Stone (Why the Women of New Jersey Should Vote) of Orange and Newark, right up to the Founding Mother herself, Elizabeth Cady Stanton of Tenafly, who with Susan B. Anthony wrote three volumes of the History of Woman’s Suffrage () here. Important women writers include the regionalist Mary E. Wilkins Freeman (A Humble Romance and Other Stories), who lived, after her marriage, in Metuchen, to the world-famous Mary Mapes Dodge, who wrote Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates () before she served for thirty-two years as the editor of Saint Nicholas Magazine, with which she transformed children’s literature. In fact, Jersey can even claim the awe-inspiring ´ sisters, who were born in South Grimke Carolina but were living in Shrewsbury when Angelina wrote Appeal to the Christian Women of the Southern States (), concerning the abolition of slavery; Sarah, her older sister, who anticipated Margaret Fuller, wrote Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, and the Condition of Woman (). Sarah achieved the distinction of being publicly silenced in Yearly Meeting by the Philadelphia Quakers in , when she extended antislavery arguments to whole social systems that enslave human beings. The most famous Jersey writers to discuss women in America, however, were Walt Whitman of Camden and Stephen Crane of Newark and Asbury Park. Whitman, to the scandal of all, sang as “the mate and companion of people, all just as immortal and fathomless as myself,’’ and held that “I am the poet of the woman the same as the man.’’ He moved to New Jersey after a physical breakdown in  left him disabled and depressed. From Jersey he wrote his great prose Specimen Days and Collect (), in which the confident sunshine of his  poems gives way to the gray clouds of old age. His optimism eroded under pressures of overwork, anxiety, and Civil War shocks, never better described than in this book. Those shocks are memorably dramatized in Stephen Crane’s novel The Red Badge of Courage (); but beyond war scenes, the entrapments awaiting poor and unskilled women are searingly depicted in Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (). Crane influenced poetry, however, as well as war fiction. His Black Riders and Other Lines () and War Is Kind () anticipate the experimental verse with which New Jersey would soon be identified. Together with Whitman, Jersey poets William Carlos Williams and Allen Ginsberg changed English-language poetry. Jersey’s Amiri Baraka cracked the facade of respectable verse. Perhaps the best twentieth-century New Jersey literature seems designed to transgress

boundaries and vivify outsiderness. After all, the state literally lies between, as well as outside of, the powerful commercial centers of New York and Philadelphia. But whatever the reason, the best Jersey writers of the past century are consistently proficient in more than one literary genre or artistic mode, and refuse to be contained, as Whitman boasted, by one measure or label. William Carlos Williams, for example, was reared in Rutherford and practiced medicine there all of his life. He also wrote Paterson, the book-length poetic epic describing a place, a figure, and a symbol of a state. Further, he wrote plays, novels, short stories, historical essays, and literary criticism. Spring and All (), his best-known book, is itself an experimental mix of poetry and prose. Allen Ginsberg, the most prominent of Williams’s many literary sons, carried on so successfully the tradition of poet as provocateur and prophet that he was said at the time of his death to be “the most famous living poet.’’ His poems are considered “essential reading’’ for those interested in American literature. But provocation, dissent, and cultural castigation have also been provided by Amiri Baraka. Baraka has also contributed memorably to drama, fiction, prose criticism, and the art of public performance. His voice has been angry, impertinent, critical, alternately sophisticated and deliberately dialectal, and widely heard. He has served as an important political, as well as cultural, force in the state. Political change in the interests of poetry, in fact, has been a particular focus of Long Branch–born Robert Pinsky. Appointed poet laureate of the United States in , Pinsky not only made several recordings of his own, but he also engineered the recording of poems across the country by “ordinary’’ or nonprofessional poetry lovers. His National Poetry Project brought poetry to the attention of the American public in a manner befitting his literary leadership. He himself is equally distinguished as a poet and as a translator of the great poet Dante. Including all the poets who write fiction and the novelists who write poetry, New Jersey writers have made definitive contributions to American fiction. Philip Roth of Newark has been especially associated with New Jersey since his first arresting collection of stories, Goodbye, Columbus (), won the National Book Award for Fiction. Whether for Portnoy’s Complaint (), The Counterlife, which won the National Book Critics Circle Award in , or American Pastoral (), which won the Pulitzer Prize, his fiction has captured worldwide attention while it depicted Jersey locations in evermore inventive ways. Indeed, it made him a household word and a subject for late-night television talk. Roth has also excelled in related forms, as in Patrimony: A True Story (). This account of his father’s dying won the National Book Critics Circle Award in . Roth’s accomplishments are major. His titillating fictions are also technically remarkable. And his stories fea-

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turing Nathan Zuckerman push self-reflexive fiction about as far as it can go. Another multitalented creative genius working from his Hoboken home is John Sayles, who began by writing widely hailed fiction and proceeded to write, direct, and produce widely hailed films. Sayles has a remarkably fine eye and ear, which he has utilized in more than one mode of creative work. Such movies as Baby, It’s You () and City of Hope () have dramatized New Jersey moments as memorably as his novel Union Dues () or his collection The Anarchists Convention and Other Stories (). Prolific, versatile, and brilliant are adjectives to describe Princeton’s Joyce Carol Oates. Author of nearly forty novels and hundreds of stories, plus plays, poems, and criticism, Oates has left her admirers gasping. Since she received the National Book Award at age thirty-one for them (), she has used a pseudonym, Rosamund Smith, to publish her mysteries. She has received much less academic study than she deserves because so few academic writers can imagine keeping up with her. Among her plentiful honors, she received an O. Henry Special Award for Continuing Achievement in both  and . Finally, fresh energy has been infused into New Jersey’s literary scene by selfconsciously ethnic writers. Perhaps the best exemplar of this huge talent pool is Judith Ortiz Cofer, who was born in Puerto Rico and reared in Paterson. While Ortiz has also written poems and short stories, her novel The Line of the Sun earned a Pulitzer nomination in ; in that book, she successfully fused the life of a Puerto Rican hamlet with that of El Building in Paterson. Her autobiographical narrator brings alive a mythic past as well as a quotidian present lived in assaultive urban barrios. Paterson’s amazing literary phoenix seems to rise again from fire to soar above New Jersey life. Bauer, W. John, ed. William Carlos Williams, Stephen Crane, Philip Freneau: Papers and Poems Celebrating New Jersey’s Literary Heritage. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Lewis, Joel, ed. Bluestones and Salt Hay: An Anthology of Contemporary New Jersey Poets. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fiction; poetry

Merrill Maguire Skaggs

Lithuanians. The majority of Lithuanian emigrants to the United States arrived between  and  to seek economic opportunity and to escape the oppressive policies of tsarist Russia. By , there were , Lithuanians living in New York and New Jersey. In New Jersey, most found work in industrial areas like Elizabeth and Newark, and in the silk factories of Paterson. They established fraternal and social organizations, as well as their own newspapers; in , Pasaule (World) began publication in Elizabeth.

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Little Egg Harbor

Most of these Lithuanian Americans subsequently assimilated with other Catholic Slavic groups. A new group of Lithuanians, refugees from the Soviet Union, emigrated to the United States after World War II. Lithuanian American groups in New Jersey include the Liepsna Athletic Club and the New Jersey Lithuanian Catholic Center in Kearney.

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

and the latter an industrial park. The Morris Canal was built through town, behind Main Street. Two Morris Canal sections are now parks. Little Falls was incorporated in  when it split off from Aquackanonk. Despite industrialization, parts of the town remained rural well into the twentieth century. Today, the township is mostly residential. The  population was ,, of which  percent was white. The median household income according to the  census was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Little Egg Harbor. A township in Ocean

Beckwith, Robert. A History of Little Falls. Little Falls: Little Falls Centennial Commission, .

Alilunas, Leo J., ed. Lithuanians in the United States: Selected Studies. San Francisco: R&E Research Associates, .

See also ethnicity

County consisting of  square miles of land plus  square miles of water, surrounding the much smaller Tuckerton Borough. Quakers first settled the area in the late seventeenth century and established a Quaker meeting in . Little Egg Harbor was established in  as part of Burlington County and was transferred to Ocean County in . Little Egg Harbor became an important port of entry during the Revolutionary War, and in October  the British attacked Count Casimer Pulaski’s legion there, killing forty men. Ebenezer Tucker was appointed customs collector of the port of Little Egg Harbor by President George Washington. Early industries included shipbuilding, salt haying, and shellfishing. In  the first sea resort was established. More hotels sprang up and in  the Tuckerton Railroad was completed. In  Tuckerton Borough, named for Ebenezer Tucker, separated from the township. Today, Little Egg Harbor serves as a bedroom community for the Atlantic City casino industry. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Blackman, Leah. History of Little Egg Harbor Township. . Reprint. Trenton: Great John Mathis Foundation, .

white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration in the State of New Jersey. Bergen County Panorama. Hackensack: Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Little Ferry Centennial Celebration Committee; Frank Fuchs, coordinator. Little Ferry, New Jersey, –th Anniversary. Little Ferry: Yes Press, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Gibbs, Nancy, and Edward Lenik. The Little Falls Company. Butler: Arkaeoloji Ink, .

Kevin Olsen

Little Ferry.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Little Ferry began as a colonial ferry at the foot of Main Street on the Hackensack River. It became part of Lodi Township when it was formed in , incorporated as a borough in , and reached its present size when Teterboro annexed a portion of Little Ferry in . Although an early explosives factory built by Alfred Nobel in  blew up completely in January , the community began to develop during the s when a more successful brick-making industry arose on the clay beds near the river. Up to the s, the brickyards supplied bricks for nearby cities and attracted immigrant workers to Little Ferry. The community was also known for the many small button shops established by Czech immigrants around . By , Little Ferry had a diverse population composed predominantly of immigrant ancestry, with a third of its , people of Czech extraction, and the rest of Italian, German, Polish, Dutch, and Slovak roots. In , the population of , was  percent

Little Hill–Alina Lodge.

Little Hill– Alina Lodge in Blairstown is a sixty-bed, longterm, private residential rehabilitation facility for the treatment of adult alcohol and substance abusers. The center, founded in , occupies seventy-seven rural acres. Based on the Alcoholics Anonymous twelve-step model, the program focuses on chronic and relapsing alcoholics. Clients (designated as students) encounter rigorous structure, close monitoring, multifaceted therapy, and intensive education in a nonpermissive atmosphere. Average length of stay is five to eight months. The treatment programs and procedural details reflect the leadership philosophy of founder and long-time executive director, Geraldine Owen Delaney (–). Delaney became a widely respected alcoholism expert and governmental adviser. See also mental hospitals

Sandra Moss

Little Silver.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County on the Shrewsbury River. Until , the town was part of Shrewsbury Township, part of the Monmouth Patent

———. Old Times and Other Writings. Tuckerton: Tuckerton Historical Society, .

Patricia Johnson

Little Falls.

.-square-mile township in Passaic County. Located on the Passaic River, Little Falls is named for a falls with a drop less than fifty-one feet, which appeared little compared to Paterson’s Great Falls. Historically the Peckman River also provided power and water for industry. The town’s other significant geological feature is Great Notch, the only natural gap in the traprock escarpment stretching from First Mountain to Paterson. Europeans first came from neighboring Aquackanonk around . The earliest use of the Passaic for water power was an iron forge in the s. Others included sawmills and gristmills, a woolen mill, a bleach works, and other manufacturers. Two lasting industries were the Beatty Carpet Mills () and the Little Falls Laundry Company (). Both have closed but the former became condominiums

Church Street, Little Silver.

Courtesy Karen L. Schnitzspahn.

Llewellyn Park in  that distributed parcels of land to twelve proprietors. Joseph and Peter Parker of Rhode Island purchased land from a patentee and settled what is now Little Silver in . Parkerville and other names denoted various sections, but when the town became a railroad stop in , one name was needed. Little Silver, the name of Parker’s Rhode Island family estate (after his ancestral home in Devonshire, England), was chosen to designate the entire borough. Early residents worked as farmers, fishermen, and merchants. John T. Lovett’s well-known nursery and seed business (in operation from the s until the s) provided jobs and occupied much of the town. In the late nineteenth century, Little Silver Point with its steamboat dock and nearby boarding houses attracted summer vacationers, but now the area has only yearround private homes. Incorporated as an independent borough on April , , Little Silver developed rapidly during the twentieth century as a choice residential community, popular with New York commuters. The borough today is known for its fine homes, schools, and small businesses. In , the population of , was  percent white with a median household income of $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Kennedy, June O. A Sketchbook of Little Silver History. d ed. Little Silver: Borough of Little Silver, . Schnitzspahn, Karen L. Little Silver. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . ———. Little Silver. Vol. . Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Livingston, William

(b. Nov. , ;

d. July , ). Governor. Born in Albany, New

York, William Livingston was the son of Philip Livingston, lord of the Livingston Manor, and Catrina Van Brugh. After receiving his baccalaureate degree at Yale, Livingston studied law and began a successful practice in New York. He joined with two other Yale graduates, together known as the “Presbyterian triumvirate,’’ who fought against Anglican efforts to establish King’s College along Episcopal lines and to create an Anglican bishopric in the colonies. He also challenged parliamentary efforts to tax the colonies, expressing his position vigorously in newspaper and magazine articles. The trio also opposed the DeLancey faction that controlled the assembly. The Livingstons superseded them for a time, but when the DeLanceys regained power, Livingston moved to New Jersey in , building a stately home in Elizabethtown that he called Liberty Hall. The coming of the Revolution foiled Livingston’s attempt to lead a contemplative life. His known political ability caused him to be elected to the First and Second Continental Congresses and to command the New Jersey militia. When New Jersey adopted a

constitution in , Livingston was elected the state’s first governor and was reelected annually for the next fourteen years. Shorn of real power—the governor could not veto laws or make appointments—Livingston nevertheless made the position one of real significance. He persuaded the legislature to create a Council of Safety, which he headed, and it wielded enormous power, administering local justice and apprehending Loyalists. Livingston was particularly zealous in seeking out and punishing British sympathizers and interdicting the illegal trade between Jersey and Britishcontrolled New York City. He enjoined the legislature to support Gen. George Washington and provide him with needed supplies and men. Hard on Loyalists, he showed sensitivity to the neutralist position of New Jersey’s Quakers and to the plight of the state’s slaves, managing to secure legislation that permitted their manumission. Livingston also turned to his pen to inspirit his fellow citizens, helping to found the New-Jersey Gazette in . Under a variety of pseudonyms, he used its columns to raise flagging spirits and urge support of the war effort. His addresses to the legislature were also used to achieve the same purpose. He became anathema to British commanders, who sought several times to capture or assassinate him. When the war ended Livingston urged his countrymen to support currency reform, curb their extravagant spending, work for a stronger national government, and exhibit “civic virtue.’’ As a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention, he did not take an active part in its proceedings, but he urged support for the new government and was instrumental in New Jersey’s prompt and unanimous ratification of the Constitution. Born an aristocrat, Livingston learned to understand the aspirations of the lower classes and to adjust to the new democratic tendencies produced by the Revolution. By his integrity and unselfish dedication to the American cause, he set an example few state governors of his time could match. Klein, Milton M. The American Whig: William Livingston of New York. New York: Garland, . Prince, Carl, et al., eds. The Papers of William Livingston.  vols. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, –. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; governor; Liberty Hall

Milton M. Klein

Livingston.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. Livingston was part of the original Newark purchase, but became a section in Springfield and Caldwell when those towns separated from Newark in  and  respectively. In  Livingston became a separate entity, made up of equal parts of Springfield and Caldwell, with the Passaic

479

River marking its western border. Livingston is crossed by Canoe Brook, which was the original name of the region, but when the new town was created it was named for William Livingston, governor of New Jersey during the American Revolution. Settlers first came to the area about  to harvest wood for the growing Newark settlement. Hickory, oak, chestnut, and poplar were cut and hauled. At least five sawmills were established. As more settlers came to the region farming developed. Later, settlers began manufacturing brooms and hats. Today, Livingston Township is a residential community with  acres of parkland and several large commercial areas. The  census showed a population of , with a breakdown of  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Arny, Mary Travis. Red Lion Rampant: An Informal History of Essex County, New Jersey. Montclair: N.p., . Folsom, Joseph Fulford, ed. The Municipalities of Essex County, New Jersey, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Shaw, William H. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. Vol. . Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

William Hart

Llewellyn Park.

Located just twelve miles west of New York City, Llewellyn Park was established by Llewellyn S. Haskell (– ), a wealthy New York drug importer and enthusiastic admirer of natural scenery. In , due to his declining health and the recent tragic deaths of four of his five sons, he began to search for a healthier environment for his family. The following year, captivated by the clean air and panoramic views of New Jersey’s Orange Mountains, he purchased forty acres in West Orange. The property’s farmhouse, which Haskell named the Eyrie, was remodeled for his family by America’s leading romantic country house architect, Alexander Jackson Davis. Although not the only architect at work in the park during the s and s, Davis was the most influential. His designs for a veritable treasure trove of Gothic Revival houses came to include a larger villa for Haskell. The financial panic of , followed by the onset of the Civil War, inhibited building activities in the park. Its area continued to grow, however; by  its size had increased to  acres. It reached  acres (approximately the size of New York’s Central Park) by . Today it contains  acres (in the s, the park was divided by the construction of Route ). Original deed restrictions for potential homeowners were few and essentially limited to the establishment of one-acre minimum villa sites (although the average parcel was six acres) and the prohibition of trades and businesses. Design limitations were not imposed, but most early homeowners preferred romantic, Gothic-inspired residences.

480

Lloyd, John Henry “Pop’’ Ocean and Deal Lake. Loch Arbour is the only independent municipality in New Jersey with a village form of government. It was once a portion of a large tract purchased by Gavin Drummond in  from the Unami tribe of the Lenape Indians; other early owners of parcels that would later become Loch Arbour include Thomas Whyte (White), Thomas Potter, Jacob Corlies, and Abner Allen. The  owners of record, Edward and Mary Boyle of New York, died while on holiday in Europe in , and Dr. Samuel Johnson and R. Tenbroeck Stout acquired the property in  and developed the tract as a residential community. Up until the mid-s several small hotels and apartments existed along the ocean and lake. In , Loch Arbour seceded from the once-vast Township of Ocean. The community is currently predominantly single-family residential with a handful of service businesses clustered at the southwestern corner on Main Street. In , the population of  was  percent white. The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Edelson, Marjorie, and Kay Zimmerer. An Historic Perspective of the Township of Ocean. Ocean Township: Township of Ocean Historical Society, .

Llewellyn Park, West Orange, .

Courtesy Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, New York. The Ramble, as the common park area is still known, was designed according to the romantic principles earlier advocated by the foremost landscape architect of the first half of the nineteenth century, Andrew Jackson Downing. After Haskell installed rare and exotic imported varieties of trees and shrubs at great expense, contemporary accounts began to describe the park as a paradise—a veritable Eden. At the entrance, Davis designed a gate lodge in the picturesque style of the Eyrie; the structure still exists and continues to be manned by the park’s security force. Several notable residents have lived in Llewellyn Park, chief among them Thomas A. Edison, who, in , purchased Glenmont (designed in  by Henry Hudson Holly), a twenty-three-room mansion on a .-acre site, which was also near his West Orange laboratory. Along with the laboratory, the site is operated by the National Park Service and is open to the public. In the nineteenth century, Llewellyn Park became an important prototype for other planned communities. In New Jersey, it provided a model for Short Hills Park, the “ideal community’’ established in  by Stewart Hartshorn. Today, although most of the original homes of Llewellyn Park are gone, its romantic beauty nevertheless remains.

Barbara J. Mitnick

baseball, John Henry “Pop’’ Lloyd played and managed in Negro professional baseball from  though . He has been termed the “greatest black baseball player of the first two decades of the twentieth century.’’ Lloyd was a complete player, who was especially feared as a clutch hitter. He was a superb fielder and base runner, and was widely recognized for his ability to use his knowledge of the game to generate runs and victories for his teams. Those teams included all the great Negro professional clubs of the  to  pre–Negro League era, as well as several Negro Major League clubs of the s. He played with and managed the Atlantic City Bacharach Giants of the Eastern Colored Major League during several seasons in the s. John Lloyd took up residence in Atlantic City in , and from then until his death in  was a mentor and inspiration to generations of Atlantic City youth, serving as a janitor in the public schools, as Little League commissioner, and as manager of several major semiprofessional teams in his adopted city. A stadium on Martin Luther King Boulevard is named in his honor. John Henry Lloyd was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in . DiClerico, James, and Barry Pavlic. The Jersey Game. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Peterson, Robert. Only the Ball Was White. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, .

See also baseball

Lawrence D. Hogan

Lloyd, John Henry “Pop’’ (b. Apr. , ; d. Mar. , ). Baseball player. Arguably

Loch Arbour. .-square-mile village in

the greatest shortstop ever to play the game of

Monmouth County, located on the Atlantic

Sylvester, Marie A. Around Deal Lake. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Marie A. Sylvester

Lockwood, Rembrandt

(b. ; d.

). Painter and architect. Rembrandt Lock-

wood was born to Millington and Jane A. (Cuisac) Lockwood. The nature of his childhood and education are not known. He painted portraits in Richmond, Virginia, around  and later studied in Munich, where he was inspired by mural cycles depicting religious themes. From  to  he lived in Newark, mostly on High Street. A regular exhibitor with the New Jersey ArtUnion, this painter of portraits, landscapes, and interiors benefited from the patronage of Marcus L. Ward. He was also part of a brief school of religious painting in Newark during the mid-s. His -by--foot painting Last Judgment, which included George Washington among its numerous figures, was completed and exhibited in Newark to much local acclaim. The painting fared less well in the press when exhibited in New York, and Lockwood subsequently turned to architecture during the s. Living and working in New York City, he focused on church architecture, completing churches in New York as well as Jersey City’s Congregational Church and the Catholic church at Seventh and Erie. Lockwood, who is known to have had a son and two daughters, died in . Gerdts, William H. Art Across America: Two Centuries of Regional Painting, –. Vol. . New York: Abbeville Press, .

Long Beach ———. “Rembrandt Lockwood, an Artist of Newark.’’ Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society  (): –.

See also architecture; art

Joanne M. Zangara

Lodi. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First in New Barbadoes Township, Lodi village was included in Lodi Township in  and was incorporated as a borough in . In , it was reduced to its present size when Teterboro was created. Lodi is home to Felician College, which grew from an orphanage for Polish children established in  by the Felician Sisters. It is also home to Saint Francis de Sales Church, built in , the oldest Catholic church in Bergen County. Lodi developed as an industrial settlement along the banks of the Saddle River when Robert Rennie began a textile print-and-dye mill in the s. The community grew further when the United Piece Dye Works opened in the s, attracting many Italian immigrants to the new jobs. Some of Lodi’s workers became involved in the  textile strike, which spread from the Botany mills in Passaic. By , Lodi’s , residents were predominantly of Italian ancestry. The community gained much suburban housing after World War II. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Its largest ethnic group is still of Italian extraction. The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Sciarra, Felix. Lodi: As I Remember It. Lodi: Privately published, . Toscano, Lawrence C. Lodi in Review. Lodi: Paci Press, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Logan.

.-square-mile township in Gloucester County that includes Beckett, Center Square, Nortonville, Bridgeport, and Repaupo. In  the first settlers from Europe to arrive in West New Jersey traveled from Sweden and Holland under the leadership of Peter Minuit and landed at the mouth of Raccoon Creek within the boundaries of what is now Logan. Pioneers from Europe continued to build homes and to farm in New Stockholm, their settlement, with the creek on one side and the Delaware River on the other side making it an ideal location to transport produce to Philadelphia. Incorporated in , with land separated from Woolwich, it was first called West Woolwich Township. In  the name was changed to Logan Township in honor of John Alexander “Black Jack’’ Logan, a Union Army general and U.S. senator who inaugurated Memorial Day. During the s, farms were sold off to housing developers; to compensate for the

influx of new homeowners, the township expanded its tax base by attracting companies that needed large tracts of land for warehouse use. Pureland Industrial Complex was built in the s and rented large warehouses to chemical, recycling, pharmaceutical, and tool and dye companies. Today the suburban township continues to see growth in its commercial sector, but is predominantly made up of single-family homes whose residents commute to Philadelphia for employment. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Dukes, Eva K., Frances M. Pedrick, and Irene Wilkinson. Logan: In Commemoration of the New Jersey Tercentenary (–). Swedesboro: Swedesboro Publishing Company, . “A Historic Weekend in Gloucester County.’’ Eagle Scout Service Project by William S. Entrekin, . Gloucester County Historical Society Library.

Valeri Drach Weidmann

log cabin. Log cabin is a term that would have been unfamiliar to the thousands of people in New Jersey who inhabited such structures in the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries. Log house, or log dwelling house, would have been the accepted terms. And not all pioneers lived in houses built from logs. In  Harold Shurtleff published The Log Cabin Myth, which indicated that the early English settlers were unfamiliar with dwellings built of logs. This was true for the British Isles and the Low Countries as well, but people from the mountains and uplands of Central Europe and from the Scandinavian peninsula and Finland were quite familiar with log building techniques. A map of log houses appearing in eighteenth-century advertisements of real estate in New Jersey clearly indicates two major area locations for such dwellings, the southwestern and northwestern parts of the state, which correlate with Swedish and Finnish settlement in the southwest and the movement of Germans from Pennsylvania into the northwest. Constructing buildings of logs generally involves the placement of the logs alternately one over the other, and fitting them together at the corners with various notching techniques to ensure a tight fit. Some surviving log houses in southwestern New Jersey definitely reflect Swedish practices and, in the northwest, a notching technique in the past referred to as the Pennsylvania German V notch is very common. Thus, the notion arose that log structures were introduced from Sweden and from Germany. Extensive fieldwork in Europe, however, has proved that the location from which the V notch diffused to North America

481

lay on the border of Norway and Sweden and that corner timbering technique was the practice of ethnic Finns. So, one of Europe’s smaller ethnic groups had a remarkable effect on the American landscape and the movement of the frontier. Perhaps an equally important influence originating from the Finns was the introduction of the so-called Virginia, or worm rail fence, which allowed rapid agricultural settlement to take place. The first reference to such a fence in North America is to a location near Finnish settlement in southwestern New Jersey. Log houses and “worm’’ fences were rapidly accepted by people of non-Finnish ethnic origins in frontier locations. Log house is a term describing building materials, not the type or form of the structure. Finns built their log houses with an entrance at the gable end. The most common British tradition was to build with an entrance in the long side of the house, opposite the gable. Ultimately, the log dwelling adapted this practice. Most log houses were small, less than twenty feet on a side and one-story or one-and-ahalf-stories high. In northwestern New Jersey, where tenanted farmers often prevailed, the rental agreements initially called generally for a log house to be built by the tenant. In general, as prosperity arrived, the log structure was relegated to the function of storage or housing livestock, and gradually disappeared from the landscape. Shurtleff, Harold R. The Log Cabin Myth: A Study of the Early Dwellings of the English Colonists in North America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, .

See also architecture

Peter O. Wacker

Lone Bear.

See Revey, James “Lone Bear.’’

Long Beach. .-square-mile township in Ocean County. Sparsely settled by whalers in , Long Beach Island attracted mainland fishermen and salvagers of hundreds of shipwrecks. Philadelphia sportsmen arrived by stagecoach in  and New Yorkers came by rail in the s for the short sail across the bay to shoot vast quantities of migratory waterfowl. When the railroad extended its roadbed onto the island north to Barnegat City and south to Beach Haven in , Philadelphia real estate developers advertised the island as a summer vacation spot. With the completion of the bridge and causeway from the mainland in June  the sea oats, dunes, and wildlife habitats ceded to summer cottages. The township communities of Brant Beach, Spray Beach, and the Beach Haven variants— North, Terrace, Crest, Gardens—sprang from the imaginations of the land improvement company directors. Most of Long Beach Island incorporated in  as Long Beach Township (excluding the towns of Barnegat City, Harvey Cedars, Surf City, Ship Bottom, and Beach Haven). Although wracked by hurricanes in  and , the township remains

482

Long Branch

a resort of summer cottages. In , the year-round population of , was  percent white. The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; The SandPaper, . ———. Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History of Long Beach Island, New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; The SandPaper, . Nash, Charles Edgar. The Lure of Long Beach. Long Beach: Board of Trade, .

Susan Hamburger

Long Branch. .-square-mile city in eastern Monmouth County. Long Branch was settled in  as part of the larger Shrewsbury and Middletown tract, with the earliest settlements inland, where farming was better supported. It continued as part of Shrewsbury until , when its governance shifted to Ocean Township. In , it became the Borough of Long Branch and in , a city charter was granted. Long Branch grew in popularity as a seashore resort during the nineteenth century, when increased prosperity permitted vacationing and leisurely pursuits. The first routes to Long Branch were by overland coach or by sea, and vacationers were predominantly from Philadelphia and New York. Boats began docking in Long Branch in , when the first pier was built. The first direct railroad to Long Branch opened in . Gambling and horse racing added to Long Branch’s appeal. Through the mid-nineteenth century, large hotels were built to accommodate the growing crowds. The combination of sun, sea, gaming, and dancing, along with reasonably easy access to urban centers, made Long Branch the preeminent resort town on the Eastern Seaboard. The allure of Long Branch even reached the Oval Office. Seven presidents vacationed here during their tenures in office: Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, and Woodrow Wilson. Seven Presidents Oceanfront Park exists today as a tribute to these chief executives who spent summers at Long Branch. Gambling was abolished in  by state constitutional amendment, changing Long Branch from a fashionable and bustling seaside resort to a quiet residential community. Vacationers still came to Long Branch but not in the numbers seen during the nineteenth century. With its heyday behind it, Long Branch shifted to a light industrial center. Primary industries included manufacturing, construction, healthcare, and retail. Like many urban areas, Long Branch entered a period of decline during the mid-twentieth century. A low point was struck on June , , when the last remaining pier, the -footlong amusement pier, burned in an accidental fire. In recent years, Long Branch has entered a renaissance. The Hilton Hotel opened,

which today operates as the Ocean Place Resort and Conference Center. Redevelopment along Broadway ensued and business in the West End flourished. New restaurants and eateries opened and the oceanfront promenade was constructed, along with new beachfront housing. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. Entertaining a Nation: The Career of Long Branch. Bayonne: Jersey Printing Company, . History of Monmouth County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Wilson, Harold F. The Jersey Shore: A Social and Economic History of the Counties of Atlantic, Cape May, Monmouth, and Ocean. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gillette, Stirling, and Millington, now familiar to commuters on the Gladstone Line of New Jersey Transit. Small factories in the village of Stirling produced silk from  to the s and attracted a diverse workforce. In  the township’s northern portion split off to form Harding Township. Despite twentieth-century suburban development, Long Hill retains much of its rural character. The township had a population in  of ,, of whom  percent was white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Prendergast, Mary. “Stirling, an Industrial Village.’’ County Circular , no.  (winter ). Thomas, Gwendolyn, and the Passaic Township Tercentenary Committee. Passaic Township: A Short History Published in Connection with the New Jersey Tercentennial, –. . Reprint. Millington: Passaic Township Committee, . Weller, Mary Lou. Long Hill Township. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Michael D. Banick

Mary Prendergast

Long Hill. .-square-mile township in Morris County formerly called Passaic Township. By referendum in  residents readopted the oldest name for the locality. Beginning in the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, Long Hill occupies land to the south along the low mountain ridge from which it takes its name and sweeps gently down to the Passaic River. English-speaking farmers settled here in the s. A century later German immigrants arrived and, in , built a church in the hamlet of Meyersville. The area was part of Morris Township from  to , when the southern portion was incorporated as Passaic Township. The opening of a railroad through the Passaic Valley in  brought stations at

Long Pond Ironworks State Park. Long Pond is a ,-acre park in West Milford, displaying the remnants of ironmaking in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The centerpiece of the park is the Long Pond Ironworks Historic District. Established by Peter Hasenclever in , this hydropowered ironworks on the Wanaque River employed five hundred German ironworkers. The ironworks produced pig iron until , when it was closed for economic reasons. For seventy-five years the ironworks sat vacant and abandoned until the Friends of Long Pond Ironworks took over management of the site in . Today the ironworks, listed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places, has been partially restored.

Stirling Silk Mill, Long Hill Township.

Courtesy Frank J. Cerulli.

Lowenstein, Sandler Boyer, Charles S. Early Forges and Furnaces in New Jersey. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Ransom, James M. Vanishing Ironworks of the Ramapos: The Story of the Forges, Furnaces, and Mines of the New Jersey–New York Border Area. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also iron industry; state parks

Mark McGarrity

Longport.

.-square-mile borough in Atlantic County. Longport is a mile and a half long, and at its widest point is half a mile. The eastern side consists of beachfront along the Atlantic Ocean, with the bay on the western side. In  James Long acquired a portion of land, which later became part of the borough. He owned the property for twenty-five years and over that time period sand accumulated in the area, adding approximately one mile to the original purchase. Long never developed the area, but sold it to his friend M. Simpson McCullough, who turned the area into a seashore resort. McCullough named the area “Longport’’ after Long and because of the extensive stretch of land that borders the bay. The borough was incorporated in . Between  and  the borough lost ten of its blocks due to sand erosion. Longport continues to be a mostly residential resort town with a summer population of between , and , people. In , the permanent population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cohen, Michael. Longport: The Way We Were. Longport: Longport Historical Society, . Hornor, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Monica A. Czaplinski

Long Valley.

Long Valley is a narrow, deeply incised northeast-southwest trending valley that begins in the limestone lowlands near Monroe, New York, and crosses the state border at Greenwood Lake at  feet. It descends to  feet at Califon in Hunterdon County, where it joins the South Branch of the Raritan River. It was also known as Longwood Valley and German Valley, based on early settlement by German immigrants. Underlain with limestone, Long Valley is bordered by the more resistant rocks of the Highlands on both sides that are  to  feet higher in elevation. Well yields are generally very favorable in the valley.

Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography

Robert M. Hordon

Lopatcong. .-square-mile township in Warren County. Lopatcong separated from

Phillipsburg Township and was incorporated in . An original deed, dated , documents the purchase of land from the Lenapes for an assortment of blankets, knives, guns, and tools. Formerly agricultural, the township was noted for its peach orchards and a limited mining operation of fine-quality soapstone. Delaware Park, a residential suburb of the town of Phillipsburg, was once advertised as an ideal location for health and beauty. Uniontown, also known as Stumptown, lies on the Harmony border. The township remains predominately residential with farmland turned into single-family and condominium developments. The population in  of , was  percent white. Median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

was appointed governor of New York and New Jersey in March ; he sailed from Southampton in September of that year, arriving in New York on December . He succeeded the highly unpopular Edward Hyde, Viscount Cornbury, as governor. Lovelace gave early indications of wanting to win the support of the lower house of the New Jersey legislature by repudiating the corrupt Cornbury faction of the council. His death following a stroke, however, brought to an abrupt end Lovelace’s early efforts at implementing a conciliatory political strategy. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John W. Raimo

Lopatcong Centennial, –. Lopatcong: Lopatcong Centennial Committee, .

Loveladies.

Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Lowell, William

Gladys Harry Eggler

Loudenslager, Henry Clay

(b. May

, ; d. Aug. , ).

Businessman and politician. Born in Mauricetown, Cumberland County, Henry Clay Loudenslager attended public schools in Paulsboro. From  to  he assumed interests in the produce commission business in Philadelphia. County clerk of Gloucester County from  to , Loudenslager was elected as a Republican to the U.S. House of Representatives, representing New Jersey’s First Congressional District from  until his death at his home in Paulsboro. During the political contests of , , and , he served as secretary of the Republican Congressional Campaign Committee. Loudenslager, a party regular who supported House Speaker Joseph G. Cannon, devoted most of his attention to pension legislation. He chaired the Committee on Pensions in the Fifty-fourth through Sixty-first Congresses. Loudenslager also maintained a strong personal and political association with President William Howard Taft.

Leonard Schlup

Lovelace, John ).

(b. ; d. May ,

Military officer and governor. The son of William and Mary (King) Lovelace, John Lovelace married Charlotte Clayton on October , . They had five children, three of whom died in infancy. A member of an aristocratic family, which included his grandfather Francis Lovelace, who served as governor of New York from  to , John Lovelace succeeded to the family peerage in . Despite his distinguished lineage, however, his inheritance of the title Baron Lovelace of Hurley brought with it little wealth and significant debt. After holding a series of minor military appointments in England, Lovelace

483

See Long Beach. (b. Oct. , ; d. June

, ).

Dentist, concert violinist, and inventor. A dentist and concert violinist based in Maplewood, William Lowell took up golf at the age of sixty at the Maplewood Country Club. He found that he disliked the sand tee that had been common for several centuries. Lowell created a substitute in the form of a wooden peg with concave top to hold the ball. At the urgings of his sons, Lowell patented the tee, marketing it through the Reddy Tee Company and enlisting golf professionals Walter Hagen and Joe Kirkwood to endorse the tee while on tour. Although Lowell eventually lost the patent, his original design remains the standard form for the golf tee today. See also golf

Douglas A. Stark

Lowenstein, Sandler.

Lowenstein, Sandler, P.C., is New Jersey’s second largest law firm and among the largest two hundred in the nation, employing around two hundred lawyers. The firm is known for its pro bono program of free legal services to meritorious causes. The firm was founded in Newark in  by Alan V. Lowenstein, a renowned corporate lawyer. It was deliberately modeled to be a credible alternative to New York City for New Jersey–based businesses and institutions that required complex and sophisticated corporate and financial representation. Later, the firm expanded its litigation department to handle difficult suits relating to securities, employment, the environment, insurance, consumer class action, mass tort, and health care issues. Its bankruptcy and environmental practices are among the largest in the state. The firm maintains law offices in Roseland, Somerville, and New York City, and owns a public issues management subsidiary (Issues Management) located in Princeton. It is ranked first among all New Jersey firms with the largest number of corporate and tax attorneys listed in The Best Lawyers in America.

484

Lower Alloways Creek

Lowenstein, Alan V. Alan V. Lowenstein: New Jersey Lawyer and Community Leader. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press; New Brunswick: New Jersey Institute for Continuing Legal Education, .

Michael L. Rodburg

Lower Alloways Creek. .-squaremile township in Salem County. First owned by John Fenwick, most of the land in this township was purchased by settlers between  and . It was originally part of the Monmouth Precinct, so named by John Fenwick in honor of the duke of Monmouth; it was set off from that tract of land in . The agricultural nature of the township gave rise to its early industries of a cannery and several mills. Half of its territory is salt marsh, which is home to muskrat, the main food served at an annual dinner held in the township. The settlements of Harmersville and Maskell’s Mill and the villages of Canton and Hancock’s Bridge are part of the township. Hancock’s Bridge, a small waterside village, is home to the William Hancock House, now operated as a museum by the state of New Jersey; it was the scene of a massacre during the Revolutionary War, when British and Loyalist troops surprised and killed sleeping militiamen. Although Lower Alloways Creek Township is still predominately rural, PSE&G’s nuclear powergenerating station on Artificial Island in the township is Salem County’s largest employer. In , the population of , was  percent white and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Maul, Beatrice. “The Township of Lower Alloways Creek.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (June ): –.

Patricia W. Blakely

Lower

Township. .-square-mile township in Cape May County. Lower Township is a collection of areas, each with its own name, but governed as one municipality. Whalers established the first permanent settlement of Europeans along Delaware Bay around . They followed the whales here from Connecticut and Long Island and named their settlement New England Town. Later, the name Town Bank was given to the area, supposedly by William Penn, because of the high banks that overlooked the bay. When Cape May County was officially established in , Town Bank was the first county seat. Lower Township was created by the state legislature in . Cold Spring Presbyterian Church, a National Historic Landmark, was organized in  and the oldest marked grave dates to . During World War II, Naval Air Station Wildwood was a training base for aircraft carrier dive bomber pilots. The huge wooden hangar is on the National Register of Historic

Places and is being restored as a museum and memorial to the thirty-six men who died in training. The township is the embarkation point for the Cape May–Lewes Ferry, which provides car and passenger service across Delaware Bay. The  population of , was  percent white. The median family income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Vertical files. Cape May County Library, Cape May Court House.

Barbara St. Clair

Low House.

See Cornelius Low House.

Loyalists. The strength and importance of Loyalism in New Jersey is surprising, given that there were no great conflicts or disputes in the colony during the turbulent decade before the American Revolution began in . New Jerseyans of all political persuasions, including the able Loyalist royal governor, William Franklin, rejected parliamentary taxation and resented imperial interference in local affairs. Overall, the colony’s citizens were in agreement regarding the imperial crisis until resistance became rebellion and rebellion eventually led to the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. New Jersey’s Loyalists included royal officials, merchants, large landowners, Anglican clerics, Quakers, High Church Dutch (especially in Bergen County), yeoman farmers, skilled artisans, laborers, apprentices, shopkeepers, schoolteachers, and slaves. Clearly, they came from all socioeconomic groups and cut across ethnic, familial, gender, occupational, racial, religious, and sectional lines. The factors that led them to choose allegiance to the Crown over political separation were just as diverse. Some who committed themselves to the British side based their decision on a deeply held belief in the supremacy of Parliament and the Crown’s legitimate right to rule; they revered the structure of the British government and the principles on which it was based. The fear that revolution and republicanism would lead to anarchy was uppermost in the minds of these Loyalists. Some New Jerseyans chose Loyalism for economic motives, especially merchants who depended on trade with British manufacturers or held government contracts. Loyalist clergymen defended the established Anglican Church and its imperial role. Yet the decision to remain loyal did not always hinge on any overarching economic or ideological motives; local struggles, as well as personal animosities and experiences, also played a role. Many slaves escaped from their masters and joined the Loyalist ranks, believing that a British victory held the greatest hope for their permanent freedom. In Bergen County, the decision to remain

loyal was influenced in large part by the religious factionalism among the members of the Dutch Reformed Church. Although Loyalism in New Jersey drew upon a cross section of the population, a group of wealthy, well-respected men formed its core. The colony’s attorney general and speaker of the assembly, Cortlandt Skinner and his brother Stephen (the former East Jersey treasurer), were active Loyalists who held office under the royal governor. Other leading Loyalists were affiliated with the New Jersey Supreme Court: Chief Justice Frederick Smyth; Justice David Ogden; Isaac Ogden, a Newark lawyer and sergeant of the court; and John Antill, the court’s secretary. In addition, most members of the governor’s council joined the Loyalist ranks, including Daniel Coxe, Peter Kemble, John Lawrence, David Ogden, James Parker, Stephen Skinner, and Frederick Smyth, although Kemble and Parker can more accurately be described as neutralists. All of these men were political conservatives who believed the Patriot cause would undermine the rule of law and encourage disrespect for government. Finally, the core group of New Jersey Loyalists included the Anglican ministers Thomas Bradbury Chandler and Jonathan Odell, who promoted the established church and advocated a more active role for Anglicanism in the colonies. During the Revolution, many of New Jersey’s Loyalists served the British in a military capacity by joining the British regulars and forming Loyalist regiments. The largest of the regiments, the New Jersey Volunteers, was organized and commanded by Cortlandt Skinner (who held the rank of brigadier general). These Loyalist units were involved in guerrilla warfare and made foraging raids into exposed areas of the New Jersey countryside, often from bases in British-occupied New York City and Staten Island. One of the most effective of these Loyalist units was the Black Brigade, led by a former slave from Monmouth County known as Colonel Tye (his given name was Titus). The Board of Associated Loyalists, headquartered in New York City, helped to coordinate the activities of the Loyalist regiments. Other, independent Loyalist bands roamed the countryside, marauding and plundering the farms and homes of known or suspected patriot sympathizers. Loyalist civilians also served the British forces as contraband smugglers, counterfeiters, guides, harbor pilots, ordnance suppliers, propagandists, saboteurs, and spies. Those residents of New Jersey who chose to remain loyal to the Crown often faced legal reprisals from Patriot committees and the state government, including fines, imprisonment, disfranchisement, confiscation of property, and banishment. Loyalists also suffered physical abuse, tarring and feathering, the destruction of their homes and property, social ostracism, and even death. During the course of the war, and especially at its conclusion,

Lucy the Elephant several New Jersey Loyalists left the state and settled in Nova Scotia, Canada. Others departed for England. A few found new homes in other parts of the British Empire or in neighboring states. However, the large majority remained in New Jersey. Some eventually filed claims with the Loyalist Claims Commission, which was set up in  by the British government to indemnify Loyalists with pensions for their service during the war and to compensate them for loss of property. Brown, Wallace. The King’s Friends: The Composition and Motives of the American Loyalist Claimants. Providence: Brown University Press, . Ryan, Dennis P. New Jersey’s Loyalists. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution

Phillip Papas

Lozowick, Louis

(b. Jan. , ; d. Sept.

, ). Graphic artist and author. Louis Lozowick was born in Ludvinovka, Ukraine. After attending the Kiev Art School for two years, young Louis came to the United States in , joined his older brother, and attended Barringer High School in Newark. His fine arts education continued at the National Academy of Design and Ohio State University. Lozowick lived abroad between  and , where he was immersed in the international art world and influenced by the machine aesthetics of the time. He discovered lithography in , one year before he returned to the United States to settle in New York City. He authored Modern Russian Art in . As a member of the New Masses executive board, his articles and illustrations enhanced the radical journal. Considered a member of the Precisionists,

Lozowick’s subject matter in the s dealt almost exclusively with the strength and dynamism of machinery and the basic forms of urban buildings. During the Depression years he received a number of WPA commissions. Lozowick created imagery reflecting the extreme social conditions of the Depression and his leftist politics. In  Lozowick married Adele Turner; after the birth of their son Lee in , the family moved to South Orange where an active life included travel, teaching, writing, and exhibiting. Louis Lozowick died in South Orange. Flint, Janet. The Prints of Louis Lozowick: A Catalogue Raisonn´e. New York: Hudson Hills, . Lozowick, Louis. Modern Russian Art. New York: ´te ´ Anonyme, . Socie Marquardt, Virginia Hagelstein, ed. Survivor from a Dead Age: The Memoirs of Louis Lozowick. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Lucent Technologies.

A manufacturer and developer of telecommunicationsrelated systems, Lucent Technologies became an independent company in April  with the breakup of AT&T. It was the largest IPO (initial public offering) in U.S. corporate history at that time. Lucent’s origins can be traced back to two AT&T subsidiaries: the Western Electric Manufacturing Company and Bell Laboratories. Western Electric had been AT&T’s exclusive equipment maker since . In  Western Electric’s charter was assumed by AT&T Technologies. Bell Laboratories had been the corporation’s R&D (research and development) unit since . The originator of such technology as the transistor, the laser, and electronic switching, Bell Laboratories has occupied a distinguished position in American science. When AT&T formed Lucent in  from AT&T Technologies and Bell Laboratories, the firm’s focus was network equipment, switching devices, and business communications hardware. After Lucent became independent, it spent $ billion in stock and cash between  and  to acquire or merge with thirty telecommunications-related companies. In , faced with vast contractions in the telecommunications industry and massive operating and restructuring losses, Lucent laid off thousands of employees and replaced its leadership. With its headquarters in Murray Hill, and operations in more than ninety countries, Lucent Technologies remains one of the top twenty-five employers in New Jersey with , employees in the state. See also AT&T Corporation; Bell Labs

Louis Lozowick, Self-Portrait, . Lithograph,  / ×  in. (sheet).

Courtesy Print Collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints, and Photographs, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

Elaine L. Schwartz

Lucioni, Luigi

(b. Nov. , ; d. July ,

). Painter and printmaker. Luigi Lucioni

was born in Malnate, Varese, Italy. In ,

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young Luigi came to America along with his father Angelo, a coppersmith, and mother Maria Beati Lucioni. They settled in North Bergen. Lucioni studied art at Cooper Union and later at the National Academy of Design while supporting himself as a newspaper illustrator. Later in life he was a longtime resident of Union City. For their precise draftsmanship and an emphasis on capturing the truth of each object, his superlatively realistic still lifes and landscapes earned accolades from critics and collectors alike. In , Lucioni became the first contemporary American artist to have an artwork, Pears with Pewter, purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Luigi Lucioni died in New York City. Embury, Stuart P. The Etchings of Luigi Lucioni: A Catalogue Raisonn´e. Holdredge, NE: Jacob North, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Soria, Regina. American Artists of Italian Heritage, –. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Lucy the Elephant.

The nation’s only six-story elephant, Lucy was the brainchild of Philadelphian James Lafferty, Jr., who built the wooden elephant to help attract prospective homeowners to lots around what was then Egg Harbor Township (now Margate). Lucy was built in  at a cost of $,; Lafferty took out a patent on his creation the following year. The application, in part, read: “My invention consists of a building in the form of an animal, the body of which is floored and divided into rooms. The legs contain the stairs that lead into the body.’’ Lucy’s legs and tusks are each twenty-two feet long. Her ears are seventeen feet long and weigh , pounds each. Her body is thirty-eight feet long and her head, sixteen feet high. Her total weight is ninety tons. An estimated million pieces of wood, plus  kegs of nails and four tons of bolts, were used in Lucy’s construction. Lucy was one of three wooden elephants built by Lafferty. The Light of Asia, which stood near the beach in what is now Lower Township, was torn down in . The Coney Island Elephant, on Surf Avenue, was built in , and burned down in . Lucy survived through the years, although she was buried knee-deep in the sand after a  storm, and in , while serving as a tavern, she caught fire after rowdy drinkers knocked over oil lanterns. The Gertzen family, longtime owners of Lucy, donated the elephant to Margate in . The Save Lucy Committee was formed; the elephant was moved two blocks south to its present location on July , . The project director called it “the most unusual moving job’’ in the company’s history, likening it to “moving the Sphinx.’’In , Lucy the Elephant

486

Ludlow, George C.

Lumberton.

Lucy the Elephant, Margate.

Courtesy Pike Archives. was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. See also roadside attractions

Peter Genovese

Ludlow, George C.

(b. Apr. , ; d.

Dec. , ). Lawyer and governor. A graduate

of Rutgers College in , George C. Ludlow practiced law and followed the example of his father and his grandfather by becoming active in Democratic politics. After serving in a number of local offices, he was elected to the state senate in  and became its president in . A split in the Democratic party at the convention of  made him a compromise candidate for governor, and he was elected by  votes in the closest gubernatorial election in New Jersey history. In his private law practice, Ludlow had been retained by the Pennsylvania Railroad; his opponent, Frederick A. Potts, was an influential stockholder in the Jersey Central Railroad. For most of the nineteenth century New Jersey was notorious for the influence railroad interests wielded in both the State House and the governor’s office, and many feared that Governor Ludlow would become a tool of the railroads. To the contrary, his administration was marked by persistent efforts to require railroads and other corporations to assume a fairer proportion of the state’s tax burden. During the nineteenth century railroad corporations in New Jersey paid no local taxes. They held large and valuable tracts of land, and their exemption from taxation eroded municipal tax bases and increased the burden on local taxpayers. During the legislative session of  an assemblyman complained that the railroads owned one-third of the property in Jersey City, valued at more than $ million— all of which was exempt from local taxation. The fact that the value of the exempted properties in this city exceeded the total value of

twelve of the twenty-one counties in the state increased the resentment of citizens toward the wealthy corporations, and made the issue of “equal taxation’’ more important to the electorate. In the legislative session of  Ludlow was confronted with corporate power when a bill sponsored by the Central Railroad that would have allowed the corporation to increase its capital stock without consulting the stockholders reached his desk. Calling it illegal and immoral, Ludlow vetoed the bill, but was overridden by large majorities in the legislature. Ludlow also vetoed a bill that would have given the Pennsylvania Railroad exclusive control over valuable tracts in Jersey City that had been reclaimed from the river. Only a bribery scandal prevented the override of another veto as Ludlow denounced the bill as “an abuse of legislative power.’’ For the remainder of his administration Ludlow courageously persisted in having the corporations in New Jersey pay their share of taxes, devoting the bulk of his  and  messages to the issue of railroad taxation. Continually confronted by Republicancontrolled legislatures dominated by special interests, he was able to accomplish little except to raise the moral tone of state government, and to set the stage for a more equitable and effective tax system signed into law by his successors. He left the governorship consigned to political oblivion by powerful enemies. Quietly practicing law in New Brunswick in , he was appointed to the New Jersey Supreme Court by a scandal-ridden Gov. George Werts. Ludlow died in . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton. Vol. . Trenton: Thomas Y. Crowell, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Marty Paulsson

.-square-mile township in Burlington County founded in . Most of the land area was originally part of Evesham Township, one of the county’s first townships. Other portions were taken from Medford, Eastampton, and Northampton (which later became Mount Holly). At first, Lumberton consisted of two villages, Lumberton and Hainesport, both situated along the south branch of the Rancocas Creek. Hainesport was broken off as a separate municipality in , following a dispute over school capacity. Lumberton’s dominant geographic features were farmland and the Rancocas Creek, and it was once a busy stopping point for side-wheeler steamboats carrying produce from central Burlington County to markets in Philadelphia and points south. One sidewheeler, the Barclay, was built along the creek in Lumberton. The town’s historic central village and agrarian surroundings remained largely unchanged until the s, when the Hollybrook residential development was first erected, in large part as off-base housing for personnel from Fort Dix and McGuire Air Force Base. Lumberton’s major growth spurt began in the s, when it became one of the county’s fastest-growing towns. Major developments are located north and northwest of the village, while the Route  strip has evolved into a commercial and industrial corridor. Efforts have continued to preserve some remaining farmland along the Medford and Southampton border. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Griscom, Lloyd E. Tales of Three Towns: Cinnaminson, Palmyra, and Riverton. N.p.: Lloyd E. Griscom, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Lutheran Church. Though Lutherans have never been numerically dominant in New Jersey (in seventh place among New Jersey Christian denominations in  and in fourth place in ), they have been a part of New Jersey religious life since the European colonization of the territory in the seventeenth century. As an organized religious community, North American Lutheranism was born in New Jersey. Prior to the arrival of Hein¨ hlenberg and other clergy rich Melchior Mu of the Halle Mission, the story of Lutherans in New Jersey was written in three chapters: established Lutheranism in New Sweden, clandestine Lutheranism in New Netherland, and the refugee Lutheranism of the German Palatines. The royal Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden founded the first Lutheran church organization in North America, establishing a military chaplaincy at Fort Christina (now Wilmington, Delaware) beginning in

Lutheran Church

Frontispiece from the parish register of the Saint James “Straw Church’’ congregation, Phillipsburg, c. .

Courtesy Saint James Evangelical Lutheran Church, Phillipsburg, and the Lutheran Archives Center, Philadelphia. , and later a colonial consistory to care for a network of village churches and fortress chapels as well as mission outposts among the Lenape. What is believed to have been the first Lutheran eucharistic liturgy in North America was celebrated by the Church of Sweden chaplain to Fort Elfsborg (present-day Elsinboro Township, Salem County) in . Even after the transfer of the Swedish colonies to Dutch rule and the abridgement of the Swedish colonial consistory, many Swedish Lutheran clergy remained, caring for their congregations and training candidates for ordination. In , one such spiritual descendant of the Lutheran Church in New Sweden, Lars Tolstadius, founded the congregation of Trinity Evangelical Lutheran Church in Swedesboro, the oldest New Jersey Lutheran congregation in continuous existence. By the mid-eighteenth century, the Lutherans of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, now independent of Spanish rule and Roman Catholic domination after an eightyyear war, had become an unwelcome minority among the Calvinist majority of their compatriots. Their style of worship was too high-liturgical for Dutch Reformed taste, and their loyalty to the Spanish monarch (simply because the Spanish Crown was the established secular authority in the Netherlands prior to independence) had not been forgotten. Gov. Peter Stuyvesant complained bitterly to the directors of the Dutch East India Company about these undesirables being dumped on his doorstep but was told to leave them alone as long as they were law-abiding and

brought profit to Dutch East India stockholders. Stuyvesant interpreted the directive literally and applied it grudgingly to the Lutherans, forbidding them (together with other religious minorities such as Jews and Roman Catholics) to form legal corporations for religious purposes or to appoint their own clergy in the settlements of New Amsterdam (Manhattan Island) and Bergen (Hudson and Bergen counties, New Jersey), which were directly under his control. A number of Lutheran pastors from Holland and Germany did manage to infiltrate New Netherland, as it happened, and to establish Dutch- and Low German–language congregations, which would survive the transition from Dutch to British rule. Refugees from religious persecution and war began arriving in the new British midAtlantic colonies from New Jersey to Maryland in the last two decades of the seventeenth century, opening a floodgate of German immigration to that region that would not subside until well after the American Revolution. These Palatine Lutherans brought with them their own refugee clergy (such as Justus Falckner, who died in ) and adopted Dutch Reformed church polity (and the Dutch language, where this was insisted on by the elders of the older Dutch Lutheran congregations) in order to resolve conflicts that arose between clergy and congregations. Accordingly, a Dutch-style classis was organized in New Jersey among Lutheran clergy along the Raritan by Johann Christoph Berkenmeyer (–). The Raritan classis met in a synod under Berkenmeyer as superintendent in  to settle a conflict between Johann August Wolf and his congregation at Smithfield (present-day Oldwick). It would take another decade, and a very different type of Lutheran leader and church order, to reconcile Pastor Wolf and the people of Zion Evangelical Lutheran Church. It would fall to Heinrich Melchior ¨ hlenberg (–), son of Einbeck Mu in Lower Saxony, educated at the University of Halle, to finally resolve the Wolf matter and to set North American Lutheranism on a clearly organized course for the first time since the days of New Sweden. A pastor of the royal Evangelical Lutheran Church of Hanover, over whose consistory presided the monarch of both Hanover and Great Britain, ¨ hlenberg was to be among the first of Mu many pastors of the Halle Mission who were officially commissioned by the Church of Hanover and sanctioned by the Church of England for service in the American colonies. He was blessed with passion and patience and with physical stamina equal to the task of tending a pastoral charge that extended from the Hackensack to the Susquehanna. ¨ hlenberg introduced an EnglishMu language liturgy for American Lutherans based on that of the Savoy Chapel in London, though many continued to worship and receive religious instruction in German or

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Dutch. From his organizing and unifying ministry two great synodical associations were born, the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, ¨ hlenberg’s efforts and the primary focus of Mu established during his lifetime (), and the New York Ministerium, established in , parent synod of the present Lutheran Synods of Upstate New York, Metropolitan New York, New England, and New Jersey. In the nineteenth century, others carried on the work of unifying and organizing the Lutherans of North America, and of providing for the education of an indigenous clergy. Until Samuel Simon Schmucker (–) founded the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg in , Lutheran clergy in America either received their theological education in Europe or they attended the Presbyterian Princeton Theological Seminary. While Schmucker, himself a Princeton graduate, was grateful for the Presbyterian connection and the opportunity it afforded for Lutherans to participate in the mainstream of American Protestantism, he was convinced that a distinctive Lutheran theological identity had to be nurtured through Lutheran theological education at Lutheran institutions and through a national Lutheran synod. Gettysburg Seminary was Schmucker’s response to the former concern and the General Synod was his strategy for the latter. The New York Ministerium, and with it most of the Lutheran congregations of New Jersey, would maintain this bond for a century and a half. The United Lutheran Church in America (ULCA) organized a separate New Jersey Synod at Trenton in . The New Jersey Synod has remained intact with territory coextensive with that of the state through two subsequent national Lutheran denominational mergers: the formation of the Lutheran Church in America (LCA) in  and the formation of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) in . Most New Jersey Lutherans have, as a consequence, known a continuous association as a synod for half a century. The ELCA New Jersey Synod comprises  congregations today. The New Jersey Synod’s more conservative Lutheran counterpart, the New Jersey District of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LC–MS), includes  congregations. Of necessity and under the influence of the nineteenth-century German Lutheran “Inner Mission’’ movement of social ministry, New Jersey Lutherans have responded to social injustice and need with dedication. An example is the founding of the Kinderfreund (Children’s Friend) home for orphans, women, and the elderly in Jersey City (later reconfigured as the Lutheran Home nursing home and since  operated as a multipurpose pastoral care and social service community center by the Episcopal Diocese of Newark). The New Jersey Synod and the Episcopal Dioceses of Newark and New Jersey cooperate in other shared service in the areas of youth and family camping

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Lyme disease

ministry, as well as chaplaincy to seafarers in the ports of New York and New Jersey.

Murray, Polly. The Widening Circle: A Lyme Disease Pioneer Tells Her Story. New York: St. Martin’s, .

Bachmann, E. Theodore. The United Lutheran Church in America, –. Minneapolis: Fortress, .

Orloski, Kathleen A., Edward B. Hayes, Grant L. Campbell, and David T. Dennis. “Surveillance for Lyme Disease—United States, –.’’ Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report.  ().

Nelson, Clifford E., ed. The Lutherans in North America. Philadelphia: Fortress, . Olson, Oliver K. The Church in New Sweden, – . Milwaukee: Lutheran Quarterly, .

See also religion

Vanderhoof-Forschner, Karen. Everything You Need to Know about Lyme Disease and Other Tick-Borne Disorders. New York: John Wiley, .

See also medicine and public health

Guy C. Carter

Susan M. Zimmermann

Lyme disease. Lyme disease (Lyme borreliosis) was first identified in  after women of Lyme, Connecticut, reported a cluster of people with arthritislike symptoms in their community. Many of these individuals experienced an expanding bull’s-eye-shaped rash prior to the onset of their symptoms. This manifestation later was identified as erythema chronicum migrans (ECM), a rash caused by a tick bite first described by northern European dermatologists in the early s. Currently, Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne illness in the United States, with most cases occurring in the mid-Atlantic, northeastern, and north-central regions of the country. Its prevalence is greatest in areas heavily populated with white-tailed deer and field mice, animals that serve as hosts to feeding deer ticks. In New Jersey, between  and , , cases of Lyme disease were reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). These cases account for . percent of all Lyme disease cases in the United States. New Jersey has the fourth highest reported incidence of Lyme disease in the country, following New York, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Early symptoms of Lyme disease include the characteristic bull’s-eye rash and nonspecific, flulike symptoms. If recognized within a few weeks after infection, the disease can be successfully treated with antibiotics. If left untreated, it can progress into a debilitating, potentially chronic disorder characterized by numerous symptoms, including aching and swelling joints, chronic fatigue, heart palpitations, tingling sensations, uncontrollable twitching, and cognitive dysfunction. These late-stage manifestations may occur anywhere from months to years after initial infection. Diagnosis of Lyme disease involves recognition of a characteristic clinical picture and confirmation with blood tests, commonly known as Lyme titers.

Lynch, Rachel (b. ; d. Nov. , ). An-

Barbour, Alan F., M.D., Lyme Disease: The Cause, the Cure, the Controversy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

imal welfare activist. Rachel Lynch was born in New York in . She married real estate mogul Jasper Lynch in ; they had three daughters. In Lynx Hall, their castlelike home in Lakewood, at First Street and Forest Avenue, Lynch hosted galas and recitals to benefit animals. In  she founded the Ocean County Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA). She also served as vice president of the state SPCA. Nicknamed “Old Reliable,’’ she cracked down on carriage drivers who abused horses and crusaded for humane treatment of all animals. She died at her summer home in Spring Lake.

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Lyndhurst.

.-square-mile township in Bergen County. First settled by the Dutch in the seventeenth century and part of New Barbadoes Township in the eighteenth century, the settlement was in Lodi Township in  and included in the newly created Hudson

County in . It was back in Bergen County as part of Union Township in , and remained there after other sections became separate municipalities. During the s the area became a pleasure ground for the wealthy, with manor houses, hotels, and a racetrack. Originally referred to as South Rutherford, it began developing as a residential and industrial community in  when a New York businessman, William R. Travers, erected dwellings, industrial buildings, and in  a railroad station named Lyndhurst, allegedly for Jay Gould’s Hudson River mansion. The community changed its name to Lyndhurst Township in . Lyndhurst contains a compact residential district, a large environmentally sensitive area which holds the Hackensack Meadowlands Environment Center, a museum and nature facility on Kingsland Creek, and a newly developed business and commercial zone south of the Meadowlands Sports Complex. In , the population of , was  percent white, largely of Italian ancestry. The median family income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Township of Lyndhurst, Union, –: Historical Essay, Fiftieth Anniversary. Lyndhurst: N.p., . Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Lynx Hall, Lakewood, the home of Rachel Lynch, c. .

Courtesy Karen L. Schnitzspahn.

Evelyn Gonzalez

M

Maass Medical Center) in , and Maass is honored in the Nursing Hall of Fame. Cunningham, John T. Clara Maass: A Nurse, a Hospital, a Spirit. Rev. ed. Belleville: Clara Maass Medical Center, . Gorgas, Marie, and Burton J. Hendrick. William Gorgas, His Life and Work. Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing, .

(b. June , ;

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

d. Aug. , ). Nurse. Clara Maass, the daugh-

Constance Schuyler

Maass, Clara Louise

ter of German immigrants, was one of the first students to enter the Newark German Hospital School of Nursing, where she graduated in . In , Maass, a head nurse, became a “contract nurse’’ with the U.S. Army and served her first contract during the Spanish-American War at field hospitals in Jacksonville, Florida; Savannah, Georgia; and Santiago, Cuba. When insurrection occurred in the Philippines, Maass served troops suffering from tropical diseases at the First Reserve Hospital in Manila. She became interested in yellow fever, the disease to which thousands of Americans succumbed. Yellow fever had been the scourge of tropical countries for centuries, and after the United States’ conquest of Cuba in the Spanish-American War, Maj. William Gorgas was sent to Havana as chief sanitary officer, charged with wiping out the disease. Gorgas believed that yellow fever was caused by poor sanitation, and carried out a major campaign to clean the city. But by  the situation was so desperate that the U.S. surgeon general established a Yellow Fever Commission, with Maj. Walter Reed as chair, to investigate the cause of the disease. The commission learned that yellow fever was spread by mosquitoes. They also learned that an attack of yellow fever, if survived, conferred immunity upon its victim. Major Gorgas believed that inoculation might be the best measure against the spread of the disease, and chose Las Animas Hospital in Havana as the site of the test program. Clara Maass volunteered to be bitten so as to cause immunity, but doctors thought the case she contracted too mild to prove the theory. She again volunteered to be bitten by an infected mosquito, and developed a fatal case of yellow fever. When she died at age twenty-five, the New York Journal ran her story on the front page, and the New York Times published an editorial about her. A few years later, Major Gorgas testified, “While [Maass’s] case was not directly connected with the experimentation of the army board, it had much more effect in the city of Havana in convincing the physicians and the people generally that yellow fever was conveyed by the mosquito than did the army board.’’ Inoculation was abandoned and a drive established to destroy the mosquitoes. Clara Maass’s body was returned to New Jersey and buried with military honors. Newark German Hospital was renamed Clara Maass Memorial Hospital (now the Clara

McAllister, Robert

(b. June , ;

d. Feb. , ). Soldier and railroad contrac-

tor. Robert McAllister was born in Juniata County, Pennsylvania, and was a successful railroad contractor in Oxford Furnace, New Jersey, when the Civil War began in . He was named lieutenant colonel of the First New Jersey Infantry, and became colonel of the Eleventh New Jersey in July . McAllister led his regiment well in the next two years, suffering wounds at Gettysburg and the Wilderness. He was promoted to brigade command in June , and won brevet (honorary) promotions to brigadier general, and then major general of volunteers. After the war he returned to the railroad business in northeastern Pennsylvania, and died in retirement at his home in Belvidere, New Jersey. His letters are a valuable primary source on the experiences of a Civil War officer. Foster, John Y. New Jersey in the Rebellion. Newark: Martin R. Dennis, . Jackson, William J. New Jerseyans in the Civil War. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Marbaker, Thomas B. History of the Eleventh New Jersey Volunteers. Trenton: McCrellish and Quigley, . Robertson, James I., Jr., ed. The Civil War Letters of General Robert McAllister. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Civil War

David G. Martin

McAlpin, David Hunter III

photographers. From  to , he was commander, U.S. Naval Reserve, in charge of renegotiation of all naval ship construction and repair contracts. McAlpin developed the Department of Photography at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, and, endowed the first U.S. chair in the history of photography at Princeton University, where he also served as a trustee for forty-four years. At Princeton, he helped supervise Firestone Library’s construction, and expanded the Art Museum. Adams, Ansel, with Mary Street Alinder. An Autobiography. Boston: Little, Brown, . Link, Arthur. “David Hunter McAlpin III (– ).’’ Manuscript, Princeton University Archives, Princeton. Newhall, Beaumont. Focus: Memoirs of a Life in Photography. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Gary D. Saretzky

MacArthur, Robert Helmer (b. Apr. , ; d. Nov. , ). Ecologist and biogeog-

rapher. Robert Helmer MacArthur was born in Canada, the youngest son of John Wood and Olive (Turner) MacArthur. He graduated from Marlboro College in  and married Elizabeth Bayles Whittemore in ; they had four children. In his doctoral thesis under G. Evelyn Hutchinson at Yale University, MacArthur investigated the foraging relationships among five species of warblers, including the Cape May warbler, in New England forests. He continued to make several important contributions to the field of population biology. In , he moved from the biology department at the University of Pennsylvania to Princeton University, where he remained until his death. MacArthur is considered a pioneer in the field of evolutionary ecology. Biographical Memoirs. Vol. . Washington, DC: National Academy Press, . Cody, Martin L., and Jared M. Diamond, eds. Ecology and Evolution of Communities. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, . McMurray, Emily J., ed. Notable Twentieth-Century Scientists. Vol. . New York: Gale Research, .

Michele Rotunda

(b. May

, ; d. June , ). Investment banker and

philanthropist. Born in Mount Pleasant, New York, David Hunter McAlpin III was the son of Emma Rockefeller. He grew up in Tarrytown, New York; Morristown; and New York City (at McAlpin Hotel). After the Lake Placid and Hill schools, he attended Princeton University (interrupted by naval service, –), graduating Phi Beta Kappa, Class of . He obtained an M.A. in economics a year later. Following Harvard Law School, he joined Clark, Dodge, and Company, where over the next thirty years he helped pioneer mutual equity funds. McAlpin settled in Princeton in the early s, where he became a force in conservation and gaining acceptance of photography as an art form. He founded the Conservation Foundation and Stony Brook Millstone Watershed Association, and encouraged Edward Weston, Ansel Adams, and other

McCarroll, Ernest Mae

(b. Nov. ,

; d. ).

Physician. A graduate of Women’s Medical College in Philadelphia () and an intern at Kansas City General Hospital No. , Ernest Mae McCarroll was one of the nation’s earliest African American woman physicians. She practiced in Newark between  and , working in the venereal disease division of the health department, and serving as assistant epidemiologist of the Newark Board of Health. McCarroll earned an advanced degree in public health from the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons (). In , she became the first African American appointed to the medical staff at Newark City Hospital. McCarroll was called the “first lady’’ of the National Medical Association, the professional organization for black physicians. 489

490

McCarter and English

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Sandra Moss

McCarter and English. McCarter and English was founded in Newton in  by Thomas Nesbitt McCarter. In  McCarter relocated to Newark, then one of the nation’s largest industrial centers. McCarter’s son, Robert H. McCarter, joined the firm as a law clerk in . In , Conover English became a partner and the name of the firm subsequently became McCarter and English. McCarter and English has represented a range of well-known clients, including Thomas Edison and the Edison Companies in the s, Mrs. Hall in the Hall-Mills murder case (“The Minister and the Choir Singer’’), Annie Oakley, and the Sac and Fox Iowa Indians. In , the firm consisted of  lawyers plus a support staff of , with offices in Newark, New York City, Philadelphia, Wilmington, Cherry Hill, Baltimore, and Hartford.

Stephen Hoskins

McCarter Theatre.

McCarter Theatre Center for the Performing Arts was originally built as a home for the Princeton University Triangle Club with funds from Thomas N. McCarter, class of . The theater opened February , , with a performance of The Golden Dog. One of its stars was Joshua Logan, a junior, and a sophomore named James Stewart was in the chorus. The theater has often been a pre-Broadway showcase: Thornton Wilder’s Our Town, George S. Kaufman and Moss Hart’s You Can’t Take It With You, and William Inge’s Bus Stop (starring Kim Stanley and Elaine Stritch) were premiered there. Though not built as a concert hall, as early as  it presented the Philadelphia Orchestra, followed over the years by great musicians and dancers including Jascha Heifetz and Ruth St. Denis. Noted director Milton Lyon was hired in  as consultant to the Faculty Advisory Committee and in time was appointed the first executive producer of the McCarter Theatre Company. He, in turn, hired the Association of Performing Artists under the artistic direction of Ellis Rabb for the theater’s inaugural season (–) producing its own plays. In , Princeton University transferred its direct operation of McCarter to the McCarter Theatre Company, a producing theater under Milton Lyon and his successors—most notably Arthur Lithgow, Michael Kahn, Nagle Jackson, and Emily Mann. See also theater

Paul Somers

McCarthyism.

The Cold War anxieties that swept the United States in the late s and s were felt deeply in New Jersey. The fall of Eastern Europe to communism, the spy

trials of Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs, the successful testing of an atomic bomb by the Soviet Union, North Korea’s invasion of South Korea, the explosive charges of Republican senator Joseph R. McCarthy regarding treason in the federal government—all added fuel to the fire. New Jersey was the site of major Cold War struggles. In , for example, Senator McCarthy began his investigation of “communist subversion’’at Fort Monmouth, headquarters of the Army Signal Corps, charging that Soviet agents had penetrated the base and stolen highly classified information. In response, the army suspended forty-two scientists, engineers, and technicians who worked there. Some observers believed that antiSemitism among the security force at Fort Monmouth played a role in these developments. Although Jews composed only a quarter of the civilian workforce, thirty-nine of the forty-two suspended employees were Jewish. In the end, the charges proved groundless, and almost all of the suspended workers were reinstated. But the damage done to Fort Monmouth was substantial. The victims of McCarthy’s investigation were among the most valuable engineers on the base. Fifteen were section chiefs, fourteen worked in radar, and ten were contributing directly to the North American defense against air attack. Most of them left the Signal Corps in disgust. Other New Jersey military bases played a role in the Army-McCarthy hearings. A special Senate committee examined conditions at Fort Dix, where McCarthy staff member G. David Schine had been sent for basic training. The committee also looked into alleged security lapses at Camp Kilmer, where an officer accused of communist sympathies had been given an honorable discharge. Cold War anxieties had repercussions beyond the allegations of Senator McCarthy. In  a group calling itself the Englewood Anti-Communist League prevented the distinguished African American educator Dr. Mary McLeod Bethune from speaking at a local junior high school on the grounds that she had once belonged to a number of “communist front’’ organizations (she spoke at a local black church instead). Two years later, Congressman Clifford Case was forced to suspend his senatorial election campaign briefly to confront charges that his sister belonged to several pro-communist groups. “Smear me if you can. Leave my sister alone,’’ said Case, who went on to win a narrow victory. One of the worst Cold War abuses occurred at Rutgers University in the academic year –. Two faculty members were dismissed—and two more resigned—after taking the Fifth Amendment when questioned about their communist affiliations by U.S. congressional committees. Over strong objections from Rutgers faculty and students, President Lewis Webster Jones asserted that the four men had an obligation to speak frankly “on

matters of such deep public concern.’’ Although the U.S. Supreme Court later ruled that a teacher could not be fired for exercising a constitutional right before a committee of Congress, the four were not reinstated. As former Rutgers professor Richard P. McCormick notes, “It was a nightmarish period, one unlike any the University had ever experienced, and it raised enduring questions about the limits of freedom in America.’’ Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McCormick, Richard P. Rutgers: A Bicentennial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Oshinsky, David M. A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy. New York: Free Press, .

David M. Oshinsky

McCauley, Mary Hays.

See Pitcher,

Molly.

McClellan, George B. d. Oct. , ).

(b. Dec. , ;

Soldier, governor, politician, engineer, and railroad official. Born in Philadelphia, George B. McClellan graduated from West Point in  and served with distinction in the Mexican War. He quit the army in  to work on various railroad projects. In July , during the Civil War, McClellan assumed command of the defeated Army of the Potomac. He whipped this army into shape by training recruits, improving morale, and securing supplies. Ever cautious, McClellan neither lost a great battle nor won a decisive victory. He exaggerated enemy strength and delayed offensives. He could not and would not fight in earnest. In September  at Antietam, ignoring orders, he did not commit his units to deliver simultaneous blows to rout the rebel army and cut off its escape; thus he squandered pivotal opportunities to shorten the war. In November  Lincoln fired the dawdling, insubordinate, and unsuccessful McClellan. In , the divided Democrats adopted a peace platform and nominated General McClellan for president. As a proponent of states’ rights who rejected secession, McClellan prepared to ride a wave of war weariness into the White House. Democrats blamed Lincoln for sabotaging McClellan’s command, then unfairly firing him. Republicans charged that copperheads would use McClellan to gain power, stop the war, retain slavery, and accept disunion. McClellan attempted to ride both the peace horse and the war horse. Lincoln’s advice to the electorate not to change horses in midstream resonated. After the Union capture of Atlanta, McClellan repudiated the dovish Democratic platform, but buoyed by military successes, Lincoln won the election. In  shrewd New Jersey Democratic kingmakers, maneuvering to defeat a rival for the gubernatorial nomination, sprung upon

MacCracken, Calvin

491

death, McComb married Rebecca Rockwell in . DAB. McComb Papers and Drawings. New-York Historical Society, New York City.

See also architecture

Stacy E. Spies

McCord, George Herbert

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Apr. , ). Artist, art critic, and ins-

tructor. George Herbert McCord, a well-known landscape and marine artist, was born in New York and studied in Europe. After being elected an associate of the National Academy in , he established a studio in Morristown in . There he painted and gave art instruction, returning to New York City in the mid-s. His early work reflected the style of the Hudson River school; later works have a more romantic quality, often depicting landscapes at sunset, twilight, and in snow. He frequently painted scenes of Morris County, as well as New England, Canada, Florida, and the West. Gerdt, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Who Was Who in American Art. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, .

Reception for Gen. George McClellan following his inauguration as governor, January , .

See also art

Richard C. Simon From Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, Jan. 26, 1878. convention delegates dark-horse McClellan as the party establishment’s candidate. Nursing wounded pride, seeking vindication, and harboring national ambitions, he accepted. Democratic home-favorite McClellan united the party and assured victory over lackluster Republican William Newell. Democrats also regained the legislature. McClellan stumbled as governor. Legislators rejected major proposals of blue-ribbon commissions to reform taxation and city governance. For his part, McClellan shunned regulation of railroads and corporations, restriction of their political influence, and the abolition of gerrymandering. He did reduce expenditures, champion vocational education, and improve militia readiness. The great expectations of his governorship, however, were not fulfilled. The Newark Advertiser found McClellan “responsible for no noteworthy legislation or other action.’’ McClellan’s politicking also backfired. Ostentatiously championing nonpartisan appointees, he managed to infuriate both Republican and Democratic politicians. Sparking speculation about his Democratic presidential candidacy in , he overstressed national affairs in his inaugural address and a Thanksgiving message. His grandstand play for conservative northern and southern support failed. Recognizing his presidential bid wasn’t catching fire, McClellan quit the race in spring . When Democrat Grover Cleveland was elected president in , McClellan was

considered for army secretary, but a New Jersey U.S. senator, a Democratic factional foe, blocked his appointment. McClellan’s prima donna temperament made him unfit to command an army undertaking an offensive, lead a nation fighting a civil war, or govern a state needing reform. The root of his controversial career was his activepassive personality. One failure followed another as a result. The New York Times observed: “He was always ‘going to’ do something great. But he never did.’’ McClellan, George B. Papers. Library of Congress, Washington, DC; New York Public Library. Sears, Stephen W. George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon. New York: Ticknor and Fields, .

See also governor

William Gillette

McComb, John, Jr.

(b. Oct. , ;

d. May , ). Architect. Son of Mary and

John McComb, Sr., an architect-builder, John McComb, Jr., became his father’s assistant in , and began his career in  designing churches, dwellings, and public buildings in the Adamesque style, mostly in New York City. McComb and Joseph Mangin won the design competition for New York City Hall in , and McComb served as the superintending architect. McComb designed Old Queens, Rutgers University (–) and the first Alexander Hall, Princeton University (–). He married Elizabeth Glean in  and fathered two children. After Elizabeth’s

MacCracken, Calvin d. Nov. , ).

(b. Nov. , ;

Inventor, inventor’s advocate, and author. The grandson of a New York University chancellor and the son of a Vassar College president, Calvin MacCracken grew up, he would say later, in a world of ideas. He earned an astronomy degree at age twenty from Princeton University, and took a summer job with Thomas Edison’s inventor son, Theodore, who convinced him of the worthiness of a life spent in the pursuit of innovation. MacCracken earned a degree in mechanical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in . He went to work for General Electric, earning his first patents during World War II for work on the design of the then-secret jet engine. In , he founded his own company, Jet Heet, later called Calmac Manufacturing, an Englewood-based firm that develops energy efficient products and exports products around the world. In his long career, MacCracken did pioneering work in the field of energy conservation, inventing energy-saving devices that became industry standards. Among his inventions was a thermal-energy storage system that is used to air-condition large buildings. But he is best known for inventing the Roll-O-Grill, the hot dog cooker common to snack bars and sports stadiums. A charter inductee of the New Jersey Inventor’s Hall of Fame, he considered himself an advocate for inventors. He spoke at conventions and wrote The Inventor’s Handbook. He had four children with his first

492

Macculloch, George Perrott

wife, Martha, whom he later divorced. He was survived by his children and his wife of twentyone years, Mary Burnham Thistle. He died of pneumonia in Hanover, New Hampshire.

collection of the works of political cartoonist Thomas Nast. See also historic sites

Raymond Frey

MacCracken, Calvin. A Handbook for Inventors. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, .

McDonnell, Joseph Patrick. (b. Mar.

Kitta MacPherson

Macculloch, George Perrott (b. Dec. , ; d. Dec. , ). “Father of the Morris Canal.’’ George Perrott Macculloch was born in Bombay, India. In  he married Louisa Martha Edwina Sanderson, who would bear him two children. In , while fishing on Lake Hopatcong, he envisioned a plan to connect Pennsylvania’s coal mines with the industrial cities of New Jersey, utilizing the waters of Lake Hopatcong, the state’s largest lake, to fill the artificial waterway. Because a rival canal, the Delaware and Raritan, was being proposed, the state was reluctant to fund his dream. Convinced that a canal across northern New Jersey would be profitable, he lobbied prominent North Jersey industrialists to underwrite the construction. In December  Macculloch and a group of investors formed the Morris Canal and Banking Company to privately fund the project. Macculloch obtained the services of Ephraim Beach, the engineer of the Erie Canal, to be chief engineer of the Morris Canal. Construction began in , and in  the canal was completed from Phillipsburg to Newark; by , it was extended to Jersey City, on the Hudson River. Macculloch was also the first president of the Morris County Agricultural Society, dedicated to the improvement of farming in the region. The elegant Federal-style mansion on what was once part of his twenty-six-acre farm in Morristown is now a popular museum. Kalata, Barbara N. A Hundred Years, A Hundred Miles: New Jersey’s Morris Canal. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, .

Louisa E. Macculloch.

Courtesy Macculloch Hall Historical Museum, Morristown.

Langstaff, John Brett. New Jersey Generations: Macculloch Hall, Morristown. New York: Vantage Press, .

See also Morris Canal

Raymond Frey

Macculloch, Louisa Martha Edwina Sanderson (b. ; d. Dec. , ). Philanthropist. Married August , , Louisa Macculloch emigrated from London, England, in , with her husband, George Perrot Macculloch, who developed the Morris Canal, and two children. Having settled in Morristown, she helped run Macculloch’s Academy and to found Saint Peter’s Church and several charities. She died in Morristown after thirty-three years as First Directress of the Female Charitable Society, which survives today as the Family Service of Morris County. Langstaff, John Brett. New Jersey Generations: Macculloch Hall, Morristown. New York: Vantage Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Jane R. Odenweller

, ; d. Jan. , ). Labor leader and journalist. Joseph P. McDonnell was born in Dublin, Ireland. He joined an Irish nationalist group while attending college, and in , he moved to London. He was recruited by Karl Marx to serve as corresponding secretary for Ireland for the International Workingmen’s Association (IWA); later, McDonnell was transferred to New York. He and his new bride, Mary McEvatt, sailed to America in . There McDonnell met labor leaders such as Samuel Gompers and Peter J. McGuire, and his main interest changed from socialism to labor reform. He became the editor of the New York Labor Standard. As a founder of the International Labor Union, McDonnell went to Paterson to assist textile workers on strike at the Adams mill in . There, he established the Paterson Labor Standard, which he published for the rest of his life. His editorials in support of the strikers cost him a $ fine. In , he spent sixty days in jail for slander after writing about unsafe working conditions at a local brickyard. Upon his release, “an immense throng of . . . operatives from the mills’’ of Paterson and a brass band “greeted him with unbounded enthusiasm.’’ McDonnell was a founder of the New Jersey State Federation of Trades and Labor Unions in ; for fifteen years, he was its chairman. The federation worked to elect legislators sympathetic to labor reform, and was instrumental in passing laws to restrict child labor, create industrial safety standards, and limit manufacturing workers to a fifty-fivehour workweek. Largely through McDonnell’s work, New Jersey in  became the first state to make Labor Day a holiday. He also founded the Paterson Trades Assembly in , the Paterson Typographical Union in , worked with the American Federation of Labor, and was the first chairman of the National Labor Press Association. See also labor movement

David A. Norris

Macculloch Hall.

George P. Macculloch.

Courtesy Macculloch Hall Historical Museum, Morristown.

Located in Morristown, Macculloch Hall is a Federal-style brick mansion built in  for George Perrot Macculloch, best known as the “Father of the Morris Canal.’’ The elegant manor house was home to five generations of his descendants. The surrounding property was a twenty-sixacre working farm until . In , Morristown millionaire W. Parsons Todd purchased the house and the remaining three acres of land to create a museum to exhibit his personal collection of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century antiques. Today the mansion and gardens are open to the public. The museum is also renowned for a major

Macfadden, Bernarr d. Oct. , ).

(b. Aug. , ;

Publisher. An unflagging self-promoter, Bernarr Macfadden was an influential force in tabloid journalism, and popularized health and fitness regimens. Macfadden’s participation in wrestling as an adolescent in Illinois led to an interest in diet and physical culture. He remained a health fanatic throughout his life, renowned for walking barefoot from his Englewood mansion to his office in Manhattan, among other extravagant behaviors. Macfadden’s obsession led him into publishing, first with Physical

McGuire Air Force Base Culture magazine, which featured his body and emphasized the virtue of fasting, then to an encyclopedia of health. Macfadden launched True Story magazine in , which heralded a new genre of “B’’ publications featuring sensational and sometimes made-up stories. By  True Story reached a circulation of two million. Macfadden made a fortune with True Story and enhanced his media reach with similarly packaged magazines and the New York Graphic, a tabloid newspaper that obtained a peak circulation of , in , but suffered substantial declines with the onset of the Depression. Macfadden may have hoped his media empire could propel him to the presidency. In  alone he commissioned three biographies of himself. With the Depression, however, his political prospects diminished as his publishing empire shrank. Macfadden’s efforts to develop middle-class housing in Hackensack, Bergenfield, and New Milford failed and his personal life grew increasingly turbulent and eccentric. (Macfadden had four failed marriages.) Macfadden lost a bid for the Republican presidential nomination in . His campaign for a U.S. Senate seat from Florida in  also failed. His finances became increasingly chaotic, and he was forced to relinquish control of Macfadden Publications in . Into his eighties Macfadden earned often derisive public attention as he continued to conduct public fasts and pursue the sport of parachuting. He was also known for his affairs with younger women. By the time he died in Jersey City in , Macfadden had become a laughingstock in the major media. However, scholars have been increasingly interested in Macfadden’s emphasis on physical fitness, a healthy sex life, male domesticity, and the virtues of suburban living. In each of these realms, Macfadden’s preoccupations foreshadowed those of millions of Americans. With his second wife, Mary Williamson Macfadden, he had seven children who survived him. Ernst, Robert. Weakness Is a Crime: The Life of Bernarr Macfadden. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, . Hunt, William R. Body Love: The Amazing Story of Bernarr Macfadden. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, .

Michael J. Birkner

McGreevey, James Edward

(b. Aug.

, ). Lawyer and governor. Born in Jersey

City, James Edward McGreevey was the oldest child of Veronica, a registered nurse, and Jack McGreevey, a Marine Corps veteran and trucking company employee. Jim grew up in Carteret, attending Saint Joseph’s High School in Metuchen. He then entered Columbia University and received his B.A. degree in , majoring in political science and economics. McGreevey graduated from Georgetown University with a law degree in , and was admitted to the bar in the same year. He received

a master’s degree in education from Harvard University in . Returning to New Jersey, McGreevey volunteered in Democratic election campaigns and became an assistant Middlesex County prosecutor. From  to  he worked as a staff attorney in the assembly Democratic majority office, and in  and  he was executive director of the New Jersey State Parole Board. McGreevey was active in local civic organizations during these years, and from  to  he worked for Merck as an attorney and lobbyist. In November  McGreevey was elected to a two-year term in the assembly, representing the Amboys, Sayreville, South River, and Woodbridge in Middlesex County. In  he ran for mayor of Woodbridge Township against the incumbent Democratic mayor, who had been charged with bribery, and two other candidates. With the backing of Middlesex County Democratic leaders, McGreevey secured  percent of the popular vote, enough to become the youngest mayor in Woodbridge history. He was reelected to subsequent four-year terms as mayor by landslide margins in  and . While serving as mayor, McGreevey was also elected to represent his district in the State Senate, serving from  to . He was active in the U.S. Conference of Mayors, chaired the New Jersey Democratic Leadership Council, and was appointed by President Bill Clinton to the National Cancer Advisory Board. McGreevey first gained statewide recognition during his unsuccessful gubernatorial campaign in . At the outset, incumbent Gov. Christine Todd Whitman was widely assumed to be a shoo-in for reelection. McGreevey became the Democratic nominee by edging out his principal opponent, Rep. Robert Andrews, by fewer than ten thousand votes in a primary that saw county organizations back different candidates. In the general election, McGreevey argued that Governor Whitman had neglected the state’s high automobile insurance costs and property taxes, and this campaign carried him to within , votes of victory. His unexpectedly narrow  general election loss established McGreevey as the favorite for the  Democratic nomination. He withstood an effort by Sen. Robert Torricelli to seize the Democratic nomination in June , and won the June  primary without significant opposition. On November , , McGreevey was elected to a four-year term as New Jersey’s fifty-first governor, winning  percent of the two-party general election vote against the Republican candidate, Jersey City mayor Bret Schundler. McGreevey assumed office on January , . He was married to Dina Matos McGreevey in , and their daughter, Jacqueline Matos, was born on December , . McGreevey has a second daughter, Morag Veronica, from a previous marriage.

493

McKay, Martha. “This Candidate’s Always Been Running.’’ Home News and Tribune, Oct. , .

See also governor

Richard Lehne

McGuire Air Force Base. The air base located twenty miles southeast of Trenton, near Wrightstown, was established by the U.S. Army as Rudd Field on Fort Dix property in . Later known as Fort Dix Army Air Base, it was subsequently renamed McGuire Air Force Base in  in honor of Thomas B. McGuire, a World War II flying ace and native of Ridgewood. During World War II, the base played a significant role in the airlifting of troops and supplies overseas. It was an important refueling stop for aircraft being ferried overseas and also hosted antisubmarine and air defense units. McGuire’s airlift capabilities were again utilized during the Korean and Vietnam wars. American prisoners of war repatriated from North Vietnam were flown to McGuire in . The base also played a significant role during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm in the early s. McGuire was an important site of Cold War air defense initiatives. The first direction center within the nationwide Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) air defense system became operational here in , as did the first BOMARC missile squadron one year later. Fighter-interceptor units were also based at McGuire during this period. As the headquarters of the th Air Mobility Wing, McGuire is today the largest military airlift port on the East Coast. Donald E. Bender

An F-E taxiing past the hanger after completing a training mission as part of the st Tactical Fighter Squadron at McGuire Air Force Base, Lakehurst, .

Photo: Joe Epstein. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

494

McIntire, Carl

McIntire, Carl

(b. May , ). Clergyman, anticommunist activist, and religious entrepreneur. Born in Ypsilante, Michigan, Carl McIntire was raised in Oklahoma, where his father served as a Presbyterian minister. He enrolled at Princeton Theological Seminary in . McIntire followed his prominent fundamentalist mentor J. Gresham Machen out of Princeton because of its “modernist’’ tendencies, and began his ministerial career at Bible Presbyterian Church in Collingswood in . Two years later the Presbyterian Church U.S.A. suspended McIntire for sowing discord within the denomination. He established his Collingswood church as the headquarters of a new splinter denomination, and also formed the American Council of Christian Churches () as a conservative pandenominational fundamentalist organization. Throughout the s and s, McIntire emerged as a prominent anticommunist, regularly skewered theological liberalism, attacked Roman Catholicism, and adamantly supported America’s presence in Vietnam. He also centered a network of fundamentalist institutions in Cape May and Collingswood, including Christian conference centers, a Bible school known as Shelton College, a weekly newspaper, and a popular syndicated radio program. The state of New Jersey revoked Shelton’s degree-granting authority in  because of various violations, prompting a temporary move to Cape Canaveral, Florida. McIntire’s ministry and influence generally dwindled in the s and s.

Carpenter, Joel. Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Peter J. Wosh

Mackay, John Alexander

(b. May

, ; d. June , ). Clergyman and semi-

nary president. Born in Inverness, Scotland, John Alexander Mackay was the son of Duncan Mackay and Isabella Macdonald. Mackay attended the University of Aberdeen, the Theological Seminary of the Free Presbyterian Church (Scotland), Princeton Theological Seminary, the University of Madrid, and the National University of Peru. He married Jane Logan Wells in . The couple had four children. After service as a missionary in Latin America from  to , Mackay became an executive of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. In  he was appointed president of Princeton Theological Seminary, a post he held until his retirement in . As president, Mackay rejuvenated the seminary, recently divided by a controversy over fundamentalism. He also played a major role in the ecumenical movement. In , in the midst of anticommunist hysteria, he was the principal author of “A Letter to Presbyterians’’ which condemned the excesses of McCarthyism.

Mackay wrote thirteen books. He died in Hightstown. See also Presbyterians; Princeton Theological Seminary

James H. Moorhead

McKim, Mead and White.

McKim, Mead, and White was the leading American architectural firm between the death of H. H. Richardson () and the rise of Frank Lloyd Wright (). Although based in New York City, the firm had New Jersey roots through its leading partner, Charles Follen McKim. The son of a Quaker abolitionist, he lived as a youth in Llewellyn Park (West Orange) and is buried near there. In addition, the architects enhanced their national reputation with early key works on the New Jersey Shore. Leaving his father’s A. J. Davis–designed villa in , Charles McKim trained for one year at Harvard University and three years at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, before working in the office of H. H. Richardson in Brookline, Massachusetts. He formed a partnership with William Rutherford Mead and Stanford White in , having practiced for the previous seven years in New York. Taking up the emerging Shingle Style developed in part by Richardson, the three quickly distinguished themselves as innovators in works such as the Short Hills Casino (–) and the H. Victor Newcomb House () in the resort community of Elberon on the Jersey Shore. McKim had cultivated patronage in New Jersey during the s, when he executed commissions in Montclair and Elberon. It was not until the late s that McKim, Mead, and White established their signature classical style in monumental urban buildings such as Madison Square Garden (–) and the Boston Public Library (–). Their dominant professional stature and large office organization helped to transform not only urban architecture in America but also the practice of architecture itself. While designing institutional buildings in cities from Boston to Washington, the firm also contributed to the civic center of Morristown, with Saint Peter’s Episcopal Church (–, –). Adding to their distinguished array of large country estates in Newport, Long Island, and Boston’s North Shore, they built “Florham’’ for Vanderbilt family business associate Hamilton M. Twombly on a vast parcel near Madison (–). The firm reached its pinnacle of influence and creativity from  to , directing the Senate Park Commission plan for Washington, adding to the White House under Theodore Roosevelt, building the great Pennsylvania Station at Thirty-fourth Street in Manhattan, and executing such signal commissions as the Rhode Island State Capitol and Columbia University campus. All three partners and their assistants worked at a hectic

pace for a decade, finally designing in all more than  commissions. Tragically, the height of their ascent was matched by the depth of their fall—Stanford White was murdered by the jealous husband of one of his many mistresses in ; Charles McKim died in , exhausted by the scandal and debilitated by the exertion of running the firm. The McKim, Mead, and White office remained robust for two and a half additional decades, directed by senior partners Bert Fenner, Lawrence Grant White (Stanford’s son), and William Mitchell Kendall, and advised by Mead. One of the last major civic buildings designed by the firm was Newark’s Pennsylvania Station (). Like so many of their best buildings, it contributes a dignity and grace to the city and continues to enrich the lives of succeeding generations. The English critic Charles Reilly marked their contribution to American architecture as the sum of “the finest aspirations of a great people at a great epoch.’’ Roth, Leland M. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. New York: Harper & Row, . White, Samuel G., with photographs by Jonathan Wallen. The Houses of McKim, Mead & White. New York: Rizzoli, .

See also architecture

Mark Alan Hewitt

McNeil Pharmaceutical.

See Ortho-

McNeil Pharmaceutical.

McNulty, Frank Joseph

(b. August ,

; d. May , ). Labor leader and con-

gressman. Frank Joseph McNulty was born in Ireland, the son of Owen McNulty and Catherine O’Donnell. He immigrated to the United States with his parents at age four, and grew up in New York City. He trained as an electrician; after moving to Perth Amboy, McNulty became involved in the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Described as “distinguished’’ looking and “charming,’’ he rose through the union’s ranks until he was elected its president (–). During this period there was a bitter struggle within the union over whether it should be organized by craft (all electricians), or by industry (all auto workers). McNulty kept his union craft-based and managed to convince many who had left to return. Under his leadership the union became the fourth-largest labor organization in the country. During World War I he served on a railroad board as well as a government commission that went to Italy. In  he resigned as president of the union to become director of Public Safety in Newark. After retiring from that position in , he ran as the Democratic candidate for Congress in the th District, and won. He served on the House Labor Committee, but neither labor support nor charm helped him win reelection in , when there was a Republican landslide. See also labor movement

Maxine N. Lurie

Maguire, Mathew

McNulty, William

(b. ; d. June ,

). Clergyman. An extraordinary figure in

Paterson Catholicism, William McNulty was born near Ballyshannon, Ireland, in . Immigrating to America in  to pursue a religious vocation, he studied at Fordham University and Emmitsburg College before being ordained a priest by Bishop J. R. Bayley in Newark in . McNulty’s first appointment was as dean of discipline and vice president of the recently established Seton Hall College at Madison. When the college moved to South Orange in , he remained at Madison as chaplain to the Sisters of Charity. This ministry was also brief. In October  Bayley appointed McNulty pastor of Saint John’s in Paterson, a post he held until his death in . His tenure of fifty-nine years at Saint John’s remains the longest in the state’s Catholic annals. McNulty, indefatigable promoter of Catholic interests in a rapidly growing city, was named dean of Bergen and Passaic counties in . Presiding over his own parish, he also assisted in the formation of “daughter’’ and “second-generation’’ ethnic parishes in Paterson. Many schools, hospitals, and charitable institutions also owe their existence to him. He rebuilt his own parish church on a sufficiently grand scale that it became the cathedral church of the Diocese of Paterson when the latter was formed in . By then, McNulty was fifteen years dead: “the last of the pioneer priests,’’ as local newspapers aptly dubbed him. Kupke, Raymond. Living Stones: A History of the Catholic Church in the Diocese of Paterson. Clifton: Diocese of Paterson, .

benefactor. Across the street from the municipal building is the Collegiate Gothic railroad station where a large portion of the town’s adult population each day boards trains to commute to jobs in New York City. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Esposito, Frank J. The Madison Heritage Trail: An Intimate History of a Community in Transition. Madison: Madison Bicentennial Heritage Committee, . Tuttle, William Parkhurst. Bottle Hill and Madison. Madison: Madison Eagle Press, .

John T. Cunningham

magnetite.

Magnetite (Fe O ) is a common, dark iron oxide that typically forms octahedral crystals or massive deposits. Historically, magnetite ore is New Jersey’s chief economic mineral along with other related iron minerals such as limonite, hematite, and goethite (bog iron). New Jersey magnetite mining began by the early s or earlier; more than four hundred magnetite mines once existed in New Jersey. New Jersey iron was an important asset during the Revolutionary War. The largest magnetite production occurred in the Dover-Rockaway region of Morris and surrounding counties. Commercial mining of magnetite is not currently feasible in New Jersey.

Wilkerson, Albert S. Minerals of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Geological Survey, . Wolfe, P. E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane, Russak, .

See also minerals

See also Roman Catholics

Scott Stepanski Dermot Quinn

Magnolia.

Madison.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. Madison, remembered in history by an enduring nickname, “The Rose City,’’ broke away from Chatham Township on Christmas Eve, , to form a new borough. Originally known as Bottle Hill, the town was founded in about . It became Madison in , adopting the name of President James Madison. By  Madison, center of the nation’s largest rose-growing industry, had more than fifty greenhouses supplying millions of cut roses every year. They were shipped to New York City markets from the Madison depot of the Morris and Essex Railroad. The industry gradually died after World War II from competition by other states and nations. There are now no rose growers in the area. Drew University, which opened in  as a theological seminary near the western edge of town, has become a multifaceted university. Madison’s multimillion-dollar municipal building, which opened in , honors Marcellus Hartley Dodge, Jr., who died in Europe in  in an automobile accident. It also recalls his mother, Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge, the major town

-square-mile borough in north-central Camden County. Once part of the original Third Tenth of old Gloucester County, Magnolia was formed from Centre Township () and Clementon Township ( and ). The Albertsons, Webbs, and Barretts were among the earliest families to settle here in the late seventeenth century. The name “Magnolia’’ was borrowed in  from the name of the Philadelphia–Atlantic City railroad station located in the borough. The railroad and a later trolley line that terminated at Camden City stimulated development. The borough had its peak growth in the s and is today a suburban community consisting largely of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century residences. It is bisected in a north-south direction by a rail line; commercial developments have grown up along its major roads: Evesham Road, which crosses the community in an east-west direction, and the White Horse Pike and Warwick Road, both of which cut through it in a north-south direction. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the

495

median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bradley, Helen H. One Square Mile of Friendliness. Magnolia: N.p., . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gail Greenberg

Magowan, Frank A.

(b. ; d. ).

Mayor. Elected mayor of one of New Jersey’s most important cities at the age of twentynine, Frank A. Magowan’s meteoric rise in New Jersey politics led many to believe he was destined for the U.S. Senate or the governor’s mansion. Even though Trenton prospered during his two terms as mayor, his promising political career ended in scandal. After an affair with a mistress turned him into an embezzler, Magowan was committed to Trenton Psychiatric hospital in . He was found wandering the streets of Hoboken in a stupor in , and taken to a hospital where he died the next day. Shuman, Eleanor Nolan. The Trenton Story. Trenton: MacCrellish and Quigley, .

Andrea C. Dragon

Maguire, Mathew (b. ; d. Jan. , ). Labor leader and politician. Born in New York City of Irish parents, Mathew Maguire moved to Paterson, where he started factory work at the age of fourteen. He completed a machinist apprenticeship in  and moved to Brooklyn, where he worked for the Columbia Iron Company. He was elected secretary of the International Association of Machinists and Blacksmiths’ Union and helped organize the New York Central Labor Union, a federation of fifty-three unions. He served as an executive committee member of the Eight-Hour League, and appeared before President Ulysses S. Grant demanding a shorter workday for government employees. Maguire organized the first Labor Day Parade in New York City on September , , and proposed an annual parade as a tribute to working people. President Grover Cleveland presented Maguire with the souvenir pen that he used to sign the Labor Day Bill (). Maguire returned to Paterson in , and joined the Socialist party in . He was elected secretary of Paterson’s Machinists’ Local  and published the union’s first journal. Entering politics in , Maguire was elected to the Board of Aldermen on the Socialist-Labor ticket and served four years in office. In , he was nominated as the vice president of the United States on the Socialist ticket. Watts, Theodore F. The First Labor Day Parade, Tuesday, September , : Media Mirrors to Labor’s Icons. Silver Spring, MA: Phoenix Rising, .

See also labor movement

Angelica M. Santomauro

496

Mahwah

Mahwah. .-square-mile town in Bergen County. First settled by a widow, Blandina Bayard, who established a trading post on the Ramapo River in , Mahwah was then part of New Barbados. It was part of the precinct of Saddle River in , Franklin Township in , Ho-Ho-Kus Township in , and became Mahwah in . In its earliest period, the area was primarily extensive farmlands; estates were established through the second half of the nineteenth century; and industrial development and suburbanization became important in the twentieth century. Mahwah is the site of Ramapo College and is the home of the Ramapough Mountain Indians. The municipality houses the national headquarters of several large corporations, electronics and health industries distribution facilities, and printing businesses. In  the population of Mahwah was ,;  percent was white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bischoff, Henry. Mahwah and the Ramapo Valley in the American Revolution. Mahwah: Mahwah Tricentennial Committee, . ———, and Mitchell Kahn. From Pioneer Settlement to Suburb: A History of Mahwah, New Jersey, –. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, .

Henry Bischoff

Maidenform. Maidenform was originally formed in  by Enid Bissett and William and Ida Rosenthal as the Enid Manufacturing Company in New York City. The firm moved its manufacturing operations to Bayonne in , and its administrative offices to their current location on Avenue E by , changing its name to the Maidenform Brassiere Company. Famous for its “I dreamed . . . in my Maidenform bra’’ advertising campaign, Maidenform became a leading brassiere and women’s apparel manufacturer. Today, Maidenform remains a privately held firm and employs  people at its administrative offices in Bayonne. See also Rosenthal, Ida Cohen; textile industry

Elaine L. Schwartz

Major Tot.

See Poitras, Pierre Albert

“Major Tot.’’

malls.

See shopping centers and malls.

Manahawkin.

Village in Stafford Township, Ocean County, that has existed since at least . An Indian tribe once lived there, and the name is thought by some interpreters to mean “good cornland.’’ Situated off Manahawkin Lake, the village is the social center of Stafford Township. It also is the jumpingoff place for travelers bound east for Long Beach Island, whose population swells in summer. A Baptist church built in  is still standing; it has served many denominations.

The boyhood home of William Newell, governor of New Jersey just prior to the Civil War and originator of the U.S. Life-Saving Service, Manahawkin was one of the stops on a U.S. mail stage line run along the Jersey Shore, which was inaugurated in . It whisked passengers to New York in a day and boosted the area’s popularity as a summer resort. That popularity was enhanced in  with the establishment of a railroad line connecting Philadelphia with the region. A road taking cars from Manahawkin over the bay to Long Beach Island was built to replace a railroad spur abandoned in . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Stafford

Edward A. Jardim

Manalapan. .-square-mile township in western Monmouth County. Manalapan— its Native American name has varying interpretations—was incorporated in , taken from Freehold Township. Historically Manalapan was a major farming area, the principal site of a major Revolutionary War battle, the home of a Civil War training camp, and an important spiritual landmark, the Old Tennent Church. Agrarian life was centered on small communities, including some with mills. Many left their names on the land. One settlement, formerly the township’s commercial core, separated in  when Englishtown became a borough. A second, Tennent, later became the township’s business and municipal district. A third, Woodville or Little Africa, located on the Millstone Township border, is a noteworthy nineteenthcentury African American settlement. British forces relocating from Philadelphia to New York in June  were challenged by the American army on the th, largely in Manalapan, in the crucial Battle of Monmouth, a strategic victory that influenced the course of the war. The battlefield is now a New Jersey state park. Some of the action was around the First Presbyterian Church of Freehold, known as Old Tennent for two early clergymen. In the latter third of the twentieth century, Manalapan was extensively suburbanized by single-family houses and became home to the headquarters of the Monmouth County Library. Route , bisecting eastern Manalapan, creates a major commuting route. A massive s Levitt project, Monmouth Heights, spurred suburban development. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Brown, James S. Manalapan in Three Centuries. Manalapan: Township of Manalapan, .

Dalik, Richard. Manalapan and Englishtown. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Symmes, Rev. Frank R. History of the Old Tennent Church. d ed. Cranbury: George W. Burroughs, .

Randall Gabrielan

Manasquan.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Located on the Atlantic Ocean and bordered on the south by the Manasquan River, Manasquan was originally part of the townships of Shrewsbury, Howell, and finally Wall before incorporating as a borough in . Its name derives from the Lenape word manatah-squawhan, meaning “stream of the island for women,’’ referring to an island in the river where the women and children would be safe while the men fished and hunted. Several men living in Shrewsbury and Middletown purchased the area from Native Americans in . It remained agricultural until the early nineteenth century when summer visitors began to arrive for fishing and bathing. As a village became established, visitors built summer bungalows on the beachfront. In the early twentieth century, pound fishing and shipbuilding added to the economy. Surrounded by predominately singlefamily homes, the village has developed into a business district for the service and retail industries. Tourists still increase the borough’s population in summer, but many of Manasquan’s beachfront bungalows have been converted to year-round homes. In , the population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Manasquan Chamber of Commerce. Manasquan, New Jersey, Settled , Incorporated , Compiled by Townsfolk for the Diamond Jubilee. Lewiston, ME: Geiger Brothers, . Manasquan, –: A Village Becomes a Town. Manasquan: Manasquan Centennial History Book Committee, . Ware, Mary Birkhead. Manasquan. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . ———. Manasquan Revisited. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Carol Fisher Megill

Manchester.

With its . square miles, Manchester Township is one of Ocean County’s and the state’s largest communities. It began its municipal life in the closing days of the Civil War when the state legislature (April , ) created it from , acres of Dover Township land. A section of Manchester was incorporated as the Borough of Lakehurst in . The township was named for Manchester, England. A New York banker originally from that city was one of a group of English merchants that purchased the acreage from Monmouth County in . The prime mover in Manchester Village’s development was a transplanted New Yorker, William (“King of

Mantoloking the Pines’’) Torrey. Important enterprises were charcoal, lumber, and railroading. The greatest surge in population came with the post–World War II suburban boom that brought a wave of senior citizens to Ocean County, especially after . Manchester in particular became a haven for “adult communities’’ such as Leisure Village, Leisure Knoll, and Crestwood Village. The mostly semirural township has large wooded areas and stretches west from a point near Toms River through the vast Pine Barrens region. Routes  and  are major highways. The original  population of , climbed to , ( percent white) by the  Census. The median household income for  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Wright, Ruthanne H. “The Township of Mannington.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (Dec. ): –, –.

Patricia W. Blakely

Mannington Mills.

Based in Salem, Mannington Mills was founded in  by Scottish immigrant John B. Campbell as the Salem Linoleum Company. The company survived three disastrous fires, World War II, and the Great Depression. Still privately held, and now one of the largest flooring companies in the country with plants in North Carolina and Georgia as well as South Jersey, Mannington produces carpet, vinyl, laminate, and wood flooring products for commercial and residential needs.

Lee Ellen Griffith

M&M’s.

Forrest Mars, grandson of Frank Mars, founder of the privately owned candy dynasty, introduced M&M’s in , in partnership with R. Bruce Murrie, son of the president of Hershey Chocolate, Mars’s archrival. M&M, Ltd., named for Mars and Murrie, first manufactured M&M’s with specially modified Hershey machinery in Newark, New Jersey. The impetus behind M&M’s came from the desire to find a chocolate candy that wouldn’t melt, even in very hot climates. Today, the M&M factory in Hackettstown stamps the tiny white M on , M&M’s each minute, or  million M&M’s every eight hours. ¨l Glenn. The Emperors of Chocolate: Inside Brenner, Joe the Secret World of Hershey and Mars. New York: Random House, .

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Mannington.

-square-mile township in Salem County. Mannington was first named East Fenwick by John Fenwick, but it soon became known as Mannington, probably in honor of Maneto, a local Lenape chief. Before the American Revolution, secret Catholic services were held in the  Kiger house, defying a ban on Catholicism. The township was incorporated in . Early industries included agriculture, several distilleries, a gristmill, limekilns, and the manufacture of phosphate. In , Joseph Bassett discovered marl in Mannington Township, giving rise to the development of several marl pits. This discovery was a boon to agriculture, as it enriched depleted soil. Hamlets and villages include Claysville, Welchville, Halltown, Marshalltown, and Mannington Hill. The Memorial Hospital of Salem County is located in Mannington, as is Mannington Mills, the well-known floor-covering company. Open farmland best describes this township today.

Mansfield (Burlington County). .-square-mile township. Mansfield is situated southeast of Bordentown and Florence townships, with a small stretch along the Delaware River. Earliest settlers were Quakers, many of whom had been wealthy English landowners, who began arriving in . It is one of the original townships of Burlington County, incorporated in . Florence and part of Bordentown Township both broke off from Mansfield in . The township’s principal population area was, and remains, the centrally located village of Columbus, originally called Encroaching Corners due to disputes among landowners, and later named Black Horse. Other villages still in existence today are Georgetown and Kinkora. A Revolutionary War skirmish at Petticoat Bridge diverted Hessian mercenaries’ attention so Gen. George Washington’s troops could safely cross the Delaware River on Christmas Eve . Prince Lucian Murat, nephew of Joseph and Napoleon Bonaparte, lived on Main Street in Columbus through . Most of the township’s historic homes still stand today. The economy is still primarily agricultural, although a major move toward suburbanization began when the Homestead at Mansfield retirement community was built in the s, drawing new residents from as far as New York City, many of whom subsequently griped about the location of the new county landfill next door. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Mansfield

(Warren

497

County).

.-square-mile township. The township was separated from Greenwich in . Historically significant villages are Beattystown, Karrsville, Mount Bethel, Port Murray, Rockport, and Anderson. In the past the Morris Canal, turnpikes, and railroads delineated major transportation routes. Rockport and Port Murray prospered along the Morris Canal. Beattystown historical district on the old King’s Highway is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places, along with the Mount Bethel stone church, built in . In  Joseph Anderson founded a settlement and built a hotel at the fork in the road. Today the road leads to Hillcrest, a predominantly black community created in  when real estate speculators divided farmland into subplots and promoted the development to Newark’s black residents. Undersized, unbuildable lots were sold on easy credit and a promise of lucrative employment at nonexistent factories resulting in contracts forfeited and lots repossessed. Those who had clear title formed the basis of today’s integrated community. Population in  of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Eggler, Gladys Harry. “Newark’s African American Community Looked to Warren County as the Promised Land in .’’ The Furnace: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission Newsletter (Oct. ): –. History of Mansfield Township, –. Mansfield: Mansfield Historical Publication Committee, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Mantell, Robert Bruce

(b. Feb.  ;

d. June , ).

Actor. Born in Scotland, Robert Bruce Mantell first came to the United States in the s, and soon became one of America’s best-known Shakespearean performers. Mantell established an acting company that toured all over the country. His four marriages were all to his leading ladies. In , he purchased the historic Leonard homestead on Avenue D, Atlantic Highlands, and renamed it Brucewood. His players rehearsed there in a converted barn. In  Mantell’s troupe performed Macbeth to benefit Atlantic Highlands’s Grand View Hose Company , which subsequently changed its name to the Robert B. Mantell Hose Company. Bulliet, C. J. Robert Mantell’s Romance. John W. Luce, .

Boston:

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Mantoloking.

.-square-mile borough. Mantoloking is one of the most expensive pieces of real estate in Ocean County. A topographic map of  showed

498

Mantua

just two buildings on the sandy peninsula known as Swan Point: the Life-Saving Station and a boarding house. The salt hay meadow was used as common land for mainlanders to pasture cattle. In the s, Frederick Downer and Frank Hall, land developers from New York City, invented Mantoloking as a resort community. In , a railroad spur and a bridge connected the resort to the mainland. The Mantoloking Tennis Club was established in  followed by the Mantoloking Yacht Club in . The borough was incorporated in , when it was split off from Brick Township. Norwegian fisherman worked the Downer fish pounds off the beach from  until  when a hurricane destroyed their nets. Lisa Downer (daughter of Frederick) established an art studio in  for her watercolor society. Several of the stately houses in Mantoloking were designed by Stanford White. Today it is a residential community. In  the population of  was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Colie, Frederick, R. An Exercise in Nostalgia: Mantoloking, –. Morristown: Compton Press, . Miller, Pauline, S. Ocean County, Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Patricia Johnson

Mantua.

.-square-mile township in Gloucester County that is divided into four sections: Mantua, Barnsboro, Sewell, and Centre City. Early European settlers in the middle of the eighteenth century built homes and farms on large tracts of land along Mantua Creek, after which the township was named. According to legend, a group of Native Americans who made their home along the creek heard a chorus of frogs and christened themselves the Manta, which means frog. During the nineteenth century, Mantua’s central location on the West Jersey Railroad was popular with farmers for shipping their produce. In  Mantua was officially taken from Greenwich and organized into a separate township. During the late s a cannery, hotel, carriage factory, blacksmith, and a steam gristmill contributed to the small but bustling rural township. Although today the township remains rural, with a number of farms, it has continued to attract industries, particularly farms that have built large warehouses. Ceres Park, a nature reserve, and Chestnut Branch Park are popular recreation destinations. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

“A Historic Weekend in Gloucester County.’’ Eagle Scout Service Project by William S. Entrekin, . Gloucester County Historical Society Library.

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown. The Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth in Bordentown, which operated until , was founded in  as the Ironsides Normal School. Its founder and first principal, the Rev. Walter Rice of the Mount Zion A.M.E. Church, established the school based on the philosophy that the combination of industrial and academic training were important to developing the minds of New Jersey’s black youth. The name was taken from the USS Constitution, whose nickname was Old Ironsides. Ironsides was a nondenominational school that opened with an enrollment of eight boarding students. The school was originally housed in a private frame house on West State Street in Bordentown. Operating support came solely from private contributions. Rice modeled the school’s industrial education curriculum and religious studies component after Tuskegee Institute of Alabama. Ironsides School became known as the Tuskegee of the North. Religious and moral training courses were taught along with separate vocational courses for girls and boys. Trades taught to male students included agriculture, auto mechanics, woodworking, general mechanics, and printing. The girls were taught sewing, canning, beauty culture, and dressmaking. Academic courses open to all students included composition, mathematics, public speaking, music, art, and physical education. The school was incorporated in  under the name of Technical Industrial Educational Association of New Brunswick. Ironsides School came under the control of the state of New Jersey in  and was maintained as a racially segregated boarding school. School operations were assigned to a special board of trustees. Two years later, the state board of education leased the Ironsides property for $, and moved the school to the sprawling -acre tract of land. From  until , the state remodeled old buildings on the estate and had new ones erected, including boys’ and girls’ dormitories, an administration building, a teacher’s cottage, and a trades and assembly building. A new athletic field was completed in  at the cost of $,. In  the state appropriated the first annual school budget of $,. James M. Gregory of Howard University in Washington, D.C., was appointed principal, succeeding Rice. The first commencement was held in ; two students graduated. The state legislature transferred control and management of the school to the New Jersey State Board of Education in . By  the state commissioner

of education was in control of the school, subject to the authority of the state board. By an act of the state legislature in , the school’s name was changed to the Manual Training and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown. Bordentown School closed in June , one year after the May , , Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education, outlawing the segregation of black children and white children in public schools. The school property is currently administered by the state’s Juvenile Justice Commission and used as a correctional institution. The structures are on the state and national registers of historic places. Adams, Ezola Bolden. “The Role and Function of the Manual Training and Industrial School at Bordentown as an Alternative School, –.’’ Thesis, Rutgers University, . Duck, Evelyn B. “An Historical Study of a Racially Segregated School in New Jersey from  to .’’ Ph.D. diss. Rutgers University, . Historical Edition: The Ironsides Echo. Vol. . Bordentown: Bordentown Manual Training School, .

See also African Americans; education

Ethel M. Washington

Manville. .-square-mile borough in Somerset County, formed from Hillsborough Township on April , . Inventors H. W. Johns and C. B. Manville joined forces in the late nineteenth century to manufacture asbestos building products, moving their plant to a -acre farm in Hillsborough Township in . A bustling community sprang up around the plant, home to immigrant families from Pennsylvania coal towns, Brooklyn, and Jersey City. By the late s nearly , lived here, all of them dependent upon the prosperity of the asbestos plant. A mix of Polish, Slavic, Ukrainian, German, Hungarian, and Italian people built their homes on twentyfive-foot wide lots. The plant closed in . Empty for a decade, the sprawling complex was demolished in the mid-s, and its site is now occupied by a used car auction. Periodic flooding, especially in the Lost Valley section, has added to the borough’s woes. Saint Mary’s Church, built in  and destroyed by fire in , sported the onion dome typical of Byzantine Catholic churches. South Main Street, the principal shopping area, is now the focus of revitalization efforts. Elsewhere, modest single-family homes predominate. The  population of , residents was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Purzycki, Edward S., ed. Ellis Island, the Coal Mines, to the Asbestos Capital of the World. Manville: Manville Public Library, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Marciante, Charles H.

499

Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Mapes, James Jay

(b. May , ;

d. Jan. , ). Agriculturist. James Jay Mapes,

a native of Maspeth, Long Island, wore many hats—chemist, inventor, educator, and editor. He worked chiefly in New York City, but his passion was scientific agriculture. In  he bought a worn-out farm in what is now Newark’s Weequahic section, near Irvington, and put into practice his principles of fertilization, drainage, crop rotation, and seeding. He developed an artificial fertilizer, Mapes Manure, and made his property a showplace. His “book farming’’ was scorned by some and praised as pioneering by others, like his friend Horace Greeley. Haynes, Williams. Chemical Pioneers: The Founders of the American Chemical Industry. Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, .

Edward A. Jardim

Maple Shade. .-square-mile township in Burlington County along its western border with Camden County. Maple Shade was originally part of Chester Township, an early town along the Pennsauken Creek, founded in  and chartered by the British in . Maple Shade remained a rural village until , when Henry Fahr opened the first store. In , the township’s development began in earnest when several Philadelphia businessmen and speculators formed the Maple Shade Land and Development Company. In , Maple Shade and neighboring Moorestown both seceded from Chester Township and became independent municipalities. A  referendum formally established the township’s name as Maple Shade. Apartment construction began in the s and continued for more than twenty years, especially after Route  and Kings Highway evolved as major thoroughfares. Major apartment complexes now exist along both roads. Routes  and  have significant commercial development, and the downtown business district was refurbished in the s. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Maple Shade Golden Jubilee. Maple Shade: Chamber of Commerce, . Master Plan of Development for Maple Shade Township, Burlington County, New Jersey. Maple Shade: Planning Board, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Maplewood’s first automobile was a  White Model G steam touring car.

Courtesy Carleton B. Riker, Jr. first settled in the early s six miles from Newark. The community that would be named for the maple trees near its first train station saw its citizens follow the rails to nearby cities, and its future as a commuter town was established. Once part of Orange, then incorporated with South Orange for sixty-one years, present-day Maplewood was created in  from Jefferson Village and Middleville (Hilton). Thirty founding families built most of the dwellings that survive from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but the majority of the houses date from the decade of the s, when the population grew from , to about ,. Today, they attract young families nostalgic for an authentic suburban environment of shade trees, front porches, and sidewalks, just a train ride from New York City. Illustrious past citizens included landscape painter Asher B. Durand, inventor Seth Boyden, and Theodore Roosevelt, who summered as a child at a cousin’s hillside estate. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Bausmith, John, and Howard Wiseman. Maplewood, New Jersey. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Herman, Beatrice Peppard. The Trail to the Upland Plantations. Orange: Worrall Publications, . News-Record. Special Diamond Jubilee Section. Nov. , . Yates, Helen B., ed. Maplewood Past and Present. Maplewood: Friends of the Maplewood Library, .

Maureen Dillon

Jim Donnelly

Maplewood.

.-square-mile township in Essex County. The arrival of the railroad in  ended the isolation of hillside farms

Marcal Paper Mills.

Founded in Elmwood Park by Nicholas Marcalus in , the family-owned business reaped the benefits

of recycling discarded paper from industry and households to process and resell as finished tissue products. Marcal’s innovative “harvesting’’ strategy served the company well during economic upheavals. In , Robert Marcalus succeeded his father as president. Currently chairman of Marcal, Robert was succeeded by his son, Nicholas Marcalus, as president and CEO. Marcal currently employs more than eleven hundred people between its New Jersey and Chicago facilities and sells more than , tons of tissue products, principally in the eastern United States. See also papermaking

Deborah S. Greenhut

Marciante, Charles H. (b. July , ). Labor leader. Charles H. Marciante is the son of Louis P. Marciante, president of the New Jersey State American Federation of Labor (AFL) from  to . Born in Trenton, Charles completed a bachelor’s degree in history and political science at Rutgers University, in . After briefly considering law school, he entered an apprenticeship program and became an electrician and a member of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), Local , Trenton. During the s, Marciante was a delegate to the Mercer County Labor Council. In  he became secretary-treasurer of the newly formed New Jersey State AFL-CIO, and was elected president of this labor organization in . As president, Marciante was instrumental in the formation of the Public Employment Relations Commission (PERC), in the establishment of fair compensation benefits for workers injured on the job, and in the passage of safety legislation. Marciante retired from the presidency in .

500

Marciante, Louis P.

Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Who’s Who in Labor. New York: Arno Press, .

See also labor movement

Evelyn M. Hershey

Marciante, Louis P.

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Mar. , ).

Labor leader. Louis P. Marciante left school at age fifteen to become an electrical worker’s apprentice. He joined Local  of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW), AFL in Trenton. In  he was elected business agent and then served successfully in all positions in the local. During World War I, Marciante enlisted in the Marine Corps. After he was discharged, he returned to Trenton and was elected secretary-treasurer of the Mercer County Building Trades Council. In  Marciante was elected to the executive board of the New Jersey State AFL. In  he was elected president of the County Central Trades Council, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him to the regional labor board. He was elected president of the New Jersey State AFL in . In  he became a member of the Board of Education in Trenton; however, the pressure of his duties as president of the New Jersey State AFL forced him to resign from the board in . As a labor official, he exerted strong influence in Democratic politics and frequently was allied with the organization of Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City in state campaigns.

Image Not Available

Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Evelyn M. Hershey

Marconi Station.

A wireless telegraph (radio) transmitter facility built and operated by the American Marconi Wireless Corporation, the Marconi Station was located in Franklin Township (at JFK Boulevard and Easton Avenue, the present site of Marconi Park), and was generally referred to as the New Brunswick Station. Taken over by the U.S. Navy during World War I, the station served as the principal wartime communication link between the United States and Europe. President Woodrow Wilson’s “Fourteen Points’’ speech was transmitted from the site in . After the war, ownership of the station (and Marconi’s other American assets) was transferred by the navy to RCA. The antenna masts were demolished in .

Dunlap, Orrin E., Jr. Marconi: The Man and His Wireless. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Masini, Giancarlo. Marconi. Publishers, .

New York: Marsilio

See also radio

David A. Black

Margaret Hague Maternity Hospital. Mayor Frank Hague conceived the Medical Center complex in Jersey City with

Alfred Stieglitz and Edward Steichen, John Marin, . Platinum print mounted on paperboard,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Alfred Stieglitz Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Photo: Copyright 2002 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art.

a separate building devoted exclusively to maternity care, named in memory of Hague’s mother. The neoclassical structure was designed by the architect Christian H. Zeigler and constructed between  and . Designed to serve all of Hudson County, at its zenith it was the largest obstetric unit in the United States. The hospital’s first and last babies, both boys, were born on October , , and July , . Closed in , Margaret Hague Maternity Hospital is currently in a state of decay, having been relinquished by the city to the county. Greiff, Constance M., ed. The Jersey City Medical Center: Preliminary Case Report. Princeton: Heritage Studies, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Cynthia Harris

Margate.

.-square-mile-coastal city in Atlantic County. Founded in , the city is named after Margate, England. It was founded around the same time as Longport () and Ventnor () as the population of adjacent Atlantic City grew in the late nineteenth century. The three communities share Absecon Island with Atlantic City. The area was formerly known as South Atlantic City and was little more than a desolate area of sand dunes, bayberry bushes, pine trees, and a handful of buildings. The city and Longport both began to be developed in , when Longport promoters ran a special excursion train from Philadelphia and transported prospective customers to the sand dunes in carriages. In an effort to attract potential real estate buyers, James V. Lafferty in  built Lucy, the wooden

marinas elephant listed on the National Register of Historic Places. During the twentieth century, Margate emerged as a prime vacation spot along the Shore, a distinction it retains today. The city also has become a bedroom community for people who work in the Atlantic City casinos, though its citizens have resisted any annexation attempts by this northern neighbor. Margate’s population in  of , was  percent white. Margate’s median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Abrahamson, Elaine Conover. Atlantic County: A Pictorial History. Virginia Beach, VA: Downing, . Boucher, Jack E. Lucy, the Margate Elephant. Egg Harbor City: Laureate Press, . Cunningham, John T. The New Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Mike Mathis

Marie H. Katzenbach School for the Deaf. On March , , the New Jersey legislature provided funding for a school on Hamilton and Chestnut avenues in Trenton that would provide instruction and maintenance for deaf mutes and would be known as the State Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. The school’s name changed in  to the New Jersey School for the Deaf (NJSD). In  the state purchased the Scudder Farm in West Trenton, and began construction of a new residential school for the deaf on Sullivan Way and Lower Ferry Road. The primary, middle, and upper units opened over several years, from  to . The school’s name changed again in  to the Marie H. Katzenbach School for the Deaf (MKSD), in honor of the fortythree years Mrs. Katzenbach served on the state board of education as a friend of and advocate for the deaf in New Jersey. With the establishment of a program for the handicapped in , MKSD expanded its educational mandate to include hearing-impaired individuals with multiple handicaps. MKSD provides educational services to hearing-impaired individuals from birth through age twenty-one and is a major resource center on deafness. See also education

Marin, John ).

Between  and  he studied at the Art Students League in New York, and from  to  he traveled extensively in Europe and exhibited his work at the Salon d’Automne in Paris, among other venues. Four years later, after meeting the well-known photographer and art dealer Alfred Steiglitz, he exhibited at Steiglitz’s  Gallery in New York. In , Steiglitz mounted the first of several one-man shows of Marin’s paintings, and until his own death in  served as Marin’s agent, patron, and dealer. In  Marin participated with other early modernists in the landmark Armory Show in New York. He was elected to the National Institute of Arts and Letters in , and to associate membership in the National Academy of Design in . In  Marin married Marie Jane Hughes, and two years later, the couple’s first and only child, John Currey Marin, Jr., was born. Beginning in  the family lived in Cliffside Park, but spent their summers elsewhere. An initial trip to Maine in  inspired Marin’s many paintings related to the natural environment of that state and of the surrounding New England landscape. In  and  he visited and painted in Taos, New Mexico, but by  the family returned to Maine, where they bought a summer home at Cape Split. Marin’s dominant themes include the city and nature; he often created several variations on the same motif—mainly through the medium of watercolor. The use of planes, lines, and dynamic as well as syncopated movement made his New York landmarks, including the Brooklyn Bridge and the Woolworth Building, pulsate with the excitement of the big city. His New Jersey scenes, such as Eastern Boulevard, Weehawken, New Jersey () also convey his vibrant style. His expressive outdoor studies, filled with texture and light effects, evoke nature itself. Marin died at Cape Split on October , , at the age of eighty-two. Retrospective exhibitions continue to be held in his honor, and today his work is found in important public and private collections throughout the United States.

Harriet Teweles

Fine, Ruth E. John Marin. New York: Abbeville Press, .

(b. Dec. , ; d. Oct. ,

Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Painter. One of America’s earliest and finest twentieth-century modernists, John Marin was born in Rutherford to John Cheri Marin and Annie Louise Currey. His mother died a few days after his birth, and Marin was raised in Weehawken by his grandparents and maiden aunts. He attended school in nearby Hoboken, first at Hoboken Academy and then at the Stevens Institute of Technology. He became a freelance architect, designing houses in New Jersey in the s, but at the age of twenty-eight he turned to painting. From  to , Marin took classes with Thomas Anschutz and William Merritt Chase at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, where he won a prize for his Weehawken sketches.

See also art

501

New Jersey’s saltwater fishing attracts more than nine hundred thousand anglers each year, and party boats that offer deep-sea excursions can be found at numerous seaside marinas. The state owns five public marinas and operates four. One state-owned facility, Liberty Landing Marina at Liberty State Park, is leased to a private company. Still being developed, Liberty Landing features two hundred berths that allow boats up to fifty feet long and eighteen feet wide. The marina is slated to include additional berths and dockside facilities, restaurants, marine-related shops, and a -boat storage building. Leonardo State Marina is on the Atlantic Ocean, southwest of Sandy Hook and east of the Earle Naval Pier. It is the closest marina to the Sandy Hook entrance. The marina can handle  vessels up to forty-five feet long and six feet in draft. Forked River State Marina is on the north branch of Forked River and is accessible from Barnegat Bay. It accepts  boats up to fifty feet in length and six feet in draft. Senator Frank S. Farley State Marina is on Clam Creek in Atlantic City, a short distance from the Atlantic Ocean via Absecon Inlet,

MARINAS

LIBERTY LANDING

LEONARDO

FORKED RIVER

Barbara J. Mitnick

marinas.

New Jersey is home to hundreds of marinas, public and private, freshwater and saltwater. With  miles of Atlantic Ocean coastline, the state is a saltwater boating and fishing mecca. Vessels can be bought, leased, stored, and maintained at marinas all along the coast. There are more than four thousand lakes, ponds, rivers, and reservoirs sprinkled throughout the inland sections of the state, and marinas can be found on most of the larger ones.

SENATOR FRANK S. FARLEY N

FORTESCUE 0

20 miles

Only state-owned, public marinas are shown @Rutgers, The State University

502

Marine Mammal Stranding Center

or the Intracoastal Waterway. The marina has berths for  boats and can handle vessels up to three hundred feet long and twelve feet wide. Fortescue State Marina is on the Delaware Bay approximately twenty-three miles northwest of Cape May. It holds  boats up to fifty feet long and nine feet wide. New Jersey Fishing Guide: A Guide to Fishing in New Jersey. Trenton: Travel and Tourism, New Jersey Commerce and Economic Growth Commission, .

See also Intracoastal Waterway

Fred J. Aun

Marine Mammal Stranding Center. Established in  by Robert Schoelkopf and Sheila Dean, this not-for-profit, private institute in Brigantine comes to the aid of beached and injured whales, dolphins, sea turtles, and other animals—the only agency in the state legally authorized to do so. The Marine Mammal Stranding Center rescues more than one hundred animals each year, with injured animals of a manageable size rehabilitated at the center and later, when well, released into the ocean or found a permanent home in an aquarium. Also on the premises is the Sea Life Education Center, a museum.

Mark McGarrity

marl. Marl is a mottled marine clay or shale often containing lime in the form of fossil shells. Greensand marl is a special type of marl primarily composed of the clay mineral glauconite. The mining of greensand marl was a common industry in southern New Jersey in the nineteenth century, when marl was used as a soil conditioner. Greensand marl contains the plant nutrient potash (potassium), along with some trace amounts of phosphate. It was regarded as being good for the long-term productivity of farm soil. During the zenith of the marl mining industry, numerous important fossil specimens were found in the marl pits of New Jersey’s Inner Coastal Plain. See also geology

William B. Gallagher

Marlboro.

.-square-mile township located in the northwestern part of Monmouth County. Its name is derived from the discovery of marl (a natural fertilizer beneficial for agriculture) underlying most of the area in . The first European settlers were Scots Quakers and Presbyterians who began to arrive after . They were followed by English and Dutch settlers in the s. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries immigrants began to come from Ireland and Italy. Currently, there is an influx of people from Asia. From its first settlement until it was given independent township status by the state legislature on February , , Marlboro had been part of Freehold Township. The township

operated under a committee type of government until  when, by a vote of its residents, Marlboro adopted a mayor-council type of government, under which it still operates. In  Marlboro made history by being the first township in the state to pass an ordinance barring the use of hand-held cell phones while driving. After World War II Marlboro began to change from a predominantly agricultural community to a suburban residential town of mostly single-family homes. Most of the town’s growth occurred after . The  census reported a population of , that was  percent white and  percent Asian. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Cottonport, LA: Polyanthros, . Handlin, Nathan. Marlboro Township: A Rich History—A Bright Future. Marlboro: Marlboro Township Historic Commission, .

Marlpit Hall.

Previously known as the Edward Taylor House, this eighteenth-century home in Middletown was built in two sections that have undergone extensive alterations through the years. The main section is believed to have been built in the s for the Loyalist merchant and politician John Taylor. New Jersey Assemblyman Edward Taylor bought the house in , and it remained in the Taylor family until . In  the house was moved fifty feet east to make way for the construction of Kings Highway. Marlpit Hall was the first of four historic house museums to be acquired and operated by the Monmouth County Historical Association. The restored house was presented to the association in June  by Margaret Haskell, a major collector of American antiques. In  the association began a restoration of Marlpit Hall, which was completed in . See also historic sites

Marlene Craig

Nathan Handlin

Marquand Park. Marlboro State Psychiatric Hospital. Marlboro State Psychiatric Hospital opened in  in Monmouth County to relieve crowding in existing state and county psychiatric facilities. Unlike Trenton State () and Greystone Park (), with their imposing central buildings, Marlboro was built on the cottage plan, with smaller, freestanding dormitories and treatment buildings. In , a specialized children’s unit was opened at Marlboro; in , the care of emotionally disturbed children was transferred to the new Arthur Brisbane Child Treatment Center. Overcrowding, understaffing, and underfinancing plagued the state’s psychiatric hospitals, particularly Marlboro. In the s, the Mental Health Association of Monmouth County found disturbing deficiencies and the need for large-scale capital improvements. A state commission uncovered lax supervision, fraud, theft, and other abuses by hospital administration and staff. Between  and , the State Mental Health Redirection Plan restructured the state’s mental health system, expanded community mental health services, and planned for the closing of Marlboro. Funds previously used to operate Marlboro were channeled directly into the state mental health system. Despite protests from surrounding communities and patient advocates concerned about continuing care and other issues, Marlboro’s approximately eight hundred residents were relocated to other hospitals and to a variety of community programs. Marlboro closed its doors in . Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also mental hospitals

Sandra Moss

A seventeen-acre park and arboretum located in Princeton, Marquand Park contains two hundred species of trees, eleven of them the largest of their kind in New Jersey. Judge Richard Field was responsible for the park’s creation, purchasing thirty acres of farmland in . Field hired the famous English gardener, Petrey, and together, they brought trees from surrounding areas, the larger United States, and abroad. In  Susan Brown became owner of the property and expanded the arboretum, as did Allan Marquand, a Princeton professor, in . In  seventeen acres were given to the Borough of Princeton for public use.

Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Ellen Hostetter

Marsh, Reginald

(b. Mar. , ;

d. July , ). Painter and illustrator. Reginald

Marsh was born in Paris to two independently wealthy American artists, Fredrick Dana Marsh, a notable mural painter, and Alice Randall Marsh, a painter of miniatures. Coming to the United States as a two-yearold, his privileged, art-saturated childhood was spent in Nutley after his parents took over the studio of the portraitist Frank Fowler. While attending Lawrenceville School, he was a drummer in the school band, wrote poems, and illustrated his Class of  yearbook. Marsh left New Jersey to attend Yale University, where he illustrated the Yale Record. After graduating in , Marsh became staff illustrator for Vanity Fair magazine and New York’s Daily News. He studied painting at the Art Students League under leading American realists Kenneth Hayes Miller, John Sloan, and George Luks. In , he married fellow art student Betty Burroughs, whose father was a curator

Martland, Harrison Stanford

503

despondent and embittered, and died virtually penniless in Kelsey, California. Gay, Theressa. James W. Marshall: the Discoverer of California Gold, a Biography. Georgetown, CA: Talisman Press, .

E. Richard McKinstry

Marshall House.

See James Wilson

Marshall House.

Martine, James E. (b. Aug. , ; d. Feb.

Reginald Marsh, Hudson Burlesque Chorus, . Chinese ink drawing on paper,  ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Mrs. Felicia M. Marsh 1961, 61.461.

at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. They had one child, Caleb, in . Merging his tradition-steeped academic training with its devotion to the old masters and his growing fascination with Greenwich Village bohemia, Marsh would create lively portraits of New York’s hustling crowds and independent women, particularly at places of entertainment such as Coney Island and burlesque houses. After New York banned burlesque, Marsh would visit Union City’s Hudson Burlesk Theatre, where he sketched and in the process immortalized New Jersey’s bygone enjoyments. In Newark Museum’s Hudson Burlesk Chorus (), the primacy of line is shown through Marsh’s use of Chinese ink on paper, which in  was a new medium for him. Working most often with egg tempura or watercolor, Marsh produced few oil paintings. Drawing remained the most important element in his art, as he wanted to capture the substance of life. In  he acquired a studio on Fourteenth Street and learned printmaking. By  his reputation grew large, and he survived the ensuing years of the Depression in relative comfort as he made the unemployed and derelicts around the Bowery subjects of his art. Divorcing Betty in , Marsh married painter Felicia Meyer in . Like his father, in  he executed two mural panels for the Federal Building in Washington, D.C. In  he painted sixteen dry-plaster ceiling panels in the great hall of architect Cass Gilbert’s Custom House in New York City. His fascination with anatomy led him to study dissection at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York. Marsh began to teach at the Art Students League in , became a wartime

artist-correspondent during World War II, and from  taught in the Painting Department at the Moore Institute of Art and Industry in Philadelphia. Reginald Marsh died in Dorset, Vermont. In , one year after his death, the Whitney Museum of American Art mounted a major retrospective. He recorded his daily events with such consistency that upon his death, over two hundred notebooks were found. They are now housed at the Archives of American Art in Washington, D.C. Cohen, Marilyn. Reginald Marsh’s New York: Paintings, Drawings, Prints, and Photographs. New York: Whitney Museum of Art, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Paine, Roberta M. New Jersey Art in Retrospect. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum, . Todd, Ellen Wiley. The “New Woman’’Revised: Painting and Gender Politics on Fourteenth Street. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

, ). U.S. senator. James E. Martine was the first member of the Senate from an eastern state to have obtained his seat through a direct vote of the people. His election in  provided the backdrop for newly elected governor Woodrow Wilson’s dramatic defiance of the political bosses in New Jersey, and his later rise to the presidency. In , at the urging of progressive Democrats, Martine allowed his name to be entered in the state primary election for the U.S. Senate. A maverick, Martine had run for Congress several times without success, and was known as “the farmer orator.’’ The primary election was part of a package of recently enacted election reforms and was nonbinding and considered meaningless by Democrats, as the Republicans were expected to retain control of the legislature. In November Martine won the primary, Wilson the governorship, and the Democrats a majority in both houses of the legislature. With the Democrats in a position to select the next U.S. Senator, James Smith, Jr., the boss of the state party, who was largely responsible for Wilson’s gubernatorial nomination, declared his candidacy. Wilson urged the legislators to keep faith with the voters by selecting Martine. The Martine affair became a bitter struggle between Wilson and Smith for control of the state organization. By securing Martine’s election, Wilson defied the bosses, took control of the Democratic party in New Jersey, and became, in the words of one Democratic newspaper editor, “the most hopeful figure in American politics.’’ Kerney, James. The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson. New York: Century, . Noble, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton.  vols. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, –.

Martin Paulsson

Marshall, James Wilson

(b. Oct. ,

; d. Aug. , ). Carpenter, wheelwright,

Martland,

and discoverer of gold in California. James Wilson Marshall was born in Mercer, formerly Hunterdon, County, the son of Sarah and Philip Marshall, a coachmaker. In  Marshall headed west, looking for adventure and wealth. By  he was in California at Sutter’s Fort, where he directed the building of a sawmill. As construction came to an end, Marshall found gold in the millrace, creating a stampede in the area. Ultimately, his claims to the gold were rejected. Marshall became

(b. Sept. , ; d. May , ).

Harrison

Stanford

Physician. Son of Dr. William Harrison and Ida Carlyle Bucklish Martland, Harrison Stanford Martland was born in Newark. He received a B.S. from Western Maryland College in , an M.D. from Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons in , interned at New York City Hospital (–), and served as an assistant pathologist at the Russell Sage Institute (–). Martland married Myra Ferdon in  and they had two children.

504

Maso, Sal

A pathologist at Newark City Hospital from  to , Martland’s interest in occupational intoxications began in  with benzene poisonings in Newark’s artificial leather industry. His international reputation came from decades of meticulous studies of radiation injury among New Jersey radium workers. He documented anemias, osteonecrosis, osteogenic sarcomas and other malignancies caused by internally deposited radioactive materials, including the latent period between exposure and objective injuries. By  he had established how the human body absorbs, stores, metabolizes and is harmed by radioactive alkaline earths, work still cited and never successfully challenged. In – he described the “punch drunk’’ syndrome among prizefighters. A pioneer in forensic medicine and opponent of the lay coroner system, he was from  until his death a professor of forensic medicine at New York University. Berg, Samuel. Harrison Stanford Martland, M.D.: The Story of a Physician, a Hospital, an Era. New York: Vantage Press, . Sharpe, W. D. “The New Jersey Radium Dial Painters—A Classic in Occupational Carcinogenesis.’’ Bulletin of the History of Medicine  (): –.

See also radium dialpainters

William D. Sharpe

Maso, Sal

(b. July , ; d. Jan. , ).

Labor and civic leader. Sal Maso was born in New York City, the son of Salvatore and Amelia Margiotta Maso. After two years at a teachers’ college, Maso went to work in Albany, New York, as a metal lather. He joined the Wood, Wire, and Metal Lathers International Union (WWMLIU) in . He moved to Paterson and transferred to a WWMLIU local there. Maso served as vice president and president of the New Jersey State Building and Construction Trades Council; president of the United Building and Construction Trades Council of Paterson; president of the Passaic County Central Labor Union; and as a member of the Paterson board of education and the New Jersey Governor’s Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. He was elected vice president of the WWMLIU in . When union president Lloyd A. Mashburn died on December , , Maso was selected to fill out his term. In the union election in , Maso was elected president and held that office until he retired in . Maso died the next year in Paterson. See also labor movement

David A. Norris

Mason, John Landis (b. ; d. Feb. , ). Inventor. John Landis Mason was born

in Vineland. He moved to New York City as a young man, where he established a metals shop and conceived the idea of a glass container that would preserve perishable foods. In  he patented his “improved jar.’’Porcelainlined threads at the top enabled a metal cap to

Mason fruit jar.

Courtesy Museum of American Glass at Wheaton Village, Millville. be screwed on, forming an airtight seal. Mason formed a business manufacturing the jar tops, while glass shops made the jars themselves; the first one was blown outside Batsto. The Mason jar proved widely popular with farm families to store preserves through the winter. Mason moved to New Brunswick in , where he also patented a life raft and soap dish. John Landis Mason died in New York City.

Jon Blackwell

Masters, Sybilla Righton

(b. date

unknown; d. Aug. , ).

Inventor. Sybilla Righton Masters obtained what was probably the first patent (although under her husband’s name) granted an American colonist. She was the daughter of a Quaker merchant and plantation owner in Burlington Township. Masters went to London and obtained British patents for a method of reducing corn to cornmeal by stamping, instead of the usual process of grinding, using horsepower and waterpower (), and, later, for a method of working straw for hats and bonnets (). Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Joseph P. Sullivan

Matawan.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Matawan was settled in , largely by Scots who called the area New Aberdeen. At different times part of Middletown, Raritan, and Matawan (now Aberdeen) townships, it was incorporated as a borough in . Matawan was earlier known as Middletown Point due to its role as an important shipping port where large sloops once navigated to the town center via Matawan Creek. That

waterway, which began silting by the second quarter of the nineteenth century, has now shrunk to a tiny stream. Numerous mercantile interests and small industrial plants formed a business district around Main Street. They supported Monmouth County’s first bank, the Farmers and Merchants National Bank, established in . Matawan’s business interests financially backed the New York and Long Branch Railroad to encourage the line to establish its route through the town. This action facilitated greater industrial growth, notably in the manufacture of pottery and tile, located here at the southerly reach of the extensive clay deposits surrounding Raritan Bay. Matawan’s Main Street commercial stem shares the thoroughfare with a number of notable eighteenth- and nineteenth-century houses; together they comprise a local historic district. One, the Burrowes Mansion, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is occupied as a historic house museum. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. Matawan, –. Keyport: Brown Publishing, . Henderson, Helen. Around Matawan and Aberdeen. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Randall Gabrielan

Maurice River.

.-square-mile township, the largest municipality in size in Cumberland County. Maurice River was one of six original townships to form Cumberland County in , when Cumberland broke off from Salem County. It incorporated as a township fifty years later, and its boundaries were altered six more times before achieving their final configuration in . River and township take their names from The Prince Maurice, a Dutch ship sunk near the mouth of the river in the late seventeenth century. Seventy percent of the township lies within the Pinelands National Preserve, which provides a home to rare flora and fauna, including the bald eagle. The Maurice River forms its western boundary; the Delaware Bay is on the south. Its four rivers, the Maurice, the Menantico, the Manumuskin, and the Muskee Creek, are included in the Federal Wild and Scenic Rivers Program. The township is the home of East Point Lighthouse, erected in , the second oldest lighthouse remaining in the state and the last one on the Jersey side of the Delaware Bay. Villages within the municipality are Hesstown, Delmont, Heislerville, Dorchester, Mauricetown, and Port Elizabeth, which was the center of the West Indies trade until the early nineteenth century. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median family income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Maxwell House Coffee of language to national defense. One of the largest landowners on Lake Hopatcong in the early twentieth century, Maxim was opposed to its use as a public water supply. When the Morris Canal Company, which owned the dam and a large tract of land at the outlet of the lake, abandoned the canal, he fought to have the dam retained and the lake dedicated as a state park. In  what he called “The Queen of All New Jersey Lakes’’ became public property. Hudson Maxim died in Hopatcong. Johnson, Clifton. Hudson Maxim: Reminiscences and Comments. New York: Doubleday, Page, . McCallum, Iain. Blood Brothers: Hiram and Hudson Maxim—Pioneers of Modern Warfare. London: Chatham Publishers, .

Raymond Frey

Maxwell, William ).

John Neagle, Portrait of Peter Maverick, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1958, The Member’s Fund, 58.38. Photo: Witt, 1958. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Mauricetown.

See Commercial Town-

ship.

Maverick, Peter

(b. Oct. , ; d. June

, ). Engraver. Peter Maverick was raised

in Manhattan, where he apprenticed with his father Peter Rushton Maverick. The younger Maverick worked as an engraver in New York until , when he purchased a farm on Belleville Road (now Broadway) in Newark. He maintained an active shop in Newark, producing bookplates, banknotes, maps, and magazine and book illustrations. He trained several apprentices, including artist Asher Brown Durand. Durand was Maverick’s apprentice from  until , and his partner from  to . After the dissolution of this partnership, Maverick moved his business back to Manhattan, where he died in .

(b. ; d. Nov. ,

Revolutionary War general. William Maxwell was the son of John and Ann Maxwell. In  the family emigrated from northern Ireland and settled on a farm near presentday Phillipsburg. Maxwell served as an officer in the New Jersey Regiment (New Jersey Blues) in the military campaigns in New York from  to , and from  to  he was a civilian commissary to the British army on the frontier. At the start of the Revolutionary War, Maxwell was a member of the New Jersey Provincial Congress and a colonel of the Second New Jersey Regiment, which was taken into Continental service on November , . For most of  Maxwell’s regiment served in the expedition against Canada. On October , , Congress elected Maxwell brigadier general. For three and a half years thereafter Maxwell commanded the New Jersey Brigade. During much of the war Maxwell and his brigade provided a protecting screen to the army’s New Jersey encampments,

often fighting skirmishes, and also guarding the northeast coastal sector of New Jersey. Preliminary to the battle of Brandywine, Maxwell commanded a special corps of light infantry in holding actions against the advancing British army. He also fought at Germantown, Monmouth, Connecticut Farms, and Springfield, and, in late summer and fall  he and his brigade participated in the Sullivan expedition against the Iroquois Indians. In June  Maxwell resigned his commission, for reasons unclear but relating to a rift between him and his senior officers. Maxwell’s stubbornness and his thick Scottish brogue set him apart from other officers, yet Gen. George Washington recognized Maxwell as one of his most dependable generals. After the war, Maxwell returned to farming and served one term in the New Jersey state legislature. He never married. Ward, Harry M. General William Maxwell and the New Jersey Continentals. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also American Revolution

Harry M. Ward

Maxwell House Coffee.

Created by Joel Cheek, a partner in a Nashville, Tennessee, wholesale grocery firm, this coffee was so popular with guests at the nearby Maxwell House Hotel that it became known by that name. Produced by the Nashville Coffee and Manufacturing Company—later the Cheek and Neal Coffee Company ()—the brand was praised as “Good to the Last Drop’’ after it was served to President Theodore Roosevelt in . Cheek and Neal was purchased in  by the Postum Company, which later changed its name to General Foods Corporation. Maxwell House is now part of Kraft Foods. It maintained a factory in Hoboken from  until

Hendricks, Gordon. “Durand, Maverick, and the Declaration.’’ American Art Journal  (): –. Stauffer, David McNeely. American Engravers upon Copper and Steel. New York: Burt Franklin, . Stephens, Stephen DeWitt. The Mavericks, American Engravers. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Kenneth John Myers

Maxim, Hudson

(b. Feb. , ; d. May

, ). Scientist and inventor. Called by his

friend Thomas Edison “the most versatile man in America,’’ Hudson Maxim is best known for the invention of “Maximite,’’ a high explosive used in naval guns, developed in his laboratory at Hopatcong. He was also a prolific writer on subjects ranging from the philosophy

505

The Maxwell House Building two years prior to its closing, Hoboken, .

Courtesy AP/Wide World Photos.

506

May, Cornelius Jacobsen

, which at the time of its construction was the world’s largest coffee plant.

Clark, Geoffrey W. History of Stevens Institute of Technology: A Record of Broad-Based Curricula and Technogenesis. Jersey City: Jensen/Daniels, .

Edward L. Lach, Jr. Geoffrey W. Clark

May, Cornelius Jacobsen (fl. early fif-

Mays Landing.

Explorer. Captain Cornelius Jacobsen May (Mey in Dutch), from Hoorn in Holland, was a very experienced East Asia and New Netherland explorer. He first sailed to the Hudson River in . In  he explored the Delaware River area in the service of a private company in search of trading rights. In , shortly after the establishment of the West India Company, May returned as captain of the ship Niew Nederland with a group of prospective settlers. They were recruited from Frenchspeaking Dutch immigrants, at the time called Walloons. Small trading colonies were established at the Connecticut River (Fort Good Hope), the North Hudson River (Fort Orange), Governor’s Island, and the Delaware River. The latter, Fort Wilhelmus, was the first such settlement in what is now New Jersey. It did not last long, however. During  and , May also served as the second governor of New Netherland. Cape May and Mays Landing are named after him.

County).

teenth century).

Weslager, C. A. Dutch Explorers, Traders, and Settlers in the Delaware Valley, –. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

Hendrik Edelman

Mayer, Alfred Marshall

(b. Nov. ,

; d. July , ). Physicist. Alfred Marshall

Mayer was born in Baltimore, Maryland, where he attended Saint Mary’s College. An article on carbonic acid brought him to the attention of Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who became Mayer’s mentor in the pursuit of pure science. At twenty Mayer was a professor of physics and chemistry at the University of Maryland. After study under the physicist Henri Regnault at the University of Paris from  to , he became a professor of physics at Pennsylvania College (–), professor of physics and astronomy at Lehigh University (–), and professor of physics at Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken (–), where he wrote the bulk of over one hundred scholarly articles and standard college texts on acoustics, electricity, electro-magnetic phenomena, and optics. Best known for pioneering work in acoustics, Mayer, along with Rudolf Koenig, Hermann von Helmholtz, and Lord Reyleigh, was the first to devise methods to measure the intensity of sound by non-electrical means. Mayer coined the term “pendulum vibration,’’ and his pioneering experiments with ticking clocks in soundproofed rooms showed that a sound could be obliterated with a second, lower frequency sound. Thus, he was the first to discover the phenomena of “masking’’ in acoustics. Alfred Marshall Mayer died in South Orange.

See Hamilton (Atlantic

household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Csapos, Jean, ed. Maywood Centennial Journal: One Hundred Years, –. Maywood: Maywood Centennial Committee, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

May v. Cooperman.

This  case concerned an attempt by the legislature to require one minute of silence in all public schools at the start of each school day “for quiet and private contemplation or introspection.’’ The governor’s veto of the statute was overridden by the legislature. The attorney general declined to defend the statute, claiming that it was unconstitutional. Challenged in federal court, that statute was indeed found unconstitutional by the federal district court in , on the grounds that ) the basic intent of the statute was religious rather than secular; ) it both advanced and inhibited religion; and ) it fostered excessive government entanglement with religion. Two years later, the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit affirmed the lower court’s decision, but emphasized the statute’s lack of a valid secular purpose, rather than the second and third parts of the holding. By , the president of the New Jersey senate, Carmen Orechio, and Alan Karcher, the Speaker of the assembly, both of whom had vigorously defended the statute, no longer held those positions. The legislature declined further appeal of the case; as a result, New Jersey has no required minute of silence in its public schools.

Jonathan Lurie

Maywood. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Settled by the Dutch in the seventeenth century, the area was known as West Hackensack until it became part of Midland Township in . A year later landowners named the new railroad depot Maywood and formed land associations to lay out streets and sell lots. The Panic of  doomed the first development efforts until Gustav L. Jaeger and Henry Lindenmeyer planned a residential village in the early s. Maywood incorporated as a borough with  residents in  and developed as a residential community with a little industry. By , it had six chemical plants and , residents. During the post–World War II suburban boom, Maywood benefited from its accessibility to New York City and its proximity to the Bergen Mall and Garden State Plaza shopping centers in nearby Paramus. Its population increased from , in  to , in . Maywood remains a residential community with some industrial and commercial development along Route , and a legacy of toxic contamination from its earlier chemical industry. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median

Meadowlands, Hackensack.

The Hackensack Meadowlands are a large marshland of about twenty-eight square miles in the southern part of the Hackensack River Valley in northeastern New Jersey. Most of the area is now a tidal marsh that is only several inches above high tide. It represents the remnant of Glacial Lake Hackensack, which was located in the area north of Staten Island, west of the Palisades, and east of the Watchung Mountains. This ancient lake formed during the waning stages of the most recent glacial advance of continental glaciation (the Wisconsinan). This stage began about eighty thousand years ago and reached its maximum extent about twenty thousand years ago. As the lake receded, clay and silt deposits were left behind to depths of as much as  feet over the underlying bedrock of sandstone and mudstone. A thin veneer of organic material (decayed plant material) overlies the clay and silt deposits to a depth of about  feet, but is as much as  feet in some places. The most recent deposit in many parts of the Meadows is artificial fill (trash and rubbish), which overlies the natural deposits of clay, silt, and organic material. Some of the early European settlers in the Meadows were British merchants from Barbados, so during the s the area was known as New Barbados. During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, cedar forests covered about a third to a half of the Meadows, while salt hay was cut by farmers twice a year in the nonforested portions. Brickmaking based on the locally abundant clay deposits was an important industry from  to about the s. Woodcliff Lake in the upper Hackensack River basin was constructed in  for water supply purposes. A commensurate decrease in downstream fresh-water flows

THE MEADOWLANDS

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10 miles © Rutgers, The State University

Meadows Foundation led to an increase in the salt content in the tidally affected areas. The dominant vegetation in the Meadows is now the common reed (Phragmites) that can grow – feet high in very dense clusters. Filling of wetlands in the Meadowlands began with the earliest settlers, who tried to farm by building dikes and drains. The filling, especially with refuse disposal, accelerated in the mid-s as the population grew in the surrounding areas. By  over , acres were already being used or were planned for landfilling. About five thousand tons of refuse per day were coming into the Meadowlands from  municipalities. This degree of unregulated waste disposal in conjunction with haphazard zoning and the growing need for development space led the New Jersey State Legislature in  to enact the Hackensack Meadowlands Reclamation and Development Act. A geopolitical district was created that consisted of parts of fourteen municipalities in Bergen and Hudson counties. The Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission that was created in the  act has regional planning and zoning authority within the thirty-one-square-mile district (about the same size as Manhattan Island). Since its inception, the commission has facilitated the construction of millions of square feet of office, commercial, and distribution center facilities by private investors, in addition to the acquisition and preservation of existing wetlands as permanent open space. Plans for active and passive recreational opportunities in the district are also well under way. Gluck, Louise. Meadowlands. Hopewell: Ecco Press, . Quinn, John R. Fields of Sun and Grass: An Artist’s Journal of the New Jersey Meadowlands. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Sullivan, Robert. The Meadowlands: Wilderness Adventures at the Edge of a City. New York: Scribner’s, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography

Robert M. Hordon

Meadowlands Racetrack. Opened in September , Meadowlands Racetrack quickly established itself as the preeminent harness-racing track in North America. It solidified that standing when it lured harness racing’s premier event, the Hambletonian, to New Jersey from Illinois in . The Meadowlands offered horse racing’s first $ million race, the Meadowlands Pace, and the first $ million race, the Woodrow Wilson, in . In addition to its eight-month harness meet, the track offers thoroughbred racing in the fall. Located in the Meadowlands Sports Complex just off Route  in East Rutherford, it is owned and operated by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority. Guy Sterling

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Aerial view of Giants Stadium, Meadowlands Sports Complex, East Rutherford.

Courtesy New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority.

Meadowlands Sports Complex. Occupying a -acre site in East Rutherford, the Meadowlands Sports Complex comprises Giants Stadium, the Continental Airlines Arena, and the Meadowlands Racetrack. The idea for a complex, proposed in , was taken up by Governor William Cahill. In  the legislature created the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority (NJSEA), which oversees the site. Ground was broken the following year. In  Governor-elect Brendan Byrne negotiated a thirty-year lease with the Giants. Giants Stadium, which seats over eighty thousand, is home to the Giants and Jets of the National Football League and the MetroStars of Major League Soccer. The Giants played their first game there on October , , and the Jets followed on September , . The Meadowlands Racetrack, which opened on September , , seats approximately forty thousand. It features both harness and thoroughbred racing. The Continental Airlines Arena, initially named after Governor Byrne (Governor Christie Whitman’s administration later sold the naming rights), seats approximately twenty thousand. It is home to the Devils of the National Hockey League, the Nets of the National Basketball Association, the Gladiators of the Arena Football League, the Storm of the National Lacrosse League, and the Seton Hall Pirates, a collegelevel men’s basketball team. The arena opened in  with six sold-out Bruce Springsteen concerts. The Devils and Nets have expressed a desire to leave it, possibly for a proposed site in Newark.

meadows. Meadows are lands dominated by herbaceous plants. In New Jersey, natural meadows occur where drainage is poor. Salt marsh cordgrass and salt hay dominate meadows along tidal rivers and inlets. Freshwater meadows mark the beds of extinct glacial lakes. (Examples are Great Piece Meadows, Troy Meadows, Black Meadow in the bed of Glacial Lake Passaic, and the Hackensack Meadowlands in the bed of Glacial Lake Hackensack.) Draining and dumping solid wastes have altered the hydrology and vegetation of many of these from herbaceous marshes to hardwood- or reedgrass-dominated swamps. Wacker, Peter O., and Paul G. E. Clemens. Land Use in Early New Jersey: A Historical Geography. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Emily W. B. Russell

Meadows Foundation.

This volunteer organization acquires, refurbishes, and maintains historical sites in the Somerset section of Franklin Township. Renovated sites include the Symen Van Wickle House (c. ); the Wyckoff-Garretson House (c. ); the Blackwells Mills Canal House (c. ); the Franklin Inn and Used Book Store (c. ; briefly headquarters of British general Charles Cornwallis); the Hageman Farm (early s); and the Van Liew–Suydam House (late s). Privately funded, the foundation hosts living history, cultural, and recreational events, including reenactments, lectures, concert series, book fairs, art exhibits, canoe races, and festivals.

Danielson, Michael N. Home Team: Professional Sports and the American Metropolis. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Brahms, William B. Franklin Township, Somerset County, NJ: A History. Somerset: Franklin Township Public Library, .

Brendan O’Malley

Laura Garber

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meatpacking.

Meatpacking was once a key component of the New Jersey food industry. Early in the nineteenth century, cattle followed dirt roads from the hills of western counties to slaughterhouses in Newark and Jersey City. However, by  railroads allowed meat processors in Newark and Jersey City to receive cattle from Kansas at cheaper prices than cattle from Sussex County. For a time the Central Stockyard and Transit Company used railroads and steamships to meet the demands of a growing Jewish population in New York for kosher meat, and New Jersey meatpackers provided meat in a more timely manner than midwestern packers. Between  and , large meatpacking concerns, chief among them Phillip Armour and Gustavus Swift, established a national beef trust. Easy access via the Camden and Amboy Railroad Company led Armour to erect meat storage warehouses in areas such as Mount Holly. The introduction of refrigerated railroad cars in – made long-distance transportation of meat safer, as well as cheaper, leading to a decline in New Jersey’s local meatpacking firms. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Frances Pinto

Medford. .-square-mile township in southern Burlington County. Medford was first established as a settlement in  when William Penn and other Quakers sold  acres of land to Samuel Coles. It was originally part of Evesham Township. The post office that opened in  referred to the area as Upper Evesham. Medford became an independent municipality in . Medford Lakes was established as separate borough in . The central village of Medford rose in the s, but much of the township’s remaining land was either farmland or forested as part of the Pine Barrens. An important local landmark was the gristmill first established by Isaac Haines in . This complex was sold to local entrepreneur William S. Kirby in , who enlarged it. At one time, a gas plant supplied gaslight to all the buildings along Church Road. Sawed logs cut in Medford, in a water-powered mill in operation until , were sold as far as Philadelphia and Baltimore. Medford underwent a rapid transformation into a wooded, upscale suburb and was one of the county’s fastest-growing municipalities in the s. With development restricted in the Pinelands since , the township’s major growth corridor is along Route , where hundreds of dwellings and shops are now approved for construction. Open space preservation is a major priority of local government. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Medford Lakes.

.-square-mile borough in Burlington County. The borough of Medford Lakes is completely surrounded by the township of Medford, from which it separated in . It was established as a resort community in  by Camden developer Leon Todd, who wanted to build a community consisting exclusively of log cabins with an American Indian motif around the lakes in central Medford. Through the town’s Colony Club, also established in , aesthetic standards for building construction and maintenance, which still exist today, were established. By , there were  cabins and more than  smaller summer cottages. That same year, the Log Cabin Lodge was erected at the center of town and billed as the largest log structure east of the Mississippi. Originally used as a hotel and community house, the lodge was converted into a restaurant and renamed Settlers Inn in . This local landmark was destroyed in a January  fire. When the borough became independent in , Todd was named as its first mayor. In , it adopted a three-member nonpartisan council that continues as its form of government today. A major current issue is rapidly rising property taxes, which are mostly collected from residents since Medford Lakes has two schools and almost no commercial tax base. The annual Canoe Carnival, a popular gathering in southern Burlington County, has continued since . The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Griscom, Lloyd E. Tales of Three Towns: Cinnaminson, Palmyra, and Riverton. N.p.: Lloyd E. Griscom, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

medical and dental education. From colonial times until the s, New Jersey had no institution for formal medical education within its borders. Queen’s College (later Rutgers) in New Brunswick tried three times to establish a formal medical school by taking advantage of disagreements among physicians on the faculty of New York’s College of Physicians and Surgeons. Dr. Nicholas Romayne of New York convinced Queen’s College to grant medical degrees in – and again between  and . A decade later, five rebellious New York medical professors, led by Dr. David Hosack, opened Rutgers Medical School in Manhattan and awarded

degrees under the auspices of Rutgers College in . Its success at attracting students ( in contrast to  at the College of Physicians and Surgeons) led the president of the New York State Society to take legal action against “Rutgers College, New Jersey’’ for its “unjustifiable interference in the medical concerns of this state.’’ The failure of Rutgers Medical College in  forced would-be New Jersey doctors for the next -plus years to learn their profession through apprenticeship to a physician or, increasingly, by attending a medical school outside New Jersey—chiefly in New York City or Philadelphia. A few proprietary medical institutions arose in the nineteenth century but quickly vanished; Abraham Flexner’s  report on the sorry state of America’s medical schools had no listing at all in New Jersey. In  Seton Hall University initiated the first formal medical and dental education in the state by founding the Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry, located at Jersey City Medical Center. The first state-supported institutional program of medical education was chartered in : Rutgers Medical School opened in  as a two-year basic science institution that was part of Rutgers University. After Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry encountered financial difficulties, it was acquired by the state in  and renamed the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry (NJCMD) Two years later, the medical school relocated to Newark (the dental school remained in Jersey City until ) and, under the historic Newark Agreements of , began to construct a major academic health center in the city Central Ward. The Medical and Dental Education Act of  created the College of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (CMDNJ) by merging Newark’s NJCMD— now renamed New Jersey Medical School— with Rutgers Medical School in Piscataway. Rutgers Medical School awarded its first M.D. degrees in ; it was renamed Robert Wood Johnson Medical School in . Longstanding political and medical disputes between traditional allopathic physicians and osteopathic physicians in New Jersey were resolved by the state’s charter to the School of Osteopathic Medicine in . The School of Osteopathic Medicine enrolled its first class the following year and graduated New Jersey’s first doctors of osteopathic medicine (D.O.’s) in . Legislation in  brought the three medical schools and the dental school into a single institution: the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ), with campuses in Newark, Piscataway, and Stratford. Along with university status, UMDNJ was granted additional independence and flexibility within state government. With its designation as a freestanding university, UMDNJ became the largest university of the health sciences in the United States. By  it encompassed a statewide network of academic

Medical Society of New Jersey health centers and affiliated hospitals that included eight professional schools (covering medicine, dentistry, osteopathic medicine, public health, nursing, biomedical sciences, and health-related professions) on five campuses, enrolling more than forty-five hundred students. Gov. James E. McGreevey’s proposal, soon after his election, to consolidate UMDNJ, NJIT, and Rutgers University aroused great controversy. Bergen, S. S., Jr. “Medical Education of New Jersey: The Development of UMDNJ.’’ New Jersey Medicine , no.  (): –. Cowen, David L. Medical Education: The Queen’sRutgers Experience, –. New Brunswick: State University Bicentennial Commission and the Rutgers Medical School, . Reeds, Karen. A State of Health: New Jersey’s Medical Heritage. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Robert L. Trelstad

Medical History Society of New Jersey. The Medical History Society of New Jersey (MHSNJ) was founded in  to promote interest, research, and writing in medical history, especially of New Jersey. A constituent society of the American Association for the History of Medicine, it is dedicated to the enjoyment and discussion of the history of medicine and allied fields. The society especially reaches out to medical students and medical residents. The MHSNJ does not maintain research collections but its members benefit from public programs, a newsletter, and other publications. The annual Morris H. Saffron Lecture, cosponsored with the Academy of Medicine of New Jersey, is presented each May at the society’s annual meeting. The Saffron lecturer is a nationally known figure in academic or clinical medical history. Dr. Saffron was one of the founding members of the society. An early research project, jointly conducted by the society and the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey’s Special Collections Department, was an oral history project, “The Health Professions in New Jersey during the Great Depression, – .’’ The most recent project of the MHSNJ was the publication of A Guide to Resources in Medical History in New Jersey. See also medical and dental education

Lois R. Densky-Wolff

medical organizations. Medical organizations in New Jersey comprise professional associations that are primarily concerned with delivering medical services or with professional medical education. The oldest organization is the Medical Society of New Jersey (MSNJ), formed in  and now based in Lawrenceville. The MSNJ represents member physicians through local societies in each of New Jersey’s twenty-one counties, and publishes a monthly journal, New Jersey

Medicine. The teaching branch of the MSNJ is the Academy of Medicine of New Jersey (AMNJ), whose affiliated societies represent New Jersey’s practitioners of medical specialties. Member organizations of the AMNJ include American College of OB/GYN, District III, New Jersey Section; American Trauma Society, New Jersey Division; Delaware Valley Vascular Society; Dermatological Society of New Jersey; Eastern Vascular Society; Electrodiagnostic Medicine Association of New Jersey; Medical Oncology Society of New Jersey; Mid-Atlantic Anesthesia Caucus; Nephrology Society of New Jersey; Neurological Association of New Jersey; New Jersey Academy of Otolaryngology and New Jersey Academy of Facial Plastic Surgery; New Jersey Anesthesia Political Action Committee; New Jersey Association of Ambulatory Surgery Centers; New Jersey Association of Medical Specialty Societies; New Jersey Chapter, American College of Cardiology; New Jersey Chapter, American College of Physicians/American Society of Internal Medicine; New Jersey Child Neurology Society; New Jersey Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Society; New Jersey Obstetrical and Gynecological Society; New Jersey Pediatric Society; New Jersey Psychoanalytic Society; New Jersey Rheumatology Association; New Jersey Society for Pacing and Electrophysiology; New Jersey Society of Minimally Invasive Surgery; New Jersey Society of Pathologists; New Jersey Society of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation; New Jersey Society of Plastic Surgeons; New Jersey State Society of Anesthesiologists; Oncology Society of New Jersey; Radiological Society of New Jersey; Society of Critical Care Medicine; Society of Surgeons of New Jersey; Urology Society of New Jersey; and Vascular Society of New Jersey. New Jersey state boards set the standards for the licensing of medical and paramedical practitioners, regulate the activities of the professions, and protect consumers. These state boards are: Acupuncture Examining Committee; Alcohol and Drug Counselor Committee; Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology Advisory Committee; Board of Pharmacy; Certified Psychoanalysts Advisory Committee; Massage, Bodywork and Somatic Therapy Examining Committee; Medical Practitioner Review Panel; New Jersey State Board of Dentistry; New Jersey Board of Nursing; New Jersey State Board of Optometrists; Occupational Therapy Advisory Council; Orthotics and Prosthetics Board of Examiners; Perfusionists Advisory Committee; Physician Assistant Advisory Committee; Professional Counselor Examiners Committee; State Board of Chiropractic Examiners; State Board of Examiners of Ophthalmic Dispensers and Ophthalmic Technicians; State Board of Marriage and Family Therapy Examiners; State Board of Medical Examiners; State Board of Physical Therapy; State Board of Psychological Examiners; State Board of Respiratory Care; and State Board of Social Work Examiners.

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Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also medical and dental education

Pamela Cooper

Medical Society of New Jersey. The Medical Society of New Jersey, formed on July , , was the first professional society in the nation, at a time when there were eighty-eight physicians to serve a population of ,. During the eighteenth century, medical societies were formed to represent the financial interests of physicians, to set standards of fair practice, and to exchange scientific information necessary to improve public health. The society established a constitution and set a table of uniform rates that its members would charge, although this table was shortly changed to a ceiling. The fourteenpoint constitution admonished practitioners of physic and surgery to serve the poor, discourage quackery, and seek consultations. The schedule of fees ranged from one shilling sixpence for a tooth extraction or a nearby house call up to three pounds for the amputation of a leg. A home obstetrical delivery netted one pound ten shillings. Attendees at Medical Society meetings were expected to present and discuss their cases. In the days before medical schools, the society was concerned with physician education and affirmed a four-year apprenticeship. Today, with more than eight thousand members, the MSNJ has components in each county, representing all medical disciplines. Its mission is “to promote the betterment of the public health and the science and art of medicine, to enlighten public opinion in regard to the problems of medicine, and to

Medical diploma granted to James Swan by the Medical Society of New Jersey, June , .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

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safeguard the rights of the practitioners of medicine.’’ It works to ensure “the sanctity of the physician/patient relationship, advocating for the rights of patients and physicians to achieve the highest quality medical care delivered in an ethical and compassionate environment.’’ It publishes the monthly journal New Jersey Medicine, providing scientific papers on a variety of clinical subjects as well as society news regarding programs, activities, and policy initiatives. Rogers, Fred B., and A. Reasoner Sayre. The Healing Art: A History of the Medical Society of New Jersey. Trenton: Medical Society of New Jersey, .

See also Academy of Medicine of New Jersey; medical societies

Michael Gochfeld

medicine and public health.

The health of New Jerseyans mirrors that of Americans in general. However, some distinctive aspects of the state’s geography and development have had a notable effect on the health of its inhabitants. For most of New Jersey’s history, it has depended on New York City and Philadelphia to train its doctors and to provide specialized medical services. And, since the mid-nineteenth century, New Jersey’s exceptionally heavy industrialization, urbanization, and population density have put its citizens at high risk of suffering infectious, occupational, and environmental diseases. Seventeenth-century European colonizers promoted New Jersey as a healthy place, “more agreeable to European bodies than the severe cold of New England or the sulfurous heat of Virginia.’’ However, starting as early as , when an unidentified illness nearly wiped out a settlement of Swedes and English at Salem Creek, New Jersey was also subject to frequent epidemics; malaria, measles, dysentery, diphtheria, cholera, yellow fever, and typhoid fever (among others) endangered the lives of the native inhabitants and the newcomers. Smallpox was particularly feared. The Swedish naturalist-traveler, Peter Kalm, observed in  that “smallpox, a disease the Indians were unacquainted with before their commerce with the Europeans . . . has killed incredible numbers of them.’’ To prevent the highly contagious disease, New Jerseyans began using inoculation by the s. In , Lewis Condict of Morristown learned about Edward Jenner’s new technique of smallpox vaccination; his success convinced other New Jersey physicians to adopt it. Well into the nineteenth century most New Jersey families provided their own medical care, relying on folk remedies, imported patent medicines, and medical advice from newspapers, almanacs, and handbooks such as John Wesley’s Primitive Physic (a Trenton edition appeared in ). Pharmacists, midwives, and self-taught healers helped compensate for the shortage of formally trained doctors.

The colony had about twenty medical practitioners by the end of the seventeenth century, and about three hundred by the end of the eighteenth century. Although few in number, early New Jersey physicians were well organized. Thirty-six doctors convened in  to found the first medical society in the British colonies. The New Jersey Medical Society (renamed the Medical Society of New Jersey in ) set fees and standards for medical practice and successfully campaigned for the first North American law to require every candidate for a medical license to pass a formal examination. Most early New Jersey physicians learned their art by apprenticeship under an experienced doctor. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, about one in eight medical practitioners in New Jersey could claim some formal training, essentially the same proportion as the rest of the country. The establishment of the medical school at the University of Pennsylvania in  immediately attracted New Jerseyans. The first class’s ten students included Jonathan Elmer and John Lawrence; they received the degree of bachelor of medicine in . To explain the causes of disease, New Jersey doctors at the end of the eighteenth century and into the early nineteenth century invoked the ancient humoral concepts of Galen and the influential theories of Philadelphia’s Benjamin Rush, who recommended the use of heroic therapy—purging, vomiting, bloodletting—to correct the results of excess tension in the body. Medical Society discussions reflected as well an interest in geographic, meteorological, and miasmatic theories of disease. Over the course of the nineteenth century, New Jersey physicians joined the general trend away from heroic medicine, responding in part to increasing competition from sectarian practitioners who offered less drastic treatments as an alternative. The Era of the Common Man and a pervasive sense of the limited effectiveness of medicine encouraged a relaxation of licensing requirements: an  law permitted any holder of a medical diploma to practice in the state after registering with a county clerk. Until the creation of the State Board of Medical Examiners in , no demonstration of medical knowledge was required. Of the approximately  medical practitioners in the state in , reported the Medical Society, onefifth (including twenty-one women) were “irregular . . . pretenders to the healing art,’’ including homeopaths, eclectics, Thomsonians, botanics, “electricians,’’ cancer doctors, clairvoyants, root doctors, hydropaths, Indian doctors, “inhalation doctors,’’ and spiritualists. Osteopathy, which became popular in the late nineteenth century, was at first strenuously opposed by mainstream New Jersey physicians, but eventually was fully recognized by the  state charter of the School of

J. C. Christie trade card, Paterson, c. .

Courtesy William H. Helfand Collection, New York. Osteopathic Medicine. Even before New Jersey physicians accepted the germ theory of disease, they recognized that the crowded tenements, unventilated factories, and inadequate sewers in the state’s industrial cities fostered cholera, typhoid, tuberculosis, and diphtheria. In the s and s, Trenton had the reputation of the nation’s dirtiest city and Newark its unhealthiest. Although Elizabeth constructed the nation’s first charcoal, sand, and granite filter for its waterworks in , contaminated water remained a major health hazard into the twentieth century. In  Jersey City residents complained of drinking “foul sewage water’’; in  Newark experienced a waterborne outbreak of typhoid fever. Under the leadership of Dr. Ezra Mundy Hunt, a state sanitary commission was convened in  to study the state’s public health problems. Lobbying by the New Jersey Sanitary Association (formed in , now the New Jersey Public Health Association) led to the establishment of the State Board of Health, which was gradually given authority over municipal health boards and the primary role in regulating public health. The board evolved into the State Department of Health and Senior Services. In  Dorothea Dix persuaded the legislature to build the New Jersey Lunatic Asylum in Trenton. However, aside from military hospitals in the Revolutionary War and Civil War and overcrowded almshouses, New Jersey had no public hospitals until , when the Sisters of the Poor opened Saint Mary’s Hospital in Hoboken. Of the seventeen hospitals founded by , ten were started by religious groups, the rest by civic-minded philanthropists or cities. Between  and  the number and size of hospitals and tuberculosis sanatoriums grew markedly, and New Jersey hospital admissions increased a thousandfold. This reflected a national trend and Americans’ faith in the advances of bacteriology, surgery, anesthesiology, and radiology (within weeks of Wilhelm Roentgen’s  announcement of the discovery of x-rays, Thomas Edison invented a working fluoroscope). Half a century later, with help from the  federal Hill-Burton Act, the number of community hospitals surged to -plus to accommodate

Megan’s Law returning veterans and the baby boom. By the end of the twentieth century, however, the number of hospitals in New Jersey fell below  (with , beds). As medical insurance plans and the government cut payments and as new medical technology and pharmaceutical advances—many developed by the pharmaceutical and medical device industry that had flourished in the state since the late nineteenth century—made more outpatient treatments possible, New Jersey hospitals faced increasingly severe economic pressures. Beyond providing medical and surgical treatment for patients, New Jersey’s hospitals made up in part for the state’s long lack of a medical school. Starting with Paterson and Orange in the s, many hospitals set up rigorous nursing schools to ensure a supply of qualified staff. The Newark Eye and Ear Infirmary had a national reputation for its training of medical and surgical specialists. Outside the hospitals (and leaving aside several early short-lived attempts to set up medical schools), formal training in the health professions began with the New Jersey College of Pharmacy, established in Newark. In . Seton Hall University, Rutgers University, and Fairleigh Dickinson University began to offer nursing courses and degrees in the s and s. In  the Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry in Jersey City became the state’s first accredited medical school; it conferred its first doctor of medicine degrees in . In  the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ) received its charter from the state. The new institution brought together the New Jersey Medical School and the New Jersey Dental School (the state-run successors of Seton Hall’s medical and dental school) in Newark, the Rutgers Medical School which had opened in Piscataway in  (renamed the Robert Wood Johnson School of Medicine in ), and the School of Osteopathic Medicine in Stratford. By , UMDNJ had become the nation’s largest self-standing health sciences university, with professional degrees in eight schools of medicine, dentistry, osteopathic medicine, biomedical sciences, nursing, public health, and health-related professions on six campuses around the state. Before the founding of UMDNJ and its one hundred–plus centers and institutes conducting specialized research, training, and clinical care, New Jersey’s biomedical researchers were concentrated in Rutgers University, Princeton University, the pharmaceutical corporations, and independent specialized institutes such as the Rockefeller Institute’s Animal Pathology Laboratory in Princeton and the Coriell Institute for Medical Research (which pioneered techniques of culturing human cells and producing polio vaccines). Individual New Jersey scientists and physicians working largely on their own also made major contributions to medical and

public health knowledge. Noteworthy medical research in New Jersey includes Addison Freeman’s identification of mercury poisoning as an occupational disease among East Orange hatters in ; Henry Leber Coit’s studies of contaminated milk in Newark in the s; John Smith’s research at Rutgers on the control of malarial mosquitoes early in the twentieth century; Harrison S. Martland’s elucidation of radium poisoning among radium-dial painters in West Orange in the s; the first isolation of a vitamin, by R. R. Williams of Bell Laboratories, in ; the first large-scale production of penicillin in a joint war effort by several New Jersey pharmaceutical companies in the s; Albert Schatz and Selman Waksman’s discovery of the antituberculosis antibiotic, streptomycin, in  at Rutgers (honored by the Nobel Prize to Waksman in ); Philip Levine’s  explanation of the cause of Rh disease and William Pollack’s development of RHOgam at Ortho Research Foundation in  to prevent the fatal disease in infants; Henry H. Kessler’s innovations in cineplastic surgery and rehabilitation medicine after World War II; the isolation and synthesis of the first steroid medicine, cortisone, by Lewis H. Sarett at Merck in ; Virginia Apgar’s introduction of the Apgar Test in  to improve the care of newborn babies; the discovery of tranquilizers in the s and s at Wallace Laboratories, Hoffmann–La Roche, and Ciba-Geigy; the first nuclear-powered heart pacemaker, developed by Victor Parsonnet at Newark Beth Israel Hospital in . In the first third of the twentieth century, New Jerseyans, along with other Americans, saw a marked rise in life expectancy as a wide range of public health reforms took effect, although an epidemic of polio in  and the violent pandemic of influenza in  (, people in the state were affected, , died) were sharp reminders of their continuing vulnerability to infectious disease. The midcentury discoveries of antibiotics and immunizations further improved New Jerseyans’chances of escaping contagious illnesses. By the s, heart disease and cancer, rather than tuberculosis, were responsible for the most deaths in the state (in the s, New Jersey had the fourth highest cancer rate in the country and carried the unenviable epithet of “cancer alley’’). The new infectious diseases of the s and s, AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) and multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, struck New Jersey’s poorest cities early and hard. The UMDNJ pediatrician, James M. Oleske— the first physician to recognize and treat AIDS in children—saw his first patient in , five years before the syndrome was described. At the very end of the twentieth century, New Jersey’s rate of . deaths per one thousand people was slightly higher than the national average of . and New York’s ., but lower than Pennsylvania’s .. New

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Jersey was well supplied with health care resources: , licensed physicians, , dentists, , pharmacists, , professional nurses, and . hospital beds for every , people. In a  ranking of states for quality of health care, New Jersey came in seventeenth. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Reeds, Karen. A State of Health: New Jersey’s Medical Heritage. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rogers, Fred A., and A. Reasoner Sayre. The Healing Art: A History of the Medical Society of New Jersey. Trenton: Medical Society of New Jersey, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems; medical and dental education; mental hospitals

Karen Reeds

Medwick, Joseph Michael “Ducky’’ (b. Nov. , ; d. March , ). Baseball player. Born and raised in Carteret, Ducky Medwick played his first professional baseball game in  as an outfielder for the St. Louis Cardinals. In  he was voted the National League’s Most Valuable Player for leading the league in batting average (.), slugging percentage (.), hits (), doubles (), home runs (), and runs batted in (), as well as several other categories. Nicknamed “Ducky’’ because of his waddling walk, Medwick was a key member of the Cardinals’ legendary “Gashouse Gang.’’ They were a group of s players known more for their slovenly appearance, cursing, and propensity for fighting, on and off the field, than for baseball. Medwick’s most notorious moment was in game seven of the  World Series when, following a fistfight with the Detroit Tigers third baseman, opposing fans barraged him with so much garbage that he was ordered off the field. In , Medwick was traded to the Brooklyn Dodgers. In his first at-bat against his former team, he was hit in the head with a fastball and suffered a concussion, which hampered him for the remainder of his career. Having batted over . in thirteen seasons of his seventeen-year career, Medwick was elected into baseball’s Hall of Fame in . He died in St. Petersburg, Florida, in . Golenbock, Pete. The Spirit of St. Louis: A History of the St. Louis Cardinals and Browns. New York: HarperCollins, . Lieb, Frederick G. The St. Louis Cardinals: The Story of a Great Baseball Club. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, .

See also baseball

Linda Barone Corcoran

Megan’s Law. The so-called Megan’s Law is actually a set of nine laws passed in , to protect the public against sex offenders. It was named after seven-year-old Megan Kanka, who was raped and murdered in Hamilton in  by Jesse Timmendequas, a neighbor with

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Mehegan, Catherine Josephine (Mother Mary Xavier)

two prior convictions for sex offenses. The Kanka family was extremely active in lobbying for the legislation, and within three months of her death Megan’s Law was enacted. The nine comprising laws were aimed at sex offenders like Timmendequas, and mandated harsher penalties, registration, community notification, and in some instances civil commitment after completion of sentences. The most noteworthy aspect was the community notification provision, which was copied nationwide and provoked legal challenges and concerns about vigilantism. The courts required the state to modify the process for deciding how broadly to notify, but the principle of community notification was upheld. Brooks, Alexander D. “Megan’s Law: Constitutionality and Policy.’’ Criminal Justice Ethics  (): –. Goodman, Elga A. “Megan’s Law: The New Jersey Supreme Court Navigates Uncharted Waters.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): –. Heaphy, Kathleen V. “Megan’s Law: Protecting the Vulnerable or Unconstitutionally Punishing Sex Offenders?’’ Seton Hall Constitutional Law Journal  (): –.

See also Doe v. Poritz

Simon A. Cole

Mehegan, Catherine Josephine (Mother Mary Xavier) (b. Feb. , ; d. June , ). Religious leader and college founder. One of nine children, Catherine Josephine Mehegan emigrated from Ireland to New York City with her sister in . In  she became the first postulant received by the Sisters of Charity in New York. As Sister Mary Xavier, she worked at the newly opened Saint Vincent’s Hospital, then in orphanages in Jersey City. In  she was sent to direct the work and religious lives of five novices in the diocese of Newark. Within a year the sisters purchased forty-three acres in Madison, and moved to the motherhouse there in . During the next fifteen years, Mother Xavier acquired  acres of land for her growing community. She had it incorporated in , and arranged for the location of a station for the Lackawanna Railroad. In  a new convent was built and an academy founded in Convent Station. By that year the New Jersey community of the Sisters of Charity owned and managed seven academies, one orphanage, one hospital, and forty-two missions, including missions in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Eager to serve the sick and the needy, Mother Xavier opened seven hospitals, along with nurses’ training schools, orphanages, homes for the aged, and a residence for working women. Five of the hospitals, opened between  and , were in New Jersey: Saint Joseph’s in Paterson, Saint Mary’s in Passaic, Saint Vincent’s in Montclair, Saint Elizabeth’s in Elizabeth, and All Souls in Morristown. On September , , Mother Xavier opened the College of Saint Elizabeth at

Convent Station, the first four-year college for women in New Jersey and one of the first Catholic colleges for women in the United States. Xavier Hall, named in Mother Xavier’s honor, was completed in . When Mother Mary Xavier died in , she had led her community for fifty-six years. She left behind an order of twelve hundred sisters and ninety-four missions. McEniry, Sister Blanche Marie. Woman of Decision: The Life of Mother Mary Xavier Mehegan. New York: McMullan Books, . Sharkey, Sister Mary Agnes. The New Jersey Sisters of Charity and Mother Mary Xavier Mehegan.  vols. New York: Longmans, Green, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Roman Catholics

Sister Blanche Marie McEniry

Melrose, Andrew (b. ; d. Feb. , ). Painter. Born in Selkirk, Scotland, Andrew Melrose immigrated to the United States about . He was a self-taught artist and early on painted in a style that may be called romantic realism. He established two studios: in Hoboken and Guttenberg. A landscape painter, Melrose was inspired by his extensive travels. His best works were scenes from New Jersey and New York—especially the Hudson River Valley and New York Harbor. Examples of this are the paintings A View of the Hudson from Fort Lee and Palisades. In – Melrose traveled widely throughout the mountainous regions of eastern North America and developed an interest in country life. He was very impressed by the beauty of the high southern landscapes, and paintings such as The Whiskey Still by Moonlight and The Ox-Bow were the result. Both of these paintings were rendered in a soft atmospheric light. In  Melrose produced New York Harbor and the Battery, a bright and airy depiction of a bustling port. The painting was made into a series of well-known chromolithographs, and showed how French impressionism had begun creeping into his work. Melrose was a prominent exhibitor at the National Academy of Design throughout his career. He died in West New York. Zellerman, Michael David, ed. American Art Analog. New York: Chelsea House, .

See also art

when he enabled them to establish the New York Curb Market. The New York Curb Market moved indoors in  and became the American Stock Exchange in . A resident of Newark with his wife Mary, Emanuel Mendels was the father of four sons who remained in Newark, and one daughter who lived in Long Branch. Geisst, Charles R. Wall Street: A History. New York: Oxford University Press, . Sobel, Robert. The Curbstone Brokers: The Origins of the American Stock Exchange. New York: Macmillan, .

Elaine L. Schwartz

Mendham Borough.

-square-mile borough in Morris County. The borough of Mendham was part of Mendham Township from  until , when it separated in order to establish a public water system in what was then the central village region of the community. With the Passaic, Whippany, and North Branch of the Raritan originating in the region, Mendham early became an area for farming, and then the location of water-powered mills processing timber and grain. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it was also the center for a number of other small industries producing leather, glass, textiles, and furniture. From  to  the Rockaway Valley Railroad carried local peaches through town to markets in Morristown and beyond. Today Mendham Borough has many buildings remaining from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, some of them old Gothic-style stone buildings. The borough’s main street is old Route , connecting it to Morristown as well as to Chester and Long Valley. Few traces of early industry remain but housing has grown rapidly since , much of it large and expensive. The population in  of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Foster, Janet W. Legacy Through the Lens: A Study of Mendham Architecture. Mendham: Mendham Free Public Library, . Halsey, Edmund Drake. History of Morris County, New Jersey, –. New York: W. W. Munsell, . Hopler, Martha, Edward W. Roessler, and Wallace G. West. The Mendhams. Mendham: Mendham Township Tercentenary Committee, .

Marian H. Mundy-Hooper Robert Nelson

Mendham Township. Mendels, Emanuel S.

(b. ; d. Oct.

, ). Stockbroker. Born in New Orleans, Emanuel Mendels was the founder of the American Stock Exchange. Trading securities that the New York Stock Exchange ignored, the American Stock Exchange was originally a curb market whose participants were outside, at the curb, in all weather conditions. Known for honesty during his thirty-seven years at the curb, Mendels was at first the informal leader of the curb brokers and then their secretary

.-squaremile township in Morris County. Although the township was not incorporated until , European settlers began to move into the area in . The name Mendham probably harks back to Mendham, England, possibly by way of Mendon, Massachusetts, and both were sources of immigrants. They were attracted to the fertile lands along the Passaic, Whippany, and Raritan rivers, and then to the minerals in the surrounding hills. Early mixed farming was followed by an emphasis on apples and

mental hospitals peaches, as well as iron production. In the late nineteenth century as iron declined in importance, Mendham became the location of more than a dozen distilleries producing applejack (“Jersey Lightning’’). In  the center of Mendham separated and became Mendham Borough, which retains the commercial center, surrounded by the more residential township. While the two communities share some services, they do have separate governments and school systems. Today little remains of early mining, distilling, and other industries. Instead major highways built through the area since the s have brought numerous housing developments. A small undeveloped area is preserved by the Schiff Natural Lands Trust, but much of Mendham Township now is the location of large homes, among the most expensive in New Jersey. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Foster, Janet W. Legacy Through the Lens: A Study of Mendham Architecture. Mendham: Mendham Free Public Library, . Halsey, Edmund Drake. History of Morris County, New Jersey, –. New York: W. W. Munsell, . Hopler, Martha, Edward W. Roessler, and Wallace G. West. The Mendhams. Mendham: Mendham Township Tercentenary Committee, .

Marian H. Mundy-Hooper

menhaden.

Atlantic menhaden, or bunker (Brevoortia tyrannus), is a silvery fish with a conspicuous black shoulder spot behind its gill opening and a number of smaller spots on its side. This species is one of the most abundant in New Jersey waters during the summer months. Found coastally from Nova Scotia to northern Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, menhaden mature at roughly two years of age and reach a length of about fifteen inches. Bunker travel in dense schools and are important prey for a number of predatory fish and bird species, making them an integral member of estuarine and coastal ecosystems.

examinations. Statistical results were published and contributed to the psychiatric literature on sex offenders. In  the Diagnostic Center was integrated into the new Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center in Avenel. Ellis, Albert, and Ralph Brancale. The Psychology of Sex Offenders. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, .

See also Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center; mental hospitals

Simon A. Cole

mental hospitals.

Prior to , New Jersey’s mentally ill were cared for by families or in poor farms, almshouses, and jails. Although the Medical Society recommended the construction of a state mental institution, the state legislature hesitated to act. In , reformer Dorothea Dix investigated conditions in New Jersey and persuaded the legislature to authorize the construction of the New Jersey State Lunatic Asylum (later Trenton State Hospital), which opened in . Although the founders envisioned a curative therapeutic environment, the resident population soon exceeded the physical capacity of the institution. By the s, several county asylums provided additional custodial care. In Morris Plains, a second state asylum opened in  to serve the northern counties. Physicians and enlightened officials favored a new hospital model for the scientific study and treatment of mental illness over the older asylum model. Some paying patients were treated at private hospitals such as the Belle Mead Farm Colony and Sanatorium (, later the Carrier Clinic) and Fair Oaks Hospital in Summit (). At public institutions, care was sometimes harshly regimented and often inhumane. The state’s mental hospitals remained autonomous fiefdoms at the turn of the century. Over the next few decades, agencies

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such as the Mental Hygiene Committee of the State Board of Control increased oversight and supervision. The National Committee for Mental Hygiene found serious deficiencies at Morris Plains, which was rebuilt and renamed Greystone Park in . In an effort to overcome the deficiencies of the congregate plan, the Marlboro State Hospital was constructed on the cottage plan (). The institutionalized population continued to grow, despite severe staffing and facility shortages during the Depression and war years. Postwar legislation such as the National Mental Health Act () mandated increased oversight, improved conditions, increased professionalization, established community mental health programs, and broadened services in mental health facilities, although conditions remained far from ideal. Medications such as the phenothiazines and psychiatric techniques such as milieu therapy brought new hope. The Arthur Brisbane Child Treatment Center opened in . The Skillman Village for Epileptics (founded ) was reorganized as the research-oriented New Jersey State Neuro-Psychiatric Institute in the early s. By , the resident population in state and county mental hospitals was over eighteen thousand. Veterans’ hospitals at Lyons and East Orange housed over one thousand additional psychiatric patients. Ancora State Hospital opened in  to serve the southern counties. In the s medicare legislation led to the removal of mentally ill elderly patients from psychiatric hospitals to nursing homes. Community mental health programs and deinstitutionalization left publicly supported psychiatric hospitals with the most severely ill patients. Marlboro State Hospital closed in . The division of mental health services currently operates , beds in six state psychiatric

Piehler, Glen R. Exit Here for Fish! Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishes

Sue Bennett Canale

Menlo Park Diagnostic Center. Authorized in , the Menlo Park Diagnostic Center opened in  in response to a series of well-publicized, heinous sex crimes and soon became an innovative institution dedicated specially to the psychiatric diagnosis of sex offenders. Under the leadership of Ralph Brancale, Menlo Park was one of the few diagnostic centers for sex offenders in the United States. Between  and , the center performed nearly six thousand psychiatric

New Jersey’s first institutions for the mentally ill were known as Kirkbride Hospitals, named for their designer, Dr. Thomas S. Kirkbride. This hospital in Trenton used his general plan, as did many others during the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

Mercer County

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hospitals (Ancora, Trenton, and Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospitals, Arthur Brisbane Child Treatment Center, Hagedorn GeroPsychiatric Hospital, and Ann Klein Forensic Center). Six county hospitals have a total of  beds. Ongoing efforts to meet the needs of New Jersey’s most vulnerable citizens engage many private citizens, health care professionals, and public officials. Grob, Gerald N. The Mad among Us: A History of the Care of America’s Mentally Ill. New York: Free Press, . Herrmann, Frederick M. Dorothea Dix and the Politics of Institutional Reform. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Sandra Moss

Mercer County.

This .-squaremile county was named in honor of Gen. Hugh Mercer, who was killed at the Battle of Princeton in . Composed of thirteen municipalities, Mercer County is a diverse urban and suburban county with some rural or exurban areas. Trenton, the state capital, is also the county seat. The county is home to high-tech industry; an extraordinary array of cultural institutions including the New Jersey State Museum, Princeton University, and the Institute of Advanced Study; and extensive parks and natural areas, including Herrontown Woods and the Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park.

MERCER COUNTY

Trenton

0

15 miles

county seat

The original inhabitants of the territory that is today Mercer County were the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware, Indians. When the English began settling the Delaware Valley in the s, the area was divided by a “province line’’ separating East and West Jersey. The land west of the line, the area of what is today Hamilton Township and the southern half of Trenton, was apportioned to Burlington County; above the Assunpink Creek (the northern half of Trenton plus Lawrence, Ewing, and Hopewell townships) was apportioned to Hunterdon County. East of the line (the Windsors and Washington Township) was apportioned to Middlesex County, while Princeton Borough and Township north of Nassau Street were apportioned to Somerset County. During the eighteenth century, Trenton emerged as a river port, somewhat larger than Princeton and Maidenhead (Lawrenceville). Other hamlets such as Hightstown and Pennington also emerged. Population was fairly evenly distributed through the several townships, with typical densities ranging from about thirty to fifty persons per square mile by . Mercer’s central location in the state was recognized early, as Trenton is situated at the head of navigation on the Delaware River and at the southern end of the most popular overland route across New Jersey (approximating the present Routes  and ). By , Trenton was the seat of Hunterdon County. Stage lines emerged in the s linking Trenton, Maidenhead, Princeton, and Hightstown. During the American Revolution, the strategic importance of the region was reflected not only in battles fought at Trenton and Princeton, but also in the numerous meetings of the legislature and other public bodies that were held in both those towns. Trenton also served as a major base for supplying the Continental Army during its winter encampments. After the Revolution, the Continental Congress briefly considered making an area near Trenton the new permanent capital of the United States. Federal City Road in Lawrence and Ewing townships still commemorates this brief idea. In  the state legislature made Trenton the permanent state capital. Hunterdon County, however, had moved its seat of government to the new village of Flemington. The loss of the county courts and the commercial activity that they supported was quickly felt in Trenton. This led, in , to the first proposal to create a new county seated at Trenton: a “County of Louis,’’ to honor the French monarch whose help had greatly benefited America during the Revolution. Although this effort failed, it led to other lobbying campaigns during succeeding decades. However, more than fifty years passed before the legislature acted to establish Mercer County in February . The county that emerged over the next century, however, was radically different from

the rural farm and village landscape of the previous era. Transportation advances led to the rise of Trenton as an industrial city and as Mercer’s center of gravity. Trenton became a railroad and canal hub and a magnet for industrial enterprises in iron, wire rope, ceramics, and rubber, among other industries. Spurred by immigration, Trenton’s population reached , by . During the twentieth century, the automobile age dramatically suburbanized Mercer County. The first suburban subdivisions were those along trolley lines that radiated outward from Trenton, toward Princeton, Pennington, and White Horse, which led to the spread of housing subdivisions into the nearby portions of Ewing, Hamilton, and Lawrence townships. There was also a high-speed interurban trolley between Trenton and Newark. Beginning in the s, the county government became heavily involved in the repair and improvement of major roads, which were officially designated county highways. The freeholders added a new roads department, and hired a young bridge engineer, Morris Goodkind. Mercer County also benefited in –, when the state built a model concrete highway from Trenton through Hamilton Square and Hightstown. The county’s attention turned skyward when Mercer County Airport in Ewing was opened in . Mercer’s population was densely concentrated within the city of Trenton. By , about  percent of the county’s population, or , people, lived in Trenton. If the already-developed portions of Hamilton, Lawrence, and Ewing are included (land which Trenton wished to annex), the total would be almost  percent. In contrast, Princeton Borough and Hightstown, the second and third largest towns, had a combined population of under , people. The farm population was estimated at about , people, although  percent of the county was still farmland. Mercer responded progressively by devising a master plan in . This plan forecast that the population would reach , within the next fifty years (it actually took seventy) and that this growth would be suburban. However, it incorrectly predicted that the growth would largely occur along already existing highway arteries, when in fact it spread much more evenly throughout the county, due to the ubiquity of private automobiles. The plan also focused on recreation, and called for Mercer County to purchase at least , acres of parkland, suggesting parks and parkways along the major creeks flowing through the county. The parkways were not built, but land for a central county park in Lawrence and West Windsor was purchased in the s, with park development undertaken afterward. U.S. Route  was widened to four lanes and Route , a WPA project, and the New Jersey Turnpike, with an exit at Hightstown, were opened in  and  respectively. The result of these superhighways and

Merck the Interstate Highways  and , which were built in the s, was a generation of suburban sprawl development. Institutions once located in downtown Trenton began moving out of the city. In the early s the New Jersey State Normal School relocated to Ewing Township and was renamed, ironically, Trenton State College (since  the College of New Jersey). Rider College moved to Lawrence Township in the s. The former Trenton Junior College became Mercer County Community College, and it moved to a large tract in West Windsor Township in . Shopping opportunities also declined in Trenton as shopping centers such as Quakerbridge Mall arose in suburban areas of the county. A “high-tech corridor’’ of research and office parks grew up along Route . These changes hit Trenton hard. Its population fell as Hamilton’s rose, and Hamilton, according to the  census, actually surpassed Trenton in population for the first time. County government also witnessed changes. The Mercer County Improvement Authority was created in , and the office of county executive was created in the s. A growth management plan was prepared in , and reviving Trenton became a cornerstone of county planning efforts. Today, balancing economic development, growth management, urban revitalization, open space acquisition, farmland preservation, education reform, and environmental enhancement, Mercer County advances toward a postsuburban future. In , Mercer County’s population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. Mercer County Tercentenary: –. Trenton: Mercer County Tercentenary Commission, . Woodward, E. M., and John F. Hageman. History of Burlington and Mercer Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Robert W. Craig

Mercer County Community College. Following a merger with Trenton Junior College, an institution that traced its origins back to the Evening Drawing School (), the Trenton Technical School of Science and Art (), the School of Industrial Arts (), and Trenton Junior College and School of Industrial Arts (), Mercer County Community College (MCCC) accepted its first students in . Today, located on a -acre campus in West Windsor Township and the James Kerney campus in downtown Trenton, this comprehensive two-year college offers associate degrees in liberal arts, science, and applied science. The college, with an annual average enrollment of eleven thousand students, offers degrees and certificates in more than seventy programs of study, including an A.A.S. degree in flight technology and an A.A.S.

degree and three-year professional certificate in funeral service. See also higher education

W. James Franklin

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Victorian Commuter Suburb.’’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, . Polk, Charles P. The Annuals of Merchantville. Merchantville: Merchantville Historical Society, .

Edith Silberstein

Merchants and Drovers Tavern. Constructed about  at a Rahway crossroads, John Anderson’s tavern was enlarged to become a four-story, Federal-style hotel about . In addition to providing bed and board for travelers, the inn served as a venue for elections, government meetings, sheriff’s sales, business transactions, and public entertainment during its first fifty years of operation. Scientific experiments, magic and animal acts, displays of curiosities, music lessons, and dances were among the offerings at this and other area taverns. Owned by the AndersonCraig family and their descendants from  until , the former stagecoach stop ceased hotel operations in the s. In  the tavern was purchased by the Merchants and Drovers Tavern Museum Association, which operated it as a museum until structural problems made the building dangerous. After raising funds for repair and restoration, the association reopened the tavern to the public in . See also historic sites

Linda B. McTeague

Merchantville.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Originally an agricultural community, Merchantville’s first growth period in  resulted from land speculation along the route of the proposed rail line between Pemberton and Mount Holly. Sen. Alexander C. Cattell and his brother assembled real estate near the route amounting to one-fifth of Merchantville’s acreage. The Camden and Amboy Railroad, first operator of the line in , spurred the organization of building and loan associations and the sale of lots. The borough was easily accessible to Philadelphia by ferry and railroad. Growth in the s was pushed by the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. A large twin house opposite the railroad station, believed to have been moved from the exposition, is known as the Centennial House. In , Merchantville separated from Stockton Township, so that laws suitable for a growing suburb could be enacted. The second expansion occurred when the Benjamin Franklin Bridge across the Delaware River was proposed. By the time the bridge opened in , new streets were cut and homes built. Today, this residential borough is built to capacity. The  population was ,. The population figures were  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Beneson, Carol A. “Merchantville, New Jersey: The Development, Architecture, and Preservation of a

Merck.

Merck’s production of quality pharmaceuticals goes back to a seventeenthcentury apothecary shop in Darmstadt, Germany, owned by Friedrich Jacob Merck. Succeeding generations of Mercks brought the latest advances of organic chemistry into the family enterprise, and by the late nineteenth century Merck pharmaceuticals were used all over the world. In  George Merck and chemist Theodore Weicker established a shop in New York City, producing and selling drugs and chemical products to local pharmacies. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy was first published in ; it is now in its seventeenth edition. The company came to New Jersey in , when Merck and Weicker acquired a acre site in Rahway. In  the Rahway plant began producing chemicals and drugs. The following year, after Weicker sold his shares to Merck, the firm became Merck and Company, adding bismuths and iodides to its product line. In  Merck and Company merged with Powers-WeightmannRosengarten, a Philadelphia-based producer and distributor of pharmaceutical chemicals that brought the antimalarial drug quinine into the Merck inventory. Merck has pursued pharmaceutical research since . In  the Merck Research Laboratory was created at Rahway, with the Division of Pure Research, the Division of Applied Research, and the Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research. In  Merck scientists synthesized the antineuritic vitamin B (thiamine), the first of Merck’s many contributions to the production of vitamins, including A, B , B , C, E, K, biotin, and calcium pantothenate. In  Merck scientists synthesized B (cyanocobalamin), for the treatment of pernicious anemia. In  a Merck chemist synthesized cortisone from ox bile, and Merck began the commercial production of cortisone in . Merck was a leader in the production of antibiotics. Having funded Rutgers University researcher Selman Waksman’s  research on streptomycin, Merck began producing the drug in . To ensure an adequate supply of streptomycin, an effective treatment for tuberculosis, Merck turned its patent over to the Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, allowing the drug to be produced simultaneously by a number of U.S. companies. In  Merck merged with the Philadelphia firm of Sharp and Dohme, which had an extensive distribution network as well as a successful line of vaccines, sulfa drugs, and blood plasma products. The new company became Merck Sharp and Dohme International (MSDI).

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metalworking

Merck entered the field of cardiovascular drugs in  with the antihypertensive Diuril. Merck’s recent contributions to the treatment of heart disease include Vasotec (enalapril maleate) for high blood pressure, Aggrastat (tirofiban hydrochloride) for angina, and the cholesterol-lowering drug Zocor (simvastatin). In  Merck scientists created the world’s first hepatitis B vaccine, following it up with Recombivax HB, the first genetically engineered vaccine. Merck also produces vaccines for hepatitis A, pneumonia, and chicken pox, and the combination vaccine for measles, mumps, and rubella. By the s Merck was a leading producer of vaccines in the United States. Merck’s Mectizan (ivermectin) is a treatment for onchoceriasis, “river blindness,’’ a parasitic disease prevalent in tropical countries. In  Merck made Mectizan available free to all who needed it, through government programs and the World Health Organization. In  Merck introduced the asthma medication Singulair (montelukast sodium). Many of Merck’s recent products are directed toward the needs of an aging population: Fosamax (alendronate) prevents osteoporosis, Propecia (finasteride) treats hair loss, and Vioxx (rofecoxib) addresses the pain of arthritis. Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, . Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

metalworking.

Thanks in part to a geology rich in metal ores, New Jersey has had metalworkers from its earliest years. By the middle of the s, dozens of furnaces were extracting iron from hematite and magnetite from the northern hills and bog iron from the bottom of fens in the Pine Barrens. Some, such as the Andover Iron Works in Sussex County, only made refined pig or bar iron to be transported elsewhere for fabrication; others, including Hunterdon County’s Union Iron Works (surviving into the twentieth century as Taylor-Wharton Iron and Steel) had production blacksmithing shops making such items as nails, chain, cannon shot, and stoves. British officers, who recognized the strategic value of these forges, destroyed a number of them during the Revolutionary War. Like iron, copper was mined initially with black slave labor followed by Central European immigrants indentured to the mine owners for the cost of their passage to America. Most of New Jersey’s copper was mined from the Triassic sandstone belt between Pennington and Paterson, and a  advertisement for Newark’s Soho Works, affiliated with the Schuyler copper mine in present-day Union Township, announced that its “Copper, Brass, and Iron Foundry’’ was prepared to produce

job lots of “all sorts of Copper, Spikes, . . . Sheathing, Nails, &c. for ship work, or Brass castings for machinery.’’ Silversmiths abounded; three dozen are known to have been active in New Jersey prior to , some of them refugees from Philadelphia’s yellow fever epidemics who resettled in Trenton. There were multiplegeneration shops such as Henry, Samuel, and Lawrence Lupp’s in Burlington. But New Jersey metalworkers failed to establish a signature style, with journeymen highly mobile and demand for silver burgeoning, as reflected in inventories of wills probated from  on. There was also a brisk demand for pewter. In addition to traveling pewterers, who made and repaired common household articles such as spoons and bowls, a number of shops flourished in the s, including those of Matthew Clunn in Trenton from  on and Frances Bassett II, a transplanted New Yorker who worked in the area of Verona. The transition from handworked metal to full-scale manufacturing during the nineteenth century often sprang from technologically modest beginnings. Jacob Wiss and Sons’ Newark shear and scissors shop, founded in , doubled production after installing a second dog-powered lathe. Seth Boyden’s foundry opened in  after he invented a method for producing malleable cast iron; by the time he sold it eleven years later, it would offer a catalog of a thousand items and employ five dozen workers. Its successor, Sacks-Barlow, lasted until . Aided by emerging industrial technology, art metalworking in New Jersey continued to be a robust trade well into the s; three such firms in the Newark area were the casting house of Whitehead and Hoag, which produced , victory medals at the close of the First World War; the factory for Tiffany’s precious-metal line; and Louis Aronson’s Newark Art Metal and Ronson Lighter Companies. Boyer, Charles S. Early Forges and Furnaces of New Jersey. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Weiss, Harry B., and Grace M. Weiss. The Old Copper Mines of New Jersey. Trenton: Past Times Press, .

See also iron industry; jewelry industry; silversmithing

Nick Humez

Methodists. Methodism is one of the major families of Protestant Christianity. It originated in eighteenth-century England with the evangelistic work of John Wesley (–). His evangelical or “heart-warming’’experience led him to found religious societies throughout Great Britain. In  Wesley sent Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmore to America to spread Methodism in the colonies. Their landing place at Gloucester Point, New Jersey, is now a United Methodist historic site. The first true leader of

American Methodism, Francis Asbury (– ), arrived in . For the next forty-five years this “prophet of the long road’’ traveled on horseback the length and breadth of the land and preached often in New Jersey. When American Methodism organized as the Methodist Episcopal Church in Baltimore in , Asbury was elected its first bishop. At that time there were about one thousand Methodists in New Jersey. In the nineteenth century American Methodism experienced divisions. Methodist Protestants withdrew from the Methodist Episcopal Church in  over questions of lay rights and episcopal powers, and the Methodist Episcopal Church South organized in  over slavery issues. The three Church bodies reunited in  as the Methodist Church. A merger with the Evangelical United Brethren Church in  created the United Methodist Church. Meanwhile, although many African Americans remained in the parent body of Methodism, two largely black Methodist denominations were founded in the early nineteenth century and have since attracted significant numbers of black New Jerseyans. These are the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, started by Richard Allen in Philadelphia in , and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AMEZ) Church, which developed in New York City in the s. A largely southern church, the Christian (formerly Colored) Methodist Episcopal Church, founded after the Civil War, has a few churches in New Jersey. Two much smaller African American denominations, the United African Methodist Episcopal (UAME) Church and the African United Methodist Protestant (AUMP) Church, are also represented in the state. Methodism has always been an evangelical church, calling on adherents to witness to the saving power of Jesus Christ. At the same time, it conducts multifaceted programs of social outreach within its communities. Pennington School, Centenary College, and Drew University are Methodist institutions. New Jersey Methodists maintain retirement and nursing homes for senior citizens and younger disabled persons in Collingswood, East Orange, Montclair, Newton, Ocean City, Ocean Grove, Pitman, and Red Bank. Methodism is strongly ecumenical. It is among the founders of the World and National Council of Churches, the New Jersey State Council of Churches, and Church Women United. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Methodist congregations are found in nearly every municipality in New Jersey. The United Methodist Church has  churches with , members; the AME Church,  churches with about , members; and the AMEZ Church,  churches and nearly , members. Adding the smaller bodies to these numbers gives a total of about  congregations with a membership of about ,

Mexican War and a constituency multiplied two or three times. Norwood, Frederick. A. The Story of American Methodism: A History of the United Methodists and Their Relations. Nashville: Abingdon Press, . Payne, Daniel A. History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. New York: Arno Press, . Steelman, Robert B. What God Has Wrought: A History of the Southern New Jersey Conference of the United Methodist Church. Pennington: United Methodist Church, Southern New Jersey Conference, Commission on Archives and History, . Walls, William J. The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. Charlotte, NC: A.M.E. Zion Publishing House, .

See also African Methodist Episcopal Church; African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; religion

Robert B. Steelman

Metlar-Bodine House.

The original one-and-one-half-story dwelling built around  by Peter Bodine at Raritan Landing is now a wing on the north side of the muchexpanded Metlar-Bodine House. Bodine was a merchant-trader at the Raritan River port, which was founded around  and flourished as a center of Middlesex County commerce for about  years. The house passed through several owners, who were responsible for two major expansions that likely occurred in the nineteenth century. In  farmer-merchant Samuel Knapp bought the house and  acres of land, naming his estate Sunnyside. He built the present center section, the two-and-one-half-story frontgabled, Greek Revival main block. George Metlar, a New Brunswick businessman, bought the property around , and it was inherited by his son John in . Metlar sold the house in  to John Newton, the last private owner. The state of New Jersey bought the property in , expecting to demolish the house as part of a highway expansion. A preservation campaign saved it, and the state now leases the house to Piscataway Township for one dollar per year. The Fellowship for the Metlar House manages the house as a museum specializing in the history of Piscataway.

Meuly, Walter C. History of Piscataway Township, –. Somerville: Somerset Press, .

See also historic sites

Randall Gabrielan

Metro Lyric Opera. Founded in  at Convention Hall in Asbury Park by soprano Era Tognoli, Metro Lyric Opera brings professional opera to the Asbury Park and Red Bank area for a three-opera summer season (though in the s it offered as many as five operas). Repertoire concentrates on Italian and French standards, with occasional forays into Mozart or bel canto literature; singers are often moonlighting from larger companies elsewhere. A productive alliance with conductor Anton Coppola began in the early s,

resulting in steady artistic growth through the turn of the century. See also opera

Willa Conrad

Metuchen. .-square-mile borough in Middlesex County. The community of Metuchen is named for Chief Matochshoning, who resided here when European settlers arrived in the seventeenth century. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Metuchen served as the commercial center for the surrounding farmland. In , the New Jersey Railroad was completed to New Brunswick and residents began to travel by rail to faraway jobs. In , the community seceded from Raritan Township (now Edison), which surrounds it on all sides, and was incorporated as a borough. By that time, Metuchen had become a compact town where nearly  percent of its residents commuted to work by train. The borough’s accessibility, fine homes, and bucolic setting made it attractive to New Yorkers, especially bankers, engineers, newspapermen, authors, literary editors, and artists. So many of these talented citizens lived here that, in , the press dubbed the community the “Brainy Boro.’’ The community remains largely residential and single-family homes predominate. Many residents still commute by train. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dally, Joseph W. Woodbridge and Vicinity: The Story of a New Jersey Township Embracing the History of Woodbridge, Piscataway, Metuchen, and Contiguous Places. . Lambertville: Hunterdon House, . Hunt, Ezra Mundy. Metuchen and Her History, and the Churches of Metuchen: Given in Two Addresses. New York: Fisk, Russell and Ames, . Marshall, David Trumbull. Boyhood Days in Old Metuchen. Metuchen: . Reprint. Metuchen: Metuchen-Edison Historical Society, . Spies, Stacy E. Metuchen. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Stacy E. Spies

Mexicans. U.S. Census data show that the Mexican population in New Jersey more than tripled between  and , from , to ,. This  percent growth rate far outpaced that of Mexicans across the nation, which was nevertheless significant at  percent. Once concentrated almost exclusively in the American West, Mexicans are now a large component of the growing Hispanic population in New Jersey. The Mexican presence in the state has been apparent for several years. In Paterson, for example, the Cathedral of Saint John the Baptist has been a center for the surging population. A mass to celebrate the Virgin of Guadalupe, one of the most revered religious figures in Mexico, used to draw a small crowd.

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In , it attracted huge numbers of predominantly Mexican participants. The celebration lasts several days, with musical performances and several religious services. In Passaic, Market Street is dotted with Mexican-owned businesses; most store awnings are red, green, and white in honor of the Mexican flag. Mexicans are planting roots throughout New Jersey, in virtually every county, and in suburbia as well as the cities. Many Mexicans who have been in New Jersey the longest are successful entrepreneurs. By some estimates, however, more than  percent of Mexicans in the state are poor and undocumented. They have become part of the underground economy of waiters, gardeners, housekeepers, and construction workers. Mexicans also arrive in New Jersey to find seasonal farm work before returning home each year. New Jersey, with one of the highest per-capita incomes in the nation, offers these laborers better wages than many other states. Although the employment opportunities in New Jersey involve difficult labor, they are often preferred over the poorly paid fieldwork many Mexicans perform in the Western states. See also ethnicity; Latinas/os

Frances Pinto

Mexican War.

On May , , following clashes between American and Mexican troops in disputed territory between Mexico and Texas, Congress declared war on Mexico. New Jersey volunteers saw little combat, but regulars from the state fought in numerous battles, and Commodore Robert F. Stockton and Gen. Stephen W. Kearny led the conquests, respectively, of southern California and New Mexico. Many Whigs, especially those from New England, opposed the war. Of New Jersey’s eight U.S. representatives, all but two were Whigs, as were its senators. New Jersey congressmen helped to stall the war declaration, but then voted in favor of it. Sen. Jacob W. Miller called the war an “outrage,’’ blaming it on territorial ambition. Sen. William L. Dayton feared the extension of slavery, opposed expansion of the army, and voiced concern over the handling of the war by President James K. Polk, a Democrat. Yet in June , when Polk toured New Jersey, crowds welcomed him with elaborate rallies. Moreover, the New Jersey legislature, unlike other Whigcontrolled state assemblies, did not condemn the war. Instead, it passed resolutions praising soldiers and Gen. Zachary Taylor, the future Whig president. The war ultimately diluted the political power of New Jersey in Congress, because it furthered western expansion and the admission of more states to the Union.

Clarke, Dwight L. Stephen Watts Kearny: Soldier of the West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, . Schroeder, John H. Mr. Polk’s War: American Opposition and Dissent, –. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, .

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Winders, Richard Bruce. Mr. Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, .

John C. Pinheiro

Meyner, Helen Day Stevenson (b. Mar. , ; d. Nov. , ). Congresswoman. One of only five women elected to Congress from New Jersey, Helen Day Stevenson Meyner was an avowed feminist. Born to a family committed to public service, she graduated from Colorado College, worked for the Red Cross in Korea, and had a career as a public relations representative for TWA. In  she married Robert Meyner, the sitting governor of New Jersey. After her term as first lady of the state, she worked as a newspaper columnist and television interviewer. By  the revitalized women’s movement was urging women to run for public office. When a Democratic candidate for Congress was suddenly disqualified in District , prominent women in the party urged Helen Meyner to accept the challenge. As a last-minute replacement she received  percent of the vote, enough to encourage her to run again in , the election touted in the media as the Year of the Woman in Politics. Meyner ran a campaign staffed largely by women. Her Helen on Wheels van covered the huge district as she tried to make personal contact with as many voters as possible. She stressed her concern for people and her willingness to listen. Meyner’s efforts, and missteps by her opponent, resulted in victory with  percent of the vote. Millicent Fenwick’s victory in neighboring District  meant that Morris County was, for the first time, represented entirely by women. The  and  elections were the only ones in which New Jersey elected two women to Congress simultaneously. Once in Congress, Meyner had serious choices to make about which issues she would embrace. Her district was fundamentally conservative, and concerned with economic issues such as taxes and employment. Meyner’s areas of interest were foreign affairs, disarmament, minority rights, and women. She introduced legislation to set up a commission to study proposals for a National Academy of Peace and Conflict Resolution. She joined Members of Congress for Peace through Law, and was openly concerned about displaced Palestinians. She supported the Equal Rights Amendment, although support for the amendment was waning in New Jersey. She lobbied for appropriations to support International Women’s Year activities and a National Women’s Conference. She supported legislation to prohibit discrimination against gays, and sent frequent newsletters detailing her activities to voters back home. In her  reelection attempt, Meyner had the advantage of a liberal Republican opponent and an experienced campaign manager, Barbara McConnell. Her margin of victory,

however, narrowed. Backlash against feminism in general, and the ERA in particular, made vigorous support of feminism a dangerous strategy for a representative from a conservative district. Meyner was not deterred. She was a prime organizer of the Congresswomen’s Caucus, a group designed to study issues and sponsor legislation of particular concern to women. In  Meyner lost her seat by a  percent margin. After leaving Congress, Meyner continued to speak on her favorite topics, nursed her husband through a long illness, and then succumbed herself to a lengthy illness.

Barbara Tomlinson

Meyner, Robert Baumle ; d. May , ).

(b. July ,

Lawyer and governor. Robert Meyner was born in Easton, Pennsylvania, the son of Herman and Mary (Baumle) Meyner. He was educated at Phillipsburg High School, Lafayette College, and Columbia University Law School. In  he was admitted to the New Jersey bar. He was married to Helen Day Stevenson in . The couple had no children. In addition to his law practice, in the s Meyner was active in county, state, and national bar associations. In  he ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination to Warren County’s State Senate seat. He then entered the armed forces, serving as a naval officer from  to . Returning to civilian life, Meyner reentered politics in  as Democratic candidate for the Seventh Congressional District, but failed to unseat the incumbent, Republican J. Parnell Thomas. Meyner’s persistence paid off the following year, when he captured Warren County’s State Senate seat, defeating Wayne Dumont, Jr. Dumont reversed things in , ousting Meyner after just one three-year term. In  Meyner’s political career was resurrected by the new Hudson County political boss, John V. Kenny. Kenny, seeking to thwart a comeback effort by Frank Hague, turned to Meyner to run against Hague’s gubernatorial candidate, Elmer Wene, in the Democratic primary. Meyner won the nomination and went on to success in the general election by a ,-vote margin over Republican Paul Troast. Meyner’s aggressive campaign against alleged Republican fraud and corruption captured the attention of the media and the support of the electorate. Meyner was at heart a fiscal and policy conservative, a leader who fit in well with the political tone being set in Washington by President Dwight Eisenhower. Yet New Jersey’s  constitution had significantly strengthened the office of governor, and Meyner took advantage of the opportunities it offered. He made careful use of his enhanced patronage power, and devoted his considerable energy to administrative reorganization and reform. Known as a “hands on’’ executive, Meyner

concentrated on maintaining a balanced budget and on effectively managing the state’s civil service. A rural Democrat, Meyner tried to make his party into a twenty-one-county organization, rather than the urban-based machine it had been traditionally. Not easily labeled, Meyner was a strong supporter of civil liberties and education (Rutgers University was restructured during his tenure), and continued the work of his predecessor, Republican Alfred Driscoll, in modernizing New Jersey’s transportation system. Courting press and public with his accomplishments, his commanding presence and strong personality, Meyner secured a second term in , handily defeating Republican business magnate Malcolm Forbes. Trying to hold down government spending while at the same time working on improving education and transportation, Meyner had a challenging second term. Sensitive to the future role of air travel, he fought unsuccessfully to develop a new regional airport in Morris County. Meyner prepared for possible national office with an ambitious schedule of political travel and speechmaking. However, his failure to defeat the nomination of John F. Kennedy at the  Democratic national convention ended this phase of his political career. In  Meyner again sought the governorship. Although he received his party’s nomination, he was soundly defeated by Republican William Cahill in the general election, ,, to ,. Returning to private life, Meyner pursued an active legal and business career. His wife, Helen, contributed to the family’s political success record by being elected to Congress in  and . In declining health after a  stroke, Meyner died in Florida in . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard J. Connors

MGM lion.

Leo, the lion who roars at the beginning of each Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer movie, was from the Nubian Desert. His first movie was White Shadows in the South Seas (). He made numerous publicity tours for MGM, even surviving a plane crash in the Arizona desert. In the s trainer Volney Phifer brought him to his farm in Gillette, where he later died. (Cheetah, Tarzan’s chimp, is also there.) His grave was marked by a small headstone, which is now gone.

Russell Roberts

Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts. A nonprofit organization founded in  by volunteers seeking to save Cape May’s Emlen Physick Estate from demolition, the Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts has grown into New Jersey’s largest promoter of heritage

Middlesex County and cultural tourism. More than , visitors a year are served by its programs which include restoring and operating two historic sites (the  Physick Estate and the  Cape May Lighthouse); presenting a wide range of community history tours of Victorian Cape May (walking, trolley, boat, interior, and living history tours) as well as the pioneering Doo-Wop s trolley tour of the Wildwoods; offering the twenty-concert Cape May Music Festival in May and June; and sponsoring a year-round schedule of special events, such as President’s Weekend in February, Cape May’s Spring Festival in April and May, the Cape May Food and Wine Festival in September, Victorian Week in October, and Christmas in Cape May in November and December.

B. Michael Zuckerman

Middle Easterners.

New Jersey’s first Middle Eastern immigrants were Christians from Aleppo, Syria, drawn to the state at the turn of the twentieth century by work in the silk mills of Paterson. Changes in U.S. immigration laws in  created the opportunity for large Christian and Muslim migrations from Lebanon and Egypt, the Lebanese settling in the New Brunswick area and the Egyptians in Jersey City, where they have built both mosques and churches. About thirty years ago Arabic-speaking Muslim Circassians (Russian refugees from Syria) began populating North Haledon. Syriac-rite Orthodox Christians from many Middle Eastern countries, speaking Turkish, Aramaic, and Arabic, have established thriving communities in Passaic and Bergen counties. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, large and growing Palestinian and Jordanian communities were established in Cliffside Park (Jordanian Christian) and in the old Syrian quarter of south Paterson, off Main Street. They have enlivened the Paterson business district with specialty stores, mosques, and restaurants, making it the largest Middle Eastern enclave in the state. The  U.S. Census recorded , foreign-born Middle Easterners living in New Jersey.

Most of the borough’s land is today composed of residential developments of middleto moderate-income families with a variety of small industrial and commercial plants, such as paint and chemical manufacture. Its close proximity to New York City (within thirty miles) has made it a bedroom community. Four railroads were routed through the community at one time: the Jersey Central, Philadelphia and Reading, Baltimore and Ohio, and the Lehigh Valley. Today, Routes  and  provide major links to New York City and central New Jersey. It was determined in  that the Middlesex Sampling Plant, a former site of radioactive materials used in early atomic energy programs and once on the National Priorities List, no longer posed health hazards. Cleanup at the site began in . The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Clayton, W. Woodford, ed. History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Wall, John P., and Harold E. Pickersgill, eds. History of Middlesex County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Middlesex County.

A .-squaremile county located in central New Jersey, made up of twenty-five municipalities, Middlesex County abuts the Raritan Bay and the Raritan River divides the county into

MIDDLESEX COUNTY

New Brunswick

Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also ethnicity

Philip M. Kayal

Middlesex.

.-square-mile borough in northwestern Middlesex County, in the Raritan River valley. In , the New Jersey Mutual Realty Company acquired land for industrial and residential tracts and built a railway station. The development, then in Piscataway Township, was named for Abraham Lincoln. In  disagreements broke out between township government and the residents of Lincoln over lack of street and lighting improvements in their area. The new borough, Middlesex, was formed from Piscataway in .

0

15 miles

county seat

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north/south regions. The county seat is New Brunswick. Originally inhabited by the Lenape, the Raritan River valley was first explored by Europeans in the s. The Dutch settled the area in the Piscataway region, calling it Hollander Dorp (Dutch Village). In the late s the English took over the area and proprietor George Carteret assumed jurisdiction. Eventually the East Jersey proprietors subdivided the land and the area was slowly populated. The earliest towns settled were Piscataway (Raritan Landing), Woodbridge, and Perth Amboy. The major ford across the Raritan River was called Inian’s Ferry, which became New Brunswick. The region was established as a county on March , , by an act of the East Jersey legislature, and named for Middlesex, England. The proprietors had grandiose plans, which envisioned the region, especially Amboy Point, as a rival to the Port of New York in commerce and industry. But by the s the proprietors were having difficulty with administering their holdings and jurisdiction over the East Jersey region was returned to the Crown. The Raritan River was the principal means of transportation at the time of settlement. Products such as flour, grain, lumber, fish, beef, pork, iron, and copper were exported down the river to be shipped out of Perth Amboy. Raritan Landing was the principal staging and storage area for trade, but New Brunswick eventually established itself as the hub for commerce. New Brunswick also became the location of Queen’s College, presentday Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, which was chartered in . Two main traveling routes through the region (Crosswickssung Trail and the Assunpink Trail), which started out as trails created by the Lenape, were widened by the Dutch colonists into two roads leading southward from the Raritan River. The Assunpink Trail became the Kings Highway, while the Crosswickssung became Georges Road. The Revolution came to the county in . In July the Declaration of Independence was brought to New Brunswick and read to a gathering of residents by Col. John Neilson. In November , the retreating Gen. George Washington and the Continental Army camped briefly in New Brunswick. Artillery shots were fired across the Raritan River to cover their escape. British and Hessian troops occupied Perth Amboy, New Brunswick, Piscataway, and Woodbridge until June . In , the state legislature enacted a law through which a county Board of Chosen Freeholders was formed to assume power and jurisdiction from previous forms of governance. Today, the board has authority and jurisdiction over the county budget and tax levy as well as other county services such as parks, roads, and human services. After the Revolutionary War, improved modes of transportation such as the Delaware

520

Middlesex County College

and Raritan Canal, roadways, steam-powered boats, and one of the first steam-powered railroads to operate in the United States (South Amboy terminus) helped foster economic and industrial expansion. The prosperity lasted throughout the nineteenth century with the production of diverse manufactured products such as cigars, piano strings, textiles, carriages, shingles, bandages, tires, shoes, sewing needles, chemicals, glass, leather products, asbestos, iron, and pills. In , Thomas Alva Edison created a research laboratory in Menlo Park (present-day Edison). In his more than ten years in the county, he received over three hundred U.S. patents. His innovations relied heavily on copper and copper wire, which were abundant in the county. Later, Middlesex County was a large contributor in munitions for both World War I and World War II. By the beginning of the twentieth century the immense demand for workers was satisfied by an influx of immigrants. The greatest number of immigrants came from Hungary, settled in New Brunswick, and worked for Johnson & Johnson, the medical supply company. In the mid-twentieth century, the physical decay of older cities, the switch from rail to road transportation, and a second influx of immigrants led to a decline in the economic importance of the county’s cities. Conversely, the suburbs grew with new highway systems such as the New Jersey Turnpike; Garden State Parkway; Interstate ; U.S. Routes , , and ; State Routes , , , , , and . This highway infrastructure catapulted the county to the second most traveled county in the state. Urban renewal within the county started in the s with a commitment in New Brunswick by Rutgers, Johnson & Johnson, the Hyatt Hotel, and the numerous hospitals, earning it the nickname “Health Care City.’’ Numerous industrial parks were built, including Raritan Center, a ,-acre site—the largest industrial complex east of Mississippi. Middlesex County is also home to such Fortune  corporations as Johnson & Johnson (world headquarters), Bristol-Myers Squibb, Ford, General Motors, PepsiCo, CocaCola, AT&T, Fuji Film, and Kodak. In , the county established the first vocation school system in the United States. The county is home to Rutgers University, the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Princeton University (Forrestal Campus), and Middlesex County College (established in ). The county executed numerous open space initiatives and developed a dynamic park system, comprised of over five thousand acres, and revitalized its waterfront districts. State parks such as Cheesquake, Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park, and Pigeon Swamp State Park also grace the county. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent

black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Middlesex County has the third largest population in the state. The median family income in  was $,. Karasik, Gary, and Anna M. Aschkenes. Middlesex County: Crossroads of History. Sun Valley, CA: American Historical Press, . Middlesex County, New Jersey. N.p.: Middlesex County Council, League of Woman Voters, .

Stephen M. Dalina

Middlesex County College.

This public, two-year college in Edison was established in  as a result of the efforts of a citizens’group spearheaded by George J. Otlowski, who was then a Middlesex County freeholder. Middlesex County College is located on  acres of the former Raritan Arsenal site. Students ( full-time and  part-time) were first admitted in September . By the year , the College’s enrollment totaled approximately ten thousand students (half full-time and half part-time). The school offers more than  courses in  different degree and certificate programs. See also higher education

Elisabeth Oliu

Middletown.

.-square-mile township in Monmouth County. In  Englishmen from Long Island purchased from the Indians land that became Middletown. Four years later it was incorporated, becoming one of the three original Monmouth County townships. By spring  John Bowne, Richard Stout, and three other families settled in Middletown Village, followed by Richard Hartshorne three years later. When Raritan Township separated from Middletown in , the township lost downtown Matawan, substituting Campbell’s Junction until Highways  and  sprouted strip shopping centers. Four distinct areas developed their own character: the village historic district, the bayshore fishing industry, grand estates along the riverfront, and the horse farms in rural Lincroft. An early African American community lived in Red Hill. The opening of the Garden State Parkway in  accelerated a building boom. The growth turned swamps, pasture, and woodlands into tract housing in some sections, and converted threatened areas such as Poricy Brook into parkland. Bell Laboratories/AT&T/Lucent Technologies supplanted the Belford menhaden fish processing plant as the largest employer in the s. The historic Brookdale Farm racing stable became a community college and county park headquarters in . In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Middletown in the Twentieth Century. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

———. Middletown Township.  vols. Dover, NH: Arcadia, –. Mandeville, Ernest W. The History of Middletown, the Oldest Settlement in New Jersey. Revised reprint edited by Thelma R. Jelliffe. Red Bank: Riverside Press, .

Susan Hamburger

Middle Township.

.-square-mile township in Cape May County. Incorporated in  by landowning settlers including the Hand, Coxe, Leaming, Cresse, Swain, and Matthews families, Middle Township encompasses the middle portion of the county, located on New Jersey’s southern peninsula bordered by the Delaware Bay to the west and the intercoastal waterway to the east. It is comprised of small communities consisting of Cape May Court House, Mayville, Burleigh, Whitesboro, Rio Grande, Del Haven, Green Creek, Dias Creek, Reeds Beach, Pierces Point, Kimbles Beach, High Beach, Goshen, and Swainton. Cape May Court House is the seat of Cape May County government. Important early industries included farming, cattle raising, fishing, glassmaking, and shipbuilding. Today the township is residential, with banks, shopping centers, and restaurants concentrated in Cape May Court House and Rio Grande. The population is employed by Burdette Tomlin Hospital, the County of Cape May, a growing number of physicians’ offices, retail, and construction companies, and is seasonally employed in the nearby barrier island communities in the tourism industry. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The township’s median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Beitel, Herb, and Vance Enck. Cape May County A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Rachel A. Rodgers

Midland Park.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. In  Cornelius Wortendyke founded the hamlet of Newtown, later known as Wortendyke, and still later as Midland Park. By , the family had established a woolen mill, which was later enlarged to include cotton and silk production. Abram Wortendyke, son of the founder, established the first post office, and his son, Cornelius A., paid to bring telephone lines to town from Paterson. The first president of the New Jersey Western Railroad, Cornelius headed the consolidated companies when, four years later, they became the New Jersey Midland Railway, the source of the town’s name. In , Newtown became Godwinville, which included Ridgewood, Glen Rock, and Midland Park. The town was renamed Wortendyke in , and remained so until the incorporation of Midland Park in .

migrant workers Midland Park was home to two popular authors of children’s books: Mary G. Farrell Knapp and Jeanette Struchen. Said to have more churches per square mile than any other town in the state, Midland Park is today a residential community of mainly single-family homes. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Horner, Louise L., ed. New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Midland Park, the First Century of an American Community. Borough of Midland Park, .

Jersey Historical Commission, and author of over seventy books. Most of his works dealt with the American past, particularly with the American Revolution (for example, Crossroads of Freedom, ) or the Civil War (for example, New Jersey and the Civil War, ). He wrote history and fiction for both adults and young people. Included were stories set in New Jersey, as well as books about the state. He had a flair for the dramatic, apparent in his description of John Neilson reading the Declaration of Independence to a hushed crowd in New Brunswick that was followed by cheers and a song ending in “Huzza, huzza, huzza, for War and Washington!’’

Maxine N. Lurie

Linda J. Barth

Migrant Labor Board. midwifery.

New Jersey’s midwives were the first medical practitioners to assist women in the birthing process. They learned obstetric care from their own experiences and the guidance of other women in this female-dominated profession. After the mideighteenth century, the communal experience of giving birth with a midwife present and among female relatives and friends gradually gave way to childbirth attended by male physicians trained in the use of forceps. Midwifery, however, remained the birthing method for poor and immigrant women throughout New Jersey into the twentieth century. New Jersey established guidelines for the certification of midwives under the Midwifery Statute of . In the s, Dr. Julius Levy, chief of New Jersey’s Bureau of Child Hygiene, claimed that counties in New Jersey with a higher percentage of midwives had a lower rate of infant and maternal mortality. In ,  percent of births in New Jersey were delivered by midwives. The American College of Nurse-Midwives reports that in  there were approximately  licensed certified nurse-midwives (CNMs) in New Jersey and  CNM practice sites in the state. Given prescriptive authority since , CNMs are registered nurses who have additional training in midwifery. They work within a health care system in cooperative agreement with licensed hospital-affiliated physicians and may participate in home births. In , CNMs assisted in , deliveries, or . percent of total births in New Jersey. Cowen, David. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Litoff, Judy Barrett. The American Midwife Debate: A Sourcebook on Its Modern Origins. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also medicine and public health

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

Miers, Earl Schenck d. Nov. , ).

(b. May , ;

Author and publisher. Earl Schenck Miers was the first director of Rutgers University Press, a member of the New

The Migrant Labor Board (MLB) was established in  to provide regulatory oversight of migrant farmworkers. It was responsible for developing policy and regulations to be enforced by the Bureau of Migrant Labor. Among its accomplishments were the codification of workable housing and sanitation codes, the establishment of migrant summer schools, the inauguration of the State Crew Leaders Registration Program, and the promulgation of heat and hot water regulations. These achievements resulted in better living and working conditions. In , the MLB came under political attack due to challenges from interest groups and was abolished by Gov. Richard J. Hughes.

Bonilla-Santiago, Gloria. Organizing Puerto Rican Migrant Farmworkers: The Experiences of Puerto Ricans in New Jersey. New York: Peter Lang, .

Gloria Bonilla-Santiago

migrant workers. For more than a century, agricultural workers from diverse ethnic, geographical, and social backgrounds have migrated into New Jersey. The proximity of New Jersey farms to large urban markets, combined with its rich soil, has made the state a key destination for both local, seasonal farmworkers and farmworkers migrating through the state as part of complex occupational itineraries. The southern region, between Philadelphia and Cape May, has long been the state’s principal breadbasket, but plant nurseries, apple orchards, and mushroom farms in the North and Central regions also attract migrant laborers. New Jersey farmers were among the first in the nation to import large numbers of seasonal workers to harvest their fruits, vegetables, and horticulture crops and perform other agricultural tasks. Prior to the rapid growth of cities and factory production in the Northeast after the Civil War, most farmers used family labor on their farms. The hired hands needed during peak labor demand periods could circulate seasonally between farms and the water-powered mills that were

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scattered throughout the countryside. With the growth of steam power, factory work became more concentrated in cities and labor followed. Low pay relative to industrial occupations, combined with difficult working conditions and uncertain work schedules, made migrant farmwork one of the least attractive occupations. Accordingly, New Jersey farmers, like farmers of perishable crops throughout the United States, turned to workers with few other job opportunities, such as new immigrants, minorities, women, and children. By the mid-s, New Jersey farmers had begun importing immigrant Italian women and children from Philadelphia to work in their fields. At the same time, African Americans from southern states migrated into New Jersey as seasonal “truck’’ farming— farming specifically to supply urban markets— developed along the Eastern Seaboard, primarily near railroads. This early need for seasonal workers established links between New Jersey agriculture and two of its four principal migrant labor–supply regions. Along with the South and neighboring cities, New Jersey farmers have drawn on Puerto Rico and, most recently, Mexico for seasonal labor. Particularly since World War II, Puerto Rican authorities attempted to relieve island unemployment by sending migrant farmworkers to New Jersey and other states, many of whom were screened, housed, and placed on farms by a private corporation based in Glassboro. Due to their bilingual capabilities, some Puerto Rican workers later became managers and liaisons between New Jersey farmers and the Latino crews coming into the state from Mexico and Central America. The use of intermediaries between migrant crews and farmers occurs throughout migrant workforces. Today, farm labor contractors recruit Latino crews of primarily young single men from Florida winter agriculture who travel up the Eastern Seaboard during the summer months; smaller groups of workers, often members of an extended family and independent of contractors, supplement these crews. Although Philadelphiabased Cambodian refugees have worked on New Jersey farms over the past three decades, since the late s most migrant workers in New Jersey have come from Mexico and Central America. Increasingly, crews are arriving in the Garden State from farther south in Mexico and often speak Mayan as their first language, adopting Spanish, the lingua franca of the rural labor force, only after coming to the United States. Currently, New Jersey’s migrant labor force is generally estimated to be over ten thousand people. Hahamovich, Cindy. The Fruits of Their Labor: Atlantic Coast Farmworkers and the Making of Migrant Poverty, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also agriculture; labor movement

David Griffith

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Milford

Milford.

.-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. The tract that was to become Milford was first noted on a  survey. The mill, indicated on the survey, burned in the early s and the area became known as Burnt Mills. The rebuilt mill and surrounding acreage on the eastern bank of the Delaware River was sold to Thomas Lowery in . The village was then called Lowerytown until the early s when the name changed to Milford. Originally part of Holland Township, Milford was established as a borough in  and officially incorporated in . Ferries operated at Milford until a covered, wooden bridge was built in . Periodic flooding, the scourge of river towns, partially destroyed the bridge in . The structure was repaired and then replaced in  with a steel bridge. For many years Milford provided services to local farms and was home to a number of small enterprises. In  the Riegel Paper Corporation built the Milford Mill. At its peak, the mill provided more than twelve hundred jobs. Milford maintains a lower profile than many other river towns but has adapted well to the decline of agriculture and the subsequent suburbanization of the surrounding countryside. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cheslow, Jerry. “A Town Where Both Halves Live Well.’’ New York Times, July , . Townscape: The Millennium Edition. Millburn: The Item of Millburn and Short Hills, .

Elizabeth Hull

Miller, A. P.

(b. Apr. , ; d. date un-

known). Minister, political activist, and civil

rights leader. A. P. Miller graduated from Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee. He worked as the “hallman’’ (porter) at the City Hall in Jersey City. In the early s Miller was pastor of Saint Mark’s African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Jersey City. He preached racial pride and black political activism, considering both essential to racial progress. In October of  New Jersey governor James Fielder appointed Miller the Hudson delegate to the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation, which was held in New York City. In , as chairman of the Committee of Segregation of the Committee of One Hundred of Hudson County (a black activist group), he spearheaded a letterwriting campaign to various members of the U.S. Congress protesting segregation. Price, Clement A., ed. Freedom Not Far Distant: A History of Afro-Americans in New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also civil rights

Ethel M. Washington

Mary Anne Adams

Miller, Minerva Millburn.

-square-mile Essex County township. Millburn was settled first by the Lenape Indians and then Dutch immigrants in the s. During the Revolution, at the Battle of Springfield near here, colonial troops successfully prevented the British army from further advancing into northern New Jersey. After the Revolutionary War Scottish immigrant Samuel Campbell built the first paper mill, in recognition of which the name Millburn was adopted in , the year the township split from neighboring Springfield and was incorporated by the state legislature. That same year Stewart Hartshorn, a wealthy inventor, purchased , acres in Millburn. Today much of the community’s character still reflects his decision to hire distinguished architects such as Stanford White to build more than one hundred homes, with each house on its own knoll, and to snake roads around hills to preserve tree stands. The predominantly residential township consists of Short Hills, its northern section, comprised mainly of upscale homes situated on winding and tree-bordered hills, and the southern section, Millburn, with smaller houses and a more conventional street layout. The community benefits from its proximity to Manhattan twenty-one miles away. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

(dates unknown). Civil rights activist. An African American resident of Paterson and daughter of a minister, Minerva Miller sued a local cinema in  for charging her twenty-five cents for admission, five times the fee charged to white clients. At the trial, Miller’s attorney cited the New Jersey statute of , which stated that all persons in the state were entitled to “full and equal’’ access to theaters and other public places. The

attorney for the theater cited the common law principle that a proprietor could exclude anyone he wished from his establishment. Judge Walter Cabell of the Passaic District Court ruled in Miller’s favor, awarding her $, the maximum allowable under the statute. The case was a small victory in the long campaign of African Americans for equal rights. Ebner, Michael H. “Mrs. Miller and ‘The Paterson Show’: A  Defeat for Racial Discrimination.’’ New Jersey History  (summer ): –.

See also discrimination

Hillary Murtha

Miller, William Rickarby

(b. May

, ; d. July ).

Painter and illustrator. William Rickarby Miller was born in Staindrop, County Durham, England. He was apparently trained by his English artist father prior to his immigration to America in the winter of –. Though he settled in New York City, he worked extensively in New Jersey, doing many views around Weehawken, Hoboken, and Jersey City. He painted in both oils and watercolors, the latter being his specialty, and mirrored the Hudson River school in style and subjects. He also produced many illustrations for books and periodicals, such as Gleason’s, Leslie’s, and Ballou’s. He painted for the American Art-Union, and exhibited frequently at the National Academy of Design. William Rickarby Miller died in the Bronx, New York. M. & M. Karolik Collection of American Watercolors and Drawings, –. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, .

See also art

Richard C. Simon

Miller-Cory House.

This house on the Old York Road, the primary route from New York to Philadelphia in the s, was home

Miller-Cory House.

Courtesy Miller-Cory House Museum, Westfield.

Millville to descendants of the Miller and Cory families, early “West Fields’’ settlers. The house was built by Samuel Miller in three sections, first begun in  and finished in . It is of brace-and-beam construction, with noggingfilled walls, a shingled roof, and clapboard siding. Purchased by farmer Joseph Cory in , it remained in the Cory family until . The house had a succession of owners from  until , when it was purchased by the Westfield Historical Society. It is currently maintained and operated as a living history museum by the Miller-Cory House Volunteers. The house is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. See also historic sites

River at Bound Brook. The drainage area is  square miles, making it the largest watershed within the , square miles of the Raritan River Basin. The Millstone is bordered by the Delaware and Raritan Canal and its associated towpath from Lake Carnegie downstream to New Brunswick. If needed, it can be used as a water supply source by the Elizabethtown Water Company’s filter plant at the confluence of the Millstone and Raritan rivers. Menzies, Elizabeth G. C. Millstone Valley. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also rivers

Robert M. Hordon

Evelyn Stryker Lewis

Millington.

Millstone Township.

See Long Hill.

Millstone Borough.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County, formed from Hillsborough Township on May , . The smallest of the county’s municipalities, Millstone was settled by the Dutch who, upon their arrival in the s, marveled at the many large stones used by Native Americans to mill their corn, thence (possibly) the name. The village developed where two well-traveled roads connecting Princeton with Morristown and New Brunswick with Lambertville crossed the Millstone River. From  until  when British raiders torched it, Millstone (then called Somerset Court House) was the county seat. The opening of the Delaware and Raritan Canal in  brought prosperity but dreams of greater things evaporated when the railroad stopped short of the village. Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, New Jersey attorney general, U.S. senator, and U.S. secretary of state under President Chester A. Arthur, was born and lived here. Primarily residential, Millstone is known for its eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury houses (many of them in the Historic District). The population in  of  residents was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

.-squaremile township in Monmouth County. Incorporated in , Millstone is named after the Millstone River, whose headwaters lie in the township. The community was once part of Upper Freehold Township, Freehold Township, and a small section of Middlesex County. During its early years, Millstone was on a stagecoach route that carried passengers between Philadelphia and the river ports of central New Jersey. It was the site of The Rising Sun tavern, which Gen. George Washington is said to have used as an outpost during the Revolutionary War. The Rising Sun also hosted Benjamin Franklin and Joseph Bonaparte. Two historic buildings in Millstone Township, the Clarksburg Episcopal Methodist Church, built in  and a four-room schoolhouse in Clarksburg built in , are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Once an agricultural community, Millstone has experienced rapid growth in residential development in the past, and construction is now second to agriculture as the major industry. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Mount, Jeane E. History of the Township of Millstone. Millstone: Township of Millstone, .

Eileen Moon Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Mount, Jean E. History of the Township of Millstone. Millstone: Township of Millstone, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Millstone River.

Beginning in the Coastal Plain in southwestern Monmouth County, the Millstone River flows into Lake Carnegie near Princeton. It is joined there by the Stony Brook tributary, and continues northerly to its confluence with the Raritan

Milltown.

.-square-mile borough in Middlesex County. The first settlers called the village “Bergen’s Mill,’’ recognizing Jacob Bergen’s gristmill as the core of a growing community in . This location, with the Lawrence Brook as a source of power, enticed Christopher Meyer to build a modern facility for the manufacturing of rubber boots, shoes, and other articles. The Meyer Rubber Factory, founded in , was the first state-of-the-art rubber manufacturing company in the United States. The company ceased operations the same year that . square miles of North Brunswick and East Brunswick became incorporated as the Borough of

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Milltown in . The large complex of huge brick and mortar buildings as well as a reputation for quality labor, products, and innovations, brought the Michelin Tire Company to Milltown in . Michelin, producing tires and tubes for a world market, built over two hundred homes and the town population swelled. Manufacturing slowly declined after Michelin left in . Factories gave way to single-family homes and the town soon evolved into a safe and quiet place perfect for raising families. A main street with a cluster of small businesses and many active community organizations help maintain and perpetuate the friendly small hometown environment. The  population of , residents was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Luery, H. Rodney. The Story of Milltown. Cranbury: A. S. Barnes, . Marshall, Marcy, ed. “A Day in the Life of Milltown.’’ Home News Tribune, Aug. , . Milltown Centennial Committee. Milltown. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

David B. Schwendeman

Millville. .-square-mile city in Cumberland County. Millville owes its name to the time when waterwheels powered by the Maurice River ran the settlement’s first mills and foundries in the mid-eighteenth century. By , Henry Drinker and Joseph Smith formed the Union Estates Company, consisting of three mills. The dam they built on the Maurice River not only supplied power for their mills, but formed Union Lake—the largest artificial lake in the state. In addition to serving as a river port, Millville’s abundant natural silica sand deposits made it a mecca for the glassmaking industry. Irish immigrant James Lee opened the first glasshouse in , and from that time on, Millville would never be without a glass factory—Whitall Tatum and Wheaton Industries being the two most successful. By the end of the nineteenth century, the only American city to produce more glass than Millville was Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Incorporated as a city in , Millville retained its industrial character. Millville’s once declining downtown business district has enjoyed an economic rebirth with the creation, in , of the Glasstown Center Arts District. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Johnson, Virgil. Millville, New Jersey Centennial. Millville: Millville Centennial Corporation, . Van Doren James, Nancy. Millville. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Nancy Van Doren James

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Mine Hill

Whitall Tatum South Millville Plant, Millville, .

Courtesy Museum of American Glass at Wheaton Village, Millville.

Mine Hill.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. Originally inhabited by Lenape Indians, Mine Hill overlooks the Succasunny (Lenape for “place of the black rock’’) Plains. Both hill and plain are rich in the iron ore that gave the place its name. Earliest settlements date to , but Mine Hill did not split off from Randolph Township until . Mine Hill is the site of the home of Randolph’s namesake, Harshorne FitzRandolph. The most famous resident was Gov. Mahlon Dickerson, who was also secretary of the navy under Andrew Jackson. Dickerson founded one of the twenty-two iron mines that operated in the township. The heyday of the mines was in the nineteenth century, most closed in the s, but the last one operated until . Early mine workers were mainly Irish immigrants; the Ferromonte Historical Society maintains the Bridget Smith House, a miner’s house, a National Historic Site nearly unchanged from , as a historical museum. Originally a trolley stop between New York City and Easton, Pennsylvania, Mine Hill is now a mostly residential community with a commercial district along Route . The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Campoli, Elaine, et al. Mine Hill Diamond Jubilee. Mine Hill: Ferromonte Historical Society, . Shay, T. K., and M. R. Pustay. Abandoned Iron Mines of Mine Hill. Trenton: Department of Labor and Industry, Division of Workplace Standards, Office of Safety Compliance, .

Jane R. Primerano

minerals.

New Jersey is surprisingly rich in mineral resources given its relatively small geographic size. More than  minerals and

varieties have been uncovered within the state and more continue to be added. The landscape is dotted with hundreds of old mines, quarries, and countless prospect pits and smaller workings. Economically important ores and rock include iron ore, zinc, copper, glauconite (greensand), clay, sand, and trap rock. The history of mineral use in New Jersey dates back to the earliest Native American inhabitants who used quartzite, jasper, and shale as tools, and clay and sand in their pottery. Europeans arriving in New Jersey continued the search for mineral resources, and one of the first that captured their attention was copper. Water carried copper sulfides from lower diabase rock and deposited it into Triassic sandstone. More than a dozen copper-related minerals are found in New Jersey rock. The Pahaquarry Mine of Warren County may be the oldest nonnative mine in the country. Dutch immigrants started mining possibly as early as , and the historic Old Mine Road is still present. The Schuyler Copper Mine on the bank of the Passaic River began around  and was periodically worked as late as . Mineral-rich sand containing alumina, silica, zirconia, iron, lime, potash, soda, and sulfur supported a diverse glass industry. The history of the state’s glass industry spans from colonial times to the present. New Jersey holds two of the world’s premier mineral-collecting areas, the Franklin area and the Watchung Mountains area. Zinc mines in and around the Franklin area penetrated up to , feet beneath the surface. These and other quarries have uncovered more than three hundred mineral varieties. Many of these minerals, such as franklinite, willemite, chondrodite, and zincite, were

discovered for the first time in the Franklin area and many are found nowhere else in the world. Of particular interest to mineralogists are fluorescent minerals that glow under ultraviolet light. The more than seventy fluorescent minerals found in this region make it the undisputed fluorescent capital of the world. Quarries in the Watchung Mountains area contain more than eighty kinds of minerals. New Jersey is famous for the many zeolite minerals discovered here, such as analcime, chabazite, heulandite, natrolite, and stilbite. Zeolites are a group of hydrated minerals often found in cavities inside basalt. Other trap rock minerals prized by collectors include apophyllite, chromite, datolite, and prehnite. Although New Jersey is not commonly known for gemstones, mineral collectors find many varieties within the state, such as agate, amethyst, jasper, opal, carnelian, chalcedony, amber, garnet, kyanite, tourmaline, red corundum (ruby), and the small quartz pebbles known as Cape May Diamonds. Small quantities of native gold have also been located in Bergen, Hudson, Middlesex, Morris, and Sussex counties. Many historic quarries and mines are no longer in production, and the economy is no longer strongly fueled by mineral production. New Jersey is, however, still a leading producer of construction materials such as trap rock, sand, and gravel, and to a lesser extent clay and greensand. Mason, Brian H. Trap Rock Minerals of New Jersey. Trenton: State of New Jersey, Dept. of Conservation and Economic Development, . Stepanski, Scott, and Karenne Snow. Gem Trails of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Baldwin Park, CA: Gem Guides, .

See also geology

Scott Stepanski

mining. The history of New Jersey’s mining industry spans more than three centuries, and mining played an important role in the state’s early settlement. The earliest miners, many of them skilled, were Dutch or English and, as early as the s, immigrants from elsewhere in Western Europe who were brought to New Jersey specifically to work in the developing mining industry. Some of the ore recovered from this early mining was shipped to Europe

MINING INDUSTRY FRANKLIN PAHAQUARRY MINE N

SCHUYLER MINE WATCHUNGS

0

10

miles © Rutgers, The State University

Minuit, Peter

Iron mining in the Highlands, c. .

From The Annual Report of the New Jersey Geological Survey, 1855.

for processing, a practice that continued until the mid-s, when furnaces and forges were constructed in the state. Over the years, immigrants from Western and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Europe continued to make up the majority of the workforce in the state’s mining industry and many settled permanently in the state. From the s until the mid-s, a limited number of miners were black slaves forced by their owners to work in privately owned mines. There were no women miners. However, women were hired to work in a clerical capacity. Mineral resources have been recovered from every part of the state. “Hard rock’’ mines in the northern part of New Jersey were worked mainly underground to extract copper, graphite, iron, manganese, and zinc ore. The remainder of mineral resources, such as clay, peat, sand and gravel, and crushed stone, were mined solely from surface workings. During the early s, New Jersey led the nation in total production of clay and iron ore and ranked second in the nation in total production of zinc ore. Currently, there are no operating underground mines in the state. The last iron mine in New Jersey was at Mount Hope in Morris County, which closed in . The last zinc mine was at Sterling Hill in Sussex County, which closed in . Mining continues today from surface workings for sand and gravel from  pits, crushed stone from  quarries, greensand from  pit, and peat from  pits. The following alphabetical listing details the various mineral resources that have been mined in the state.

barite—mined mid- to late s at one site in the Piedmont in Hopewell Township, Mercer County, and another northwest of Newton, Sussex County. clay—mined from about  until recently at numerous sites in the Valley and Ridge, the Highlands, the Piedmont, and the Coastal Plain, but most abundantly in a northeasttrending belt that extends from Trenton to Perth Amboy. An important material for use in the manufacture of brick and pottery. copper—mined prior to  until  at seventeen sites in the Piedmont in Bergen, Essex, Passaic, Somerset, Middlesex, and Hunterdon counties, and one site in the Valley and Ridge in Warren County. Ore included native copper and copper-bearing minerals. graphite—mined  until  at fourteen sites in the Highlands in Morris and Hunterdon counties. The largest mines were at Annandale in Clinton Township and Bloomingdale, which had mills to process ore. iron—mined prior to  until . Ore included magnetite, hematite, and limonite. Magnetite mined at over three hundred sites throughout the Highlands, hematite at eight sites in the Highlands, limonitic bog ore at fourteen sites mainly in the Coastal Plain, but also in the Valley and Ridge and the Highlands, and limonite at over forty sites in the Highlands and the Valley and Ridge. manganese—mined about  until  at one site in the Piedmont in Clinton Township, Hunterdon County. Primary ores were pyrolusite and psilomelane. mica—mined prior to  in the Highlands at Franklin and Harmony Townships, Warren County, Clinton Township, Hunterdon County, and Mendham Township, Morris County. peat—mined s to the present at numerous sites in the Highlands, Valley and Ridge, and Piedmont. radioactive ore—mined mid-s in the Highlands at sites near Mine Hill, Morris County, and Cranberry Lake, Sussex County. Ore included uranium, thorium, and rare earth–bearing minerals. sand—mined prior to  to the present at sites throughout the state. Sand and gravel deposits in the Valley and Ridge, the Highlands, the Piedmont, and the Coastal Plain. Glass sand, greensand (glauconite), lime sand, and heavy mineral sand in the Coastal Plain. serpentine and talc—quarried about  until early s in the Highlands at sites near Phillipsburg, Warren County, and Montville Township, Morris County. stone—quarried prior to  to the present at numerous sites throughout northern and central New Jersey. Granite, gneiss, marble, and quartzite quarried in the Highlands, limestone (cement rock), and slate mainly

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in the Valley and Ridge but also the Highlands, and basalt and diabase (trap rock), sandstone (brownstone), and argillite in the Piedmont. zinc—mined possibly as early as  until  at three sites in the Highlands. The largest mines at Franklin and Ogdensburg, Sussex County, contained  different minerals,  unique to the state. Primary ore included willemite, zincite, and franklinite. Small deposit of sphalerite mined about  near Oxford, Warren County. See also iron industry; minerals; quarrying

Richard A. Volkert

Minisink Valley.

Part of the Appalachian Ridge and Valley Province, this northeast-southwest trending valley extends from Kingston on the Hudson River in New York, through the area occupied by the Delaware River, and on into Pennsylvania to the Lehigh Valley area. The portion of the Minisink Valley in New Jersey from the Delaware Water Gap north to the New York border is also called the Upper Delaware Valley. It is underlain by less resistant limestones and shales, as compared to the more resistant rocks on the surrounding ridges. The valley was an important trade route in Indian and colonial times, including the building of the Old Mine Road to Kingston by the early Dutch settlers.

Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

Robert M. Hordon

Minuit, Peter (b. c. ; d. Aug. ). Director general of New Netherland. In May  Peter Minuit began his tenure as director general of New Netherland. That summer he was instrumental in purchasing Manhattan Island from the Indians. His subsequent decision that far-flung settlers relocate on Manhattan as protection against Indian attack ensured the centrality of New Amsterdam in the colony’s economic and political life. After  his attempts to encourage colonization by promoting the patroonship concept of land tenure were resisted by some within the Dutch West India Company, leading to his dismissal in . Later, Minuit entered into a Swedish plan to establish a colony on the Delaware River that would compete with New Netherland in fur and tobacco. He disappeared in a storm at sea in  at the height of his career. Jameson, J. Franklin, ed. Narratives of New Netherland, –. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . Van Laer, A.J.F., ed. Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts. Albany: State University of New York, .

See also New Netherland

Firth Haring Fabend

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Miss America

Margaret Gorman of Washington, DC, was the first Miss America in .

Courtesy Vicki Gold Levi.

for war bonds and is credited with selling $. million worth of bonds. The bathing suit category was renamed the swimsuit competition in  and the song “There She Is, Miss America’’ was first sung by Bert Parks in . He and the song subsequently became icons of the pageant. From the s on, feminists have criticized the pageant for its emphasis on women’s bodies. In response, the pageant added artistic performance and position statement categories to the contest. Today, a Miss America travels approximately twenty thousand miles a month, changing her location every twentyfour to forty-eight hours. She tours the nation speaking out on topics that are personally significant to her as well as those that effect our nation and world. Kate Shindle, Miss America , spent her year’s reign addressing groups on behalf of the HIV/AIDS cause. Miss America , Erika Herold, spoke out against violence.

The nation’s first squadron of long-range BOMARC (Boeing Michigan Aeronautical Research Center) air defense missiles was activated during  at a site eleven miles east of McGuire Air Force Base. Operated by the th Air Defense Missile Squadron, the site remained active through . Two of the Cold War era’s most serious missile accidents occurred in New Jersey. In  ten personnel were killed when Nike missiles exploded at a site in Middletown. Two years later, an Air Force BOMARC missile was destroyed in a fire at its base in Plumsted Township, contaminating a small portion of the site with plutonium.

Riverol, Armando. Live from Atlantic City: The History of the Miss America Pageant Before, After, and in Spite of Television. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, .

Modern School.

Miss America.

The Miss America Pageant began as a marketing idea. The Businessmen’s League of Atlantic City developed a plan to keep people on the Boardwalk past Labor Day. They organized a Fall Frolic and held it on September , . There were many events that day, but the most popular was a parade of young women being pushed along the Boardwalk in rolling chairs. At the head of the procession was Ernestine Cremona, dressed in a flowing white robe, representing peace. This event was such a success that a similar one was planned for the following year. At the same time, in an effort to increase circulation, newspapers on the East Coast had begun sponsoring beauty pageants judged on photograph submissions. The Businessmen’s League of Atlantic City decided to capitalize on this idea and the winners of these local newspaper beauty contests were invited to the next Fall Frolic to compete in an “Inter-City Beauty’’ Contest. This contest had two parts—a popularity contest and a beauty contest. The winner of the beauty contest, the “Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America,’’ was to be awarded the title of “Golden Mermaid.’’ On September , , , people came to the Boardwalk to watch the contestants. A panel of artists serving as judges named sixteen-year-old Margaret Gorman of Washington, D.C., the winner of both contests and awarded her a $ prize. When Gorman returned in  to defend her laurels, she was draped in the American flag and called “Miss America.’’ In , a talent portion was added to the pageant and contestants were required to represent states, rather than cities, resorts, or theaters, as had been the practice in previous years. “Miss America’’ became the official pageant title in . In , the reigning Miss America, Jean Bartel, used her celebrity to bolster the war effort. She became a spokesperson

Sharon Hazard

missiles. Due to its strategic location, New Jersey was an important location for Cold War era missile sites designed to destroy attacking Soviet bombers in the event of a nuclear war. U.S. Army Air Defense Command deployed Nike missiles at nine sites in northeastern New Jersey to defend the New York metropolitan area. Five additional sites located in the southern half of the state contributed to the defense of the Philadelphia region. These sites were active from  through . Regional Nike missile control centers were located at Highlands and Pedricktown.

Eglin, James M. Air Defense in the Nuclear Age: The Post-War Development of American and Soviet Strategic Defense Systems. New York: Garland, .

See also rocketry

Donald E. Bender

The Modern School was a libertarian school located in the anarchist Ferrer colony in the North Stelton area of Piscataway. Founded in New York City in memory of Spanish anarchist and educator Francisco Ferrer, it moved to Piscataway in . Modern School pupils were not compelled to go to class and had a free choice of activities including academics, arts and crafts, and athletics. Although the school flourished in the s under co-principals Elizabeth and Alexis Ferm and Jim and Nellie Dick, it declined in the late s and was closed in .

Avrich, Paul. The Modern School Movement. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Veysey, Laurence. The Communal Experience: Anarchist and Mystical Communities in TwentiethCentury America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .

See also education; utopian communities

Fernanda Helen Perrone

MISSILE SITES 1955 -1974

Franklin Lakes/Mahwah Wayne

Livingston/East Hanover Summit

NYC Ft. Hancock

South Plainfield Old Bridge Holmdel/Hazlet Plum Township PHILA.

Middletown

Lumberton Marlton Berun/Clementon

Swedesboro

Pitman N

MISSILES NIKE BOMARC

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20 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

Moeller, Louis Charles (b. Aug. , ; d. Nov. , ). Painter. Born in New York City, Louis Charles Moeller received his earliest training from his father, who was a portrait and decorative painter. He later studied at the Cooper Union and the National Academy of Design, and also spent six years in Munich, returning to the United States in . Moeller was one of America’s most popular genre painters. He excelled in painting portraits of elderly gentlemen engaged in everyday activities. He was also noted for his rich interior backgrounds and Victorian settings. In his use of light and attention to detail, Moeller was heavily influenced by the Dutch masters of the seventeenth century. A typical example of his work might be Reading the News in which three well-to-do gentlemen discuss the day’s events over a glass of wine in a comfortable drawing room. The painting is a fine example of the artist’s attention to facial detail, expression, and a carefully delineated background. Oddly enough, despite the fact

Monmouth, Battle of

The Modern School, Piscataway, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

that he was known as a figure painter and portraitist, Moeller’s two most eloquent works were The Sculptor’s Studio and The Old Armchair. These pictures tell their dramatic stories without people—the objects in the paintings beautifully describe their owners. Moeller lived for many years in Weehawken. Many of his paintings are now owned by the Newark Museum and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Zellerman, Michael David, ed. American Art Analog. New York: Chelsea House Publisher, .

See also art

Robert Nelson

Urquhart, F. A. The Monarch Butterfly: International Traveler. Chicago: Nelson Hall, .

See also butterflies

Joanna Burger

Monmouth, Battle of.

One of the largest battles of the American Revolution took place in Monmouth County on June , , when a British Army force of twenty thousand regulars and Loyalists moving from Philadelphia to New York City was intercepted by the Continental Army with fifteen thousand men under Gen. George Washington. The battle began about  .., when a

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Continental advance force of five thousand men attempted to surround the British rear guard at Monmouth Courthouse. Barely in time, the Americans realized that half of the British Army was returning to attack them. As the Continentals retreated west, Washington met them and rallied the men to fight a delaying action while he positioned the main body of his army on a hill west of Spotswood Middle Brook. The British quickly overran the Continental rear guard, but as the Grenadiers charged the bridge over the brook, they were stopped by a hail of grapeshot from Continental field pieces. For more than two hours, British and Continental artillery dueled across the brook. Continental gunners won the contest by bringing four guns to Combs Hill and sending a raking fire along the length of the British positions. As the British began withdrawing, the Continentals cautiously counterattacked. Heavy fighting erupted in the center when Gen. Anthony Wayne led three regiments against the First Battalion of British Grenadiers. The Grenadiers pushed Wayne’s men back, but broke off under fire from American artillery and resumed their march to New York City, ending the last major battle in the northern colonies. Although not a crushing defeat of the enemy, the Battle of Monmouth was a political triumph for the Continental Army and General Washington. The Continental Army had met British regulars in the open field and forced them to retreat. The British suffered two to three times more casualties than the Americans. Smith, Samuel Stelle. The Battle of Monmouth. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Stryker, William S. The Battle of Monmouth. Edited by William Starr Myers. Tennent: Friends of Monmouth Battlefield, .

monarch butterfly. The monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a large, orange-andblack butterfly that breeds in New Jersey and migrates to Mexico in the winter. The last adults to hatch in the late fall migrate south, gathering in large numbers in Cape May in September, where they roost in bushes and juniper trees. They then continue southward until they reach montane forests in Mexico, where they spend the winter. They are distasteful to birds, which confers a protective advantage. The actual taste varies and is dependent upon the toxic strength of the milkweeds they consume as caterpillars. The viceroy butterfly (Limemitis archippus) has a similar pattern, a form of Batesian mimicry, and birds avoid eating viceroys even though they are not distasteful. Burger, Joanna, and Michael Gochfeld. Twenty-five Nature Spectacles in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Gochfeld, Michael, and Joanna Burger. Butterflies of New Jersey: A Guide to Their Status, Distribution, Conservation, and Appreciation. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Emanuel Leutze, Washington at the Battle of Monmouth, . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Monmouth County Historical Association, Freehold. Gift of the Descendants of David Leavitt, 1937.

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Monmouth Battlefield State Park

BATTLE OF MONMOUTH

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1 Route of British army withdrawing from Philadelphia toward New York City. © Rutgers, The State University

Thayer, Theodore. The Making of a Scapegoat: Washington and Lee at Monmouth. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, .

See also American Revolution

Garry Wheeler Stone

Monmouth Battlefield State Park. This ,-acre park commemorates the June , , battle between Gen. George Washington’s Continental Army and British troops under Sir Henry Clinton. It was one of the largest engagements of the American Revolution. The park preserves the rural landscape of rolling farmland, orchards, woods, and brooks. The  Craig House has been restored, and worm fences outline the fields of . Creation of the park was the goal of Dr. C. Malcolm Gilman, a member of the Sons of the American Revolution and founder of the Monmouth Battlefield Association. He persuaded Gov. Robert B. Meyner and Joseph J. Truncer, director of the Bureau of Parks and Recreation, to make preservation of the site a priority for the proposed Green Acres Program. Land acquisition began in , and the park opened in  for the bicentennial celebration of the battle. Edwards and Kelcey, Inc. Development Plan and Interpretive Guide, Monmouth Battlefield State Historic Park. Trenton: New Jersey Division of Parks, Forestry, and Recreation, .

See also American Revolution; state parks

Garry Wheeler Stone

Monmouth Beach.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. The borough is situated on a barrier beach along the

Atlantic Ocean, and was formed from Ocean Township in . Originally part of the Wardell farm, it was sold in  to Arthur V. Conover, who then sold the southern section in  to investor Daniel Dodd. Dodd formed the Monmouth Beach Association with Edward Q. Keasbey and John Torrey. The investors paid a sizable sum to relocate the  Long Branch and Seashore Railroad from the shore to a block inland, opening the waterfront for the construction of summer cottages. Exposed to the ravages of the ocean, most of the cottages on the eastern side of Ocean Avenue were destroyed or moved. Privacy and exclusivity characterized social life at Monmouth Beach, while recreational activity centered on the still thriving Monmouth Beach Bath and Tennis Club and the now defunct Monmouth Beach Inn and Monmouth Beach Country Club. The latter’s clubhouse was moved and today serves as the borough hall. Monmouth Beach’s population was transformed in the s by the construction of three high-rise multiple dwellings. The town has little business; a former fishing colony is gone. Monmouth Beach is home to the Northeast Monmouth County Regional Sewerage Authority. The population in  of , was  percent white; median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Monmouth Beach and Sea Bright. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . O’Brien, Rosemary. Monmouth Beach: A Bicentennial Publication. Monmouth Beach: Plunkett Press, .

Randall Gabrielan

Monmouth

County. Located in eastern-central New Jersey, Monmouth County, with an area of . square miles, is the sixth largest county in the state. There are fifty-three municipalities in the county, including the towns of Red Bank, Asbury Park, and Freehold. Shoreline along the Atlantic Ocean stretches twenty-seven miles with another twenty-six miles of bayshore to the north. Suburban and rural areas predominate in the county. Present-day Monmouth County maintains an agricultural tradition with orchards, produce farms, and horse breeding farms to the west and south. The eastern Atlantic coast is lined with seaside resort communities. Small towns and residential communities are home to the majority of the population, . percent of whom commute to work in nearby New York City. The county’s park system includes over , acres and is the second largest in the state. Another , acres are protected as state or national parks and watershed-protected areas including Sandy Hook, a unit of the National Gateway Recreation Area. Two military installations are located within the county, Fort Monmouth and Naval Weapons Station Earle. There is a diversity of topography across Monmouth County from the Navesink Highlands at an elevation of nearly  feet to the New Jersey Pine Barrens that reach into the southernmost part of Monmouth. One of the four original counties in East Jersey, Monmouth County was established by an act of the proprietary assembly in  and named after Monmouthshire at the suggestion of Col. Lewis Morris, an immigrant from that part of England. In , three townships

Monmouth Museum

MONMOUTH COUNTY

Freehold

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were set up within the county, Middletown, Shrewsbury, and Freehold, the last of which became the seat of county government in . The boundaries of Monmouth County, which originally included Ocean County to the south, were laid out in  and . Ocean County remained a part of Monmouth until . Originally inhabited by the Lenape, the area was first visited by European explorers in  when Henry Hudson’s Half Moon sent a landing party onto Sandy Hook. Dutch settlers populated the bayshore and inland areas before  and continued a strong separate cultural identity into the mid-eighteenth century. Soon thereafter, in , a group of twelve Englishmen, Baptists and Quakers from Long Island and New England, were granted a land patent, now known as the Monmouth Patent, from Gov. Richard Nicolls. That document secured lands around present-day Middletown, which they had already begun to purchase from the native population for settlement and for investment. The next major wave of immigration came in the s as Scots Presbyterians and Quakers seeking religious tolerance settled in the area from Aberdeen to Freehold. During the eighteenth century, the population of Monmouth County increased dramatically, its agricultural and trade economy grew, and the Revolutionary War brought both civil conflict and a major military engagement. Settlers, both Dutch and English and mostly coming from other colonies, were drawn by Monmouth’s rich farmland and its proximity to the colonial ports of New York and Philadelphia.

Tradesmen and merchants flourished marketing their goods locally and to outlets in New York. First arriving as involuntary immigrants, Africans, both enslaved and free, comprised about  percent of the county’s estimated population by . Perhaps the most well known historical event that occurred in Monmouth County was the Battle of Monmouth, fought on June , , in Freehold and the surrounding area. One of the largest land engagements of the Revolutionary War in terms of the number of troops, the battle marked a political and psychological turning point in the war. Advances in technology and transportation during the nineteenth century shaped a growing Monmouth County as they did the rest of the nation. Steamships carried cargo and passengers to and from New York beginning in the s, adding to the existing maritime activities of commercial fishing and boat building. The advent of railroad lines in the s encouraged industrial development and enabled farmers to send their produce— potatoes were a principal crop—to market in northern New Jersey and New York City. In the early nineteenth century new groups arrived in Monmouth County, including Irish and German immigrants. From  to , the county was home to a utopian community, the North American Phalanx, which struggled at first to be self-supporting and eventually prospered. Resort communities along the Monmouth coast were havens to tourists who arrived by steamboat and later by rail. Long Branch was a fashionable retreat by the s and its tourist trade grew steadily as it became known as one of the country’s most noted resorts in the late nineteenth century. President Ulysses S. Grant made Long Branch his summer residence in the s as did six other presidents during the decades that followed. Nearby Ocean Grove, which grew to be the largest camp meeting association in the country, provided another alternative for seashore visitors. Today, the beaches along Monmouth’s coast still attract thousands of tourists annually. Early twentieth-century industrial development in Monmouth County included agricultural-based concerns like Hazard’s Ketchup Factory in Shrewsbury and large commercial complexes like the Karagheusian Rug Mill in Freehold. The county’s agricultural community was joined in the s by an influx of Jewish families from New York City who began egg farms in Howell and Farmingdale. In the twentieth century, the horse breeding and racing industries grew with two racetracks in the county, Monmouth Park and Freehold Raceway. Western Monmouth is known today as an international center for the horse breeding industry. The five largest major employers in the county as of  were Meridian Health Care, Fort Monmouth, Lucent Technologies, AT&T, and the County of Monmouth.

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At the  census, the population was ,. Eighty-four percent of this population was white and  percent black. The Monmouth County Planning Board projects that by the year  the population will be ,. Median household income in  was $,. Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, .

County.

Monmouth County Planning Board. “Monmouth County Profile, .’’ Van Benthuysen, Robert F., and Audrey Kent Wilson. Monmouth County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, .

Lee Ellen Griffith

Monmouth County Historical Association. The Monmouth County Historical Association, a private nonprofit organization, was established in  by a group of interested citizens led by Caroline Gallup Reed for the purposes of collecting and preserving Monmouth County’s heritage. In  the association built its museum and library in Freehold, designed by architect J. Hallam Conover. Today this headquarters houses exhibition galleries, the library and archives, and staff offices. The association owns five other historic properties: Marlpit Hall (c. ) and the Taylor-Butler House (), both in Middletown; the Covenhoven House (c. ) in Freehold; the Allen House (before ) in Shrewsbury; and the Holmes-Hendrickson House (c. ) in Holmdel. See also museums

Lee Ellen Griffith

Monmouth Medical Center. When an epidemic struck Long Branch in , a group of businessmen rented rooms over a downtown store and founded the Long Branch Hospital. After a year, the location was moved to a small house on Central Avenue and the name changed to Monmouth Memorial Hospital. In , the Central Hotel, with twenty-seven rooms, was purchased to expand the facilities, and patients began arriving from towns throughout Monmouth County. The MMH Training School for Nurses opened in , offering a two-year course of study for a class of four students. Currently licensed for  beds, Monmouth Medical Center is an affiliate of the Saint Barnabas Health Care System. As a community teaching hospital, there are eight residency programs accredited by MCP–Hahnemann University: dental medicine, diagnostic radiology, general surgery, internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, orthopedic surgery, pathology, and pediatrics. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Frederic C. Pachman

Monmouth Museum.

The Monmouth Museum was founded in  in Asbury Park. For the next decade it would serve a wide

530

Monmouth Park

The postcard reads: “On the turn, Monmouth Park Race Track, Oceanport, N.J.’’

From Greetings from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike. variety of educational and cultural missions without building a collection. After occupying rented storefronts in Red Bank, a permanent home was opened on the campus of Brookdale Community College in . Following the museum’s  exhibit, Spell of the Sea, museum exhibitions have featured painting and the graphic arts, sculpture, photography, Native American life, science, nature, craft and folk arts, and local history. The Becker Children’s Wing and the Wonder Wing, the latter containing a permanent exhibition on the sea and its creatures, provide interactive learning for children. See also museums

Randall Gabrielan

state authorized Monmouth to offer associate degrees and, the next year, the college incorporated as an independent, nonprofit, private institution of higher learning. By the s the need for a four-year college with its own campus became apparent. In  Monmouth purchased the old Shadow Lawn estate in West Long Branch. Two thousand students began taking classes in Wilson Hall (named for an earlier mansion on the site occupied by Woodrow Wilson during his  presidential campaign). The New Jersey Department of Higher Education authorized the college to grant baccalaureate degrees in . In  William G. Van Note became Monmouth College’s president, replacing

Edward G. Schlaefer, who, except for one year, had run the school since its inception. Enrollment increased to just under six thousand students, and the college added lecture halls, an auditorium, a gym, and its first residence halls. Shortly before Van Note retired in , the faculty voted to be represented by the Faculty Association of Monmouth College (FAMCO), the first union to be established at a private college. Enrollments and revenue declined during the s, and friction with the faculty led to a three-week strike at the opening of the fall  semester and to then-president Richard Stonesifer’s resignation. Stonesifer’s successor, Samuel Hays Magill, helped stabilize the college. In  President Magill retired and Rebecca Stafford became Monmouth’s president. In  Monmouth College became Monmouth University. Under President Stafford’s leadership, the university opened the Kessler Field football stadium and three new residence halls, established a graduate school, and was awarded accreditation for its schools of business administration and of nursing and health studies. As the twenty-first century began, almost five hundred faculty members were educating more than fifty-five hundred undergraduate and graduate students. Van Benthuysen, Robert. Crossroads Mansion: Shadow Lawn and the Guggenheim Cottage. West Long Branch: Turtle Mill Press, .

See also higher education

Brian Greenberg

Monopoly. In the most common version of this popular board game, manufactured and sold by Parker Bros. (now a subsidiary of Hasbro, Inc.), the game board’s real-estate spaces bear Atlantic City place names.

Monmouth Park. This track has hosted some of thoroughbred racing’s most celebrated owners, jockeys, trainers, and horses since opening on July , , just outside of Long Branch. Troubled financial times and bans on gambling closed the track twice, but it reopened in  and has been in operation ever since, offering daytime racing from Memorial Day to Labor Day. In  the Molly Pitcher Handicap became the first race televised in color. The track’s highlight meet is the Haskell Invitational, a $ million race for threeyear-olds. Formerly owned by a consortium of sportsmen and businessmen, Monmouth Park was acquired in  by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority.

Guy Sterling

Monmouth University. Founded as a junior college in , Monmouth first offered evening classes to Jersey Shore area students in Long Branch High School. Just two years later, despite severe cutbacks in federal funding, the college was accredited. In  the

Wilson Hall at Monmouth University, West Long Branch.

Courtesy Monmouth University. Photo: Jim Reme.

Montclair Monopoly originated in the Landlord’s Game, invented in  by the Maryland actress and game designer Elizabeth Magie Phillips to popularize the ideas of the nineteenth-century economist Henry George, who saw rent income as the primary source of social inequity. In the s and s the original game was adapted and improved by players in the Northeast and the Midwest. These folk games were usually played on homemade boards that incorporated place names from the players’ communities, although a commercial version called Finance was marketed in the Midwest beginning in . In the early s a group of Quaker teachers at the Atlantic City Friends School developed a version of the folk game with Atlantic City place names. An unemployed heating engineer from Philadelphia, Charles Darrow, copied this game and its rules, hired a graphics designer to produce cards and a game board, and marketed the game himself. In  Parker Bros. began manufacturing this version. It became the most popular proprietary game ever; over  million sets have been sold. Novelty versions and foreign editions with different place names have been produced, but the basic game preserves the Atlantic City geography commemorated by the Quakers who created it. This geography includes Marven Gardens, a housing development misspelled with an “i’’ on the game board, and the Shore Fast Line trolley, abbreviated as the Short Line.

David Lurie

Monroe

(Gloucester

County).

.-square-mile township. The Lenape made the first settlements during the s in the area that is now known as the Pinelands. In , Israel Williams, one of the first European settlers, purchased , acres, and later the sparsely populated area was called Williamstown in his honor. It was renamed Monroe, for the fifth president, and incorporated as a township from land in Washington Township in Camden County in . In  it was transferred to Gloucester County. During the nineteenth century Monroe was largely rural with one glassworks and no post office until . The early part of the twentieth century saw an increase in large, upscale farms, and it remained largely without industries. Today Monroe Township is made up of sections including Williamstown, Cecil, Cross Keys, Downer, Pine Hollow, Berryland, and New Brooklyn. Situated halfway between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, it is heavily trafficked. Federally protected Pinelands tracts make up  percent of the township. It is largely a residential community of singlefamily homes, housing developments, and condominiums. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Davis, Esther M., ed. A History of Monroe Township, –. Williamstown: Monroe Township Historical Society, . “A Historic Weekend in Gloucester County.’’ Eagle Scout Service Project by William S. Entrekin, . Gloucester County Historical Society Library.

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Monroe (Middlesex County). .square-mile township. Completion of the Amboy-Bordentown road provided means for Scottish immigrants led by James Johnstone to settle the area in . Fertile farmland lured other settlers from Denmark and England. The town is named after President James Monroe, and the -year-old “Monroe Oak’’ is a township symbol. Monroe was created on February , , and originally included the present municipalities of Spotswood, Helmetta, and Jamesburg, as well as parts of Cranbury and East Brunswick. During the Revolutionary War, the Continental Army led by George Washington camped in the Gravel Hill section the night before the Battle of Monmouth. In  the Camden-Amboy Railroad became an important conduit for shipping. Farming, especially potatoes, and lumber were the main products. Monroe Township’s character changed in s when the first of five large retirement communities was built. These doubled the population to more than ,. Accompanying the growth in retirement communities has been growth in light industry as well as limited commercial development. Although many residential neighborhoods are expanding, onethird of land use is still agricultural. The  population of , was  percent white. Median household income was $, (). For complete census figures, see chart, .

Stephen M. Dalina

Montague.

.-square-mile township located in the extreme northwest corner of Sussex County. The township was established by royal patent in . Before settlement by Dutch and Huguenots just prior to , the area was home to the Lenape Indians. Both the Lenape and the settlers were drawn to the fertile soils along the banks of the Delaware River, the township’s western boundary. Disputes between the Indian population and the European settlers led to the construction of a number of stone forts in the township during the French and Indian War. Until the middle of the twentieth century, agriculture was the township’s primary business. From the eighteenth to the early twentieth century local water-powered gristmills and sawmills processed grains and lumber from the surrounding regions. Agricultural

531

production changed to beef and dairy cattle as the twentieth century progressed. During the last third of the twentieth century, agricultural farmland gave way to residential development. The federal government purchased properties at the south end of the township in the s for the Tocks Island Dam project and the resulting Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. The  population of , is  percent white. Today, the township remains rural in nature, but many residents travel to jobs in other areas of northern New Jersey and southern New York State. The median household income according to the  census was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Blasberg, Robert W., and Jean-Albee Everitt. Twoand-One-Quarter Centuries on Old Mine Road: The History of Minisink Reformed Church, –, Montague, New Jersey. N.p.: Privately printed, . Snell, James P. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Dorothy W. Hartman

Montclair. .-square-mile township in Essex County. Montclair was settled in the late seventeenth century by two distinct groups of colonists. English Puritans settled what became known as Cranetown while the Dutch settled Speerstown, which would become Upper Montclair. Montclair’s development was influenced by the nearby Morris Canal, and later by the establishment of the Montclair Railroad and the Greenwood Lake Railroad. It was part of Newark until , when it became part of Bloomfield. It seceded from Bloomfield and was incorporated as Montclair Township on April , . While Montclair had some light manufacturing and small mills in its history, it has been primarily residential since the nineteenth century. Montclair is known for its large number of magnificent and well-preserved Victorian homes. These homes were built by wealthy industrialists and professionals who were attracted by the close proximity of transportation and the spectacular views afforded from the town’s high elevation. It is this prospect that inspired the name change to Montclair, French for “clear mountain,’’ in . Many artists have resided in Montclair, the best known being the nineteenth-century landscape painter George Inness. Montclair is home to the Montclair Art Museum and Montclair State University. In  its population was ,:  percent white,  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cacioppo, Richard K. The Glory of Montclair Past and Present: The Ultimate Guide. Montclair: Dream City Publishing, . Montclair, –. Montclair: Montclair th Anniversary Book Committee, . Whittemore, Henry. History of Montclair Township. New York: Suburban Publishing, .

Elizabeth A. Milliken

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Montclair Art Museum

Montclair Art Museum.

Opening in  with some fifty-four American paintings in its collection, the Montclair Art Museum was the first major museum devoted exclusively to fine art in New Jersey (the Newark Museum did not open its doors until seven years later). Its collection now holds over one thousand works, among them representative pieces by well-known artists Andy Warhol, Alice Neel, John Singer Sargent, John Sloan, Edward Hopper, and others. The museum’s founding artist was, in many ways, George Inness, the American tonalist. Inness settled and lived the last years of his life in Montclair, from  to , creating in effect the first American artists’ colony there. The museum devotes a special gallery to his work, and boasts several particularly fine, color-suffused Inness landscapes, including Early Autumn, Montclair (). In addition, soon after its opening the museum acquired, through bequests, the germ of what has become one of the most distinguished collections of Native American art and artifacts on the East Coast. The Montclair Museum’s dual traditions of collecting American art of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as well as Native American art from the same period is unusual. In , the Montclair Art Museum unveiled a $. million expansion project that roughly doubled the size of the institution.

Carlisle, Robert D.B. A Jewel in the Suburbs: The History of the Montclair Art Museum. Montclair: Montclair Art Museum, .

See also museums

Dan Bischoff

Montclair Kimberley Academy. From  to , three private schools were established in Montclair: the Montclair Academy for boys (), the Kimberley School

for girls (), and Brookside Primary School () for boys and girls. These institutions united in  to become Montclair Kimberley Academy, New Jersey’s largest independent day school. The academy occupies the original three campuses and enrolled , students, grades pre-K through , in . The curriculum focuses on core literary and artistic works and written expression. See also education

Maureen Dillon

approximately fourteen thousand students select from forty-six undergraduate majors and thirty-four graduate programs offered by three colleges and three schools. Davis, Earl C. “The Origin and Development of the New Jersey State Teachers College at Montclair, –.’’ Ph.D. diss., New York University, . Greene, Lise M. “African Americans at Montclair State Teachers College,  to : An Oral History Analysis.’’ Ph.D. diss., New York University, .

See also higher education

Lise Greene

Montclair State University.

Now the second-largest university in New Jersey, Montclair State was founded in  as a two-year normal school to educate elementary school teachers. Charles Sumner Chapin, its founding principal, presided over a coeducational student body. In  during the presidency of Harry Alonzo Sprague, the school became a four-year teachers’ college; after  it trained secondary school educators in its own College High School. In  the college was accredited by the Middle States Association, and in  it was accredited by the Association of American Universities. In  the School of Conservation opened in Stokes State Forest. College facilities were expanded in the s during the presidency of Ernest DeAlton Partridge, and in  Montclair State became a comprehensive liberal arts institution. In  David Watson Daly Dickson assumed the school’s presidency, becoming the first black chief executive of a New Jersey state college. During the s, international studies programs were added, and in the late s the college began awarding doctoral degrees. In  Montclair State became the first state college in New Jersey to gain university status. Its campus, distinguished by the Mission-style architecture of its buildings, spans suburban Upper Montclair, Little Falls, and Clifton. Its

Students dancing around the maypole at Montclair Kimberley Academy, c. .

Courtesy Archives of the Montclair Kimberley Academy.

Montgomerie, John

(b. date unknown;

d. July , ). Colonial governor. John Mont-

gomerie was born in Dumfriesshire, Scotland. George II named him governor of New York and New Jersey in  with little to recommend the nominee except his personal wealth. Once here, he sided with the New Jersey assembly in its dispute over paper currency with the English Board of Trade, because he realized that otherwise he could not raise money. He also backed a plan to provide separate governors for New York and New Jersey. The currency issue was still pending when Montgomerie died in New York City in . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

John David Healy

Montgomery.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Settled by the Dutch circa , Montgomery was part of the Western Precinct until incorporated February , . Named after Richard Montgomery, the American general who died at the Battle of Quebec, until the s the township was predominately farmland (peaches were a mainstay crop in the nineteenth century) dotted with hamlets. Harlingen on Route  boasts an imposing Greek Revival church that traces its history to . Belle Mead was known as Plainville until renamed in  after the daughter of a U.S. senator. Blawenburg, home to a Federalstyle Dutch Reformed church built , takes its name from John Blaw, a Dutch farmer. Skillman is named after another Dutch family. To the west rise the Sourland Mountains, home of the Roaring Rocks, but the township is mostly flat. Residential development that began about  has accelerated in the last twenty years, fed by Montgomery’s proximity to Princeton. Only a handful of farms remain, hedged by single-family homes, apartments, and townhouses. The Carrier Foundation in Belle Mead, founded , is the state’s largest private nonprofit psychiatric and addiction treatment hospital. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Moonachie Brecknell, Ursula C. Montgomery Township: An Historic Community, –. Montgomery: Montgomery Township Bicentennial Committee, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Montvale. .-square-mile borough in the Pascack River Valley of northeastern Bergen County bordering New York State; incorporated in . Originally called Mont Vale in , it was a flag station on the New Jersey and New York Railroad. The first European settlers were German and Dutch Lutherans who formed a congregation in . Farming dominated the economy until well into the twentieth century, and strawberries and other fruits were the most common crops. A small portion of the borough of Upper Saddle River was grudgingly acquired in , officials claiming their neighbor only wanted to get rid of a dilapidated old dirt road and foist it on Montvale. The borough grew slowly throughout the first half of the twentieth century until  when exit  on the Garden State Parkway provided easy access to New York City and elsewhere. The population doubled during the period from  to  and then doubled again from  to . Notably, the borough became a favored site for large corporate headquarters featuring campuslike settings. Among the major corporations have been A&P, Benjamin Moore, BMW of North America, IBM, Mercedes-Benz of North America, and Otis Elevator. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

three and one-half miles of the Morris Canal were constructed through Montville, the only section with three inclined planes. Part of Pequannock Township split off in , and Montville Township was formed, consisting of Montville, Pine Brook, and Towaco. Each has its own post office and volunteer fire department. There is a single township government, police department, volunteer first aid squad, and school system with five elementary, one middle, and one high school. Railroad service through Montville and Towaco began in . Routes , , , and  serve Montville Township, a growing residential community with small businesses, some remaining farms, and Green Acres preservation. Various cultural and civic organizations, churches, and a synagogue reflect the diversity of the township. Census data identified the  population of , as  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Historic Districts and Individual Sites in Montville: Survey and Report. Montville: Montville Historic Preservation Review Commission, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, . “Montville Centennial Edition.’’ Times-Bulletin, Sept. , . Pitney, Henry C., ed. A History of Morris County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Harriet Sepinwall

Moody, James

(b. Jan. , ; d. Apr. ,

). Loyalist raider and spy. James Moody

was the son of John Moody, farmer and

merchant, and a Mrs. Holden. Early in his life, Moody’s family moved from Little Egg Harbor Township to Sussex County. An officer in the British-sponsored New Jersey Volunteers, Moody spent most of – behind American lines, conducting raids of rebel supplies, spying, kidnapping American officials, recruiting soldiers for the British army, robbing mails, and freeing Loyalist prisoners. His last cloak-and-dagger mission was an attempt to steal the papers of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Betrayed by a coconspirator, Moody made one of his many daring escapes, but his brother John was hanged. In spring  Moody went to England, where he published his Narrative chronicling his adventures. In  he and his family settled in Nova Scotia, where Moody achieved prominence as a shipbuilder, legislator, and militia commander. Moody, James. Lieut. James Moody’s Narrative of His Exertions and Sufferings, in the Cause of Government, Since the Year . . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Shenstone, Susan B. So Disorderly Loyal: James Moody, –. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Harry M. Ward

Moonachie.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First settled by Europeans in the seventeenth century, Moonachie was a farming community in Lodi Township from  until it incorporated as a separate borough in . In , it lost some territory to the newly created Teterboro, and after , the extension of the Port Authority of New

Borough of Montvale Centennial Journal, –. Montvale: Montvale Centennial Committee, . Brown, Allan. Montvale, New Jersey: Economic Resource Profile. Montvale: U.S. Impressions, . Van Valen, J. M. History of Bergen County, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Publishing and Engraving, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Robert D. Griffin

Montville.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. The Lenape were the first inhabitants. Originally called Uyle-Kill (“owl stream’’) by seventeenth-century Dutch, the name was changed by English settlers from Montville, Connecticut. The first road, now Route , was built in , and used by Gen. George Washington’s troops as a corridor between the Hudson and Morristown. Washington stayed at Henry Doremus’s house, one of the pre-Revolutionary stone farmhouses still extant in the township. In ,

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Detail from an etching showing British soldiers rescuing James Moody from prison during the American Revolution.

Photo: John A. Gibson, Jr. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

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Moore, A. Harry

York and New Jersey’s Teterboro Airport took up much of its remaining land. The first homes were built in the Washington Park area just before World War I. More housing arrived after World War II when the Rogers Trailer Park (the present Vanguard Manufactured Housing Community) and the Metropolitan Trailer Court (the present Metropolitan Mobile Home Park) opened in the late s. Both are now fullfledged communities of permanent homes. In , the Panorama City Development came to Moonachie with much fanfare, building  new homes and naming its new streets after the six Moonachie residents killed in World War II. Industrial complexes replaced the truck farms during the s and office towers filled in marshland after Moonachie became part of the Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission in . In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Borough of Moonachie, Fire Department, and Board of Education: Ninetieth Anniversary, –. Moonachie: Borough of Moonachie, . Horner, Louise L. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Moore, A. Harry

(b. July , ; d. Nov.

, ). City commissioner, governor, and U.S. senator. A Jersey City native, Arthur Harry Moore was the son of Robert and Martha (McComb) Moore. Moore left school for work when only thirteen. He became involved in local Democratic politics, and was secretary to H. Otto Wittpenn, Progressive mayor of Jersey City. In , Moore married Jennie Stevens, a co-parishioner in the Lafayette Reformed Church. They had no children. In  the city’s voters adopted commission government. Sponsored by Wittpenn, Moore ran successfully for one of the five seats. As director of parks and public property, he developed an image as “the kiddies’ friend’’ through an ambitious recreation program. When Wittpenn retired from politics after failing to become governor in , Moore formed an alliance with fellow commissioner Frank Hague. He ran on the latter’s ticket in , and was the top vote-getter, a feat he repeated in the city commission elections of  and . Meanwhile, Moore pursued his education on a part-time basis, receiving an L.L.B. from New Jersey Law School in . Encouraged by Mayor Frank Hague, Moore became the Democratic candidate for governor in . Carrying only three counties, he secured the office on the basis of the Hague machine’s plurality of , in Hudson County. Although he faced a Republican legislature, Moore’s fiscal conservatism and congenial personality gave him a generally strife-free three years in the state house. One setback came when the legislature approved,

despite his objections, funding for a modern state highway system. Constitutionally unable to succeed himself, Moore remained active and in the public eye, maturing as a speaker in New Jersey’s social and political circles. He romped to victory in the  gubernatorial contest as the Republican party was blamed for the country’s economic woes. Moore tried to grapple with the Great Depression by reducing state spending (appropriations for  amounted to less than $ million), and by providing supplementary funds for municipal relief efforts. The governor also promoted administrative reform as a path to more economical government. Little progress was made in this area, except for overhaul of the statutory system of local finance. In the last year of his term Moore ran for and won a seat in the U.S. Senate. The Washington scene quickly brought disenchantment. Philosophically a Jeffersonian Democrat, committed to a decentralized polity, he became very uncomfortable with Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal. For example, Moore was the only Senate Democrat to vote against the Social Security Act of . He derided the Senate as a “cave of winds’’ and quit in mid-term to make another successful run for the governorship. Moore’s third term (–) was dominated by economic revival and war-preparedness issues. He worked diligently to upgrade the National Guard, and created the nation’s first civil defense system. Hague wanted Moore to make another gubernatorial run in , but he refused. Moore purchased an estate in rural Hunterdon County and spent his summers and leisure time there. He maintained a law practice and a heavy schedule of speaking and political engagements. Moore’s lifelong dedication to public education was recognized in  by Republican governor Walter Edge, who appointed him to the state board of education. The A. Harry Moore School for Crippled Children was also a particular source of pride. Moore died of a cerebral hemorrhage in  while driving near his Hunterdon residence. Bloodgood, Fred L. The Quiet Hour. Trenton: MacCrellish and Quigley, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Richard J. Connors

Moorestown.

-square-mile township in Burlington County. Settled by Quakers in , and part of Chester Township until , the community’s name honors Thomas Moore, its first tavern keeper. Although the Quaker influence is no longer felt, the meeting house, school, and burying ground are part of the town’s Historic District. Moorestown is an affluent residential community of stately seventeenth-, eighteenth-, and nineteenth-century homes coexisting on

the same Kings Highway along which Hessian soldiers marched as they retreated from Philadelphia in . Early industries, now gone, included farming, tanning, milling, fruit-growing, and canning. In the s scenic Strawbridge Lake was created through the Works Progress Administration; the Shade Tree Committee planted hundreds of trees, which continue to shelter town streets. The s was a decade of great growth due to the expansion of RCA, now Lockheed-Martin. In , the Perkins Foundation for the Arts was established at the D’Olier estate, willed to the township in . Since , the increasing number of people and housing developments in the eastern portion of town, drawn by the excellent school system, has created concern among older residents that the community’s special character is quickly disappearing. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . DeCou, George. Moorestown and Her Neighbors. Moorestown: Historical Society of Moorestown, . Kingston, William H. III. Moorestown’s Third Century. Philadelphia: Smith-Edwards-Dunlap, . Purdy, James C. Moorestown Old and New. Moorestown: Historical Society of Moorestown,.

Gail Greenberg

Moorish Science Temple of America. The Moorish Science Temple was a black nationalist religious movement established at Newark in  by Timothy Drew (–), a street preacher who had emigrated to New Jersey from North Carolina. Drew changed his name to Noble Drew Ali, adding the title of Prophet. Ali blended elements of Islam, Christianity, Freemasonry, and Pan-Africanism in his movement, declaring that American blacks should call themselves Asiatics or Moorish Americans. Internal factionalism, FBI repression, the founder’s mysterious death, confrontational stances toward whites, and the defection of many temple members to the Black Muslims ultimately splintered the movement. Membership peaked at approximately thirty thousand after Ali relocated his headquarters to Chicago in , establishing other temples in urban industrial centers. Lincoln, C. Eric. The Black Muslims in America. Boston: Beacon Press, . Turner, Richard Brent. Islam in the African-American Experience. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, .

See also African Americans; Nation of Islam

Peter J. Wosh

Moran, Mary Nimmo

(b. May , ;

d. Sept. , ). Artist. Mary Nimmo Moran

was born in Strathaven, Scotland, in  and came to the United States as a child. She met the renowned landscape artist Thomas Moran in  and they married in , but it was

Moran, Thomas

Mary Nimmo Moran, View of Newark from the Meadows, c. . Oil on wood,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Allan McIntosh 1956, 56.171. Photo: Sarah Wells, June 1989. not until after her marriage that she pursued an interest in art in order to become a better companion to her husband. Although her husband was her teacher, she developed her own distinct style for which she was internationally renowned. She traveled with him extensively as his career developed and saw much of England, France, and Italy, as well as the American West. In  they moved to Newark. In  the family began summering on Long Island, New York, in East Hampton, and by  established permanent residence there. Mary Moran was principally a watercolorist, but in  took up printmaking, with a specialty in etching. For the most part she etched directly from nature. Her first etchings of  were unanimously accepted to the New York Etching Club, where she continued to exhibit in following years. In  her work was included in a special exhibition of American women etchers at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. She was a member of the New York Etching Club and the British Society of Painters-Etchers. One of her oil paintings, View of Newark from the Meadows (c. ), juxtaposes the beauty of the flat meadows with the smoky cityscape of industrial Newark. She died on September ,  of typhoid fever, which she contracted while tending to her daughter Ruth, who ultimately survived her bout with the disease. She was survived by her husband and three children: Paul Nimmo Moran, Mary Scott Moran, and Ruth Bedford Moran.

Moran, was a weaver by trade, and two of his brothers were painters. After finishing grammar school, the younger Thomas entered an apprenticeship program at a Philadelphia engraving firm. He left this program early after only two years to work in the studio of his brother, Edward, known for his marine paintings. Moran’s early work shows many influences including the Pre-Raphaelites, whose work he would have seen at the  exhibition of British paintings at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. A trip to the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior in the summer of  launched his interest in the dramatic American landscape. After his travels to England in , where the artist would have seen first hand the works of J.M.W. Turner, he began to utilize many of Turner’s innovations in his work, particularly in Moran’s scenes of Venice, painted in the s. After returning from England, he almost immediately married Mary Nimmo, with whom he had three children. By  he was beginning to establish himself as a landscape painter in the vein of the

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Hudson River school. To supplement his income, Moran worked as an illustrator for magazines and books. His most important work as an illustrator was for Scribner’s Monthly, which commissioned Moran to transform the pencil sketches from the  governmental expedition to Yellowstone into engravings to illustrate an article on the territory. In  Moran accompanied Dr. Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden on his expedition through the Yellowstone territory. While on this first of many trips to the Western territories of the United States, Moran sketched and painted watercolors of the majestic scenery. These sketches formed the basis of Moran’s major paintings, which placed him in a position as a landscape painter rivaling Albert Bierstadt. Upon returning from the Hayden Expedition, Moran moved his family to Newark, where he began work on Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone (). Congress purchased this work in , followed two years later by their purchase of Moran’s Chasm of the Colorado (), thus securing Moran’s reputation as one of the greatest American landscape painters of his time. His works became iconic images of the American West. These paintings, among other of Moran’s works, were important parts of the campaign to establish Yellowstone as the first national park, an area to be left relatively untouched by the human hand. His successful paintings of Yellowstone were also important in defining Moran’s identity as an artist. He invented the name Thomas “Yellowstone’’ Moran, signing his paintings with the acronym TYM. Moran painted only one major painting of New Jersey, Lower Manhattan from Communipaw, New Jersey (); however, his sketchbooks from this period include many views of Newark, East Orange, and Communipaw (Jersey City). In  Moran moved his family from Newark to New York City. He continued to paint for the rest of his life, though after  his popularity waned. He spent his time between East Hampton, Long Island, and

American Art in the Newark Museum. Newark: Newark Museum, . Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Melissa Drake Campbell

Moran, Thomas (b. Feb. , ; d. Aug. , ). Painter and illustrator. Thomas Moran was born in Bolton, England, a factory town. The family immigrated to the United States in , settling in Philadelphia. Moran came from an artistic family. His father, Thomas

Thomas Moran, Lower Manhattan from Communipaw, New Jersey, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Washington County Museum of Fine Arts, Hagerstown, MD.

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Morford, Henry

Santa Barbara, California, where he died in . Clark, Carol. Thomas Moran: Watercolors of the American West. Fort Worth: Amon Carter Museum of Western Art in association with the University of Texas Press, . Gerdts, Willliam H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Kinsey, Joni. Thomas Moran and the Surveying of the West. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, . Wilkins, Thurman. Thomas Moran: Artist of the Mountains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Morford, Henry

(b. Mar. , ; d. Aug.

, ). Journalist and author. Henry Morford

was born in Chanceville, now New Monmouth, to William Morford, a merchant, and Elizabeth Willett. While working as a postmaster in  he wrote poems that appeared in the Philadelphia Saturday Evening Post and the New Yorker (a magazine of that period). In  he married Blanche De Von Patterson of New Egypt; they had four daughters. He founded the New Jersey Atlas in  at Middletown Point, now Matawan. In  he moved to New York City, where he wrote for newspapers; from  to , he worked as a court clerk. In the s he wrote three Civil War novels, significant for their realism. A fourth novel, The Spur of Monmouth () is based on Revolutionary War history.

Shirley Jaye Quentzel Horner

Morgan, Abel

(b. Apr. , ; d. Nov. ,

). Clergyman. Abel Morgan was born in

Welsh Tract, Delaware, to a family of prominent Welsh Baptist immigrants. He was ordained to the Baptist ministry in  and appointed to the Middletown, New Jersey, Baptist Church in , where he would spend the rest of his ministerial career. Morgan served the Philadelphia Baptist Association in numerous leadership capacities and undertook a tireless itinerant ministry to Baptist churches in New Jersey and throughout the mid-Atlantic. He is perhaps best known for a series of published dissertations on baptism stemming from a Cape May debate with Presbyterian minister Samuel Finley. Fea, John. “Samuel Finley versus Abel Morgan: Revivalism, Denominational Identity, and an Eighteenth-Century Sacramental Debate in Cape May, New Jersey.’’ New Jersey History  (): –.

See also Baptists

John Fea

Moriarty, Joseph “Newsboy’’ ; d. Feb. , ).

(b.

Organized crime figure. Joseph Moriarty became known as “Newsboy’’ as a youth selling newspapers. At the height of his decades-long numbers operation, when he allegedly had the protection of Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City, Moriarty was said to have grossed over $ million per year.

However, he also served numerous gamblingrelated prison sentences. In the best-known story connected to Moriarty, workers in  found $. million in gambling receipts in an abandoned car belonging to Moriarty and his future wife, Anne Petrick. Moriarty was in prison at the time. See also gambling; organized crime

Kenneth French

Mormons. Mormonism’s first major proselytizing effort in New Jersey began in  in the southern part of the state and was highly successful. At that time, meetinghouses were built at both Hornerstown and Toms River (where Mormonism is said to have been the principal religion). Mormonism attracted many prominent citizens in south Jersey and was a vibrant force there throughout the s and s. It was less successful in the northern part of state, although many northern cities served as way stations for British converts during their migration to Utah in the s and s. The Mormon presence in New Jersey began to recede in the s, as the sect focused its efforts elsewhere. In , however, Mormons renewed their missionary efforts on the East Coast and soon organized congregations in New York and Philadelphia. In the twentieth century, Mormonism (formally, the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-Day Saints) was more successful in northern New Jersey, where a congregation was established in Newark in . A stake (a Mormon territorial jurisdiction) was established in the north in . The south, however, lacked a stake until , at which point there were three stakes in the north. From  to , the number of Mormons in New Jersey grew from , to ,. Despite this significant increase, the percentage of Mormons in the state continues to be one of the lowest in the nation. Fleming, Stephen J. “Sweeping Everything Before It: Early Mormonism in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey.’’ Brigham Young University Studies , no.  (): –.

See also religion

Stephen Fleming

Morris, Lewis

(b. Oct. , ; d. May ,

). Jurist and politician. Lewis Morris’s par-

ents, Richard and Sarah (Pole) Morris, died soon after his birth, and he was raised by an elderly Quaker uncle who bequeathed him extensive estates in . On November , , Lewis Morris married Isabelle Graham, with whom he had fifteen children, eleven of whom reached adulthood. Morris’s marriage to the daughter of a prominent New York merchant and politician further eased his entry into the landed elite of New York and New Jersey. While the trappings of gentility were important to Morris, as evidenced by his intellectual pursuits and a library of , books, political leadership dominated his life. He played a key role as a member of the New Jersey council (–, –), the New Jersey

John Watson, Governor Lewis Morris, c. . Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Brooklyn Museum of Art, Dick S. Ramsay Fund and John Hill Morgan, 43.196.

assembly (–), and as acting governor (, –, –). Morris’s ambition also encouraged him to represent from  to  British land speculators who formed the West Jersey Society, and to act as president of the Board of Proprietors of East Jersey. His political aspirations eventually expanded beyond New Jersey’s borders, as he managed the New York provincial assembly for Gov. Robert Hunter (–) and Gov. William Burnet (–) during the years when one royal governor presided over both provinces. Morris’s service in New York also included a long tenure, from  to , as chief justice of that province’s supreme court. His appointment as governor-in-chief and captain general of New Jersey in March  represented the culmination of an illustrious political career. The influential connections in England that helped Morris achieve that office initially enhanced his stature in the eyes of the New Jersey assembly. Morris’s tenure as chief executive, however, was not the success that his extensive political experience might have predicted. Seen as overly subservient to royal prerogative and parliamentary supremacy, especially in matters such as the issuing of paper money and financial support for the provincial government, Morris alienated key factions in the assembly, including the powerful Quaker constituency. Morris responded by bringing his case directly to the New Jersey electorate, but had little success with that strategy. The last few years of his governorship were marked by deadlock with the assembly over major issues, and his death in office in May  brought an end to an administration characterized chiefly by political bitterness and rancor. Morris County is named for Governor Morris. Sheridan, Eugene R. Lewis Morris, –: A Study in Early American Politics. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Morris Canal Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

MORRIS CANAL

NEW JERSEY

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John W. Raimo

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Morris, Robert Hunter

(b. c. ;

d. Jan. , ). Jurist and politician. Robert

Hunter Morris was born in Morrisiana, an estate in what is now part of the Bronx, New York, the second son of Lewis and Isabella (Graham) Morris. He never married, but fathered at least three children. Morris’s own father was New Jersey’s interim governor on three occasions between  and , and the elder Morris’s appointment as chief executive in his own right in  provided him with an opportunity to advance his son’s public career. Along with his service on the New Jersey council beginning in , Robert Hunter Morris was named the province’s chief justice in March . He held the latter office until , although in  he traveled to England to represent the interests of New Jersey’s proprietors and lobby against a proposal to reunite New Jersey and New York. While in England, Morris secured the office of lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania and the Lower Counties, an office he assumed in October . Morris resigned that post in August , following a tumultuous tenure marked by conflict over his attempts to establish proprietary prerogatives against an increasingly independent Pennsylvania Assembly. He returned to New Jersey and, apart from a brief challenge to his claim that his resignation in  as New Jersey’s chief justice had never been accepted, continued to serve in that capacity until his death in Shrewsbury.

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Ramapo River Pompton River

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Towaco Mountain view Paterson

Hackettstown

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Rockport Port Murray

Port Morris

Dover

Lincoln Park Bloomfield

New Village

Musconetcong River Washington

Phillipsburg

Little Falls

Boonton Wharton

Port Colden

Easton

Passaic River

Richfield Jersey City

Belleville Newark

Morris Canal © Rutgers, The State University

boats along rails by means of a cable. This operation required the use of hinged, or section, boats to crest the top of the plane. In  Morristown businessman George Macculloch proposed the construction of a canal across northern New Jersey, using Lake Hopatcong as its major water source; the Pompton River and numerous lakes and streams provided additional water. Construction began in , and in  the canal was completed from Phillipsburg to Newark; by , it was extended to Jersey City, on the Hudson River. The Morris Canal transported anthracite coal from northeastern Pennsylvania to the towns and iron furnaces of northern New Jersey and to the New York market. In the early years, coal was loaded onto the canalboats in

Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania; the boats then crossed the Delaware River at Easton, using a cable arrangement. Later, the Lehigh Valley Railroad brought the coal to Port Delaware (now Phillipsburg), where it was loaded directly onto Morris Canal boats. Among the furnaces served by the Morris Canal were those in Phillipsburg, Stanhope, Wharton, Dover, Rockaway, and Boonton. In , its peak year of operation, the Morris Canal transported , tons of coal and , tons of iron ore. Other cargoes included beer, bricks, lumber, lime, grain, and manure. In , the Lehigh Valley Railroad leased the Morris Canal, providing the railroad with vital Hudson River waterfront property. The railroad gradually took over more of the coal shipping, and the canal’s business

Lefferts, E.M.W., comp. Descendants of Lewis Morris of Morrisania. New York: T. A. Wright, . McAnear, Beverly, ed. “R. H. Morris: An American in London, –.’’ Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography  (Apr.–July ): –, –. Nadelhaft, Jerome. “Politics and the Judicial Tenure Fight in Colonial New Jersey.’’ William and Mary Quarterly  (): –.

John W. Raimo

Morris Canal.

Known as the mountainclimbing canal, the Morris Canal overcame more elevation change than any other transportation canal in the world. From the Delaware River at Phillipsburg, the -mile-long waterway climbed  feet to its summit near Lake Hopatcong; it then descended  feet to tidewater in Jersey City, for a total of , feet of elevation change. Using only locks to overcome this much elevation change would have made the journey too time-consuming and would have used too much water. The engineers, therefore, used twenty-three locks and twenty-three inclined planes to raise and lower the boats across the western Highlands. Using water from the upper level of the canal, the powerhouse at each plane raised or lowered

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Canalboat at Peers Lock on the Morris Canal, Denville, c. s.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

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declined. Finally, in , the state took possession, declaring the canal obsolete. State Engineer Cornelius Vermeule documented the canal with extensive photographs and drawings; his contractors then systematically dismantled it, redirecting streams, destroying the powerhouses, and breaching the banks to prevent standing water. The state sold most of the canal property to municipalities, utilities, and private landowners; the Newark City Subway, roads, and several sewer and water lines now occupy portions of the rightof-way. As time passed, people realized that the remaining canal sections should be saved for recreation. Ledgewood, Boonton, Wharton, Belleville, West Paterson, Stanhope, and Clifton preserved their sections as town parks. Numerous other small sections have been preserved or memorialized. In Warren and Morris Counties, the Morris Canal Greenway and other trails have been created to provide recreational opportunities. Today these parks provide a tranquil greenway offering modern New Jerseyans a sense of their nineteenthcentury heritage and are reminders of the canal that once climbed mountains. Goller, Robert R. The Morris Canal: Across New Jersey by Water and Rail. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, . Kalata, Barbara. A Hundred Years, a Hundred Miles: New Jersey’s Morris Canal. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, . Lee, James. The Morris Canal: A Photographic History. Easton, PA: Delaware Press, . ———. Tales the Boatmen Told. Exton, PA: Canal Press, .

See also transportation

Linda J. Barth

Morris County. .-square-mile county containing thirty-nine municipalities. Morris County is the seventh largest county in the state, located in the heart of northern New Jersey, thirty-one miles west of New York City, stretching from the Highlands in the northwest to the Great Swamp in the southeast. Lenape Indians of the Minsi subtribe hunted, farmed, and traveled this region long before the Europeans arrived. White fur trappers first came here in the mid-s. By  inhabitants of Elizabeth-Town and New-Ark arrived, traveling as far west as Suckasunny to mine the rich ore deposits discovered here. English Presbyterians from Long Island and Connecticut came to Whippany around . At this eastern section of present-day Morris County, they farmed the land, ran waterpowered mills, milled grain, operated iron forges, harvested timber, and mined iron at nearby mines. Meanwhile, Dutch settlers from Bergen and New York settled in the northeast near Pompton Plains (Pequannock), while Germans arrived in the southeast (Washington Township). By  Europeans had possessed all West New Jersey lands formerly inhabited by the Lenape.

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Morris County, named after provincial governor Lewis Morris, officially came into being in  when it was set off from Hunterdon County by an act of the colonial legislature. Within two years, the townships of Hanover, Pequannock, and Morris were formed, followed by Roxbury Township in  and Mendham Township in . With all its natural resources, Morris County had much potential for economic growth. But British sales taxes, import duties, and trade restrictions following the French and Indian War resulted in an economic depression lasting more than a decade. Local businessmen detested the Iron Acts of  and , which allowed the colonists to produce bar and pig iron duty free, but prevented them from making the iron into finished goods. Despite the law, clandestine rolling and slitting mills continued operations. The owner of one such mill, Jacob Ford of Morristown, presided over a committee in June of  that condemned restrictive trade laws as “oppressive and arbitrary.’’Anti-British feelings escalated over the next two years. In the spring of , the Rev. Jacob Green of Hanover published his pro-independence Observations on the Reconciliation of Great Britain and the Colonies. In so doing he became the first Jerseyman to advocate separation from Great Britain. Morris County played a major role in the Revolution. Here Gen. George Washington set up his base of operations protected from the enemy by mountains and swamps south and east of Morristown. He made Arnold Tavern

his headquarters in the winter of . In / he headquartered at Ford Mansion with an army of , stationed at nearby Jockey Hollow. Morristown became the military capital of the Revolution. War devastated the lives of Morris County’s inhabitants. To the dismay of many, Washington’s hungry soldiers stripped the countryside of food. Both military and civilian populations endured a smallpox epidemic in  that took many lives. Two years later they suffered through the coldest winter in eighty years. Morris County’s men served with distinction during the conflict. They comprised three of the eight companies that formed New Jersey’s Eastern battalion. After independence Morris County prospered. By  the population numbered about , including  black slaves (about  percent of the population) who worked as farm laborers or skilled craftsmen. Most farms remained small. Larger plantations included the ,-acre agricultural complex of Lucas von Beverhoudt of Parsippany who owned about twenty slaves. Farmers typically raised cattle and harvested grain. Many planted orchards. By the late s apples had become the largest cash crop. Apple cider distilleries proliferated from Pequannock to Chester, and Morris County eventually became the leading producer of applejack (“Jersey Lightning’’) in the United States. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, Morris County’s farmers and manufacturers began shipping goods to markets in New York and Pennsylvania through newly constructed roads and turnpikes. Villages grew up along the routes, and new municipalities arose. An alternative to roads came into being with the completion of the Morris Canal in . Conceived by George P. Mucculloch of Morristown, this amazing combination of locks and inclined planes extended from Phillipsburg to Jersey City through the Jersey Highlands. The canal revitalized the iron industry. Boats carried ore to Pennsylvania markets and returned with anthracite coal, which in turn fueled local ironworks. Several important towns grew up along the canal, including Rockaway, Dover, and Wharton. The coming of the railroad (particularly the Morris and Essex, which began operations in ) led to the canal’s decline by the end of the century. Railroads moved freight quicker and served areas out of the canal’s range. The development of rapid transportation was paralleled by revolutionary advances in communications that took place in the late s at Morristown’s Speedwell Ironworks. Here Alfred Vail perfected Samuel S. B. Morse’s telegraph and developed the final version of the dot-dash code. The “Morse’’ Code was a precursor of the binary code used in computers. While new technology inspired hope for a bright future, old conflicts between the North and South over the slavery issue remained unresolved. In Morris County, Dr. John Grimes

Morristown of Boonton championed the rights of slaves in his New Jersey Freeman. Entire communities split over the issue. In Mendham, disgruntled Presbyterian abolitionists left the First Presbyterian Church to form a new congregation. Though slavery remained a contentious issue in Morris County, both Democrats and Republicans supported the Union cause when the Civil War came. Many volunteered as soldiers. The Fifteenth New Jersey Regiment, in which many of these men served, ranked twelfth in casualties among the nation’s , regiments. By the war’s end, over  Morris men had lost their lives in the conflict. During and after the war, Morris County’s economy expanded. The iron industry attracted Irish, Welsh, Cornish, and Hungarians who settled in Port Oram (Wharton), Mine Hill, Irishtown, and other areas. After the war many new industries arose throughout the county that produced products ranging from textiles to rubber. Such enterprises helped sustain the economy when the iron industry declined in the s as a result of stiff competition from Minnesota’s Mesabi mines. Since the antebellum period wealthy New Yorkers including the Mellons, Rockefellers, Whitneys, and others vacationed in Morris County’s countryside. By the latter nineteenth century many of them settled in Morris Township along Madison Avenue, known as “the street of  millionaires.’’The New York Herald described Morristown as “the least known colony of wealthy people in the world.’’ The millionaires employed many immigrants to build and maintain their estates. The predominantly Italian labor force included construction workers, stonemasons, craftsmen, and gardeners. The Great Depression brought the Gilded Age to an end, but descendants of the Italians remained. Today they comprise one of the largest ethnic groups in Morris County. Following World War I, Morris County’s population continued to diversify. A new influx of African Americans from Virginia settled in Morristown and Madison where many worked as civil servants, professionals, or were self-employed. Later, during World War II, Puerto Rican immigrants came to Dover, where they found employment on nearby farms or in factories that made armaments for Picatinny Arsenal in Rockaway Township. Growth in Morris County remained stable until the post–World War II boom, at which time new housing developments sprang up. Between  and  the population increased by  percent. Since then the county has become a major center for large and small corporations. Today it continues to attract newcomers from other parts of the country and around the world. Despite changes in the landscape, much of historic Morris County remains intact. The county has four National Historic Landmarks: Washington’s Headquarters (the nation’s first national historic park), Craftsman

Farms (home of Gustav Stickley, designer and builder of Mission-style furniture), Historic Speedwell, and the Thomas Nast House. The county’s Heritage Commission has marked over  additional sites. These and other places provide a sense of continuity, and they remind us of the significant role that Morris County has played in our nation’s history. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. A History of Morris County, New Jersey, Embracing Upwards of Two Centuries, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, . Mitros, David. Directory of Historic Morris County, New Jersey—A Guide to Historical Resources: Museums, Historical Associations, and Archives, with an Extensive Bibliography of Local History. Morristown: Morris County Heritage Commission, . Perrucci, Doreanne R. Morris County: The Progress of Its Legend. Woodland Hills, CA: Windsor Publications, .

David Mitros

Morris County Historical Society. For two decades after its formation on December , , the Morris County Historical Society rented space in the Morristown Library. In  it moved to Acorn Hall, an Italianate-style Victorian mansion built in  on Morris Avenue in Morristown. The house, with its original furnishings and its five acres, including two acres of gardens, was deeded to the society by Mary Crane Hone, whose family had resided there since . In addition to Morris County archival records, the society’s collections include Victorian decorative arts and furnishings and nineteenthcentury costumes. Many of the items are displayed in ten period rooms. The society maintains a research library with special strengths in the Victorian period, and it has an extensive collection of oral history tapes. It also supports an active publications program dealing with Morris County history: reprints of nineteenth-century histories and atlases, books on historic homes, and ethnic histories. The society presents several exhibitions each year at its Acorn Hall site and sponsors a series of educational programs. See also museums

Richard C. Simon

Morris Museum.

The Morris Museum in Morristown traces its roots to  when Marie Antoinette Pierson and her husband Aldus Humphreville Pierson set up the curio cabinet in Morristown’s Neighborhood House library. In , the museum moved to the former mansion of Peter H. B. Frelinghuysen, designed by the renowned architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White, where it remains

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today. One of the largest museums in the state, it totals approximately , square feet of exhibition space and includes the Bickford Theatre. The focus of the museum is on education in the fine and performing arts as well as the natural and physical sciences. See also museums

Steve Miller

Morris Plains.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. Originally known as Whatnong Plains or other derivations from the nearby Whippanong River, Morris Plains came to its present name by , likely influenced by that of the county and of neighboring Morristown. Morris Plains was part of Hanover Township until its incorporation as a borough on March , . Perceiving that it paid a disproportionate share of Hanover Township’s local taxes, Morris Plains separated under the slogan “Home rule for the home town.’’ First settled in , Morris Plains was a community of small farms, forges, and mills until the mid-s. A residential character developed with the influx of laborers working on the railroads, Greystone State Hospital, and other area projects. Morris Plains was the location of several of the spectacular country estates built in the area from  until the Depression. In , a major corporation, Warner-Lambert (now Pfizer), moved its offices to the site of one of Morris Plains’s former estates, initiating a trend toward large corporate campuses occupying the county’s open land. Single-family, owner-occupied residences predominate in Morris Plains, which also has light industry and commercial interests. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Beers, Julia. A History of Early Morris Plains. Morris Plains: Morris Plains Borough Museum, . Rae, John W., and John W. Rae, Jr. Morristown’s Forgotten Past: “The Gilded Age.’’ Morristown: John W. Rae, .

Lawrence D. Weimer

Morristown.

.-square-mile town in Morris County. Morristown was first incorporated as a township on March , , and was designated as the seat of government for Morris County, formed one year earlier. Previously called West, or New, Hanover by settlers, the new township was named for thengovernor Lewis Morris. On April , , the population center of the township was incorporated by the state legislature into a new town, which retained the name “Morristown.’’ “Morris Township’’ became the name of the larger, sparsely populated township from which the town was carved. Despite this controversial separation, spurred by the town’s fears of increased taxation for township development, the two retain traces of their shared past, notably in their joint school district.

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English settlers first arrived in what would become Morristown about —to the area now known as The Hollow—as they migrated along the Whippany River. Early settlers included a group of breakaway Presbyterians from Whippany; the church they founded in  owned and preserved the Green, the town’s distinctive central park. In the mids, Irish laborers congregated in the Little Dublin area. The Hollow again became the destination of migrating peoples, including Italian immigrants in the late nineteenth century. African Americans, long-time townsfolk whether enslaved or free, created a community there in the early-mid twentieth century. During America’s Gilded Age from the s to , Morristown also attracted the ultra-rich. Lured by the surrounding country setting and encouraged by the convenience of the train line to New York City, wealthy families built spectacular mansions and estates in and around the town. By , about fifty mansions stood within the borders of the small town. The Depression ended the ability of most families to maintain this extravagant lifestyle, leading eventually to the razing of most of the mansions. Those that remain standing are often homes to businesses or other commercial interests. During the American Revolution, through the winters of – and –, Gen. George Washington maintained his headquarters in Morristown. From there, Washington was able to monitor the movements of the main British force in occupied New York City, while remaining behind the natural defenses of the Watchung Mountains. Though no military battles were fought in Morristown, the Continental Army had to prevail against severe winters, disease, Loyalist spies, and mutiny. Town residents had to prevail against the thousands of foraging Continental soldiers. In , a National Historical Park was established, comprising the Morristown mansion that had served as Washington’s headquarters and the army’s encampment areas in the surrounding townships. Morristown’s early economy was based on small farms, trading, and the forging of iron ore. The town’s Speedwell Iron Works gained fame as the site of the first demonstrations of Samuel Morse’s telegraph in , accomplished with the financial backing and technical expertise of the local Vail family. Morristown’s present economy has evolved to one based on retail, healthcare, and other professional services, and light industry. By , Morristown’s population of , remained diverse:  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cavanaugh, Cam. In Lights and Shadows: Morristown in Three Centuries. Morristown: Joint Free Public Library of Morristown and Morris Township, .

Costanzo, James V., Sr. New Neighbors, Old Friends: Morristown’s Italian Community, –. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, .

boarding facilities; it enrolls approximately  day students in grades six to twelve. See also education

Rae, John W., and John W. Rae, Jr. Morristown’s Forgotten Past: “The Gilded Age.’’ Morristown: John W. Rae, .

Richard C. Simon

Stewart, Bruce W. Morristown: A Crucible of the American Revolution. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Turkington, Cheryl C. Setting Up Our Own City: The Black Community in Morristown—An Oral History Project. Morristown: Joint Free Public Library of Morristown and Morris Township, .

Lawrence D. Weimer

Morristown and Erie Railroad. Paper mills at Whippany in the late nineteenth century required more capable transportation than horse-drawn wagons to reach the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad at Morristown. The McEwan family, paper-mill owners, were active in the railroad’s organization and operations. Originally known as the Whippany River Railroad, the four-milelong line was constructed at the low price of $, per mile, but rebuilding was necessary almost immediately. Freight service began in August  and passenger trains began the following December. A subsidiary company was formed to build a six-and-a-half-mile extension to meet the Erie’s Caldwell Branch at Essex Fells. Before the extension was completed in , the two companies merged to create the Morristown and Erie in . As passenger numbers declined after peaking in , the railroad had turned to rail buses to reduce costs, but passenger service ended in . The M & E paid off its bonded debt by , continued dividends, and switched to diesels in . Loss of mill-related traffic led to bankruptcy and reorganization in . In the s it obtained fourteen miles of trackage rights, undertook contracted service over former Erie Lackawanna and Jersey Central lines, and in  took over switching service for a large Bayway refinery. Lewis, Edward A. American Shortline Railway Guide. Waukesha, WI: Kalmbach Books, . Taber, Thomas Townsend, III. Morristown and Erie Railroad. Rahway: Railroadians of America, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

Morristown-Beard School.

A private, coeducational college preparatory school located on Whippany Road in Morristown, the Morristown-Beard School resulted from the merging in  of two boarding schools: the Morristown School for Boys, originally founded by several Harvard men in  as St. Bartholomew’s School, and the Beard School for girls of Orange, New Jersey, founded by Lucie Beard, also in . During the s both schools experienced declining enrollment and pressures for coeducation, and they agreed to merge. The Beard School moved to the Morristown campus in . The school no longer has

Morristown Memorial Hospital. Funded by the bequest of Morristown resident Myra Brookfield and contributions from local citizens, Morristown Memorial Hospital opened in a former parsonage on Morris Street in . By , the expanded hospital included a nursing school, operating facilities, an X-ray machine, and a children’s ward with a roof garden. A pavilion for patients with contagious diseases contained wards for diphtheria and scarlet fever; two horse-drawn ambulances were reserved for infectious patients. The present complex on Madison Avenue was opened in  with  beds. Periodic expansions followed. Currently, the -bed acute care and rehabilitation hospital has a major teaching affiliation with the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Sandra Moss

Morristown National Historical Park. On March , , President Herbert Hoover signed federal legislation establishing America’s first national historical park, Morristown, to commemorate the winter encampments of George Washington’s army there during the American Revolution. The first sustained efforts to preserve a Revolutionary War site in Morristown began in , when four residents purchased at auction the Jacob Ford Mansion, the site of Washington’s headquarters in the winter of –. The next year they and others founded the nonprofit Washington Association of New Jersey to maintain and operate the mansion as a public museum. The organization also acquired and displayed at the mansion an eclectic mix of furniture, artifacts, portraits, and historical documents connected with the Ford family, the Revolutionary War, and George Washington. In the early s, area civic leaders, led by Mayor Clyde W. Potts of Morristown, lobbied actively for the establishment of a national historical park as a way to bolster the local economy. Under the federal law establishing the park, the secretary of the interior was authorized to accept gifts of lands and buildings associated with the Revolutionary War. In  the city of Morristown granted the U.S. government title to the site of Fort Nonsense, an earthwork fortification on a hilltop in the town. Lloyd W. Smith, an area businessman and collector of Washingtoniana, donated land he had purchased to preserve Jockey Hollow, site of the winter encampments of – and –. The Washington Association voluntarily relinquished its title to the Ford Mansion in return for the right to continue to hold its annual meeting there

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on Washington’s birthday. Under federal legislation the National Park Service (NPS) was required to consult with Morristown officials and the Washington Association regarding development of the park. The administration of the Morristown sites by the NPS represented a significant departure for this agency, long accustomed to overseeing wilderness parks in the West. As the agency acquired more eastern historic sites, it had to become a major interpreter of U.S. history. At the Ford Mansion, the NPS restored the house to its – condition, which required substantial alteration of the interior and exterior of the structure. To house the artifacts acquired by the Washington Association and to interpret the entire site, the NPS built an adjacent museum, which opened in . At the Jockey Hollow section, the NPS began an ambitious plan to build the necessary roads and other facilities to accommodate visitors. Through historical and archaeological research, it marked where units of the Continental Army encamped, and it built several replicas of the huts that housed enlisted personnel. It also restored the Wick House (c. ), which served as the headquarters of

Maj. Gen. Arthur St. Clair, commander of the Pennsylvania Line, during the first encampment. In the s and early s, much of the restoration and development work at the Ford Mansion and Jockey Hollow drew upon a number of New Deal relief programs, including the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Works Progress Administration, and the Civil Works Administration. Under NPS control, the Morristown sites welcomed increasing numbers of visitors, especially during the bicentennial of the American Revolution in . Weigley, Russell Frank. Morristown: A History and Guide, Morristown National Historical Park, New Jersey. National Park Handbook, . Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, .

See also American Revolution; Washington Association of New Jersey

G. Kurt Piehler

Morris Township.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. Settled in  and known originally as West, or New, Hanover, the township was incorporated on March , . At incorporation, it adopted the name Morristown, after then-governor Lewis

Morris. In , the population and commercial center of the township was carved out and incorporated as a new town. This new town retained the name “Morristown’’ while the rural surrounding area was named “Morris Township.’’ Also separated over time from Morris Township were the townships of Roxbury (), Mendham (), Chatham (), and Passaic (). Morris Township was predominantly a rural farming community until its development in the mid-twentieth century. About , light industry and other commercial interests began to occupy farmlands and the former country estates built during the s–s. By , about  percent of the township was used for commercial purposes. New housing developments became common;  percent of the housing units in the township in  had been built after . Sparsely populated until the twentieth century, the township population surged, surpassing that of Morristown, its former center, in the s. In , Morris Township’s population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

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Morro Castle

Cavanaugh, Cam. Morris Township Times, –. Morristown: Morris Township , . Cutler, Ralph H., Jr., ed. Morristown and Morris Township: A Guide to Historic Sites. Morristown: Washington Association of New Jersey, . Hoskins, Barbara. Morris Township, New Jersey: A Glimpse into the Past. Morristown: Joint Free Public Library of Morristown and Morris Township, . Rae, John W., and John W. Rae, Jr. Morristown’s Forgotten Past: “The Gilded Age.’’ Morristown: John W. Rae, .

Lawrence D. Weimer

Morro Castle.

The Ward Line’s luxury cruise ship, the Morro Castle served the profitable route between New York City and Havana. On the night of September –, , the ship, carrying  passengers and crew, was off the coast of New Jersey, making its way to New York through a fierce storm, when a fire was discovered on board. The blaze spread quickly through the ship, thick smoke adding to the confusion facing passengers and crew trying to escape. Ships in the area and fishing boats from Jersey Shore towns came to the rescue. Gov. A. Harry Moore climbed aboard a National Guard airplane to help in the search for survivors in the water. Despite the rescue effort,  passengers and crew perished. Bodies washed ashore at Sea Girt, Manasquan, Belmar, and other New Jersey resort towns. As the burned-out hulk of the ship was being towed back to New York, the cable parted, and the drifting ship came to rest on a sandbar close to the Asbury Park Convention Center. Crowds came to gawk at the vessel from the shore, and for a ten-dollar fee, payable to a representative of the ship’s insurer, people were allowed to board. It was not until sometime later that the ship was finally removed to be broken up for scrap.

Official investigations of the tragedy focused on the negligence of the Ward Line and the ineptitude of the ship’s officers and crew. It was discovered that the Morro Castle had no fire detectors in the public areas, where the blaze was first observed. The ship’s captain, witnesses said, delayed sending out distress calls until the last possible moment and kept the ship steaming ahead into the wind, which fanned the flames. The crew seemed poorly trained to cope with the emergency. The chief engineer was one of the first to abandon ship, and the first lifeboats off the ship contained ninety-two crew members and only six passengers. A federal court found the Ward Line guilty of negligence. The captain and the chief engineer were sentenced to prison terms, but their sentences were later overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. Although several hypotheses have been put forward, including arson, the actual cause of the blaze has never been discovered. Gallagher, Thomas. Fire at Sea: The Story of the Morro Castle. New York: Rinehart and Company, .

See also shipwrecks

Marc Mappen

Morrow, Dwight

(b. Jan. , ; d. Oct.

, ). Banker, diplomat, and U.S. senator.

Dwight Morrow was born in Huntington, West Virginia, the son of James Elmore and Clara (Johnson) Morrow. He was an honors graduate of Amherst College and Columbia University Law School. In  Morrow married Elizabeth Cutter; they had four children. Anne, one of their three daughters, became the wife of world-famous aviator Charles A. Lindbergh. With his impressive academic credentials, the ambitious and multitalented Morrow

entered the so-called “Eastern establishment,’’ the elite that dominated political and economic life in the early twentieth century. He first gained fame as a skilled corporate attorney with a prestigious Manhattan firm, and in  joined J. P. Morgan and Company, where he remained until . He quickly became a member of the inner circle, which controlled the investment firm’s worldwide operations. Morrow’s mature years were marked not only by legal and business activity, but by extensive political involvement at the state, national, and international levels. A resident of Englewood, Bergen County, Morrow helped write New Jersey’s workmen’s compensation law in . He was an adviser to Gen. John J. Pershing on transportation problems during World War I, and developed a plan to reorganize Cuba’s national finances after the war. As a key player at J. P. Morgan, Morrow had many opportunities to display his negotiating skills as the firm participated in Europe’s postwar reconstruction, as well as in the thorny problem of reparations payments. Since the U.S. government had withdrawn into an isolationist shell after refusing to join the League of Nations, Morrow’s power at J. P. Morgan made him a major actor in world politics during the s. In , President Calvin Coolidge (an Amherst classmate) appointed Morrow ambassador to Mexico, where he achieved a measure of success promoting rapprochement between the Catholic Church and the Mexican government. In  Morrow was elected on the Republican ticket to the U.S. Senate. He served only a short time, dying of a cerebral hemorrhage in the fall of . Nicolson, Harold. Dwight Morrow. New York: Harcourt Brace, .

Richard J. Connors

Morrow, E. Frederic

(b. Apr. , ;

d. July , ). Civil rights activist, banker,

The Morro Castle on a sandbar near the beach, Asbury Park, .

Courtesy Dorn’s Photography Unlimited, Red Bank.

and presidential assistant. Everett Frederic Morrow was raised in Hackensack in a family with high aspirations despite pervasive discrimination against African Americans. His father was sexton at the local public library and an itinerant Methodist minister in Bergen County. Morrow earned his bachelor’s degree from Bowdoin College and became active first in New Jersey politics as a Republican, then as a field agent for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), based in New York City. During the s he served in the U.S. Army, then studied law at the New Jersey Law School. In , when New Jersey governor Alfred Driscoll urged the Eisenhower presidential campaign to pay more attention to black voters, Morrow was hired as a liaison to the African American community. Following Dwight Eisenhower’s election, Morrow served for two years in the Commerce Department and, from  to , as the first African American to hold an

mosquitoes

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executive position at the White House. In that position Morrow oversaw executive branch facilities in Washington, and served as an informal presidential advisor on civil rights issues. He also served briefly as a speechwriter. Morrow’s experiences in the White House were often frustrating; they are vividly described in his memoir, Black Man in the White House (). After the White House years Morrow served as a vice president for the Bank of America and later as an executive associate at the Educational Testing Service in Princeton. He never ceased to speak out on racial issues. In the s Morrow found his moderate views too advanced for most whites and too cautious for the Black Power advocates. But he always took pride in his role as a “symbol of achievement’’ for African Americans. In  Morrow married Catherine Gordon. They had no children. Katz, Milton E. “E. Frederic Morrow and Civil Rights in the Eisenhower Administration.’’ Phylon  (June ): –. Morrow, E. Frederic. Black Man in the White House. New York: William Morrow, . ———. Forty Years a Guinea Pig: A Black Man’s View from the Top. New York: Pilgrim Press, . ———. Way Down South Up North. Philadelphia: United Church Press, .

See also civil rights

Michael J. Birkner

Morton, Henry

(b. Dec. , ; d. May ,

). College president. Henry Morton, who

was born in New York City, earned a degree in chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania in . He obtained fame for his brilliant public lectures on electricity, given as secretary of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. He was also editor of the Journal of the Franklin Institute between  and . Morton was a professor of chemistry and physics at the University of Pennsylvania between  and , and was chosen to be first president of Stevens Institute of Technology in , where he served until his death. He helped design Stevens’s mechanical engineering program and insisted on including liberal arts and sciences in the curriculum. A member of the U.S. Lighthouse Board and the National Academy of Sciences, Morton organized the photographic division of the  eclipse expedition to Iowa. He wrote scholarly articles on fluorescence and popular articles on electricity. Famous as a well-paid expert witness on chemistry and artificial illumination in patent cases, Morton was a major contributor to Stevens Institute’s facilities and endowment. Clark, Geoffrey W. History of Stevens Institute of Technology; A Record of Broad-Based Curricula and Technogenesis. Jersey City: Jensen/Daniels, .

See also Stevens Institute of Technology

Geoffrey W. Clark

Morven. Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his wife, Annis, a poet, built the original section of

Deborah Pisarick Paglione, Morven, n.d. Watercolor,  ×  in.

Courtesy Deborah Pisarick Paglione. Morven in Princeton about . Successive residents included: in , Richard “the Duke’’ Stockton, U.S. senator and congressman, who rebuilt the central portion and added a portico; in , Commodore Robert Field Stockton, also a U.S. senator, promoter of the first screw-propelled warship and developer of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, who expanded Morven’s wings, as well as its outbuildings and grounds; in , Dr. Charles Woodruff Shields, whose daughter Helen married the commodore’s grandson, Bayard. Helen and Bayard lived in Morven until , restoring the house and gardens in the Colonial Revival style. Morven’s prestige prompted Gen. Robert Wood Johnson to rent and augment the property, adding a swimming pool, pool house, and tennis court. Gov. Walter Edge purchased Morven in  and gave it to the state of New Jersey in  as a governor’s mansion or museum. After serving for twenty-seven years as a governor’s mansion (under Robert Meyner, Richard Hughes, William Cahill, and Brendan Byrne), Morven is now a state museum in the New Jersey Department of State, and is being restored by a nonprofit organization, Historic Morven, Inc. Bill, Alfred Hoyt. A House Called Morven: Its Role in American History, –. Rev. ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Patricia F. Colrick

Moskowitz, Sam (b. June , ; d. Apr. , ). Science fiction collector and historian. A lifelong resident of Newark, Sam Moskowitz was one of the organizers of the first World Science Fiction Convention in . His first published book, The Immortal Storm (), was a history of the personalities and disagreements of the early fan movement. His lengthy series of essays on the history of science fiction, published in Amazing Stories, were collected in Explorers of the Infinite () and Seekers of Tomorrow ().

Henry Wessells

See also Stockton, Richard

Mary W. Blanchard

Moses, Arnold Henry

joined the Wilson Brothers’ firm, later forming the firm Moses and King with co-worker Guy King and engineer George F. Ferris. By  he was working independently. In  he relocated his office to Camden, where he practiced until his death. Major projects in Philadelphia include the Jefferson Fire Insurance Building, Saint Stephen’s Church, and Trinity Parish House; and in New Jersey, the reconstruction of a wing of the State Capitol Building in the American Renaissance style. He served as president of the New Jersey Society of Architects and of the West Jersey State Board of Architects. See also architecture

(b. May , ;

d. June , ). Architect. Born in Lymington,

England, Arnold H. Moses apprenticed with Philadelphia architect T. P. Chandler circa  until , while studying architecture at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and the Camden Philo-technic Institute. In  he

mosquitoes. Recognition of New Jersey mosquitoes occurred as early as , when Swedish settlers near the mouth of the Delaware River built a fort called Fort Mockeborg (Fort Mosquito). Later reports noted that salt-marsh mosquitoes, estimated to migrate forty miles to infest half the state’s land, annoyed three-quarters of the population and challenged New Jersey development.

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Mother Mary Xavier overwinter in the state as adults, many more as eggs, caterpillars, or pupae underground or in a silk cocoon. Nearly all caterpillars eat living or dead plant tissues, and about half a percent are outbreak pests in New Jersey forests. Many species do not feed as adults; others sip sweets like nectar, sap, aphid secretions, and rotting fruit. Moths in various stages are essential food for many baby birds, some bats, and thousands of invertebrates. Some are pollinators. Covell, Charles V., Jr. A Field Guide to the Moths of Eastern North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

Dale F. Schweitzer

motion

A postcard pokes fun at the mosquito population in New Jersey, c. .

Courtesy Pike Archives.

Mosquito infestation in  closed stores in Newark. Some relief has been provided by smoke, mosquito netting, camphor, citronella, and window screening, invented in . Control of mosquitoes began in  with surveys of marsh problems and oiling and draining to kill larvae. Led by J. B. Smith of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station (NJAES), this effort and its success resulted in state laws of  involving NJAES and county mosquito extermination commissions. Disease transmission by mosquitoes was suspected as early as . Diseases have included malaria, of which there were at least  cases and  deaths in New Jersey in , and several forms of encephalitis. In  there were thirty-two cases of eastern equine encephalitis and twenty-one deaths, affecting Shore resort revenues. This disease is complex, involving birds and two mosquito species. Fortunately, in the absence of humans with malarial parasites, malaria rarely occurs now in the state, even though the vector mosquito is present. However, another disease, West Nile virus, has been recently introduced. Between  and , control technology advanced: motorized equipment replaced hand-ditching of marshes; surveys of adult mosquitoes used New Jersey light traps rather than humans as bait; oil to kill larvae was replaced by New Jersey pyrethrum larvicide derived from chrysanthemums; and research at NJAES identified two mosquito repellents, ethyl hexanediol (Rutgers-) and dimethyl phthalate. After World War II, DDT as a larvicide and adulticide was applied by ground equipment and aircraft. In the wake of safety concerns, newer synthetic insecticides replaced DDT in . Currently bacterial larvicides are widely used.

In New Jersey, mosquito control is a tripartite effort involving the NJAES at Rutgers University, the county mosquito extermination commissions or designated county alternate units, and the state Mosquito Control Commission with its administrative arm, the Office of Mosquito Control Coordination in the Department of Environmental Protection. NJAES is charged with conducting surveys and research, making recommendations, and annually reviewing county plans and estimates. The twenty-one counties are directly responsible for control, utilizing an integrated management approach of surveillance of pest and vector mosquito populations, habitat management, insecticides, biological controls, education, and laws. The state commission provides aid to counties through equipment leasing and air-spray programs and by supporting mosquito research at NJAES. Today, New Jersey has sixty-three species of mosquitoes, the most recent introduced through the used tire trade from Asia. This number may justify Atlantic City T-shirts picturing the mosquito as the state bird. Similar claims, however, are made by other states.

Wayne J. Crans and Donald J. Sutherland

Mother Mary Xavier.

See Mehegan,

Catherine Josephine.

moths. Moths are insects of the order Lepidoptera outside of the few we call butterflies or skippers. Most are nocturnal, but clearwing sphinxes and buckmoths are familiar diurnal species. About , species occur in New Jersey. Dozens of Pine Barrens species have limited total ranges, and four are known only to occur in the Barrens, including Agrotis buchholzi, Crambus daeckellus, and two unnamed species of Crambidia. Over fifty species

picture industry. On February , , the photographer Eadweard Muybridge lectured on the art of motion photography at the Orange, Music Hall. He demonstrated his zoopraxiscope, a simple projector designed to reanimate high-speed still photographs. Two days later he visited Thomas Alva Edison at his laboratory in West Orange, and the two men discussed the possibility of linking the zoopraxiscope with Edison’s phonograph. Edison decided to proceed on his own and assigned direction of the project to his staff photographer, William Kennedy Laurie Dickson. In  Dickson became the first man to record sequential photographic images on a strip of transparent celluloid film. Two years later, in anticipation of commercialization of the new process, he designed and built the first photographic studio intended for the production of motion pictures, essentially a tarpaper shack mounted on a revolving turntable (to allow his subjects to face the direct light of the sun). It was at this West Orange studio, nicknamed “the Black Maria,’’that the Edison Manufacturing Company filmed celebrities of the day, as well as Fred Ott’s Sneeze (), The Kiss (), and an experimental sound film in which Dickson played his violin. But by  Edison cameramen had begun to abandon the old studio in favor of location shooting. Edison built a new studio in Manhattan in , where interiors were photographed, but New Jersey continued to be a favorite site for location work. Edwin S. Porter filmed portions of The Great Train Robbery () in the Essex County Park reservation and on the Erie and Lackawanna lines near the Passaic River. The West Orange factory also continued to manufacture projectors and similar hardware until a disastrous fire on December , , hastened the end of Edison’s motion picture activities. Edison’s rivals also used New Jersey as a location during this period. In  American Mutoscope and Biograph shot Personal in Edgewater and The Suburbanite in Asbury Park, while the Kalem Company made regular day trips to the area around Fort Lee and Coytesville as early as . After he began

Mott, Gershom

Earliest known view of Thomas Edison’s Black Maria, the first building specifically built as a motion picture studio, West Orange, March .

Courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site, West Orange. directing for the Biograph Company in , D. W. Griffith frequently chose to work in this same area. Here he made The Lonely Villa (), The New York Hat (), and the onereel Civil War epic, The Battle, filmed on the undeveloped acreage just behind Rambo’s Hotel in Coytesville in . At this same time the first permanent New Jersey studios were being built: Centaur in Bayonne in , Champion in Coytesville in ´, , Eclair in Fort Lee in , and Pathe first in Bound Brook () and later in Jersey ´ that would send Pearl City (). It was Pathe White to film “cliffhanger’’ episodes of The Perils of Pauline on the Palisades in , helping establish the new genre of movie serials. These early studios were designed to produce oneand two-reel films for the nickelodeon market, and coexisted with the first studios built in southern California. But by  feature-length films of an hour or more were becoming the industry standard, with production centered at the larger California studios. Land and labor were cheaper, and work did not have to be abandoned in the winter. The greater narrative complexity of feature films did demand Broadway stars and Broadway properties, however, and several large new studios were constructed in Fort Lee between  and , clustered around Main Street and Linwood Avenue. The busiest of these were the Peerless Studio, where Alice Brady and Clara Kimball Young made films for the World Film Corporation; the Willat Studio, where Fatty Arbuckle, Douglas Fairbanks, and Theda Bara worked for Triangle and Fox; the Paragon Studio, where Maurice Tourneur directed for Paramount; and the Universal Studio, used mainly by Goldwyn and Selznick. The years between  and  proved a brief golden age for film production in Fort

Lee. Local residents were not entirely happy with the sudden transformation of their community; they resented the noise, crowding, and confusion generated by the studios, and were suspicious of the theatrical types arriving each day from New York. In the winter of  most of the studios were forced to close down because of wartime coal rationing, and many stars and directors relocated to Los Angeles. When the war ended their employers abandoned Fort Lee. The last important star based in Fort Lee, Richard Barthelmess, made his final film there, The Enchanted Cottage, in . New Jersey would never be competitive as a studio site for sound film production, although several efforts were made. Some of the earliest musical shorts were shot at the cramped Victor Recording Studio in Camden, and the old Ideal Studio in Hudson Heights was soundproofed and made available as a rental stage. Here W. C. Fields made his first talking film, The Golf Specialist (), and Bill Robinson starred in Harlem Is Heaven (). Only the Peerless Studio in Fort Lee, then called the Metropolitan Studio, was capable of handling a large number of feature pictures, but these were all produced by low-budget independents (for example, Howdy, Broadway, a  college musical featuring the Tommy Christian Orchestra), or producers aiming at specific racial, ethnic, or religious markets. In  and  alone, Wilfred North directed the Mormon feature, Corianton; Thalia Productions shot a series of Italian-language films, including Cosi e la Vita; Maurice Schwartz appeared in the Yiddish production Uncle Moses; and race film producer Oscar Micheaux directed The Exile, Veiled Aristocrats; and Ten Minutes to Live. However, general constriction of the entire film industry in the East meant that the

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smaller, older, and less well equipped New Jersey stages were abandoned. In , film historian and Englewood native Theodore Huff shot the documentary Ghost Town: The Story of Fort Lee, in which countless reels of abandoned film littered the shattered stages of the great, glass-enclosed, silent film studios. The production of On the Waterfront, shot largely in Hoboken in , was a key element in the revival of feature film production in the East. But while available New York studios were antiquated and obsolete, the situation was worse in New Jersey, where the last silent era studios burned in the s. Without professional studios and their accompanying infrastructure, New Jersey was valuable only as a location, as in Bob Rafelson’s use of Atlantic City for The King of Marvin Gardens in . In an effort to promote more such activity, the New Jersey Motion Picture and Television Commission was formed in ;  features shot at least some footage that year, but by  the annual total had risen to , along with  television episodes (including the notable critical success The Sopranos). Many of these were major studio productions, such as Stardust Memories (), Annie (), Lean on Me (), Copland (), and A Beautiful Mind (), which chose to shoot in New Jersey because of location values or proximity to New York City. At the same time a new group of local filmmakers began to use New Jersey as a subject. In a series of award-winning independent productions, the state’s complicated mix of urban and suburban lifestyles have been highlighted by John Sayles (Baby, It’s You, ), Stanley Tucci (Big Night, ), Todd Solondz (Welcome to the Dollhouse, ), and Kevin Smith, whose $, production of Clerks () would become the first installment in the director’s “New Jersey trilogy.’’ In , USA Television transformed a North Bergen warehouse into a fully functional television studio for the production of Law and Order: Special Victims Unit. While overcrowding in the New York studios may have been the immediate reason for this move, the existence of any permanent studio site could be taken as a good sign for a filmmaking community otherwise accustomed to renting space in National Guard armories. Altomara, Rita. Hollywood on the Palisades. New York: Garland, . Musser, Charles. The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to . New York: Scribner’s, . ———. Edison Motion Pictures, –: An Annotated Filmography. Pordenone: Giornate del Cinema Muto, . Spehr, Paul. The Movies Begin: Making Movies in New Jersey –. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Morgan & Morgan, .

Richard Koszarski

Mott, Gershom (b. Apr. , ; d. Nov. , ). Soldier. Born in Lamberton (now part of Trenton), Gershom Mott was working as

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Mott, Peter as a free colored person in the  census, Mott may have been a former slave himself. Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

See also African Methodist Church; Underground Railroad

Episcopal

Gail Greenberg

Mott Company. See J. L. Mott Company. Mountain Creek.

Gershom Mott.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

a bank teller in Bordentown when the Civil War broke out in . He was appointed lieutenant colonel of the Fifth New Jersey, and was named brigadier general in September . Mott served in most of the major battles of the Virginia theater, and was wounded four times. In  he was made a full major general of volunteers, one of only two New Jerseyborn officers to reach that rank. Mott was an adequate but unspectacular brigade and division commander, and was once demoted briefly for poor performance. After the war he held a number of state positions, including command of the New Jersey National Guard (–). Foster, John Y. New Jersey and the Rebellion: History of the Service of the Troops and People of New Jersey in Aid of the Union Cause. Newark: Martin R. Dennis, . Jackson, William J. New Jerseyans in the Civil War: For Union and Liberty. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, .

See also Civil War

David G. Martin

Mott, Peter

(b. c. ; d. ).

Farmer and minister. Peter Mott was the minister of Snow Hill Church (now Mount Pisgah A.M.E. Church) in Snow Hill (now Lawnside), Camden County. He founded its Sunday school in , and later became the first superintendent of what is the second-oldest African American Sunday school in the area. Mott prospered, purchased several parcels of land and built a house, now listed on the State and National Historic Registers, where he lived from about  to . Mott is associated with the Underground Railroad, which found sanctuary for runaway slaves. Although he listed himself

This resort development is on the western slope of Hamburg Mountain near McAfee, in Vernon Township, Sussex County. Its origins are in Great Gorge Ski Area, established in , and nearby Vernon Valley Ski Area, established in . Both constructed ski runs on the steep slopes and thousand-foot vertical drop of Hamburg Mountain, with chair lifts to carry patrons from base lodges to the mountaintop. Their easy access from the New York metro area was a major attraction from the beginning. These resorts had limited financial success. Vernon Valley Ski Area was bankrupt by . The two areas came under the ownership of Vernon Valley Recreation Association/ Great American Recreation (VVRA/GAR) in , and they have been operated under one ownership since then. The ski area included forty-six ski trails covering fifteen miles and serviced by eleven passenger lifts; peak annual visitation was seven hundred thousand. These were the first ski resorts in the nation to feature “ percent snowmaking,’’ using artificially generated snow to compensate for the sometimes unpredictable New Jersey winters. In , VVRA added summer recreation to the Vernon Valley Ski Area, establishing Action Park, a water and recreational park featuring the Alpine Slide, water rides, go-carts, special festivals, and other attractions. Action Park soon became a major tourist attraction, and adjacent condominium development added fourteen hundred residences to Vernon Township. A portion of the original Vernon Valley Ski Area was on Hamburg Mountain Wildlife Management Area and was leased from the state of New Jersey. In the early s, it was determined that VVRA/GAR was in violation of terms of the lease, and the state threatened eviction. In , however, state legislation permitted VVRA/GAR to purchase , acres of the wildlife management area for its operations. Subsequent plans to erect a hotel, golf course, and one thousand cabins on this and adjacent mountaintop property led to years of controversy and several court cases. The firm and its principal, Eugene Mulvihill, encountered other legal difficulties in the s and s. VVRA/GAR went bankrupt in the mid-s and the entire resort, including the mountaintop, was sold to the Intrawest Corporation of Vancouver, British Columbia, in . Intrawest, a large owner of mountain ski resorts throughout North America, has invested $ million in

revitalizing the twenty-three-hundred-acre resort. The corporation has drawn up plans for the renovation of existing facilities and the creation of a $ million resort village that will include buildings on historic themes, a lodge, condominiums, restaurants, shops, and galleries. Ongoing controversy and litigation over planned development of the former wildlife management land on the mountaintop were tentatively resolved in  when Intrawest agreed to sell the land to the NJDEP. Intrawest is proceeding with plans to develop the remainder of the resort along the lines of its other ski areas, including Tremblant in Canada and Stratton in New England.

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Mountain Lakes. .-square-mile borough in Morris County. Mountain Lakes is one of the few remaining early twentiethcentury, planned, year-round residential lake communities in northwestern New Jersey. In , surveyor-engineer Lewis Van Duyne of Boonton drafted a site plan and presented it to developer Herbert J. Hapgood. The two began to purchase land that consisted of swampy meadows and wooded lots, cleared it, and began building roads and dams. In mid , fifty families moved into their new suburban homes. Over the next decade the community continued to grow and residents, no longer satisfied under the political umbrella of Hanover Township, petitioned the state legislature in  for the right to incorporate. By  the population had increased to , residents. The Depression left its mark on the borough and several properties were abandoned. After World War II, the Fox Development Company erected sixty-seven small homes for returning veterans and their families. In , the borough purchased  acres of undeveloped land that included Birchwood, Crystal, and Sunset lakes for preservation. The population according to the  census was ,;  percent was white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Acroterian. Morris County Historic Sites Survey. Morristown: Morris County Heritage Commission, . Myrose, Elizabeth R., and Claire B. Kitchell. Along the Whippanong: A History of Hanover Township, New Jersey. Hanover: Hanover Township Committee, .

Margaret L. Shultz

mountain laurel. Kalmia latifolia is a North American shrub, typically found growing in the understory of forests in acidic, nutrient-poor soil. Its common name comes from its resemblance to the laurel of southern Europe and its commonality on the rocky, acidic slopes and crests of mountains (the township of Mount Laurel is named for this plant). It has multiple woody stems that produce thick, leathery evergreen leaves and clusters of pink-white, starlike flowers on terminal shoots from May to July. The shrub is occasionally used in ornamental horticulture,

Mount Laurel but honey produced by the flowers is toxic to humans.

David W. MacFarlane

Mountainside. .-square-mile borough in Union County. Originally a portion of the West Fields of Elizabethtown, the area was sparsely settled by English immigrants in the early s. It was later incorporated into the township of Westfield. Due to disagreements over tax increases for improvements to the downtown area, the residents of the Locust Grove, Branch Mills, and Baltusrol sections split from Westfield and were incorporated as the Borough of Mountainside on October , . The community experienced its largest growth in the years following World War II, with the population more than tripling between  and . It remains a predominantly single-family residential community with light industrial and commercial businesses located along Route  and in the downtown area. A quarter of the community acreage has been set aside as parkland, which is part of the Echo Lake and Surprise Lake portions of the Union County Park system. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hershey, Jean Hesketh. History of the Borough of Mountainside, Union County, New Jersey, –. Westfield: Westfield Press, .

Scott Daniels

Mountainside Park.

Acquired by the township of Montclair in , this suburban park features year-round recreational services including clay tennis courts, playing fields, a playground, a community pool, a sleighriding hill, and a nature trail. The park is also home to the Presby Memorial Iris Gardens established in  to honor the memory of Frank H. Presby, founder of the American Iris Society. The Presby Memorial Iris Gardens are listed on both the state and national Registers of Historic Places and feature a dazzling display of over two thousand varieties of iris, some dating back to the sixteenth century. See also gardens, public

Jessica Pellien

Mount Arlington. .-square-mile borough in Morris County. Mount Arlington was formed by secession from Roxbury Township on November , , when residents objected to the rebuilding of the Forcite Works munitions plant after an explosion in . Early settlement concentrated in Breslin Park, where the developer Cyrus Cook saw a potential for summer “cottages’’ for wealthy New Yorkers along the shore of Lake Hopatcong. The park is now on the National Register of Historic Places and includes the Himpler “castle’’ built of stone transported to the site by

boat, and the Lotta Crabtree cottage, considered one of the two finest houses designed by Philadelphia architect Frank Furness. Other cottages were built by Paterson silk merchants. Also erected in the resort were bungalow colonies and summer hotels. The Bertrand’s Island Amusement Park was popular for many years and was used in the filming of Woody Allen’s Purple Rose of Cairo. Still on Bertrand’s Island is the Lake Hopatcong Yacht Club, one of the nation’s oldest. Year-round development has been expanding since the s. In , the population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Travers, Anna. History of Mount Arlington. Mount Arlington: Mount Arlington Historical Society, .

Jane R. Primerano

Mount Ephraim.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Originally called Ephraim’s Mount, according to tradition it was named for Ephraim Albertson, one of its earliest settlers, whose tavern was a stagecoach stop. The village first developed at the intersection of the Black Horse Pike and Kings Highway and was described in nineteenth-century newspapers as “afford[ing] a perfect view of Philadelphia . . . fanned by every breeze . . . considered healthy.’’ The terminus of the Camden, Gloucester, and Mount Ephraim Railway, later the Philadelphia and Reading Railway, was constructed here in . Because of its central location, the village was one of several sites in contention for selection as Camden’s county seat in . Nonetheless, by  it still only consisted of a general store, school, hotel, gristmill, and a church. Increasing traffic along the Black Horse Pike and the development of highway infrastructure led to Mount Ephraim’s increased population. The community broke away from Centre Township in . During that decade, the borough was among several lower Camden County towns that experienced cross-burning episodes of the Ku Klux Klan. During the s, Mount Ephraim’s sewerage plant was built through the efforts of the Works Progress Administration. Like many older towns, the borough has had an  percent population loss over the previous two decades but has retained its conservative outlook. In , a municipal ordinance prohibiting nude dancing was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court. The  population of , in this mostly residential community was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Dorwart, Jeffery, and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

547

Welcome to Mount Ephraim, The Village at the Crossroads. Mount Ephraim: Mount Ephraim Bicentennial Committee, .

Gail Greenberg

Mount Holly. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. The seat of Burlington County, Mount Holly was founded by Quakers in  and originally known as Bridgetown prior to the Revolutionary War. The first township library and Saint Andrew’s Episcopal Church were both chartered by King George III of England. The oldest continuously operating firefighting organization in the United States, the Relief Fire Company, was founded in . During the American Revolution, a battle was fought on Iron Works Hill in , and in November , the township was temporarily designated as the state capital over fears Trenton would be taken by the British. The historic county courthouse, raised in , is considered one of the nation’s premier examples of preserved eighteenth-century architecture. Mount Holly was home to the pioneering Quaker abolitionist John Woolman, and the township’s Quaker heritage made it a key stop on the Underground Railroad. A social and economic center of the county, Mount Holly’s economy suffered with the loss of its longtime textile processing mills to the South, beginning in the late s. The township’s fortunes appear to be turning around following its state designation as an Urban Enterprise Zone in the late s. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Shinn, Henry C. The History of Mount Holly. Mount Holly: Mount Holly Herald, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Mount Laurel. -square-mile township in Burlington County. The area was home to the Lenape Indians before the establishment of a small Quaker settlement in . The “Mount,’’one of several early names, is actually a low hill, an important topographic feature in a relatively flat region. After the Revolutionary War, Mount Laurel became home to many free blacks. With the support of Quaker residents, the township was a stop on the Underground Railroad. An Orthodox Jewish community thrived in the early twentieth century. Paulsdale, now a National Historic Landmark, was the family home of suffragist Alice Paul (–). Incorporated in  (after separating from Evesham), Mount Laurel remained a collection of relatively isolated farming hamlets until the opening of the New Jersey Turnpike in . Thereafter the population essentially doubled every decade (from , in 

548

Mount Laurel cases

to , in ) and a large business and commercial base was created. In  Mount Laurel was successfully sued by low-income residents, who claimed that the township’s zoning ordinances were “exclusionary.’’ In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. Median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Kirp, David L., John P. Dwyer, and Larry A. Rosenthal. Our Town: Race, Housing, and the Soul of Suburbia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Picken, Barbara, and Gail Greenberg. Mount Laurel: A Centennial History. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

John M. Payne

Mount Laurel cases. This is the popular name of a legal doctrine derived from two landmark state supreme court decisions declaring “exclusionary zoning’’ unconstitutional and requiring affirmative steps to provide opportunities for the construction of lowand moderate-income housing. To control the physical, social, and economic consequences of rapid suburban growth after World War II, New Jersey became a national leader in the spread of restrictive land-use controls, such as large-lot zoning and prohibition of small apartments. A now-familiar pattern of allwhite, middle-class (“exclusionary’’) communities resulted. In an important  dissent, Justice Frederick Hall warned that, to be constitutional, zoning must serve the “general welfare’’ rather than the parochial interests of individual towns. His concern was reinforced by Norman Williams, who demonstrated in  that only . percent of the land in four rapidly developing northern New Jersey counties was zoned for apartments.

That same year, black residents sued Mount Laurel to force the town to accept subsidized housing that would replace “affordable’’ but grossly dilapidated units. When the case reached the supreme court in , Justice Hall wrote (for a unanimous court) that “developing’’ municipalities must make “realistically possible’’ their “fair share’’ of “the present and prospective regional need’’ for lower-income housing. Eight years later, recognizing that there had been scant municipal compliance, Chief Justice Robert Wilentz reaffirmed the Mount Laurel doctrine in Mount Laurel II and established a sweeping set of remedies, to be overseen by three specially assigned trial judges. The two most controversial holdings were that municipalities could be required to adopt “inclusionary’’ ordinances, which permit developers to build at higher density in return for making at least  percent of the units affordable for poor people, and that successful “inclusionary’’ plaintiffs could be rewarded with a “builder’s remedy,’’ a presumptive right to build without complying with most local zoning regulations. Sensitive to the charge that it was usurping political control of land use issues, the court repeatedly called for legislative action, and to blunt the force of Mount Laurel II, the Fair Housing Act of  was passed, creating a Council on Affordable Housing to oversee most disputes. The act also authorized Regional Contribution Agreements (RCAs), which permit suburban municipalities to fund up to half their “fair share’’ elsewhere, almost always in impoverished center cities, and it mandated the preparation of a new State Development and Redevelopment Plan (SDRP) to facilitate fair-share calculations. In , the act was held constitutional, and the court thereafter effectively withdrew from the field. Approximately twenty thousand “Mount Laurel’’ units have been created to date, and RCAs have generated $ million in urban subsidies. The process has done little to further racial integration, however, and inclusionary developments do not benefit the poorest of the poor. The Mount Laurel doctrine has not been fully adopted elsewhere, but it is widely studied and has strongly influenced the evolution of affordable-housing policy nationwide. Haar, Charles M. Suburbs under Siege: Race, Space, and Audacious Judges. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Kirp, David L., John P. Dwyer, and Larry A. Rosenthal. Our Town: Race, Housing, and the Soul of Suburbia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Lamar, Martha, Alan Mallach, and John M. Payne. “Mount Laurel at Work: Affordable Housing in New Jersey, –.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (): –.

Editorial cartoon depicting the controversy over the Mount Laurel zoning dispute, .

Courtesy Bob Beckett.

Wish, Naomi, and Stephen Eisdorfer. “The Impact of Mount Laurel Initiatives: An Analysis of the Characteristics of Applicants and Occupants.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): –.

See also zoning

John M. Payne

Mount Misery.

Village in Pemberton Township, Burlington County. The first owner of the land on which Mount Misery was established was a French Huguenot named Peter Bard, who came to the area in the early eighteenth century and became the owner of the Mount Misery Mill. One theory of the origin of the name is that it is derived from the French word, misericorde, or “mercy,’’ used by Bard to describe the area. The heyday of Mount Misery was from the mid-nineteenth to the early twentieth century. During this period the village had as many as one hundred homes, a school, a store, and the Mount Misery Hotel. The principal industry was making charcoal. By the s, though, when the Federal Writers’ Project included a description of Mount Misery on one of its “Tours’’ of various parts of New Jersey, the village had only a few, mostly deserted, houses and a population of perhaps five. Mount Misery has a place in New Jersey Pinelands lore, along with other colorfully named but now mostly abandoned hamlets and villages. It still appears on Burlington County maps just north of Lebanon State Forest. Beck, Henry Charlton. Forgotten Towns of Southern New Jersey. New York: E. P. Dutton, . Bisbee, Henry H. Place Names in Burlington County, New Jersey. Riverside: Burlington County Publishing, . Federal Writers’ Program of the Works Progress Administration in the State of New Jersey. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. New York: Viking Press, .

Edward T. Skipworth

Mount Olive.

-square-mile township in Morris County. Mount Olive was set off in  from western Roxbury Township. It is bounded by the Musconetcong River on the west and includes part of Schooley’s Mountain on the east. Milling and agriculture were important nineteenth-century industries. Among its notable natural features is Budd Lake, the largest natural body of water in New Jersey. In the nineteenth century the lake was an important summer resort, and included the -room Forest House Hotel, now gone. In the twentieth century Budd Lake saw construction of many summer cottages, and it still contains numerous historic examples. The township is crossed by Routes , , and , which has led to significant commercial development, including the International Trade Center. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

municipal government

Mount Saint Mary Academy.

In  David Kenny of North Plainfield donated a plot of land in the Watchung Mountains to the Sisters of Mercy, an order strongly committed to spiritual and intellectual education as well as to service to the community. He requested that a school, including the name “Mary’’ in its title, be constructed on the grounds. Mount Saint Mary Academy, a Catholic girls’ college preparatory school, opened its doors in , but a fire destroyed its main building in . A new school was built immediately thereafter. Today  students attend the school, whose eighty-acre campus is in Watchung, twenty-three miles west of New York City. See also education

Michele Gisbert

Mount Tabor. A -acre enclave of over three hundred houses. Mount Tabor, named for the biblical site of the Transfiguration, was established March , , as New Jersey’s first permanent camp meeting by legislative charter to the Newark Annual Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Nineteenthcentury camp meetings attracted thousands. As religious fervor declined in the s, this leasehold community, led by an elected board of trustees, expanded recreational, social, and intellectual offerings. After World War II, winterized cottages provided year-round living. While relying on Parsippany–Troy Hills for school, water, and police services, Mount Tabor retained its character through the twentieth century. Norris, Mary Harriott. Camp Tabor: A Story of Camp Meeting. Edited by Robert D. Simpson and Megan D. Simpson. Raritan: Raritan Valley Press, . Parsippany Historical and Preservation Society. Parsippany—Troy Hills. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Susan Akers, Emily W. B. Russell, and Beth Shaw

Mullica. .-square-mile township in Atlantic County incorporated in . The name of the township comes from four early settlers—Eric, John, Olaf, and William Mullica, Finnish brothers. Eric Mullica was responsible for the renaming of the Little Egg Harbor River as the Mullica River, as it is still known today. Among the township’s pioneers were Quakers, attracted in  to the area’s fertile land. Many of their descendants are still here, farming the same lands. Today, the area is known for its large crops of blueberries and peaches. There are currently  active farms in the township. The town of Hammonton, which was a part of Mullica Township until , is still famous for its blueberries, the top crop of the area. In , the township’s population was ,, of which  percent was white,  percent was black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Shaw, H. Leslie, Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Neptune: Towndata.com Network, .

Jerome E. Klein

Mullica Hill.

See Harrison Township.

Mullica River. A large river in the Coastal Plain of southern New Jersey, the Mullica and its major tributaries begin in the central portions of Camden and Burlington counties and flow into Great Bay on the Atlantic coast. The downstream portion forms the boundary between the counties of Atlantic and Burlington. The Mullica is the third largest watershed in the state (. square miles) after the Raritan (,. square miles) and the Passaic (. square miles). The river has a gentle gradient from west to east, and most of the watershed has elevations less than one hundred feet. A large portion of the watershed is forested and in public ownership, including the Wharton State Forest. Beck, Henry C. Jersey Genesis: The Story of the Mullica River. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also rivers

Robert M. Hordon

Munchmobile.

Take an eight-foot-long, orange-and-yellow hotdog made of sculpted foam board. Attach it to the roof of an eightseat minivan. Round up four enthusiastic reporters. Tell them to go out and eat nothing but pizza, Mexican, Italian, Chinese, or vegetarian all day, in a search for the state’s best. Devote two pages of the state’s largest newspaper every Friday during the summer to their field report, throw in weekly broadcasts on News  New Jersey, and extensive coverage on New Jersey Online (www.nj.com) and what do you have? The Munchmobile. “The Munch team will leave no plate untouched in their quest for New Jersey’s best food,’’ said Jim Willse, editor of the Star-Ledger and the man responsible for the so-called Big Dog. The Munchmobile first hit the road in the summer of . In the summer of , the Munch team put , miles on the Munchmobile, visiting  restaurants in  counties, downing  sodas,  cups of coffee,  chicken wings,  shrimp,  hotdogs,  doughnuts, and  ice cream sundaes, not to mention one shark and one curried goat. In the summer of , the merry Munchers traveled , miles, visiting  restaurants, consuming, among other things,  salads,  sandwiches,  chicken wings,  meatballs,  milkshakes,  pieces of flying fish roe, and  servings of plum wine ice cream. See also Star-Ledger

Peter Genovese

municipal government.

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New Jersey, since its seventeenth-century settlement by the Dutch and English, has had a variety of local government structures. Immigrants brought with them experience with such governments in Europe and, particularly Puritans settling Newark and other towns, a religious commitment to community living. Over time, five forms of municipal government have developed: townships, boroughs, cities, towns, and villages. As a result, today New Jersey has a complex, and at times overlapping and confusing, pattern of municipal government. There are boroughs surrounded by townships, and towns and villages within townships; compounding the confusion is the fact that they can have separate or shared services for fire, police, education, and so on. At times municipalities even share the same name—there is, to cite just one example, a Princeton township and a Princeton borough. Metuchen (a borough) has been described as the hole in the Edison (township) doughnut. Constitutionally, the state legislature is sovereign, but at the same time New Jersey has a long tradition of home rule. Municipalities are created and regulated by state laws in terms of their format and powers. These governments can, under all five forms, pass ordinances and raise taxes for local purposes; also, in all five forms, elected officials hold staggered terms to help provide continuity in government. Local government originated in Bergen under the Dutch; additional units were created by the English proprietors and then the Crown. After the Revolution it was the Township Act of  that formally incorporated existing townships, resulting in  such municipalities in the state. Today responsibility for a township is usually vested in a committee of three to five members who hold three-year terms. At an annual meeting in January the committee selects one of its members to serve as mayor. The original  townships has now grown to . The borough form of government was created in , and has been described as having a weak mayor, and a strong council. The mayor is elected for a four-year term, and there are usually six council members elected for threeyear terms, with two elected each year. When organized the council elects a president, who can take over when the mayor is absent. The largest number of municipalities, a total of , fit into this category. Cities elect mayors for four-year terms, and have a council (usually from seven to nine members), one elected at large, and the rest from wards. While the mayor holds considerable power, there is also a council president and a president pro tempore, who preside at meetings and act in his absence. There are  cities in the state, ranging in size from Newark (with , residents in ) to Corbin City (with  in ).

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murders

Towns can elect their mayors for two-, three-, or four-year terms, depending on past practices. The council consists of eight members elected for two-year terms. In contrast, villages elect a president of the board and a board of trustees containing five members, all of whom serve three-year terms. Only  towns and  villages remain in the state. The large number of municipalities in New Jersey, and the variety of their forms of government, are the result of forms brought from Europe, then altered by disagreements born here. Historically, communities have split over such issues as taxes, roads, schools, blue laws, and development, thus creating new municipalities. The result is today’s complex mosaic, which has been referred to as “municipal madness.’’ Another, more positive consequence has been a sense of identification with local place giving a sense of community for many state residents. Connors, Richard J., and William J. Dunham. The Government of New Jersey: An Introduction. New York: University Press of America, . Karcher, Alan. New Jersey’s Municipal Madness. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Lurie, Richard L., ed. Fitzgerald’s New Jersey Legislative Manual. Newark: Skinder-Strauss Associates, .

See also home rule

Maxine N. Lurie and Stephanie B. Stevens

murders. Of the thousands of murders that have occurred in New Jersey, the best known is undoubtedly that of Charles Lindbergh, Jr., the twenty-month-old son of the “Lone Eagle,’’who was kidnapped from his upstairs bedroom in Hopewell on March , . If the Lindbergh case was the “crime of the [twentieth] century,’’ as many have said, a triple murder in Morristown—that of Samuel and Sarah Sayre and Phebe, their servant—was perhaps the crime of the nineteenth century. On March , , the day after the brutal murders, Antoine Le Blanc, a recent French immigrant, was arrested at a tavern in the Meadowlands. Near his chair was a sack containing the Sayres’ stolen possessions. A Morris County jury took twenty minutes to find Le Blanc guilty, and in early September of that year he was hanged on the green in Morristown before a crowd estimated at twelve thousand. Many other nineteenth-century New Jersey murders gained widespread notoriety in their day, often because of popular pamphlets with titles like The Life and Confession of Bridget Dergan, Who Murdered Mrs. Ellen Coriell, the Lovely Wife of Dr. Coriell . . . and an Account of Her Execution at New Brunswick. Bridget, an Irish servant, hoped to win the love of her employer by eliminating his wife. To that end, on the night of February , , she stabbed Mrs. Coriell sixty times and set the Coriell house on fire. Rather than gaining a husband, however, Bridget drew the gallows.

One way to judge the notoriety of a crime is by the number of books written about it. In the twentieth century, several New Jersey cases attracted enough interest to inspire more than one book, among them: the Hall-Mills affair (, Franklin Township); the gunning down of Dutch Schultz (, Newark); the murder of Victoria Zielinski (, Mahwah— although three of the books were written by her killer, Edgar Smith); the “Dr. X’’ murders (, Oradell); the Hurricane Carter case (, Paterson); and John List’s slaughter of his family (, Westfield). If published books give some idea of the fame of a homicide case—and by this measure the Lindbergh kidnap-murder reigns supreme—there are other indicators as well. Continuing press coverage is one. The shooting of two policemen at the Angel Lounge (, Lodi) attracted attention over the years because of the repeated efforts of one of the killers, Thomas Trantino, to gain parole. The murder of a state trooper is always a major news story, particularly when the killers are “revolutionaries,’’ as was the case in Trooper Werner Foerster’s death at the hands of Joanne Chesimard (, East Brunswick) and Trooper-of-the-Year Philip Lamonaco’s murder by Richard Williams and Thomas Manning (, Knowlton Township). A single best-selling book can also focus persistent public attention on a case, as witness Joe McGinniss’s Blind Faith, about Robert Marshall’s contract murder of his wife, Maria (, Lacey Township). None of this fascination with murder is to suggest that New Jersey is rife with homicide. Among the fifty states, New Jersey’s murder rate ranks somewhere in the middle, far below that of New York, California, Texas, and several states in the Deep South. Cunningham, John T., and Donald A. Sinclair. Murder Did Pay: Nineteenth-Century New Jersey Murders. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Tomlinson, Gerald. Murdered in Jersey. Expanded ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gerald Tomlinson

Murphy, Franklin , ).

(b. Jan. , ; d. Feb.

Businessman and governor. Born in Jersey City, Franklin Murphy, the son of a shoe manufacturer, was descended from original settlers of Newark and Elizabeth. In the summer of , at the age of sixteen, he left Newark Academy to enlist as a private in Company A of the Thirteenth Regiment, New Jersey Volunteers, where he remained for the duration of the Civil War. He fought in the battles of Antietam, Chancellorsville, and Gettysburg, and was with Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman on the march from Atlanta to the sea. Murphy left the army at age nineteen with the rank of first lieutenant. In  he founded a small varnish manufacturing company in Newark. The venture prospered into a national concern with branches

in Europe, and Murphy remained active in the firm until his death. Murphy married Janet Colwell in  with whom he had eight children. She died in . Murphy’s wealth enabled him to become active in politics and civic affairs. Between  and  he served as a member of the Newark Common Council, serving the last year as president. In  he represented his district for one term in the state assembly. Murphy’s career as a local politician was marked by his advocacy of civic improvements. Electric streetlights are among his many legacies to Newark. As an Essex County Republican, Murphy became active in a movement to wrest control of his party from William J. Sewell of Camden County. In  Murphy was named chairman of the Republican State Committee. Upon the death of Vice President Garrett A Hobart, Murphy was unanimously chosen to succeed him as the New Jersey representative on the Republican National Committee. In  Murphy received his party’s nomination for governor and won handily over his Democratic opponent, James M. Seymour. Murphy’s tenure as governor (–) coincided with the rise of the New Idea movement in New Jersey. An outspoken conservative, Murphy was shocked by the laxity, waste, and corruption in state government. His own diligence and probity set a high standard for state officials as he conducted audits of all departmental finances and worked for the abolition of the fee system in state and county offices. He transferred state funds from favored banks where they earned no interest into interest-bearing accounts. The most dramatic moment in the Murphy administration came in  when the Republican legislature blocked Jersey City mayor Mark Fagan’s attempt to tax railroads and utilities at full municipal rates. Frustrated, Fagan sent Murphy a celebrated public letter charging that the Republican party in New Jersey was a servant of the railroad and utilities monopolies and a tool of corporate greed. Murphy ignored the letter but appointed a commission to study the problem. Its report led to tax reform in the Stokes administration that followed. Murphy’s strict enforcement of child labor laws leavened his conservative posture. He signed a primary election law that became the basis of primary election reform in New Jersey, and the state’s first tenement inspection law. He signed an act that established local boards of education with fundraising powers independent of local politicians. He also initiated the long-overdue cleanup of the foul Passaic River, and presided over the abandonment of the Morris Canal and the construction of a state tuberculosis sanitarium. After leaving office Murphy remained active in politics as the chairman of the

museums Republican State Committee and as a member of the Republican National Committee (– ). He twice tried to win his party’s nomination for U.S senator (, ) but failed both times. In , while on vacation in Palm Springs, Florida, Murphy died after having had surgery to remove an intestinal obstruction. He was survived by two of his children. Noble, Ransom. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

MUSCONETCONG VALLEY

LAKE HOPATCONG N

HACKETTSTOWN

MUSCONETCONG RIVER

Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton from Wertz to Wilson.  vols. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor; Progressive Era

Martin Paulsson

Murphy, Vincent

(b. Aug. , ; d.

June , ). Labor leader and mayor. Vincent

Murphy was the eldest of ten children in an impoverished Newark family. He left school at the age of fifteen to become a plumber’s apprentice; his weekly wage of $. was needed at home. Murphy became a member of Local  of the Plumbers Union, which he served as secretary-treasurer for eighteen years. In  he was elected secretary-treasurer of the New Jersey State American Federation of Labor (AFL), whose executive board selected him as president in April . When the AFL and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in New Jersey merged in September  to form the New Jersey State AFL-CIO, Murphy served as its first president. He held the post until his retirement in . Murphy’s political career began in  when, as a political unknown, he won a seat on the five-member Newark City Commission. In , running on a labor party ticket, Murphy was reelected and his fellow commissioners chose him as mayor of Newark. His bid for the Democratic nomination for governor in  was unsuccessful. In , he was elected for the third time to the Newark City Commission and was selected to serve as mayor for a second term. Murphy sought no other political office after his defeat in Newark’s citywide elections in . Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

Evelyn M. Hershey

Musconetcong Valley.

The Musconetcong Valley is a major valley in the Highlands of New Jersey. It includes a drainage system of . square miles. The Musconetcong River rises in Weldon Brook at an altitude of approximately , feet above mean sea level, enters partially man-made Lake Hopatcong,

0

10 miles

Olsen, Bernard A. A Billy Yank Governor. West Kennebunk, ME: Phoenix Publishing, .

@Rutgers, The State University

then flows a little more than a mile, where it has been impounded to form Lake Musconetcong. It continues approximately forty-three miles in a southwesterly direction, terminating in the Delaware River. North and east of Hackettstown the valley surface is rugged; to the south and west, it is relatively gentle. Wacker, Peter O. The Musconetcong Valley of New Jersey: A Historical Geography. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also geography; valleys

Peter O. Wacker

Museum of American Glass.

See

Wheaton Village.

Museum of Early Trades and Crafts. This museum of artifacts from preindustrial New Jersey life was founded in Madison in  by Agnes and Edgar Law Land. Their original collection of hand tools and artifacts has grown to more than , items. The museum mainly displays hand tools and the items that craftspeople produced using them, with a focus on the tools and trades of New Jersey. Permanent exhibits include a distillery; cooper’s, shoemaker’s, and cabinetmaker’s shops; and an exhibition of the tools used in daily life by a typical nineteenthcentury New Jersey family. The collection is housed in the James Library Building, a historic structure that once served as Madison’s first library and was restored by the museum in . See also museums

Krista Gulbin

museums.

In the early nineteenth century, beginning with the impressive old master, textile, and china collections of Joseph Bonaparte (who lived near Bordentown and opened his home for interested visitors), some New Jerseyans began to demonstrate an interest in acquiring fine objects and preserving and displaying them in appropriate venues. Today, in addition to presenting outstanding collections of fine and decorative art, the state’s varied museums enlighten citizens on diverse subjects including but not limited to history, ethnicity, science, natural history,

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transportation, and wildlife. In addition, several devote special effort to the education of children. Beginning in the s, and continuing throughout the nineteenth century, the existence of the fine art collections of Marcus L. Ward (a governor of New Jersey, whose homestead was on the site of the present Newark Museum); the Coles family (Dr. Abraham Coles and his son and daughter); and others, including Dr. Donald M. Dougal (a major collector of the still lifes of John Frederick Peto), repeatedly called attention to the fact that museums should be organized in New Jersey to house and display these holdings for the benefit of future generations. The establishment of permanent institutions did not occur immediately, but in incremental stages. As early as , the city of Newark hosted the annual fair of the Essex County Institute, which included a section on art. This was followed in the s by the presentation of panoramas and other large paintings that subsequently traveled from city to city throughout the nation—often accompanied by lectures and brochures. In Newark, exhibitions featuring the work of such important artists as William Mason Brown also were held, and soon a movement began there to create an academy of design. After the establishment of art unions in Europe as well as in America, one was formed in Newark in . This organization, which sought to patronize the work of New Jersey artists, raised money by selling tickets, which entitled the purchasers to take part in a lottery. The coveted prize was a painting; thus, interest in the fine arts was encouraged. Unfortunately, the Newark ArtUnion lasted for only about two years. By the end of the nineteenth century, a movement finally began in earnest to develop programs for art training and the building of museums. In , the New Jersey State Museum was established to showcase the state’s growing and impressive collections “from fossils to fine art.’’ In , John Cotton Dana, director of the Free Public Library in Newark, founded the Newark Museum with the help of collectors including Arthur Egner, J. Ackerman Coles, and Louis Bamberger. One of the first in the nation to patronize contemporary artists, the museum has remained a showcase for New Jersey fine and decorative arts. Five years later, the Montclair Art Museum was formed largely through the bequest of another leading art patron, William T. Evans, whose holdings included works by George Inness and other major nineteenthcentury artists. And in , the Morris Museum, which had begun its operation as a children’s museum in Morristown in , was incorporated. In the areas of wildlife and science, New Jersey also now boasts a major aquarium in Camden, which was established in , and the enormous Liberty Science Center in Liberty State Park, established in

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museums

. To date, over  museums have been established in New Jersey; they employ more than three thousand people and welcome several million visitors every year. Gerdts, William. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Barbara J. Mitnick Museums in New Jersey African Art Museum of the S.M.A. Fathers, Tenafly, African art museum Afro-American Historical Society Museum, Jersey City, New Jersey African American history museum Aljira, a Center for Contemporary Art, Newark, contemporary art museum American Hungarian Foundation/Hungarian Heritage Center Museum, New Brunswick, Hungarian cultural heritage center and museum American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark, Haledon, labor history museum, gathering site for silk mill workers in the  Paterson textile strike Art Museum Princeton University, Princeton, art museum and university gallery Atlantic City Historical Museum, Atlantic City, history museum on Garden Pier on the Atlantic City Boardwalk Atlantic County Historical Society, Somers Point, local history museum, historic house museums Barnegat Bay Decoy and Bayman’s Museum, Tuckerton, museum of southern New Jersey maritime history and local history Barnegat Light Museum, Barnegat Light, historic lighthouse and local history museum Barron Arts Center, Woodbridge, art and fine craft museum Ben Shahn Galleries at William Paterson College of New Jersey, Wayne, nineteenth- and twentieth-century art museum and college galleries Bergen Museum of Art and Science, Paramus, natural history and twentieth-century art museum Black River and Western Railroad Museum, Ringoes, museum of railroad memorabilia in a restored railroad station, with an active steam railroad Boxwood Hall, Union, eighteenth-century historic house museum, home of Elias Boudinot, president of the Continental Congress and later of Jonathan Dayton, signer of the U.S. Constitution Broadway Gallery, Passaic County Community College, Paterson, art museum and gallery Burlington County Historical Society, Burlington, eighteenth-century historic house museums and local history museum gallery Camden County Historical Society, Camden, county and regional history museums Cape May Court House Historical Museum,

Cape May Court House, local history museum Cape May Lighthouse, Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts, Cape May,  historic lighthouse museum Cornelius Low House/Middlesex County Museum, North Brunswick, county and state history museum and historic house museum Craftsman Farms, Morris Plains, museum of the Arts and Crafts Movement, especially with regard to Gustav Stickley and the Stickley family Cumberland County Historical Society, Greenwich, county history museum Denville Historical Society and Museum, Denville, local history museum Dey Mansion, Wayne,  house museum, George Washington’s headquarters during parts of  Emlen Physick Estate, Mid-Atlantic Center for the Arts, Cape May,  Victorian house museum, originally designed by Frank Furness Fort Dix Museum, Fort Dix, military history museum Fort Hancock Museum, Sandy Hook, military, maritime, and natural history museum Fort Lee Historic Park and Museum, Fort Lee, Revolutionary War military history museum Franklin Mineral Museum, Franklin, geology science museum featuring phosphorescent minerals Garden State Discovery Museum and Center for Learning, Cherry Hill, children’s museum George F. Boyer Museum and National Marbles Hall of Fame, Wildwood, local history museum Gloucester County Historical Society, Woodbury, local history museum, eighteenthcentury historic house museum and Moravian church Golf House, Museum, and Library, Far Hills, sports history museum Grounds for Sculpture, Hamilton, indoor and outdoor sculpture museum Grover Cleveland Birthplace, Caldwell, historic house museum, birthplace of U.S. president Grover Cleveland Hereford Inlet Lighthouse, North Wildwood, lighthouse and maritime museum Hermitage, Ho-Ho-Kus, historic house museum restored to its mid-nineteenth century appearance, local history museum in visitor center located in adjacent building Hiram Blauvelt Art Museum, Oradell, wildlife art museum Historic Cold Spring Village, Cape May, recreated early nineteenth-century historic village and museum Historic Gardener’s Basin, Atlantic City, maritime village museum located on the original site of Atlantic City Historical Society of Princeton, Princeton, local and regional history museum

Hopewell Museum, Hopewell, local history museum Hunterdon Historical Museum, Clinton, local and regional history museum Hunterdon Museum of Art, Clinton, contemporary art museum and gallery Indian King Tavern House Museum, Haddonfield,  tavern house museum James Howe Gallery, Kean University, Union, nineteenth- and twentieth-century art museum, student, faculty, and alumni art Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers, the State University, New Brunswick, museum of nineteenth- and twentieth-century European, American, Russian, and Asian art Jersey City Museum, Jersey City, nineteenthand twentieth-century art museum John Abbott II House, Trenton, eighteenthcentury historic house museum Johnson Ferry House Museum, Titusville, historic house museum on the Delaware River at Washington’s Crossing Kuser Farm Mansion, Hamilton, c.  Queen Anne–style historic house museum Lambert Castle, Passaic County Historical Society, Paterson, late nineteenth-century house museum, home of Catholina Lambert, Paterson silk mill owner during the  Paterson textile strike Latino Center for Arts and Culture, Rutgers, the State University, New Brunswick, art gallery Liberty Hall Museum, Union, historic house museum, home of William Livingston, first elected governor of New Jersey, and, since , home of the Kean family Liberty Science Center, Jersey City, interactive science museum and Imax theater Long Beach Island Historical Association Museum, museum of the New Jersey Shore region Macculloch Hall Historical Museum, Morristown, historic house and decorative arts museum, including the Thomas Nast collection Miller-Cory House Museum, Westfield, eighteenth-century historic house museum and local history museum Monmouth County Historical Association, Freehold, county history museum and four eighteenth-century house museums Monmouth Museum, Lincroft, art museum Montclair Art Museum, Montclair, museum of American art Montclair State University Art Galleries, Upper Montclair, art museum and galleries Morris County Historical Society, Morristown, Victorian-period house museum, local and regional history museum Morris Museum, Morristown, art, history, decorative arts, and natural history museum Museum of American Glass at Wheaton Village, Millville, museum of the history of American glass

music Museum of Early Trades and Crafts, Madison, eighteenth- and nineteenth-century history museum specializing in the tools and techniques of the early nineteenth century Naval Air Station Wildwood (NASW) Aviation Museum, Cape May, World War II naval aviation museum New Jersey Center for Visual Arts, Summit, contemporary art museum, visual arts center New Jersey Children’s Museum, Paramus, interactive children’s museum New Jersey Fireman’s Museum, Boonton, museum dedicated to the history of firefighting New Jersey Geology Museum, Rutgers, the State University, New Brunswick, geology science museum New Jersey Historical Society, Newark, museum of New Jersey and American history and culture New Jersey Museum of Agriculture, New Brunswick, museum of the technical and social history of New Jersey’s agriculture New Jersey Naval Museum, Hackensack, naval military museum located in a World War II submarine New Jersey State Museum, Trenton, the state’s museum dedicated to fine and decorative art, cultural history, archaeology, ethnology, and natural history. The facility includes a planetarium. Newark Museum, Newark, art and science museum,  Ballantine House, Ward Carriage House with Newark Fire Museum,  schoolhouse Noyes Museum, Oceanville, museum of twentieth-century American art and folk art Ocean City Historical Museum, Ocean City, local history museum Ocean County Historical Society, Toms River, local history museum and historic house museum Old Barracks Museum, Trenton, military and social history museum emphasizing the history of New Jersey during the American Revolution Old Dutch Parsonage, Somerville,  historic house museum, home of Jacob Hardenbergh, founder of Rutgers University Passaic County Community College Museum, Paterson, contemporary painting, sculpture, and ethnic art museum Paterson Museum, Paterson, history, natural history, and science museum Picatinny ARDEC Museum, Picatinny Arsenal, Picatinny, museum of weapons manufacture and development, especially those carried out at Picatinny Arsenal Ringwood Manor House Museum, Ringwood, historic house museum related to New Jersey’s iron industry, – Rockingham, Kingston, eighteenth-century historic house museum, George Washing-

ton’s last headquarters during the American Revolution Salem County Historical Society, Salem, local history museum, historic house museum Sea Isle City Museum, Sea Isle City, local history museum Somers Mansion, Somers Point,  historic house museum Stedman Art Gallery, Rutgers, the State University, Camden, contemporary art museum Sterling Hill Mine and Museum, Ogdensburg, mining museum and zinc mine tour Steuben House, River Edge, local history museum, historic house museum. Built in , used by George Washington as his headquarters during  Thomas H. Kean New Jersey State Aquarium at Camden, aquatic science museum Toms River Seaport Society Museum, Toms River, Barnegat Bay maritime heritage museum Township of Lebanon Museum at New Hampton, Lebanon, re-created  schoolroom and local history museum Township of Neptune Historical Museum, Neptune, local history museum Trailside Nature and Science Center, Mountainside, natural history museum Trenton City Museum, Trenton, art and local history museum, including Trenton’s historic ceramics industry Twin Lights Museum, Highlands, seashore and maritime history museum U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Museum, Fort Monmouth, military communications museum Van Riper–Hopper House, Wayne Museum, Wayne,  historic farmhouse museum and local history museum Vietnam Era Educational Center, Holmdel, social, political, and military museum of the Vietnam era Wallace House, Somerville,  historic house museum, George Washington’s headquarters in the winter of – Walt Whitman House, Camden, historic house museum, home of poet Walt Whitman Wildwood Crest Historical Society Museum, Wildwood, local history museum Wildwood Historical Society Museum, Wildwood, local history museum William Trent House, Trenton,  historic house museum Woodruff Museum of Indian Artifacts, Bridgeton Free Public Library, Bridgeton, museum of locally collected Lenape artifacts

Dorothy W. Hartman

mushrooms.

The nontechnical term mushroom is often applied to any fleshy fungus with a cap and a stem. The word is evolving to have a broader meaning, including fungal plant pathogens that are remote in appearance from the white button mushrooms

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that serve as pizza toppings. Once considered “nonflowering plants,’’ fungi are now viewed as making up a separate biological kingdom. They may grow on dead matter, be parasitic on living organisms, or form a symbiosis with plants. Hence, they are important to forest health. Mushrooms are to fungi as apples are to apple trees—a means of reproduction. Mature mushrooms produce spores spread by rain, wind, or animals. New Jersey’s diverse ecosystems support a wide variety of mushroom species. Perhaps as many as half of these species are still unknown to science. As for many other organisms, New Jersey provides the southernmost limit for some fungi and the northernmost limit for others. Increasingly, New Jerseyans are interested in finding and eating wild mushrooms such as boletes, chanterelles, and morels, all of which grow in the state. Good sources for learning how to identify mushrooms are members of the New Jersey Mycological Association, as field guides cannot replace experienced teachers. Learning to identify common poisonous fungi—for example, the green-spored lepiota, which is a common cause of gastrointestinal poisoning, and the starkly white and deadly destroying angel—is important. Bessette, Alan E., Arleen R. Bessette, and David W. Fischer. Mushrooms of Northeastern North America. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Rodham E. Tulloss

music.

See classical music; folk music; gospel music; jazz; pop music.

muskrat.

Ondatra zibethicus is a semiaquatic rodent found in tidal and inland marshes, ponds, streams, and lakes throughout much of North America and most of New Jersey. Adults weigh between two and four pounds and are sixteen to twenty-seven inches long, including a ten-inch laterally flattened tail. Fur is dense and waterproof, ranging from sandy brown to black. Males and females have glands that emit musky secretions. Muskrats produce two to four litters of two to eight young annually, beginning in April. Predominantly vegetarians, they eat roots and stalks of aquatic plants. Muskrat lodges are common in marshes, though some live in tunnels along stream banks.

David Burke

Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company. The Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company was founded in Newark in  by Robert Livingston Patterson, a New York merchant who had studied the growing life insurance business in England. Competitors foiled his attempt to charter the company in New York, so he opened it in New Jersey. The company issued almost $. million worth of policies in just nine months. It was America’s

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Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company eighteenth-largest insurance company when it collapsed in ; many experts blamed excessive investments in real estate, which performed badly in a slowing economy. Under the supervision of the New Jersey Department of Insurance, a new company, known as the MBL Life Assurance Corporation, was formed to take over Mutual Benefit Life’s insurance business. In , a subsidiary of SunAmerica acquired the last of the company’s assets and policies. French, Bruce H. Banking and Insurance in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Stone, Mildred F. Since : A History of the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also insurance industry

David A. Norris

Editorial cartoon applauding Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company’s decision to remain in, and build a new headquarters in, Newark, a move that inspired other construction in the city.

From Newark News, Dec. 15, 1954. Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

N Naar, David

center in Fair Lawn in . East Hanover has served as the firm’s headquarters since . Cahn, William. Out of the Cracker Barrel: The Nabisco Story from Animal Crackers to Zuzus. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

Edward L. Lach, Jr.

Nai-Ni Chen Dance Company.

(b. Nov. , ; D. Feb. ,

).

Political leader and newspaper editor. Born to a Sephardic Jewish family in St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, David Naar immigrated to the United States in . In  he was appointed mayor of Elizabeth and a judge of Essex County. He was both an influential advocate of public education and a partisan Democrat nicknamed the “Old Warhorse of the Democracy.’’ In , Naar bought the Trenton True American and became its editor. His caustic editorials defending slavery and attacking Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War led to threats of mob violence, and Naar suspended publication for three months in . He retired as editor in . He also served as state treasurer (–) and member of the Trenton Common Council (–).

Jon Blackwell

Nabisco. Originally formed from a number of smaller bakeries in  as the National Biscuit Company (NBC), the firm added Uneeda Biscuits to such established products as Fig Newtons and Premium Saltines. The firm later introduced (either through development or acquisition) Barnum’s Animal Crackers (), Lorna Doones and Oreos (), Shredded Wheat (), Milk Bone Dog Biscuits (), and Ritz Crackers () to its product line. Formally known as Nabisco since , the company opened a bakery/research

Nai-Ni Chen, choreographer and renowned traditional dancer in the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan, founded the Nai-Ni Chen Dance Company in , six years after immigrating to the United States. Chen has received numerous awards for her choreography, which is unique in its juxtaposition of Chinese aesthetics with modern dance elements—of tradition with innovation. The company, which includes eight dancers, has appeared on television and has toured in thirty-five states. It is located in Fort Lee. See also dance

Beth S. Bloom

Nanticoke

Lenni-Lenape. The “Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Tribe of New Jersey’’ is one of the many modern groups seeking connections to the original Native American people of southern New Jersey. From their headquarters in Bridgeton, the members continue as one of the earliest of these groups to incorporate in New Jersey, claiming that their first tribal council met in . Their reconstruction of local native religious history derives from the Walam Olum migration legend. The members of the corporation link their recent origins with native peoples who lived on the Nanticoke River in Delaware. The annual pow-wow of this group has been one of the largest in the region. See also American Indians; Walam Olum Marshall J. Becker

Nash, John Forbes, Jr. ).

David Naar.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

(b. June ,

Mathematician and Nobel Prize winner. John Forbes Nash was born and raised in Bluefield, West Virginia, the older of two children. His father was a power company engineer. His mother, college educated and a teacher, lavished her attentions on her gifted, lonely son. At college at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie-Mellon University), he planned to follow in his father’s footsteps by studying electrical engineering. His professors, sensing his talents, persuaded him to switch his major to math. He went to Princeton University in the fall of , seeking his doctoral degree in mathematics. Nash put forth his key idea—known as the Nash equilibrium—in the Ph.D. dissertation he submitted to the Princeton mathematics department in , when he was twenty-two years old. He would ultimately win a Nobel Prize in economics, in , for the idea. He had taken game theory—the notion formulated by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern that

social behaviors could be analyzed as games— and made it relevant to modern economics. Battling mental illness, Nash was forced in  to resign his post as a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. As his ideas gained currency, he withdrew from the scientific world. He moved back to Princeton, tended to by his ex-wife, Alicia Nash. They have a son, John Charles Martin Nash. In , Nash’s schizophrenia went into remission and he resumed his mathematical work as a visiting collaborator at Princeton. Nasar, Sylvia. A Beautiful Mind. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Regis, Ed. Who Got Einstein’s Office? Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, .

Kitta MacPherson

Nassau, Robert Hamill

(b. Oct. ,

; d. May , ). Missionary, doctor, and

author. Robert Hamill Nassau was born to the Rev. Charles William Nassau and Hannah McClintock Hamill. He graduated from the Lawrenceville School (), Princeton University (), Princeton Theological Seminary (), and the University of Pennsylvania Medical Department (). In July , Nassau set sail for Corisco Island, West Africa, thus beginning his forty-five-year career as a missionary. He pioneered several new mission stations and established several churches in the region of the Ogowe River. One of these ´ne ´, later became missions, located in Lambare the site of Dr. Albert Schweitzer’s hospital.

Kristine J. Marconi

Nast, Thomas

(b. Sept. , ; d. Dec. ,

).

Political cartoonist and sketch artist. Thomas Nast lived in Morristown for the last thirty years of his life, moving there at the height of his fame. From Nast’s pen flowed a steady stream of provocative political cartoons that filled the pages of national magazines and newspapers. His lasting contributions to American culture include the first depiction of Santa Claus, the donkey and elephant of the Democrat and Republican parties, respectively, and the caricatures of the corrupt Tweed Ring of New York City’s Tammany Hall. Nast was born in Bavaria. His father was a musician who joined the Philharmonic Society of New York City when the family immigrated to America in . Nast was educated in the public schools, where his artistic talent was first recognized. At fourteen, he began studying under Theodore Kaufman, a fellow ´migre ´ and an artist of some note. German e His first full-time professional job was as staff artist for Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper in , where his sketches illustrated the stories. Here, he began refining his style of cartooning mixed with social commentary. Three years later, he started contributing to such highprofile publications as Harper’s Weekly and the New York Illustrated News, where he depicted 555

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National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Christian Holiness

the funeral of John Brown. In , Nast went to England to sketch a much-promoted boxing match and then traveled to Italy to follow Garibaldi’s army in Sicily and Calabria. When he returned to New York in , he married Sarah Edwards. The couple had five children. Throughout the Civil War, Nast’s artistic talent (coupled with his firsthand observations of military campaigns) was in frequent demand by U.S. periodicals. Nast proved adept at delineating political disputes in pictures, and even his battle scenes often had a component of social commentary. (Santa Claus, whom Nast first drew in , originally appeared in a Union Civil War uniform.) After the war, Nast turned his talents toward the depiction of social ills, such as the treatment of blacks during Reconstruction. Through his caricatures, Nast attacked Andrew Johnson and the Democrats, wielding his pen in favor of the Republican nominee and Union war hero Ulysses Grant in . He achieved his greatest fame through a series of political cartoons in the early s attacking the activities of New York City’s “Boss’’ Tweed and his cronies of Tamany Hall, who had seized control of various municipal departments and engaged in graft, fraud, and corruption. Nast’s sketches were so effective that the artist and his family were forced to flee their New York City residence out of fear for their personal safety, relocating to Morristown. Nast’s influence as a social commentator and his popularity as an illustrator began to wane with the end of Reconstruction and the Grant presidency. In the last decade of his life, he produced a number of critically well regarded paintings based on historical scenes, continued drawing cartoons for various periodicals, and lectured throughout the United States. In , Theodore Roosevelt appointed him consul to Ecuador; shortly after he arrived, he caught yellow fever, died, and was buried there. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Keller, Morton. The Art and Politics of Thomas Nast. New York: Oxford University Press, .

James F. Broderick

National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Christian Holiness. The National Camp Meeting Association grew out of a camp meeting held at Vineland in  and became the principle vehicle for promoting holiness teachings within American Protestantism. Several prominent New Jersey ministers and laypersons participated in this initial conclave, which owed much to the increasing popularity of such doctrines as Christian perfectionism within American Methodism. Holiness teachings soon spread rapidly within many Protestant denominations. Advocates relied on annual camp meeting

revivals and an aggressive publications program to promote the movement. In  the interdenominational association changed its name to the Christian Holiness Association. Jones, Charles Edwin. Perfectionist Persuasion: The Holiness Movement and American Methodism, – .. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . Synan, Vinson. The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, .

See also camp meetings

Peter J. Wosh

National

Guard.

Today’s National Guard is the descendant of militias of the thirteen original colonies. Their roots in New Jersey go back to , when self-government was granted to the General Assembly by Gov. Philip Carteret, the first English governor of New Jersey. The assembly moved to raise trained bands and companies “for the safety, strength, and defense of the said province.’’ In  the first law passed by the General Assembly established a militia, requiring every male from sixteen to sixty to serve. In  the colonial government of New Jersey authorized the raising of five companies for service. The Jersey Blues were formed, and fought through the French and Indian War. The New Jersey Militia saw service during the Revolutionary War, at Fort Recovery in , and in the Whiskey Rebellion of . Units were mustered for the War of  and war with Mexico in . April , , was the first call to federalize troops for the Civil War. The First New Jersey Brigade was the initial complete brigade to arrive and participate in the defense of Washington, D.C. Thirty-eight regiments, with a total of , men from New Jersey, served in the Civil War. In  the legislature passed an act creating the New Jersey National Guard, bringing the scattered militia units in the state under one command. In  the National Guard was called out to quell riots in Camden and Jersey City. National Guard units were posted throughout the state to maintain order during the railroad riots of . Units were mustered in  for the Spanish-American War. In  the National Defense Act established the National Guard as a component of the U.S. Army. That same year New Jersey units were mustered for service in the Mexican Border Campaign. It was a prelude to World War I, where the New Jersey Guard became part of the famed Blue and Gray Twenty-ninth Division. In  the New Jersey National Guard, the Forty-fourth Division, was federalized for World War II. Their five campaign credits are northern France, the Rhineland, the Ardennes, Alsace, and Central Europe. In  the Army National Guard was reorganized and the Fiftieth Armored Division and the Air National Guard were established. The New Jersey Army and Air National Guard served in Korea, through the Cold War, and in Vietnam.

In , Army and Air units were mobilized for Desert Storm. By the end of the twentieth century, the New Jersey Army (now the Forty-second Infantry Division) and Air National Guard had assisted refugees from Kosovo, victims of hurricanes in Central America, and supported U.S. forces in Germany, Italy, Panama, Korea, Honduras, and Bosnia. In September , the New Jersey Army and Air National Guard were called to duty to support and defend after terrorist attacks on the the United States nation. Bloomer, Edgar N. “Historical Sketch of the New Jersey National Guard.’’ In Historical and Pictorial Review, National Guard of the State of the New Jersey. Baton Rouge, LA: Army and Navy Publishing, . Desert Shield/Storm: Footprints in the Sand. N.p.: Desert Shield/Storm Family Foundation, .

Judith E. McCabe

National ship. The

Marbles

Champion-

seaside resort of Wildwood has hosted the National Marbles Championship since . The tournament originated in  under the sponsorship of Macy’s Department Store in Philadelphia. It had stints in Ocean City, Wildwood, and Asbury Park from  to . Played on the beach in June, the tournament is open to youngsters aged eight to fourteen. It features a game of marbles known as Ringer. Players place thirteen marbles in a cross inside a ten-foot circle and then take turns shooting. The first to knock seven marbles out of the circle is the winner. There is a Marbles Hall of Fame at the George F. Boyer Museum in Wildwood.

Rudy Larini

National Park. .-square-mile borough on the Delaware River in Gloucester County. Originally part of West Deptford, the borough’s roots lie in the creation of the National Park Association in  by the Rev. James E. Lake and others. The association’s goal was to form a religious resort community. Within a year, the association purchased and subdivided land, sold lots, and set up a camp meeting facility. On April , , the borough was incorporated as a municipality. By , the borough had made the transition from a summertime resort to a residential community, thanks to the growth of shipbuilding and other industries on both sides of the Delaware River. Before its incorporation, National Park was the site of a major battle of the American Revolution. American forces at Fort Mercer defeated more than , Hessian troops employed by the British on October , . The battlefield today is part of a county-owned park. In , the population of , was  percent white. Median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Naphy, Paul. Historical Summary of the Borough of National Park. National Park: Privately published, .

Nature Centers in New Jersey

Marble competition, Wildwood, c. .

Courtesy Wildwood Historical Society, Inc.

Simpson, Hazel B. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Tom Wilk

Nation of Islam. One of the most widely recognized black religious organizations in America, the Nation of Islam was born out of the Moorish Science Temple, which was established in Newark in . In that year Timothy Drew (Noble Drew Ali, –) established the first Black Muslim mosque in the Garden State. Ali appropriated the symbols and some of the Koranic principles of Islam to create a new cultural identity for black Americans. After his death in , one of the movement’s factions coalesced around the leadership of Wallace D. Fard (–) in Detroit. Fard founded the Nation of Islam in . The organization advocated the adoption of the Islamic faith while promoting black nationalism. In , Elijah Poole, a k a Elijah Muhammad (–), inherited the leadership of the Nation. His emphasis on rebuilding black cultural, political, and religious identity coupled with the Muslims’ highly successful criminal rehabilitation program attracted thousands of members. Under his leadership (–) the organization spread rapidly, establishing a large number of mosques, schools, and businesses. Elijah Muhammad gained an essential convert when Malcolm Little (–) joined the faith. During the late s and early s, Malcolm X operated as the NOI’s chief minister and national spokesperson and helped establish

mosques along the East Coast, including in New Jersey’s Essex and Burlington Counties. He singled out the New Jersey Herald as only one of four black newspapers providing true leadership for blacks in the press. A schism developed after Muhammad’s death in . Under the direction of one of Muhammad’s sons, Elijah Muhammad, one branch, the American Muslim Mission, embraced the tenets and theology of “pure’’ Islam. Another faction led by Louis Farrakhan has inherited the mantle of the Nation of Islam.

. Cape May Bird Observatory, Center for Research and Education, New Jersey Audubon Society, Cape May Courthouse . Cape May Bird Observatory, Northwood Center, New Jersey Audubon Society, Cape May Point . Cheesequake State Park, Matawan . Closter Nature Center, Closter . Cooper Environmental Center, Cattus Island County Park, Toms River . Crowley Nature Center, Rifle Camp Park, Passaic County Park Commission, West Paterson . Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge, Oceanville . Estell Manor Nature Center, Mays Landing . Flat Rock Brook Center for Environmental Study, Englewood . Fox Nature Center, Mays Landing . Frelinghuysen Arboretum, Morris County Park Commission, Morris Township . Gateway National Recreation Area, Sandy Hook Unit, Fort Hancock . Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, Basking Ridge . Great Swamp Outdoor Education Center, Morris County Park Commission, Chatham . Hackensack Meadowlands Environment Center, Lyndhurst . High Point State Park Nature Center, Sussex . Huber Woods Environmental Center, Monmouth County Park System, (Locust) Middletown

29

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16 54 37 19 18,27,43 34 41

Marsh, Clifton E. From Black Muslims to Muslims: The Resurrection, Transformation, and Change of the LostFound Nation of Islam in America,–. d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, .

39

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48 24

8 44

51

Turner, Richard Brent. Islam in the African American Experience. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, .

22,36

35

1

31 38

See also African Americans; Islam

. Allaire Nature Center, Farmingdale . Bass River Forest Nature Center, New Gretna . Belleplain State Forest, Woodbine . Camden County Environmental Studies Center, Berlin . Cape May Point State Park and Nature Center, Cape May Point

52 50 47

Lincoln, C. Eric. Black Muslims in America. New York: Africa World Press, .

Nature Centers in New Jersey.

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Clegg, Claude A., III. An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

Yohuru Williams

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558

Nature Conservancy

. Island Beach State Park Aeolium Nature Center, Seaside Park . Kateri Environmental Education Center: Collier Services, Wickatunk . Lebanon Forest Nature Center, New Lisbon . Liberty State Park Interpretive Center, Jersey City . Lord Stirling Park and Environmental Education Center, Basking Ridge . Lorrimer Sanctuary, New Jersey Audubon Society, Franklin Lakes . McFaul Wildlife Center of Bergen County, Wyckoff . Nature Center of Cape May, New Jersey Audubon Society, Cape May . Owl Haven, Sandy Hook Bird Observatory, New Jersey Audubon Society, Tennent . Parvin State Park, Pittsgrove . P.A.W.S. Farm Nature Center of Mount Laurel, Mount Laurel . Pequest Trout Hatchery and Natural Resource Education Center, Oxford . Plainsboro Preserve Environmental Education Center, New Jersey Audubon Society, Plainsboro . Poricy Park Nature Center, Middletown . Princeton Blairstown Center, Blairstown . Rancocas Nature Center, New Jersey Audubon Society, Mount Holly . Reeves-Reed Arboretum, Summit . Sandy Hook Bird Observatory, New Jersey Audubon Society, Fort Hancock . Scherman-Hoffman Sanctuaries, New Jersey Audubon Society, Bernardsville . Scotland Run Park Nature Center, Gloucester County Department of Parks and Recreation, Sewell . Somerset County Park Commission Environmental Education Center, Basking Ridge . Stony Brook–Millstone Watershed Association, Pennington . Supawna Meadows National Wildlife Refuge, Salem . Tenafly Nature Center, Tenafly . Tillman Ravine Nature Center, Stokes State Forest, Branchville . Trailside Nature and Science Center, Mountainside . Wallkill River National Wildlife Refuge, Sussex . Walpack Valley Environmental Education Center, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, Walpack . Washington Crossing State Park Nature Center, Titusville . Weiss Ecology Center, New Jersey Audubon Society, Ringwood . Wells Mills Nature Center, Waretown . West Essex Park Environmental Center, West Caldwell . Wetlands Institute, Stone Harbor . Wharton State Forest Nature Center, Hammonton . Woodford Cedar Run Wildlife Refuge, Environmental Education Center, Medford

Held, Patricia Contreras. A Field Guide to New Jersey Nature Centers. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also county parks; state parks

Emily W. B. Russell

Nature Conservancy. Successor to the Ecologist Union, the Nature Conservancy was established in  in Washington, D.C., as a nonprofit organization to protect natural communities. It is one of the world’s largest private international conservation groups. By acquiring lands and managing or transferring them to “conservation partners,’’ it has saved  million acres globally. In  the Nature Conservancy saved the William L. Hutcheson Memorial Forest, which encompasses  acres of old-growth forest in New Jersey. Although the organization was active in the state for decades, a New Jersey chapter was not established until . Headquartered in Chester, it publishes Nature Conservancy News and focuses on its Pine Barrens, Delaware Bayshore, and Skylands projects. Currently, it has , members and thirty-two preserves, and has saved over , acres.

Susan R. Schrepfer

Naval Air Station Wildwood.

Initiated by the Civil Aeronautics Administration in , construction plans for Naval Air Station (NAS) “Rio Grande’’ were finalized in April . The airport was commissioned on April , , but confusion with Rio Grande, Texas, led to its renaming as NAS Wildwood. The installation served as a training facility for dive-bomber squadrons throughout most of World War II. Thirty-eight navy airmen perished while training at the site. NAS Wildwood was decommissioned following the war and subsequently became the Cape May County Airport and home of the NAS Wildwood Aviation Museum. See also World War II

Anne Marie Glowacz and Joseph E. Salvatore

Naval Weapons Station Earle. The naval ordnance storage depot located in Monmouth County was originally known as Naval Ammunition Depot Earle. It was named for Rear Adm. Ralph Earle, the chief of the navy’s Bureau of Ordnance during World War I. Construction of the base was begun during August  in response to World War II demands for a major ammunition depot located within the New York metropolitan area. Commissioned on December , , the base consisted of two separate facilities. The ten thousand-acre Mainside facility was constructed in Colts Neck, a location that ensured minimal disruption of the local population, protected the site against possible enemy naval bombardment, and provided convenient access to major rail lines. The separate Waterfront area, located in the Leonardo

section of Middletown, provided a safe harbor from which ammunition ships could operate. An extensive pier complex extending more than two miles into Sandy Hook Bay was constructed here. The Mainside and Waterfront facilities, including the pier complex, were linked by a fifteen-mile military road and railway. In  the base was renamed Naval Weapons Station Earle. Coletta, Paolo E., ed. United States Navy and Marine Corps Bases, Domestic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Cragg, Dan. Guide to Military Installations. th ed. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, .

Donald E. Bender

Neall, Isaac J.

(fl. mid-s). Labor leader. Isaac J. Neall was an ironworker from Jersey City who became involved in early efforts to form national labor organizations in the United States. He was a member of the local Iron Molders Union, representing those who produced stoves and hollowware, which helped establish a national Iron Molders Union in . From  to , he served as its president, though the organization died during the economic hard times after the Civil War. Neall went on to help organize the National Labor Union in , but by  it had been transformed into a political party that did not survive that election year. His role in these early efforts to form national unions earned Neall brief national recognition. Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

Maxine N. Lurie

Negro Leagues. The history of Negro professional baseball begins in the period that historians term the era of Jim Crow segregation. For many years blacks and whites, by custom and law, were separated from each other in all areas of American life. The organizing of black professional baseball teams was part of the building by African Americans of their own institutional world in the face of this segregation. Professional black baseball teams began playing across the nation in the mids. New Jersey had a particularly prominent role in this history. Most historians mark the beginning with the appearance in  of the original Cuban Giants, who played from  out of Trenton. However, there is an earlier reference in  to the Washingtons of Long Branch playing the Orions of Philadelphia at the Polo Grounds in New York City for the “Championship of the United States and New Jersey.’’ Although blacks had played on integrated teams since the inception of professional baseball in the early s, an event in Newark on July , , clearly suggested where the immediate future lay. In an exhibition game

Neptune City

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switched to the banjo and formed a duo that played at parties and local clubs. While attending law school Nelson played with local bands to earn money. During this time he made the song “Loyal Sons of Rutgers’’ famous. In , his band, the Syncopation Four, was given its own national radio show. Nelson added a female singer named Harriet Hilliard to the group in . Three years later they were married and subsequently had two sons: David, born in , and Ricky, born in . In  Ozzie and Harriet gave up their music careers and began a radio series of comic episodes based on their lives. This evolved into the popular television series that starred the whole family. Nelson, Ozzie. Ozzie. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, .

Sharon Hazard

Neptune City.

The Cuban Giants, c. .

Courtesy National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum, Cooperstown, NY.

between the Newark Little Giants of the International League and the feared Chicago White Stockings of Adrian “Cap’’ Anson, Anson and the Chicago management insisted on excluding the Giants’ star battery of George Stovey, pitcher, and Moses Fleetwood Walker, catcher, who were African Americans. Anson was one of professional baseball’s founders. On July  the International League trustees formally ruled that the league would no longer accept contracts for colored players. By the end of the century the “gentleman’s agreement’’ barring blacks from professional organized baseball was in effect throughout the United States. With its Atlantic City Bacharach Giants, New Jersey was well represented toward the end of the era of segregated baseball. Between the s and  independent professional black clubs toured the nation. The Bacharachs came to New Jersey in , almost entirely intact as a team from Jacksonville, Florida. They were named for their early supporter, Atlantic City’s Mayor Harry Bacharach. In  the Bacharach Giants joined other teams in founding the second black major league, the Eastern Colored League. In  and  they won the league pennant, bringing the Negro League World Series to Atlantic City. The league structure dissolved for economic reasons during the Great Depression, but was restored in the mid-s. By the late s the Negro American League and the Negro National League were operating, with six franchises each across the nation. From  New Jersey was outstandingly represented by the legendary Newark Eagles, owned and operated by Abe and Effa Manley.

Fittingly, New Jersey, where discrimination in professional baseball started in the s, witnessed the end of that segregation in the s. Baseball’s color barrier was broken at Roosevelt Stadium in Jersey City on April , , when Jack Roosevelt Robinson played for the Montreal Royals against the Jersey City Giants of the International League. Once Robinson had entered the ranks of the white professionals, the talent and fan drain that followed brought about the end of the Negro Leagues. By  the league structure was gone. Clark, Richard, and Larry Lester. The Negro Leagues Book. Cleveland: Society for American Baseball Research, . DiClerico, James, and Barry Pavelec. The Jersey Game. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Overmyer, James. The Queen of the Negro Leagues: Effa Manley and the Newark Eagles. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, .

See also baseball

Lawrence D. Hogan

Nelson, Ozzie

(b. Mar. , ; d. June ,

). Band leader and actor. Born in Jersey

City, Oswald George Nelson was best known for his role as America’s favorite dad on the television series The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, which aired from  to . Before his television success, Nelson was an accomplished student-athlete. He entered Rutgers University in  where he played football and participated on the boxing and debating teams. He also drew cartoons for the humor magazine, acted, and directed the school band. During the s, he learned how to play the ukulele and began singing. He later

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County on the north bank of the Shark River. The municipality, a borough despite its confusing name, was formed in  from Neptune Township. It was one of the earliest of the seashore boroughs, a municipal entity that flourished in the latter nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; however, it lost its oceanfront when Avon-by-the Sea seceded in  amid accusations of financial irregularity by Neptune City officials. The borough’s location encouraged both recreational and residential development, which expanded considerably following the circa  removal of the County Poor Farm in nearby Neptune Township and improvements to the inlet to the ocean. A hospitality industry developed there by the s. The substantial Hotel Van Dyke accommodated over two hundred guests by about . Strategically located just outside the two-mile informal, but observed, “purity buffer’’surrounding Methodist Ocean Grove, Neptune City’s hotels offered liquid refreshment and female companionship of a decidedly different character than the nearby conservative religious resort. Ending alcohol abuse was at the core of municipal organization—the first slate of borough officials was elected on the Prohibition party ticket. Neptune City, which grew as a workingclass residential town, retains a variety of housing as well as smaller commercial and industrial establishments. One exception regarding size was the massive Steiner pajama factory; this long-vacant building was demolished in . In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cottrell, Richard F. The Borough of Neptune City: A Centennial History. Neptune City: T.F.H. Publications, . ———. The Borough of Neptune City: A Millennium History. Neptune City: T.F.H. Publications, .

Randall Gabrielan

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Neptune Township

Neptune Township.

.-square-mile township in Monmouth County. Named for the Roman god of the sea, Neptune is composed of many sections, including Ocean Grove on the Atlantic Ocean and Shark River Hills on Shark River. Ocean Grove was founded in  as a Methodist camp meeting association, and in  Shark River Hills was developed as a riverfront summer resort for families. Neptune, incorporated in , split from Ocean Township, which was originally part of Shrewsbury. Europeans first settled in the western section of the township near a Lenape trail. By  this small community of six to eight buildings included Trap Tavern, a stagecoach stop between Oceanport and Manasquan. Originally a fishing and agricultural community, the township’s last farm was sold in . Professional services, retail, and manufacturing are now its main industries. Known as the “Crossroads of the Jersey Shore’’ because Routes , , ,  and the Garden State Parkway cross its borders, Neptune is the home of Jersey Shore Medical Center. The community is composed mainly of single-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Goodrich, Peggy. Four Score and Five: History of the Township of Neptune. Neptune: Township of Neptune, . ———. History of Shark River Hills. Neptune: P. Goodrich, .

Carol Fisher Megill

Netcong.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. Once joined with Stanhope in Sussex County, South Stanhope, along with sections of Mount Olive and Roxbury townships, broke away and changed its name to Netcong, officially incorporating on October , . The terminus of the Morris and Essex Railroad had made the southern section of the twin boroughs an important center. The community is located along the Musconetcong River at the point where it was dammed for Lake Musconetcong to provide water for the Morris Canal. Among the first settlers who built homes along the river were workers on the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad. At the turn of the twentieth century an influx of Italian immigrants arrived, seeking work in the burgeoning industrial area along the Netcong River. Their presence is still felt every summer when two major Italian religious feasts are held: the Feast of the Assumption and the Feast of Saint Cesario. A November , , fire destroyed much of the business district of the borough, including the offices of the Union Times newspaper, although most of the files were saved. Currently, two industries, U.S. Mineral Products and Compac, occupy an area near the river.

In , the population of , was  percent white. Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Biographical and Genealogical History of Morris County. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . A History of Morris County, New Jersey, Embracing Upwards of Two Centuries, –.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, .

Jane R. Primerano

Newark. .-square-mile city and seat of Essex County. Newark was first settled by Europeans in  when a group of Puritans from the New Haven colony led by Robert Treat established a small agricultural community on the banks of the Passaic River. Purchasing their land from the Lenape, the founders of Newark established many of the institutions that ordered a typical New England community, including a Congregational church, a town meeting form of government, and a militia that regularly assembled in the town green (site of present-day Military Park). A homogeneous group, the founders of Newark made church membership a prerequisite for white male property holders to vote. The religious unity of the community fractured in  when the Congregational Church affiliated with the Presbyterian Church. A group of congregates centered in the Orange Mountains left the congregation and established a new, unaffiliated church. In , Robert Ogden, a prominent community leader, left the Presbyterian Church and established an Anglican Church, Trinity Church. Even with these schisms, the First Presbyterian

Church, “Old North,’’ played an instrumental role in shaping the development of Newark. The boundaries of Newark in the colonial era included much of present-day Essex and Union counties. Since the initial settlers acquired their holdings from neither a direct royal grant nor purchase from the proprietors of East New Jersey, the land titles of Newarkers remained in dispute throughout the colonial period. Conflict between proprietors and residents erupted in riots in  and on several other occasions in an effort to stop the judicial enforcement of proprietary claims. Opposition in Newark emerged over British imperial policies in the s and s, leading to formation of an active Committee of Correspondence. In , a substantial number of residents joined the Patriot cause, although several prominent families remained loyal to the British Crown. After capturing New York City in September , the British occupied Newark and much of northern New Jersey in late November of that year. However, with Gen. George Washington’s victories at Trenton and Princeton, the British pulled their forces back to Manhattan and many Loyalists fled with them. Although never again occupied by the British, Newark experienced major raids by British forces in  and . In the early national period, Newark saw outlying areas form new municipalities, beginning with the formation of Springfield in , Caldwell in , Orange Township in , and Bloomfield in . A series of transportation links ended the relative isolation of the community. In , the completion of a major road to the Hudson River, along with drawbridges over the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, significantly improved travel to New York City. The completion of the Morris Canal in  provided access to the iron and other

George Tice, Downtown Newark, . Gelatin silver print,  ×  in.

Courtesy George Tice.

Newark raw materials of the Delaware Valley. The first railroad opened between Newark and Jersey City in , further tying the city to the Greater New York economy. In the s, beginning with the opening of the Morris and Essex lines, railroad construction linked Newark with central and northern New Jersey. A strong artisan culture taking advantage of access to the New York markets and capital contributed to the rise of Newark as one of the leading manufacturing centers in the antebellum period. Beginning with shoemaking, manufacturing expanded to leather, jewelry, trunk making, and millinery. On the eve of the Civil War, Newark was the largest industrial city in the United States, with over  percent of its workforce in manufacturing. It attracted and nurtured several important inventors, including Seth Boyden, who invented patent leather, and several other important inventions that aided Newark manufactures. As a result of industrialization, Newark experienced remarkable population growth from , in  to , in . Increasing demand for labor attracted an influx of new immigrants, beginning with the Irish in the s and Germans in the s. Both groups added to the religious diversity of Newark by supporting the establishment of Roman Catholic churches. Germans created a thriving network of choral and gymnastic societies. They also started a pattern followed by succeeding immigrant groups, the establishment of newspapers in their native language. Considerable tension remained between the “native stock’’ of older Newark families and the new immigrant communities, especially over the issue of temperance and government financial aid for parochial school education. Significant anti-Catholic sentiment sparked a vicious attack on Saint Mary’s Catholic Church and vandalism by a crowd marching in a nativist parade in . Population growth led to the incorporation of Newark as a city in . Frugality remained a hallmark of city government throughout the nineteenth century. The city did not establish a permanent police or fire department until the s, and even as late as the s, the majority of roads were unpaved. Newark became the third community in the nation to establish a high school in , but spending seldom kept pace with the burgeoning schoolage population. Whigs tended to dominate city politics in the s and s, but the growth of the Irish and German communities made the Democratic party competitive. Newark manufacturers had substantial economic ties to the South at the outbreak of the Civil War. Although the city voted Democratic in the presidential election of , residents warmly greeted President-elect Abraham Lincoln in . Several units of volunteers were raised from Newark and manufacturers provided shoes and other essential products to the Union Army. Marcus Ward, a leading city merchant and self-styled

soldier’s friend, established an innovative program to ensure soldiers could safely transmit their pay to their families and took a leading role in establishing a hospital to care for the war wounded in Newark. In the aftermath of the Civil War, Newark’s shoemaking industry experienced a relative decline, but new heavy industries emerged. Newark continued to attract important innovators, including Edward Weston, a crucial figure in the development of electric instruments and lighting, and John Wesley Hyatt, the inventor of celluloid. Thomas Edison maintained his laboratory in Newark from  until he moved to Menlo Park in . The city also emerged as a major center of insurance with the establishment of Prudential in  and several other major firms. Market and Broad streets served as a center of retail commerce for the region, anchored by such major department stores as Bamburger’s and Hahne’s. Newark’s population grew exponentially in the period between  and  as the city strained to absorb a new wave of immigration from eastern and southern Europe. Over this period, Newark developed several distinctive neighborhoods, including a large Jewish community concentrated along Prince Street. Like similar industrial cities, industrialization and rapid population growth had great economic and social costs. The first permanent hospital was not established in the city until the founding of Saint Barnabas in . Dependence on the polluted Passaic River for drinking water and the sale of unpasteurized milk lead to a staggering mortality rate, especially among infants. One of the most densely populated American cities in the late nineteenth century, after the annexation of Vailsburg in  Newark made no appreciable effort to expand its size. Public schools remained inadequate and could not absorb the vast increase in school populations. Despite industrial growth, Newark experienced a relative decline in comparison to such emerging industrial centers as Cleveland and Detroit. Moreover, the city’s lack of a deep-water port at the turn of the century hampered further economic expansion. Newark witnessed a sustained effort to reorder its government in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to respond to the myriad of problems brought on by industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. The city adopted a commission form of government in  to centralize decision making. To improve public health, Newark began a systematic effort to develop sources of safe drinking water; Mayor Joseph E. Haynes successfully prodded the city council to build a reservoir to tap the Pequannock River in . Branch Brook Park and Weequahic Park were established under the auspices of the Essex County Park Commission. Culturally, Charles Dana, head librarian of the Newark Public Library from  to , opened branch libraries

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and purchased books in a variety of languages to reach out to the city’s ethnic communities. Dana established the city’s first museum, the Newark Museum Association, in . Several major transportation projects redefined Newark’s role in the twentieth century. After considerable debate, the city committed substantial funds on the eve of the First World War to dredge the entrance of Newark Bay to establish a deep-water port. In , the completion of the Trans Hudson Railroad from Newark to downtown New York offered a direct link between the two cities. This, along with the development of an extensive network of suburban railroad lines, enabled Newark’s business elite and middle class to move out of the city. Newark factories boomed as a result of defense orders stemming from the First World War. The decline of immigration and need for labor encouraged the migration of African Americans from the South. Discrimination and segregation, especially in housing, greeted many of these new residents. During the interwar years, the African American community, through the Urban League and other organizations, struggled against de facto segregation and discrimination practiced by many Newark employers and businesses. During the s, Newark under the leadership of Mayor Thomas L. Raymond undertook a series of projects that defined the city for the twentieth century. Newark Airport, built in a former wetlands area at the southern end of the city, became the busiest commercial airfield in the country in the s. Pennsylvania Station, completed in , served as the city’s chief passenger rail terminal. Downtown, several major skyscrapers were built, including new offices for New Jersey Telephone. Newark also emerged as a major center for radio manufacturing and the Bamberger’s Department Store served as the first home of station WOR. The Great Depression battered Newark, and the city experienced devastating unemployment. During the New Deal the city benefited from several major public works programs, including the construction of a number of public housing projects. The Second World War revived Newark’s industrial base and spurred a new wave of African American migration to the city. The Army Air Force took over Newark Airport for the duration of the war and made it its headquarters, while the federal government established a major dockyard for the construction of naval warships in Newark Bay. The postwar period saw an eroding of Newark’s industrial base as many companies left for less expensive suburban locations or other regions of the country. In , a broadbased campaign led to a new city charter that established a strong mayor-city council form of government. However, efforts by reformist Mayor Leo Carlin to revive the city’s economic fortunes and to make local government

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Newark Abbey

less corrupt and more responsive to the city ultimately failed. Under Hugh J. Addonizio relations between black and white residents deteriorated, especially after his decision to level a predominately black neighborhood to make way for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. Urban unrest spawned by police brutality led to a major riot in  that hastened the economic decline of the city and spawned “white flight’’ to the suburbs. In , Kenneth Gibson was elected as the city’s first black mayor. Under his leadership, the city began several major redevelopment projects downtown, including support for the construction of the Gateway office towers near Pennsylvania Station. Although the Gibson administration had little success in halting the decline of Newark’s manufacturing base, several major businesses and other institutions remained committed to the city, including Mutual Benefit, Prudential, Public Service, Rutgers University, and New Jersey Telephone. The city also continued to attract a significant influx of immigrants from Portugal, Brazil, and the Caribbean. In , Sharpe James defeated Gibson in a hotly contested election. James promised a more efficient city government as well as major economic and cultural initiatives. The opening of a major Performing Arts Center in , the revival of the downtown with the construction of several new office buildings, and the leasing of most retail space signified an upturn in the city’s fortunes at the end of the twentieth century. Yet, a quarter of Newark families lived below the poverty line and the state of New Jersey took control of the school system because of poor performance. In , the population of Newark was ,—a slight decline over  figures—  percent black,  percent white, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cunningham, John T. Newark. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Galishoff, Stuart. Safeguarding the Public Health, Newark, –. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Hirsch, Susan E. Roots of the Working Class: The Industrialization of Crafts in Newark, –. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Stellhorn, Paul Anthony. “Depression and Decline: Newark, New Jersey, –.’’ Ph.D. diss., Rutgers University, . Stummer, Helen. No Easy Walk: Newark, –. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

See also illustration, color section

G. Kurt Piehler

Newark Abbey. A monastery of Benedictine monks in Newark, founded as Saint Mary’s Priory in , became known as Newark Abbey in  when it became independent of Saint Mary’s Abbey, Morristown. The two chief ministries are Saint Benedict’s Preparatory School for boys and Saint Mary’s Parish. The

Etching of the Newark Abbey from the annual catalog of the officers and students of Saint Benedict’s Preparatory School, c. –.

Courtesy Archives of Newark Abbey. abbey church, a basilica-style structure modeled on Saint Boniface in Munich, was designed by Patrick Keeley. The clerestory paintings in the church, as well as a Last Supper in the refectory, are by the Bavarian-born painter William Lamprecht. The older part of the complex, built between  and , is a wellpreserved example of Victorian architecture. McPadden, Malachy, ed. The Benedictines in Newark, –. Newark: Newark Abbey, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

Newark Academy. An independent, college preparatory day school in Livingston, Newark Academy had its beginnings in  with a land grant from the town of Newark. Private donors funded the school’s construction, and the coeducational academy opened its doors in  on the Market Place lot in Newark known as the North Commons. The school went through three other incarnations in various Newark locations before moving to Livingston in  in an effort to boost dwindling enrollment. The school became all male in  and coeducational again in . Today Newark Academy has  students in grades six through twelve from New Jersey, across the United States, and overseas. Geissler, Suzanne. A Widening Sphere of Usefulness: Newark Academy –. West Kennebunk, ME: Phoenix Publishing, . Lentz, Robert. Beams of That Sun: Two Centuries at the Newark Academy. Livingston: Newark Academy, .

See also education

Michele Gisbert

Newark Bears.

Minor league baseball in Newark goes back at least as far as the s, when the Little Giants of the Interna-

tional League represented the city. In  the Newark Indians were formed (the name would later be changed to the Bears) to play in the triple A International League. The Newark team won its first pennant in , playing at old Wiedemeyer Park. They played at Harrison Field from  until it burned down in , and for a time they played at Asylum Oval. They moved into Davids Stadium (later to become Ruppert Stadium), at the eastern end of Newark, in . The ballpark was constructed for $, in the lowlands bordering the Passaic River, still largely meadowland at the time. The location, so far from the residential parts of the city, would in the long haul prove detrimental to fan attendance. But with service by streetcars, and then city buses two blocks away with three routes from uptown, a strong fan base was built during the team’s heyday. Paul Block, owner and publisher of the Newark Star Eagle, purchased the stadium and team in . During the s the Indians became a farm club for Baltimore. Then, under the ownership of Jacob Ruppert from  through , the team’s name changed to the Bears, and they became a farm club of the New York Yankees. The Newark Bears of this period were one of the premier minor league teams in America. Arguably two of their teams, the clubs of  and , are among the best minor league teams in baseball history. The  Bears, often cited as the greatest minor league team ever assembled, are the most storied. They won the International League pennant by twenty-five and a half games over their closest rival, the Montreal Royals. They went on to defeat the Columbus Red Birds of the American Association in a seven-game Little World Series that ranks among the most memorable of fall baseball classics. The Bears did the unthinkable, falling behind three games to

Newark Liberty International Airport none on their home field, and then sweeping four games in the Red Birds’ park. Notable Bears who moved up to star in the majors include Joe Gordon, Spud Chandler, Atley Donald, Charlie Keller, Red Rolfe, Johnny Murphy, George McQuinn, Gene Woodling, Jerry Coleman, and Yogi Berra. After World War II, attendance fell off throughout the minor leagues, and the Bears took a pummeling. Attendance tumbled to a low of , in , as the Bears finished in the cellar. In  the Chicago Cubs purchased the Bears franchise from the New York Yankees for $,. For the first time since the turn of the century, Newark was without minor league baseball. A new Newark Bears team returned professional baseball to the city in the late s. The owner was Rick Cerone, a Newark native who had been a star catcher for the New York Yankees. These Bears play in the Independent Atlantic League. They occupy a new stadium, Riverfront, which has six thousand seats and twenty skyboxes. The stadium was financed to the tune of $ million by the city of Newark and Essex County. It is just north of the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, on a seven-acre site bordered by Broad Street, McCarter Highway, Orange Street, and Division Street. The team and the stadium are seen as key elements in the economic, recreational, and cultural revitalization of New Jersey’s premier city. Mayer, Ronald A. The  Newark Bears: A Baseball Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also baseball

Beth Israel Hospital Association, in order to establish a nonsectarian hospital under Jewish auspices. The hospital opened in the former Pennington mansion on the corner of West Kinney and High streets in . The building was razed in , and following the construction of a second hospital on the same site, the -bed facility opened in . In  the hospital relocated to the Weequahic section of Newark, opening a -bed facility; it became Beth Israel Medical Center in . The hospital-affiliated School of Nursing matriculated students from  to . The hospital published its own Journal of the Beth Israel Hospital from  to . Research yielded important breakthroughs, including work on the Rh blood factor in  as well as pioneering work in cardiac surgery such as the first implantation of a nuclear-powered pacemaker in  and, in –, the establishment of the first heart transplant program in the state. From  to , the hospital underwent a four-phase rebuilding and expansion program. In , the Beth Israel Medical Center became part of the Saint Barnabas Health Care System and the Health Care Foundation of New Jersey. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Helmreich, William B. The Enduring Community: The Jews of Newark and Metrowest. Somerset: Transaction, . Klaidman, Stephen. Saving the Heart: The Battle to Conquer Coronary Disease. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Alan M. Kraut Lawrence D. Hogan

Newark Boys Chorus School. Newark Center.

Beth

Israel

Medical

In , the Daughters of Israel Association and the Hebrew Hospital and Dispensary Association merged to form the

Founded in , this private institution for boys, offering rigorous academic and music programs to fourth through eighth graders from all socioeconomic levels in the Newark

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area, opened to students in . The concert chorus is highly respected and has performed with prestigious symphonies in the United States, and also abroad in Japan, Czechoslovakia, China, Australia, New Zealand, and Italy. Their repertoire consists of music from the Renaissance to the twentieth century in traditions ranging from European choral works to African folk songs. Over  percent of the graduates go on to attend college.

Nan Childress Orchard

Newark Daily Advertiser.

See Star-

Ledger.

Newark Eagles. In  Abe and Effa Manley established the Brooklyn Eagles and entered the team in the Negro National League. The Eagles played their home games in Ebbets Field when the major league Dodgers were on the road. In  the team relocated to Newark, playing its home games at Ruppert Stadium, home of the New York Yankees’ top farm team, the Newark Bears of the International League. From  through  the Eagles were a mainstay of their league and one of Newark’s most visible and best-remembered black business and entertainment institutions. The Manleys, especially Effa, were active in civic life, sponsoring youth baseball, staging charity events, and hosting NAACP fund-raising efforts at Ruppert Stadium. All the great teams and great players of arguably the greatest era in Negro professional baseball came to Newark to play the Eagles. In  the baseball pinnacle was reached when the Eagles defeated the Kansas City Monarchs of the American Negro League for the Negro League World Championship. Larry Doby, the first African American to play in the American League and future Hall of Famer, was a member of that team. When the Brooklyn Dodgers signed Jackie Robinson, the Kansas City second baseman, in , the talent drain into organized white baseball began. Over the next few years the Negro Leagues lost their fan base and eventually died. By , the Eagles’ last year in Newark, revenues had dropped so precipitously the Manleys could not continue operating the team. They sold it at the end of the season to a group of investors who moved the club to Houston, Texas. There it had two notso-successful seasons before closing up shop. Overmyer, James. The Queen of the Negro Leagues: Effa Manley and the Newark Eagles. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, .

See also baseball

Lawrence D. Hogan

Newark Liberty International Airport. Constructed by the City of

The Newark Boys Chorus School.

Courtesy Newark Boys Chorus School.

Newark on , acres located in Newark and Elizabeth, Newark Airport was opened in October . During its first decade of operation, it was the nation’s leading airfield in terms of passenger volume and quality of facilities.

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Newark Museum

Newark Liberty International Airport.

Courtesy Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Photo: Scott Barrow.

It provided the first paved runways, the first nighttime lighting for runways, and the first air-traffic-control tower in the United States. In the s, Newark’s facilities and traffic were surpassed by New York City’s La Guardia field. Neither city could readily afford the massive investments needed for a modern postwar airport, however, and in  the Port of New York Authority (now the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey) leased both fields (as well as Idlewild Airport) from the city governments. The Newark Airport lease now extends to the year  and provides for annual rental payments to the cities of Newark and Elizabeth. In the late s and s, the Port Authority constructed an $-million passenger terminal with an extensive array of shops, a four-building cargo center, and a $-million runway. By  Newark traffic exceeded  plane movements a day (, a year). In the next twenty-five years, a set of three large passenger terminal buildings were constructed, the runways were extended, and additional cargo-handling facilities were added. During those decades, however, Kennedy Airport (formerly Idlewild)—with more than twice the land space—expanded more rapidly in investments and traffic. In , for example, Newark handled , plane movements,  million passengers arrived or departed, and , tons of cargo passed through the airport; the comparable numbers at Kennedy were , planes,  million passengers, and . million tons of cargo. In the s, following airline deregulation, PEOPLExpress developed an extensive schedule of flights at Newark, and in the past fifteen years Newark International has become one of the nation’s dozen busiest airfields. By century’s end, the airport ab-

sorbed , flights a day—about , a year. During these years, the Port Authority invested $ billion in redevelopment, including a $-million international arrivals building, two new cargo facilities, and a customs hall that can process , passengers an hour. In  Newark’s three terminals handled  million passengers, slightly more than Kennedy Airport; about one-fifth of Newark travelers are on international flights. Federal Express now runs a major cargo operation at

Newark, with , employees and fifty flights each night; the cargo total for Newark exceeds one million tons a year. More than twentyfour thousand employees work at the airport, which in  had net revenues of more than $ million. The Port Authority estimates that airport operations contribute $ billion annually to the region’s economy. In , a $ million monorail, connecting the terminals and parking areas, began operation; a project linking this line to the Amtrak/New Jersey Transit New York– Philadelphia rail system was completed in . The Port Authority had also begun constructing new parking garages, which in the next several years would expand the existing , parking spaces by another ,; and Continental Airlines, which now carries about half of Newark’s passengers, began a major expansion in , including twelve new gates for wide-bodied jetliners. In , the airport was renamed Newark Liberty International Airport to commemorate the September , , terrorist attacks. Mysak, Joe, with Judith Schiffer. Perpetual Motion: The Illustrated History of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Los Angeles, CA: General Publishing Group, . Port of New York Authority. Development of Newark Airport and Seaport. New York: The Port of New York Authority, .

See also airports; transportation

Jameson W. Doig

Newark Museum. Founded in  under the leadership of John Cotton Dana, the Newark Museum has built major collections

Hiram Powers, The Greek Slave, . Marble, h.  / in. displayed in the galleries of the Newark Museum.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Franklin Murphy, Jr., 1926, 26.2755.

Newark riots and provided outstanding educational programs. In the arts, it has acquired important collections of over , objects in the field of American painting and sculpture; the decorative arts of the United States; the arts of Africa, the Americas, and the Pacific; Asian art, especially Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Indian, and Tibetan; the classical cultures of Egypt, Greece, and Rome; and numismatics. The sciences are represented by an impressive collection of , rocks and minerals and botanical and zoological specimens that highlight the natural history of New Jersey. They are supplemented by the Dreyfuss Planetarium and the Mini-Zoo. Education has played an important role in the history of the Newark Museum. Its school programs serve over , students and teachers throughout the state, and its Educational Loan Collection circulates close to , objects to , viewers. The Junior Museum offers exhibitions and programs designed specifically for families, while the Arts Workshop offers classes for adults. See also museums

William A. Peniston

Newark News. The Newark News, recognized for eighty-nine years as one of the nation’s great newspapers, was the first New Jersey publication to seek—and to gain— a statewide readership. From the day the first four-page paper appeared on Saturday, September , , the News’s publisher, Wallace Scudder, stressed integrity. He pledged to publish “a bright, independent newspaper, untrammeled in politics and unhampered by corporate influence.’’ Although the News in later years admitted to being a liberal Republican publication, it remained “unhampered’’ and “untrammeled,’’ doggedly pursuing corruption wherever it existed. The News established a statewide staff and sent its own correspondents to world wars and major tragedies and crises throughout the world. Simultaneously, it earned a reputation for faithfully covering every crossroads in New Jersey. By the s the News published seven distinct editions each day to foster its intense local coverage. The paper became known as “a weekly newspaper that comes out seven times a day.’’ Its conservative makeup and thorough research on all stories led to its nickname, “The Old Lady of Market Street.’’ Circulation grew steadily, from , on its first day to more than , daily papers in the s. Sundays belonged initially to the Newark Sunday Call, established in , although the News printed a Sunday edition from  to . In  the News bought the Call and renamed it the Sunday News. Sunday sales soared close to four hundred thousand. In the late s, the fourth generation of Scudders sold the enterprise to Media General of Richmond, Virginia. The paper gradually disintegrated, a process hastened by a -day strike by reporters. The paper’s eventual

demise came not from the strike but from lackluster management, TV competition, and a reader preference for evening newspapers. The last issue of the News appeared on August , . See also newspapers

John T. Cunningham

Newark Public Library.

In  the Newark Library Association was formed to purchase and house a private collection of books. Forty years later, after a citywide vote called for the establishment of a “people’s library,’’ the association’s private holdings became Newark’s first public library. Ten thousand volumes were placed on open stacks in , and the first librarian, Frank P. Hill, created a children’s section. The free public library’s popularity soon warranted a larger facility. Land was purchased on Washington Street and plans were drawn up in  by the prestigious Philadelphia firm of Rankin and Kellogg, architects of the Camden County Courthouse. The resplendent Italian Renaissance building with its marble-clad central hall was dedicated on March , . As the city’s cultural center, the library was also a museum, lecture hall, and exhibition gallery. A controversial modernization occurred in the s, and restorations took place in the s. Today the main library’s vast holdings include a multitude of books in several languages, films, recordings, photographs, works of art, and the New Jersey Division, a special collection of materials covering New Jersey’s municipalities and institutions.

Newark Public Library. A Century of Service: The Newark Public Library. Newark: Newark Public Library, .

See also libraries

Jeanne Kolva

Newark riots.

Five days of protest, violence, looting, and gunfire in Newark during July  took twenty-six lives, set the stage for a rise in African American political power, and scarred the city’s reputation and social fabric. The riots erupted in a city wracked by economic troubles. Newark’s industrial base and population were shrinking as white Newarkers joined the post–World War II suburban boom. Departing whites were replaced by arriving African Americans and Latinos, who formed a majority in the city by . The city’s new arrivals found a declining job market, segregated housing, and discrimination. Newark in the sixties was plagued by high rates of crime, infant and maternal mortality, unemployment, disease, drug addiction, poor housing, and bad schools. African Americans, crowded into the city’s Central Ward, suffered disproportionately. By the middle s, African American activists and radicals from the Students for a Democratic Society forced issues of inequality into public attention. Nevertheless,

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political power in Newark remained in the hands of Mayor Hugh Addonizio, a former congressman. Addonizio was elected as the leader of an Italian and African American coalition, but his mayoralty saw rising black anger over police brutality, patronage abuses, and the underrepresentation of blacks in city government. Bitter debates erupted over a plan to locate the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry in the Central Ward, displacing African Americans. Against this backdrop on the night of July , police arrested a black taxi driver on a motor vehicle violation. Police claimed that he reacted violently. The driver, who did suffer serious injuries, charged that he was beaten. Police took the driver to a police station in full view of a housing project, where onlookers concluded that he had been beaten. Mistaken rumors of his death drew crowds, and a protest march dissolved into rock throwing and looting. The next day Addonizio described the outburst as an “isolated incident,’’ but an evening protest saw more rock throwing and looting. By the early hours of Friday, July , the police were hard-pressed to maintain order. Gov. Richard Hughes ordered State Police and National Guardsmen into Newark. Shooting by police and guardsmen, initially aimed at looters, grew more indiscriminate. Reports of snipers—and the deaths of a police detective and firefighter that were attributed to sniper fire—rattled authorities. (Subsequent analysis would question the amount of sniping.) Official gunfire took the lives of people in crowds, in cars, and in their homes. Such incidents, and reports of police vandalism against black-owned stores, damaged relations between authorities and citizens. The violence tapered off on Monday, July . Twenty-six people were dead, twenty-four of them African Americans. Large parts of the Central Ward were scarred by looting and, to a lesser extent, fires. A gubernatorial commission’s investigation into the riots and their causes called for a grand jury investigation of the Addonizio administration and a probe of Newark’s police. Addonizio was indicted on corruption charges, but hearings on the police produced no prosecutions. In , Kenneth Gibson was elected the first black mayor of Newark. In the same year, Addonizio was convicted on extortion charges and imprisoned. Gibson inherited a shattered city that became a metaphor for urban blight. The events of  remained a benchmark for decades, one that would fade slightly only with signs of economic revival in Newark during the s and early s. The names of the twenty-six dead are marked on a memorial stone in Arbor Park at Springfield and Fifteenth avenues. The Newark riot occurred in a decade that saw urban disorder nationwide, and a summer that saw another major upheaval in Detroit. In New Jersey, the summer of  was also marked by major disturbances in Jersey City and

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Newark School of Fine and Industrial Arts

Plainfield and lesser episodes of unrest in New Brunswick, Elizabeth, and Englewood. None of the other New Jersey riots matched the scale of Newark’s. Hayden, Tom. Rebellion in Newark. New York: Random House, . New Jersey. Governor’s Select Committee on Civil Disorder. Report for Action: An Investigation into the Causes and Events of the  Newark Race Riots. New York: Lemma Publishing, . Urban Race Riots. New York: Garland, .

See also civil rights

Robert W. Snyder

Newark School Industrial Arts.

of

Fine

and

Opened on October , , as the Evening Drawing School, the Newark School of Fine and Industrial Arts (NSFIA) was an important and prestigious school of fine and applied arts for over one hundred years. Originally open only to male students, it started in a back room of a public school, using candles for light and barrels for easels. Ten years later women were admitted, and by  increased enrollment and the need for specialized studio space resulted in a new building. Built on land on Academy Street donated by a Newark physician, Dr. Edward Ill, it later became known as the Sara A. Fawcett Drawing School, to honor the first art supervisor of Newark. Courses were given in figure drawing, design, illustration, interior decoration, and, as World War I approached, architectural and mechanical departments were developed to provide training for wartime activities. By  the school, now called the Fawcett School of Industrial Art, added a Saturday school for children because of their many requests for art instruction. (In  there were four hundred children ages nine to seventeen taking weekly art classes.) During the twenties enlightened directors, like Hugo Froehlich and Marguerite Marquart, who believed in the “correlation of art with the industries of the city,’’ involved students in practical projects. Posters, window displays, and book jackets were designed and produced for Newark companies. Another director, Raymond Ensign, previously at Pratt Institute and the Art Institute of Chicago, helped move NSFIA into national prominence when President Herbert Hoover “commended the school for its contribution to country-wide repackaging of national products.’’ This was a period of interest for things machine-made, and Ensign felt that any product’s value was increased by being designed well. He said, “The machine is here to stay and there is no reason why machine products cannot be made beautiful.’’ To this end, the courses at NSFIA did not follow the traditional methods of drawing. In  a typical first-year student’s courses included a historical survey; “Composition—creative work in the manipulation of space and form; Design—principles of arrangement in line, dark and light, color;

and Figure Drawing— rapid sketching for action and proportion.’’ As the popularity of the school increased, the need for a larger specially designed school for art became apparent. A new school was built in  on the corner of High and Williams streets (High Street is now Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard). Designed by Guilbert and Betelle in the “modern architectural style’’ with a gothic tower, the building cost Newark over a million Depression dollars. The building also housed high school students who wished to specialize in the arts. After World War II, the school developed several sections (late afternoon and evening) to accommodate the large influx of veterans who attended under the GI Bill of Rights and for those who were employed during the day. The director of the evening classes was Henry Gasser, who had attended the school as a student and served as its director from  to . He was a well-known watercolorist, whose work is included in many museum collections, and a writer and lecturer of several how-to art technique books. In the s and s the faculty was made up of working professional artists, who were able to give students the benefit of their real-world experience. In  Edward F. Kennelly, superintendent of schools, said, “Its courses of study are designed to provide the student with the necessary knowledge and skills for a professional art career, and at the same time developing his creative individuality and desire for personal self-expression. To attain this end, the faculty has been drawn from among outstanding members of the commercial and fine arts world, who are currently active in their particular fields.’’ During this period courses were given in advertising design, pictorial illustration, textile design, fine arts, industrial design, interior design, fashion illustration, sculpture, and costume design. There was an evening school program as well as the regular day school. In  NSFIA had six hundred high school graduate students, who were admitted on the basis of a rigorous examination. Tuition for Newark students was $ per year and $ for out-of-town residents. There was a waiting list for entry and scholarships were available. Over the years many wellknown artists either taught or were students at NSFIA, including sculptor Charles Ginnever (taught ), Don Martin (“Mad’s Maddest Cartoonist’’), architect Gould Hulse (former director), Eli Reed (educated at NSFIA and Harvard University—first African American to become a member of Magnum Photos), and Reuben Kadish and Beatrice Mandelman (contemporaries of Jackson Pollack). Graduates became art and creative directors of major corporations, costume and puppet designers, wildlife woodcarvers, fantasy illustrators, and in the s, computer graphic experts. Unfortunately, as Newark changed and fiscal problems caused the Board of Education to spend its money in other ways, NSFIA was closed on

July , . In an ironic ceremony shortly before the notification of termination, ten students were awarded scholarships to attend the school in September. See also education

Irmari Nacht and Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg

Newark Star-Ledger.

See Star-Ledger.

Newark Subway.

The Newark City Subway was inaugurated on May , . Its . mile double track between Penn Station and Grove Street, most of it laid in the bed of the former Morris Canal, includes thirteen stops serving about seventeen thousand passengers daily. Originally operated by Public Service Company, the subway also served as its downtown nexus for six trolley lines, but these had changed to bus routes by the early s. New Jersey Transit took over the system in , replacing the fleet of President’s Conference Committee (PCC) trolleys, acquired in , with Japanese-built articulated cars in .

The Retirement of the Presidents’Conference Committee Car (PCC). Commemorative booklet. Newark: New Jersey Transit, . Rosenbaum, Joel, and Tom Gallo. NJ Transit Rail Operations. Piscataway: Railpace Company, . Russell, Bruce J. “Last Run of the Newark PCC Streetcars.’’ Trolley Talk  (Sept.–Oct. ): –.

Grove Street

Silver Lake

Branch Brook Park Davenport Avenue

NEWARK SUBWAY Bloomfield Avenue

Park Avenue NEWARK

Orange Street

Norfolk Street

Warren Street

N

Washington Street Broad Street 0

1/4 mile

station

Penn

© Rutgers, The State University

New Brunswick Saitta, Joseph P. The City Subway: Newark’s Best Kept Secret. Merrick, NY: Traction Slides International, .

See also transportation

Nick Humez

Newark Symphony Hall.

What is today Newark Symphony Hall was originally the Mosque Theater, constructed in the s for the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine, a fraternal order. The structure holds a concert hall, banquet room, small theater, and dance/rehearsal studio. During the Depression years it was a movie theater. In , the Griffith Music Foundation revived it and presented a series of concerts and recitals. After a period of disuse, the city of Newark purchased the building in the s and established Newark Symphony Hall, Inc., a nonprofit corporation. In , a coalition of major Newark corporations, along with the city, set up a $ million capital plan to revitalize the theater. Newark Symphony Hall is now home to classical music concerts, musical theater, dance concerts, and wedding banquets. The building is listed in the National Register of Historic Places, but its future status and upkeep is uncertain.

Nan Childress Orchard

Newark teacher strikes. In  and , the Newark Teachers Union, led by Carole Graves, a young black teacher who became president of the union in , called for strikes. The  strike lasted three and a half weeks and enjoyed overwhelming support from teachers. They struck for more money, for school improvement, and for more say in how the schools were run. The Newark Board of Education countered with mass arrests. More than  teachers, charged with violating a court injunction prohibiting the strike, were eventually jailed, but the teachers held firm, winning a strong grievance procedure and a raise. The  strike lasted eleven weeks and was supported by barely half the teachers. Striking teachers thought the board of education, by refusing to negotiate, was trying to wipe out their gains and break their union. Nonstriking teachers, including most African American teachers, did not want to seem antiblack: for the first time, Newark had a black mayor and a nonwhite majority on the board of education. There was widespread violence by teachers and others in the  strike. The striking teachers preserved their contract, but nobody really won. Braun, Robert J. Teachers and Power: The Story of the American Federation of Teachers. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Golin, Steve. The Newark Teacher Strikes: Hopes on the Line. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Steve Golin

New Bridge.

The “new bridge’’ erected in  at the narrows of the Hackensack River, where River Edge, Hackensack, New Milford, and Teaneck intersect, was a gateway into the hinterland surrounding Manhattan. The hamlet at this inland port included merchant Jan Zabriskie’s mansion and gristmill, a bakery, a stage inn, an academy, a store, and farmhouses spread along the riverside roads. The Jersey Dutch sandstone dwelling that Jan Zabriskie built here in  and enlarged in  served as a fort and military headquarters. The strategic area was contested throughout the American Revolution. Large armies frequently passed New Bridge, fighting, foraging, or encamping in the neighborhood. On November , , a British invasion forced George Washington’s troops to retreat from Fort Lee across the New Bridge, inspiring eyewitness Thomas Paine to describe “the times that try men’s souls.’’ Washington made his headquarters here in . After the war, in , the state of New Jersey presented Loyalist Jan Zabriskie’s confiscated estate to Baron von Steuben, inspector general of the Continental troops. Steuben later sold it back to Zabriskie’s son. The state of New Jersey acquired the Zabriskie-Steuben House again in . In , the Bergen County Historical Society developed a historic museum village around this architectural landmark. Today, the  bridge is the oldest highway swing bridge in New Jersey.

Lefkowitz, Arthur S. The Long Retreat: The Calamitous American Defense of New Jersey, . Metuchen: Upland Press, . Leiby, Adrian C. The Revolutionary War in the Hackensack Valley: The New Jersey Dutch and the Neutral Ground, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Kevin W. Wright

New Brunswick. .-square-mile city on the southwest bank of the Raritan River in Middlesex County. New Brunswick is the Middlesex County governmental seat, and the home of Rutgers, the State University, the Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, and the Johnson & Johnson pharmaceutical and medical supply company. New Brunswick’s position at the head of navigation on the Raritan River spurred its development as a shipping and industrial center, particularly after the opening of the Delaware and Raritan Canal in . The city traces its origin to , when New York merchant John Inian and associates purchased sixteen square miles of land, then in Piscataway Township, first from local Indian tribes and later from the estate of George Carteret, the East Jersey proprietor. The city did not become a municipality in its own right until , when it was chartered by King George II, and named in honor of a German duchy of the House of Hanover. Its initial territory encompassed  square miles,

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and included the present townships of South Brunswick and North Brunswick. The current boundaries were finally established in . Many early immigrants to the Inian tract were Dutch farmers from New York, who named the major roadway Albany Street, for the city of Albany, New York, where they had once lived. For years, the Dutch language was the most widely spoken. The arrival from the Netherlands in  of Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen as the first ordained pastor of the Dutch Reformed Church in the Raritan Valley set off a religious revival here, later associated with the Great Awakening revival movement in North America. George Whitefield, the leading figure in the Great Awakening, preached several times in New Brunswick to large crowds. Agitation of Frelinghuysen and his followers for separate institutions for governance of the Dutch Reformed Church led to the establishment of Queens College in , now divided into the New Brunswick Theological Seminary and Rutgers, the State University. New Brunswick was the British Army field headquarters for seven months during the American Revolution, in –. The successful waiting-game strategy of George Washington and the Continental Army, encamped in the Watchung hills, persuaded the British to evacuate. The opening of the Delaware and Raritan Canal in , with its northeastern terminus in New Brunswick, set off a commercial and industrial boom, attracting shipping and boatbuilding businesses, and soon a number of manufacturing industries. Johnson & Johnson was established on the canal in , using electric power generated by the waterfall at one of the locks. The company has since grown to one of the largest health-products companies in the world. It remains based in the city and built a new fourteen-story headquarters building on lower Albany Street completed in . New Brunswick attracted many southern and eastern Europeans, especially Hungarians, to work in its factories in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries; the Magyar Savings Bank was founded in New Brunswick in , and many other religious and cultural institutions remain in the city. More recently, New Brunswick has seen an influx of immigrants from southern Mexico; many retail shops and restaurants on French Street cater to these new residents. The population in  was ,. Fortynine percent was white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Balmer, Randall. Blessed Assurance: A History of Evangelism in America. Boston: Beacon Press, . Local History Collection. Archives, New Brunswick Public Library.

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McCormick, Richard P. Rutgers: A Bicentennial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wall, John P. The Chronicles of New Brunswick, New Jersey. New Brunswick: John P. Wall, .

George Dawson

New Brunswick Theological Seminary. The New Brunswick Theological Seminary dates to , when the General Synod of the Dutch Reformed Church (now the Reformed Church in America) elected John Henry Livingston (–) as the church’s professor of theology. Livingston instructed candidates for the ministry for many years in New York City, where he was also a pastor. In  he moved to New Brunswick. There, under the terms of an  covenant between the Synod and Queen’s (Rutgers) College, he and his students shared an edifice (Old Queens, ) and other resources with the college, of which Livingston served as president. Over time, the theological school came to be known as the New Brunswick Seminary. The seminary moved in  to its present site on a hill a few hundred feet north-northwest of Old Queens. The covenant was abrogated in , and the seminary became independent of the college. Though remaining an institution of the Reformed Church in America, the seminary serves a wide range of Protestant denominations, largely as a result of an initiative begun in  to encourage second-career and nonresidential students. Its chief buildings are Sage Library (; , volumes) and Zwemer Hall (). In ,  students were enrolled. If dated from Livingston’s election rather than from its establishment in New Brunswick, it is the oldest postbaccalaureate Protestant seminary in North America.

people. It was responsible for the opening of the city’s first new supermarket since the riots and has attracted substantial private investment. Poverty remains highly concentrated in the area, but NCC has empowered neighborhood residents and improved their prospects. Rusk, David. Inside Game/Outside Game: Winning Strategies for Saving Urban America. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, .

Howard Gillette, Jr.

New Directions for Women.

New Directions for Women was the first statewide feminist periodical in the United States. Started as New Directions for Women in New Jersey in January , the nonprofit publication began national distribution in . During its twenty-two-year history it developed a circulation of sixty-five thousand, making it the largest feminist periodical after Ms. magazine, which it predated. The statement of purpose for New Directions anticipated covering every feminist issue—aiming to reach all women, not just feminists. After many years as a largely volunteer production, the staff and writers were paid starting in the s. Advertising, subscriptions, grants, and contributions sustained the paper until . The papers of New Directions for Women are deposited in the National Women and Media Collection of the University of Missouri School of Journalism, Columbia, Missouri. Allen, Donna, Ramona R. Rush, and Susan J. Kaufman, eds. Women Transforming Communications: Global Intersections. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, .

See also feminism

Paula Kassell

Beardslee, John W. III. From the Hill: Selections from Works of Faculty and Alumni . . . of New Brunswick Theological Seminary. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, .

New Egypt.

Hageman, Howard G. Centuries Plus: The Story of New Brunswick Seminary. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, .

d. Aug. , ).

See also Dutch; higher education; Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

John Coakley

New Community Corporation. Formed in response to the devastating  riots in Newark’s Central Ward, New Community Corporation (NCC) is recognized as one of the most successful community-development corporations in the country. Incorporated in January  under the leadership of William J. Linder, a white Catholic priest, the organization overcame initial opposition from the Archdiocese of Newark and black as well as white radicals. Providing affordable housing was its first goal; NCC subsequently added other essential services—child care, job training, and medical treatment. Today, NCC houses nearly half the residents of the Central Ward and employs some twelve hundred

See Plumsted.

Newell, William A.

(b. Sept. , ;

Physician, political activist, and governor. William A. Newell was born in Franklin, Ohio, the son of James H. and Eliza (Hankinson) Newell. The family moved to New Brunswick in , where James worked as a civil engineer and mapmaker. William graduated from Rutgers College in  and studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania. He established a practice with his uncle at Manahawkin, then on his own in Imlaystown. Newell married Johanna Van Deurson and in  bought a home in Allentown, which remained the family’s New Jersey residence through a long and peripatetic life. The Newells had three children. Active as a Whig in politics, Newell was elected to Congress in , where he met Abraham Lincoln. He was narrowly reelected in  but was denied renomination in . As a first-term representative, Newell drafted and helped shepherd into law a measure founding the United States Life-Saving Service. During the s, as the two-party system

broke down and the Whig Party splintered, Newell embraced the American, or KnowNothing, party, which stressed restricting immigration. In  Newell ran for governor with the support of both the state’s Know-Nothing leadership and the nascent Republican organization. He won a narrow victory despite Democrat James Buchanan’s landslide in the presidential contest. As governor from  to , Newell propounded Whiggish themes, emphasizing legislative predominance, improving public schools, and restricting the sale of liquor. He also initiated legislation designed to make it harder for immigrants to gain citizenship and the right to vote. Concerned about the divisions within the ranks of New Jersey’s Opposition, Newell spread patronage to his supporters in both camps of the anti-Democratic coalition. One of the most controversial acts of his governorship was his refusal to commute the death penalty of James P. Donnelly, an Irish American medical student convicted of murdering a man over a gambling debt. Donnelly’s backers contended that he had been convicted by a Protestant jury before Protestant judges on unconvincing evidence, but Newell and a majority of the state pardon board declined to overturn the verdict or stay the execution. Irish American voters in New Jersey never let him forget it. By  Know-Nothingism was defunct, and Newell enthusiastically embraced the Republican cause. President Abraham Lincoln appointed him superintendent of the Life-Saving Service for New Jersey, an office he held until returning to Congress in . He was defeated for reelection in , in part as voter payback for the Donnelly decision and partly because of his support for the Fifteenth Amendment granting former slaves the right to vote. This scenario was revisited in , when Newell failed to regain his seat, and in , when as the Republican candidate for governor he lost to former general George B. McClellan. Newell practiced medicine in Allentown during his years in the political wilderness. In  Republican President Rutherford B. Hayes named Newell territorial governor of Washington. There he espoused measures similar to those he had championed in New Jersey. He also supported women’s suffrage. Failing a reappointment as governor of Washington, Newell secured a one-year position as U.S. Indian inspector in the Northwest. He remained in Washington until , running many times, always unsuccessfully, for Congress and other offices, several times on the Prohibition party ticket. In , after the death of his wife, Newell returned to Allentown, where he continued to practice medicine and took an active role in the Monmouth County Historical Society until his death. Applegate, Lloyd Rogers. A Life of Service: William Augustus Newell. Toms River: Ocean County Historical Society, .

New Jersey Business and Industry Association Knapp, Charles M. New Jersey Politics during the Period of the Civil War and Reconstruction. Geneva, NY: W. F. Humphrey, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

See also museums

Stephanie B. Stevens

New Hanover.

See also governor

Michael J. Birkner

Newfield. .-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. Originally a farming region, by the early nineteenth century residents were involved in the charcoal and glass industry, with the first glassworks established by Daniel Miller. Later factories produced shoes and rattan baby carriages. By the s the railroads had arrived and investors, including Allen Heminway and Captain Ely of Philadelphia, purchased land at the juncture where the Atlantic and West Jersey Railroad crossed. They planned a development called Newfield, which led to a growing settlement near the train station. Advertisements boasted about the area’s climate, good soil, fine water, and convenient location on railroad lines that ran from Philadelphia to Cape May and between Vineland and Franklinville. The town did grow, although probably more slowly than the investors wished. Not until  was the community incorporated as the borough of Newfield. It has remained a community that mixes commerce and agriculture, with some farms remaining in the area. The  population was ,;  percent white. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Press, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Pocket Guide Book to the Borough of Newfield, New Jersey. Vineland: Ayers Print Shop, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Cynthia Hammell

New Hampton School Museum. Located in Lebanon Township, Hunterdon County, in the village of New Hampton, this museum building once served the community as a one-room schoolhouse. It was constructed in  and enlarged to two stories in . Abandoned and neglected, the little schoolhouse stood by the side of the road until township historians took over its renovation and adaptive reuse in . Rededicated as a museum on July , , it serves the larger community as a living history schoolhouse of the s. The second floor is used for museum displays and classes in crafts of yesteryear, as well as for lectures on historical topics.

.-square-mile township in northeastern Burlington County. New Hanover is partly bordered by Monmouth County on the northeast, and also by the multiuse federal reservation at Fort Dix and by McGuire Air Force Base. It was originally part of Chesterfield and Springfield townships. Incorporated as a separate township under a royal charter from George II in , it was named for the ruling House of Hanover. It became an independent municipality of the state of New Jersey in . Since then, New Hanover’s area has gradually decreased as acreage was ceded to form neighboring towns. In , Pemberton Borough was broken off as a separate municipality, with more land released to form part of Pemberton Township twenty years later. North Hanover became a separate township in , later releasing land to neighboring Wrightstown in , , and . Today, New Hanover’s economy and character remain largely rural; the main village is Cookstown. A major segment of the population consists of active-duty air force personnel. A commercial strip parallels the northern boundary of McGuire Air Force Base between Wrightstown and Cookstown. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bisbee, Henry H. Sign Posts: Place Names in the History of Burlington County. Willingboro: Alexia Press, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

New Jersey Academy of Science. The New Jersey Academy of Science (NJAS), a private, nonprofit organization, was founded in  to promote scientific education and research throughout New Jersey. The professional arm of the organization, the Senior Academy, publishes a scientific journal, The Bulletin, and hosts annual meetings and special symposia to facilitate scientific communication. The Junior Academy sponsors outreach activities, such as breakfast programs, poster fairs, and project grants, aimed at high school students. Currently consisting of nearly four hundred scientists from industry, research, and education, the NJAS is affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the National Association of Academies of Science.

Audra J. Wolfe

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New Jersey Audubon Society.

The New Jersey Audubon Society was founded in  to promote ornithology, the study of birds. The society predates, and is not affiliated with, the National Audubon Society. The organization is involved in research, environmental education, conservation, and recreational bird- and butterfly-watching activities. A nonprofit organization with an international membership, it has twentyseven nature centers in the state. There are also eight staffed centers: Lorrimer Sanctuary in Franklin Lakes; Weiss Ecology Center in Ringwood; Scherman-Hoffman Sanctuaries in Bernardsville; Owl Haven in Tennent; Plainsboro Preserve; Rancocas Nature Center in Mount Holly; Nature Center of Cape May; and Cape May Bird Observatory, established in , which includes the Northwood Center in Cape May Point and the Center for Research and Education in Goshen. See also birds; bird-watching

Patricia Taylor Sutton

New Jersey Ballet. New Jersey Ballet was founded in  by American Ballet dancers Carolyn Clark and George Tomal. Since its first performance at the Arts High School in Newark, New Jersey Ballet has become one of the state’s leading ballet companies, offering works ranging from classical to contemporary, as well as those geared especially for young audiences. During its thirty-week season the company performs statewide, reaching over , people (live and through media). It is the resident company of the Paper Mill Playhouse and a constituent of the Middle Township Performing Arts Center, the Community Theatre, and the John Harms Center for the Arts. See also dance

Carolyn Clark

New Jersey Business and Industry Association. Founded in  as the Manufacturers Association of the State of New Jersey by a group of manufacturers concerned about workplace safety, this organization’s lobbying led to the enactment of the New Jersey Workmen’s Compensation Act— a key initiative of Gov. Woodrow Wilson, effective on July , . In , the association incorporated what is now the New Jersey Manufacturers Insurance Company, a mutual insurance firm operated solely for the benefit of its policyholders, to offer its members workers’ compensation insurance to comply with the new act. The association is now one of the largest state employer organizations in the nation. It actively monitors legislative and regulatory developments affecting its members; sponsors a number of conferences, seminars, and other events; and publishes New Jersey Business magazine. It remains an affiliate of the New Jersey Manufacturers Insurance Company, now one of New Jersey’s largest

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New Jersey Cardinals

property and casualty insurers, offering workers’ compensation, homeowners, and automobile liability coverage to association member employers and their employees and to employees of state government.

thousand students and four hundred faculty members; it offers twenty-eight baccalaureate degrees and eighteen graduate programs on a forty-seven-acre campus with eleven buildings.

Don Linky

Worton, Stanley N. Not an Ivory Tower: An Intimate History of Jersey City State College. Jersey City: Jersey City State College Publications Office, .

New Jersey Cardinals. The Cardinals are a minor league baseball affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals. The team is in the Class A New York–Penn League, an entry-level league for young rookie prospects. The team came from Hamilton, Ontario, playing one season in Glen Falls, New York, before moving to Sussex County in . The Cardinals play a seventy-six-game “short season’’ schedule from June to September, including thirty-eight home games. They are based at Skylands Park, a ,-seat stadium at the junction of Routes  and  in Augusta. See also baseball Rudy Larini

New Jersey City University. New Jersey City University (NJCU), located in Hudson County, opened in Jersey City in  as New Jersey State Normal School; its purpose was to prepare elementary and kindergartenprimary teachers for certification. Its first building, Hepburn Hall, was designed by architects Guilbert and Bertelle in English collegiate Gothic style and constructed on Hudson County (now Kennedy) Boulevard. In  the normal school became the New Jersey State Teachers College at Jersey City, offering a four-year bachelor of science degree in education. The enrollment of veterans after World War II and the Korean Conflict broadened the college’s mission and led to an expanded curriculum. In  the school was renamed Jersey City State College (JCSC) and was accredited to offer bachelor of arts degrees; in  it began to offer a master of arts degree in elementary education. Two years later, the A. Harry Moore School, also on Kennedy Boulevard, became a laboratory school for the college’s special education program. After the passage of New Jersey’s Higher Education Act in , which was intended to enhance postsecondary education, the college was again reorganized. In  JCSC became a comprehensive multipurpose college offering programs in the liberal arts, education, and professional studies. Receipt of a State of New Jersey Cooperative Education Challenge Grant in  provided the opportunity for students to join career experiences with their academic studies. In  JCSC was granted university status by the New Jersey Commission on Higher Education and renamed New Jersey City University. Under the leadership of President Carlos Hernandez, the mission of NJCU as an urban institution is to offer a diverse student population access to an excellent education. The university currently has approximately ten

See also higher education

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

New Jersey Coalition Against War in the Middle East v. J.M.B. Realty Corp. This case established that regional and community shopping malls in New Jersey are public forums under the state constitution and must accommodate noncommercial petitioning and leafleting, even though such activity on private property was not protected under the First Amendment of the federal Constitution. The case grew out of Operation Desert Shield and the first Persian Gulf War. On Veterans’ Day weekend , a coalition of church and pacifist organizations sought permission from shopping malls all over the state to hand out flyers and collect petitions to Congress opposing hostilities in the Persian Gulf. The American Civil Liberties Union brought suit on behalf of the coalition against ten malls that refused access. The malls won in the trial court and appellate division, but those decisions were reversed in a  supreme court opinion written by Chief Justice Robert Wilentz, holding that New Jersey’s suburban shopping malls were the state’s new Main Streets and village greens. Since the malls had wooed the people away from the old downtown business districts, the free speech activities that formerly took place in those districts had to be allowed at these new public gathering places. The court held that the ability to distribute

literature and collect petitions at places of public congregation was especially important for poorly funded, grassroots organizations that lacked budgets for media advertising and direct-mail campaigns. The opinion recognized the right of the malls to impose reasonable regulations on organizations using their property for expressive purposes. In a subsequent ruling in , however, it was held that such regulations could not unduly interfere with speech activities and had to be justified by evidence that they were needed to protect the mall’s commercial interests. As such, the court struck down regulations at the Mall at Mill Creek in Secaucus, which required petitioners to obtain a million-dollar insurance policy and restricted organizations’ access to once a year. Askin, Frank. “Free Speech, Private Space, and the Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (summer ): –.

See also free speech

Frank Askin

New Jersey Colonization Society. The American Colonization Society, organized in  by the Rev. Robert Finley of Basking Ridge, hoped to bring about a gradual end to slavery by encouraging free African Americans to immigrate to Africa. The first New Jersey auxiliary society foundered with Finley’s death in , but was reorganized by Commodore Robert Field Stockton in . Although the society’s membership included the most prominent men in New Jersey, by  it was in decline because of a lack of financial support. It was revived a third time in  and raised $, between  and . Legislative support followed in the s, but despite state funding and the purchase of , acres of land for a purely New Jersey settlement in Liberia, only twenty-four people from the state

The New Jersey Colonization Society used this idealized view of Monrovia, Liberia, to promote the return of slaves to Africa, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

New Jersey Devils ever moved there. The society, however, continued to function actively into the s as an emigration society. Redkey, Edwin S. Black Exodus: Black Nationalist and Back to Africa Movements, –. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also slavery

Scott D. Peters

New Jersey Conservation Foundation. An organization formed to protect open space, New Jersey Conservation Foundation (NJCF) has safeguarded over , acres in the state, including beaches, estates, farmland, historic houses, parks, ponds, and rivers, and it has helped create urban parks. NJCF began in  as the Great Swamp Committee of the North American Wildlife Foundation to thwart Port of New York Authority plans, unveiled in , to create an airport in the Great Swamp. The committee succeeded in its goal by accumulating donations and pledges of money and land, and turned , acres over to federal management in . The Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge resulted from these efforts. Changing its name first to the North Jersey Conservation Foundation and then, in the early s, to its current name, the committee decided to extend its services to the statewide problem of diminishing open space. NJCF bought its first acquisitions project, the Dismal-Harmony Reserve, in  by matching Green Acres monies with federal Housing and Urban Development (HUD) funding. It turned the reserve over to Morris County’s Mendham Township. NJCF used the revolving land fund model it had inaugurated to protect Great Swamp to purchase additional open space lands. By this method, it held property bought in trust until sold to a permanent open space agency. Money gained from the agency purchase replenished NJCF’s land fund. NJCF began its support of conservation easements that prevent development on a property in , when Ernest Filcher and Robert Parsons of Bethlehem Township, Hunterdon County, donated a thirty-sevenacre parcel to the organization. Filcher and Parsons expected the tax assessment for their land to decrease due to its concomitant decrease in market value with the easement. When their assessment increased instead, NJCF went to court and by  helped them win their case. The ruling established that tax assessments must decrease to coincide with the accompanying drop in market value for private land on which a conservation easement has been placed. Also in , NJCF began the Rails-to-Trails Program, which followed Congress’s Regional Railroad Reorganization Act of the same year. Having inventoried abandoned railroad lines in the state and finding thousands of miles of them, NJCF helped convert rights-of-way to recreational trails that linked populated and scenic areas. Partially utilizing this approach,

NJCF helped create Patriot’s Path, beginning in the mid-s. Joining forces with the New Jersey Audubon Society, the Sierra Club state affiliate, and the state Department of Environmental Protection, NJCF also sought to protect New Jersey’s Pine Barrens. These efforts resulted in President Jimmy Carter’s  creation of the Pinelands National Reserve, which the state acted upon in  through approval of the Pinelands Protection Act. Seven New Jersey counties and fifty-two municipalities made their zoning conform to the Pinelands mandate. To protect farmlands, NJCF lobbied the state legislature to enact the Agriculture Retention and Development Act in . The act authorized use of a $ million bond issue approved in  that sought to encourage farmers to sell property easements that restricted land use purely to agricultural purposes. NJCF then purchased farms in northern and central New Jersey and placed agricultural easements on them. Baxter, Patricia J., ed. For Land’s Sake: The New Jersey Conservation Foundation’s First Thirty Years. Morristown: New Jersey Conservation Foundation, .

David J. Vecchioli

New Jersey Council for the Humanities. The New Jersey Council for the Humanities (NJCH), a nonprofit organization, was established in  as the state partner of the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). A twenty-five-member board of trustees, drawn from academia, business, and public life, oversees the work of the organization. The mission of the NJCH is to develop, support, and promote projects that explore and interpret the human experience, foster cross-cultural understanding, and engage people from all walks of life at the community level in dialogue about matters of individual choice and public responsibility. The council’s programs are free and open to the public. Programs include the Horizons Speakers Bureau, the Teacher Institute and teacher seminars, and Clemente Courses for economically disadvantaged students. A grant program administered by NJCH serves as a catalyst for public humanities programs and provides financial support for other nonprofit organizations’ special projects. The NJCH also sponsors several annual awards: the Humanities Citizen of the Year; the Public Humanities Award; the Civic Leadership Award (new in ); the NJCH Teacher of the Year Award; and the Humanities Book Award.

Jane B. Rutkoff

New Jersey Council of Churches. The state’s largest ecumenical organization, the New Jersey Council of Churches was established in  and is a member of the National Council of Churches. Seventeen Christian denominations of diverse theological traditions

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and more than three thousand local congregations are represented in this statewide body. The council seeks to provide a unified Christian voice to address public questions in areas of government, environment, human rights, health, violence, social welfare, economic affairs, and other national and international issues. It provides opportunities for discussion and action among its member denominations and with other religious bodies, as well as with various levels of government and with public and private organizations. Common Ground. Periodical published by the New Jersey Council of Churches.

Robert J. Wister

New Jersey Dental Association. The New Jersey Dental Association (NJDA) was founded as the New Jersey State Dental Society by twenty-seven dentists meeting in Trenton on October , . Today a ,-member association with headquarters at One Dental Plaza in North Brunswick, the NJDA aims to advance the profession of dentistry and to ensure the quality of dental care in New Jersey. The association publishes the Journal of the New Jersey Dental Association and the newsletter Capsule, conducts peer reviews, represents dentistry before state and national regulatory agencies, and promotes dental health through public service programs. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Pamela Cooper

New Jersey Department of Transportation. See Department of Transportation.

New Jersey Developmental Centers. The New Jersey Department of Human Services operates seven specialized centers that serve disabled adults. These institutions care for people whose medical, physical, and behavioral problems are so severe that they can neither live alone nor be cared for by their families. The centers, located in Totowa (the North Jersey Developmental Center), Woodbridge, Clinton (Hunterdon Center), Green Brook, New Lisbon, Woodbine, and Vineland, care for a combined total of over three thousand adult patients. In  the cost for their care amounted to approximately $ million. See also mental hospitals

Maxine N. Lurie

New Jersey Devils.

The Devils, a professional hockey franchise in the National Hockey League, began as an expansion franchise, the Kansas City Scouts, in the –  season. It moved to Colorado two years later and played as the Colorado Rockies. In  New Jersey shipping executive, John McMullen, purchased the franchise and moved it to his home state. Fans voted to name

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New Jersey Division against Discrimination

the team after a mythical demon said to inhabit southern New Jersey. Since coming to New Jersey, the Devils have appeared in the playoffs in fourteen seasons and have won the coveted Stanley Cup, the NHL championship trophy, three times (in , , and ). The Devils play an eighty-two-game schedule, including forty-one games at Continental Airlines Arena in the Meadowlands Sports Complex, East Rutherford. In  McMullen sold his controlling interest in the team to a sports conglomerate that also owns the New Jersey Nets and New York Yankees. See also hockey

Rudy Larini

New Jersey Division against Discrimination. See Division against Discrimination.

New Jersey Division on Women. See Division on Women.

New Jersey Education Association. The New Jersey Education Association (NJEA) was founded as the New Jersey State Teachers Association at a meeting of three educators in the Bayard Street School in New Brunswick in . Although countywide education organizations already existed, the purpose of the meeting was to establish a statewide organization to improve teaching. The creation of the new association came at a time of growing citizen concern that a majority of the state’s children were without schooling. Volunteer committees had been formed to gather statistics on schools, and a state convention in  had recommended several improvements. In  a state law created the office of state superintendent of schools. Licensing of teachers by local superintendents was introduced, and in  the state legislature set up the State Normal School in Trenton for the professional preparation of teachers. An  amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution of  mandated support for a “thorough and efficient system of free public schools for the instruction of all children in this state between the ages of five and eighteen years.’’ The legislature also established the New Jersey State Board of Education and twenty-one county offices of education. During this period the teachers association became incorporated, established conditions for membership, and levied dues. The association held annual, statewide meetings and supported granting the rights of tenure to teachers, which was affirmed by state law in . The name of the organization was changed to the New Jersey Education Association in . Membership in the NJEA grew significantly after World War II, and the first fulltime, paid president, Kathryn E. Stilwell of Fair Lawn, was hired in . In , a state

law giving bargaining rights to public employees was enacted, and thereafter most teacher welfare benefits and salary increases came from local negotiations, where before they had come from the legislature. Most local school boards began direct negotiations with their local teacher associations. The Public Employee Relations Act broadened employee bargaining rights and created the Public Employee Relations Commission for resolving disputes between local boards and associations. The unification of NJEA with the National Education Association in  greatly increased the membership, especially under the leadership of Frederick Hipp. NJEA now represents teachers in most New Jersey school districts. It has continued to advocate for public policies and laws that it sees as pro-education. The NJEA supported the state income tax law in  as a better base for funding public schools and also the law that extended tenure to all certified teaching staff positions. The association has become increasingly involved in supporting pro-education candidates for state and federal office. In  the membership of the NJEA exceeded , persons. Johnson, Laurence. NJEA: The First Hundred Years. Trenton: New Jersey Education Association, . Rosser, Donald. NJEA:  Years of Service. Trenton: New Jersey Education Association, .

John Dougherty

New-Jersey Gazette.

The first regularly published newspaper in New Jersey, the NewJersey Gazette began publication on December , , in Burlington at the request of the New Jersey assembly and with the backing of New Jersey governor William Livingston. It was published by the official government printer,

Isaac Collins, because officials believed New Jersey needed its own platform to disseminate information for the Patriot cause. The Gazette met that need. It was printed weekly, usually on Wednesdays, but sometimes was published late because paper was always in short supply. The Gazette also printed public documents of importance to the fledgling nation, including a copy of the Articles of Confederation in . The newspaper folded in . Hixson, Richard F. The Press in Revolutionary New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also newspapers

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

New Jersey Herald. This daily and Sunday newspaper, based in Newton, is owned by Quincy Newspapers. Established as a weekly newspaper in  by Newton merchant Col. Grant Finch, the Herald was purchased by American Newspapers in . The newspaper added a Sunday edition in  and started daily publication in . Quincy Newspapers acquired controlling interest in the Herald in  and added color photos in . As the only newspaper published in Sussex County, the Herald covers local news extensively. In  the Herald had a daily circulation of nineteen thousand and a Sunday circulation of twenty-six thousand. Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Harry Glazer

New Jersey Historical Commission. Founded in  by the New Jersey legislature, the New Jersey Historical Commission is charged with increasing public awareness of New Jersey history. For this purpose the commission cooperates with public and private agencies and educational institutions. The commission board consists of ten public members, four members of the state legislature, the secretary of state, the state librarian, and the director of the state Office of Historic Preservation. Major functions of the commission are sponsoring public programs and publications and awarding grants for research, publication, projects, and operating support.

Joseph Weisberg

New Jersey Historical Divers Association. In  a group of scuba

Front page of the New-Jersey Gazette, vol. , no. , December , .

Courtesy New-York Historical Society.

divers met informally to discuss the possibility of identifying some of the many unidentified shipwrecks lying off the New Jersey coast. The group incorporated in  as a not-forprofit historical organization. The NJHDA is dedicated to the preservation of New Jersey shipwreck and maritime history. The group uses archaeological techniques and archival research in their investigations. The results of

New Jersey Library Association the investigations, as well as the work of others involved in shipwreck identification, are published in the group’s journal, NJHDA, which it archives at several publicly accessible facilities throughout the state of New Jersey. See also shipwrecks

Dan Lieb

New Jersey Historical Society. Twenty prominent New Jerseyans concerned about public education organized the New Jersey Historical Society in  to collect and preserve materials relating to the founding of the state and the nation. It is the oldest cultural institution in New Jersey. Its first president was Chief Justice Joseph C. Hornblower of the state supreme court. The society made its headquarters at a number of sites in Newark until its first building was erected at  Broadway in ; it moved to  Park Place in . Three distinct periods characterize the society’s collecting and reflect changing attitudes about the things people choose to value and preserve. The founders originally sought documents linked with important events in New Jersey’s history. In  the Women’s Branch, a ladies’ auxiliary, launched a broad collecting initiative and developed the society’s museum and exhibition program. After World War II, the institution entered a new phase, as the museum and library reached out to even broader audiences to fulfill its educational mission. It now provides access to rich resources on New Jersey history and uses them to offer opportunities for learning through nationally award-winning interactive exhibitions and programs.

Sally Yerkovich

New Jersey Historic Trust. This state agency provides grant and loan funding to municipal and county governments and nonprofit organizations to support the restoration or rehabilitation of historic buildings. The trust, established in , has funded nearly two hundred projects since . The trust also accepts donations of historic properties, and encourages facade or preservation easements on historic buildings. In , the trust sponsored a highly regarded study of the economic impact of historic preservation in New Jersey. See also historic preservation

Robert W. Craig

New Jersey Hospital Association. Founded in , the New Jersey Hospital Association (NJHA) is located in Princeton and represents more than  New Jersey institutions involved in acute care, long-term care, psychiatric care, and rehabilitation. The NJHA studies hospitals’ administrative problems, promoting the standardization of hospital management and accounting practices. The

association lobbies for health-related legislation, and helped in the creation of the Hospital Service Plan of New Jersey (Blue Cross) in . In the s the NJHA formulated hospital disaster emergency programs and wrote a manual on disaster planning that was distributed nationally. Most recently, the NJHA has addressed health-care costs and low-income patients’ access to services. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Pamela Cooper

New Jersey Institute of Technology. Located on forty-five acres in Newark, the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) is a public, state-funded research university with six colleges and a branch campus in Mount Laurel (the Technology and Engineering Center, in collaboration with Burlington County College). Founded in  as the Newark Technical School, NJIT adopted its present name in . The university enrolls more than eighty-eight hundred full-time and part-time graduate and undergraduate students in its regular and continuing education divisions. NJIT grants degrees in thirty-five bachelor’s programs, forty-seven master’s programs, and eighteen doctoral programs as well as certificates in twenty academic disciplines. The university’s colleges specialize in engineering, computing sciences, science and liberal arts, architecture, and management; there is also a separate college for honors students. The university offers extensive distance-learning, on-line education, and study-abroad options, as well as accelerated and other degree and professional certificate programs alone or in conjunction with other universities, corporations, and government agencies, including Rutgers-Newark, the University of Medicine and Dentistry, Essex County College, AT&T, the National Guard, and the Federal Aviation Administration. It also works with corporate partners to foster economic development in Newark and the state. See also higher education

Kelly A. Shea

New Jersey Jackals. The Jackals, whose name was chosen in a fan contest, began play in ,-seat Yogi Berra Stadium, on the campus of Montclair State University in Little Falls, in . The stadium, which includes a museum devoted to New York Yankees Hall of Famer Yogi Berra, was a gift to the university by team owner Floyd Hall. A professional baseball team that plays in the independent Northern League, which is not affiliated with the major leagues, the Jackals play ninety games, including forty-five at home, from May through August. See also baseball Rudy Larini

573

New Jersey Law Journal.

New Jersey’s oldest legal newspaper was founded in  by Plainfield publisher Van Doren Honeyman as a monthly reporter of court opinions and a platform for critical comment on law and the judicial system. It has been published weekly since . During the s its editorial board designed and campaigned for a plan to revamp the state court system, a plan that influenced the state constitution of . It is currently known for independent reporting on law, government, and law-firm economics and for an editorial board that includes two former governors, judges, and prominent members of the legal profession. It is now owned by American Lawyer Media, the nation’s largest legal-journalism company.

Robert S. Steinbaum

New Jersey Lawyer.

The New Jersey Lawyer is a weekly legal newspaper, published since . Like its older rival, the New Jersey Law Journal, the New Jersey Lawyer includes official notices to the legal profession and summaries of recent court decisions, as well as articles and editorials. The publishing company New Jersey Lawyer, Inc., is a wholly owned subsidiary of the New Jersey State Bar Association. In , the independence of the newspaper’s editorial board was called into question when a bar association official insisted on deletion of a statement from an editorial before publication. Thereafter the bar association passed a resolution reserving the right to veto an editorial, though continuing to characterize the editorial board as “independent,’’ which resulted in a majority of the editorial board resigning. The successor board stated two years later that it was operating without any interference from the bar association.

Paul Axel-Lute

New Jersey Library Association. This organization was founded in ; its current headquarters are in Trenton. It has a membership of fifteen hundred, consisting of individuals, libraries, organizations, and corporations dedicated to the promotion of library services to the residents of New Jersey. It also provides scholarships, continuing education, and networking opportunities for librarians. The New Jersey Library Association (NJLA) has played a significant role in developing state legislation in support of library services. It has sponsored and published several studies of New Jersey library issues and has published a journal, New Jersey Libraries, since . Doyle, Mary Joyce. The New Jersey Library Association.’’ In A History of New Jersey Libraries, – , ed. Edwin Beckerman. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, .

See also libraries

Hendrik Edelman

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New Jersey Literary Hall of Fame

New Jersey Literary Hall of Fame. Founded in  by Dr. Herman Estrin (– ), a North Plainfield native and longtime English professor at the New Jersey Institute of Technology, the Hall of Fame honors nearly  writers who were born or have lived in the state. Inductees, who include such authors as Walt Whitman, Stephen Crane, Joyce Carol Oates, Carl Sagan, and Mary Higgins Clark, must have lived in New Jersey for at least four years. The other criteria for induction are selling a million or more books, winning a national or international award, being on the New York Times bestseller list for ten or more weeks, or making a significant contribution to literature. The hall, which continues to induct new members, has permanent exhibition space at the New Jersey Institute of Technology. See also literature

David Lurie

New Jersey Manufacturers Insurance Company. Founded in  as the New Jersey Casualty Insurance Company to provide workers’ compensation coverage, the company was organized by members of the Manufacturers Association of the State of New Jersey (now the New Jersey Business and Industry Association) after passage of the New Jersey Workmen’s Compensation Act in . In  the company began writing automobile liability insurance, and in the s it started treating injured workers at company-sponsored clinics. In  the company merged with New Jersey Manufacturer’s Indemnity Company to acquire its present name. In  NJM, based in West Trenton, had , employees and was the state’s largest provider of workers’ compensation and property-casualty insurance, and the fourth-largest automobile insurer. Berkowitz, Monroe. Workmen’s Compensation: The New Jersey Experience. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also insurance industry

Glenn R. Modica

New Jersey Medical Women’s Association. The New Jersey Medical Women’s Association (NJMWA) was founded in  through the leadership of Dr. Clara De Hart Krans. It became Branch Four of the American Medical Women’s Association (AMWA) in . AMWA was founded in  to coordinate the many women’s medical associations formed before the American Medical Association began accepting women members. The original purpose of NJMWA was to promote friendship among women physicians in the state, but its goals evolved to include support of women in the medical professions, especially its members. In  the Clara Krans Research Fund, later renamed

the Krans/Henle Scholarship Fund, was established for women medical students from New Jersey. Today, NJMWA continues its active involvement with AMWA and supports the development of leadership abilities of its members. See also medical societies

Lois R. Densky-Wolff

New Jersey Monthly. Based in Morristown, New Jersey Monthly is the largest generalinterest magazine (circulation ,) dedicated to the Garden State. It was founded in  by recent Princeton graduates Christopher A. Leach and Hendrix F. C. Niemann and an investor group of newspaper publishers. They believed a statewide magazine would help New Jersey, long overshadowed by New York City and Philadelphia, establish its own identity. It was bought in  by Norman B. Tomlinson, Jr., an original investor and publisher of the Morristown Daily Record. His daughter, Kate S. Tomlinson, became publisher and editor in chief. Known for its coverage of top restaurants and popular day-trip destinations, New Jersey Monthly also covers the state’s politics, arts, sports, history, and business. Among its most widely read features is a biennial ranking of the state’s top seventyfive public high schools. Christopher Hann

New Jersey Museum of Agriculture. This not-for-profit museum is located on the grounds of Cook College, Rutgers University, in North Brunswick. The museum’s extensive collection (over ten thousand artifacts and twenty thousand photographs) illustrates and interprets the past, present, and future role of agriculture in the growth and development of the state. Emphasis is on the evolution of agriculture and its relationship to food and fiber, science and technology, the environment, and everyday life. The museum traces its beginnings to , when Jacob G. Lipman, a dean at the New Jersey College of Agriculture (now Cook College), and Wabun C. Krueger, an agricultural engineer, began collecting agricultural artifacts. In the s, Cook College, having received the collection, opened a small agricultural museum for faculty and students. Realizing the value of the collection, Rutgers University incorporated a new, public museum in . The New Jersey Museum of Agriculture opened to the public in April . The museum also houses the photograph collection of Richard W. Mitchell, illustrating New Jersey’s agricultural and environmental history. See also agriculture

Cynthia Martin Goldsmith

New Jersey Museum of Transportation. The Pine Creek Railroad within Allaire State Park, Farmingdale, is the oldest

operating steam-preservation railroad in the United States. Founded as a club in , the museum preserves trains from the steam era. It also features live-steam and diesel-powered narrow-gauge trains run by volunteers. Recent acquisitions include the locomotive and cars that ran on the former Carroll Park and Western Railroad in Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania, featured in the motion picture The Molly Maguires (), starring Sean Connery.

Mark McGarrity

New Jersey Naval Museum. Located in Hackensack, the New Jersey Naval Museum is the home of the World War II–era patrol submarine USS Ling. Having just missed war service, the Ling was assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet in ; from  to  it was used as a training submarine at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The Ling was donated to the Submarine Memorial Association in  and brought to Hackensack, where it was fully restored. Founded in , the New Jersey Naval Museum also houses a Vietnamese river patrol boat and Japanese and German submarines. About fifteen thousand persons annually visit the museum and its library. See also museums

Barry Moreno

New Jersey Nets.

The Nets began as the New Jersey Americans of the old American Basketball Association. When the two leagues merged, the Nets and three other ABA franchises became NBA teams for the – season. That season, the team played as the New York Nets at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island. It became the New Jersey Nets a year later. The Nets played at the Rutgers Athletic Center in Piscataway until , when it moved into its current home, now known as Continental Airlines Arena, in the Meadowlands Sports Complex. The Nets advanced to the NBA Finals in  and , losing to the Los Angeles Lakers and the San Antonio Spurs, respectively. See also basketball

Rudy Larini

New Jersey Network.

For many years, New Jerseyans had to depend on television programming broadcast from stations based in New York and Philadelphia. To provide New Jersey with its own voice, the state legislature established the New Jersey Public Broadcasting Authority on January , . Subsequently, voters approved a $. million bond issue to construct four transmitters and a broadcast complex. The New Jersey Network (NJN) first went on the air on April , , as WNJT-TV, channel , in Trenton. Today, NJN remains the only statewide television broadcast network to reach all . million New Jersey television households. NJN has become a multimedia enterprise. It

New Jersey School Boards Association has four UHF stations with one signal, two digital television channels, seven public radio stations, and online services. NJN is among the largest producers of original programming in the PBS system. Its programs include NJN News, Reporters Roundtable, State of the Arts, and Discover Jersey Arts. NJN also provides extensive educational resources for teachers and students. The network’s annual budget is $ million, which includes state funding and funds raised from foundations, corporations, and the public. As of , NJN is in the process of converting its transmitters to digital broadcasting. NJN will be able to broadcast in high definition, multicast four separate channels, and datacast.

Marc Mappen

New Jersey Performing Arts Center. The New Jersey Performing Arts Center (NJPAC) opened to international fanfare on October , , following a near-decade-long gestation period. Inspired by Gov. Tom Kean and fueled by Mayor Sharpe James and a private sector board of directors, NJPAC was designed to showcase the world’s greatest artists and New Jersey’s premier performers and to be a catalyst for the revitalization of the city of Newark. Over . million people have visited NJPAC to see such diverse performers as Itzhak Perlman, Bill Cosby, the Vienna Choirboys, and the Peking Acrobats, among hundreds of others. See also illustration, color section

Jeffrey Norman

New Jersey Plan.

When the  Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia began, Edmund Randolph of Virginia proposed replacing the Articles of Confederation with a new document that provided a stronger, more consolidated government. It would consist of an executive and a more powerful unicameral legislature with representation based on population. This plan clearly favored the more populous states, such as Virginia and Massachusetts, while reflecting the desires of the strong nationalists. On June  New Jersey delegate William Paterson countered with a plan, also known as the Small-State Plan and the Paterson Plan, that revised the Articles, keeping a single-house legislature with representation based on the states, but adding powers to tax and regulate trade, a plural executive, and a supreme court. His nine resolutions were written with his colleague David Brearley, Luther Martin of Maryland, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and John Lansing of New York. The New Jersey Plan was rejected by the convention, but Paterson and his allies refused to back down, at one point threatening to leave, which would have ended the meeting. A month later the convention came up

with the “Great Compromise,’’ providing for a bicameral legislature. Representation in the lower house, the present House of Representatives, would be based on population. Each state would receive two representatives in the upper house, the present Senate. While some of Paterson’s small-state allies favored states’ rights, he and the rest of the New Jersey delegation wanted a stronger national government as long as their little state was protected. The Constitution ensured this by stating that equal state representation in the Senate could never be changed unless every state agreed. Today there are still two senators per state. Satisfied with the concessions he had obtained, Paterson—and virtually all New Jersey politicians—went on to support ratification of the Constitution. New Jersey was the third state to ratify (on December , ) and did so unanimously. Bowen, Catherine Drinker. Miracle at Philadelphia: The Story of the Constitutional Convention, May to September . Boston: Little, Brown, . Lurie, Maxine N. “New Jersey Intellectuals and the United States Constitution.’’ Journal of Rutgers University Libraries  (): –. Murrin, Mary. To Save This State from Ruin: New Jersey and the Creation of the United States Constitution, –. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . O’Connor, John E. William Paterson: Lawyer and Statesman, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Paterson, William

Maxine N. Lurie

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the National Federation of Press Women convention in Cherry Hill. Other activities include sponsoring two annual statewide communications contests—one for professionals and the other for high school journalists. Through the Adopt-an-Adviser program, NJPW members mentor journalism educators. Regular meetings focus on current media topics and on career development. The organization currently has about sixty members. Burt, Elizabeth, ed. Women’s Press Organizations, –. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

Tina Lesher

New Jersey Psychological Association. Established in the s and incorporated in , the New Jersey Psychological Association is the professional organization for psychologists throughout New Jersey. Its mission is to advance psychology as a science, a profession, and a means of promoting human welfare. The association serves its , members through advocacy in Trenton and Washington, D.C.; continuing education programs; publications; statewide referrals for psychotherapy, speakers, media contacts; public education; consultation from staff and volunteer leaders; and a Web site, which includes both “Members Only’’ and consumer sections. The association is an affiliate of the American Psychological Association and has eight active regional affiliates throughout the state.

Lorryn Wahler

New Jersey Poison Information and Education System. The New Jersey Poison Information and Education System (NJPIES) began service on February , . NJPIES is a member of the American Association of Poison Control Centers (AAPCC) and is grant funded by the state of New Jersey. The mission of NJPIES is to provide treatment and information concerning poisons, drugs, and targeted health issues through telephone management, consultation, education, and research. NJPIES, through its toll-free hotline ––POISON–, provides twenty-four-hour, seven-days-a-week statewide emergency services for poison exposures and general poison and drug information. All calls are handled by Certified Specialists in Poison Information (CSPI), who are physicians, registered nurses, or pharmacists.

Roberta C. Swenson

New Jersey Press Women.

Founded in  when ten women met in Princeton and voted to start an affiliate chapter of the National Federation of Press Women, this organization embraces among its objectives promoting the highest ideals in journalism and exchanging ideas about the profession. Membership in New Jersey Press Women (NJPW) is open to men and women who work in media-related fields. In , NJPW cohosted

New Jersey Public Health Association. In October  over one hundred men interested in “the improvement of the sanitary condition of the people’’ of New Jersey met in Newark and established the New Jersey Sanitary Association (NJSA). The organization immediately began lobbying the state legislature to enact public health laws and to establish a state board of health. Within two years both of these objectives had been accomplished. In  the name of the organization was changed to the New Jersey Health and Sanitary Association (NJHSA). When the association became an affiliate of the American Public Health Association in , its name was changed to the New Jersey Public Health Association (NJPHA). Currently, the NJPHA has over  members.

Sam Alewitz

New Jersey School Boards Association. The New Jersey Federation of District Boards of Education was created in  by an act of the state legislature as an agency of local boards of education that would “investigate such subjects relating to education in its various branches as it may think proper, and . . . encourage and aid all movements for the improvement of the educational affairs’’ of the state. The board provides training and

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New Jersey Shakespeare Festival

continuing education for board of education members, assists in teacher contract negotiations and superintendent searches, and represents local board issues before the state legislature. The agency’s current name, the New Jersey School Boards Association, was assumed in . The association is headquartered in Trenton, with three district field offices serving the northern, central, and southern parts of the state.

tank and an aviary for South American birds. The aquarium is operated by the New Jersey Academy for Aquatic Sciences. It is directly across from Philadelphia and a ferry system connects the two points across the Delaware River.

Scott Stepanski

New Jersey State Archives. See State Archives.

Raymond Frey

New Jersey Shakespeare Festival.

New Jersey state constitution.

See Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey.

constitution.

New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. Formed in Burlington in  under the guidance of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, the New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery was dedicated to providing relief to “free negroes and others unlawfully held in bondage.’’ The society also worked to improve the education and welfare of the African American population of the state. Most of its members were Quakers, but many of the society’s officers, including the first two presidents, Joseph Bloomfield and William Griffith, were influential non-Friends. Although the society was active primarily in the southern counties around Burlington, its most important work was achieved in the northern parts of the state, where slavery still had great support. Through the use and threat of legal action, and through careful negotiation, the society directly secured the freedom of more than fifty individuals. A series of court victories was instrumental in turning public opinion and helped the society’s lobbyists in Trenton secure the passage of an act for the gradual abolition of slavery in . That law, however, sapped the society’s already waning vitality. Of the constituent societies that gathered at the first statewide meeting in , only those in Burlington, Rahway, and Trenton remained in . By , only the Trenton society was left to carry on the struggle, but with less urgency and fewer results. The New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery was officially declared dissolved in . See also abolition; slavery

Scott D. Peters

New

Jersey

State

Aquarium.

Opened in  on the Camden waterfront, the aquarium features more than eighty exhibits, including a ,-gallon saltwater aquarium containing forty-six species of fish and reptiles, including yellow-fin tuna, striped bass, sharks, and sea turtles. Exhibits feature a total of five thousand fish and other aquatic animals such as harbor and gray seals and African penguins. The facility also houses a marine creature touch

See

New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs. This affiliate of the National Association of Colored Women was founded on October , , at Saint Paul’s African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Trenton by the Rev. Florence Spearing Randolph, an ordained minister and suffrage and temperance activist. Initially composed of women’s temperance organizations, the New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs (NJSFCWC) had expanded to include fifty-six clubs by , many of them church missionary societies, with more than , members. The membership grew to , by  and included eighty-five women’s clubs “doing work for human betterment, church, civic, literary, business, or political.’’ Although many of the club representatives were teachers, businesswomen, and the wives of lawyers, physicians, and other professionals, there were also many representatives who were domestic servants, day laborers, and other service workers. From its earliest years, the federation was active in civil rights as well as other issues important to black women. During its early years, the work of the NJSFCWC was influenced by the philosophy of the Reverend Randolph, who served as president from  to . An integrationist and feminist, Randolph believed that black women must fight for the elimination of prejudice and discrimination in American society and against sexism within black organizations. During the s the federation established contacts and made its concerns known to elected officials. To influence policy making, federation members were encouraged to seek appointments to boards and commissions and to run for elected office. Understanding the power of interracial coalitions, the federation frequently invited white women to work with its members on public issues. Between  and  the NJSFCWC was one of the most powerful organizations in New Jersey. Members passed resolutions, organized forums and educational programs, and sent letters to elected officials denouncing lynching and antiblack violence. In  the federation raised more than $, to support

New Jersey’s antilynching crusade. Beginning in , and for many years afterward, the federation was a primary force in promoting black history and each year organized programs during Negro History Week. In the s the federation’s activities included scholarships for black students and funds for housing and training programs for black women migrants. During World War I, the NJSFCWC trained young women for employment in war industries and raised funds for a hostess house operated by the Young Women’s Christian Association to entertain black troops stationed at Fort Dix. During the Great Depression, the federation provided food, clothing, and other forms of relief to unemployed workers and lobbied to involve African Americans in New Deal relief programs and to gain the appointment of African Americans to state relief agencies and programs. Through its work, the NJSFCWC addressed important civil rights issues facing the African American community throughout the twentieth century. Today, the federation continues to focus on education, employment, housing, legislation, and health concerns affecting the minority population in Trenton and surrounding areas. Collier-Thomas, Bettye. “Florence Spearing Randolph (–).’’ In Notable Black American Women: Book II, ed. Jessie Carney Smith. Detroit: Gale Research, .

See also civil rights; feminism

Bettye Collier-Thomas

New Jersey State Federation of Sportsmen’s Clubs. The New Jersey State Federation of Sportsmen’s Clubs is a diverse organization composed of individual sportsmen, local sportsmen’s clubs, and statewide organizations. Its members share an interest in protecting and enhancing New Jersey’s fish and wildlife resources while supporting legal sport hunting and trapping as wildlife management and conservation tools. The federation represents approximately , sportsmen and women in twenty-one county federations and fourteen organizations, each providing input for the policies advanced by the federation. Federation members serve on the New Jersey Fish and Game Council, which is empowered to act on wildlife-related legislation developed and recommended by the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife. See also hunting

Joseph Marty Boa

New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs. The New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs (NJSFWC) was organized at a November  meeting held in Orange and attended by delegates from thirty-six local women’s clubs. Its purpose

New Jersey State House was to bring clubs together “for an interchange of ideas and methods.’’ In its early years, the NJSFWC undertook a variety of civic action projects, most notably, an effort to protect the Palisades from commercial incursions. In  the federation launched a campaign that would have a permanent effect on higher education in New Jersey. Over a period of seven years, under the leadership of Mabel Smith Douglass, members of the federation lobbied for the establishment of a public women’s college. In  their efforts came to fruition with the opening of the New Jersey College for Women, renamed Douglass College in . Contributions from the federation enabled the college to open a science building (Federation Hall) in  and its Music Building in . The federation continues to support Douglass College through scholarship funds and cooperative programming. The membership of the NJSFWC, which today includes women who work full- and parttime as well as full-time homemakers, has changed over the past century. Likewise, the issues it addresses now include the prevention of domestic violence and the encouragement of voter registration and participation. The NJSFWC, with seventeen thousand members, is the largest organization of women volunteers in New Jersey. The state headquarters is located in New Brunswick. New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs. A Century of Challenge. New Brunswick: New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs, . Schmidt, George P. Douglass College: A History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also feminism

Louise Duus

New Jersey State Fish and Wildlife Council. One of eleven wildlife councils maintained by the Division of Fish and Wildlife, the council was founded in  to address stream pollution and the dwindling populations of brook trout and white-tailed deer. It is a citizens group created by law and is responsible for establishing seasons to harvest fish and wildlife, designating the manner and means of taking wildlife, and determining creel or bag limits. The council works with the Division of Fish and Wildlife in all wildlife management programs. The council consists of six sportsmen, two each from the north, central, and southern portions of the state, chosen by the New Jersey State Federation of Sportsmen’s Clubs. Three farmers from these three regions are selected by the State Agriculture Society to represent the interests of the agricultural community. The chairman of the State Non-Game Council is also a member, as is an individual with professional training and experience in natural resource conservation appointed by the governor. All members are volunteers and serve without compensation.

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State House, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. The council publishes a compendium of fish and wildlife regulations annually. It reflects yearly deliberations based on information provided by specialists from the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife and statewide hearings.

Roger R. Locandro

New Jersey state flag.

See state flag.

New Jersey State House.

The nation’s second-oldest state capitol building in continuous use (the oldest is Maryland’s) and the central forum for New Jersey’s civic life is located at  West State Street in Trenton. Throughout the colonial and Revolutionary periods, the government used existing buildings in Burlington, Perth Amboy, and other towns before settling at Trenton in . Philadelphia master builder Jonathan Doan began construction on the State House a year later. It included two legislative chambers, a courtroom, and offices for the governor. The General Assembly convened in the still unfinished building in . New Jersey’s second constitution of  expanded the executive branch and revised the court system. John Notman, also of Philadelphia, accommodated these changes by extending the capitol forward in –. He transformed the State House into a temple of democracy, with Grecian porticos, a rotunda, and dome. President-elect Abraham Lincoln visited this building on February , , speaking in the clearest terms to date about his views on the pending crisis with the South. Chronic overcrowding in the post–Civil War period prompted the Senate and General Assembly to abandon their original chambers

in  in favor of new legislative wings off the rear. The project architect, Philadelphian Samuel Sloan, also extended the two ends of the original building and greatly enlarged Notman’s front wing to create a unified architectural whole. It did not last long. Fire, perhaps ignited by an ember on an office carpet— no one knows for certain—destroyed the Notman wing in the early hours of March , . An architect from Jersey City, Louis Broome, won the design competition to rebuild the damaged portions, but on a grander scale. His new dome and wing opened in  and inaugurated a massive rebuilding of the State House. In rapid succession, the General Assembly and the Senate replaced their chambers in  and , respectively. Assemblyman James Moylan, who designed the former, also created a new private office for the governor. The legislature placed the historic first transcontinental telephone call from Moylan’s assembly chamber to San Francisco in . Philadelphia architect Arnold Moses designed the Senate chamber, and his wing also included a new supreme court chamber. In the s the state considered another massive expansion, but erected an adjacent annex instead. The judicial branch moved there in , and since that time, only two branches of government have remained inside the State House. New Jersey’s third constitution () restructured the courts and expanded the powers of the chief executive. Consequently, the state called for replacing the capitol altogether with a building of steel, glass, and concrete, but lacked funds. Only as the nation prepared to celebrate its bicentennial did architectural historians recognize the building’s

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New Jersey State Library

importance. Designation of the State House Historic District followed, and the legislature launched a major restoration in . The restored legislative wings reopened in  in time to celebrate the capitol’s two-hundredth anniversary. The end of the century witnessed the repair and restoration of the building’s most prominent feature, its gilded dome and rotunda. After numerous additions and alterations, the State House stands as an enduring symbol of New Jersey’s evolving government. Chalifoux, Matthew S. “The Architectural Evolution of the Legislative Chambers of the New Jersey State House, –.’’ In Public Art in New Jersey during the Period of the American Renaissance. Wayne: Museums Council of New Jersey, . Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, and William Seale. Temples of Democracy: The State Capitols of the U.S.A. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, .

See also illustration, color section

Philip A. Hayden

New Jersey State Library.

See State

New Jersey Symphony Orchestra with Zdenek Macal, music director emeritus, c. .

Courtesy New Jersey Symphony Orchestra. Photo: Eduardo Patino.

Library.

New Jersey State Museum. See State Museum.

New Jersey State Opera.

Founded in  as an amateur opera club, the group became Opera Theatre of Westfield when conductor Alfredo Silipigni became its first professional artistic director in  (still the director in ). From  to , the company made Newark’s Symphony Hall its home base, changing its name in  to reflect a goal to present a full season of grand opera. At its height in the late s, the company presented three operas a season and six free summer concerts in public parks with renowned singers like Jerome Hines, Licia Albanese, Placido Domingo, Beverly Sills, Birgit Nilsson, Robert Merrill, and Roberta Peters. It moved to the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark in . Operas by Puccini and Verdi staged in a fully grand style are the company’s mainstay, but occasional world or local premieres, like Ulysses Kay’s Frederick Douglass () or Robert Kapilow’s Many Moons () have been presented. See also opera

Willa Conrad

New Jersey State Police.

See State

Police.

New Jersey State Police Museum and Learning Center. Established in , the New Jersey State Police Museum is dedicated to preserving the memories and traditions of those who have served throughout the history of the New Jersey State Police. Exhibitions of photographs, videos, and

artifacts show the evolution of the state police force from its founding in  to the present. Located in West Trenton, the Museum and Learning Center is also the largest repository of physical evidence and documents from the Lindbergh kidnapping case. Materials presented at the “trial of the century,’’ as well as more than , pages of documents, are available to the public. See also museums; State Police

Mark W. Falzini

New Jersey State Prison. See Trenton State Prison

New Jersey state seal.

See state seal.

New Jersey state symbols.

See state

symbols.

New Jersey State Tuberculosis Sanatorium. This state medical institution was established in  in Glen Gardner as a model institution demonstrating the most current methods of tuberculosis treatment— bed rest, isolation, good nutrition, and fresh air. The buildings were designed so that fresh air was available in all rooms. By , , patients had passed through the facility. With the development of the antibiotic streptomycin in the s, the number of tuberculosis patients declined. The facility was converted into the New Jersey Hospital for Chest Diseases in  and the Garrett W. Hagedorn Gero-Psychiatric Hospital in . Carrington, Thomas Spees. Tuberculosis Hospital and Sanatorium Construction. New York: Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Stacy E. Spies

New Jersey Symphony Orchestra. Although based in Newark, the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra fulfills its mission as a state orchestra by giving over  concerts each year throughout the state. Classical and pops subscription concerts are presented in seven different locations—Englewood, Morristown, Newark, New Brunswick, Red Bank, Princeton, and Trenton. In addition, the orchestra offers a wide-ranging educational program, reaching students in all twenty-one New Jersey counties annually, with a variety of programs from instrumental workshops to full orchestral performances. A Young Artists Competition, free summer pops performances in parks, and special events round out each season. The New Jersey Symphony Orchestra was founded in , but the orchestra traces its beginnings to , when the Eintracht Men’s Choral Society of Newark was established. The orchestra became fully professional under the leadership of Kenneth Schermerhorn in the late s. Henry Lewis, music director in the s, brought the NJSO into the first rank of American orchestras and expanded the ensemble’s outreach. Over the last two decades, under the leaderships of Hugh Wolff and Zdenek Macal, the seventy-six-member NJSO has achieved new artistic stature. See also orchestras

Lawrence Tamburri

New Jersey Tap Ensemble. The New Jersey Tap Ensemble (NJTE) was founded in  by its artistic director Deborah Mitchell, ´ ge ´ of Leslie tap dancer/teacher and prote “Bubba’’ Gaines, member of the ultimate rhythm tap group, the Copasetics. The NJTE is composed of three companies: the First Company of Principal Dancers, the Teen Repertory

New Jersey Turnpike Company, and the Youth Company, composed of apprentice dancers ages seven to twelve. The NJTE’s home is Montclair, but its members, representing various ethnic, cultural, and economic backgrounds, hail from every part of New Jersey and its environs. The company has performed in New York’s Town Hall and Lincoln Center, as well as the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. See also dance

NEW JERSEY TRANSIT PASSENGER RAIL SYSTEM

PORT JERVIS LINE PASCACK VALLEY LINE MAIN LINE & BERGEN COUNTY LINE

Beth S. Bloom

MONTCLAIR-BOONTON LINE

New Jersey Theatre Alliance. With offices in Madison, the New Jersey Theatre Alliance is the consortium of not-for-profit, fully professional theaters of New Jersey. Established in  as the New Jersey Theatre Group, its purpose is to increase public awareness, appreciation, and support for theater in New Jersey. Since its founding it has grown to its current twenty-three members. Its first goal of raising New Jersey to a nationally acclaimed theater community has long been accomplished. In , the New Jersey Theatre Group changed its name to the New Jersey Theatre Alliance. See also theater

MORRIS & ESSEX LINES

NYC

RARITAN VALLEY LINE

Paul Somers

New Jersey Transit. New Jersey Transit is the division of the New Jersey Department of Transportation that operates buses, the Newark subway, and an extensive network of commuter rail lines. Created in , it is best known for the rail operations that it took over on January , . While private railroads initiated commuter rail service that made it both feasible and attractive to work in New York, Newark, or Philadelphia and live in outlying New Jersey, the service was provided at a mounting financial loss. After World War II, the collapse of anthracite coal traffic, which had been the most profitable commodity for most area railroads, meant the losses could no longer be sustained. The state refused any aid until , when it bought some equipment for the bankrupt Jersey Central. In the early s, the U.S. Congress hoped solvent railroads would operate routes of the bankrupt carriers, notably the Penn Central, but they refused to provide service east of a line between Albany and Harrisburg, with New Jersey taxes and New Jersey commuter losses as major reasons. In , when the federally financed Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail) was set up to operate routes of the bankrupt carriers, it ran commuter services with state subsidies. In the Conrail Restructuring Act of , Congress mandated that Conrail cease operation of all passenger services as soon as arrangements could be made with state authorities. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania had already established state-run commuter operations, but at that point, New Jersey, along with Maryland, New York, and Connecticut, had no choice but to do so as well.

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NORTHEAST CORRIDOR LINE NORTH JERSEY COAST LINE

PHILADELPHIA

ATLANTIC CITY LINE N

0

10 miles

© Rutgers, The State University

New Jersey Transit is considered a successful operation that (in ) efficiently gets , rail passengers and , bus passengers to and from work each day and has vastly improved services since the days of private operation. Saunders,Richard, Jr. Merging Lines: The American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, . ———. The Rebirth of the American Railroads, – . De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, .

See also bus companies; railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

New Jersey Turnpike. The New Jersey Turnpike is the nation’s busiest limitedaccess, nonstop toll road,  miles long, and ranging from four to twelve lanes in width. Much of the highway traffic between the major seaports of New York and New Jersey passes along this roadway. There are twentyseven interchanges for entry and exit from the

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New Jersey v. T.L.O

New Jersey v. T.L.O.

Aerial view of New Jersey Turnpike Interchange .

Courtesy New Jersey Turnpike Authority/Thomas A. Suszka. turnpike, numbered from  at the southern end to W at the northern terminus. There are twelve service areas located along the turnpike to provide food, restrooms, fuel, auto services, gift shops, and convenience stores. Each service area is named for a well-known New Jerseyan. Average spacing between service areas is twenty miles. The initiative for building the turnpike started with Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll, who persuaded lawmakers to enact legislation authorizing the turnpike in October . No state tax money was to be used to fund the project; instead, turnpike revenue bonds were to be issued, payable from tolls. Proponents were quick to point out that about a third of the tolls would be paid by out-of-state traffic. The  legislation called for the governor to appoint three unsalaried commissioners to oversee the project. In  Paul L. Troast was named first chairman of the turnpike commission. Later that year, Gen. W. W. Wanamaker, a retired career officer from the Army Corps of Engineers, was named executive director, a paid and full-time post. The first -mile section opened to traffic in November , linking Deepwater in southern New Jersey to Bordentown in central New Jersey. Later that year, an additional  miles became operational, with the final  miles of the turnpike mainline connecting Newark with Ridgefield Park opening to traffic in January . The entire project—spanning from the Delaware Memorial Bridge to the George Washington Bridge—was completed in twentythree months, said at the time to be an “engineering marvel.’’ The Hudson County Extension, an -mile segment connecting the mainline at Newark

Airport with the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City, was completed in . That same year the turnpike finished a -mile direct connection with the Pennsylvania Turnpike. In  the turnpike completed an interchange complex at the Lincoln Tunnel. Over the years, there have been a number of controversial widening projects. In  the turnpike unveiled its new electronic toll-collection system (EZPass), which helped to reduce toll plaza congestion. Because the roadway is so well known and so heavily traveled, it has become identified with the state in the minds of many out-ofstate and foreign visitors—a fact that perhaps contributes to New Jersey’s image problem. Critics say the turnpike is ugly, heavy with truck traffic, and cuts through urban wastelands and industrial blight. Yet some New Jerseyans, such as Bruce Springsteen, celebrate the turnpike for its awesome, gritty reality. In any event, the turnpike has become an icon of popular culture, an immediately recognizable symbol, used for example in the opening credits of The Sopranos, a popular television series about New Jersey mobsters. Gillespie, Angus Kress, and Michael Aaron Rockland. Looking for America on the New Jersey Turnpike. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hirsch, Werner Z. The Economics of State and Local Governments. New York: McGraw-Hill, . Smith, Robert G. Ad Hoc Governments: Special Purpose Transportation Authorities in Britain and the United States. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, . Walsh, Annmarie Hauck. The Public’s Business: The Politics and Practices of Government Corporations. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, .

See also turnpikes

highways;

transportation;

Angus Kress Gillespie

This case concerned a female freshman at Piscataway High School (identified as “T.L.O.’’), and raised important questions concerning if and to what extent the Fourth Amendment dealing with “unreasonable’’ searches and seizures applies to conduct of public school officials. Accused of smoking in a lavatory, T.L.O. denied that she smoked at all. A school official searched her purse, and found not only cigarettes but also equipment and supplies commonly associated with marijuana use. The New Jersey Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment did indeed apply to searches conducted by such administrators. A majority of the court also held that in this instance the search was unconstitutional. The U.S. Supreme Court in part affirmed and in part reversed this decision. The high court held the Fourth Amendment applicable, but a majority concluded that the question of “reasonableness’’ involved simply whether the search as conducted was “reasonably related in scope to the circumstances which justified the interference in the first place.’’ Here, they found the school official had ample justification for the search. This case remains law, and is typical of numerous holdings that affirm applicability of an amendment in general terms, but not in specific instances. See also search and seizure

Jonathan Lurie

New Jersey Waterfowlers Association. A grassroots volunteer organization, the New Jersey Waterfowlers Association (NJWA) is composed mainly of waterfowl hunters dedicated to the preservation, promotion, and protection of wildfowl and the sport of wildfowling. NJWA was incorporated in . It has approximately nine hundred members— sportsmen and women striving to conserve resources, promote good sportsmanship related to the maximum utilization of New Jersey’s wildfowl resources, and increase knowledge of the sport of waterfowling. Among the NJWA programs that benefit the New Jersey sporting community and the general populace are nest box programs, an annual hunting-retriever trial, technical committee activities, and demonstrations at major outdoor sporting shows. Member benefits include a quarterly newsletter and free boatlaunching privileges at certain ramps. See also hunting

Joseph Marty Boa

New Milford.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Founded in  and known as the birthplace of Bergen County, New Milford began as a farming community with wheat as the principal crop. The first mill on the Hackensack River was built by David DeMarest, an early French Huguenot settler. Demarest Landing, which bears his name, was an important shipping point for iron

New Netherland

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Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, .

NEW JERSEY TURNPIKE

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

VINCE LOMBARDI

16W 15W 15E 14 13A

95

17 16E 18E

GROVER CLEVELAND

11

MOLLY PITCHER

14 A-C

13 12

10 8A

THOMAS EDISON

JOYCE KILMER

8

WOODROW WILSON

7A

6

RICHARD STOCKTON

7

JAMES FENIMORE COOPER

5

WALT WHITMAN

4

JOHN FENWICK

3 2 1 CLARA BARTON

N

Interchange Service Area

0

20 miles @Rutgers, The State University

ore, grain, and supplies. The historic French Huguenot Church and cemetery are located here. The New Bridge Inn, built in , is still in operation today. One of the town’s earliest industries was the pottery works of George Wolfkiel. Begun in , it used red clay from the bed and banks of the Hackensack River. Mary Jane Bell made wampum in the s, helping fill the overflow orders from John Campbell’s Park Ridge factory. The onceactive shad fishing industry ended after construction of the Hackensack Water Company

Linda J. Barth

18W

ALEXANDER HAMILTON

9

Smith, Leon A., ed. The Story of New Milford, New Jersey, Birthplace of Bergen County. New Milford: Borough of New Milford, .

dam. When Hackensack Township was divided in , New Milford became part of Palisade Township. In  it joined with Oradell to form the new town of Delford, and, in , became an independent borough. Although New Milford still has two working farms, it is today mainly a bedroom community for commuters who work in New York City. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

New Netherland. The  exploratory voyage of the Dutch East India Company’s ship Halve Maen (Half Moon) defined the limits of what became the Dutch territory of New Netherland, from Delaware Bay to the Connecticut River. Ironically, the ship’s captain, Henry Hudson, was English, but would be instrumental in establishing a European colony that would compete with England in its drive for hegemony in North America. Shortly after the Halve Maen’s explorations, the States General of the Netherlands licensed various Dutch cartels to trade with the natives in the major waterways from Maine to Virginia. Competition became so fierce and bloody by  that the New Netherland Company was established to stabilize the situation. Trading cartels were allowed to send out four voyages within three years between the latitudes of  and  degrees (Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, to Eastport, Maine). The main base of operations became Fort Nassau, located on Castle Island, presently the Port of Albany. From this trading post expeditions were sent into the interior in search of exploitable natural resources. Expiration of the New Netherland Company’s commission coincided with the destruction of Fort Nassau by a spring flood. Once again, Dutch traders resorted to cutthroat competition. It was not until the Dutch West India Company was chartered by the central government of the United Provinces of the Netherlands that the situation was brought back under monopolistic control. The West India Company was formed in  as a joint-stock company on the model of the highly successful Dutch East India Company. The company’s area of operation extended from the west coast of Africa as far south as Angola, and westward across the Americas to the outermost reaches of the Indonesian archipelago. By  the West India Company began establishing outposts in its holdings in North America, which were configured mostly by the Delaware, Hudson, and Connecticut river watersheds. After some initial experiments with satellite trading posts supported by agricultural communities along these three river systems, Manhattan, purchased by Peter Minuit in , was selected as the administrative center of the colony. The island’s central location made it ideal for warehousing and shipping furs to the Netherlands. It also had a good, ice-free harbor, and was large enough to sustain any number of support farms. After some

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New Providence

serious missteps with the Mohawks, the easternmost nation of the Iroquois Confederacy, the Dutch forged a strong alliance with these native Americans who controlled the most important trade route to the interior of the continent. A symbiotic relationship was established in which the Dutch provided the Mohawks with the tools and weapons necessary to sustain themselves against the French-supplied tribes to the north, while the Mohawks delivered furs in a fairly steady stream to Fort Orange (present-day Albany, New York). Under the early directorships of Peter Minuit (–) and Wouter van Twiller (–), New Netherland grew slowly and almost seemed to stagnate. People wishing to emigrate from Holland chose other places to seek their fortunes, such as France, England, the East Indies, and the West India Company’s own Brazilian possession, New Holland. In  a faction of the West India Company, led by Kiliaen van Rensselaer, attempted to stimulate interest in New Netherland by privatizing colonization. Patroons, mostly directors of the company, were allowed to negotiate for tracts of land, which they were responsible to populate at their own expense. The patroonships were quasi-self-governing colonies, held as a perpetual fief with the right to pass along to the holder’s heirs. The only patroonship to outlast New Netherland was Rensselarswijck along the upper Hudson. All the others failed for various reasons, such as Swaenendael on Delaware Bay, which was destroyed by neighboring Indians, and Pavonia in New Jersey, which reverted to the West India Company for lack of funding. Although the Manhattan area was devastated by a protracted war with the native Americans during Willem Kieft’s administration (–), New Netherland began to thrive under the directorship of Petrus Stuyvesant (–). The surge in development and population growth coincides with the fall of Dutch Brazil to the Portuguese in . This freed up human and financial resources for the West India Company’s longneglected interests in North America. The end of the first Anglo-Dutch war (–) in the same year created a feeling of optimism and security in New Netherland. Increased activity of private traders, especially encouraged by Stuyvesant’s relations with the Caribbean, augured well for the future. Finally, the elimination of Sweden’s colony on the Delaware as a political and commercial competitor led to the city of Amsterdam’s establishment of a colony within New Netherland called Nieuwer Amstel. The future seemed bright. The West India Company was focusing more attention on New Netherland after the loss of Brazil; peace with England had turned potentially hostile waters into lucrative trading routes. All this changed, however, when Charles II, king of England, granted the territory containing New

Netherland to his brother James, duke of York and Albany. On August , , without a declaration of war, Petrus Stuyvesant was forced to surrender his colony to an English fleet commanded by Richard Nicolls. Nine years later the Dutch recaptured their former possession during the third Anglo-Dutch war (–), only to bargain it away at the Treaty of Westminster in . This final transfer of control to the English Crown began a long process of accommodation, adaptation, and assimilation. The Dutch language and traditions survived for generations largely through the unifying force of the Dutch Reformed Church. Tensions continued between the descendants of the New Netherland settlers and the English until after the Revolution, when all became citizens of a new country. Blackburn, Roderic H. Remembrance of Patria: Dutch Arts and Culture in Colonial America, –. Albany: Albany Institute of History and Art, . Fabend, Firth Haring. Zion on the Hudson: Dutch New York and New Jersey in the Age of Revivals. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rink, Oliver A. Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of the Dutch People. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

See also Dutch; map, color section

Charles T. Gehring

New Providence. .-square-mile borough in Union County. The first families to settle in portions of the Passaic Valley, between the Second and Third Mountain, arrived in the s. Many of these early families came from Elizabethtown and Long Island. The area was called Turkey, possibly because of the abundant number of turkeys. The Presbyterian Church was established by , which formed the center of the settlement. In  the balcony of the church collapsed during a service, and because everyone was spared, it was considered an act of providence, which led the town eventually to being renamed New Providence. Union County was important in the Revolutionary War; there are fortyeight Continental Army solders buried in the Presbyterian Church Cemetery. In  Springfield Township was divided. New Providence Township was formed from this division and included the towns of Summit, Berkeley Heights, and New Providence. The Borough of New Providence was incorporated in . New Providence was well known in the early s for the large number of greenhouses, which grew roses. This industry thrived up until the late s. Today the borough is mostly residential, but houses such leading businesses as C. R. Bard, BOC Group, Lucent Technologies, and Reed Reference Publishing. The population in  was ,;  percent was white. The median household income was $, in the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Clayton, W. Woodford. History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Many of Their Pioneers and Prominent Men. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Honeyman, A.Van Doren. History of Union County, New Jersey, –. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

John A. Bale

newspapers.

Newspapers in colonial America fueled the fervor for revolution against Great Britain, but New Jersey was slow to establish a printing center. The colony, sandwiched between New York and Philadelphia, turned to those two cities for news, information, and rabble-rousing and was the last of the thirteen original colonies to have its own newspaper. In  James Parker brought a printing press to Woodbridge; he published the New American Magazine there from  to . He had expressed plans to publish a newspaper from his shop as well but complained in a letter to Benjamin Franklin that the Stamp Act made those aspirations unrealistic. William Goddard, however, used Parker’s print shop in Woodbridge to publish one edition of the Constitutional Courant in September  in protest of passage of the Stamp Act. The pointed essays within that single edition were so incendiary that editors in New York shied away from reprinting them. New Jersey also was home to the Plain-Dealer, which was not really a newspaper; it was a handwritten sheet posted on the wall in Matthew Potter’s tavern in Bridgeton and lasted for eight issues from  to . In  New York printer Hugh Gaine moved his New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury to Newark, where he printed seven weekly editions of his Tory paper before returning to Manhattan. Although lacking their own newspaper, New Jersey residents had access to papers published by both Tories and Whigs. The New-York Gazetteer, a prominent Tory journal, enjoyed a large circulation in New Jersey, but after fighting broke out the paper was boycotted. Patriots burned copies of the paper and hanged the printer, James Rivington, in effigy. After the Revolutionary War began, it was more difficult for New Jerseyans to receive newspapers from other colonies, and it became clear that the residents needed a newspaper published within the colony. On December , , the first issue of the NewJersey Gazette was published in Burlington by Isaac Collins. Collins had the permission of New Jersey governor William Livingston, who believed that New Jerseyans needed a newspaper to whip up support for independence. The paper was also subsidized by the state legislature. Collins printed letters, official documents, and news of battles gleaned from reports by witnesses to the fighting. In February , printer Shepard Kollock, who reportedly was released from military service with orders to start a weekly Patriot newspaper in northern New Jersey, founded the New-Jersey Journal in Chatham. Both Kollock and Collins were forced to cease publishing or move their shops in order to avoid

New York and Long Branch Railroad enemy capture. The Gazette folded in . The Journal ceased publication in  when Kollock moved to New York, but he relocated the newspaper to Elizabethtown in  and began publishing the Journal from there. The -year-old Daily Journal was New Jersey’s oldest newspaper and the second oldest in the country when it folded on January , . The nineteenth century saw the establishment of most of the newspapers that continue to circulate in New Jersey. All of New Jersey’s biggest cities—Camden, Elizabeth, Jersey City, Newark, Paterson, and Trenton—were served by newspapers, sometimes by more than one. However, the colonial phenomenon of turning north or south for news and information continues today. In fact, four of the nation’s largest newspapers (the Wall Street Journal, USA Today, the New York Times, and the Daily News) regularly circulate in New Jersey. New Jersey’s homegrown newspapers cannot compete in coverage of national and international news, but they have thrived on their strength: coverage of local and county news in an increasingly suburban state. Cities that once had competing dailies now have only one newspaper, and the coverage in that newspaper has shifted in large part away from the urban center to encompass nearby suburbs. As newspapers attempted to expand their identities beyond their cities’ borders, the Courier News dropped Plainfield from its title, Camden was taken off the masthead of the CourierPost, and the Times of Trenton abandoned its home city’s identity. In Newark, when the afternoon newspaper, the Evening News (it had dropped the name Newark from its title years before), folded in , the Newhouse-owned Star-Ledger seized the opportunity to grow and spread its influence throughout the northern counties. Although the media tug to the north and south slowed the growth of newspapers in New Jersey, editors from twenty-six newspapers in the state banded together in  to form the New Jersey Press Association (NJPA) to further the interests of state newspapers. The NJPA was instrumental in obtaining passage of the nation’s first shield law in  to protect journalists from being compelled to disclose their sources. The state also saw the consolidation of ownership of most of its newspapers. The Newhouse newspaper chain made inroads into the state with ownership of the Star-Ledger and the Jersey Journal. Gannett, the nation’s largest newspaper chain, steadily grew in New Jersey, ultimately owning the Asbury Park Press, Courier News, Courier-Post, Home News Tribune, Daily Journal of Vineland-Millville, and the Daily Record of Morristown-Parsippany.

Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, . Thomas, Isaiah. The History of Printing in America. . Reprint. Barre, MA: Imprint Society, .

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Journal, – in Its Historical Context. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell International, . Johnson, Amandus. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware, –.  vols. Philadelphia: Swedish Colonial Society, .

See also Swedes

Daily Newspapers Asbury Park Press (daily and Sunday) Bridgeton News (M–Sat.) Burlington County Times (M–F) Courier News (Bridgewater) (daily and Sunday) Courier-Post (Cherry Hill) (daily and Sunday) Daily Journal (Vineland-Millville) (M–Sat.) Daily Record (Morristown-Parsippany) (daily and Sunday) Gloucester County Times (daily and Sunday) Herald News (Passaic) (daily and Sunday) Home News Tribune (East Brunswick) (daily and Sunday) Jersey Journal ( Jersey City) (M–Sat.) New Jersey Herald (Newton) (M–F and Sunday) Ocean County Observer (daily and Sunday) Press of Atlantic City (daily and Sunday) The Record (Hackensack) (daily and Sunday) Star-Ledger (Newark) (daily and Sunday) The Times (Trenton) (daily and Sunday) Today’s Sunbeam (Salem County) (daily and Sunday) Trentonian (Trenton) (daily and Sunday)

New Sweden. The New Sweden Company

Hixson, Richard F. The Press in Revolutionary New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Society, .

founded the colony of New Sweden in the lower Delaware Valley in March  in order to carry on trade in furs and tobacco. New Sweden’s centers were present-day Wilmington, Delaware; Philadelphia; and western New Jersey. The conditions that threatened other North American colonies imperiled New Sweden. Sweden’s European preoccupations made contact with its colony irregular. The New Sweden Company was badly undercapitalized, even after the Swedish government effectively took it over in , and there were never enough settlers to establish a strong Swedish presence on the ground. Often the colony’s basic needs had to be met by its neighbors—the Indians, the Dutch of New Netherland, and itinerant English traders. The Dutch and the English both claimed the Delaware River, and disputed New Sweden’s very existence. In September , a Dutch expedition from New Amsterdam captured the colony, almost bloodlessly. Sweden never made a serious effort to regain it. Most settlers remained, however. They and their descendants preserved Swedish and Finnish culture (the settlers included a large percentage of ethnic Finns) in the Delaware Valley well into the eighteenth century. New Sweden may be the American source of the log cabin and the worm fence, and perhaps the sauna, as well.

Hudson, Frederic. Journalism in the United States from  to . . Reprint. New York: Harper and Row, .

Dahlgren, Stellan, and Hans Norman, eds. The Rise and Fall of New Sweden: Governor Johan Risingh’s

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Richard Waldron

Newton.

.-square-mile town in Sussex County. Originally located in Morris County, in  Newton became part of newly formed Sussex County, and in  was designated as the county seat. The previous year Jonathan Hampton had purchased a large tract of land from Thomas and Richard Penn, and he used the new status to plot out a town around a central green. The county courthouse and jail were quickly built there and homes and businesses followed. Located on the trade route to New York and parts west, the town grew. In the nineteenth century factories arrived, then the Sussex Railroad in , which led to a building boom, including shoe factories and other industries as well as a large hotel. In the s residential areas developed, and after World War II the number of homes rapidly increased. With Routes  and  running through town, it continues to serve as a conduit for traffic north and west. There has been recent interest in the town’s historic structures, along with an effort to revitalize the main commercial center. Newton’s  population was , residents; of these  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gordon, Kate, and Wayne T. McCabe. Newton. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, . ———. A Penny a View: An Album of Postcard Views, Newton, New Jersey. Newton: Historic Preservation Alternatives, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Newton Up to Date. . Reprint. Washington: Hicks Printing Company, . Wright, Kevin W. Around the Green: Newton, New Jersey. Newton: Minisink Press, .

Cynthia Hammell

New Vernon.

See Harding.

New York and Long Branch Railroad. The New York and Long Branch Railroad was created in  from several components running forty miles between Perth Amboy and Bay Head Junction. It served Matawan, Red Bank, Long Branch, Asbury Park, Bradley Beach, Belmar, Spring Lake, Sea Girt, Manasquan, and Point Pleasant. In , it was purchased jointly by the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Its traffic was mostly passengers going to North Jersey beaches. It operated the trains of its owners, having no equipment of its own. Passengers rode either a Pennsylvania Railroad train to Newark and New York, or a Jersey Central train

584

New York Central Railroad

to Elizabeth, Bayonne, and Jersey City. Its services were taken over by New Jersey Transit in . Wood, Don, Joel Rosenbaum, and Tom Gallo. The Unique New York and Long Branch. Earlton, NY: Audio-Visual Designs, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

New York Central Railroad.

The New York Central’s only presence in New Jersey was the line along the west bank of the Hudson River built by the New York, West Shore, and Buffalo Railroad in , backed secretly by the Pennsylvania Railroad as nuisance competition for the Central’s main line on the east bank. It was acquired by the Central in , and languished as a secondary line. Passenger operations, both commuter and medium-distance to Albany, served by ferries from New York to Weehawken, were extensive but lost money and were discontinued on December , . When the New York Central and Pennsylvania Railroads merged in  to create the Penn Central, much of the traffic that formerly arrived at the New Jersey waterfront on the PRR, which had to carry it up and over the Allegheny Mountains, could be routed via the New York Central’s Water Level Route, and come down the West Shore, now generally known as the River Line. A huge marshaling yard to handle this traffic was built at Selkirk, New York, near Albany. Thus a line that had been of marginal importance became one of the principal freight conduits to the New Jersey waterfront. It became part of Conrail in , and when Conrail was split in , part of CSX Transportation. Saunders, Richard, Jr. Merging Lines: American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

New York Giants.

One of the oldest franchises in the National Football League, the team has been owned by the Mara family since Tim Mara purchased it in . Mara named the team the New York Football Giants and it began play in the old Polo Grounds, home of the baseball New York Giants of the National League. The baseball team’s name derived from the many “giant’’ buildings in New York, and Mara believed the name would help his team attract fans in a sports era dominated by baseball, boxing, and college football. The team moved to Yankee Stadium in the Bronx in . It played two seasons at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut, in  and , and one season at Shea Stadium in New York the following year. It moved to its current home, Giants Stadium in East Rutherford, in . Through the  season, the Giants had won eighteen NFL divisional championships and seven NFL championships. It won Super Bowl champi-

onships after the  and  seasons but lost in its third Super Bowl appearance after the  season. The team restored the “NY’’ logo to its helmets in , twenty-five years after it was replaced with just “GIANTS’’ to appease New Jersey fans and state officials. Burt, Jim, and Hank Gola. Hard Nose: The Story of the  Giants. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, . Whittingham, Richard. Giants, in Their Own Words. Chicago: Contemporary Books, .

See also football

Rudy Larini

New York Jets.

The New York Jets were founded in  as the New York Titans, and played in the American Football League (AFL). In  a five-man group, led by David “Sonny’’ Werblin, purchased the team from Harry Wismer, and the name was changed to the New York Jets. In  the Jets left the Polo Grounds and moved into Shea Stadium. In , with the coaching of Weeb Ewbank and the quarterbacking of Joe Namath, the Jets stunned the football world by defeating the heavily favored Baltimore Colts of the National Football League by a score of – in Super Bowl III, becoming the first AFL team to win the championship. In , following the AFL–NFL merger, the American Football League became the American Football Conference (AFC), and the Jets played in the first televised Monday night football game that September, losing to Cleveland. Since the team’s foundation, the Jets have appeared in the playoffs in ten different seasons, winning four division titles, one AFL Championship, and one Superbowl. In  the Jets moved into Giants stadium at the Meadowlands in East Rutherford. Jets elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame include coach Weeb Ewbank, quarterback Joe Namath, wide receiver Don Maynard, running back John Riggins, and safety Ronnie Lott. The team is currently owned by Robert Wood Johnson IV.

Ryczek, William J. Crash of the Titans: the Early Years of the New York Jets and the AFL. Kingston, NY: Total Sports, .

See also football

Brian McGonigle

New York Mercury. With British troops poised to take over New York in , printer Hugh Gaine packed his gear and headed for Newark. There, for seven weeks starting on September , this Scots-Irish emigrant from Belfast continued to publish the paper he had founded in : the New York Gazette and Weekly Mercury. Gaine was a pragmatist, but more Loyalist than revolutionary (Tom Paine had likened the Mercury to the London Gazette), and the New York printer aroused Patriot suspicion in Newark. So he recrossed the Hudson after the November  issue of the Newark Mercury and found favor in Manhattan with the British, who in his absence

had published a strictly royalist version of his paper. Bailyn, Bernard, and John B. Hench, eds. The Press and the American Revolution. Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, . Hixson, Richard F. The Press in Revolutionary New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also newspapers

Edward A. Jardim

New York, Ontario, and Western Railway. The New York, Ontario, and Western Railway extended from Cornwall, New York, to Scranton, Pennsylvania, and Oswego, New York. It served New Jersey only peripherally on a route south of Cornwall to Weehawken through Dumont, Teaneck, Little Ferry, and North Bergen over tracks owned by the New York Central’s West Shore Line. Relatively little freight was handled to New Jersey points, but passenger traffic to Catskill Mountain resorts was substantial until after World War II. Incorporated in , it missed every population center and crossed every mountain range at right angles. It never made much money, and entered receivership in . All passenger service ended in . In  the Bankruptcy Court of the Southern District of New York ordered the road abandoned and liquidated, and the trains ran for the last time on March , . Krause, John, and Ed Crist. The Final Years: New York, Ontario, and Western Railway. Newton: Carstens Publications, . Mohowski, Robert E. The New York, Ontario, and Western in the Diesel Age. Andover: Andover Junction Publications, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

New York Shipbuilding Corporation. Incorporated by Henry G. Morse in , the New York Shipbuilding Corporation was originally intended to open on Staten Island (hence the name). The company relocated to a site with better land, riverfront, and rail facilities in Camden, New Jersey. Morse, an experienced builder of bridges and tunnels, planned the construction of his new shipyard on five basic principles: First, New York Shipbuilding (NYS) used a template system, which separated fabrication and assembly. Second, major parts were prefabricated. Third, a system of overhead cranes and rail lines allowed easy and logical movement of parts throughout the yard. Fourth, the construction of covered shipways enabled work to continue regardless of weather conditions. And fifth, the completion of many tasks, including the installation of heavy machinery, occurred before launching. Morse’s theories on shipbuilding made NYS the first truly modern shipyard. Expansion during World War I and World War II increased the yard from its original  acres to  acres, making NYS the world’s largest shipyard.

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contract was for the navy supply ship, USS Camden. During its existence, NYS was a primary employer in the Camden area. New York Shipbuilding Corporation. Fifty Years: New York Shipbuilding Corporation. Camden: The Corporation, . Records of New York Shipbuilding Corporation. Camden County Historical Society manuscript collection.

Joanne Seitter

New York, Susquehanna, and Western Railway. This railroad was

Several shipyard workers stand underneath a piece of the hull for the SS Nora at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, c. .

Photo copyright Corbis. NYS laid the keel for its first ship, the tanker MS Dollar (later renamed the J. M. Guffey) in , and launched it in . The yard was responsible for all major categories of ship construction, from tugboats to ocean liners. In , the company won its first navy contract, for the USS Washington (ACR-), and by  was a leader in naval construction. To meet demand for naval construction with the United States’ entry into World War I, NYS expanded its facilities with the South Yard in Gloucester City, built in cooperation with the Emergency Fleet Corporation, which also built housing specifically for shipyard workers, Yorkship Village (later renamed Fairview). Postwar construction continued on navy contracts and included the USS Saratoga (CV-). Originally laid down as a battle cruiser, it was converted to an aircraft carrier. During the Depression, employment dropped to , workers, its lowest point since the opening of the yard. To continue providing employment during this and other slow times, NYS engaged in nonship construction: it manufactured

structural steel, bridge girders, and parts for tunnels. At peak production during World War II, NYS employed , workers (including , women) and  draftsmen. It consisted of over two million square feet of manufacturing space, twelve miles of railroad track, five miles of paved roads, and thirty shipways, as well as its own hospital and fire departments. During that time, NYS built twenty-six heavy combatant ships for the U.S. Navy. Included in this number were the battleship USS South Dakota (BB-) and nine Independence class light aircraft carriers. In all, seventy ships originally built for the navy saw service in World War II. NYS also designed and built  landing craft in . In , Merritt Chapman Scott acquired NYS in a takeover and continued to run the shipyard until it closed in . During the postwar period, the yard constructed over thirty vessels, including the carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CVA-) and the first nuclear-powered passenger-cargo vessel, the Savannah. Its last

built as the New Jersey Midland Railway in the s and chartered under its present name in . It connected the anthracite coalfields of Pennsylvania to Edgewater, New Jersey, passing through Blairstown, Sparta, Beaver Lake, Butler, Pompton Lakes, Paterson, and Little Ferry. It was the least successful of the anthracite roads. The Erie controlled it from  to  and operated it as little more than a minor branch. By the s commuter service seriously drained its profits, and it entered bankruptcy in , when no trains had operated west of Butler for some time and abandonment seemed likely. The New Jersey Department of Transportation asked Walter Rich, a railroad entrepreneur from upstate New York, to reorganize the N Y S & W. Rich saw an opportunity to develop an intermodal container facility on Susquehanna land at Little Ferry. The terminal was built by Sea-Land, a transglobal container operation then owned by CSX. Rich reopened the Susquehanna tracks west of Butler and pieced together a route over his Delaware-Otsego lines in New York, the Delaware and Hudson Railway to Buffalo, and a connection with CSX and Norfolk Southern. Soon, long container trains from the West Coast were arriving at Little Ferry in direct competition with Conrail. Through the s and s, the nearly defunct Susquehanna returned to vibrant life. But when Conrail was bought and split between CSX and Norfolk Southern, the whole reason for a competitive route ended and the container trains to Little Ferry were handled by CSX’s own River Line up the Hudson Valley to Selkirk (Albany). The Susquehanna’s brief role in transglobal shipping came to an abrupt end. Drury, George, comp. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads. d ed. Waukesha, WI: Kalmbach Books, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, . Saunders, Richard, Jr. The Rebirth of the American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

NFL Films. In  Ed Sabol, an amateur filmmaker, won the rights to film the National Football League (NFL) championship game. He then convinced NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle that the league should have its

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own motion picture and television production company. NFL Films, part-owned by the National Football League and its team owners, moved from Philadelphia to Mount Laurel in . It covers every NFL game, generating footage for its own programs as well as ESPN and Fox Sports Network. It now also covers other sports, including professional golf and the United States Open tennis tournament. Firm president Steve Sabol moved NFL Films to a new, expanded Mount Laurel headquarters in . It has about  employees. See also football

Jim Donnelly

contributed to an uprising in , conflict in the s, and riots between  and . The dispute also led to the Elizabethtown Bill in Chancery, the largest legal case filed in the colonial period. It was never resolved judicially, and ownership apparently was settled on the basis of possession, but not until numerous legal fees had been paid by both proprietors and residents. In the meantime, questions of title slowed settlement of East Jersey. Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also land riots

Nicolls patents.

In  the restored king of England, Charles II, granted land in America to his brother James, duke of York, who then sent Col. Richard Nicolls to the New World as his governor. While Nicolls was at sea, the duke granted the portion of his territory that became New Jersey to John, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret. In the period before Berkeley and Carteret’s governor, Philip Carteret, arrived in August , Nicolls, unaware of the duke’s action, approved two large land grants to men from Long Island. The first, known as the Elizabethtown grant, was later divided into Elizabethtown, Woodbridge, and Piscataway. The second, known as the Navesink or Monmouth grant, became the location of Middletown and Shrewsbury. Berkeley and Carteret refused to recognize the legitimacy of the Nicolls grants, leading to disputes over land titles that continued into the nineteenth century. The disagreements sometimes turned violent and

NICOLLS PATENTS

Maxine N. Lurie

Nicolson, Jack

(b. Apr. , ). Actor. John Joseph Nicolson was born in Neptune and was raised by his grandparents. He never knew his father, and until , when a Time researcher uncovered the facts of his birth, he thought his mother was an older sister. He graduated from Manasquan High School and headed to Hollywood for an apprenticeship with legendary exploitation movie producer Roger Corman. Easy Rider (), a low-budget biker film, became a surprise cult hit and gained Nicolson his first Oscar nomination. He is the most Oscar-nominated actor in history (Easy Rider, Five Easy Pieces, The Last Detail, Chinatown, Reds, Prizzi’s Honor, Ironweed, A Few Good Men, About Schmidt) and has won three times (One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest, Terms of Endearment [supporting], As Good as It Gets). In  Nicolson earned the American Film Institute’s Life Achievement Award, and in  he was a recipient of Kennedy Center Honors. Nicolson has been married twice (currently to Rebecca Boussard) and had a seventeenyear relationship with Angelika Huston; he has three children.

Marilyn Campbell

EAST JERSEY

Niederer, Otto, Sr.

(b. Apr. , ;

d. Sept. , ).

ElizabethTown

N

Monmouth

WEST JERSEY

0

20 miles

© Rutgers, The State University

Inventor and manufacturer. Born in Gais, Appenzell, Switzerland, Otto Niederer immigrated to the United States in , working briefly in embroidery in Union City. In , Niederer married Katherine Behnke of Paramus and turned to farming. He purchased a small dairy, poultry, and truck farm in Titusville. During the s, Niederer experimented with devices to automate the weight-grading and candling of eggs. With his sons, Niederer invented the first successful candler-grader in . The next year he founded Otto Niederer Sons, Inc., to manufacture and sell the machine under the trademark Egomatic. The company flourished, with a large market for its equipment in the many poultry farms then operating in New Jersey. Niederer’s line of Egomatic machines continued to be manufactured and sold nationwide and worldwide until the firm’s demise in . See also poultry industry

Karl J. Niederer

NJN.

See New Jersey Network.

NJPAC.

See

New Jersey Performing Arts

Center.

Noise Control Act.

This law was the first comprehensive approach to noise pollution. In  the legislature found that excessive noise had reached a dangerous level and that it could “degrade the quality of life.’’ The law delegated to the commissioner of the state Department of Environmental Protection the authority, in consultation with the Noise Control Council and other governmental agencies, to enforce the law and promulgate administrative regulations controlling noise levels. Noise was defined as sounds of such a level as to be injurious to human health or welfare or as to unreasonably interfere with the enjoyment of life or property, except in the workplace. Over the years since , the law has been amended to exempt shooting ranges, to permit cities to sound a siren or bell to signal a curfew hour for juveniles, and to prohibit sirens used to alert emergency personnel from being placed within  feet of an elementary school. The law does not supersede more stringent local noise regulations.

Robert F. Williams

nor’easters. By definition, a nor’easter is a cyclonic storm (counterclockwise motion in the Northern Hemisphere) off the East Coast of North America, so called because the winds over the coastal area are from the northeast, or blowing toward the land. These storms are most frequent and most violent between September and April. A favorable breeding ground for storm development is off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. As the continental temperature cools down in the fall and winter, the ocean temperature, particularly in the Gulf Stream, takes much longer to drop from its summer readings in the eighties. Therefore, during the fall and winter seasons a tremendous temperature gradient exists between the land and the ocean. If conditions are favorable at the surface and in the upper atmosphere, a low-pressure center will form, rapidly intensify, and slowly move north and parallel to the mid-Atlantic coast over a period of three to four days. The winds swirling around a mature low-pressure center frequently reach gale force,  miles per hour, and on occasion hurricane force,  miles per hour. As the winds spiral inward toward the coast, the rising tide coupled with the heavy wave action scour the beaches along New Jersey’s -mile long coastline. Nor’easters bring a variety of harsh weather to New Jersey and are likely to have a tremendous economic impact on day-today operations. Coastal flooding, strong winds, beach erosion, heavy snows, torrential rains, and freezing temperatures often accompany a nor’easter. The northeast winds cause water to enter the inlets and pile up in the shallow back

North Arlington bays. If the storm persists for a couple of days, the tidal departures will rise several feet above normal and spill onto major access roads that connect the mainland to the barrier islands, rendering them impassable at times, especially during the approach of the high tide. Tidal flooding can range from minor, resulting in some road closures, to severe, with significant property damage, depending on the vulnerability of a particular location. The impacts from tidal flooding in New Jersey can be felt along the entire oceanfront, the back bays, and locations adjacent to Delaware Bay. Nor’easters also account for the biggest snowfalls across the state. The snow, strong winds, and very cold temperatures can create blizzardlike conditions from Sussex County in the northwest to Cape May in the southeast. The most memorable and disastrous nor’easter to affect the East Coast, including New Jersey, in recent times was the Ash Wednesday storm of March –, . The “Great March Storm’’ continues to be the benchmark to which all subsequent storms are compared. Some other nor’easters affecting New Jersey and worthy of recognition include the powerful February –, , blizzard; the quick-moving, high-tide storm event of March , ; the Halloween storm of October , , also known as the “Perfect Storm;’’ the storm of January , ; and the December , , storm that caused more damage to the New Jersey coast than any storm since the Great March Storm. Savadove, Larry, and Margaret Thomas Buchholz. Great Storms of the Jersey Shore. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, .

Drury, George, comp. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads:  Lines Abandoned or Merged since . Milwaukee: Kalmbach Publishing, . ———. The Train-Watcher’s Guide to North American Railroads. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Publishing, .

See also railroads; transportation

Richard Saunders, Jr.

Norma.

See Pittsgrove.

Norris, McLaughlin, and Marcus. Founded in  as a small country law firm, Norris, McLaughlin, and Marcus, P.A., with seventy attorneys, has become Somerset County’s largest firm. Arthur S. Meredith opened the doors of his law office in Somerville in . He was joined by Richard A. Norris in July  and Thomas P. McLaughlin in . In , Meredith was appointed to the bench of the Somerset County Court (later known as the superior court), where he served for twenty years before retiring in . G. Robert Marcus joined the firm in . Shortly thereafter, the firm took its present name. Today, Norris, McLaughlin, and Marcus has a business law practice representing many major corporations headquartered and operating in New Jersey and throughout the world. It is well known in several areas of law, including banking, bankruptcy, corporate, environmental, health care, immigration, intellectual property, labor, litigation, product liability, real estate, tax, and utilities. The firm moved several times before settling into its current Bridgewater location. The firm also has a Manhattan office to serve its international clients.

See also floods; hurricanes; weather

Edward C. Miller, Jr.

James A. Eberwine

Norfolk Southern.

Along with CSX, Norfolk Southern is one of the two principal private freight railroads currently operating in New Jersey. On August , , it acquired the routes of Conrail that were the former Lehigh Valley and Reading lines in New Jersey. Under Conrail, the former Lehigh Valley became the principal route for heavy freight from the south and west to New York Harbor. NS acquired rights to operate intermodal freight trains on Amtrak’s Northeast Corridor, the former main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and assumed with CSX joint operation of trackage in the New Jersey waterfront terminals. Norfolk Southern, composed mostly of the former Norfolk and Western and Southern Railways, had no historic presence in New Jersey except that in  it had assumed indirect control of the former Erie Lackawanna. Fearing New Jersey taxes and commuter obligations, it preferred to let Erie Lackawanna enter bankruptcy in . In the s, the Reagan administration favored Norfolk Southern to acquire all of Conrail, but Conrail privatized on its own, and was so successful that in , it became the object of a bidding war between CSX and Norfolk Southern.

North American Butterfly Association. The North American Butterfly Association (NABA) is a nonprofit organization whose mission is to increase public enjoyment and conservation of butterflies. Headquartered in Morristown, NABA is the largest membership group in North America interested in butterflies and currently has thirty chapters throughout the United States. NABA publishes a full-color quarterly magazine, American Butterflies, and a quarterly newsletter, The Butterfly Gardener. Among other activities, NABA organizes the NABA Fourth of July Butterfly Counts (U.S.), First of July Counts (Canada), and Sixteenth of September Counts (Mexico). It publishes the results in an annual report. Daily sightings of butterflies throughout the continent are posted at NABA’s Web site, www.naba.org, where these observations are fed into what soon will be the largest biological database yet constructed. NABA works to save endangered butterfly populations. Gochfeld, Michael, and Joanna Burger. Butterflies of New Jersey: A Guide to Their Status, Distribution, Conservation, and Appreciation. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also butterflies

Jeffrey Glassberg

587

North American Phalanx.

One of the most successful communitarian experiments of the antebellum period was located in Red Bank. Inspired by the principles of French socialist Charles Fourier, the North American Phalanx survived longer than any other Fourierist experiment in America, lasting from  to . Its founders included Albert Brisbane, Horace Greeley, and Marcus and Rebecca Spring. Organized as a joint-stock company, the Phalanx was a self-contained community working toward the moral and social transformation of society. Its goals, enlightened for the period, included the establishment of a thirtyhour workweek and profit-sharing plans, and the provision of free education and medical care. Farming and market gardening were the Phalanx’s main revenue sources. The community started the practice of sending choice fruits and vegetables in attractive containers to New York City markets, and it is also credited with marketing the first boxed cereal sold in the United States. The community’s cultural and intellectual development did not measure up to expectations, however. It was also troubled by discord and factionalism over numerous issues, notably religious differences. In  a group of dissenters condemned the absence of a sufficiently religious spirit and withdrew to form their own community, the Raritan Bay Union in nearby Perth Amboy. Secession hastened the community’s decline. However, the immediate cause of dissolution was a disastrous fire that consumed the main buildings of the compound in . The loss was estimated at $,, for which there was no insurance recovery. Lack of consensus over the future direction of the community led to its collapse in the winter of –. Guarneri, Carl J. The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth-Century America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

See also utopian communities

Marie Marmo Mullaney

North Arlington. .-square-mile borough in the extreme southern tip of Bergen County. Previously known as New Barbadoes Neck, Kingsland, and Schulyer’s Corner, North Arlington was settled in  by Capt. William Sandford of Barbadoes, West Indies. Copper ore was discovered circa  on a large plantation owned by Arent Schulyer, and mining operations continued more or less successfully until . In  a steam-operated pump was installed in an attempt to control flooding. It marked the first use of steam power in America. In , the first major Chinese community in the state was established when  Chinese men arrived to work in the Passaic Steam Laundry. This workforce expanded to over  before dispersing throughout the New York metropolitan area when the laundry went out of business in .

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When Hudson County was established in , it included the area that would become North Arlington. The territory was rejoined to Bergen County in , and was incorporated as North Arlington in . The name is believed to have stemmed from the Erie Railroad Arlington station in neighboring Kearny to the south, which was probably named after Arlington National Cemetery. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ierley, Merritt. A Place in History: North Arlington, New Jersey. North Arlington: North Arlington Public Library, . MacFadyen, Robert, and John P. Deley. Seventy-fifth Anniversary Journal—North Arlington, New Jersey. North Arlington: Seventy-fifth Anniversary Committee, . Romm, Jacob. A History of the Borough of North Arlington, New Jersey. Arlington: West Hudson Publishing, .

Robert D. Griffin

North Bergen. .-square-mile township in Hudson County. The area in which North Bergen is located was originally settled by the Dutch as early as . The area was soon incorporated as the township of Bergen and is considered to be the first municipality in New Jersey. In  the New Jersey legislature extended Bergen to include most of the land comprising what is now Hudson County. Over time secession became popular in the region and adjacent areas broke away to form their own municipalities. It was during this period of turmoil that the town of North Bergen seceded from the township of Bergen and was incorporated in . During the twentieth century, the township experienced significant shifts in its population demographics as well as significant population growth. Present-day North Bergen is ethnically diverse, primarily residential, and acts as one of several regional transportation hubs for the New York City metropolitan area. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent of the total population was Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Robinson, Walter Francis. Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, . Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Winfield, Charles Hardenburg. History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, n.d.

Daniel R. Campbell

North Brunswick.

.-square-mile township in Middlesex County. The earliest inhabitants were Lenape Indians, whose footpaths were origins of three major state

highways of the twentieth century which criss-cross the land—Routes , , and . European explorers, mainly Dutch, settled in the mid-s. Originally part of Piscataway, North Brunswick was formally incorporated in February  and included the entire City of New Brunswick. It separated in , and a portion of its land later became part of East Brunswick. Its name came from its reference as “the north ward of New Brunswick’’ and its location north of the earlier organized South Brunswick. Agrarian in nature, its economy was driven by mills along the Lawrence Brook until early in , and its products of tobacco and snuff supplied markets from Philadelphia to New York. The farms and mills disappeared at the same time stagecoach lines and trolleys gave way to service by the predecessor of today’s Amtrak. Industrial and commercial growth was enhanced until the mid-s by the presence of pharmaceutical giant Johnson & Johnson and the headquarters of the Boy Scouts of America. Today, the township is predominately residential. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Mihalenko, Ruth. North Brunswick: A Township History. North Brunswick: Bicentennial Committee, .

Ruth Mihalenko

North Caldwell. .-square-mile borough in Essex County, located on the top of the northern end of Second Mountain. An abundance of hickory and oak trees made North Caldwell an attractive area for early colonial settlement. Farmers settled in after the forests were depleted. Hendrik Bush held title to a large tract of land and the area was known for many years as Bushtown. During the early nineteenth century its mountain air attracted tourists, and there were numerous boardinghouses. On March , , the community split off from Caldwell Township and became a separate borough. North Caldwell is bounded by Caldwell on the south, Cedar Grove on the east, Fairfield on the west, and Passaic County on the north. The borough was once home to Grandview Park, one of the earliest amusement parks in New Jersey. It has served as the home to many distinguished individuals including the opera diva Ernestine Schumann-Heink, former governor of New Jersey Edward I. Edwards, and the artist Lawrence Wilbur. The community is predominantly residential with single-family homes on large lots. It is home to West Essex Regional High School and to the Greenbrook Country Club. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Folsom, Joseph F., Benedict Fitzpatrick, and Edwin P. Conklin. The Municipalities of Essex County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Poekel, Charles A., Jr. West Essex, Essex Fells, Fairfield, North Caldwell, and Roseland. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Shaw, William H. History of Essex and Hudson Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Charles A. Poekel, Jr.

Northfield.

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County. Northfield had its beginning as a boat building settlement called Bakersville. It was named for Daniel Baker, son of a Nantucket whaler. In , he built the first shipyard there. That same year, he built the town’s first post office. Most of the ships built in Bakersville were of the thirty-ton, two-masted schooner class, used primarily to carry cordwood to markets in New York. The community was not incorporated as a city until March , . It is unclear when Bakersville was renamed Northfield. Historian Frank Butler speculated that in the late s, Daniel T. Steelman suggested the name Northfield because a large part of the town was situated on what had been the north field of a family estate. Today, Northfield is still a boating community and hosts several marinas. It is also the location of Birch Grove Park, one of the largest parks on the mainland of New Jersey. Over the years its population has decreased. In , there were over , residents. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Hornor, Louise L., ed. New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Shaw, H. Leslie, ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Shrewsbury: National Resources Directories, .

Jerome E. Klein

North Haledon.

.-square-mile borough in Passaic County, located in a valley of the Watchung Mountains. Originally part of Saddle River Township in Bergen County, North Haledon became part of Manchester Township in  and was incorporated in . The sighting of High Mountain (elevation  feet) drew the explorer Henry Hudson into New York Harbor. The area was originally settled by German and Dutch immigrants who planted fruit orchards. During Prohibition these orchards supplied fruits for bootleg alcohol. Until , the many ponds served as a source of ice for refrigeration and commercial sale. The winter sport of curling attracted

Northvale thousands of spectators for teams playing on Oldham Pond until World War I. Today North Haledon is a residential community of single-family homes. The  census population of , was  percent white, and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Golden Anniversary Story of North Haledon, New Jersey. North Haledon: Fiftieth Anniversary Committee, . Hornor, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . North Haledon, –: Anniversary Book. Prospect Park: Town Printing, .

John M. Carbone

North

Hanover. .-square-mile township in northeastern Burlington County. North Hanover is bordered on the northeast by both Monmouth and Ocean counties, and was established as an independent municipality in  after separation from existing New Hanover Township. In , part of the township’s area was broken off to form the borough of Wrightstown outside the gates of the U.S. Army post at Fort Dix. Crosswicks Creek is the township’s major waterway. The township retains a profoundly rural character with farms raising a variety of field crops, and several breeding thoroughbred and standardbred race horses. Agricultural villages still populated today include Arneytown, Ellisdale, Jacobstown, and Sykesville (where most municipal services are based). A major population center is the Falcon Courts housing area of McGuire Air Force Base, home to active-duty personnel assigned there. Some remaining farmland has slowly transitioned toward residential housing in recent years. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bisbee, Henry H. Sign Posts: Place Names in the History of Burlington County. Willingboro: Alexia Press, . Master Plan and Summary of Proposals: North Hanover Township, Burlington County, New Jersey. Wrightstown: North Hanover Township Planning Board, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

A liaison committee of the NJMS met with the Medical Society of New Jersey prior to racial integration of that organization. In  Community Hospital, the state’s first all-black hospital, was opened in Newark by Dr. John Kenney. In , E. Mae McCarroll, a member of the NJMS, was the first African American to join the staff at Newark City Hospital (later Martland). By the late s, the medical staffs of hospitals statewide were beginning to welcome nonwhite physicians, partly in response to the wartime physician shortage. The NJMS is affiliated with the National Medical Association. From the outset, the NJMS has been dedicated to physician education, public education, preventive medicine, professional advancement, and patient advocacy. The NJMS also assists African American students planning a career in medicine. Society offices are in East Orange. Current membership is . See also Alexander, Walter G.

Sandra Moss

North Jersey Rapid Transit Company. One of the smaller interurban railways that served New Jersey and the mid-Atlantic region was the North Jersey Rapid Transit Company (NJRTCo), a firm that suffered from inadequate terminals. The company opened in , toward the end of electric-railway construction, and served East Paterson, Fairlawn, Glen Rock, Ridgewood, Ho-Ho-Kus, Waldwick, Allendale, and Ramsey. Although in  the NJRTCo successfully extended northward a few miles to Suffern, New York, a proposed major extension southward to Newark failed to materialize. If these plans had been executed, the NJRTCo could have connected with the Hudson and Manhattan tubes, significantly bolstering ridership. Even though the NJRTCo provided good service along its sixteen-mile route, it fell into receivership. Revenues from passengers and package express proved disappointing. In , the Public Service Corporation of New Jersey acquired the firm for a modest amount and two years later abandoned operations.

589

Mountains watered by the Green and Stony brooks. When the railroad was extended from Elizabeth, the borough became a mecca for the wealthy. Washington Park, laid out in –  with two hundred “villa sites for the wellestablished personages of the New York business world,’’ is now a historic district with one of the nation’s finest collections of Victorianera architecture. Other architecturally interesting sites include the Hyde Gatehouse (), Holy Cross Episcopal Church (), and Saint Joseph’s Roman Catholic Church (). The Fleetwood Camera Museum is located in the Vermeule Mansion. Primarily residential, with a mix of single and multifamily dwellings, North Plainfield centers on Somerset Street, its main retail district (dominated by the Somerset Street School, opened ), and Route , lined with large retail outlets and apartment complexes. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Smiley, F. T. History of Plainfield and North Plainfield. Plainfield: Plainfield Courier-News, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

North Princeton Developmental Center. The State Village for Epileptics at

Quinby, Edwin J. Interurban Interlude: A History of the North Jersey Rapid Transit Company. Ramsey: Model Crafts, .

Skillman was established as a state medical institution in  to provide a humane environment where epileptics could be active participants in a community, undertake meaningful employment, and receive medical treatment. Six farms on eleven hundred acres were acquired and  buildings were constructed to serve the patient population, which peaked at sixteen hundred in . The facility was reorganized as the New Jersey Neuropsychiatric Institute in . The North Princeton Developmental Center was established on the site in  to serve people with developmental disabilities, neurological disorders, and cerebral palsy. The center closed in .

Saunders, Richard, Jr. Merging Lines: American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, .

Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Cunningham, John T. Railroads in New Jersey: The Formative Years. Andover: Afton Publishing, .

Jim Donnelly

See also interurbans; light rail; transportation

North Jersey Medical Society. The

H. Roger Grant

See also mental hospitals

Stacy E. Spies North Jersey Medical Society (NJMS), an organization of African American physicians, was formed in  by Dr. Walter G. Alexander. The first meeting of six physicians and two dentists was held in Orange; dentists left the organization in  to form the Commonwealth Dental Society. A major problem faced by members was the restriction on hospital privileges for African American physicians.

Northvale. North Plainfield.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. Originally part of Warren Township, the borough separated from North Plainfield Township on June , . Attempts to join Plainfield were defeated in  and . The first settlements were made about  on rich farmland at the foot of the Watchung

.-square-mile borough in northeastern Bergen County bordering New York State. Originally Northvale was part of the Tappan Patent and situated in Orange County, New York, until , when it became part of a newly formed Harrington Township. It is comprised primarily of land once belonging to Abraham Haring and his descendants, plus about forty-three acres, known as

590

North Wildwood

“Church Woods,’’ that were donated in  by Abraham’s grandfather to the Tappan Church. When the Northern Railroad laid its tracks through this sparsely populated area in  the station stop at Northvale was called Neuvy Station. Shortly afterward, lands to the east of the railroad were developed into a new community known as Carrieville. All were eventually joined as a single borough incorporated in , the last of eight municipalities that made up old Harrington Township. While mostly a rural, farming community, in  it was the site of a bakery and the Ambrose Girandat Wax Factory, manufacturer of paper lace and flower materials. Today, Northvale is almost entirely residential. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . The Hill and the Meadow: A History of the Borough of Northvale. Northvale: History Committee of the Northvale Library Association, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Robert D. Griffin

North Wildwood.

.-square-mile city in Cape May County, first known as Anglesea. Scandinavian fishermen established a settlement near Hereford Inlet at the northern tip of the Five Mile Beach Island in the mid-s. By , a Life-Saving Service had been established, and in  the Hereford Inlet Lifesaving Station No.  was built. The first lighthouse was built in . In , Frederick Swope, a real estate speculator, started building summer cottages and also built railroad tracks from the mainland to facilitate development. The resulting village was incorporated as a borough in . Around  Henry Ottens parlayed a $, investment into a $, windfall and began the building boom that turned Five Mile Beach into a major seaside resort. He built a huge hotel, made improvements to Ottens Harbor and Ottens Canal, and also bought the Wildwood Leader in . In  Anglesea became the borough of North Wildwood and in  the borough was incorporated as a city. The major industry is tourism and the population of , is  percent white. The median household income is $,, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Vertical files. Cape May County Library, Cape May Court House.

Barbara St. Clair

Norton, Mary Teresa

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Member of the U.S. Congress.

Founder of the Queen’s Daughters Day Nursery, a nonsectarian day-care center for the children of working women in Jersey City,

Mary Norton.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. Mary Norton was introduced to politics by Mayor Frank “Boss’’ Hague and, with his support, became the first woman member of the Democratic State Committee, serving as either chair or vice-chair between  and . In  she was elected to the Hudson County Board of Freeholders as the first Democratic woman freeholder in the state. In , with Hague’s backing, Norton became the first woman Democrat elected to Congress without being first preceded by her husband and also the first woman elected from an eastern state. As a member of Congress for thirteen successive terms (from  to ), Norton was the first person in the history of the House of Representatives to chair three important standing committees: District of Columbia, World War Veterans’ Legislation, and Labor. She championed the principle of home rule for the District and became its first woman mayor. She obtained funds for construction of the first veterans’hospital in New Jersey. As chair of the Labor Committee, she guided passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act of . After leaving the Labor Committee in , she served as chair of the House Administrative Committee from  until . For Norton, women’s political activism was not an issue of women’s rights but of women’s rightful place in American democracy, yet she refused to support the Equal Rights Amendment because she feared it would mean the loss of protective legislation for women, legislation that she felt was the only means for combating the exploitation of women. A popular congressional leader, Norton received many honors. She represented New

Jersey at the Women’s World Fair in Chicago on May , . At a baseball game at Roosevelt Stadium in Jersey City on August , , Mayor Hague proclaimed “Mary Norton Day.’’ More important, she received honorary degrees from the College of Saint Elizabeth in Convent Station () and Rider College in Trenton (). During the Eightyfirst Congress, she was the only Democratic representative from New Jersey, and she led the state’s congressional delegation. She served as a delegate-at-large from New Jersey to every Democratic National Convention from  to . Norton also received the Woman of Achievement award from the Women’s National Press Club in , and the Siena Medal from National Catholic University Women (Theta Phi Alpha) as the outstanding Catholic woman of the year . The year Norton retired from the House of Representatives——Secretary of Labor Maurice J. Tobin appointed her womanpower consultant to the Defense Manpower Administration, a post she held until September . Norton, Mary, Papers. Special Collections and Archives, Alexander Library, Rutgers University, New Brunswick. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos

Norwood. .-square-mile borough in northeast Bergen County. About , a number of Dutch families bought land from the Lenape Indians in an area then known

Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation as “North-Woods,’’ from which the name Norwood derived. Enjoying increasing prosperity as a farming community, Norwood became a part of Old Hackensack in  and served as the scene of many Revolutionary War skirmishes. The arrival of the Erie Railroad in  marked a notable change in the community. J. Wyman Jones, a lawyer, bought land and helped the town develop. The elegant Norwood House hotel, built in , became a summer retreat for wealthy New Yorkers, but burned down in . The founding of a school in  led to Norwood’s secession from Harrington Township so that the town could control its own educational funding. In , Norwood was incorporated as a borough, with Henry Essig serving as its first mayor. Primarily a residential community boasting several stately Victorian homes and a small business section, the borough’s  population stood at ,. Of this total,  percent was white and  percent was Asian. Median household income was $, as of . For complete census figures, see chart, . Chimento, Norma F., ed. Norwood Ninetieth Anniversary Journal. Nyack, NY: Harrington Press, . Hornor, Edith R., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Julich, Ruth. Norwood through the Years. Englewood: Bergen Press, .

David L. Beckman

Notman, John

(b. July , ; d. Mar. ,

). Architect and landscape architect. The

son of a Scottish quarry worker, John Notman trained as a carpenter and then served an apprenticeship in the office of an Edinburgh architect, William Henry Playfair. He emigrated to the United States in . Although throughout his life he maintained his office and residence in Philadelphia, he worked extensively in New Jersey. Because the suburban villas Notman designed in the Philadelphia environs fell victim to that city’s urbanization, the surviving body of his residential work remains in the Garden State. Although not an innovator, Notman introduced many of the latest British architectural styles to his adopted country and was a versatile and skilled designer. Notman’s first major commission, for Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia (), brought him into contact with a patronage circle with many New Jersey connections. Nathan Dunn, a wealthy China-trade merchant, retained him for what was described as his “semi-oriental’’ Cottage (–) in Mount Holly, the exterior of which has been altered beyond recognition. For George Washington Doane, the Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, he designed Riverside (, since demolished) in Burlington City, the first Italianate, or Tuscan, villa in the United States. Both designs were published in  in A. J. Downing’s enormously influential Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening.

The mid-s to early s were the peak of Notman’s career. Flush with funds from the revenues of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, the state of New Jersey commissioned extensive additions to the State House, including its first dome (–, destroyed by fire, ). Inspired by Dorothea Dix, the legislature authorized the New Jersey State Lunatic Asylum (–; now Trenton Psychiatric Hospital), the first mental hospital to follow the pioneering reforms of Dr. Thomas Kirkbride, separating patients by the degree of impairment and offering therapeutic activities. At the same time, wealthy clients called on Notman for town and country houses. In Trenton, Glencairn (–) has been demolished, but Ellarslie (c. ) is now the Trenton City Museum. In Princeton, Commodore Robert F. Stockton, the president of the canal company, and his relatives commissioned a clutch of expansive villas: what is now the official residence of Princeton University’s presidents, Lowrie House (–); Prospect (–), now the university’s faculty club; Springdale (– ), now the residence of the presidents of Princeton Theological Seminary; and Guernsey Hall (–). All are Italianate villas, except Springdale, which is a Gothic cottage. Notman also became known for churches, again because of the patronage of Bishop White. Influenced by the English Ecclesiologists, who promoted a return to older forms of ritual and architecture, White advocated construction inspired by the English Gothic. He retained Notman for one of the first essays in this “correct’’ vein, the small Chapel of the Holy Innocents (–) at his school, Saint Mary’s Hall in Burlington. This was followed by Saint Thomas (–), Glassboro, and Saint Paul’s (–), Trenton. Notman also designed major Episcopal churches in Philadelphia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and western Pennsylvania. His association with Episcopal churches did not preclude work for other denominations. For the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), officially nondenominational but closely associated with the Presbyterian Church, he designed a chapel (). The college also called on him to rebuild Nassau Hall after a devastating fire in . Although the building has been altered many times since, Notman’s work can still be seen in the main entrance pavilion, tall belfry, stair towers, and pointing simulating ashlar masonry. Notman’s career never rebounded after the depression that followed the panic of . His relatively early death has been attributed to excessive consumption of alcohol. ANB. Greiff, Constance M. John Notman, Architect, – . Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, .

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Philadelphia Art Alliance. Philadelphia Architecture in the Nineteenth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

See also architecture; religious architecture

Constance M. Greiff

Nova Caesarea. In  George Carteret captured and later commanded the Isle of Jersey, off the coast of Great Britain, where he sheltered James, duke of York, during the Puritan Revolution. In partial recognition of Carteret’s services, James’s brother, who would become King Charles II, promised him land in America. After receiving the former Dutch colony of New Netherland from Charles on March , , James made good on that promise, granting “all the region lying between the Hudson and Delaware River Bay’’ to Sir George and John, Lord Berkeley. James ordered that the new colony be known as Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey. “Caesarea’’ was probably the original Latin name of the Isle of Jersey, whence evolved its present pronunciation and spelling. Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Robert D. Griffin

Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation. With headquarters and manufacturing facilities in East Hanover and research laboratories in East Hanover and Summit, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, a subsidiary of Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland, provides jobs in New Jersey for about thirty-five hundred workers. The company has alliances with the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, the Scripps Research Institute, and Johns Hopkins University, and has made a long-term financial commitment to genetic research. The merger of two Swiss-owned companies, Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz, created Novartis AG as the second-largest drug manufacturing company in the world in . The new chairman and chief executive, Daniel Vasella, a physician, had joined Sandoz in  and received practical training in the pharmaceutical industry at Sandoz’s New Jersey headquarters in East Hanover. Vasella coined the name Novartis from the Latin novae artes, meaning “new skills.’’ Novartis started out with three very successful products—Diovan (valsartan) for hypertension, Sandimmun (cyclosporine) for organ transplants, and Voltaren (diclofenac) for arthritis—and an aggressive program of research, development, and testing. Novartis also produced Lamisil (terbinafine) for fungus infections of the skin and nails, and Ritalin (methylphenidate) for attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). In  Femara (letrozole), manufactured by the Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, was approved for the treatment of advanced breast cancer when anti-estrogens were not effective. In  the FDA approved Femara

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as an initial hormone treatment for advanced breast cancer. Gleevec (imatinib mesylate), a breakthrough drug for chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), received FDA approval in . Before Gleevec, the only cure for CML was a bone marrow transplant, an expensive procedure that had a mortality rate of up to  percent. In trials, Gleevec proved effective in destroying most or all of the defective marrow cells in the majority of patients. At the time Gleevec was released, Novartis had twenty-four other new drugs undergoing final testing. Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

NOW v. Little League Baseball, Inc. In this landmark case, decided in March , the New Jersey Superior Court, Appellate Division, ruled that Little League Baseball, Inc., and all of its local New Jersey programs must admit girls age eight to twelve into their baseball programs throughout the state. The court reasoned that Little League’s failure to allow girls to play baseball violated New Jersey’s Law Against Discrimination, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex by the operator of any place of public accommodation. The court rejected Little League’s argument that excluding girls from baseball was justifiable because of physical differences between boys and girls, relying on evidence in the court record establishing that “girls of ages – are not as a class subject to a materially greater hazard of injury while playing baseball than boys of that age group.’’ The court also reasoned that, although Little League is a member organization, it is a place of public accommodation, subject to New Jersey’s antidiscrimination law, because it invites children in the community at large to participate in its programs. In , the New Jersey Supreme Court upheld the decision without a written opinion.

Fred Winslow Noyes, Jr., Cedars in Summer, n.d. Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy Noyes Museum of Art, Oceanville. Jersey, as well as a large collection of vintage bird decoys. Ten to twelve changing exhibitions are held annually, including traveling exhibitions of art from other regions. See also museums

Krista Gulbin

nuclear power plants.

Four nuclear power plants are located within New Jersey, and three others located in Pennsylvania are jointly owned by New Jersey utilities and provide electricity for New Jersey consumers.

New Jersey’s oldest nuclear power plant is the Oyster Creek Generating Unit, located in Lacey Township. It began operations in  and is owned and operated by General Public Utilities (GPU), the parent company of Jersey Central Power and Light Company (JCP&L). It was the nation’s first commercial nuclear power plant and was initially hailed as an example of technological progress; but high fuel costs made it (and subsequent nuclear plants) much more expensive than originally expected.

Dowling, Colette. The Frailty Myth: Women Approaching Physical Equality. New York: Random House, . National Women’s Law Center. Check It Out: Is the Playing Field Level for Women and Girls at Your School? Washington, DC: National Women’s Law Center, . Zimmerman, Jean, and Gil Reavil. Raising Our Athletic Daughters. New York: Doubleday, .

See also discrimination; educational equity

Linda J. Wharton

Noyes Museum of Art.

A private, nonprofit art museum in Oceanville, the Noyes Museum opened in  and houses the art collection of its benefactors, Ethel and Fred W. Noyes, Jr. The museum permanently displays a collection of nineteenth- and twentieth-century fine and folk art from the mid-Atlantic region, with an emphasis on New

Salem Nuclear Generating Station, Lower Alloways Creek.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

nursing attended that city’s parochial schools and graduated from Saint Benedict’s Prep and later Seton Hall College. He was admitted to the state bar in . Active in politics as a district worker, he advanced rapidly in the Democratic organization. In  he became the recognized leader of the Essex County Democrats. In  his description of Woodrow Wilson as a “liar and an ingrate’’ resulted in his ouster as chairman of the State Democratic Committee, but he retained weakened control in Essex County until . He died in Trenton two years later.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

N

Link, Arthur S. Wilson: The Road to the White House. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

OYSTER CREEK

Reynolds, John F. Testing Democracy: Electoral Behavior and Progressive Reform in New Jersey, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

SALEM & HOPE CREEK

Joseph Francis Mahoney

0

20 miles

© Rutgers, The State University

Public Service Electric and Gas Company (PSE&G) and Atlantic City Electric Company (ACE) joined with Delmarva Power and Light and Philadelphia Electric Company (PECO) to sponsor Peach Bottom Unit , located near Lancaster, Pennsylvania. It was operated by PECO, began operations in , and was decommissioned in . The consortium also used the same site as the location of Peach Bottom Units  and , which began operations in . GPU’s next nuclear plant was Three Mile Island Unit  (TMI-), located near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. It began operations in . GPU also planned to construct another power plant at Oyster Creek, but excessive demands for bribes from labor racketeers caused GPU to shift its location to Pennsylvania. The new plant became TMI-, which began operations in  and was the site of the nation’s worst nuclear accident on March , . It is no longer in operation. PSE&G took the lead in planning and operating the next three nuclear power plants built in New Jersey: Salem Unit  (began operations in ), Salem Unit  (began operations in ), and the Hope Creek Generating Station (began operations in ). All three are located at Lower Alloways Creek on the Delaware Bay, and are jointly owned by the four-utility consortium that sponsored the Peach Bottom plants. See also energy industry

nursing. The first nurses in New Jersey, midwives and local practitioners, had no professional training. The earliest formal training program was established by the Newark City Hospital in . In the twentieth century, nursing in New Jersey became professionalized. In December , nurses met at Newark City Hospital to establish an organization to promote legislation for the registration of nurses. The New Jersey State Nurses Association (NJSNA) was incorporated on

Stephen Marshall

Nugent, James Richard ; d. Apr. , ).

(b. July ,

Lawyer and political leader. Born in Newark, James Nugent

James Nugent.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

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October , . To ensure a competent workforce, NJSNA focused efforts on licensure. On April , , New Jersey became the second state to pass a law requiring nurses to register by presenting a diploma from a hospital program. On April , , Gov. Woodrow Wilson signed the Nursing Practice Act, establishing the New Jersey State Board of Examiners of Nurses (NJSBEN). Nursing schools were quick to participate in the process of accreditation, as evidenced in the  “List of Schools of Nursing Accredited by the State Boards of Nurse Examiners.’’ The list included thirty-eight hospital diploma schools approved by the NJSBEN. Two- or three-year diploma programs were supported by hospitals. Additional educational demands for the young profession followed. A  amendment to the Nursing Practice Act required registered nurses to hold both high school and nursing school diplomas. The registration examination measured “nursing arts’’ through written and practical components. The NJSBEN was renamed the New Jersey Board of Nursing (NJBON) in , and “nursing’’ was defined in legislation as either “professional’’ or “practical.’’ Nurses became licensed as registered nurses (RNs) or licensed practical nurses (LPNs). The requirement for RN licensure shifted to a written examination only. In  there were forty-three NJBON-approved schools, and a new educational strategy emerged: a two-year experimental program in basic nursing leading to an associate degree. Among the five schools with experimental programs listed were Rutgers University, hosting in  an associate of arts program in nursing, and Fairleigh Dickinson College, beginning its program in . In  the Nursing Practice Act amended the definition of nursing as “diagnosing and treating human responses to actual or potential physical or emotional health problems.’’ Undergraduate programs continued to grow in this period. A  resolution to the New Jersey Board of Higher Education proposed limiting expansion of programs and placing limits on enrollments. In , however, the Board of Higher Education endorsed resolutions approving eleven two-year associate degree programs, nine baccalaureate programs, one master’s program, and one nurse-midwifery certificate program. Shortly thereafter, in , the NJSNA founded the Institute for Nursing to advance education, scholarship, and research. The Nursing Practice Act was amended in  to certify nurse practitioners and clinical nurse specialists. In , legislation enacted created the title “Advanced Practice Nurse,’’ thus replacing the nurse practitioner/clinical nurse specialist title. This law also provided Advanced Practice Nurses with limited Controlled Dangerous Substances prescriptive authority. In , the New Jersey Commission on Higher Education listed sixty-eight approved programs, including eighteen associate degree, eighteen

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Nutley

baccalaureate degree, sixteen master’s degree, one doctoral degree, and fifteen certificate programs. See also medicine and public health; medical and dental education

Frances Ward

Nutley. .-square-mile township in Essex County. It is thought that Nutley was named for the numerous varieties of nut trees found there, including beech, hazel, chestnut, hickory, and walnut. Nathaniel Kingsland of Barbadoes sent his nephew, Capt. William Sandford, to East Jersey to acquire land for colonization. Sandford purchased , acres

between the Passaic and Hackensack rivers and built a home, now the Kingsland Manor, in . In the s, the town bought the Kingsland Manor, but its property had by then dwindled to an acre. Among the early settlers were the Van Ripers, the Speers, and the Vreelands. Originally a part of Franklin Township, Nutley was incorporated as a town in . In  the government leaders decided to incorporate as a township. The Nutley Museum has artifacts from one of the town’s notable residents, Annie Oakley. Sharpshooters and stars of Bill Cody’s Wild West Circus, Oakley and her husband Frank Butler purchased a home on Grant Avenue in ; they sometimes gave shooting

exhibitions for the neighbors. HoffmannLaRoche and International Telephone and Telegraph have been important businesses in the township. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Know Your Town: Nutley, New Jersey. Nutley: League of Women Voters of the Nutley Area, . Troy, Ann A. Nutley, Yesterday, Today. Nutley: Nutley Historical Society, .

Linda J. Barth

O Oakland.

-square-mile borough located nine miles northeast of Paterson in the Ramapo Valley of Bergen County. Also known by the names Yaupough (Yawpo) and the Ponds, the name Oakland was officially adopted in  after separation from Franklin Township. Oakland was originally inhabited by the Lenape before being settled by Dutch and English farmers, after purchase by Arent Schuyler in . A fine collection of historic homes from the s and early s still exist. Lying astride an important north-south route (now Route ), Oakland saw frequent military deployment during the Revolutionary War, including a visit by Gen. George Washington on July , , to the borough’s now historic Van Allen (Vanaulen) House. The community’s agricultural life changed with the coming of the railroad in . Truck farming and light industrial activity occurred until the turn of the twentieth century. The railroad introduced city vacationers to the beauty of Oakland’s countryside. Between the s and early s Oakland took on the character of a summer resort. During this period, Sidney Kingsley, a  Pulitzer Prize– winning playwright, settled in Oakland after marrying Madge Evans, a noted film star of the s and s. The period after World War II saw the transformation of Oakland into a suburban residential community. In , the population of , was  percent white. According to the  census, the medium household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bailey, Rosalie Fellows. Pre-Revolutionary Dutch Houses and Families in Northern New Jersey and Southern New York. New York: Dover, . Ryerson, Vervaet. The Valley of Homes—The Ponds, Yaupough, Oakland, –. Oakland: Fiftieth Anniversary Committee of Oakland, .

Edward G. Engelbart

Oakley, Annie

(b. Aug. , ; d. Nov.

, ). Sharpshooter and entertainer. Annie

Oakley was born Phoebe Ann Oakley Moses (or Mozee) in Woodland, Ohio. She displayed a natural ability to shoot at a young age and soon began entering contests. Oakley married sharpshooter Frank Butler on June , , and in  she adopted the stage name of Annie Oakley. In  the Butlers joined Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. While visiting Nutley they were taken with the town’s beauty. In , Annie and Frank Butler built a house on Grant Avenue. Oakley was quite active in

her new community and soon became acquainted with Thomas Edison in neighboring West Orange. In  Edison filmed her marksmanship in his famous Black Maria theater. Oakley was seriously scalded in an Arkansas spa in late , forcing her to retire from Buffalo Bill’s show. She then began an acting career and debuted in The Western Girl in Elizabeth in November . In  the Butlers sold their Nutley residence, and after a brief stay in New York City, they moved to Eppirt Street in East Orange. America’s greatest female sharpshooter died of pernicious anemia in  in Greenville, Ohio. Cooper, Courtney Ryley. Annie Oakley, Woman at Arms. New York: Konecky and Konecky, . Kasper, Shirl. Annie Oakley. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, . Riley, Glenda. The Life and Legacy of Annie Oakley. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, . Swartout, Annie Fern. Annie Oakley: Her Life and Times. New York: Carlton Press, .

William Hart

Oaklyn.

.-square-mile borough along the Newton Creek in northwestern Camden County. Originally named Oakland for the nearby profusion of oak trees, it was once part of the lands forming old Newton Colony, settled in  by Quakers. It was renamed in  when a post office was established to avoid confusion with another Oakland in the northern part of the state. Oaklyn separated from Haddon Township in . The Camden and Philadelphia Race Course, established here in  by a group of Virginia horsemen, was a magnet for racehorse owners and gamblers between New York and Baltimore. Unpopular with local residents who opposed its uncontrolled drunkenness and gambling, the collapse of the crowded grandstand in  combined with loss of the track’s popularity and profitability led to its closing and purchase in  by Samuel Bettle. During the realty explosion of the post–World War I period, the Bettle property along the White Horse Pike was developed to help meet the area’s demand for housing. Some thirty-five years later Oaklyn, fearing the advent of heavy industrial traffic on the Black Horse and White Horse pikes, unsuccessfully protested the Walt Whitman Bridge that now links Gloucester City and Philadelphia. The borough remains primarily residential. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lang, Carol Ann. A Chronicle of Newton Colony. Towson, MD: Print Shop, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

the forests of the northern half of the state for ten thousand years, include the state tree, the red oak (Q. rubra). They range from the tall red, white (Q. alba), and black (Q. velutina) oaks found throughout the state to the shrublike turkey (Q. ilicifolia) and blackjack (Q. marilandica) oaks of the Pine Barrens. They grow from dry hilltops (chestnut oak [Q. prinus]) to swamps (pin oak [Q. palustris]). Oaks provide food for wildlife and were important in American Indian diets. Many species are valued for lumber, veneer, and fuelwood. Collins, Beryl R., and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Emily W. B. Russell

Ocean City.

.-square-mile island city in Cape May County. Known initially as Peck’s Beach, Ocean City was first permanently settled as a seaside Christian community in . Its founders were Methodist ministers— Ezra B. Lake, James B. Lake, S. Wesley Lake, and William H. Burrell. They created the Ocean City Association that then sold land to newcomers who agreed to abide by the religiously oriented rules of the association. To this day, the sale of alcoholic beverages remains forbidden. Ocean City later adopted the slogan “America’s Greatest Family Resort,’’ still in use today. On December , , a famous shipwreck took place in the surf at Sixteenth Street when the four-masted barque Sindia came aground. One of the first airmail flights in the United States took off from Ocean City in , with the biplane traveling to nearby Stone Harbor. Famous local residents have included actors Preston Foster and Grace Kelly (later Princess Grace of Monaco) as well as the writer and current resident, Gay Talese. Talese’s experiences as a youth growing up in Ocean City were chronicled in his book Unto the Sons. With a largely tourism-based local economy, Ocean City had a population of , in , which represented a slight decline of  people since the  census. Ninety-four percent of the residents were white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cain, Tim. Peck’s Beach: A Pictorial History of Ocean City. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing, . Esposito, Frank J., and Robert J. Esposito. Ocean City, New Jersey. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Lamphear, Alberta, comp. The Saga of “The Sinda’’: December , . Ocean City: Ocean City Historical Museum, . Lee, Harold. A History of Ocean City. Ocean City: Friends of the Ocean City Historical Museum. . ———. Ocean City Memories. Ocean City: Centennial Commission, .

Frank J. Esposito and Robert J. Esposito

Gail Greenberg

Ocean City Historical Museum. oaks.

New Jersey’s fifteen species of oaks (Quercus [Tourn.] L.), which have dominated

Founded in  by the Friends of Ocean City, this private, not-for-profit museum is located 595

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Ocean County

Typical summer day on the beach at Ocean City, .

Courtesy Senior Studio, Ocean City.

in the Cultural Arts Center. The museum contains many artifacts, including period fashions and furs, dolls, toys, quilts, needlework, spinning wheels and sewing machines, artifacts from the Sindia (a four-masted barque that went aground in ), and many other items related to the history of Ocean City. It also has a Victorian room with displays of nineteenthcentury furniture, silver, china, and glassware. The museum’s library has a collection of books relating to the history of Ocean City, Cape May County, and New Jersey, as well as material on the museum’s holdings. The archival storage area contains old city directories, deeds, high school annuals, hotel registers, tract maps, newspapers, and a wealth of photographs, including many of the  fire that destroyed much of the center of town. See also museums

assemblyman to represent Ocean in  and is regarded as the county’s founding father. More than  years earlier, the first European had set eyes on what was to become Ocean County when, in , Capt. Cornelius Hendrickson, a Dutch explorer and cartographer, sailed into Barnegat Bay and up the Toms River. He charted these bodies of waters and filed the first definitive map of the coastline

OCEAN COUNTY

Paul S. Anselm

Ocean County.

With  square miles, including the Pine Barrens and barrier islands, Ocean County is the second largest county in the state. It lies in the south-central Atlantic Coastal Plain of New Jersey and borders fortyfive miles of Atlantic Ocean coastline. The land south of the Manasquan River, formerly Shrewsbury Township, Monmouth County, was set off to form the state’s twentieth county by legislative act on February , . Joel Haywood, a state legislator from West Creek in , initiated the legislative bill to create the County of Ocean and nurtured it through three hearings before its passage, by one vote, in the legislature. The charter designated Toms River as the county seat, where the new courthouse, sheriff’s house, and jail were built. Haywood was elected as the first

Toms River

0

15 miles

county seat

of New Jersey in Amsterdam in . But it was not until the s that the sons of upper Monmouth County whalers were licensed to hunt for whales off this area of the coast. Some of those whalers returned in the early s to become the area’s first settlers. They built sawmills and established small hamlets along the rivers and streams. A few inhabited the pine forests where they developed early local industries, such as lumbering, charcoaling, and boat building. Others constructed forges and furnaces to smelt the local bog ore into pig iron or built tar and turpentine kilns. These people became known as “Pineys’’ and elements of their folk culture has survived for three hundred years. An agrarian economy was firmly established by the time Ocean County was created in . Its then , residents lived in villages and on small farms, dotting the landscape with cranberry bogs. Over time, this large geographic area was carved into thirtythree municipalities. A century later, in , what had been a rural county with a population of , underwent a rapid transformation, becoming a suburban commuter haven. Built in , the Garden State Parkway bisected the county, helping to spur a building boom in the s when small farms made way for housing developments. Each of the four decades to follow increased the population by ,, as urbanites sought open spaces, fresh air, and waterways for recreation. Although the population is escalating, . percent of Ocean County’s , pineland acres in the western section of the county is restricted from further development by the Pinelands Comprehensive Management Plan promulgated to protect the Pine Barrens. As newcomers streamed in, Ocean became the fastest growing county in the state. The  census reported that less than onetwelfth of the total permanent population in Ocean County were minorities. The largest African American and Hispanic/Latino groups live in Lakewood, where there is also a sizable Hasidic Jewish population. Because there is virtually no manufacturing in Ocean County, about  percent of its workers commute to employment outside the county. Employment locally is largely retained in five large hospitals, chronic and assisted care facilities, two colleges (Ocean County College and Georgian Court College), county and municipal governments, public and private school education, and the tourism industry. As the population grew, so did Ocean County’s services. It was the first county in the state to produce electricity from atomic energy (at Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station in Forked River, December , ) and the first to open a community college (Ocean County College in Toms River, January , ). Ocean County can boast of having the largest suburban school district and the largest bus transportation system in the state (Toms River Regional School District). Other

Ocean Grove hallmarks include the Ocean County Park System, the fastest growing public park system in the state, reserving over , acres for twenty public parks, two golf courses, and conservation areas in the last two decades of the twentieth century; the Ocean County Library, the state’s largest library system, providing services to over , people from its headquarters and nineteen branches; and Lakewood Industrial Park, the second largest of its kind in New Jersey. Ocean County’s thriving tourism industry ranks third among the counties, having boosted the local economy in  with $. billion and , jobs. Through prudent land use and attentive planning, the Board of Chosen Freeholders has retained and enhanced Ocean County’s unique characteristics. The Ocean County Farmland Preservation Program has acquired , acres of farmland for open space use for future generations. Acquisitions of additional farmlands, totaling  acres, are under consideration. The Ocean County National Lands Trust has acquired  acres of environmentally sensitive lands, including habitats for endangered species. Twenty-first century projections target the county’s southern and western sections as the areas of greatest growth potential. It is anticipated that the construction of a $. million second bridge across the Toms River will alleviate traffic congestion in the county seat by the year  and promote development in the county’s southern municipalities. In , , people ( percent white) called Ocean County home. Its population also had the largest percentage of residents over the age of sixty-five of any county in the state. In , the median household income was $,. Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . ———, and Cynthia H. Smith. Ocean County: Mini Heritage Series.  vols. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, – . Ocean County Data Book. th ed. Toms River: Ocean County Planning Board, .

Pauline S. Miller

Ocean County College.

Founded in , Ocean County College was the first community college in New Jersey. This public twoyear institution has an enrollment of , full- and part-time students and a faculty of . The college has expanded tremendously over the years, and offers associate degree and certificate programs in many areas of study. Classes are offered at several locations throughout the county, including the main campus in Toms River and the Southern Education Center, which was dedicated in June  and is located in Manahawkin. The college offers many events to the community, including shows at the six-hundredseat auditorium and the Robert J. Novins

Planetarium as well as various lectures and seminars. See also higher education

Edward Kissling

Ocean County Historical Society. A historical society for Ocean County was first proposed by state senator William J. Harrison in the early s, and the subject was raised numerous times thereafter. A society was at last incorporated in , Ocean County’s centennial year, with Dr. Joshua Hilliard as president. The society had no permanent home, but maintained a small museum in the county courthouse in Toms River. In  the PiersonSculthorpe House was purchased from the county for $ and moved a short distance to a lot in Toms River donated by John M. Birdsall. It opened to the public on June , . An addition housing the society’s ,-volume research library and exhibition room opened in . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Scott D. Peters

Ocean County Observer.

This daily and Sunday newspaper, based in Ocean County, has been owned by the Gannett chain since . The Observer started in  as a summer newspaper published by two teenage girls in Brick Township. In  editor Paul Becker reestablished the newspaper as the Daily Observer. In  new editor Joseph Milza merged it with the New Jersey Courier, which had been started in  by Trenton resident Benjamin Yard as the Ocean Signal (renamed the New Jersey Courier in ). The newspaper was renamed the Ocean County Observer in . See also newspapers

Harry Glazer

Ocean Gate.

.-square-mile borough on the south shore of the Toms River in Ocean County. Ocean Gate was incorporated in  when it seceded from Berkeley Township. Once heavily wooded, the area became known as Good Luck after a Revolutionary War incident in which a mounted Loyalist succeeded in eluding his Patriot pursuers. Farmlands and orchards were cultivated by Jesse Jeffrey and, starting in , Capt. Caleb Grant. In , the land was acquired by the Philadelphiabased Great Eastern Building Corporation. The name “Ocean Gate’’ was appended to signify the area’s access to the attractions of Seaside Park and adjoining beach resorts across Barnegat Bay. A trestle had been built in  to take Pennsylvania Railroad traffic from the Grant farmland across the bay to Seaside Park and north to Bay Head. Increasing numbers of vacation-minded Philadelphians were induced to visit and, gradually, acquire property.

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The borough has a mile of beach and boardwalk (constructed in ) and is favored for swimming, boating, fishing, and crabbing. Today, most people in the borough are year-round residents who commute to work in other towns. The population in  of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

Ocean Grove.

.-square-mile chartered town in Monmouth County. After the Civil War, some Americans sought to escape the urban and industrial areas for more healthful communities. The Methodists held multiday open-air religious revivals during the summer months in seaside or wooded areas, setting up tents surrounding a central wooden preaching stand. The Rev. William B. Osborn and the Methodist Camp Meeting Association founded Ocean Grove in  as a religious summer resort devoted to the pursuit of holiness and leisure. As chartered by the state of New Jersey, the mission of the Ocean Grove Camp Meeting Association is “to provide opportunities for spiritual birth, growth, and renewal through worship, education, cultural and recreational programs for persons of all ages in a Christian seaside setting.’’ At Ocean Grove, the association laid out streets to replace the oak and pine forest, blueberry and beach plum thickets, and beach grass–covered sand dunes. When the first camp meeting was held in  a few tents and two cottages had been erected. The town grew rapidly so that by  over , cottages,  hotels, and  tents crowded into the square mile bounded by two lakes and the ocean. The annual camp meeting, which lasted from ten days to two weeks every summer, attracted ten thousand people a day for services. In addition to the religious program, Ocean Grove added cultural events that brought well-known musical groups and speakers to the Great Auditorium, a ,-seat enclosed amphitheater. The community also attracted nineteenthcentury moral reformers such as the Prohibition party, Anti-Saloon League, and Women’s Christian Temperance Union. The architectural design of the town plan and the buildings focus on the tabernacle as the center, with the “tent city’’ ( remaining in use) in closest proximity. Leaving little room for private outdoor space, the planners intentionally brought activity onto porches and communal park areas. Approaching the ocean, the houses are stepped back on their lots to afford everyone an ocean view and access to the breezes. Designated a National Historic District in , Ocean Grove claims to

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Oceanport  to  the Deal Test Site in Oakhurst served as a development center for early wireless telephone experiments as well as an astroobservation center, picking up the initial signals from the Soviet orbiter Sputnik in . After World War II the township experienced significant residential development, and is now fully developed with a wide range of housing, parks, and public schools. Joe Palaia Park (formerly Deal Test Site) was one of the first Green Acre Parks purchased in  under the New Jersey Green Acres Program. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Edelson, Marjorie, and K. Zimmerer. An Historic Perspective of the Township of Ocean. Ocean Township: Ocean Township Historical Society, . ———. Township of Ocean. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Avenue of tents, Ocean Grove.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

have the largest assemblage of Victorian architecture in the United States. The styles include campground cottage, Victoria eclectic, Stick style, Eastlake, Queen Anne, Colonial Revival, bungalow, and foursquare. As a religious community, the town forbade the sale of liquor and tobacco. Until  the town also banned wheeled vehicles from the streets from midnight Saturday until midnight Sunday and enforced it with a chain across the town gates. Residents own their homes but the association still owns the land. In  the courts ruled that the association could not exercise municipal authority and the town accepted governance by Neptune Township in . Still a vibrant community, Ocean Grove is one of the few camp meeting sites that remains true to its original purpose and holds a camp meeting every summer. Brewer, Richard E. Perspective on Ocean Grove, – : Social and Cultural Notes. Ocean Grove: Brewer, . Hunton, Gail, and Jennifer Boyd. A Home Renovator’s Guide for Historic Ocean Grove. Ocean Grove: Ocean Grove Home Owners Association, . Messenger, Troy. Holy Leisure: Recreation and Religion in God’s Square Mile. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, . Ocean Grove: A Capsule History. Ocean Grove: Neptune Dept. of Public Information, .

See also Neptune Township

Susan Hamburger

Oceanport. .-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Situated on the Shrewsbury River, Oceanport was originally part of Eatontown Township and was known as Eatontown Landing. It incorporated as a separate borough in . The region was settled in the mid-eighteenth century as a farming and fishing community. In , James P. Allaire, the owner of the Howell Iron Works, built

warehouses and loading docks on the river for the transport of goods made at his ironworks to New York City. Local farmers and fishermen also used the docks to ship produce to market. In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, steamboats also brought vacationers to Oceanport from the city. Today, Oceanport is largely residential. It is adjacent to Fort Monmouth, a U.S. Army base that is Monmouth County’s largest employer, and Monmouth Park Racetrack, where horseracing takes place in the summer months. The population of Oceanport, according to the  census, was ,, of which  percent was white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Pike, Helen C., and Glenn D. Vogel. Eatontown and Fort Monmouth. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Roberts, Russell, and Rich Youmans. Down the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Eileen Moon

Ocean Township (Monmouth County). .-square-mile township in the eastern part of the county. Ocean Township was settled in  but not incorporated until February , . Between  and  eight communities along the shore (Long Branch, Sea Bright, Eatontown, Deal, Allenhurst, Monmouth Beach, and Interlaken) separated from the original -square-mile rural farming township and established their own local governments. In  the first mastodon skeleton found in New Jersey was excavated from a marl pit at Oakhurst in Ocean Township. In  one of the first aviation meets of William and Orville Wright was held in a field in Ocean Township where thousands of spectators paid fifty cents admission to attend the air show. From

Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

Ocean Township (Ocean County). .-square-mile township on Barnegat Bay. Ocean Township is known more familiarly by its original name, Waretown, and is often confused with the seaside resort of Ocean City farther down the Jersey coast. It is bordered to the north by Lacey Township and to the south and west by Barnegat Township. Ocean Township became a municipality in , carved from parts of Lacey and what was then Union Township. Waretown got its name from Abraham Waier, who settled there with other “Rogerenes’’ in  after being cast out by Connecticut Puritans in a religious dispute. Even earlier, in , a one-room house was built near Waretown Creek by Caleb Falkinburg, grandson of the first European settler in Ocean County. Shipbuilding was a major Waretown enterprise from colonial times through the nineteenth century, and many sea captains prospered in coastal trading of timber and other goods. Other enterprises involved charcoal, peat moss, shellfish, and cranberries. Today Ocean Township is mostly residential, with less than  percent of its , acres developed. Part of its large, sparsely populated area west of the two main corridors—Route  and the Garden State Parkway—falls within the Pinelands Preservation Zone. The population in  was ,, of which  percent was white. Median household income () was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County’s Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

Oceanville.

See Galloway.

Ogden, Aaron

O’Crowley, Clarence Rutherford (b. May , ; d. Mar. , ).

Physician and surgeon. Clarence R. O’Crowley graduated from the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in  and went on to practice medicine in Newark for half a century. During World War I he served as a captain in the army medical corps. In , the University of Pennsylvania appointed Crowley an assistant professor of urology, a position he held for twenty-five years. He was on staff as consultant in urology at seventeen New Jersey hospitals and served as president of the American Urological Association, the American Association of Genitourinary Surgeons, the New York Urological Society, and the Society of Surgeons of New Jersey.

Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Pamela Cooper

Odell, Jonathan

(b. Sept. , ; d. Nov.

, ). Loyalist clergyman, physician, satirist,

and spy. A native of Newark, Jonathan Odell graduated from the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in . He first served as a surgeon in the British army in the s and then traveled to England where he was ordained in January . He returned to New Jersey and served as a Society for the Propagation of the Gospel missionary in Burlington and Mount Holly (–). While there he published satirical verses in Rivington’s Gazette, lampooning the Patriot cause. He was placed on parole by the provincial congress of New Jersey (July ) but fled to British-occupied New York in December , where he played a major part in negotiations with Benedict Arnold. He also served as superintendent of the printing offices and periodical publications in British-held Philadelphia (), chaplain to a Pennsylvania Loyalist regiment, assistant secretary to the board of directors of the Associated Loyalists (–), and translator of French and Spanish for Sir Guy Carleton (). In , Odell settled with his wife, Anne De Cou Odell, and their three children, in New Brunswick, Canada, where he remained until his death. Brown, Wallace. The King’s Friends: The Composition and Motives of the American Loyalist Claimants. Providence: Brown University Press, . Palmer, Gregory. Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution. Westport, CT: Meckler, . Ryan, Dennis P. New Jersey’s Loyalists. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Phillip Papas

Oertel, Johannes Adam Simon (b. Nov. , ; d. Dec. , ). Painter and ¨ rth in clergyman. J. A. Oertel was born in Fu Bavaria, the son of Thomas Friedrich Oertel, a metalworker, and Maria Magdalena Mennensdorfer. He studied painting and engrav¨ ller in ing with Johannes Michael Enzing-Mu

Munich. In  he came to America and settled in Newark, where he taught drawing, painted portraits, and did engravings for banknotes. In  he married Julia Adelaide Torrey, with whom he had four children. In  Oertel designed and painted the glass seals of the thirty-one states that were installed around the skylight in the ceiling of the House of Representatives chamber in the U.S. Capitol. During renovations to the Capitol in  the ceiling was removed, new plaster seals were reproduced from the glass ones, and the originals were given to the respective states. Oertel was most well known for his religious paintings and wood carvings for churches. Rock of Ages (), one of his most famous, was immensely popular and widely reproduced. In  Oertel became an Episcopal priest. For over twenty years he served parishes in North and South Carolina, the District of Columbia, Tennessee, Missouri, and Maryland. After his retirement in  he painted a series of works depicting the Redemption. He died in Vienna, Virginia. DAB. Oertel, Johannes Adam Simon, Papers, –. Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Oertel, John Frederick. A Vision Realized: A Life Story of Rev. J. A. Oertel, D.D., Artist, Priest, Missionary. Milwaukee: Young Churchman Company, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Office of Legislative Services.

The Office of Legislative Services (OLS) is an agency of the New Jersey legislature created by law to provide professional, nonpartisan staff support to the legislature and its officers, members, committees, and commissions. Established under its present name in , but founded in , the OLS is headquartered in the State House Annex in Trenton and operates under the jurisdiction of the Legislative Services Commission, a sixteen-member bipartisan panel with equal representation from each house of the legislature (State Senate and General Assembly). The office has no authority to formulate legislative policy and may only undertake its assignments upon the initiative of a legislator or committee. By law, all communications between legislators and OLS are confidential. The office will not disclose to a third party the nature of an assignment or the name of the legislator requesting any information, research, or advice unless so authorized by the legislator. Similarly, the products of those requests will not be released except upon specific direction of the legislator. As nonpartisan employees of the legislature, members of the OLS staff are prohibited from engaging in political activity or taking a public position with regard to any matter before the legislature. Headed by the Office of the Executive Director, the OLS is organized

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in units, comprising Legislative Counsel, Legislative Budget and Finance Office, Office of Public Information, Central Management Unit, Administrative Unit, Human Resources Office, Data Management Unit, and Office of the State Auditor. These units provide a variety of legal, fiscal, research, auditing, informational, and administrative services, including general, legal, and fiscal research and analysis; bill and resolution drafting; committee staffing; district office administration; distribution of bills and legislative documents; computer-database management; public information programs; personnel program management; and general administrative services. Specific responsibilities fall upon OLS’s four statutory officers. The first is the legislative counsel, the chief legal officer of the legislature and counsel to the Legislative Services Commission and the Joint Legislative Committee on Ethical Standards. This individual advises members of the legislature and its committees and commissions with respect to parliamentary procedures and legal matters and on issues pertaining to the Conflicts of Interest Law and the Legislative Code of Ethics. Second, the legislative budget and finance officer is the chief fiscal officer for the legislature and compiles and presents fiscal information, examines requests for appropriations, and ascertains the correctness of claims made against the state. Third, the state auditor, a constitutional officer, performs comprehensive financial post-audits of state agencies and makes independent verifications of all assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenditures. The auditor conducts studies on the operation of state and state-supported agencies at the request of the legislature or the Legislative Services Commission. Fourth, the director of public information supervises legislative public information services and programs, including a telephone hot line, bill status tracking, bill room, ceremonial resolutions, hearing reporters, publications, exhibits, videos, a clipping service, and an in-house library. The director of public information also administers the State House Tour program, the legislature’s Internet site, and the Capitol Complex Public Use program. The goal of the OLS is always to facilitate the unimpeded work of the legislature and to enable and promote public understanding of the legislative process. Office of Legislative Services. Legislators’ Handbook. Trenton: Office of Public Information, .

Albert Porroni

Ogden, Aaron , ).

(b. Dec. , ; d. Apr.

Governor, soldier, U.S. senator, and entrepreneur. Aaron Ogden was born in Elizabethtown, the son of Robert Ogden II, a lawyer and legislator, and Phebe Hatfield. After graduating from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in , he taught school for three years. Ogden was a classical

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Ogden, Matthias

scholar, and in public service had the reputation of a skilled orator and debater. He married Elizabeth Chetwood on October , . During the American Revolution, Ogden served as an officer in the Continental Army and was wounded leading an assault on a British redoubt at the battle of Yorktown. Ogden studied law with his older brother, Robert, and was admitted to the bar in . From  to  Ogden served as clerk of Essex County. During the undeclared war with France he was appointed lieutenant colonel of the Eleventh Infantry (August ) and deputy quartermaster general (February ) of the provisional army (disbanded June ). A staunch Federalist, Ogden failed in election to Congress in , but from  to  completed an unexpired term in the U.S. Senate. As head of the peace (Federalist) party in New Jersey, Ogden was elected governor by the legislature in , but as a candidate each of the two following years failed to be reelected. President James Madison nominated Ogden to be a major general in , but Ogden declined on grounds that his priority was the defense of New Jersey against possible British attack. Ogden is best known from the Supreme Court case of Gibbons v. Ogden, which affirmed the exclusivity of federal jurisdiction over interstate commerce. Ogden and Daniel Dod established the Steam Engine Factory in Elizabethtown. The company made machinery for steamboats manufactured throughout the country. In  the partners built the Sea Horse, which was the fastest steamboat of the time. Ogden, who conducted steamboat service between Elizabethtown and New York City, found himself up against a monopoly held by Robert R. Livingston and Robert Fulton for running steamboats in New York waters, including the Hudson River. In retaliation, New Jersey gave the same privilege to Ogden and Dod, but this law was repealed after two years. Ogden had no choice but to pay a heavy fee to the New York steamboat combine to gain a submonopoly in order to carry on his steamboat service. Thomas Gibbons, who had a rival line, sued Ogden, with the case being decided against Ogden by the U.S. Supreme Court in . Because of the cost of the litigation and having put all his resources into steamboating, Ogden faced bankruptcy; all his assets, including his home, were seized. While visiting New York City in  Ogden was sent to debtor’s prison. A close friend, Aaron Burr, however, prevailed upon the New York legislature quickly to pass a law exempting Revolutionary War veterans from imprisonment for debt, and Ogden was released after several months. Ogden backed Andrew Jackson for president because he thought that John Quincy Adams had betrayed the Federalist party. Ogden was rewarded, in , with appointment as collector for Jersey City. He was president of the state chapter of the Society of the

Cincinnati from  to  and presidentgeneral from  to . He was a trustee of the College of New Jersey, – and – . Ogden died in Jersey City, where he had moved when appointed collector. ANB. DAB. Harrison, Richard A. Princetonians, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also Gibbons v. Ogden; governor

Harry M. Ward

Ogden, Matthias

(b. Oct. , ; d. Mar.

, ).

Soldier. Matthias Ogden was the son of Robert Ogden II, lawyer and legislator, and Phebe Hatfield. He attended a “classical school’’ in Elizabethtown and briefly the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). Ogden joined the Continental Army in  and accompanied Benedict Arnold’s expedition against Quebec. He was wounded in the shoulder in the unsuccessful attack on the city on December , . Ogden attained the rank of lieutenant colonel in the First New Jersey Regiment, March , ; colonel, January , ; and brevet brigadier general, September , . He fought in George Washington’s campaigns, including Yorktown. His scheme to kidnap Prince William Henry (the future King William IV) in New York City failed. Ogden traveled to France in  and brought back the first report of the Treaty of Paris. After the war he engaged in land speculation, operated a tannery, and held the contract for delivery of mail between New York City and Philadelphia. He was a member of New Jersey’s legislative council in  and in  was a presidential elector. He died in Elizabethtown of yellow fever. See also American Revolution

Harry M. Ward

Ogdensburg. .-square-mile borough in Sussex County on the Wallkill River. Formerly part of Sparta Township, Ogsensburg became a borough in . It took its name from Robert Ogden II, a prominent early citizen and mine owner. The borough’s history is closely associated with that of the New Jersey Zinc Company, which began mining and processing operations at Sterling Hill in . In , Thomas Edison erected a massive iron ore concentrating works near Ogdensburg, which was ultimately unsuccessful. Ogdensburg’s primary industry remained the zinc mine, which reached depths of over , feet, and operated until . In , a portion of the extensive mine complex became the Sterling Hill Mining Museum, now a notable tourist attraction. It was listed on the State and National Register of Historic Places in . Most of the older residences in the town were

Edith O’Gorman (Sister Teresa de Chantal) of Saint Joseph’s Convent, Hudson City (now Jersey City), c. .

From Trials and Persecutions of Miss Edith O’Gorman by Edith O’Gorman, 1871.

originally housing constructed for mine employees. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horuzy, Paul, comp. The Odyssey of Ogdensburg and the Sterling Zinc Mine. Ogdensburg: Sterling Hill Mining Company, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . The Story of Ogdensburg. Ogdensburg: Ogdensburg Bicentennial Committee, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

O’Gorman, Edith

(b. Aug. , ;

d. May , ). Anti-Catholic polemicist. Edith

O’Gorman emigrated from Ireland with her family and settled in Rhode Island. In  she entered the Sisters of Charity at Madison, New Jersey, serving at various missions until she left the convent in . She became a Baptist, married William Auffray, and had at least one son. Encouraged by Ralph Waldo Emerson, she began touring as an anti-Catholic lecturer billed as the “escaped nun.’’ The violence following a lecture at Drew Theological Seminary in Madison on April , , was the subject of a Thomas Nast cartoon. O’Gorman, Edith. Trials and Persecutions of Miss Edith O’Gorman, Otherwise Sister Teresa de Chantal, of St. Joseph’s Convent, Hudson City, N.J. Hartford, CT: Connecticut Publishing Company, .

See also Roman Catholics

Augustine J. Curley

oil refineries.

The first U.S. facility for processing crude oil was built in Bayonne in the s. It was the first entry in what would eventually become one of the state’s most economically vital—and visible—heavy industries. New Jersey became a hub for refineries for several key reasons: its status as

Old Dutch Parsonage a corridor state between the New York and Philadelphia markets; the availability of lowcost, marshy land, especially along major waterways; and because the infrastructure, transportation links, and a burgeoning market were all there at once. Six refineries are now located in the state—three in North Jersey and three along the Delaware River in the southern part of the state. The Phillips refinery at Bayway in Linden along the Arthur Kill is the Northeast’s largest, with capacity of , barrels a day. Amerada Hess, based in Woodbridge, has a major refinery along the same waterway at Port Reading. The Chevron refinery in Perth Amboy is on the site of one of the Northeast’s original crude-processing facilities, and now mainly produces asphalt. South Jersey refineries on the Delaware are operated by Citgo in Paulsboro, Gloucester County (produces asphalt), Valero Refining (a former Mobil site) in Paulsboro, and Coastal at Eagle Point outside Westville, Gloucester County. Major pipelines operated by Colonial, Buckeye, and Sun traverse the state, and one of the Northeast’s four major national oil reserves is stored in New Jersey. It is the only northeastern state among the top five in terms of petroleum refining, the others being (in order) Texas, Louisiana, California, and Illinois. The refineries’ combined output is more than , gallons of petroleum products per day. New Jersey is also a major consumer of oil, with more than  million gallons of gasoline, distillate, and jet fuel burned each day in the state. Williamson, Harold F., Ralph L. Andreano, Arnold R. Daum, and Gilbert C. Klose. The American Petroleum Industry: The Age of Energy, –. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, . ———, and Arnold R. Daum. The American Petroleum Industry: The Age of Illumination, –. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, .

See also energy industry

Jim Donnelly

Old Barracks Museum.

As part of the effort throughout the colonies to relieve citizens of the burden of billeting British regulars during the winters of the French and Indian War, New Jersey constructed barracks in Burlington, Trenton, New Brunswick, Perth Amboy, and Elizabethtown, each accommodating three hundred men. Of these, the barracks in Trenton is the only survivor. Originally, it was a U-shaped, two-and-one-halfstory, rubble fieldstone building. A five-bay Georgian townhouse was added to the gable end of the north wing in  as an officers’ house. In  the Trenton barracks again housed British soldiers, but they were prisoners captured in Canada. Beginning in December of that year, four companies of the newly raised Second New Jersey Regiment were trained and equipped there. For several weeks in December , after George Washington’s army had been driven across the Delaware, a

601

Old Barracks Museum, Trenton.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

detachment of Hessians, Loyalist refugees, and dependents under Col. Johann Gottlieb Rall held the town and occupied the barracks. Following Washington’s rout of the Hessians at the famous Battles of Trenton (December , , and January , ), the barracks served as a Continental military hospital from March  until the end of the war. Notably, the hospital, run by German-born Dr. Bodo Otto and his two sons, was one of the places where Continental soldiers were inoculated against smallpox. Of no further military value after the war, the barracks building was sold by the state for civilian use in , except for forty feet of the north-central section, which was demolished to extend a street to the front of the thennew New Jersey State House. The remainder was divided into tenements, with the officers’ house serving at various times as a private residence, a tavern, and a school. Long fallen into disrepair, the south wing was purchased in  by a small group of women, led by Beulah Oliphant, who incorporated themselves as the Old Barracks Association. The group opened the building to the public the following year as the Old Barracks Museum. Deeded to the state in , it was restored and the missing section replaced between  and . It has been operated by the Old Barracks Association on behalf of the state ever since. Brumwell, Stephen. Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, –. New York: Cambridge University Press, . Fenn, Elizabeth A. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of –. New York: Hill and Wang, . Salsig, Doyen, ed. Parole, Quebec—Countersign, Ticonderoga: Second New Jersey Regimental Orderly Book, . Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Richard Patterson

Old Bridge. .-square-mile township in Middlesex County. Circa  the area was settled by English, Scots, Irish, and French Huguenots. The community was originally part of South Amboy Township, but was incorporated as Madison Township on March , . In , the name was changed to Old Bridge Township by referendum. The first settlers were mostly farmers, and the Cheesequake Creek, which flows into the Raritan Bay, served as the center of trade. The discovery of fine clay deposits along the banks of the creek opened the clay industry for the county and the state. The many creeks and streams powered numerous mills within the township borders, which processed paper, cider, snuff, and black powder. Fishing and tourism also developed along the . miles of coastline on the Raritan Bay. The community remained mostly rural until the s, when large-scale development began. Today the township is mostly suburban, and single-family homes predominate. There are still, however, approximately , acres of farmland and , acres of dedicated open space. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Martin, Alvia. At the Headwaters of Cheesequake Creek. Madison Township: Madison Township Historical Society, . This Is Old Bridge. Old Bridge: League of Women Voters, .

Michael J. Launay

Old Dutch Parsonage. This house was built as a parsonage in  by the First Reformed Dutch Church in the Raritan valley. It was used by the Rev. John Frelinghuysen both as a home and as the location of the Reformed Dutch Theological Seminary he helped to

602

Olden, Charles S. funds to outfit troops. He raised all the money required for war purposes at low interest and sold state bonds at a premium. During a time of severe shortages of military supplies, under his direction agents went to great lengths to secure the best available clothing, equipment, and arms for New Jersey troops. He also tried to provide soldiers with decent accommodations and food. In addition, the governor attempted to bolster wartime morale. Above all, he resourcefully met federal calls for troops. Olden’s vigorous leadership and solid achievements rank him as one of the North’s great war governors. After the war, Olden served as a judge, financial advisor, and riparian commissioner. DAB. Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil-War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also governor; Civil War

William Gillette

Oldmans.

Old Dutch Parsonage, Somerville.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. establish. In  his fledgling school became the basis for Queen’s College (today Rutgers University, as well as the now separate New Brunswick Theological Seminary), which then moved to New Brunswick. After Frelinghuysen’s death, his widow married the Rev. Jacob Hardenberg, who succeeded to the ministry of the local church and became the first president of Rutgers College in . Hardenberg was an ardent Patriot during the American Revolution. When Gen. George Washington occupied the nearby Wallace House, he visited Hardenburgh at his parsonage. In  the house was rescued from demolition and moved to its present location next to the Wallace House in Somerville. In  both buildings were acquired by the state, and today the parsonage is furnished in the style of the eighteenth century, and operated by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection as a museum. Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail for Families and History Buffs. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also historic sites; New Brunswick Theological Seminary; Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

Maxine N. Lurie

Olden, Charles S. (b. Feb. , ; d. Apr. , ). Businessman, farmer, politician, and

governor. In  amiable Charles S. Olden was selected as an appealing compromise choice for governor by the divergent forces of the Opposition coalition. Olden’s moderate views

made him an eminently suitable candidate to the many New Jerseyans. National unity, Olden thought, required sectional coexistence and compromise. He opposed both expansion of slavery on free soil in the West and abolition of slavery in the South. His nomination, clearly a masterstroke, attracted broad-gauge support, for many believed the state safe under Olden’s leadership. Despite the disturbing raid by John Brown on Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, in mid-October, which scared off some voters, on November , , Olden won the governorship by a mere , votes ( percent). When war broke out, Olden took decisive action. On April , , he requested volunteers in response to President Abraham Lincoln’s call for troops. He called a special session of the legislature to enact necessary war measures. Olden subsequently requested authorization of a loan of $ million to raise an army and a property tax to pay off the loan. He proposed various measures to furnish the needed men as well as to arm and equip them. The legislature accepted Olden’s recommendations by financing mobilization and authorizing cities and counties to aid families of volunteers. Olden brought his formidable influence to bear behind the scenes, prevailed upon Democratic leaders to intervene personally and enact various war measures. The state was totally unprepared for a military emergency; Olden created an organization where none had existed and selected officials to take charge. He and his staff worked efficiently and unceasingly. He prevailed upon banks and the Joint Companies to advance

A -square-mile township located in the northernmost part of Salem County. Oldmans lies on the Delaware River, bordering Gloucester County, and was formed from Upper Penns Neck Township in . The soil of this rural region is mostly dry sandy loam, good for growing cereals, fruits, and vegetables. The bulk of the land area is in farmland. The township includes the designated village of Pedricktown, first home to Camp Pedricktown in  and then used as an ordnance depot until . It later served as the headquarters for the nd and rd Artillery that commanded Nike missile sites in the Philadelphia region. The camp was closed in , except for a small enclave used by the military for exercises and storage. Here also was the U.S. Army’s Missile Master facility, a massive reinforced concrete building, from which missiles could be launched to protect the East Coast of the United States. It was placed on a heightened state of alert during the Cuban Missile Crisis of . Although no longer active, it remains behind fences and is still largely intact. Birdwatchers have called Pedricktown the “Ruff Capital of North America,’’ because these multicolored Eurasian shore birds have often been seen here. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bender, Donald E. “Air Defense on the Delaware: The Pedricktown Missile Master Site, –.’’ Quarterly Newsletter Salem County Historical Society (Dec. ).

Gail Greenberg

Old Tappan.

.-square-mile borough lying east of the Hackensack River along the New York State border in northeastern Bergen

open space County. Part of the Tappan Patent purchased from Native Americans in , Old Tappan was in Orange County, New York, until , when the New Jersey/New York boundary dispute was settled. Then, the Old Tappan section in New Jersey was made part of a newly created Harrington Township. Sparsely populated throughout most of the nineteenth century, mostly by descendants from the Haring family, only thirty votes were cast at the election to establish a borough in . Collignon Brothers chair-manufacturing business was established in , the largest in the state, and it lasted until . Several silent movies were shot in Old Tappan in the early part of the twentieth century. However, farming continued to be the principal industry lasting well into the s. Population within the borough grew slowly during most of the twentieth century and stood at  in , but then it grew dramatically following the Korean War to , in  and to , in , reflecting a change to a more typical suburban community. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Haight, Jo, ed. Old Tappan Centennial, –. Old Tappan: Old Tappan History Book Committee, . Ould Tappan, –. Old Tappan: Old Tappan Tercentenary Committee, .

Robert D. Griffin

Oldwick.

See Tewksbury.

Oliphant, A. Dayton

(b. Oct. , ;

d. June , ). Lawyer and jurist. A. Dayton

Oliphant was the son of Henry D. Oliphant, a clerk of the U.S. circuit court, and a nephew of William L. Dayton, a U.S. senator and ambassador to France. After graduating from Princeton University and the University of Pennsylvania Law School, he was admitted to the New Jersey bar in . From  to  he also served in the General Assembly, and later served a term as prosecutor of Mercer County. In  Oliphant married Marguerite Boughton and thereafter resided in Princeton. He began his judicial career as a judge of the old circuit court. In  he was elevated to the supreme court and in  to the position of chancellor, then the state’s highest judicial post. Following reorganization of the court system in , Gov. Alfred Driscoll appointed him an associate justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court, where he served until mandatory retirement in . The prototype of a judge with his white hair and mustache, Oliphant was commonly referred to as a “judge’s judge.’’ He authored the  decision declaring the state minimum price law unconstitutional. He also wrote several controversial dissents, including a  opinion asserting that the legislature could compel the

governor to take an oath swearing he was not a Communist. See also chief justice

Robert J. Martin

Olmsted, Frederick Law

(b. Apr. ,

603

Roper, Laura Wood, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Rybczynski, Witold. A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Scribner’s, .

Ashley L. Atkins

; d. Aug. , ). Landscape architect and

writer. Frederick Law Olmsted was the son of John Olmsted and Charlotte Hull. His father was a dry goods merchant in Hartford, Connecticut, where Olmsted was raised. He was sent to various boarding schools and planned to attend Yale, like his brother, until a severe case of sumac poisoning left him partially blind. He was apprenticed to a dry goods firm, but soon left to pursue farming. In , he purchased his first farm with the help of his father. During the s, Olmsted traveled extensively through the South, writing about southern society, thus beginning a literary career that would continue throughout his life. In , Olmsted and his future business partner, Calvert Vaux, won the design competition for Central Park in New York City. With this design, Olmsted began one of the most important and influential careers in landscape architecture in the United States. He designed picturesque parks across America, including, in New Jersey, Cadwalader Park, Trenton (), and the Essex County Park System, which includes Branch Brook Park, Newark (–). In addition, Olmsted designed residential campuses, including the redesign of the Lawrenceville School, in . Beveridge, Charles E., and Paul Rocheleau. Frederick Law Olmsted: Designing the American Landscape. New York: Rizzoli, . McLaughlin, Charles Capen, Charles E. Beveridge, et al., eds. The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

Olympic Park. A North Jersey institution long before the era of the big theme parks, Olympic Park was the state’s largest amusement park for sixty-one years. After Coney Island caught the public fancy in the s, every city of any size boasted one or more parks. Many were built at the end of a trolley line to offer the urban middle class affordable entertainment. On a forty-acre site straddling the Irvington-Maplewood border, Olympic Park was heralded as Newark’s own Coney Island when it opened May , . The site was already well known to Newark’s large German American community as Becker’s Woods (later Hilton Park). It had been a favorite destination for Sunday excursions ever since John A. Becker opened the verdant grounds of his country estate to the public on May , . For seventeen years families had crowded aboard open-air trolleys bound ¨ tlichkeit for a day of baseball, beer, and gemu at Becker’s Woods. It was renamed for the St. Louis Olympic Games in , when Christian Kurz and Herman Schmidt added rides, a circus, vaudeville, a dance pavilion, an opera house, and thousands of electric lights. Olympic Park’s modern history dates to , when Henry A. Guenther, a former brewing company executive, transformed it into a playland that would draw a million visitors in , its best year. Two roller coasters, a free circus, a funhouse, a Ferris wheel, a ninety-nine-seat carousel, a roller skating rink, a miniature railroad, and the usual rides, food stands, and games of chance crowded alongside a motorcycle track, a semipro baseball diamond, and the nation’s largest freshwater swimming pool. Jack Dempsey, Red Skelton, John Philip Sousa, Johnny Weissmuller, and Mae West performed there. Bandleader Joe Basile and songstress Bubbles Riccardo regaled the crowds twice daily. Changing tastes and demographics doomed Olympic Park, and it closed in September . Today it is the site of an industrial complex. Siegel, Alan A. Smile: A Picture History of Olympic Park, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Alan A. Siegel

Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.

Courtesy National Park Service, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, Brookline, MA.

open space. Open space policy is linked to New Jersey’s history of growth and change. Frederick Law Olmsted’s designs for the nation’s first county park system (Essex, ) and John Nollen’s pioneering suburban plans for Montclair and other “railroad suburbs’’

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opera

sought to keep breathing room in rapidly urbanizing areas, as did later “new towns’’ like Radburn and Roosevelt. After World War II, as open land, such as farms, forests, and even wetlands, gave over to development, local concerns became statewide ones. Regulatory efforts involving transferable development rights and preferential tax assessments had only modest success, and open zoning (without compensation) was declared unconstitutional by the New Jersey Supreme Court in . This gave impetus to the Green Acres program, through which $. billion has been spent to purchase property or development rights since . In , the New Jersey Supreme Court, revising its earlier ruling, approved drastic restrictions on development in the Pinelands to preserve open space. Since  the state Development and Redevelopment Plan has identified substantial parts of the state where growth should be encouraged in “centers,’’ thereby saving more land for agriculture or other open space usages. The plan, however, has yet to be vigorously enforced. State Planning Commission. New Jersey State Development and Redevelopment Plan. Trenton: Office of State Planning, .

See also Green Acres; land use

John M. Payne

opera. New Jersey’s opera history began with a footnote to New York’s: Lorenzo da Ponte, Mozart’s librettist for Don Giovanni, The Marriage of Figaro, and Cos´ı fan tutte,

was briefly a grocer in Elizabethtown (– ) before moving to Manhattan. He eventually became a teacher of Italian at Columbia (–), while promoting visits by European opera troupes and advocating construction of the Italian Opera House, completed in . To this day Manhattan opera companies, whether the Metropolitan Opera (founded in ), the New York City Opera (established in , first performances ), or less durable companies such as the Damrosch Opera Company (–), have counted on residents of northern New Jersey to fill a substantial number of seats. Nevertheless, during the twentieth century New Jersey came to have a significant operatic life of its own. In addition to visiting performers such as Beniamino Gigli, and touring opera companies such as San Carlo and Salmaggi, Newark hosted the WPA Opera Theater during the New Deal and a series of opera productions mounted by the Griffith Music Foundation after World War II. Meanwhile, amateur opera companies flourished in several suburban communities, whether light opera (the Ridgewood Gilbert and Sullivan Society has produced two operettas a year since ), or the grand opera repertory (such as the State Repertory Opera of South Orange, established , and Boheme Opera of Trenton, founded in ). One such group of dedicated amateurs in Westfield made the leap to professional status when it hired a professional conductor, Alfredo Silpigni, in  and incorporated

itself as the Opera Theatre of New Jersey, changing the name to the New Jersey State Opera in . Now based in Newark, NJSO formerly performed at Symphony Hall, with run-outs to the War Memorial in Trenton and the Garden State Arts Center in Holmdel; the company moved to the brand-new New Jersey Performing Arts Center in . Opera flourishes at academic institutions, too: since , Opera at Florham has been the resident company at Fairleigh Dickinson University in Madison; Opera at Rutgers offers performances at the Nicholas Music Center on the Douglass campus in New Brunswick. The state is home to two festivals as well: the Opera Festival of New Jersey, founded in  and offering three productions a year at Princeton’s McCarter Theatre, and the Metro Lyric Opera, which stages three operas each summer at the Paramount Theater in Asbury Park. Summer also brings the Metropolitan Opera to several locations in New Jersey, while during the winter, the State Theatre in New Brunswick hosts touring companies such as the Western Opera Theatre, the Russian State Opera, and the Teatro Lirico d’Europa. Opera is not a closed canon; new works are constantly being added to the standard repertory. New Jersey can boast several world premieres, including Englewood composerconductor Wheeler Beckett’s The Magic Mirror at Newark’s Mosque (later Symphony Hall) in  and the first fully staged performance of Peter Nero’s Anne Frank at the Trenton War Memorial in . See also classical music

Nick Humez

Opera Festival of New Jersey. Founded in , Opera Festival was the largest opera company in the state. The operating budget grew from $, to $ million. In , the company moved from its first residence, the Allan P. Kirby Arts Center at the Lawrenceville School, to Princeton’s McCarter Theatre Center for the Performing Arts. The production of world premieres, including at least one twentieth-century opera outside the standard repertoire, became a trademark of this summer festival. The opera company had educational programs, which included taking productions into schools each spring. In , after twenty years, the Opera Festival ceased operations due to financial problems. See also opera

Nan Childress Orchard

Oradell.

Old Opera House, corner of Albany and George streets, New Brunswick, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Located at the head of the tidewater of the Hacksensack River, it was originally called New Milford. Original settlers in the region were French Huguenots and Dutch, who moved in after land was purchased from the Lenape in . Not until , though, did a descendant of David desMarets become the

orchestras first to live within the town’s present boundaries. The river provided water power used to run a succession of mills that produced leather, buttons, woolens, and flour. In  the Hacksensack and New York Extension Railroad (later New Jersey and New York Railroad) arrived, and the population increased. In  the Hacksensack Water Company built the first of its pumping stations. In  the borough of Oradell was formed and several land companies began to develop tracts for residential homes. The transformation of the town into a suburban community began then, and escalated after World War II. Today it is known for being the boyhood home of astronaut Wally Schirra, as well as the Hiram Blauvelt Art Museum and the Oradell Reservoir. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Blauvelt, Hiram. History of Oradell. Englewood: Bergen Press, . Crump, J. Irving. Biography of a Borough: Oradell. Oradell: N.p., . Fogarty, Catherine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Linda J. Barth

Orange. .-square-mile city in Essex County. Western Newark first became known as Orange in , but only achieved township status in , and finally incorporated as a town in . This last incorporation generated major schisms within the community, as substantial elements seceded and Orange evolved into a small manufacturing city nestled in the valley of the Watchung Mountains. Shoemaking fueled the local economy in the early nineteenth century, but hatmaking emerged as Orange’s dominant industry by the s. Prominent hatters, including the Stetsons, relied largely on Irish, German, and later Italian workers to staff their factories. Hatting peaked in the s, but labor disputes soon crippled local establishments. Orange’s manufacturing economy then shifted toward electrical supplies, pharmaceuticals, calculating machines, boxes, and radium watch dials. By , a thriving immigrant workingclass culture existed. Factory operatives crowded into multiple-family dwellings surrounding a small business district. Population grew steadily, eventually peaking at over , in . Thereafter small manufacturing jobs declined, Essex County suburbanized, and Orange’s population decreased, dipping below , by . The population in  of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Median

605

household income in  stood at $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Archaeological and Historical Sources.’’ Bulletin of the New York State Archaeological Association  (): –.

Dorflinger, Don. Orange: A Postcard Guide to Its Past. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Winkler, David F. “Revisiting the Attack on Pavonia.’’ New Jersey History , nos. – (): –.

Early Records of the Township of Orange from  to . Orange: Chronicle Press, .

See also Netherland

Vail, Merit H. Cash. Essex County, N.J., Illustrated. Newark: L. J. Hardham, . Wickes, Stephen. History of the Oranges, in Essex County, N.J., from  to . Bowie: Heritage Books, .

Peter J. Wosh

Oratam (b. c. ; d. c. ). Hackensack Indian leader. Oratam was the most important native negotiator with the Dutch in New Amsterdam. His name appears on numerous treaty records of interactions among the Dutch and the Hackensack, Esopus, and other small tribes in the region around Manhattan Island. After the Dutch massacre of natives at Pavonia in  as part of colonial efforts to control the region’s tribes, Oratam represented several of these groups in the peace process. By , as the Dutch were losing power to the expanding English influence, the Wappinger and Esopus tribes joined forces to harry the Dutch. The English declined to join these native tribes, allowing both sides to weaken themselves in the conflict. During this period Oratam continued to be a major agent for the Dutch. He died only a few years after , when the English finally secured control of the region. Becker, Marshall Joseph. “The Lenape and Other ‘Delawarean’ Peoples at the Time of European Contact: Population Estimates Derived from

American

Indians;

New

Marshall J. Becker

orchestras. Except for the modest-sized string ensembles accompanying the Handel and Haydn Society’s oratorio performances in the s and s and the military marching bands that began in the Civil War era, New Jersey appears to have had no permanent symphony orchestra prior to the turn of the nineteenth century. By the end of the twentieth century, however, the state had more than twenty professional orchestras, each employing from twenty-six to one hundred musicians on annual budgets ranging from $, to $ million, with amateur players making up an additional two dozen community orchestras, and a growing number of youth orchestras performing throughout the state as well. New Jersey’s orchestras, like other music presenters, benefit from a mix of favorable population density and high attendance percentage: a  National Endowment for the Arts survey found that . percent of New Jerseyans polled had attended a classical performance within the preceding year, a percentage exceeded only by residents of Massachusetts, Michigan, and New York. The New Jersey Performing Arts Center is home both to the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra

Professional Orchestras in New Jersey Name

Location

Date Founded

Bay-Atlantic Symphony Cherry Hill Orchestra Colonial Symphony Edison Arts Society Symphony

Bridgeton Cherry Hill Basking Ridge Edison

1983 1997 1950 2000

Garden State Philharmonic Greater Trenton Symphony Orchestra

Toms River Trenton

1956 1921

Haddonfield Symphony Orchestra Hawthorne Symphony Orchestra Montclair Chamber Ensemble

Haddonfield Hawthorne Montclair

1954 2000 1990

New Brunswick Chamber Orchestra New Jersey Symphony Orchestra New Jersey Pops New Philharmonic of New Jersey North Jersey Philharmonic

New Brunswick Newark Livingston Morristown Teaneck

1965 1922 1977 1997 1947

Ocean City Pops Orchestra at William Paterson University Orchestra of Saint Peter by the Sea

Ocean City Wayne Brick Township

1928 1985 1986

Philharmonic Orchestra of New Jersey Princeton Symphony Orchestra Riverside Symphonia Westfield Symphony Orchestra West Jersey Chamber Symphony

Warren Princeton Lambertville Westfield Moorestown

1987 1980 1990 1983 1980

S: Star-Ledger, May 27, 2001, sect. 4, 1, 4.

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orchids

Community Orchestras in New Jersey Name

Location

Date Founded

Abby Orchestra Adelphi Chamber Orchestra Baroque Orchestra of Boonton

Morris Twp. Paramus Boonton

1973 1953 1996

Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra Bloomfield Symphony Orchestra Central Jersey Symphony Orchestra Crestwood Symphonette Glen Rock Pops Hunterdon Symphony Orchestra

Englewood Bloomfield Branchburg Twp Whiting Glen Rock Flemington, Clinton

1936 1931 1985 1975 1975 1980

Livingston Symphony Orchestra Metropolitan Orchestra of New Jersey Monmouth Symphony Orchestra New Jersey Intergenerational Orchestra New Sussex Symphony

Livingston West Orange Asbury Park Cranford, Princeton Newton

1956 1972 1948 1994 1956

North Jersey Symphony Orchestra Philharmonic of Southern New Jersey Plainfield Symphony Orchestra Ridgewood Symphony Orchestra Somerset Valley Orchestra

Tenafly Voorhees, Camden Plainfield Ridgewood Bound Brook

1960 1991 1919 1939 1975

South Jersey Pops Orchestra South Orange Symphony Orchestra Stone Soup Symphony

Medford South Orange Hackettstown

1967 1949 1998

Summit Symphony Warren County Orchestra Westminster Community Orchestra

Summit Harmony Twp. Princeton

1938 1996 1986

S: Star-Ledger, May 28, 2001, 35, 37.

and to the Philharmonic Orchestra of New Jersey; the Trenton War Memorial Auditorium is the principal venue for the Greater Trenton Symphony, founded in ; and proximity to Philadelphia allows the Haddonfield Symphony to double as a paid training orchestra for students from Curtis Institute and other conservatories in the area. Other ensembles count on the loyal support of a hometown audience. The Edison Arts Society Symphony was formed as a professional orchestra in the fall of  and offers a modest three-performance season at Middlesex County Community College, with Edison native Judith Morse as its music director. Other local professional orchestras include the North Jersey Philharmonic, based in Teaneck; the Riverside Symphonia of Lambertville; and the Orchestra of Saint Peter by the Sea, in Brick Township. Local is of the essence for community and youth orchestras, whose amateur musicians pay dues to help defray the cost of hiring a professional conductor. As of  the most ambitious season—twelve performances—was offered by the Crestwood Symphonette of Whiting; its closest competitors were the Central Jersey Symphony (six to eight), the Glen Rock Pops (eight to ten), and the New Jersey Intergenerational Orchestra (eight), whose members range in age from six to eightyseven. And the Youth Orchestras of Essex County, the Jersey Youth Symphony, and other youth ensembles in the state provide

orchestral experience for primary and secondary school students, some of whom go on to perform in college orchestras such as the professional orchestra at William Paterson University. See also classical music

Nick Humez

orchids.

Fifty species of orchids are found in New Jersey; of these, twenty-nine are uncommon to very rare, with some existing only as single plants or in tiny colonies. Many species are small and inconspicuous. They are often very specific in their habitat requirements, and many have symbiotic relationships with particular soil fungi. The most widespread New Jersey orchids are the pink lady-slipper, which is found in dry, acid soils, and the nodding ladies’-tresses, which grows in damp meadows. Downy rattlesnake plantain, showy orchis, and helleborine can be locally common in woodlands outside of the Pinelands. In the Pinelands, rose pogonia, grass-pink, and the white-fringed orchid can sometimes be common in wetland habitats.

Karl Anderson

organized crime. Illicit, organized gambling, bootlegging, prostitution, and drug trafficking appeared in New Jersey early in the twentieth century. Criminal cultures spread from New York City to the northern, industrialized parts of the state as ethnic

organized gangs gained significant economic and political footholds following . Then, as now, major criminal enterprise in New Jersey remained largely under the tutelage, if not direct control, of larger La Cosa Nostra families in New York and, to a lesser extent, Philadelphia. From a criminal standpoint, that made New Jersey something of a vassal state to its larger neighbors and more powerful criminals. A key event in the early formation of modern organized crime in New Jersey was the  summit held in Atlantic City, hosted by emerging Mafia dons such as Charles “Lucky’’ Luciano, Joe Adonis, Joe Bonanno, and Vito Genovese, and held under the protection of Atlantic City political boss and underworld fixer Enoch “Nucky’’ Johnson. The convention attracted mobsters, including Al Capone, from other states. It laid the ground rules for territorial exclusivity among various mobs, and hosted the first discussions for the establishment of a national commission for settling disputes—a structure that still exists today. A noteworthy early event in the U.S. history of La Cosa Nostra was the commission-ordered  murder of New York beer baron Arthur “Dutch Schultz’’ Flegenheimer at the Palace Chop House in Newark. Despite the influence of New York and Philadelphia mobsters, New Jersey–based crime groups existed and flourished through most of the twentieth century. An early example was “Jewish Mafia’’ founder Abner “Longy’’ Zwillman, a much-feared gangster who worked closely with Luciano, underworld financial genius Meyer Lansky, and the Chicago “Outfit.’’ Law enforcement considered him the “Al Capone of the East,’’ as he formed a New Jersey crime family (with Willie Moretti) that wielded vast political influence: in , then-governor Harold Hoffman solicited Zwillman’s support for reelection. Moretti was shot to death in  at Duke’s Restaurant in Cliffside Park, a notorious mob hangout. Zwillman hanged himself in  after being subpoenaed by Congress to testify about mob activity. Some believe he was murdered, and his death made to appear a suicide, to prevent him from testifying. A La Cosa Nostra family has existed in Newark since the early s, initially under the command of Steven Badami, and was represented at the infamous Apalachin, New York, mob conference in  that was raided by police, publicly exposing scores of mobsters. Highly active in bookmaking, labor racketeering, bid rigging, and loan-sharking, the group became known as the DeCavalcante family after Simone “Sam the Plumber’’ DeCavalcante took the reins in . DeCavalcante fell into disrepute among his peers when in  the FBI revealed it had been bugging his conversations for years. The tapes largely confirmed the revelations of the famed mob turncoat Joseph Valachi. The Newark family

Ott and Brewer was headed by John Riggi after DeCavalcante fled to Florida, until Riggi was imprisoned in . A series of power struggles and murders has more recently left the Newark family in disarray. The legalization of casino gambling in Atlantic City created riches that exceeded the mob’s wildest dreams, and the scramble to amass them led to an unprecedented orgy of violence and betrayal that continues today. Since the  summit in that city, it had traditionally been under control of the Philadelphia mob family founded by Salvatore Sabella and headed in the s by Angelo Bruno, known as the “Gentle Don.’’ At the time of the  casino referendum, the putative crime leader of Atlantic City was Nicodemo “Little Nicky’’ Scarfo, a hothead who had been banished by Bruno to the decaying resort in the s for killing a man in argument over a stool at a South Philadelphia diner. New Jersey State Police superintendent Justin Dintino would later call Scarfo, who at first operated small-time rackets in Atlantic City, an “imbecile.’’ Bruno’s aversion to violence was seen as a weakness by some of his subordinates. In , he was slain in an unsanctioned hit orchestrated by his consigliere, who was in turn killed on orders of the mob, which then backed Philip Testa as Philadelphia boss. The power struggle that ensued triggered a war that claimed more than twenty victims over the next two decades, including both Testa and his son, Salvatore, an up-and-coming mafioso whose body was dumped along a Camden County road. With new riches from labor racketeering, construction scams, and other crimes following the gaming legalization, Scarfo achieved unimagined power, but the carnage forced him to surround himself with young, equally violent mobsters. As the government began building a case against him, Scarfo ordered supposed allies in his family killed on mere suspicion of disloyalty. His paranoia boomeranged as his nephew, mob capo Phil Leonetti, and other key Philadelphia and Atlantic City mobsters became government informants against Scarfo. The diminutive, bloodthirsty Scarfo was convicted and sentenced in  to a de facto life term. Mob infighting continues today in Philadelphia and Atlantic City, but the real power in most of New Jersey rests with the New York–based Gambino and Genovese families, who have numerous operatives in the state. The mob’s influence has corrupted prominent New Jersey political figures at various junctures. Newark mayor Hugh Addonizio, Hudson County political boss John Kenny, Atlantic City mayor Michael Matthews, and Camden mayor Angelo Errichetti were disgraced or jailed for associations with the mob. More recently, in , Camden mayor Milton Milan was imprisoned on corruption charges, in part for association with remnants of the Bruno-Scarfo family.

Not all criminal enterprise in New Jersey has involved those of Italian or Jewish descent. During the s, federal prosecutions broke the violent Sons of Malcolm X gang, which had controlled heroin and other drug trafficking in much of Camden. Hispanic gangsters, some from the Dominican Republic, distribute heroin in parts of Camden, Trenton, and Newark. Outlaw motorcycle gangs, led by the Pagans, have been active in the distribution of methamphetamine and commercialized auto and motorcycle theft. Perhaps the ultimate salute to New Jersey’s century-old mob history is the HBO series The Sopranos, the tale of a dysfunctional New Jersey family led by a troubled mob chieftain. Coakley, Leo J. Jersey Troopers. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rudolph, Robert. The Boys from New Jersey: How the Mob Beat the Feds. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also gambling; murders; Waterfront Commission of New York Harbor

Jim Donnelly

Ortho-McNeil

Pharmaceutical.

Located in Raritan, Ortho-McNeil was formed by the  merger of two Johnson & Johnson companies, Ortho Pharmaceutical Corporation and McNeil Pharmaceutical. Prior to the merger, each company had a strong reputation for developing and marketing prescription products in distinct therapeutic classes: Ortho in women’s health, and McNeil in central nervous system and pain treatment. The beginning of Ortho can be traced to Johnson & Johnson’s development and introduction of the nation’s first prescription contraceptive in . Nine years later, Ortho Products was formed. Subsequent Ortho accomplishments include the introduction of the commercial Pap smear to detect cervical cancer, the first treatment for vaginal yeast infections, and, starting in , a variety of increasingly refined birth-control pill regimens. In , Johnson & Johnson developed the subsidiary Ortho Biotech, a biotechnology concern. McNeil Pharmaceutical, established in , was purchased by Johnson & Johnson in . McNeil’s pharmaceutical line, which included sedatives and muscle relaxants, gave Johnson & Johnson a presence in the prescription drug market. McNeil’s analgesic Tylenol (acetaminophen), introduced as a prescription drug in , achieved over-the-counter status in the s. More recently, McNeil has introduced prescription medications for the treatment of chronic pain and schizophrenia. McNeil was divided into two companies, McNeil Pharmaceutical and McNeil Consumer Products Company, in . Since the  merger of the two companies, Ortho-McNeil has continued the tradition of health care studies begun in  with the Ortho Annual Birth Control Study, which

607

tracks awareness and usage of contraception. Other studies address infectious diseases and the impact of pain in the workplace. Bogner, William C., with Howard Thomas. Drugs to Market: Creating Value and Advantage in the Pharmaceutical Industry. Tarrytown, NY: Elsevier Science, Pergamon Imprint, . Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Liebenau, Jonathan. Medical Science and Medical Industry: Formation of the American Pharmaceutical Industry. London: Macmillan, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Osborn-Cannonball House.

Constructed circa  by Jonathan Osborn, an innkeeper, tailor, and farmer, this house is one of the few remaining eighteenth-century buildings in Scotch Plains. The Osborn family lived in the house until , when it was sold to the Hetfield family. Both families were locally prominent. The house received its name as a result of a Revolutionary War skirmish that took place in June , when, according to legend, a cannonball stuck in a timber of the house. Today the house is operated as a museum by the Historical Society of Scotch Plains and Fanwood. Bousquet, Richard, and Suzanne Bousquet. Scotch Plains and Fanwood. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Rawson, Marion Nicholl. Under the Blue Hills—Scotch Plains, New Jersey. Plainfield: Historical Society of Scotch Plains and Fanwood, .

See also historic sites

Stacy E. Spies

Ott and Brewer. A partnership between Joseph Ott and his nephew, John Hart Brewer, Ott and Brewer was the most significant of Trenton’s potteries in the late s because of its vital role in the development of artware. In addition, Brewer, a principal of the firm, made substantial contributions to the industry through his work in the organization of the U.S. Potters’ Association in  and while he was U.S. congressman from New Jersey (– ). Founded originally as Bloor, Ott, and Booth in , the company evolved through several partnerships before becoming Ott and Brewer in . The pottery, which was also called Etruria Pottery Works, became one of the largest general ware potteries in Trenton, with approximately three hundred workers in the s. William Bloor, a practical potter, introduced the making of parian porcelain to Trenton and Ott and Brewer began to make parian busts of politicians and others. The company’s exhibit at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in  included several monumental parian porcelain sculptures designed by Isaac Broome. Brewer was later instrumental in developing Trenton Belleek through the Anglo-Irish craftsmen he brought to Trenton. The pottery closed in

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Outerbridge, Eugenius Harvey

 due to Brewer’s poor investments elsewhere and a severe nationwide economic depression. Frelinghuysen, Alice C. American Porcelain, – . New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry; illustration, color section

Ellen Paul Denker

Outerbridge, Eugenius Harvey (b. Mar. , ; d. Nov. , ).

Businessman and chair of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Born in Philadelphia, Eugenius Outerbridge began his business career in Newfoundland, Canada, with Harvey and Company, an import-export firm. He returned to New York as the company’s agent, later establishing his own export firm and, after that, what would become the Homosote Company, a maker of building supplies. He served as the first chair of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (established in ), and created a comprehensive plan for the development of New York Harbor. President of the New York State Chamber of Commerce, he was also involved, with his sister Mary, in establishing the United States Tennis Association. The Outerbridge Crossing (), a steeltruss cantilever bridge connecting Staten Island and Perth Amboy, was named in his honor.

Bard, Erwin W. The Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Doig, Jameson. Empire on the Hudson: Political Power and Progress at the Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, .

Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Reier, Sharon. The Bridges of New York. New York: Quadrant Press, .

See also bridges

Steven M. Richman

Overlook Hospital. Overlook Hospital in Summit was founded in  by William H. Lawrence, Jr., a private practitioner. Lawrence chose a hilltop site, visible to the townsfolk and healthful for the patients, for his threestory private hospital. He funded the thirtybed facility for $,, later borrowing money to add new wings. Overlook became a community hospital in . It continued to expand on its original site and is now a -bed teaching hospital. Overlook established a teaching affiliation with Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in  and with the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey in . See also hospitals and hospital systems

Rattlesnake Hill and Cat Swamp—the hamlet of Oxford Furnace is the best known. Today the air around that community is cleaner than it was during the operation of the charcoalburning, iron-making furnace that was built in . It produced firebacks during peace and cannonballs during the Revolutionary War, and introduced the hot-air blast furnace to the industrial revolution. Oxford Furnace was a mine and mill town in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The furnace and the ironmaster’s mansion, Shippen Manor, have been restored and are open to public viewing. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Krumgold, Joseph, ed. The Oxford Furnace, – . Belvidere: Warren County Historical Society, . Warne, George K., ed. Oxford Furnace, a Short Narrative. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Sandra Moss

Gladys Harry Eggler

Oxford. .-square-mile mostly rural township in Warren County. Oxford was separated from Greenwich Township circa –, and later partitioned into other townships such as Knowlton and White, parts of Harmony and Hope, and Belvidere. The township had been founded in  by a lone settler, John Axford, a Quaker whose family was the core of the settlement of Axford. Mispronounced by the generations that followed, the name finally evolved into Oxford. Of the many colorful settlements in the area, such as

Oxford Furnace. The significance of the Oxford Furnace site lies not only in its preRevolutionary construction date (), but also in its evolution and continual adaptations to technology until its closing in . After a period of abandonment in the early s and reconstruction in , the furnace was repeatedly upgraded to keep abreast of the advancing ironmaking technologies of postindustrial America. Several hot-air blast systems were employed, the capacity of the inner smelting chamber (also known as the bosh) was

Mysak, Joe, with Judith Shiffer. Perpetual Motion: The Illustrated History of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Santa Monica, CA: General Publishing Group, . Weidenbaum, Murray L. The Modern Public Sector: New Ways of Doing the Government’s Business. New York: Basic Books, .

See also Port Authority of New York and New Jersey

Steven M. Richman

Outerbridge Crossing.

Opened June , , this bridge crosses the Arthur Kill between Perth Amboy and Staten Island. A steeltruss cantilever bridge named for Eugenius Outerbridge, the first chair of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it took three years to build at a cost of $. million. The Port Authority retained the renowned engineer John Alexander Waddell to design the bridge, and Othmar Ammann, the designer of the George Washington Bridge, supervised its construction. The Outerbridge Crossing has a -foot clearance for marine traffic, a main span of  feet, and total length of , feet. Mysak, Joe, and Judith Schiffer. Perpetual Motion: The Illustrated History of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Santa Monica: General Publishing Group, .

Oxford Furnace, Oxford Township.

Courtesy Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, DE.

oysters increased several times, holes were cut into the stack to add nozzles (known as tuyeres) for additional air-blast entry points, the height was increased, the perimeter footprint was enlarged, waterpower was replaced by steam, and coal was introduced. The Oxford engine house was constructed in  to house a vertical steam-powered blowing tub and two boiler/heater pairs. Renovations to the engine house allowed for an additional boiler/heater pair. After the furnace went out of blast and the ancillary features were scrapped, the engine house was apparently reused as a machine shop/office before falling into ruin. Oxford Furnace and engine house are on the National Register of Historic Places and are managed and maintained by the Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission. Recent stabilization and archaeological investigations have been partially financed by a matching grant from the New Jersey Historic Trust.

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Boyer, Charles S. Early Forges and Furnaces in New Jersey. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

See also iron industry

Carla Cielo

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oysters. The oyster, Crassostrea virginica, a staple in the diet of American Indians, has been harvested commercially in New Jersey since colonial days. Oysters were once abundant from Sandy Hook to Cape May, but overfishing gradually led to the disappearance of commercial quantities. The oyster industry is now concentrated in Delaware Bay. Oysters are sold either in the shell or shucked (meats removed from the shell) to seafood dealers in many states. Production has declined recently due to parasites that kill oysters but are harmless to humans; nevertheless, the industry remains important to the economy of many Delaware Bayshore communities.

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P Page, William

(b. Jan. , ; d. Oct. ,

). Painter, engraver, and sculptor. Born in

Albany, New York, William Page was the only child of Levi Page and Tamer Gale Dunnell. In , the family moved to New York City, where Page received minimal schooling before beginning an apprenticeship in the law firm of Frederick De Peyster around . With De Peyster’s encouragement, Page first began studies with portraitist James Herring, then enrolled in classes at the new National Academy of Design in . Training privately with the institution’s president, Samuel F. B. Morse, Page is believed to have derived his lifelong artistic idealism, experimentation with color, and religious sensibility from his parents’ upbringing and Morse’s instruction. Page was a very successful student, and he continued to paint portraits to sustain himself during brief interludes as a ministry student at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, and in Amherst, Massachusetts, shortly thereafter. By the early s, Page was exhibiting regularly at the National Academy’s annual exhibitions. The artist married Lavinia Twibill in , despite having barely established himself economically. The ensuing financial insecurity would become a recurrent theme in Page’s life. In , Page enjoyed his first critical success at the Academy with his Portrait of a Lady and Child. His early interest in the colorism of Titian was widely recognized, and culminated in his appellation the “American Titian.’’ He was made a full member of the National Academy in . After his first wife divorced him, Page married Sarah Augusta Dougherty in . He resided in Boston for most of the s, then moved to Italy in , where the American expatriate sculptor Hiram Powers introduced him to the theology of Emanuel Swedenborg. Page would later become one of Swedenborgianism’s principal exponents and disseminators in the American art community. Early in his decade-long Italian sojourn, Page’s second wife divorced him, and he married a widow, Sophia Stevens Hitchcock, in . In Italy, he painted several of his most famous works, including The Flight into Egypt (c. –) and two versions of Venus Guiding Eneas and the Trojans to the Latin Shore (c.  and ). The artist’s well-known and unapologetic experimentation with materials, however, resulted in the rapid deterioration of many of his canvases. Lucrative portrait commissions were therefore rare, and Page suffered financially. Despite his economic problems, the artist’s 610

reputation in the United States continued to flourish. After his return to the United States in , Page resided briefly in New York before moving to Eagleswood in . While in New Jersey, Page dictated his most complete treatise on his theory and practice of painting. He resided in Eagleswood until , during which time he introduced others, including the landscapist George Inness, to Swedenborgianism and painted several important works, including his portraits Col. Robert Gould Shaw (exhibited in ) and Admiral Farragut in the Shrouds of the “Hartford’’ at Mobile Bay (–). Page’s success was curtailed at the height of his fame in  by severe illness, which would plague him until his death. ANB. Page, William, Papers, and Page Family Papers. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Taylor, Joshua C. William Page, the American Titian. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .

See also art

Mark D. Mitchell

Paine, Thomas

(b. Jan. , ; d. June

, ).

Political pamphleteer and statesman. Born in England, Thomas Paine spent his early life as a staymaker (the profession of his father), an excise tax collector, and a schoolmaster. He immigrated to Philadelphia at age thirty-seven, carrying with him a letter of introduction from Benjamin Franklin, to whom he had been introduced by his supervisor in the excise service. In , his bestknown pamphlet, Common Sense, appeared— one of the first public statements advocating

John Wesley Jarvis, Thomas Paine, c. -. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. Gift of Marian B. Maurice. Photograph Copyright 2001 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art.

American separation from Britain. During the Revolutionary War, he served as an aide-tocamp to Gen. Nathaniel Greene and continued to write to rally American public opinion against the British. His twelve-part series, The Crisis, opened with the famous words, “These are the times that try men’s souls.’’ Legend has it that Paine wrote the first Crisis paper on a drumhead in December , shortly after the retreat by American troops across New Jersey. A few days after its publication, George Washington read it aloud to his troops before they recrossed the Delaware to defeat the Hessians on Christmas morning. After the American Revolution, Paine purchased a farm in Bordentown, New Jersey, located near his good friends the Kirkbrides. From  until , he lived mostly in France. In , he was elected to the French National Convention. His Rights of Man firmly rejected monarchy and espoused the establishment of a social welfare state. He lived his last years in New York City and on his New Rochelle farm and died largely forgotten. Aldridge, Alfred Owen. Thomas Paine’s American Ideology. Newark: University of Delaware Press, . Ayer, A. J. Thomas Paine. New York: Athenaeum, . Fruchtman, Jack, Jr. Thomas Paine: Apostle of Freedom. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, . Keane, John. Tom Paine: A Political Life. Boston: Little, Brown, .

See also American Revolution

Jack Fruchtman, Jr.

Palace Depression.

Palace Depression is one of, if not the most idiosyncratic but successful twentieth-century tourist attractions in New Jersey. In , George Daynor arrived in Vineland where he purchased four acres and constructed out of car parts, mud, recycled building elements, and junk a fantastic eighteen-spired castle as both a home and a tourist destination. On Christmas day , he opened the “Strangest House in the World’’ to the public. He made a living by charging small entrance fees for guided tours and by  the site was famous enough to be listed by the state WPA Guide. Daynor was not only skilled as a builder but also as a promoter. Using postcards, cloth pennants, and publicity campaigns, he made the Palace so famous that by the s he not only had his own comic books but the site also appeared on Esso gas station maps and in Ripley’s “Believe It Or Not’’ and was attracting thousands of visitors. In , Universal Pictures made a film, The Fantastic Castle, and in  Daynor made a guest appearance on the TV program You Asked for It. Unfortunately, Daynor’s drive for publicity caused him to give false information to the FBI in  concerning a criminal case. As a result he spent a year in jail, during which the Palace was vandalized. He died in , and five years later the city of Vineland dismantled the site. See also roadside attractions

Robert L. Schuyler

Palisades Interstate Park

George Daynor, originator, designer, and builder, saunters through his Palace Depression, Vineland, c. s.

Courtesy Pike Archives.

Palisades Amusement Park.

Palisades Amusement Park was a thirty-eightacre park on top of the Palisades cliffs in the towns of Fort Lee, Cliffside Park, and Edgewater in Bergen County. It was first opened to the public in  by the Bergen County Traction Company as a simple picnic grove intended to increase weekend ridership for the company’s trolley line. It soon became a popular oasis for the turn-of-thecentury populace. By  the park had added a carousel, a miniature train, a Ferris wheel, dirigible exhibitions, and numerous other attractions. Nicholas and Joseph Schenck purchased the park from the trolley company in . Three years later, they constructed the world’s largest outdoor saltwater pool, featuring artificial waves. Each day . million gallons of filtered water were pumped up from the Hudson River to fill the pool. Palisades became an attraction that rivaled Coney Island. But by , during the Great Depression, Palisades was struggling. The Schencks owed over eighty thousand dollars to the municipalities for back taxes and interest. The matter was finally settled, but the Schenck brothers, by then upwardly mobile Hollywood studio executives, wanted out. They sold the park to another pair of enterprising brothers, Irving and Jack Rosenthal. The Rosenthals turned Palisades back into a profitable venture. On August , , a fire broke out and quickly spread throughout the park. The conflagration destroyed $ million in park property. One hundred fifty people were injured and seven people were killed in the blaze. The Rosenthals immediately began to rebuild the park. Building permits were issued, and the Rosenthals received priority for warrationed items because the park was considered recreation for the servicemen. By the spring of , the park reopened.

Palisades’ greatest appeal became its musical entertainment. From Benny Goodman in the s to Chubby Checker in the s, performances were held weekly. Rock-androll shows were hosted by radio personalities, most notably Cousin Bruce Morrow. Freddy Cannon’s song “Palisades Park,’’ released in , brought the amusement park international prominence, reaching number three on the U.S. charts and number twenty in Great Britain. The park’s theme song, “Come On Over,’’ was heard regularly on radio and television advertisements for over a decade. Widespread advertising, product tieins, publicity stunts, and promotions also increased the park’s popularity. Beauty

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pageants and unusual contests, held frequently, included the Little Miss America Pageant, the Miss American TeenAger contest, the Diaper Derby, and many other diverse and interesting competitions. Irving Rosenthal became the sole owner of the park after his brother died. By  more visitors were coming to the playground than the local towns could control. Fort Lee and Cliffside Park rezoned the property for highrise development, making it a choice piece of real estate for which builders from throughout the country made purchase offers. Rosenthal, who was in his seventies and had no heirs, finally sold the park to the Winston-Centex Corporation of Texas for $. million. Palisades’ last day of operation was September , . Many of the rides and attractions were sold to other amusement parks. The famous Cyclone roller coaster and the saltwater pool were demolished in . In  a small monument was dedicated on the site to pay tribute to the memory of the park. Gargiulo, Vince. Palisades Amusement Park: A Century of Fond Memories. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Vince Gargiulo

Palisades Interstate Park. Palisades is a ,-acre park system in New York and New Jersey, with , acres in New Jersey. Designated a National Historic Landmark in , the park is one of the earliest and most fully developed recreational systems in the country. Created in  out of the need to preserve the palisades of the Hudson from quarrying operations, Palisades Interstate Park is now characterized by the diversity of its natural and cultural resources. It now consists of twentyfour state parks and seven historic sites that

Pavel Petrovich Svinin, The Packet ‘Mohawk of Albany’ Passing the Palisades, c. –. Watercolor,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1942 (42.95.8). Photo Copyright Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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Palisades Amusement Park (–) in Cliffside Park and Fort Lee, confusion between the names of the borough and the park led to two attempts to rename Palisades Park. Ballots to change its name to Oakdene in  and to Morsemere in  both failed. Now primarily a residential community, Palisades Park also supports a mix of commercial and industrial enterprises. Multifamily dwellings and apartment buildings predominate. In the s a growing Korean American population, coupled with a controversy over a town law limiting business hours, led to complaints of discrimination. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Duffy, Thomas J., ed. Looking Back at Palisades Park, –. Teaneck: Garden State Press, .

Susan Chore include hundreds of buildings, three swimming beaches, eleven swimming pools, two marinas, nine boat-launching facilities, two golf courses, two public campgrounds, a nature sanctuary, a museum and zoo complex, six nature centers, a hotel and restaurant, refreshment stands, playgrounds, picnic areas, thirty-three lakes, and hundreds of miles of hiking trails, scenic roads, rivers, and streams. Its year-round program includes a wide spectrum of land and watershed protection and recreational activities that have contributed to an awareness and appreciation by visitors of open spaces, environmental quality, habitat protection, and natural beauty. More than eight million people visit each year, making the Palisades Interstate Park the most popular recreation area in the East. The Palisades Interstate Park Commission is a federally chartered bistate agency, formalized by a  compact between the states of New York and New Jersey. The commission is composed of five commissioners from New York and five commissioners from New Jersey, each appointed by that state’s governor to staggered five-year terms. Binnewies, Robert O. Palisades: , Acres in One Hundred Years. New York: Fordham University Press, .

Susan Smith

Palisades Park. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The earliest European settlers in the area were Dutch farmers. Palisades Park remained a farming community until the late s, when the railroads attracted both industry and residents who commuted to New York City. A part of Hackensack Township until circa , when it joined Ridgefield Township, Palisades Park was incorporated as a borough in . In , a portion of Palisades Park was annexed to Fort Lee. Its name derives from the Palisades cliffs on which it is located. With the opening of

Palmer Square.

Located in Princeton, Palmer Square was designed in  by architect Thomas Stapleton and developed by industrialist Edgar Palmer, a prosperous Princeton University alumnus who wanted to create a physical focus for the Princeton community. The plan for Palmer Square reflects the influence of the “Garden City’’ movement in town planning and is studied by many students of community design. It is unique in that this model was superimposed, through redevelopment, on an existing community, rather than the more conventionally built on vacant land. Palmer quietly assembled eight square blocks of property in a predominantly African American section of downtown Princeton between Nassau Street and Jackson Street. The redevelopment plan cleared the site, relocating residents and businesses farther north, to the new edge of downtown. Palmer Square was skillfully designed to appear as if it had developed over time. The section of Palmer Square oriented toward Nassau Street, the town’s border with the university campus, combines housing, offices, shops, restaurants, a post office, and a hotel surrounding an inviting public space, and provides an enduring and successful model of compact, mixed-use development at the center of a town. The northern portion of Palmer Square, consisting of the Princeton Playhouse, a community theater, and several large parking lots, was designed for easy access by car. This section was in turn redeveloped during the s—the theater was demolished, and additional offices, shops, and housing were constructed. It has not yet been completed. Edgar Palmer left Palmer Square to Princeton University, as part of his estate. It was subsequently sold and today is privately owned and managed. See also designed communities

Carlos Macedo Rodrigues

Palmyra.

.-square-mile borough in Burlington County along the Delaware River across from the Tacony section of Philadelphia. Palmyra is bordered on the south by Pennsauken Creek, separating it from Camden County. It was founded along the riverfront railroad line in the s as a village within Chester Township. In , it was ceded to Cinnaminson Township, then incorporated as Palmyra Township in  from parts of Cinnaminson and the neighboring borough of Riverton, but reincorporated as an independent borough in . A mercantile district grew up in the s along Broad Street and Cinnaminson Avenue. Ferry service linked the borough waterfront to Philadelphia until the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge, operated by the Burlington County Bridge Commission, opened in . During the s, accumulated silt from dredging of the Delaware piled up along the Palmyra shoreline and contributed to frequent dust storms during dry periods. In the s, the Palmyra Harbour housing community was built upon this plain. Palmyra’s character today is divided between a busy industrial and commercial strip on Route  leading up to the Tacony-Palmyra Bridge, the still-vibrant downtown business district catering to local residents, and leafy residential streets. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Billetter, Jean R. Two Hundred Years of Religion in Cinnaminson, Palmyra, Riverton, New Jersey. Riverton: Cinnaminson Palmyra Riverton Council of Churches, . Griscom, Lloyd E. Tales of Three Towns: Cinnaminson, Palmyra, and Riverton. N.p.: Lloyd E. Griscom, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

papermaking.

The first paper mill in New Jersey was erected by William Bradford in Elizabethtown in  to supply his newspaper, the Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser. Colonial printers who imported paper from Europe found most of their supplies cut off during the Revolutionary War, giving rise to more local paper manufacturers. By the s, paper was manufactured throughout New Jersey. Prior to , paper was a recycled product, made from rags and linen. By mid-century it was being manufactured mostly from wood pulp, although from  to  salt marsh grass from the Mullica River area was used as a raw material in paper manufacture in Harrisville, Burlington County. The final product, a heavy paper primarily used by butchers to wrap meat, eventually fell out of favor; more conventionally produced paper was cheaper and more durable. In  New Jersey produced slightly more than  percent of the

Parker, Joel country’s total output of paper and allied products. This figure dropped to half that by . Currently, Marcal Paper Mills in Elmwood Park produces tissue products and the Garden State Paper Company of Garfield is a major manufacturer of recycled newsprint. Hunter, Dard. Papermaking in Pioneer America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey, Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Paper Mill Playhouse.

The Paper Mill Playhouse is a nonprofit professional theater located in Millburn. In , Antoinette Scudder, a writer, and Frank Carrington, an actor and director, founded the organization. Its first performance was offered in , using a converted eighteenth-century paper mill. In , a fire destroyed the original building, but new facilities were built. In its early years the company featured classical and modern plays, but then turned to offering operettas. Today it provides a wide range of dramatic and musical plays for a regional audience that can number , in a year. Many prominent actors have appeared in its productions, and Paper Mill works have moved to Broadway or been broadcast on television. See also theater

Ron Gibbs

Paradise, John (b. Oct. , ; d. Nov. John Wesley Paradise

, ) and

(b. ; d. Aug. , ). Painters. Born in Hunterdon County, New Jersey, probably in Pennington, John Paradise studied in Philadelphia under Denis Volozan. In  he painted several portraits in Pennington including those of the Rev. Joseph Rue and his wife. He was most well known for his portraits of Methodist clergymen. He married Elizabeth Stout and had at least one son, John Wesley Paradise, who was also probably born in Pennington. John Wesley Paradise studied engraving with Asher B. Durand in New York. He was both a portraitist and an engraver of banknotes. He died in New York City. Lewis, Alice Blackwell. John Paradise, Portrait Painter, –. Pennington: A. B. Lewis, . Who Was Who in American Art, –. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Paramus.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. The name Paramus comes from the Lenape word parampsus, which translates as “land of wild turkeys.’’ The borough was incorporated in , having previously been known as Midland Township. Following the opening of the George Washington Bridge in  and the development boom that followed World War II, Paramus was transformed from a community of celery farms to one known as a shopping

mecca. In  and , the opening of the state’s first shopping centers—the Garden State Plaza and Bergen Mall, respectively— made it a popular destination to families from throughout the Northeast. The borough, which now contains four major malls, three corporate parks, and lies astride Routes  and  and the Garden State Parkway, has no authentic main street. Setting it apart from similar communities are its blue laws, which have prohibited retailers from opening on Sundays since . Residents do not have to worry about further building: less than one percent of the land remains to be developed. Paramus, which is also home to Bergen County’s hospital, community college, and art and science museum, contains homes ranging in price from $, to $,. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bogert, Frederick. Paramus: A Chronicle of Four Centuries. Paramus: Paramus Free Public Library, . Glovin, Bill. “Paramus Copes with Growth, Crime, Cars.’’ New Jersey Business (Feb. ): –.

Bill Glovin

Parcells, Duane Charles “Bill’’ (b. Aug. , ).

Football coach. Born in Englewood, Bill Parcells, grew up in Hasbrouck Heights and attended River Dell High School in Oradell, where he participated in football, basketball, and baseball, graduating in . After his first year at Colgate University, Parcells transferred to Wichita State University. He started coaching college football in , and finished his university career as head football coach at the Air Force Academy in . In  he went to the National Football League as assistant coach to the New York Giants, headquartered at the Meadowlands, East Rutherford. After a year with the New England Patriots, Parcells returned to the Giants in , becoming head coach in . Parcells was NFL Coach of the Year in  and , and led the Giants to Super Bowl victories in  and . He temporarily resigned from the NFL due to a heart condition, but returned after successful bypass surgery to coach the New England Patriots in . After taking the Patriots to the  Super Bowl, Parcells accepted the position of head coach and general manager with the New Jersey–based New York Jets, where he remained through the  season. After winning  games during his NFL career, losing , and tying , Parcells retired from coaching in .

Gutman, Bill. Parcells: A Biography. New York: Carroll and Graf, . Parcells, Bill, with Mike Lupica. Parcells: Autobiography of the Biggest Giant of Them All. Chicago: Bonus Books, .

See also football

Pamela Cooper

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Parker, Ellis (b. Sept. , ; d. Feb. , ). Detective. In , Ellis Parker was appointed a Burlington County detective, a post he held for over forty years. During that period, he developed a reputation as a master sleuth and was frequently called upon to help solve cases outside his county. It was claimed that he solved  murders. A hefty man with a corncob pipe and rumpled clothing who worked out of a tiny, cluttered office in the county courthouse, Parker was a colorful person for the newspapers to write about. Parker’s downfall came with New Jersey’s most famous crime, the Lindbergh kidnapping. With the encouragement of Gov. Harold Hoffman, Parker investigated the case and announced that the kidnapper was one Paul H. Wendel, a disreputable Trenton lawyer. As proof, Parker produced a confession signed by Wendel. Wendel, however, claimed that he had been falsely accused. Authorities in New Jersey and New York found that Wendell had been coerced into confessing by a gang of men employed by Parker who kidnapped, beat, and tortured him. The motive was presumably Parker’s desire to solve the “crime of the century’’ and thereby advance his career in law enforcement. A federal court sentenced Parker to six years in the penitentiary, where he died while serving his sentence. Gardner, Lloyd. The Case That Never Dies: The Lindbergh Kidnapping. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wendel, Paul H. The Lindbergh-Hauptmann Aftermath. Brooklyn, NY: Loft Publishing, .

See also Lindbergh kidnapping case

Marc Mappen

Parker, Joel ).

(b. Nov. , ; d. Jan. ,

Lawyer, politician, governor, and jurist. Joel Parker supported presidential candidate Stephen A. Douglas in  and backed the Union cause in the Civil War. In  Parker was selected by the Democratic party as its consensus candidate for governor of New Jersey. Parker won election by a massive majority. Parker was a forceful speaker who could also employ evasive silence. Popular and respected, he possessed firm patriotism, sound judgment, and political shrewdness as he navigated among his party’s contentious factions. An unabashed partisan, he stayed loyal to his party and was outspoken and combative. As a strict constructionist, he wished to restrict the national and the state governments to their constitutional spheres. As a moderate Democrat, Parker abhorred extremism, whether southern separatism or northern abolitionism. Parker was a masterly war governor. In a series of political battles in , Parker and his allies in the legislature outmaneuvered the peace Democrats and defeated their demands that the North call an armistice and that the state militia be expanded unnecessarily. Unlike some other northern Democratic leaders,

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Parker never condoned lawlessness, coddled draft opponents, or attended rallies to defend imprisoned war protesters. While he harshly criticized President Abraham Lincoln’s prosecution of the war, suspension of habeas corpus, and emancipation of the slaves, Parker steadfastly and energetically supported the war effort, the recruitment of servicemen, the care of wounded soldiers, and the defense of the state. Parker’s formidable tenure as wartime governor was matched by his solid postwar service to the state. Facing a weak opponent in , Parker was again elected governor. His administration was distinguished by four major accomplishments. First, Parker helped secure the enactment of the General Railroad Law, which ended exclusive charters for railroads with special privileges. Second, he advanced a nonpartisan judiciary. Third, he pushed for public education with financial support from government. And fourth, he achieved sweeping reforms in the second state constitution. State district courts were established to replace ineffective local courts. Governors were given the line-item veto in appropriation bills. The salaries of state employees based on fees were phased out. Laws that were private, special, or local were prohibited. Legislative governance of cities and counties was ended, while municipal debt was limited. Appropriation of every state expenditure was required. Property assessment was regularized. Public money for the support of parochial institutions was prohibited. Absentee voting by servicemen was mandated in wartime. And the constitutional ban on black voting was repealed. In  Parker briefly acted as attorney general of New Jersey, and in the s he served as a justice of the state supreme court. ANB. Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Yard, James S. Joel Parker: The War Governor of New Jersey: A Biographical Sketch. Freehold: Monmouth Democrat Office, .

See also Civil War; governor

William Gillette

Park Ridge.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Named for its location, Park Ridge was the site of an early s blockhouse at the intersection of two Indian trails. Built to withstand attacks and to serve as a trading post, it was the first commercial business in northern Bergen County. In , when many settlements separated from Washington Township, Park Ridge was incorporated as a borough. The Wortendyke Barn, one of the last remaining New World Dutch barns in the county, is a historic site on Pascack Road. The Ackerson woolen mill used the Pascack Brook for waterpower. This mill later became the Campbell Wampum Mill (), one of the

most distinctive businesses in the history of Park Ridge. Operated by William Campbell and his sons until the mid-s, the mill supplied Western traders, including John Jacob Astor, with strings of drilled and polished shells used for trading with the Native Americans. Today, the borough blends residential, commercial, and light industrial districts, and is home to the Hertz Corporation. Because Park Ridge maintains its own electric and water utilities, the residents have some of the lowest rates in the state. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . New Jersey Gazetteer. Wilmington, DE: American Historical Publications, .

Linda J. Barth

Parliament-Funkadelic. In Plainfield, George Clinton assembled a collective of musicians in the late s who recorded during the s both as Parliament and as Funkadelic. Funkadelic played a mix of ` la Jimi Hendrix and James psychedelic rock a Brown–inspired funk. Parliament combined Brown and Sly Stone with the freaky costumes and science fiction of the futuristic jazz keyboardist Sun Ra. Both Parliament and Funkadelic combined humor with social commentary in songs such as “America Eats Its Young.’’ The Parliaments (as they were originally known) were initially a Doo-Wop group. Its members included Clarence “Fuzzy’’ Haskins, Grady Thomas, Raymond Davis, and Calvin Simon. After the  Parliaments’ hit “(I Wanna) Testify,’’ Clinton changed the name of the band and formed the backing unit Funkadelic with guitarist Eddie Hazel, bassist Billy Nelson, rhythm guitarist Lucius “Tawl’’ Ross, drummer Ramon “Tiki’’ Fulwood, and a classically trained keyboardist named Bernie Worrell. Worrell invented the synth bassline that was crucial to both P-Funk’s sound and the disco styles that evolved from funk. “Space’’ bassist Bootsy Collins, a member of James Brown’s JBs, also added immensely to P-Funk’s sound and vision. The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in . See also pop music Bob Makin

Parrish, Joseph

(b. Nov. , ; d. Jan. ,

). Physician and medical editor. The son

of a prominent Philadelphia Quaker physician, Joseph Parrish graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in . He set up practice in Burlington and, in , founded and edited

the New Jersey Medical Reporter. He later became superintendent of the Training School for Idiots in Philadelphia and served on the U.S. Sanitary Commission during the Civil War. Parrish won an international reputation for his studies and writings on “inebriety,’’ arguing that alcoholism was a medical disorder amenable to proper treatment. He served as president of the Medical Society of New Jersey in . English, D. C. “Joseph Parrish, M.D.’’ Transactions of the Medical Society of New Jersey (): –.

See also medicine and public health

Sandra Moss

Parsippany–Troy Hills.

-squaremile township in Morris County. Once home to the Lenape Indians, the area was known as Parsippanong, “the place where rivers come together.’’ In the early eighteenth century the Dutch and the English first settled here. Their farms and iron forges provided food and ammunition to Revolutionary War troops encamped at nearby Morristown from  to . Starting in the late nineteenth century, Parsippany became a popular vacation area. As summer homes were later converted for year-round living and migration from the cities swelled the population, the community separated from Hanover Township in , incorporating as the Township of Parsippany– Troy Hills. The growth of the interstate highways brought considerable commercial development, starting in the late s with over  million square feet of corporate office space housing many Fortune  companies. However, Parsippany remains a residential, suburban town, with over , single-family homes,  townhouses, and some , apartments. As of , the population was ,, with  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Parsippany Historical and Preservation Society. Parsippany–Troy Hills. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Mimi Letts

Parsonnet, Victor (b. Aug. , ).

Surgeon. A member of a distinguished New Jersey medical family, Victor Parsonnet has continued this tradition, receiving his medical degree from New York University and training in vascular surgery under William Blakemore at Columbia-Presbyterian Hospital in New York and in cardiovascular surgery under Michael DeBakey in Houston. He is most renowned for his pioneering work in cardiac pacemakers, notably the development and implantation of the first nuclear-powered units. He has also been a leader in the introduction of new surgical techniques within the state (coronary bypass surgery, heart and kidney transplantations). At Beth Israel Hospital in Newark he

Passaic County was director of surgery for thirty-four years and continues there as director of surgical research while also remaining active nationally and internationally in the field of pacemaker research and technology. See also medicine and public health

PASSAIC COUNTY

Allen Weisse

Paterson

Passaic.

.-square-mile city in Passaic County. Originally in Acquackanonk Township, the village changed its name from Acquackanonk Landing to Passaic in  and incorporated as a city in . Passaic developed as an industrial site during the s thanks to waterpower from the Passaic River, and it became the center of the state’s worsted wool industry after its largest textile plant, Botany Mills, opened in . Botany Mills was the focus of the bitter  textile strike, which also engulfed mills in nearby Garfield and Lodi. Today, the textile industry is gone, Botany Mills is a historic district, and the economy is based on large retailers and the health services industry. Passaic’s population was , in  and peaked at , in . By the s, when almost one-third of the city’s population was foreign-born, Passaic had attracted a large number of Polish and Hungarian immigrants. In the late s, Hispanics gained greater access to the polls, subsequently leading to the election of a Hispanic mayor. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Ebner, Michael H. “The Historian’s Passaic, – : A Research Model of New Jersey’s Urban Past.’’ In New Jersey Since : New Findings and Interpretations, ed. William C. Wright. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Goldberg, David J. A Tale of Three Cities: Labor Organization and Protest in Paterson, Passaic, and Lawrence, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Passaic County. Passaic County, established in , covers an area of . square miles and is located in northern New Jersey, fourteen miles west of New York City, and surrounded by Sussex, Morris, Essex, and Bergen counties with New York State on the north. A seven-member Board of Chosen Freeholders governs Passaic County, serving as the legislative and executive branches of government. The county seat is Paterson, the largest among its sixteen municipalities. Paterson was established in  by Alexander Hamilton to become the first planned industrial city in the country, based on availability of waterpower from the Great Falls of the Passaic River, proximity of markets, and plentiful supply of labor provided by immigrants. Passaic is within easy

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reach of three New York metropolitan airports (Newark, La Guardia, and Kennedy), international shipping ports (Ports of Newark and Elizabeth), and a network of interstate, state and county roads, which makes the county a very attractive location. Passaic County is shaped like a bent hourglass, with the two halves above and below the neck strikingly different from each other. The area below the neck contains the densely populated cities of Paterson, Passaic, and Clifton, the neck is home to suburbs such as Wayne, and above the neck holds the rural and exurban towns of the county, the largest of them being Ringwood, West Milford, and Wanaque. There are two distinct geological areas: the Piedmont region from Pompton Lakes south, and the Highlands region of the New England Uplands in the north, which contain huge tracts of protected natural land, lakes, watersheds, and stunning topography. The original occupants of Passaic County were the Lenape Indians. In , Dutch settler Hartmean Michielson bought a nine-acre island in the Passaic River, known as Dundee or Menehenicke Island, from the Indians, and established a successful fur trading post there. He also put together a consortium of fourteen people to buy , acres covering the area of Clifton, Passaic, and Paterson. This tract was particularly important because it was situated on the Passaic River, which was navigable to Manhattan and was used as a trade route until the Erie Railroad was completed in .

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The growth of industry in Passaic County was directly connected to its rich natural resources. Sawmills, gristmills, copper and iron mines flourished and led to the need for skilled workers and to an influx of slave labor and indentured servants. Although no major battles of the American Revolution were fought in Passaic County, three militia companies were organized and Ackquackanonk became an important campsite for Continental troops. In , Gen. George Washington camped at the Dey home in the Preakness section of what would later become Wayne. Passaic County’s iron works supplied the bulk of the Continental army’s cannon and ammunition. After the war, Alexander Hamilton was appointed secretary of the treasury in . He emphasized the need for domestic manufacturing of essential products. In  Hamilton presented his “Report on Manufacture’’ and helped organize the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures (SUM). In  this organization purchased  acres of land above and below the Passaic Falls. Later that year, the six square miles surrounding the falls were formed into a city called Paterson. Manufacturers prospered in the nineteenth century, and huge fortunes were made from the various industries that sprang up in Passaic County. Manufacturing in the area has been drastically reduced and changed by the effects of both foreign and domestic competition. Gradually, the economy is being transformed to a service-based one. Between  and  manufacturing jobs went from a level of , down to ,—a loss of . percent; statewide, the loss was . percent. In services, employment grew substantially between  and . Total employment expanded by  percent compared to the state’s gain of . percent. Today, a large number of small and medium-sized businesses make up the economic base of Passaic County. Saint Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center in Paterson; Hoffmann–La Roche, a major pharmaceutical firm in Clifton; and International Specialty Products in Wayne are among the top employers in the county. Passaic County because of its diverse geography and history is home to a wide range of cultural organizations and historic houses, such as the newly restored Lambert’s Castle Museum, Ringwood Manor, and the Paterson Museum. The Passaic County Cultural and Heritage Council operates out of the Passaic County Community College in Paterson and provides funding for cultural activities within the county as well as information on cultural events and historic sites in the county. The Great Falls in Paterson is impressive as it plummets seventy-seven feet into a deep chasm in the Passaic River. The Great Falls Preservation and Development Corporation was created in , and the entire SUM district was declared a National Historic Landmark in . Passaic County is home to two colleges,

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Passaic County Community College

William Paterson University in Wayne and Passaic County Community College in Paterson and Wanaque. More than  nationalities are represented in Passaic County. Its population, which has become increasingly diverse as a result of new waves of immigration from Latin America, Eastern Europe, the Indian subcontinent, and the Arab world, is about to reach half a million. The  census determined the population of the county to be ,; the residents were  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Passaic County has a great range in the economic status of its various populations, is the ninth most populous county, and has the fifth highest population density. The median household income in  was $,. Mumma, Christopher. “The Changing Face of North Jersey.’’ The Record, Jan. , . Murphy, J. Palmer, and Margaret Murphy. Paterson and Passaic County: An Illustrated History. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications, . Nelson, William, and Charles A. Shriner. History of Paterson and Its Environs.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Northern Regional Labor Market Review. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Labor, July . Scott, William W. History of Passaic and Its Environs.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Maria Mazziotti Gillan and Aline S. Papazian

Passaic College.

County

Community

Located in Paterson, Passaic County Community College (PCCC) serves Passaic County; there is a branch campus, Wanaque Academic Center, in Wanaque. The college received its charter in , opened its doors in  to  students, and graduated its first class in . PCCC now enrolls more than , full-time and part-time students. It offers forty associate degree programs, fourteen noncredit professional certificates, as well as eleven short-term training programs. PCCC also offers on-line courses and an honors program. Enrollment is open to both county residents and nonresidents. PCCC is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation, and the National League for Nursing. See also higher education

assisted by Jennie Tuttle Hobart, wife of U.S. vice president Garret Hobart, and their son Garret Hobart, Jr., who headed the parks commission. The society is a nonprofit organization that maintains a library and museum in the restored site. In addition to managing period rooms within the historic mansion, the society presents exhibitions and maintains a collection of art objects, books, and county manuscripts and records for the use of researchers. Alaya, Flavia. Silk and Sandstone: The Story of Catholina Lambert and His Castle. Paterson: Passaic County Historical Society, .

See also historic sites

Maxine N. Lurie

Passaic Falls. Also known as the Great Falls of the Passaic River, the Passaic Falls are located in Paterson, New Jersey. The falls are seventy-seven feet high, and have the distinction of being the second-highest falls east of the Mississippi River. Niagara Falls are the highest. The falls are formed when the Passaic River flows over a fracture in the basalt of the Watchung Mountains. The average monthly flow over the falls for the last hundred years shows a period of high flow from December to May and a low flow during summer and autumn. Sporadic events such as hurricanes and northeasters cause record flows and wide fluctuations over time. The October  to September  water year has been selected to illustrate the flow of water over the falls. During this water year, the flow was  percent higher than the hundred-year average. There were  days when the flow was higher than

one billion gallons and an additional  days when the flow was between half a billion to a billion gallons. One-day flow during the year fluctuated from a maximum of  billion gallons in October to a trickle of  million gallons in June. Passaic River runoff data at Little Falls is the closest approximation of the volume of water flow over the falls. Alexander Hamilton saw the Passaic Falls during the Revolutionary War and realized their economic potential. Hamilton, as the first secretary of the treasury, considered industrial development necessary to maintain American independence. On November , , at Hamilton’s suggestion, New Jersey governor William Paterson signed a charter of the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufacturers (S.U.M). The society raised funds to build a dam and water raceways to harness water power for textile, silk, and locomotive industries. In  the S.U.M. built a hydroelectric plant at the falls to replace the water power. Because of flood damage, the plant was closed in . Years later the plant was restored, and came on line on December , . In , the Great Falls and the S.U.M. were declared a National Historic Landmark. The historic district covers  acres consisting of sixty historic industrial buildings, raceways, and the Great Falls.

Harbans Singh

Passaic Falls painters.

The Passaic Falls, in Paterson—“New Jersey’s Greatest Natural Wonder’’—have probably been drawn, engraved, water-colored, painted,

Kelly A. Shea

Passaic County Historical Society. Founded in , the Passaic County Historical Society was first located in the Paterson Public Library. In  it moved to Lambert Castle on Garret Mountain, overlooking the city. The Castle, built in  by silk magnate Catholina Lambert, was sold to the city in  by Lambert’s son and then transferred to the Passaic County Parks Commission. The historical society’s move was

George Tice, The Passaic Falls, Paterson, July . Gelatin silver print,  ×  in.

Courtesy George Tice.

Patch, Sam photographed, and sculpted more than any other natural landmark in the state. While no informal organization of artists, such as the Hudson River school, have been connected with the falls, this awesome sight has been the subject matter of literally hundreds of artists over the last three hundred years. One of the first known images of the falls was made by Jasper Danckaerts, a Dutchman active in local politics, who was also an amateur artist. In the late s, the state’s lieutenant governor, Thomas Pownall sketched the falls, as did Archibald Robertson, a noted Scottish miniaturist and portrait painter who arrived in New York City in . Robertson is perhaps the most famous artist who drew the falls. Several of his works are in the collection of the New Jersey Historical Society. On July , , artist Edward Savage, originally of Massachusetts, made a drawing of the falls, which is now in the Rush Rhees Library of the University of Rochester. Henry Inman, acknowledged as the most important portrait painter of his time, was also recognized as the first successful genre painter in America, a landscapist of note, and, early in his career, a fine miniaturist. Inman first sketched the falls on July , , and went on to become one of the founders of the National Academy of Design. The Passaic Falls have been romanticized in newspapers, periodicals and poetry, and have been surpassed only by Niagara Falls and Trenton Falls, both in New York State, as natural wonders in the New York/New Jersey region. Perhaps the most romantic view of the falls among those owned by the New Jersey Historical Society is that by Jesse Talbot. Talbot was active in New York from about  onward, and lived in Paterson between  and . Talbot’s most famous view of the falls depicts them in moody, dramatically lit terms, with gathering storm clouds and a solitary figure (Native American) in the foreground. One of the most colorful and influential professional painters of the falls was Thomas W. Whitley, an Englishman who settled in Paterson and painted them many times. Whitley utilized a more uncontrolled style, and his work is more factual and less romantic than Talbot’s. Many other professional painters visited and captured the falls on canvas, including William Guy Wall, Augustus ¨ llner, Thomas Sully, and William Arthur Ko Tipson. Easily the most illustrious amateur artist to paint the falls was Charlotte Julie Bonaparte, known as the Countess de Survilliers, the daughter of Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon. Charlotte Bonaparte lived with her father on his estate near Bordentown from about  to , and painted the falls at least three times. As the twenty-first century begins, the Passaic Falls have lost much of their grandeur, due mostly to the encroachment of industrial facilities within easy view. But artists still find

beauty in the falls, and still gather there, year round, to capture the view. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

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between the Great Falls and Newark Bay is highly polluted. See also geography; rivers; water

Harbans Singh

See also art

Stephen Maynard

Passaic River. The Passaic River is ninety miles long from it headwaters in Mendham Township to its outflow into the Newark Bay. The present course of the river is the result of the continental glaciers that retreated about ten thousand years ago. An inverted U describes the course of the river. After the Passaic River joins its major tributary, the Pompton River, the increased flow makes the river prone to disastrous flooding. At Little Falls the river descends forty feet by a cascade and rapids, and another seventy-seven feet at the Great Falls in Paterson as it flows over the Watchung range. The drainage area of the river is  square miles. The number of municipalities partially or wholly drained by the river is , located in eight counties of New Jersey and an additional twenty in New York State. The water resources of the Passaic River Watershed are intensively developed to provide drinking water to , people in northern New Jersey, including the cities of Newark and Jersey City. There are ten reservoirs in the Passaic Watershed that store water for municipal supply. Wanaque Reservoir in the highlands of Passaic County is the largest, with a storage capacity of . billion gallons of water. Additionally, there are four direct diversions of water from the Passaic River and its tributaries for water treatment and supply. Unfortunately, the section of the river

Passaic textile strike. The  strike in Passaic’s textile mills was the first major walkout directed by the Communist party, working with the American Federation of Labor (AFL). In January, , millworkers, led by Albert Weisbord, struck in protest of a wage cut. The Communist party oversaw efforts until September, when it passed direction of the bloody and costly strike to the AFL-affiliated United Textile Workers. The strikers’ morale and relief funds deteriorated as the action continued into late . Ultimately, the strikers combated wage cuts but failed to win union recognition. Most significant, the strike resurrected American radicals’ faith in labor activism, but convinced the Communist party of the impossibility of working within the AFL. Goldberg, David J. A Tale of Three Cities: Labor Protest and Organization in Paterson, Passaic, and Lawrence, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Murphy, Paul L., comp. The Passaic Textile Strike of . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, . Weisbord, Albert. Passaic Reviewed. San Francisco: Germinal Publishing, .

See also labor movement

Brigitte Koenig

Patch, Sam

(b. ; d. Nov. , ).

Daredevil. Sam Patch first came to public attention on September , , when, in front of astonished spectators, he leaped over the Passaic Falls into the river below. The Rhode Island–born Patch was then an employee at a

Edward Beyer, Skating on the Passaic, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1957. Photo: Witt, Jan. 1964.

Paterson, William

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Paterson cotton mill. The notoriety he earned from his leap convinced him that he could turn his skill at jumping into a career. As the celebrated “Jersey Jumper,’’he went from place to place, jumping from the heights of bridges, cliffs, and ship masts into bodies of water, including the Hudson River and Niagara Falls. His career came to an end at Rochester, New York, on November , , when he perished while attempting to dive over the Genesee Falls. Patch passed into American folklore, joining the likes of Davy Crockett and John Henry. Comic tales were told of how Patch’s jumps took him through the center of the earth and out the other side, and his character appeared in plays, books, and ballads. Others saw a more serious aspect to Patch’s story. In sermons at the time, his last dive was used as a metaphor for the futility of human pride in the face of God’s will. More recently, scholars have looked at the tangled story of his life, including his ne’er-do-well father and his own alcoholism, as an example of the wrenching transition in American life caused by the industrial revolution. ANB. Kavanagh, Kathleen. “The Limited Fame of Sam Patch.’’ New York Folklore Quarterly , no.  (): –. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also folklore

Marc Mappen

Paterson, William

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Lawyer, governor, and asso-

ciate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Born in Antrim, Ireland, William Paterson came to America with his parents at age two and settled in Princeton, where his father ran a store across from the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University). He had a short commute to school, and graduation from the College of New Jersey in  was followed by legal studies with Richard Stockton, who also lived in the borough. Paterson later married Cornelia Bell and, after Bell’s death, Euphemia White. His political career began in  when he was elected to the First Provincial Congress. He was present in  when the state constitution was written, and then served as state attorney general during the Revolution. At the end of the war he returned to private legal practice, but was then selected as one of New Jersey’s representatives to the Constitutional Convention in . In  the legislature appointed him to the U.S. Senate, but he returned to the state when William Livingston died in  to replace him as governor. Three years later he was appointed an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Paterson is remembered for a number of important actions at both the state and the national level. He was a Whig supporter of Revolution in , refusing to sign the state

constitution because the last clause expressed a willingness to reconcile with the king. In the Confederation period he objected to paper money, joining with the conservative elements in the state to condemn it as the plot of “idle, extravagant Wretches’’ to steal money from creditors, while “putting it in the pocket of the debtor.’’ As governor in the s he helped select Trenton as the permanent state capital and oversaw the construction of the statehouse. He also encouraged the legislature to charter the S.U.M. (Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures), which meant to create an industrial city (named for him) at the site of the Great Falls of the Passaic. During his tenure as governor the legislature authorized him to collate and revise the state’s laws, an effort that led to the publication of his digest in . At the national level he is important for introducing, during the Constitutional Convention, the New Jersey Plan, which would have revised the Articles of Confederation rather than replace it. His proposals retained equal representation for the states but granted increased power to the central government— including the ability to tax and regulate trade. Refusing to back down when the alternative Virginia Plan was adopted, he forced the convention to come up with the “Great Compromise,’’ which provided for representation by population in the House and by states in the Senate. As a result he has been called the “Father of the Senate.’’ In  he worked with Oliver Ellsworth to write the Judiciary Act, the law that implemented the Constitution by creating the first federal court system. After  he sat on the Supreme Court, writing decisions that supported the Sedition Act of  and the concept of judicial review made explicit in Marbury v. Madison. For him the Constitution was the supreme law of the land. Paterson was a conservative revolutionary. He believed in a government established by the people, republican principles of virtue and pubic service, the protection of property, and a strong central government. Degnan, Daniel. “Justice William Paterson— Founder.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): – . O’Connor, John E. William Paterson: Lawyer and Statesman, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; governor

Maxine N. Lurie

Paterson.

.-square-mile city located at the Great Falls of the Passaic River in Passaic County, the state’s third largest municipality. Paterson was first settled by Europeans, primarily Dutch, in . The relatively few residents were bought out when, in , the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures (SUM) was created at the urging of Alexander

Hamilton, then secretary of the treasury, who wanted to foster industry in the new United States. The falls are the second highest in the northeastern United States (next to Niagara) and were seen as a potential source of waterpower. The SUM incorporated in New Jersey, purchased land both from the first residents and the East Jersey Board of Proprietors, naming the site after governor of the state, William Paterson. The city itself was incorporated in , and six years later it became the Passaic County seat. The SUM quickly ran into financial difficulties in the s, limping along into the early nineteenth century. By the s, however, the SUM and Paterson had become one of the earliest centers for manufacturing in the United States. The city began to grow around the falls and the elaborate system of water traces that supplied power to local mills. Transportation was provided first by a railroad and then by the Morris Canal in the mid-s, which connected Paterson to Jersey City, and from there to the rest of the world. It became the location of textile mills that specialized in the production of silk goods (both broad loom and ribbon goods), handguns (Colts), and the building of locomotives as the railroad industry grew in the s and s. In addition, the city was later home to inventors, such as John P. Holland, who worked on the submarine. By ,  percent of the silk woven in the United States was produced in Paterson, which had become known as “Silk City USA.’’ In  Paterson mills switched from water to electric power, after  utilizing the falls to run an Edison Electric Company hydroelectric plant. By the late nineteenth century Paterson had become a mecca for immigrant laborers who worked in its factories. It was a city of great ethnic diversity as well as differences in economic status. Silk manufacturers, such as Catholina Lambert, prospered and built large mansions (in his case a large castle) on Garret Mountain overlooking the city. Meanwhile the factory workers labored long hours for low wages, sometimes under dangerous conditions, and lived in tenement buildings located around the mills in the valley occupied by the city itself. In the early twentieth century Paterson suffered from several disastrous fires that destroyed much of its commercial hub (the largest fire, in , destroyed $ million in property), as well as a number of floods. The center of town was rebuilt with buildings in an often elaborate Beaux-Arts fashion that further underscored the contrast between rich and poor. The conflict was expressed in the numerous strikes that plagued the city from the s on (over  in twenty years), making it the “most strike-ridden city’’ in the country. The largest and best known was the silk workers strike of . Long and bitter, it attracted national attention and ended when the workers were forced by economic hardships to return to work. In the years that followed

Paterson silk strike the manufacturers moved their plants first to Pennsylvania and then, later, to the South where workers were not unionized. By the s the industrial base of the city was deteriorating. As elsewhere the Depression of the s exacerbated the situation, but the need for manufactured goods during World War II temporarily improved matters, when Curtis-Wright airplane engines were built in Paterson. The end of World War II led, in New Jersey and elsewhere, to a decline in urban areas as people moved to the suburbs and manufacturing moved first south and then abroad. Paterson was left with a declining tax base, and numerous old brick manufacturing buildings down near the Great Falls that were often empty. By the s Paterson, along with its sister cities, was in trouble—although it avoided the riots that destroyed sections of Newark and Plainfield. By  it was described as “one of the most distressed cities’’ in America. In the last years of the twentieth century Paterson’s economic problems, symbolized by a state takeover of its schools in , continued. But unlike some other places it continued to attract immigrants—now largely Hispanic from Puerto Rico, Mexico, Columbia, and Peru, as well as a number of Asians and also Muslims from Middle Eastern countries. In the period from  to  the population increased by  percent. The city also turned to its historic heritage to attempt a revival. The Great Falls Historic District utilized old mill buildings to create a museum in the old Rogers Locomotive works, as well as a visitors’ center near the Falls. A Paterson Downtown Commercial Historic District that included over two hundred buildings from the Beaux-Arts period was created to try to preserve and utilize some of the distinctive old buildings in the commercial center of the city. However, what was seen as a high crime rate, inadequate schools, corrupt politicians, as well as disagreements on how to interpret the history of the city in revitalization efforts, hindered change. In the early twenty-first century Paterson retained its role as a home to immigrants with  percent foreign-born in the population. It still contained a diverse, if different, mix of ethnic groups reflected in its restaurants and grocery stores. Route , the Garden State Parkway, and Interstate  provided transportation links to the rest of the region. A statute of Alexander Hamilton overlooks the Great Falls that impressed him long ago. The legacy of the city also exists in those who once lived there, including poets William Carlos Williams, Allen Ginsberg, and comedian Lou Costello. They memorialized it in their writings and skits, including Williams’s long epic Paterson. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,,

with  percent of families living below the poverty level. For complete census figures, see chart, . Airgnone, June, ed. Downtown Paterson. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Murphy, J. Palmer, and Margaret Murphy. Paterson and Passaic County: An Illustrated History. Northridge, CA: Windsor Publications, . Norwood, Christopher. About Paterson: The Making and Unmaking of an American City. New York: E. P. Dutton, . Scranton, Philip, ed. Silk City: Studies on the Paterson Silk Industry, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Trumbull, L. R. A History of Industrial Paterson. Paterson: Carleton M. Herrick, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Paterson Museum.

Founded in  by the Paterson Library’s board of trustees to record and preserve the city’s history, the museum began exhibiting in the assembly room of the Danforth Public Library with a display of natural history items. In  the collection was moved to the carriage house of former Paterson mayor and philanthropist Nathan Barnert. The museum moved to its present location in the restored Thomas Rogers Locomotive and Machine Shop () in . The Paterson Museum illustrates the “Silk City’s’’ evolution as a machinery and textile center, as well as a leader in the manufacture of locomotives, Colt firearms, and Holland submarines. See also museums

Bruce Balistrieri

Paterson silk strike.

In , , Paterson silk workers went out on the largest and longest strike in the city’s history. There

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had been strikes in Paterson since the silk industry came to dominance in the s, and strikes continued through the decline of the industry and into the s. But in  skilled and semiskilled weavers joined with unskilled dyers’ helpers to shut down three hundred mills and dyeing plants for five months. The strike began when broad-silk manufacturers increased the loom assignments from two per weaver to four. Broad-silk weavers struck first, joined by dyers’ helpers, who sought an eight-hour day. The strikers invited leaders of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) to Paterson to serve as their speakers. When Mayor Andrew McBride ordered the police to arrest these out-of-towners— Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Bill Haywood, Carlo Tresca, and Patrick Quinlan—the ribbon weavers joined the strike to protest the police action. The  silk strike was characterized by nonviolence, democratic control, and the involvement of writers and artists. The strategy of nonviolence grew out of the history of the silk workers in Paterson and was reinforced by the IWW speakers. A violent strike by dyers’ helpers in  ended with the arrival of the state militia and the defeat of the strike. In  the strikers adopted the strategy of shaming pickets but not attacking them. Though hungry during the last months of the action, the strikers killed no one. The silk strikers insisted on democratically controlling the strike and disagreed with the IWW speakers on several issues. The IWW advocated sabotage of the mill machinery; the weavers, who took pride in their work, vetoed the proposal. The IWW urged the strikers not

Silk mill workers assembled for a rally outside of the Botto House during the Paterson silk strike, Haledon, .

Courtesy American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark, Haledon.

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Pathmark

to settle shop by shop, but to stay out en masse until an overall agreement was forged. The strikers insisted on voting, after four months, to determine whether shops could negotiate their own return. Many writers and artists from New York City, especially Greenwich Village, came to Paterson to witness the strike and to help. They were impressed by the strikers’ intelligence, nonviolence, and democratic control. Together, strikers, writers, and artists created the Pageant of the Paterson Strike, enacted by eleven hundred strikers in Madison Square Garden, as a way to gain publicity and sympathy in New York. But the strikers’ New York connection, while powerful, proved weaker than the manufacturers’ Pennsylvania connection. Most big silk manufacturers had built annexes in Pennsylvania in the s as protection against the militancy of Paterson workers. Although shut down in Paterson for almost five months, the manufacturers were able to keep their mills open in Pennsylvania, giving them a decisive edge. Eventually, the strikers went back without having gained the eight-hour day, but the manufacturers relented on the four-loom rule. Six years later, Paterson silk workers— still working two looms—gained the eighthour day. Golin, Steve. The Fragile Bridge: Paterson Silk Strike, . Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

Patrons of Husbandry.

See Grange

pattern book houses.

See prefabri-

cated houses.

patterned

brickwork. Patterned brickwork comes and goes in architectural fashion: sometimes seen in new buildings even today, it was popular in England in the seventeenth century, and that popularity was transferred to several American colonies in the eighteenth century. This masonry treatment, the practice of creating attractive patterns in the appearance of a brick wall or building by the manner in which the bricks themselves are laid, was more often used in southwestern New Jersey than anywhere else. Today six counties (Mercer, Burlington, Camden, Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland) account for more than half of all such surviving buildings in the United States, nearly two hundred in all, including most of the best examples. Patterned brickwork grew out of the preindustrial method of brickmaking used until the middle of the nineteenth century, in which unburned bricks were carefully stacked to form a “clamp,’’ or kiln, within which fires were built. Due to the arrangement by which they were stacked, a sizable percentage of the bricks were directly exposed to the fire on one end. This produced a fusion of combustion products with substances in the brick

Tripp, Anne H. The I.W.W. and the Paterson Strike of . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, . Wallerstein, Jane. Voices from the Paterson Silk Mills. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

See also labor movement; silk industry

Steve Golin

Pathmark. Pathmark was founded in  by Herb Brody, Milton Perlmutter, and Alex Ackerman, three independent supermarket operators who had originally been part of Wakefern Foods, which founded and operates the ShopRite chain. The founders embraced a new concept of a one-stop “path’’ to goods that went well beyond the usual supermarket fare of groceries and foodstuffs. In its original form, Pathmark branched out to offer such nontraditional merchandise as portable televisions and small household appliances. It was the first chain in the Northeast to operate supermarkets twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, and was among the first to adopt checkout scanning technology. More recently, its inventory has reverted to more common supermarket wares. The firm averted a hostile takeover by the Dart Group in , and reorganized in  under Chapter  bankruptcy protection. Based in Carteret, the chain now operates  supermarkets in the New York City, New Jersey, and Philadelphia markets, employing more than twenty-seven thousand people.

Jim Donnelly

clay itself to create a hard, glossy blue or gray vitrified finish on the surfaces directly exposed to the fire, while the other end and the sides remained a plain, dark red or orangered color. Called “clinkers’’ in England in the seventeenth century, these bricks looked as if they had been glazed on one end, though no glaze was ever applied. Nevertheless, many observers, unaware of how they were made, have for decades called them “glazed’’ bricks. Exposed to the most intense heat during the firing and thereby “burned’’ the best, these bricks were most suitable for use in exterior walls. A mason could choose to place the brick with the vitrified or glossy side facing outward, so that it would be seen, or facing inward, leaving the plain end in view. During the heyday of patterned brickwork, which in New Jersey lasted from about the s until about , the front wall of a brick building was typically laid in Flemish bond, which consisted of rows (“courses’’) alternating the long side of a brick (“stretcher’’) and the short side (“header’’), with the rows themselves also alternating, so that the headers of one course were centered over the stretchers of the course immediately below. When the headers were laid with the vitrified end facing out, the effect was similar to that of a checkerboard, and some architectural historians call this arrangement “Flemish checker.’’ Sometimes this pattern was applied to side and rear walls also. Flemish checker was simply the most basic and popular of the brickwork patterns, but several others were also used. Vitrified headers were commonly used to denote the year a house was constructed, or the initials of the husband and wife for whom the house was built. Diamond patterns were the first to become popular, appearing as early as the s. The finest expression of this idea was the diamond “diaper’’ pattern covering the entire end wall of the building, which is best exemplified in the Abel and Mary Nicholson house () in Elsinboro, now a National Historic Landmark. Vertical zigzags had a brief popularity around  in Salem County. Horizontal rows of vitrified headers were also used, sometimes projecting slightly between the first and second stories in a feature called a stringcourse. At least three houses in Salem County exhibit large crowns depicted in vitrified headers, the most elaborate pattern used. See also architecture

Robert W. Craig

Paul, Alice Stokes

(b. Jan. , ;

d. July , ). Woman suffragist. Born near

The Dickinson House in Alloway, an example of patterned brickwork, was constructed of glazed bricks fashioned into geometric designs as well as designs displaying the date of construction and the owners’ initials.

Courtesy Salem County Historical Society, Salem.

Moorestown into a Quaker family steeped in the tradition of activism in education and public service, Alice Stokes Paul was a Phi Beta Kappa graduate from Swarthmore College in  and trained as a social worker in the College Settlement on New York’s Lower East Side, earning a certificate from the New

Paulsboro

Alice Paul toasts the adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, August , .

Courtesy Alice Paul Centennial Foundation. York School of Philanthropy at Columbia University. A year later, she received a master’s degree in economics and sociology from the University of Pennsylvania. A student in the Quakers’Woodbrook Institute in Birmingham, England, and later the London School of Economics, Paul joined the militant suffragettes of the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), led by Emmeline Pankhurst. After she became one of Pankhurst’s trusted organizers, she was imprisoned three times, undertook hunger strikes, and was force-fed. While working on her doctorate in Philadelphia, Paul had introduced the city to street-corner speeches and suffrage parades. After she received her degree, Paul became cochair, with Lucy Burns, of the Congressional Committee of the National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA). On the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration, seven thousand of them staged a parade and were taunted and attacked by the crowd until federal troops were called. By , Alice Paul had separated from the NAWSA and formed the Congressional Union, later the National Women’s Party (NWP), which was intended to educate congressmen’s home districts about woman suffrage and to keep the issue before the nation. When, in , the threat of world war dwarfed the

suffrage issue, Paul sent “silent sentinels’’ to the White House carrying purple, gold, and white banners insisting that the democracy of Wilson’s war phrases did not apply to women. Mobs attacked the demonstrators. Hundreds of women from all over the United States (including Paul herself) joined the nonviolent civil disobedience, were imprisoned, began hunger strikes, and were force-fed. Immediately before the  elections, Congress passed the suffrage amendment and ratification was completed in fifteen months, on August , . The National Women’s Party reorganized to pursue full equal rights, and Paul directed her energy to education and a network of support among women. In  she earned a law degree from the Washington, D.C., College of Law; in , her master of law degree; and, in , her doctor of law degree from American University in Washington. Under Paul’s direction, the NWP drafted equal rights laws for the states. Paul wrote an amendment for the federal Constitution, which was first submitted to Congress in . It stated simply: “Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and the territories under its jurisdiction.’’ Paul led her fight for equal rights on three fronts. First, she formed alliances with national women’s organizations, such as business and professional women’s clubs. Large councils of government employees, industrial workers, and other occupational groups formed within the NWP, and these coalitions defeated many of the discriminatory New Deal/National Recovery Administration codes. Paul’s second avenue led through individual states. She and an NWP research committee identified discriminatory laws in each state and recommended reform legislation. The study on New Jersey was published in  as “How New Jersey Laws Discriminate against Women.’’ By  the NWP had introduced nearly six hundred bills to state legislatures; almost half passed. Third, Paul worked for international women’s rights. In  she led the NWP in founding the Inter-American Commission for Women in the Pan American Union. In  their Equal Nationality Treaty was signed by all member nations, and Paul’s Equal Rights Treaty was signed by three. Throughout the s, her association of women’s groups from many countries achieved official League of Nation status for their Study Committee on the Status of Women. Then, as she had done earlier for the United States and for national laws of Western Hemisphere countries, she headed a league committee of experts that produced multivolume surveys of legal codes pertaining to women in each member nation. In  Paul founded the World Women’s Party (WWP), in opposition to the discriminatory codes submitted by the International Labor Office, and lobbied for equality in national laws, more women members in League of

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Nations delegations, and passage of the Equal Rights Treaty (ERT), which was sent to the floor of the League Assembly just as World War II broke out. The WWP villa in Geneva became a refugee center for prominent liberal and feminist leaders. Alice Paul wrote hundreds of letters and cablegrams to help them resettle, but when the war intensified, she returned to Washington. After the war, Paul haunted United Nations meetings. She led the WWP in the successful struggle to include the wording of sex equality in the UN Charter Preamble and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which would be a model for the constitutions of many emerging nations. In  Paul organized and led groups that convinced Congress to add the word “sex’’ to the equality clauses in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. She died of heart failure in . The Equal Rights Amendment still has not been ratified. Murrin, Mary, ed. Women in New Jersey History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Stoneburner, Carol, and John Stoneburner, eds. The Influence of Quaker Women on American History: Biographical Studies. Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also feminism; woman suffrage

Sheila Cowing and Amelia R. Fry

Paulsboro.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. Originally part of Greenwich, the borough, including the Billingsport section, was split off and incorporated on March , . Located along the Delaware River and Mantua Creek, Paulsboro was named for Samuel Phillip Paul, a son of the original settlers from Great Britain who came to southern New Jersey in the s. The community was once known as Crown Point and a road leading into town is known as Crown Point Road. The first land purchase made by the Continental Congress was for ninety-six acres of land in Billingsport along the Delaware on July , . Fort Billings was built on this site to defend the Delaware River and prevent the British forces from attacking Philadelphia during the Revolutionary War. The borough grew slowly, but the population doubled in one year after the opening of the Socony-Vacuum Oil refinery in Greenwich, near the border of Paulsboro, in . The creation of more than three thousand jobs saw the population hit a post–World War II high of , in . Paulsboro’s decline in population that began in the s, part of the movement of white families to the suburbs, and influx of African American families was accompanied by a decline in its commercial district. Large retailers such as K-Mart and Burger King closed their outlets in the borough. Paulsboro obtained federal and state aid in the s to help rebuild its downtown.

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Pavonia

The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. Median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, . Armstrong, Harry, and Tom Wilk. New Jersey Firsts: The Famous, Infamous, and Quirky of the Garden State. Philadelphia: Camino Books, . Simpson, Hazel B. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson, Chew and Sons, .

Sara Washington. Despite the withdrawal from Brigantine, the Peace Mission was among the first organizations to achieve an integrated beachfront in the Atlantic City area, more than two decades before the height of the civil rights movement. The predominantly black Peace Mission branch in Newark continued to operate for decades after Father Divine’s death in September .

Tom Wilk

Watts, Jill. God, Harlem U.S.A.: The Father Divine Story. Berkeley: University of California Press, .

Pavonia. Established in , immediately

Weisbrot, Robert. Father Divine and the Struggle for Racial Equality. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

after the Dutch West India Company created the patroonship system of land tenure, Pavonia extended along the west shore of the Hudson River from the Narrows to Hoboken, and included Staten Island. Situated where the American Indians crossed the river with their peltry to Fort Amsterdam, Pavonia was intended by Michiel Pauw, a company director, as an agricultural and trading settlement. It failed to prosper, however, and was sold back to the company within a few years. Michiel Pauw’s agent, Cornelis van Vorst, remained on the land, trading and farming, until he died in , which qualifies Pavonia ( Jersey City today) as the site of New Jersey’s first permanent European settlement. Rink, Oliver A. Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of the Dutch People. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

See also New Netherland

Firth Haring Fabend

See also civil rights

Robert Weisbrot

Peale, Rembrandt

(b. Feb. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Painter. Rembrandt Peale was

the second son of the artist Charles Willson Peale and Rachel Brewer. Charles, a native Philadelphian, fought alongside George Washington in the New Jersey campaign. When Philadelphia fell to the British, Charles went into exile in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with his wife and eldest son Raphael. It was there, in a farmhouse, that Rembrandt was born on Washington’s birthday. When the war ended the Peales returned to Philadelphia. At age thirteen Peale completed his first major work, a self-portrait titled Rembrandt Peale /Artist. At seventeen he painted George Washington, and at twentytwo he completed two portraits of Thomas Jefferson.

While seeking commissions for portraits, Peale frequently toured Europe for inspiration, and in  he visited England with the family’s exhibit of a mastodon skeleton that his father had unearthed near Newburgh, New York. He also wrote art manuals and managed the Baltimore Museum from  until . Peale lobbied Congress, unsuccessfully, to purchase his famous Washington portrait, Patria Pater, completed in . With the help of New Jersey senator Theodore Frelinghuysen, Peale was paid $, for the portrait in , the centennial of George Washington’s birthday. In late  Peale traveled to Washington, D.C., to paint John Quincy Adams, John Marshall, and John C. Calhoun. In  he visited Newark and painted established local families—the Rankins, the Gobles, the Penningtons, and Mr. and Mrs. Caleb Halsted Shipman. Peale had nine children with his first wife, Eleanor May Short, whom he married in . Eleanor died in  and four years later Peale married artist Harriet Cany. The couple had no children. Besides painting commissioned portraits, Peale also managed museums, wrote several books, and taught art. It is estimated that by the time of his death in  he had completed over twelve hundred works. ANB. Friedrich, Otto. “The Peales: America’s First Family of Art.’’ National Geographic Magazine , no.  (Dec. ): –. Miller, Linda B. In Pursuit of Fame: Rembrandt Peale, –. Washington, DC: National Portrait Gallery, .

See also art

Peace Mission of Father Divine. Father Divine (born George Baker, –), a Harlem-based religious leader, rocked New Jersey’s segregated world by acquiring beachfront property in  for his interracial Peace Mission. Typical of Father Divine’s methods, white followers purchased the -room, ten-story main hotel on Brigantine, a luxury island facing Atlantic City, together with rights to its excellent beaches and boardwalk. The purchase sparked years of bitter conflict with residents of Brigantine at a time when beaches were segregated by rigidly enforced custom. Brigantine’s residents held a mass meeting in March  to protest Divine’s purchase as “seriously detrimental to property values,’’and the town sought to raise the hotel’s tax valuation for  retroactively from $, to $,. In November, as a “patriotic gesture,’’ the hotel owners leased the property to the Coast Guard for a dollar a year through the duration of World War II, upon assurances that the facilities would not be segregated. An embarrassed Atlantic County Tax Board then dismissed Brigantine’s appeal to “correct’’ the hotel’s assessment for . But after Brigantine enacted a  percent increase on the assessment for , Divine’s followers sold the hotel to a black business owner,

Patrice M. Kane

Peapack-Gladstone.

Mathew Brady, Rembrandt Peale, c. . Albumen silver print,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. Originally part of a large tract known as the Peapack Patent purchased in , the borough is largely residential, with single-family homes and nineteenthcentury estates set amid the rolling Somerset Hills. Commercial and industrial uses are scattered. The North Branch of the Raritan River and the Peapack Brook join at the borough’s east end, a place the Lenape called Pee-Packy, “the marriage of waters.’’ The borough’s north end was renamed in honor of England’s prime minister William Gladstone circa . Mount Paul northeast of town is purportedly the burial place of Chief Paul, a Roxiticus elder. After the railroad reached Peapack in , wealthy New Yorkers flooded in, building extravagant mansions. George Mosle’s fifty-room brickand-stone pile cost $. million in , surpassing financier C. Ledyard Blair’s thirtyeight-room French chateau, Blairsden, built for a paltry $ million in . The North Branch was dammed in  by Blair and others, creating Ravine Lake for their private pleasure. Hamilton Farms in Gladstone is headquarters of the U.S. Equestrian Team. The

Pemberton Township

623

borough seceded from Bedminster Township April , . The  population was ,, with a median household income of $,. Ninety-four percent of the population was white. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, . Williams, Joan M. In the Somerset Hills: Bernardsville, Far Hills, and Peapack-Gladstone. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Alan A. Siegel

peat. Peat is a general term applied to loose plant remains formed under swamplike conditions. Freshwater peats occur in the low-lying areas along stream courses and other flat sectors of the Coastal Plain as well as in many depressions within the northern part of the state. Great Meadows in Warren County has some , acres of freshwater peat. Peats are usually acid but a few are alkaline in reaction. Saline peats are present in the coastal fringes of New Jersey extending from Raritan Bay to Cape May and Delaware Bay, and also along the lower courses of the Hackensack and Passaic rivers. See also wetlands John C. F. Tedrow

PEAT

The Peddie School, Hightstown.

Photo: Tom Kitts. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Peddie School.

The Peddie School is a private, coeducational, boarding and day school located in Hightstown. It began as the Hightstown Female Seminary in  and became the Peddie Institute in  and the Peddie School in . The school’s namesake is Thomas B. Peddie (–), a businessman and philanthropist from Newark. Walter H. Annenberg (class of ) and Finn M. W. Caspersen (class of ) have also been significant benefactors of the school. Peddie is now nonsectarian and has over sixty buildings on its -acre campus. Enrollment is about  students and the invested endowment is about $ million.

Geiger, Carl E. The Peddie School’s First Century. Valley Forge, PA: Judson Press, .

See also education

David G. Martin

The first Baptist Church, erected in , was the first Baptist congregation in Burlington County. Known well into the twentieth century as a commercial center due to its gristmill and railroad access, the town remained a shopping hub amid surrounding farmland until the early s when malls were opened in Moorestown and Cherry Hill. Today, Pemberton Borough contains some of the best-preserved Quaker architecture in the state. As is the case with many of the state’s smaller communities, the rising cost of municipal services and schools, coupled with a limited population and geographic area, has created fiscal difficulties. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Burlington County Times, May , .

Pedricktown.

See Oldmans.

Pemberton Borough. N

0

20 miles

Freshwater Saline © Rutgers, The State University

.-squaremile borough in east-central Burlington County. Pemberton Borough is located along both banks of the Rancocas Creek’s north branch, completely surrounded by Pemberton Township. The earliest landowner was William Budd, who built a sawmill and later a gristmill along the creek, leading to the settlement’s first name of New Mills. Built for Budd’s employees, New Mills was one of the first company towns in the United States. Pemberton was originally formed as a borough within Northampton and New Hanover townships in , and named for James Pemberton, a landowner who never actually lived in the municipality. In , the borough was separated from Pemberton Township as an independent municipality.

Olsen, Judith Lamb. Pemberton: An Historic Look at a Village on the Rancocas. New Orleans, LA: Polyanthos, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Pemberton Township.

.-squaremile township in eastern Burlington County. Pemberton Township shares an eastern border with Ocean County and parts of a northern border with the federal and military reservation at Fort Dix. It was formed in  from parts of New Hanover, Northampton, and Southampton townships. Small portions were broken off after the s to form parts of Westampton and Woodland townships. More than one thousand acres of the Lebanon State Forest are located within

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Penn, William

Pemberton Township. Today it remains largely agrarian, with the most prominent products being cranberries and blueberries raised in bogs in the southeastern corner of the township. The village of Whitesbog along the Ocean County border is named for Joseph J. White, a local farmer who was among the first in the United States to successfully cultivate and market the blueberry. The largest residential community is Browns Mills, surrounding Mirror Lake. The world-renowned Deborah Heart and Lung Center is located in Browns Mills. Other large communities include Country Lakes and Presidential Lakes, both onetime resort areas. Much of the housing was popular with military personnel during Fort Dix’s tenure as an active-duty army post, which ended in . Today, the township is highly diverse, with some areas designated by the state as an Urban Enterprise Zone. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bisbee, Henry H. Sign Posts: Place Names in the History of Burlington County. Willingboro: Alexia Press, . Griscom, Lloyd E. Tales of Three Towns: Cinnaminson, Palmyra, and Riverton. N.p.: Lloyd E. Griscom, . Olsen, Judith Lamb. Pemberton: An Historic Look at a Village on the Rancocas. New Orleans, LA: Polyanthos, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Penn, William ).

(b. Oct. , ; d. July ,

Quaker leader and colonizer of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The son of Adm. William Penn, young William Penn was educated in England and France. He associated from his youth with some of the most prominent men in England, including Charles II and James, duke of York. While managing his father’s estates in Ireland in , Penn converted to Quakerism and soon became a prominent figure in defending his new faith by writing tracts, debating with Puritan and Anglican ministers, and being imprisoned in the Tower of London for his beliefs. During the s Penn emerged as a prominent spokesman for religious toleration by supporting the election of Whigs to Parliament and negotiating with Charles II to end persecution. Penn’s first involvement with colonization came in  when he served as mediator in the dispute between Edward Byllynge and John Fenwick as to who had title to half of New Jersey. Penn worked out an agreement in which Fenwick gained one-tenth, but Penn and the other trustees opposed Fenwick’s unilateral actions in settling Salem. Later Penn negotiated with Sir George Carteret for a division of the colony into West Jersey and East Jersey. Penn and the Quaker trustees envisaged West

Jersey as a Quaker area and promoted a settlement at Burlington. Penn probably wrote A Description of West New Jersey in  in order to promote colonization. After the founding of Pennsylvania, Penn devoted most of his attention to his new colony, but in  he purchased Fenwick’s share in West Jersey and also became one of twelve proprietors of East Jersey. He helped draft the  laws for East Jersey. Penn may have wanted to merge New Jersey and Pennsylvania, but settler resistance and uncertainty over authority to govern precluded political unity. Penn, William. The Papers of William Penn.  vols. Ed. Mary Maples Dunn and Richard S. Dunn. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, –. Pomfret, John E. The Province of East New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ———. The Province of West New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also Quakers

J. William Frost

Penn Central Railroad. The Pennsylvania and New York Central Railroads merged in  to form Penn Central. It was hoped that the elimination of duplicate services and facilities would make the new ,-mile, $. billion company profitable. In  the company suffered the largest single bankruptcy in U.S. history, calling for an overdue review of national transportation policies and regulations. Additional railroads, interchange partners with Penn Central, were pushed into bankruptcy by the larger railroad’s inability to pay accounts due. Several programs, including the Regional Rail Reorganization Act of , the “R’’ Act of , and the consolidating of the bankrupt lines into Conrail in  with federal assistance, ensured continued rail service. Daughen, Joseph R., and Peter Binzen. The Wreck of the Penn Central. Boston: Little, Brown, . Saunders, Richard, Jr. Railroad Mergers and the Coming of Conrail. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

Pennington, William

(b. May , ;

d. Feb. , ). Governor, lawyer, and mem-

ber of Congress. William was the son of Gov. William S. Pennington, who also served as a federal district judge and was one of the founders of the Jeffersonian-Republican party in New Jersey. Born in Newark, Pennington studied at private schools and graduated from the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in . After studying with Theodore Frelinghuysen, Pennington entered the practice of law in . He served between  and  as a clerk of the federal district, and of the circuit courts in New Jersey in the s, during the judgeship of his father.

He married Caroline Burnet, the daughter of William Burnet, surgeon general of the Continental Army during the Revolution. Pennington began politics as a Jeffersonian-Republican and, like many of his father’s friends, supported John Quincy Adams for president in . The politicians with whom he associated after Adams’s defeat for reelection in  formed the National Republican party, which became the Whig party in the s. Pennington became one of the leaders of the New Jersey Whigs and represented Essex County in the assembly. When, in , the Whigs gained power, he was elected governor, replacing Philemon Dickerson, a Democrat. He was reelected until  when he was defeated by Democrat Daniel Haines. Although as governor Pennington had few executive powers, he also served as chancellor and judge of the prerogative court. To compensate for the governor’s limited powers, several of Pennington’s predecessors began delivering an annual message to help set an agenda for the legislature. In his messages, Pennington proposed the creation of a public school system, the creation of an orphans court, the abolishment of imprisonment for debt, the creation of an asylum for the insane, reform of conditions in the state prisons, and a reduction in the number of crimes punishable by death. Many of these measures passed the legislature, helping to bring New Jersey into the general movement of the era to make society more humane. Pennington also tried to gain legislation that would divide the governor’s office from its judicial roles. Thus Pennington paved the way for the  constitutional convention, which would make this reform, although he was not a supporter of increasing the executive powers of the governor. Pennington also had to deal with the problems raised by the Depression of , including the closing of many banks in New Jersey. The most significant event in Pennington’s governorship occurred during  and  in an incident known as the Broad Seal War. In this era, the entire New Jersey delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives was elected at large by all of the state’s voters, rather than in districts. In the  election for New Jersey’s six congressmen, disputed votes came in from two counties. The election was so close that the disputed votes would decide whether the Democratic candidates or the Whig candidates would be sent to Washington. One of the Whig nominees, William F. Randolph, had clearly won a seat, without any of the disputed votes, and Pennington certified the other five Whigs as victors in the contest as well. Since the House was itself evenly divided, it waited a month before rejecting Pennington’s certification. Congress then seated the five Democrats. After Congress organized, it passed a law requiring states to elect representatives by districts, rather than at large. After leaving the governorship, Pennington returned to the practice of law but

Pennington remained interested in politics, becoming a Republican after the demise of the Whig party in . In , after having not held office for fifteen years, Pennington was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, which convened in December . With the United States approaching civil war, the House was unable to choose a Speaker and debated the issue for two months. In an effort to find a compromise candidate, Pennington was elected Speaker on the forty-fourth ballot by one vote, even though he had never previously served in Congress. Faced with immense difficulties, Pennington tried to hold that body together and generally was praised as a moderating influence. In the secession crisis in  and , Pennington hoped for compromise and stood between the radical wing of the Republican party and southerners who wanted to leave the Union. In the congressional elections in , a Democrat defeated him for reelection. The New-Jersey Gazette described his defeat as a “state disgrace.’’ Pennington died a few months after his term in office ended. Elmer, Lucius Q. C. The Constitution and Government of the Province and State of New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of the Governors, from  to . Newark: Martin R. Dennis, . Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil-War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also Broad Seal War; governor

Herbert B. Ershkowitz

Pennington,

William

(b. ; d. Sept. , ).

Sanford

Governor, lawyer, and politician. William S. Pennington was a descendant of Ephraim Pennington, one of the founders of Newark. His father, who was of modest means, died when Pennington was young, and he was apprenticed to a hatmaker. When the Revolution broke out, he joined a company of artillery, receiving a battlefield promotion to lieutenant, and left the military as a brevet captain. After the war, he became a hatter but was also prominent in other mercantile enterprises in Newark. There was a good deal of social mobility after the war, especially for returning veterans. Pennington was able to use this to his advantage when he entered politics as a follower of Thomas Jefferson. In  and , he supported the United States alliance with France and opposed the Washington administration’s neutrality policy in the war between France and England. He was one of the primary founders of the Democratic Society, which became the core of the Jeffersonian-Republican party in New Jersey. He and his brother Aaron founded the Newark Centinel of Freedom, the leading pro-Jefferson newspaper in the state, and he served as its editor for many years. Until the demise of the Jeffersonian-Republican

party in the s, Pennington remained the political boss of Essex County and one of the two or three most important party leaders in the state. Pennington’s rise to power was facilitated by the growing dominance of Newark in Essex County, spurred by rapid economic growth. Unlike its rival, Elizabeth, Newark’s new leaders were often, like Pennington, selfmade men. Pennington was elected to the assembly from Essex County, serving from  until  and then in the council from  to . He was one of the Republican leaders in the legislature and one of the party’s most eloquent speakers. He took a lead in formulating Democrat-Republican positions during the debates over the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves and over the Alien and Sedition Acts, and he often got the better of his Federalist opponents in these struggles. In , as the leader of the Republicans in the legislature, Pennington refused to reach a compromise with the Federalists, preventing the election of a governor and a member of the U.S. Senate. Pennington embarked on a second career in middle age, reading law with Elias Boudinot and receiving his license as an attorney in May . Since most of the lawyers in the state were Federalists, the Republicans needed some of their leaders to enter the profession to provide judicial leadership when they came to power. In  Pennington became county clerk of Essex, and in  the state legislature elected him as an associate justice of the state supreme court. Although he came to law late in life, he was a capable lawyer, and in  he became a court reporter as well as a justice. He published Treatise on the Courts for the Trial of Small Causes in . While on the bench, Pennington remained active in Republican politics and was prominently mentioned several times as a candidate for governor. In  he was the candidate of the Republicans, but lost to Aaron Ogden. He defeated Ogden in  and again in . As governor, Pennington was faced with the problems created by the War of  and strove to maintain militia readiness. In an effort to foster unity during that conflict, Pennington reached out to Federalists but developed problems within his own party. His clash with James J. Wilson, editor of the Trenton True American, threatened to tear his own party apart, and because of the splits within his own party, Pennington lost enough support to ensure his defeat in the next legislative election for governor. To save him this embarrassment, in  President James Madison nominated him as a judge to the federal district court for New Jersey to replace Robert Morris, who had just died. The Senate confirmed Pennington to the judgeship, which was largely a sinecure; he remained in that position until his death. At the time the court had two terms each year at Burlington and two terms at New Brunswick. He also served on the circuit court. There was very

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little work in the court, and sessions were held infrequently. The cases Pennington heard consisted of violations of the revenue laws, suits for debts owed the United States, and cases involving the Postal Department. While on the court, Pennington appointed his son William as clerk. Elmer, Lucius Q. C. The Constitution and Government of the Province and State of New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of the Governors from  to . Newark: Martin R. Dennis, . Fee, Walter R. The Transition from Aristocracy to Democracy in New Jersey, –. Somerville: Somerset Press, . Prince, Carl E. New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also governor

Herbert B. Ershkowitz

Pennington.

.-square-mile borough in Mercer County. Farms were first established here by European settlers around . By the s, a village with a church, schoolhouse, store, and several dwellings had taken root at the crossroads intersection of the Trenton Road and a key east-west route linking the Delaware and Lower Millstone valleys. Known initially as Queenstown, by  the settlement was also referred to as Pennytown, which soon evolved into Pennington. The Presbyterian congregation led much of the village’s early development and survived a short-lived split when the New Side Presbyterians established an alternative ministry in . The village was occupied by British and Hessian troops in late  prior to the Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Residential and commercial expansion continued throughout the later eighteenth and nineteenth centuries along the axial streets, especially Main Street. Several educational institutions were established in the nineteenth century, notably the Pennington Academy (founded ), a female seminary (), the Pennington Methodist Male Seminary (–; today’s Pennington School), and a Methodist female institute (). Arriving in the s, the railroads prompted further growth, spurring the village’s incorporation in . Early twentieth-century expansion resulted in the Kunkel, Curlis, and Howe tract developments on the village periphery. The core of the village contains numerous early and mid-nineteenth-century buildings surrounded by later nineteenth- and twentiethcentury single-family residences. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hunter, Richard W., and Richard L. Porter. Hopewell: A Historical Geography. Titusville: Hopewell Township, . Lewis, Alice B. Hopewell Valley Heritage. Hopewell: Hopewell Museum, . O’Connell, Margaret J. Pennington Profile: A Capsule of State and Nation. d ed. Pennington: Margaret J. O’Connell, .

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Pennsauken

Seabrook, Jack, and Lorraine Seabrook. Hopewell Valley. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Richard W. Hunter

Pennsauken.

.-square-mile township in Camden County, on the Delaware River. First settled by the Europeans in the seventeenth century, the township was known as Waterford Township when it was part of Gloucester County. When Camden County was formed in , the area became Delaware Township, which later became present-day Cherry Hill. In , Stockton Township was created from the northern portion of Delaware Township. A small group of merchants organized the borough of Merchantville in . Pennsauken Township was created in  from the remainder of Stockton Township. Gristmills and sawmills were built along the Pennsauken Creek, and the area was replete with farms and orchards. The community grew as a port and summer resort, which included fishing clubs. Pennsauken became a suburb with the construction of the Delaware River Bridge (later the Ben Franklin Bridge) in . The Central Airport, which opened in , was the Philadelphia area’s first airport and lent its name to the Airport Circle, the state’s first traffic circle. Pennsauken also was home to the world’s first drive-in theater, which opened on Admiral Wilson Boulevard in . Today the community is primarily residential and industrial; major manufacturers include petroleum and metal producers. Pennsauken’s population in  of , residents was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Crane, Kathleen J. Images of America: Pennsauken. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Fichter, Jack H. The Pennsauken Story. Pennsauken: Waldman Graphics, .

Mike Mathis

Penns Grove.

.-square-mile borough on the Delaware River in Salem County. Penns Grove was first known as Penns Grove Village; in , Helm’s Cove became a part of the village, which was incorporated as Penn’s Grove Borough. Helm’s Cove, on the riverfront, was the site of most of the activity in early years, which included a shipyard and a colonial tavern (now a private residence). Because the fishing industry was so successful, Penns Grove became known as the “world capital of caviar.’’ A cannery operated to process caviar from sturgeon; it was marketed under the trade name of Romanoff. There was also a cannery that processed tomatoes; these were marketed under the name “Jersey’s Favorites.’’ The borough experienced a decline in the second half of the twentieth century; however, work has begun on the Riverwalk project, a major entertainment center on the Delaware River. In , the population of , was

 percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD (MAINLINE) NEWARK

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

RAHWAY

Pennsville.

.-square-mile township in Salem County. First settled by Swedes and Finns in /, the character of the township has always been defined by its location on the Delaware River. The river provided shad and sturgeon, making fishing an early industry in addition to farming. A cannery operated from  to  to process tomatoes, but much fresh produce was sent to other markets by boat. DuPont, now the major employer, built its Chambers Works plant on the Delaware River in ; homes built for its employees became known as Deepwater Village. Ganes Chemicals is the second largest employer. In , the Delaware Memorial Bridge replaced ferries on the Delaware River; the Finn’s Point lighthouse had ceased operation one year earlier. The New Jersey Turnpike, I-, and I- converge in the township near the Delaware Memorial Bridge. Once called Lower Penn’s Neck, it became the Township of Pennsville in . Many eighteenth-century patterned-brick houses survive, but the one known as the Guard House, from whose upper stories Patriots monitored British naval activity during the Revolutionary War, was torn down. Riverview Beach Park, a major amusement park, operated from  to . Supawna and Killcohook National Wildlife Refuges, Fort Mott State Park, and Finn’s Point National Cemetery lie within the township. Rural in identity and predominately residential, Pennsville is home to many descendants of its founders. In , the population of , was  percent white. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Blakely, Patricia W. “The Township of Pennsville.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (Sept. ): –. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Sanderlin, Mary F. Stories of Lower Penns Neck. Pennsville: Lower Penns Neck Board of Education, .

Patricia W. Blakely

Pennsylvania Railroad.

Fifth in size based upon track mileage (, miles) from the late s to the late s, the Pennsylvania Railroad was first in operating revenues, ton-miles produced, and number of locomotives and passenger and freight cars owned for many years. Its administrative and

JERSEY CITY

NEW BRUNSWICK

Willis, David A. The School Bell Rang at Nine. Indianapolis: Monon Book Company, .

Patricia W. Blakely

N

ELIZABETH

0

10

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MONMOUTH JUNCTION TRENTON © Rutgers, The State University

operating officers were influential in all railindustry matters. The PRR had many engineering achievements to its credit: the world’s longest stone arch bridge, Horseshoe Curve over the Allegheny Mountains; several magnificent stations of neoclassical architecture; the Hudson and East River Tunnels; and the electrification of the New York–Washington and New York–Harrisburg main lines. These latter routes are now used by Amtrak and regional commuter services. The PRR acquired several lines in New Jersey, including the Camden and Amboy Railroad, which provided access from Philadelphia to Jersey City and a ferry service to New York. In  direct access to New York was achieved through a Hudson River tunnel. The sixty-mile main line across New Jersey became one of the world’s busiest sections of railroad. Freight yards were built at Newark, Kearny, Jersey City, Camden, Trenton, and Phillipsburg. The PRR also reached towns in central and southern New Jersey with branches and with the Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines. In  the PRR merged with its chief competitor, New York Central, to form the short-lived Penn Central Railroad. Ball, Don, Jr. The Pennsylvania Railroad. Chester, VT: Elm Tree Books, . Drury, George H. The Historical Guide to North American Railroads. Milwaukee: Kalmbach Books, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert Mohowski

Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines. The PRSL made the resort beaches from Atlantic City to Delaware Bay available to vacationers from Philadelphia and eastern Pennsylvania. It also provided city market access for the agricultural and seafood production of South Jersey. Several railroads originally provided these services, but by  all had come under the control of either the Reading or Pennsylvania Railroad subsidiaries. The two companies agreed that year to enter into a joint operation as PennsylvaniaReading Seashore Lines, with  route miles. Some of PRSL’s routes have since been abandoned and others are operated by Amtrak, New Jersey Transit, NS/CSX shared lines, and independent short lines.

peregrine falcon

627

she was similarly situated to the men who had been promoted. Nonetheless, this case is an important one because it established that the state equal-protection clause could be interpreted broadly, and might confer protections not offered under other federal and state laws. See also discrimination

Suzanne U. Samuels

Pequannock. .-square-mile township

A self-propelled rail diesel car of the Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Line crosses the canal swing bridge near Cape May.

Photo: H. Gerald MacDonald.

CAMDEN

PENNSYLVANIAREADING SEASHORE LINES WINSLOW JUNCTION ATLANTIC CITY

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for baggage check-in and in-flight food. When People Express attempted to expand and shed its no-frills, young, upstart image, the resulting financial difficulties led to its acquisition by Texas Air, the parent company of Continental Airlines, in . Petzinger, Thomas, Jr. Hard Landing: The Epic Contest for Power and Profits That Plunged the Airlines into Chaos. New York: Times Business, .

See also transportation

in Morris County. Established in , Pequannock originally included the present townships of Rockaway, Montville, Boonton, and Jefferson, and exceeded , acres in size. Located in Morris County on the Pequannock River, it is one of the oldest European settlements in northwestern New Jersey, being settled by circa . The Newark-Pompton Turnpike, built –, provided early road access to the township. Pompton Plains, in the northern portion of the township, includes the landmark First Reformed Church (), a notable colonial building restored after a s fire, as well as an adjacent burying ground. Pequannock is crossed by Routes  and , and is heavily developed with both residential and commercial buildings. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Edwards, Carl I. Pequannock Township, –. Pequannock: Carlton and Smith, . History of Morris County, New Jersey, with Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Prominent Citizens and Pioneers. . Reprint. New Vernon: Morris County Historical Society, . Salvini, Emil R. Historic Pequannock Township. Lyndhurst: Wheal Grace Corporation Historical Publications, .

Elaine L. Schwartz

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Peper v. Princeton University Board of Trustees et al. In this 

peregrine falcon. Falco peregrinus, a member of the Falconidae family, is the largest falcon in New Jersey. Similar in size to a crow, the peregrine has pointed wings, a slate blue (male) or gray (female) back, a dark cap, and a dark stripe below the eye. Peregrines are raptors, preying on small birds, especially shorebirds and songbirds, which they hunt by flying above and diving down at high speed, killing their prey by impact. Peregrines historically nested on cliffs. They declined nationally due to the insecticide DDT. Biologists restored the population, though they remain on New Jersey’s endangered list; less than twenty pairs now nest on tall buildings, bridges, and platforms.

20 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

Holton, James L. The Reading Railroad: History of a Coal Age Empire. Laury’s Station, PA: Garrigues House, . Kramer, Frederick A. Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines. Ambler, PA: Crusader Press, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

People Express Airlines.

Formed in  by Donald C. Burr in response to airline deregulation, People Express began as a discount airline that flew out of the old North Terminal at Newark International Airport. Its innovative treatment of employees and passengers attracted nationwide attention. Employee responsibilities were interchangeable and every employee purchased  shares of company stock. Meanwhile, passengers experienced few amenities. They had to pay extra

case, the New Jersey Supreme Court interpreted the equal protection clause in the state constitution to prohibit sex discrimination in employment. The court found that at the time of the alleged discrimination against Ilene Peper by Princeton University, federal and state equal-employment law did not apply to private educational institutions; nevertheless, the state equal-protection clause could be enforced against the university. This clause, articulated in the  constitution, established that women have rights to employment and the acquisition of private property that are equal to those enjoyed by men. The state court found that it had jurisdiction to consider the claimant’s nonpromotion since the university’s decision had an adverse impact on Peper’s ability to acquire property. Peper ultimately lost this case on the merits: the court found that she had not established a prima facie case that

Ratcliffe, Derek. The Peregrine Falcon. d ed. London: T. and A. D. Poyser, . Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds

Kathleen E. Clark

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performance art rose to national director. During World War II he was active on the War Production Board and in Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) war relief efforts. Perlis was best known for his leadership in union community services, pioneering avenues for labor unions to participate in the United Way through a network of Community Service liaisons, ideally placed to assist working people facing personal and social crises. Perlis headed the CIO Community Services Committee from  to . When the CIO merged with the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in , he became director of the AFL-CIO’s new Community Service Department, a post he held until his retirement in . Perlis remained a passionate advocate of labor’s grassroots involvement in community affairs throughout his life. Culver, B. G. Leo Perlis: An Angel with the Union Label. Farmersburg, IN: Jewett, .

Peregrine falcon in flight.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife.

Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

performance art.

Performance art got its start in the summer of , on a chicken farm in South Brunswick. The chicken farm was owned by sculptor George Segal, who was taking a few courses at nearby Rutgers University in preparation for getting his M.F.A. in . And the event that was staged on the farm in late July or early August, called “Pastorale,’’ was the first “Happening’’ conceived by Rutgers professor Allan Kaprow, who coined this term for what would become a popular art world practice. Kaprow (who joined the Rutgers faculty in ) wanted to bring art “off the wall and into real space and real life.’’ The first “performance art’’ took place between strips of cloth hung from wooden frames and followed a very simple script. The idea that art was not an object to be possessed but an action or a situation was immediately infectious. Segal decided to add three-dimensional plaster figures to his paintings (which soon evolved into his “environments’’). A number of Kaprow’s Rutgers students—among them Robert Whitman and Lucas Samaras—became well-known artists striving to create an art that incorporates random, everyday experience. Along with Pop Art progenitor Roy Lichtenstein, who soon joined the Rutgers faculty, Kaprow and Segal together formed the first real opposition to the formalism supported by New York critic Clement Greenberg and the abstract expressionists, who had only recently established the dominant tradition of the New York school. Woven together with conceptual art, which also got a major push from Samaras and others at Rutgers, performance art had become a major component of nearly all contemporary art shows at the turn of the twenty-first century.

Hughes, Robert. American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Marter, Joan, ed. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. Newark and New Brunswick: Newark Museum and Rutgers University Press, .

See also art

Dan Bischoff

performing arts.

See dance; theater.

Perkins Center for the Arts. Perkins Center for the Arts, a multidisciplinary, nonprofit cultural organization, is housed in a Tudor-style manor house designed by Philadelphia architect Herbert C. Wise in . The building was bequeathed to the township of Moorestown in  by Mabel D’Olier, a prominent Quaker philanthropist. The township occupied the building until a volunteer committee of residents submitted the property to the National Register of Historic Places, which saved the property from demolition in . Perkins Center for the Arts was then incorporated as a nonprofit public charity and began a twenty-five-year lease with the township. The center serves over , individuals annually, providing exhibitions, concerts, performances, special events, visual and performing arts classes, individualized music lessons, and a summer arts camp for the Camden region.

Jennifer North

Perlis, Leo

(b. Feb. , ; d. Mar. ,

). Labor leader and community activist.

Leo Perlis was born in Russian Poland to David and Anna Perlis and moved to the United States at age eleven. He graduated from high school in Paterson and worked in the silk mills there, where he became active in union affairs. In  he was tapped by New Jersey State Industrial Union Council president Carl Holderman to serve as director of Labor’s Non-Partisan Political League, where he soon

Clayton Sinyai

Perrine, Van Dearing

(b. Sept. ,

; d. Dec. , ).

Painter. Van Dearing Perrine was a well-known American impressionist. Coming east from Kansas to New York as a youth, he studied at the Cooper Union and National Academy of Design. Perrine used the brightly colored, broad brushstrokes of the impressionists. From  to , he lived upon the Palisades and produced many important paintings depicting these formidable cliffs. One was bought by Theodore Roosevelt and hung in the White House, and his paintings were widely exhibited. He later lived in Maplewood with his wife, Theodora Snow, and their children, Theodore and Mary. He belonged to the Millburn–Short Hills Art Association, and authored Let the Child Draw, published in . Gerdts, William H. American Impressionism. New York: Abbeville Press, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Perth Amboy.

.-square-mile city in Middlesex County. European occupation of this attractive land mass on the Arthur Kill overlooking the Raritan Bay began in the mids. Scottish dissenters, English merchants, and French Huguenots all arrived with a view toward exploiting the seemingly limitless potential of the harbor. These original proprietors hoped to transform this fortunately situated tract into the political and commercial hub of East Jersey. Perth Amboy soon became one of the dual capitals of New Jersey (), secured an incorporation charter (), and functioned as one of the colony’s principal ports. Reality never completely matched expectations, however, and the town experienced only modest growth during the early eighteenth century. Most Jersey merchants gravitated toward New York instead,

pesticides

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Puerto Ricans constituted over half of this group, but large numbers of Dominicans, Cubans, Mexicans, and South Americans also resided in town. This latest immigration unfortunately coincided with a general deindustrialization and the closing of many manufacturing plants within Perth Amboy. In , the population was ,:  percent white,  percent black,  percent other, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). Median household income in  stood at $,, with most residents concentrated in small manufacturing, wholesale, and retail establishments. For complete census figures, see chart, . Levitt, James H. For Want of Trade: Shipping and the New Jersey Ports, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . McGinnis, William C. History of Perth Amboy, New Jersey, –.  vols. Perth Amboy: American Publishing Company, –.

Perth Amboy Municipal Marina, .

Photo: Jennifer A. Hulshizer. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

and few foreign vessels entered Amboy directly, although a reasonably prosperous coastal trade developed. A wealthy group of proprietors and merchants did coalesce and take up residence in the capital, especially after  when the colony gained its own separate governor. The “Perth Amboy Group,’’ as this cadre became known around the time of the Revolution, remained loyal to the king, benefited from royal patronage, and periodically attempted to enforce their proprietary land claims. They cultivated especially close relations with William Franklin, New Jersey’s last royal governor, and excited the enmity of the revolutionaries. Perth Amboy earned a reputation as a Loyalist enclave during the Revolution, and the town experienced considerable economic devastation following the conclusion of hostilities. Most prominent citizens fled to Canada and England, New Jersey’s state capital relocated to Trenton, and the port languished. For much of the nineteenth century, the city remained a sleepy backwater. A thriving ceramic industry provided some local employment in the s and foreshadowed subsequent industrial developments. The city also gained some notoriety as the location of the Raritan Bay Union, a utopian commune that split from the North American Phalanx in  and included some of the country’s most prominent abolitionists, feminists, and artists. Immigration and industrialization completely transformed the community after . Several large industrial concerns, including the Anaconda Copper Works, American Smelting and Refining, National Lead, and M. Guggenheim Sons, located occupied vacant land and fueled a thriving commercial downtown. Immigrants from Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Italy, and Russia arrived in large numbers to fill the heavy

laboring jobs. They created a series of tightly knit and insular ethnic neighborhoods with names like “Budapest,’’ “Dublin,’’ and “Chickentown,’’ and the city’s population swelled to its twentieth-century peak of , in . Beginning in , Perth Amboy’s heavy industrial employers, which now included Chevron and Hess Oil, began relying more heavily on Puerto Ricans to satisfy their labor needs. Soon, Perth Amboy became a center of Hispanic culture and life in New Jersey, and tensions with the older ethnics occasionally erupted. By ,  percent of the city’s inhabitants classified themselves as Hispanic.

Whitehead, William A. Contributions to the Early History of Perth Amboy and the Adjoining Country, with Sketches of Men and Events in New Jersey during the Provincial Era. New York: Appleton, .

Peter J. Wosh

pesticides. Pesticides are compounds that are used to control pests. The word pesticide comes from the Latin pestis, meaning plague. Ancient writings indicate that a number of compounds, such as sulphur, mercury, and arsenic, were used in past ages. Pesticides today refer to anything that is used to control insects, fungi, bacteria, weeds, mollusks, and rodents. Pesticides are regulated at the federal level under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) passed in . In New Jersey, pesticides are regulated by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP).

Ad for rat poison manufactured by E. S. Wells Medical Company, Jersey City, .

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark.

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New Jersey’s regulations are stricter than the federal regulations in a number of areas. Pesticides are classified two ways: restricted use, which requires a license and registration with the NJDEP; and general use, the type commonly purchased in the garden center or hardware store. Restricted-use materials are of higher concentration and usually more toxic than general-use materials. Pesticides are fairly commonplace; they are used extensively in agriculture as well as on lawns and landscape plantings. They are also used for structural pest control, to protect homes from termites and other wooddestroying insects. The most common insecticides in New Jersey homes are Dursban for insect control in and around the home, as well as Diazinon, Malathion, and Sevin. These compounds are less toxic and less persistent than the earlier pesticides that were in popular use after World War II. The chlorinated pesticides, such as DDT and chlordane, have been removed from use due to their long-term effects on humans and the environment. In recent years, scientists have come to employ a technique known as integrated pest management, or IPM. This technique uses many control strategies, such as beneficial insects, crop rotation, and biological control, as well as chemical pesticides to effectively control pests, and only use the minimum amount of pesticide needed. Today in the United States there are more than fifteen hundred active ingredients in more than sixty thousand formulated products. Many of these are restricted-use compounds, requiring a permit or certification. The other class of compounds, general use, is made up of the products purchased by consumers in grocery stores, garden centers, and discount stores. There are several pesticide firms in New Jersey producing such compounds. These include FMC Corporation, BASF, and Merck. A decade ago many more were based in the state.

Morgan, Joseph Henri. Morgan’s History of the New Jersey Conference of the A.M.E. Church, from  to : and of the Several Churches, as Far as Possible, from Date of Organization, with Biographical Sketches of Members of the Conference. Camden: S. Chew, . Payne, Daniel A. History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. Nashville: Publishing House of the AME Sunday School Union, .

See also African Church

Methodist

Episcopal

Robert W. Craig

Peterson, Thomas Mundy (b. Oct. ,

Mark G. Robson

; d. Feb. , ). Thomas Mundy Peterson was the first African American to vote in an election after the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Ratified on March , , this amendment gave black males the right to vote. The following day, Peterson voted in a special election in Perth Amboy to decide whether the community should revise its city charter or become a township. Peterson was subsequently appointed to a committee of seven to draft the charter revisions. His vote also represented the first cast by an African American in New Jersey since passage of the  law that disfranchised blacks and women (New Jersey’s first state constitution, adopted in , allowed blacks and women to vote.) In  he was awarded a gold medal by the citizens of Perth Amboy in recognition of his historic  vote. Peterson was a much-respected citizen of Perth Amboy. He worked as a custodian at Perth Amboy’s first public school between  and . It was renamed the Thomas Mundy Peterson Elementary School in . His grave is located in the cemetery of Perth Amboy’s Saint Peter’s Episcopal Church, of which he was a member.

(b. c. ; d. Mar. ).

McGinnis, William C. History of Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Perth Amboy: American Publishing, –.

Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, .

See also pollution

Peters, Sampson

the Mount Zion African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, and Peters became a lay minister and leader of the congregation. In  he also helped form the Mount Pisgah AME Church, Princeton’s first black congregation. He remained a local leader among black Methodists and a delegate to annual AME conferences through the middle s. He died in March  in his seventy-fourth year.

Clergyman. The Methodist leader of African Americans in Trenton in the early nineteenth century, Sampson Peters was born into slavery, possibly in what is now East Windsor Township (Mercer County), where he first surfaces in the historical record, and where he was almost certainly first exposed to Methodism. He was manumitted in  by his owner, an early Methodist leader in the Hightstown area, after which he moved to Trenton and took up the trade of a cooper. He was a leader in organizing the Free African Society of Trenton in . Five years later, in his cooper shop, Trenton’s first black church was formed,

the landscape. Serious students come to study with accomplished instructors, many of them with international reputations, in such disciplines as drawing, painting, blacksmithing, fiber arts and weaving, jewelry making, photography, woodworking, and ceramics. The center was founded in  on land acquired for the Tocks Island Dam Project, a scrapped flood control and hydroelectric dam project. The National Park Service was responsible for this land, designated as a buffer zone for the dam. When plans for the dam were shelved, the land was set aside as the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. Peter DeGelleke, the park’s superintendent at the time, with others, decided to gauge interest in a craft education center in the recreation area, in the historic village of Bevans, which dated back to the s. Originally settled by Peter Van Neste, it became Peter’s Valley. DeGelleke organized a craft fair in one of the barns. It was so successful that the center followed later that year, and the craft show became annual. See also crafts, contemporary

Roberta Chopp Rothschild

Peto, John Frederick

(b. May , ;

d. Nov. , ). Painter. Although now con-

sidered an important trompe l’oeil still-life painter of the late nineteenth century, John Frederick Peto gained fame and reputation posthumously. He was one of the four children of Catherine Ham and Thomas Hope Peto, a picture frame dealer. Early in his life, Peto displayed his artistic talent by filling albums with pencil vignettes, including birds, animals, and flowers. His formal training did not begin, however, until  when he enrolled at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia. During the late s, he also came under the influence of the founder

Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. Black Firsts: Two Thousand Years of Extraordinary Achievement. Detroit: Visible Ink Press, .

See also voting

Giles R. Wright

Peters Valley Craft Education Center. A school dedicated to teaching crafts as an art form, Peters Valley Craft Education Center is a ,-acre hub located in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. The center has nurtured thousands of artists over the years as they live, work, and learn in the old barns and farmhouses that dot

John Frederick Peto in his studio at  Cedar Avenue, Island Heights, c. s.

Courtesy Joy Peto Smiley and Blossom J. Betarano.

pharmaceutical industry of the American trompe l’oeil school, William Michael Harnett, leading to a similarity of subject matter that in later years often caused Peto’s paintings to be falsely attributed to Harnett. In , the year Harnett left for Europe, Peto opened the first of a series of Philadelphia studios. For the next seven years, he showed some of his work at the annual exhibitions of the Pennsylvania Academy, and he offered them for sale in the galleries of local dealers. In , at around the time of his marriage to Christine Pearl Smith, Peto began to visit the New Jersey resort town of Island Heights, located near Toms River. Two years later, he built a house containing a large, two-story studio. There he and Christine settled down; their only child, Helen, was born in . Although the family’s basic financial support came from Peto’s cornet playing at Methodist revival meetings, he also sold his paintings at local shops. Many were still lifes including musical instruments along with such com´d objects as pipes, monplace and often cliche mugs, books, candlesticks, inkwells, and letter racks—depicted through a diffused light that has led some critics to label him the “American Vermeer.’’ Peto’s light effects, also related to American nineteenth-century luminism, can clearly be seen in many of his finest works of the s and s, including The Writer’s Table: A Precarious Moment (c. s, private collection). Kitchen utensils, nuts, and other foods and candies were also typical subjects. Often he incorporated portraits, including Abraham Lincoln’s, undoubtedly an allusion to his assassination, as in Reminiscences of  (, Wadsworth Athenaeum). Fine examples of Peto’s work can be found in New Jersey collections, among them Wine Bottle, Raisins, and Box (, Newark Museum). In his early fifties, Peto developed Bright’s disease, which caused his death on November , , at the age of fifty-three. Today, in addition to several New Jersey museums, his paintings can be found in numerous private and public collections. In  the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. and the Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth jointly organized a major traveling exhibition of his work.

MAJOR PHARMACEUTICAL & MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY CORPORATIONS

SUSSEX PASSAIC BERGEN WARREN MORRIS

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

pharmaceutical industry.

Pharmaceutical research, development, and production is New Jersey’s largest manufacturing industry. The state’s chemical plants and

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MIDDLESEX MERCER MONMOUTH

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Frankenstein, Alfred. After the Hunt: William Harnett and Other American Still Life Painters, –. Rev. ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, . Wilmerding, John. Important Information Inside: The Art of John F. Peto and the Idea of Still-Life Painting in Nineteenth-Century America. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art, .

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Source: Karen Reeds' "A State of Health" © Rutgers, The State University of NJ

farmlands, which provided the raw materials for pharmaceutical manufacturing, brought the first companies to New Jersey in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The new industry also benefited from the ready access to all forms of domestic and international transportation and the investment potential of the nearby Wall Street financial center. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, over one-third of all drugs sold in the world were

products of New Jersey–based pharmaceutical firms. Modern pharmaceutical manufacturing was established during the Progressive Era, about –, when new machinery enabled drug companies to ensure the timely delivery of large orders, and scientific ideals encouraged the drug companies to employ medical professionals and rigorous laboratory methods. The first important national

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legislation regulating the pharmaceutical industry had its origins in a  outbreak of tetanus in Camden, which was linked to a batch of smallpox vaccine that had been produced elsewhere. An official report exonerated the vaccine, but the incident led Congress to pass the  Biological Controls Act, specifying that drug manufacturing facilities must be licensed and inspected, and that each package of vaccine must have a label and date. New Jersey has long held its laboratories to high standards, including respect for animal rights. New Jersey has had legislation proscribing cruelty to animals since , and in  enacted an amendment requiring researchers to apply for special permits to use animals. Working at the Merck Institute in Rahway during the s, pharmacologist Hans Molitor instituted a policy of using dogs and cats as little as possible, and set a precedent of decreasing the number of investigations requiring the sacrifice of animals. New Jersey laboratories expanded their research and development programs when World War I broke out, ending the importation of drugs from Germany and the United States’ reliance on German innovation. After the war German and Swiss drug companies established plants in New Jersey, and the concentration of scientists and facilities set the stage for major breakthroughs. In , Theodore Zucker of Columbia University developed the process of extracting vitamin D from cod liver oil. He turned to Nopco Chemical Company in Harrison to produce a vitamin D concentrate that would prevent rickets, a deficiency disease resulting in malformed bones. New Jersey quickly became the nation’s largest producer of vitamin D. Synthesis, the production of a substance by combining simple chemical compounds or by breaking down more complex compounds, is important to the large-scale production of affordable vitamins. Thiamine (vitamin B) was extracted from rice bran in , but a ton of rice was needed to produce one-sixth of an ounce of thiamine. Thiamine is necessary to prevent beri-beri, a deficiency disease that causes substantial infant mortality in developing countries. In , Robert Williams of Roselle made pure thiamine at Columbia University. Working with the scientists at Merck, Williams synthesized thiamine in . A number of major New Jersey pharmaceutical concerns have prospered due to their production of bulk vitamins. Hoffman– La Roche made synthetic riboflavin (vitamin B) in . American Cyanamid Company at Bound Brook developed folic acid, a B-complex vitamin important to preventing neural-tube defects in unborn children. New Jersey has also become a leader in the distribution of over-the-counter high-potency vitamins. Sulfa drugs became an important weapon against infection in the s. In  American Cyanamid made the country’s first commercial sulfa drug, sulfanilamide, the

parent compound of most sulfa drugs. In  the New Jersey pharmaceutical companies American Cyanamid, Ciba Pharmaceutical Company of Summit, Merck, Squibb, and Maltbie introduced sulfathiazole powder, and soon supplied large quantities for the armed forces in World War II. New Jersey was also a leader in the research and manufacture of antibiotics. Working under a fellowship from Merck, Selman Waksman first isolated streptomycin in a Rutgers University laboratory in . Merck began commercial production of streptomycin in Rahway in  and in  streptomycin was recognized as effective against the tuberculosis bacterium. Waksman won the Nobel Prize in  and is honored by the Waksman Institute at Rutgers University. Discovered in the United Kingdom in , penicillin was developed into a therapeutic agent in , but an enormous supply was required to meet the needs of World War II casualties. United States pharmaceutical companies were mass-producing penicillin by , and in  Squibb opened the largest penicillin-producing plant in the world in New Brunswick. New Jersey had an important role in the development of synthetic hormones. Cortisone, isolated in , was first synthesized by Merck in , and went into production by Merck and Schering-Plough in . In  the Food and Drug Administration approved an oral drug regimen that combined estrogen and progesterone to suppress ovulation— the birth control pill. Ortho-McNeil of Raritan subsequently introduced an oral contraceptive using lower levels of hormones, and now develops and manufactures a broad range of products for women, including nine brands of oral contraceptives. In the latter part of the century, psychotropic drugs freed many people from intractable emotional distress. Working with Hoffman–La Roche, Leo Sternbach developed two important tranquilizers: Librium (chlordiazepoxide), released in , and Valium (diazepam), released in . Advances in biotechnology revolutionized the pharmaceutical industry by providing a source for new active ingredients. The active ingredients of many pharmaceuticals are derived from plants or animals. Premarin, a conjugated estrogen product refined from the urine of pregnant mares, was by the late s one of the most prescribed drugs in the United States. Other active ingredients can be synthesized from chemicals; sulfa drugs are coal-tar derivatives. In  the discovery of the structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic information) paved the way for the biotechnology industry. Today there are over  biotechnology firms in New Jersey. Researchers explore ways of inserting genetic material into microorganisms, turning these microorganisms into the producers

of active ingredients. They create structures to permit the targeted delivery of drugs, avoiding unpleasant side effects. Many of New Jersey’s pharmaceutical companies have established alliances with biotechnology firms, underwriting this cutting-edge research. In , pharmaceutical research companies based in New Jersey, employing over fifty thousand people, were responsible for nearly  percent of the new drugs given FDA approval in the United States, and for about  percent of pharmaceutical products pending FDA approval worldwide. New Jersey companies, according to the New Jersey Technology Council, were the recipients of  percent of all monies given by the federal government, and  percent of all monies from the private sector, for research and development. The state’s high population of scientists and engineers, its proximity to major urban centers, and a semi-rural environment suitable for the development of industrial campuses, are among the factors that have led more global pharmaceutical companies to make their headquarters in New Jersey than in any other state in the nation, or in any other country in the world. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Swann, John P. Academic Scientists and the Pharmaceutical Industry: Cooperative Research in TwentiethCentury America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

Pamela Cooper and Shane Schaffer

Phelps, William Walter

(b. Aug. ,

; d. June , ). U.S. congressman, am-

bassador, and judge. William Walter Phelps was arguably Bergen County’s wealthiest, most famous, and most influential citizen of the nineteenth century. He gave up a successful law practice in New York City and moved, in , to his “Englewood Farm,’’ the name he gave his home in Teaneck (then part of Englewood). There he turned his energy to politics and property, and he was outstandingly successful at both. A nearly fatal bout with typhoid fever he contracted during his first term in Congress (–) caused him to decline numerous opportunities for higher office, including an offer to become a New Jersey senator. His name was offered as a candidate for vice president at the Republican Convention of . In addition to serving three more terms in Congress (–), Phelps was ambassador to Austria (–) and Germany (–), and a judge of the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (–). In Teaneck, he expanded an old farmhouse into a sprawling mansion over three hundred feet long. At the same time, he acquired the land around it until eventually it encompassed over four thousand acres stretching from the Hackensack River to the Hudson River, including much of today’s Teaneck and a good part of Englewood. By his own estimation, he planted over six hundred thousand trees on his

Phoebe Snow property, which included over thirty-seven miles of roads and seven stone gatehouses. Herrick, Hugh M., comp. William Walter Phelps: His Life and Public Services. New York: Knickerbocker Press, . Taylor, Mildred K. The History of Teaneck. Teaneck: Teaneck American Revolution Bicentennial Committee, .

Robert D. Griffin

Philbrook, Mary

(b. Aug. , ; d. Sept.

, ).

Lawyer and suffragist. New Jersey’s first woman to be admitted to the bar, Mary Philbrook read law in two Hoboken law offices. In New Jersey, no woman had ever sought admission to the bar, and for this lack of precedent, the state supreme court in  refused her petition to become a member. Supported by the membership of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association, Philbrook lobbied the legislature for a law (passed in ) enabling women to become lawyers. She was admitted to the bar in June . As a new lawyer in Jersey City, Philbrook served as counsel for the Legal Aid Society and as lecturer for woman suffrage in organizations such as the Jersey City Women’s Club, thus drawing support from middle-class, reform-minded women. In  Philbrook moved her practice to Newark, where she organized the first statewide Legal Aid Association. As the first female probation officer in Essex County, she organized the

juvenile court system in Newark and served on the commission that helped establish the New Jersey Reformatory for Women. As an undercover agent for the U.S. Immigration Committee, she traveled across the country gathering evidence about “white slavery’’ (the importation of foreign women for prostitution) and prepared the report (submitted to Congress in ) that resulted in the passage of the Mann Act. The first state constitution of  permitted women in New Jersey to vote. Philbrook used this to argue for women’s right to suffrage, but the courts ruled against her— though her brief attracted attention from constitutional experts throughout the country. After World War I service in France as a Red Cross lawyer, Philbrook helped Mabel Boardman of the Red Cross assemble her memoirs. She was active in the National Women’s Party demonstrations for woman suffrage in Washington, D.C. When she returned to New Jersey after suffrage was won (), her work against discrimination in working conditions cost her the position of counsel for Newark, and Philbrook joined Alice Paul in promoting the historical and international aspects of the equal rights movement. She helped to organize the New Jersey chapter of the Women’s Archives. During the  New Jersey Constitutional Convention, Philbrook (then seventyfive years old) organized a coalition that lobbied for an equal rights provision. Philbrook’s coalition was able to secure changes in the document’s language (for example, “person’’ for “he’’) that were cited in  by the New Jersey Supreme Court as grounds to rule sex discrimination constitutionally prohibited. Petrick, Barbara. Mary Philbrook: The Radical Feminist in New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also woman suffrage

New Jersey. He authored thirty-five publications on archaeology and local history. Launer, Philip J., and James L. Clark, Jr. “Charles Alpaugh Philhower.’’ Archaeological Society of New Jersey Newsletter  (): –. Mounier, R. Alan. Looking beneath the Surface: The Story of Archaeology in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Indians

Richard F. Veit

Phillipsburg.

.-square-mile town in Warren County. Phillipsburg was organized as a township in , incorporated in , and in  the town annexed a portion of Lopatcong Township. It is situated on the site of the Lenape Indian village of Chintewink and gets its name either from Chief Philip or from the  family of settlers named Phillip. Ideally located on the banks of the Delaware River, it was, and is, a prime terminus for transportation and a natural center for related industries and commerce. It was the end of the line for the old Morris Canal and the Morris Turnpike during the nineteenth century. During the height of the railroad era, five major lines crossed paths in Phillipsburg’s rail yards. Today, two major highways, Routes  and , converge here before crossing into Pennsylvania. In  the town was chosen as the site of the New Jersey Railroad and Transportation Heritage Center with the hope of reviving its former prosperity and prestige. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Know Your Town: Phillipsburg. Phillipsburg: League of Women Voters, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Barbara Petrick

Philhower, Charles Alpaugh (b. July , ; d. Jan. , ). Educator and archae-

Mary Philbrook.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

ologist. Charles Alpaugh Philhower, the son of Peter Philhower and Fanny Schuyler, was born in Mountainville, in Hunterdon County. As a youth, he began collecting American Indian artifacts. Trained as a teacher, he attended Trenton State College, received his B.A. and M.A. from Dickinson College, and a second M.A. in education from Columbia University. In October  he married Edna Haynes of Hopewell. Philhower served as superintendent of schools in Westfield from  until his retirement in . For much of the midtwentieth century he was the leading authority on New Jersey’s Native American heritage. He carried out important excavations on the late prehistoric Bell-Philhower site, in Sussex County. Philhower was also instrumental in the founding of the Archaeological Society of

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Phoebe Snow.

Phoebe Snow was the pristine woman in an early twentieth-century Lackawanna Railroad advertising campaign “whose gown stays white, from morn to night, upon the Road of Anthracite.’’ Although most steam trains of the era were powered by soft coal, which produced smoke, soot, and cinders, the Lackawanna, for economic reasons, used hard coal (anthracite). The cleanliness promotion was inspired by a note sent to the railroad in  by Mark Twain from Elmira, New York: “Left New York on Lackawanna Railroad this A.M. in white duck suit, and it’s white yet.’’ The successful campaign, employing a series of jingles next to a photograph of Phoebe Snow (brought to life by a New York model, Marion E. Murray), prompted an  percent passenger increase between  and . The familiar Snow logo, which adorned trains on the New York (Hoboken, actually)

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to Buffalo run was resurrected in  to promote the luxury appointments of the new Lackawanna Limited. The Lackawanna Railroad went out of business in October . Taber, Thomas Townsend, III. The Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad in the Twentieth Century, –.  vols. Muncy, PA: T. T. Taber III, –.

See also railroads

Fran Wood

Phoenix House.

This well-preserved, early nineteenth-century, two-and-one-halfstory tavern in Mendham was built in the Federal style with a gambrel roof and brick laid in a Flemish bond. A double porch was added sometime after , when William Phoenix purchased the property. The Phoenix House is one of eight key buildings in the Mendham Historic District and is listed on both the New Jersey and the National Register of Historic Places. It has served as Mendham’s borough hall since . The Phoenix House Garden, located on the west side of the building, is maintained by the Mendham Garden Club.

Bassett, William B., comp. Historic American Buildings Survey of New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Marlene Craig

photography. The Frenchman Louis J. M. Daguerre and the Englishman William Henry Fox Talbot introduced photography to the public in . By that fall, there were experimenters in the United States, including inventor and machinist Seth Boyden, Jr., of Newark. Boyden was among the first Americans to try the daguerreotype process. Moreover, he built a one-of-a-kind daguerreotype camera, which incorporated a mirror to reverse the image. Another pioneer was inventor Joseph Dixon. Born in  in Marblehead, Massachusetts, Dixon spent much of his life in Jersey City, where he died in . In , he made one of the first daguerreotype portraits, of his wife. Unlike Boyden, whose attention turned away from photography, Dixon continued to be active in the field. His most significant invention was photolithography. In , with William Campbell, he managed the Photographic and Fine Art Journal, one of the most important photography serials of the era. Among other early amateurs, in about , Joseph Henry, professor of natural philosophy at Princeton University, occasionally working with New York daguerreotypist George W. Prosch, used daguerreotype plates (without a camera) for research on electrical induction and magnetism. Another member of the Prosch family and the first known female photographer in New Jersey was Charlotte Prosch (later Mrs. Moses Day), who had a daguerreotype studio at  Broad Street, Newark, from  to . In addition to having the largest number of photography studios of any New

Jersey city, nineteenth-century Newark also manufactured daguerreotype and tintype plates (s–s) and gelatin dry plates (s–s). In , , professional photographers were recorded in the U.S. Census. But New Jersey, as a largely agricultural state, had relatively few (), compared to New York (,). In the late nineteenth century, the number of photographers rapidly increased as a result of emigration from Europe. By , about three thousand different professional photographers had worked in New Jersey, most for only a few years or less. In that year, of  male photographers in New Jersey,  were of German origin; only two were African Americans. By , there were , professional photographers in New Jersey, including  women. With more convenient technology, amateur photography spread rapidly after . Serious amateurs in New Jersey, as elsewhere, joined local camera clubs and participated in print competitions. Among the first such organizations were the Camerads (New Brunswick, established ), the Newark Camera Club (), the Orange Camera Club (), the Essex Camera Club (), and the Elysian Camera Club (Hoboken, ). The Newark Camera Club, the largest, had over two hundred members by . Pictorialists, the most dedicated (and often wealthy) amateurs, inspired by Alfred Stieglitz, made exquisitely crafted prints, often on handmade papers using manipulative printing processes that afforded the artist maximum control. Leading pictorialists sent their photographs to international juried salons held all over the world, including one in Princeton, in –. Of approximately two thousand active salon exhibitors worldwide, two from Upper Montclair were particularly active: H. Richardson Cremer participated in more than one hundred salons between  and , while Grace M. Ballentine was ranked eighth in the world in acceptances (, prints) for the period – . Although some professionals joined camera clubs, others joined the Professional Photographers’ Association of New Jersey, established in . But the heyday of the studios ended with World War I, as families increasingly were satisfied with their own snapshots. Although professional portrait photography continued, photographers increasingly made a living photographing social occasions (especially weddings) and school classes; others specialized in news, documentary, industrial, scientific, or advertising photography. Prominent mid-twentieth-century professionals who lived in New Jersey included Margaret Bourke-White (Bound Brook), Dorothea Lange (Hoboken), and Sol Libsohn (Roosevelt). After , photography was widely practiced as an art form by photographers trained in community college and university classes.

For example, between  and  at Mercer County Community College, thousands of students studied under William E. Barksdale, the respected founder of that college’s photography program. Another widely respected photographer and teacher is Emmet Gowin of Princeton University. “New Jersey Photography,’’ the first statewide, open photography competition, resulted in a catalog and an exhibition, held at Rutgers University Art Gallery (later the Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum) in . It was judged by photohistorian Peter C. Bunnell of Princeton University. Two internationally renowned New Jersey artists, Naomi Savage and George Tice, were among the exhibitors. Subsequently, contemporary photography began to be exhibited more regularly at Ellarslie (the City Museum of Trenton), the Newark Museum, the New Jersey State Museum, college and university galleries, and many other venues. Leading New Jersey photographers were represented in the Trenton Artists Workshop Association exhibition, “TAWA in the U.S.S.R.,’’ at the Soviet Artists Gallery, Moscow, August , as part of the first international exchange of artists and exhibitions between New Jersey and a foreign country. Jenkins, Reese V. Images and Enterprise. Technology and the American Photographic Industry,  to . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Taft, Robert. Photography and the American Scene: A Social History, –. New York: Dover, . Welling, William. Photography in America: The Formative Years, –. A Documentary History. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, .

Gary D. Saretzky

phragmites.

Phragmites australis is a reed grass, common in marshes and wet spots, including roadsides, in fresh or in brackish water. It may grow to fourteen feet and is distinguished in summer by feathery, reddish brown inflorescences. Extensive, dense stands occur in the Hackensack Meadowlands, Fishing Creek Marsh, Cape May Meadows, and elsewhere. Phragmites has a broad geographical distribution, and although sometimes considered a nonnative, fragments have been discovered in ,-year-old peat samples from Connecticut tidal marshes. Not only did Native Americans use the starch-rich rhizomes and seeds for flour, but more importantly they used leaves for thatching, mats, and nets. The hollow stems were used for arrow shafts and fishing rods. Germination rates are often low; growth is primarily from rhizomes, which can be more than thirty feet long. Rhizomes can help with flood control and soil stabilization along the banks of streams and rivers; but because of its aggressive growth, phragmites is considered an undesirable species. Along the Delaware River, a PSE&G restoration project has replaced more than five thousand acres with

Picatinny Arsenal

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(b. ; d. Aug. , ).

ANB. McClelland, Nancy. Duncan Phyfe and the English Regency, –. . Reprint. New York: Dover, .

See also furniture making

Jan Kelsey

Physick Estate.

See Emlen Physick

Estate.

physiography. New Jersey may be divided into four major physiographic provinces. These are identified by their possession of a similar geological history and recognizably different physical landscape features and soil formation. Farthest to the northwest lies the Ridge and Valley Province, which comprises  square miles, or about one-twelfth of the area of the state. Notable landscape features are the Minisink Valley bordering the Delaware River, the Kittatinny Ridge (highest in New Jersey, averaging , to , feet above sea level), and the broad Kittatinny Valley. Valley surfaces lie as much as  feet below the crest of the ridge. The Delaware River has cut through the Kittatinny Ridge to form the spectacular Delaware Water Gap, location of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. South and east of the Ridge and Valley Province lies the New Jersey Highlands, known more broadly as the Reading Prong of the New England Upland,

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Cabinetmaker. Duncan Phyfe was born in Loch Fannich near Inverness, Scotland. The family name was spelled Fife, but Duncan changed the spelling sometime before . He immigrated to America in  with his family, settling in Albany, New York, where he was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker and eventually opened his own shop. In  Phyfe moved to New York City, establishing his shop first on Broad Street and, by , on Partition (now Fulton) Street. In  he married Rachel Lowzada; they had seven children. Phyfe was known as the leading furniture maker in New York. Working in fashionable European styles such as Sheraton, Regency, and Directoire, he became a major proponent of neoclassical style in America. His customers were the most prominent citizens of the day, including John Jacob Astor and William Livingston, the governor of New Jersey. In his later years Phyfe spent much time in New Market, New Jersey, at the home of his daughter Eliza and her husband, William Vail, which he had furnished.

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Phyfe, Duncan

Coastal Plain and an Outer Coastal Plain. Both consist of relatively loose sedimentary materials. The Inner Coastal Plain, facing Raritan Bay and the Delaware River, has been eroded down to older sediments rich in finer soil-building materials, such as silts and clays, and is thus generally quite fertile. The Outer Coastal Plain consists of more recent deposits, richin sand and thus much poorer, in general, for agriculture. More than half the coastal plain lies below  feet in elevation, but a considerable area in the central portion lies at more than  feet above sea level. This general area has traditionally been called the “Pine Barrens,’’ and is now included within the Pinelands National Reserve. The coastal plain faces the Atlantic with a series of barrier islands and lagoons, which are widely used for recreational purposes.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS D G LL E & EY

more desirable vegetation. Although phragmites is considered of low value for wildlife, nevertheless, it is used in New Jersey by a variety of nesting birds and by reptiles, amphibians, and insects. A large black bear has been observed to use a Warren County phragmites stand for a winter den.

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Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also ecology

Peter O. Wacker

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an extension of the ancient rocks of New England across northern New Jersey. Highest elevations here range from almost , feet in the northeast to just below , feet along the Delaware. There are several long, narrow valleys which stand at from about  to about  feet above sea level. The largest of these is the Musconetcong Valley, with a river of the same name issuing from New Jersey’s largest lake, Lake Hopatcong. The Highlands comprise about  square miles, or one-eighth of the area of New Jersey. Bordering the Highlands to the south is the physiographic division called the Piedmont in New Jersey, but more widely known as the Triassic Lowland. This is a gently rolling southeastward sloping lowland with most elevations at about  to  feet above sea level. Higher elevations, up to almost  feet above sea level, are composed of very hard rock of volcanic origin. Prominent landscape features include the Watchung Ridges of the north central part of the Piedmont and the Palisades, facing Manhattan Island. The Piedmont is drained by the Raritan, Passaic, and Hackensack rivers. The upper Passaic watershed, located between the Highlands and the Watchungs, harbored a large glacial lake (Lake Passaic), which resulted in subsequent poor drainage. A number of swamps still exist in the area, including the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. The Piedmont occupies one-fifth of the state, about , square miles. New Jersey’s largest physiographic province is that of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. This comprises about , square miles, or about three-fifths of the entire state. It can most simply be divided into an Inner

Picatinny Arsenal. The ,-acre U.S. Army installation in Morris County originally opened in  as the Dover Powder Depot. It was quickly renamed Piccatiny [sic] Powder Depot, after a local peak, and became the United States Powder Depot in . In , with establishment of a smokeless powder factory, the installation was renamed Picatinny Arsenal. Research and development were undertaken there on explosives in  and on fuses in . An explosion at the adjoining Lake Denmark Naval Ammunition Depot in  leveled the arsenal, but it was rebuilt before World War II and conducted extensive research and development and manufacturing of large-caliber ammunition, explosives, propellants, grenades, and mines. The arsenal also supervised the start of munitions manufacturing at private plants during the war.

Rocket fuses assembly line, Picatinny Arsenal, September .

Courtesy U.S. Army.

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Later developments included an improved bazooka rocket for the Korean War,  mm ammunition for grenade launchers and the Claymore mine for the Vietnam War, and tank gun ammunition, demolition devices, and the Patriot warhead for the Gulf War. After manufacturing ceased there in , the facility took over research and development of all U.S. Army armament and munitions. It has since used the name of its main organization, Armament Research and Development Command (ARRADCOM), from  to , Armament Research and Development Center (ARDC) from  to , and Armament Research, Development, and Engineering Center (ARDEC) from  to the present. “Picatinny Arsenal.’’ In Encyclopedia of Explosives and Related Items. Vol. . Dover: U.S. Army Armament Research and Development Command, .

Patrick J. Owens

Piedmont. The word piedmont literally means “foot of the mountain.’’ The Piedmont region in New Jersey is part of the larger Appalachian Piedmont belt that extends from the Hudson River to central Alabama between the Appalachian Mountains and Atlantic coastal plains. In New Jersey the Piedmont region runs northeast to southwest between the Hudson and Delaware rivers. The region is twenty miles wide. The southeastern boundary is a straight line joining Newark, New Brunswick, and Trenton. The northwestern limit is the base of the Ramapo Mountains, a line joining Suffern, Morristown, and Milford in Hunterdon County. The Piedmont region covers one-fifth of the state, and it is highly urbanized and densely settled. Piedmont, in general, consists of crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks, but the New Jersey Piedmont coincides with the Newark Basin, which consists of red sedimentary sandstone and shale. The sediments for these rocks were deposited during the Triassic-Jurassic period  to  million years ago. Igneous activity, the eruption of magma on the surface or its cooling below the surface, formed the Watchung,

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Kelland, Frank S., and Marylin C. Kelland. New Jersey, Garden or Suburb?: A Geography of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, .

See also fall line; geography; geology; physiography

Harbans Singh

Pierce case. In , four children of the Rev. Jeremiah A. Pierce, pastor of the Bethlehem African Methodist Episcopal Church in Burlington, were assigned to the city’s school reserved for black students. Pierce thereupon sued the trustees of the Burlington public schools, claiming their action violated an  law that prohibited forcing a student to attend a particular public school because of the student’s religion, nationality, or color. The New Jersey Supreme Court in  ruled in Pierce’s favor. The practice of segregated schooling continued, however, because the  law did not prevent local school officials from offering segregated racial facilities that might be voluntarily accepted by black parents. The state constitution of  outlawed segregated education and thus ended this practice. Price, Clement Alexander. Freedom Not Far Distant: A Documentary History of Afro-Americans in New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also discrimination; “thorough and efficient’’ clause

Giles R. Wright

pigeon. The “rock dove’’or pigeon (Columba livia) has been widely introduced around the world since its domestication about  ... In New Jersey it is one of the most abundant and obvious birds, found from factory roofs to farmlands. This social species usually lives in flocks of several dozen birds that have notable individual variation in plumage patterns and color. (The ancestral form is blue-gray, with an iridescent head and neck and a white rump.) Pigeons have several broods annually, with two eggs per clutch. The adults feed the young a nutrient-rich regurgitate known as “pigeon’s milk.’’ Leck, Charles F. The Status and Distribution of New Jersey’s Birds. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

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Walsh, Joan, Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

See also birds

Charles F. Leck

Pilesgrove. .-square-mile township in Salem County. Pilesgrove was first settled in the s by Thomas Pile, a Quaker, from whom the township takes its name. From the time of its settlement, the township has been

primarily agricultural, and remains so today. In the early s, the problem of soil depletion caused westward migration by some families in Salem County. This problem was alleviated by recognition of the existence of marl, a natural fertilizer. The earliest settlements included Woodstown, which is now separate from the township, and Sharptown. Several eighteenth-century homes survive and include the Seven Stars Tavern, built in  by Peter and Elizabeth Lauterback, which is located on the Old King’s Highway. That seventeenth-century road links Salem and Burlington, the first two English settlements on the Delaware River. Located along Route  are the landmark Richman’s Ice Cream at Sharptown, the Salem County Fairgrounds, and Cowtown, home of a large flea market and a rodeo. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Almanac and Year Book, –. Reprint. Salem: John Fenwick Colony Tercentenary Committee, . Brooks, Robert A. “Pilesgrove Township.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (Sept. ): –. Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Patricia W. Blakely

Pillar of Fire Church. Founded by Alma White in  as the Pentecostal Union in Denver, the church branches were soon known as the Pillar of Fire. White moved the headquarters to New Jersey in  and established Zarephath. Workers lived in branches, devoting all their time to working for the Pillar of Fire, either by selling White’s books and magazines door-to-door or engaging in other evangelistic work. The church established numerous schools, including the recently renamed Somerset Christian College, which has been accredited as a Bible college. Currently, the church owns three radio stations and operates branches in the United States, England, and Africa (Liberia, Nigeria and Malawi). Theologically, the church is a part of the Wesleyan/Holiness movement, which promotes sanctification, or holiness, a doctrine they adapted from John Wesley. White’s husband, who left the Pillar of Fire and his wife in , attempted to take over the Church in . She preempted his claim that he was due one-half of the Church’s assets by charging him with desertion in divorce court. The case was thrown out, but she had made her point, and the Church remained under her control. The Church achieved a milestone in  when it formalized its structure by adopting a church discipline written by White’s son Ray. White was also consecrated bishop, making the Pillar of Fire the first church in the

Pine Barrens treefrog United States to select a woman bishop. When she died, her other son, Charles, took over leadership. The current president is Robert Dallenbach. Stanley, Susie Cunningham. Feminist Pillar of Fire: The Life of Alma White. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, . White, Alma. The Story of My Life and the Pillar of Fire.  vols. Zarephath: Pillar of Fire, –.

See also religion; White, Alma; Zarephath

Susie C. Stanley

Pine, James (b. c. ; d. c. ) and Theodore E. Pine (b. ; d. June , ). Painters. James Pine began his career as a portrait painter in New York around . He frequently exhibited works at the National Academy. From  to  he lived in Newark, and then returned to New York, eventually settling in Ossining. During the s he was assisted by his son Theodore E. Pine, also a portrait painter, who lived in Newark during the late s and early s. In  Theodore went to Europe to study. Upon his return he lived and worked in various locations including New York; Chicago; St. Louis; Asheville, North Carolina; and Manitou, Colorado. He died in Ogdensburg, New York. Falk, Peter Hastings, ed. Who Was Who in American Art, –: Four Hundred Years of Artists in America. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, . New-York Historical Society. Catalogue of American Portraits in the New York Historical Society. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Pine Barrens.

Covering one-fifth of the area of New Jersey, the Pine Barrens are a vast wilderness of pitch pine/oak forests growing on sandy soil, interrupted by white cedar swamps and slow-moving rivers of tea-colored water. Never glaciated, the deep Cohansey sands that define this area were deposited in the sea between  and  million years ago. Later deposits include the more gravelly Beacon Hill formation in the central part of the region. During the Pleistocene Epoch, rivers and wind reworked the sands to create the current undulating topography. During the Wisconsinan glaciation, lowered sea level exposed the Atlantic shoreline for tens of miles east of its present position. This provided a migration corridor for many species from the south as the climate warmed , to , years ago. As the climate warmed yet further and sea level rose, many species were isolated here, contributing to the unique flora of the area. Several very large aquifers underlie the Pine Barrens, the uppermost of which is in the Cohansey sands. The top of this water table is generally within a yard or so of the ground surface, so that a slight change in relief produces an abrupt shift from overly dry soils to saturated ones which support wooded fens,

open marshes, and savannas. Some speciesrich ponds dry seasonally as the water table lowers during the summer. Because the sandy soil holds very little water, any lowering of the water table by drought or export causes very dry conditions at the surface. Soils in the Pine Barrens are acid (pH about .–) and of low fertility. The typical soil profile includes a .- to .-inch-deep humus layer over a much deeper leached, gray horizon. Below this there is a zone of accumulation of iron and humus and, finally, the local sand. This soil type is more typical of lands farther north, but is developed here because of the especially acid and low-nutrient quartz sands of the parent material. Where the water table is perennially close to the surface, the lower layers are mottled gray and orange (gleied). Dry soils and fire-prone vegetation contribute to a very high likelihood of fires in the Pine Barrens. Fires have raged through these forests for millennia. In the last two centuries, people have been the major sources of ignition, either directly or indirectly. For example, sparks from locomotives started many fires in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The fires have often been very large and hot. More recently, modern techniques have enabled firefighters to extinguish more fires, so that most are small. In addition, the New Jersey Forest Service regularly burns some areas of the pine forests to reduce fuel load and to eliminate hardwood competition with pines. These light surface fires do not, however, sustain the plants that rely on large, crown fires that burn not only whole forests, but also may even burn into highly organic swamp soils under drought conditions. Such large fires stimulate flowering in many rare species and maintain the characteristic ecosystems of the Pine Barrens. The suppression of fire has allowed plants that are killed by fires to flourish in the Pine Barrens, possibly leading to a change in the vegetation away from the characteristic fire-adapted species. These factors—very sandy soil, minimum relief, glacial migration history, high water table, and frequent fires—have led to unique ecosystems and flora and fauna. Pine (most commonly pitch or short leaf pine) and oak trees dominate the upland forests, while white cedar, swamp hardwood (red maple, black gum and sweetbay magnolia) and lowland pitch pine forests dominate most of the wetlands. Insectivorous plants such as sundews and pitcher plants are common. Along some rivers there are open pine savannas which support large numbers of rare species. Globally rare ecosystems include the dwarf pine plains, with pitch pines and scrub oaks that only grow to shoulder height. There is a high proportion of rare species, species found only here (endemics—e.g., Pickering’s morning glory and sand myrtle), species with their closest relatives hundreds of miles away (e.g., curly grass fern and Pine Barrens tree frog), and species at the northern and southern

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edges of their ranges. Many of these species are restricted to open habitats, which may be lost in the absence of fires and other natural disturbances. There is ample evidence that the native Americans used this landscape for hunting and fishing. The earliest European settlers recognized that it would not yield fertile farms, but they found iron deposits in the sands near the rivers and sufficient wood to make into charcoal to produce iron. People also cut pine trees for timber and tapped them for pitch. They mined the sands for glass-making, and the sphagnum peat for sale and to construct cranberry beds. Some of the soils have been cleared for farms, but their low fertility has led to abandonment of most of these. Blueberries and cranberries, however, are abundant here, and provide large cultivated crops. For the first two centuries after European settlement, these woods served solely as a source of products, and there was little value placed on their unique ecological characteristics. Local inhabitants formed a distinct culture based on hunting and gathering in the forests. Plant taxonomists from the earliest explorations, however, valued the rare and unusual flora. In the twentieth century, ecologists also found value in the ecosystem for itself rather than for what it could produce for markets. Interest in the site as a very special ecosystem and recreational area in the midst of the urban sprawl of the northeastern United States grew in the second half of the twentieth century, leading to designation of the region as the Pinelands National Reserve in . This designation allowed continued economic viability for the region as a whole, with much privately owned land, while protecting the critical ecological characteristics and flora and fauna. The United Nations has designated it as an International Biosphere Reserve in recognition of its unique ecology. Boyd, Howard P. A Field Guide to the Pine Barrens of New Jersey: Its Flora, Fauna, Ecology, and Historic Sites. Medford: Plexus, . Forman, Richard T. T., ed. Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McPhee, John. The Pine Barrens. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, .

See also agriculture; forests; land use; Pinelands Commission; sprawl; wetlands

Emily W. B. Russell

Pine Barrens treefrog.

The Pine Barrens treefrog (Hyla andersonii), a striking tropical-like frog, is an acidic water specialist anuran found in New Jersey’s Pinelands. The green, brown, and yellow frog has suction-cup disks on its toes that are specially adapted for climbing shrubs and trees. From May through July, this frog breeds in fish-free ponds, bogs, and shallow water-holding depressions where males, perched hidden in nearby trees and shrubs, call with a nasal kwonk to attract mates. This state endangered species lays

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Pine Beach

egg masses in the shallow bodies of water, where the young tadpoles metamorphose and emerge from ponds as adults. See also amphibians

Eric Stiles

Pine Beach.

.-square-mile borough situated between Route  and the Toms River in Ocean County. Pine Beach seceded from Berkeley Township in . Except for a few small businesses on the highway, it is completely residential. Pine Beach was founded in  as a summer resort. It was long known as Eagles Point for the eagles that nested in the area’s tall trees. Most prominent is the mile-long scenic route on Riverside Drive that connects Pine Beach with Beachwood at one end and Ocean Gate on the other. A landmark that overlooks the river is Buhler Mansion, which predates the borough. William Buhler, a New York businessman, bought the estate in  for use as a summer home. In , Pine Beach was selected as the home for what would become its most prominent institution for six decades, Admiral Farragut Academy. Named for Civil War hero David Farragut, the academy was the nation’s first naval prep school. Thousands of fledgling sailors—including, in later years, women—learned the ropes on sloops and training ships at this “Annapolis of New Jersey,’’ and became a familiar sight walking along Pine Beach’s streets. The academy ceased operations in . The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Horner, Louise, ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

Pine Brook.

One of three sections, with Montville and Towaco, of Montville Township in Morris County. Pine Brook was named after the Pines and the Brook tributaries of the Passaic River and its early inhabitants were Dutch. In the s, Jewish immigrants from Europe such as the Halprins, Konners, Schneiders, and Levitts came as farmers with grants from the Baron de Hirsch Foundation. They established the Pine Brook Jewish Center in , the oldest Jewish congregation in Morris County. Horse-drawn hacks connected Pine Brook residents to the Bloomfield Avenue trolley to Newark and Caldwell. Jewish city residents came in the summer to kosher boarding houses and to the Konner’s Sunrise Hotel. The hotel later became one of Father Divine’s “Heavens’’and then the Hilltop Nursing Home. The synagogue moved north on Changebridge Road to Montville and its former building is now the San-Dol Church.

The nineteenth-century O’Dowd family had a vegetable farm and established a milk route in . The famous O’Dowd’s Ice Cream Bar, Pine Brook Auction, and Kiddyland on Route  East no longer exist. Residential Pine Brook has two of Montville’s elementary schools, Woodmont and Hilldale, and its own volunteer fire department and post office.

THE PINELANDS NATIONAL PRESERVE

Historic Sites of Montville Township: Pinebrook/Lower Montville Section. Montville: Montville Township Historic Preservation Review Committee, n.d. Know Your Town: Montville Township. Montville: League of Women Voters of Montville Township, .

N

Ramer, Alia. “Jewish Farmers of Pine Brook Planted Seeds for Montville Community.’’ New Jersey Jewish News, Aug. , , . Waxberg, Henrietta K. Looking Back to the Sunrise: A History of Pine Brook. N.p., .

See also Montville

Harriet Sepinwall

Pine Hill.

.-square-mile borough in Camden County. Although one of the smallest municipalities by population, Pine Hill is one of the largest by land mass with half of the borough still largely undeveloped. At  feet above sea level, Pine Hill is the highest point in the county and was originally a summer resort for Philadelphians attracted by its clean air and abundance of pine trees. The community has also been known as Mount Ararat and Clementon Heights. Once part of Gloucester Township, it was incorporated in . Bordered by Lindenwold, Clementon, Pine Valley, Berlin, Gloucester, and Winslow townships, Pine Hill was once noted for its ski mountain site on which a golf course is being built. A -acre Boy Scout reservation occupies a large part of the western portion of the borough. The Berlin–Cross Keys Road, a busy northsouth corridor through Camden County, is on the borough’s southerly border. Retail, construction, and service industries provide the main employment. The year  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Gail Greenberg

Pinelands Commission.

The New Jersey Pinelands Commission is an independent state agency charged with the preservation and protection of the Pinelands, a . million-acre natural area, covering portions of seven counties and fifty-six municipalities. The commission is composed of fifteen members: seven appointed by the governor, seven by the counties in the Pinelands, and one by the U.S. secretary of the interior. The Pinelands protection program was officially launched in  with the enactment of Section  of the National Parks and Recreation Act, which designated the Pinelands as America’s first National Reserve. This federal legislation offered financial and technical

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© Rutgers, The State University

resources if the state undertook a comprehensive program to protect and preserve the region’s natural and cultural resources. The New Jersey’s Pinelands Protection Act, promulgated in  by the state of New Jersey, created the Pinelands Commission and established the physical boundary and institutional structure under which the Pinelands protection program operates. The Comprehensive Management Plan (CMP) adopted in  by the Pinelands Commission further delineates its mission and provides a regulatory framework that is the basis of commission efforts, actions, and decision-making. Collins, Beryl Robichaud, and Emily W. B. Russell, eds. Protecting the New Jersey Pinelands: A New Direction in Land-Use Management. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . New Jersey’s Pinelands: Our Country’s First National Reserve. New Lisbon: Pinelands Commission, . Zappella, Robert A. Long-Term Pinelands Monitoring Program: A Proposal Submitted to the National Parks Service. New Lisbon: Pinelands Commission, .

See also land use

Annette Barbaccia

Pine Robbers. During the American Revolution, the Pine Barrens and contiguous coastal areas were used as a refuge and base of operations by Loyalist partisans and others of more opportunistic motivation. The phenomenon initially grew out of the unsuccessful Loyalist counterinsurrections fomented in Monmouth County during . Patriots viewed the Pine Robbers as brutal marauders who were nominally proBritish but plundered friend and foe alike, an

Pineys interpretation perpetuated by later antiquarians and local historians. Although some of the Pine Robbers, most notably Jacob Fagan and Lewis Fenton, seem to bear out that stereotype, closer scrutiny reveals more complex circumstances. Others identified as Pine Robbers, such as William Giberson, Jr., seem to have acted largely as guerrillas. By , gang activity had spread to eastern Burlington and Gloucester counties, and was intimately connected with the furtherance of contraband trade with British-held New York City. The network of illicit trade involved not only gang members but also civilians of all political persuasions. Among the most notable leaders during this phase were Joseph Mulliner and John Bacon. Although it is difficult to discern the motives of individual gang members, what is certain is that their activities destabilized society in the pinelands and adjoining coastal and agricultural areas throughout the war.

developed by George A. Crump, a millionaire hotel owner who cared more for the game than for his business. In  he sold his hotel, moved to the site of the future golf course, and spent over a quarter of a million dollars on its basic layout. The following year he hired H. S. Colt to help design the course and construction began in . Crump died before the course opened in . Pine Valley is probably the only community in the nation surrounded by a fence and consisting of what has been ranked as the greatest golf course in the world. Its , members are all male, and mostly top business executives; women may play only as guests on Sunday afternoon. The year  population of  was  percent white. The median household income according to the  census was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: R. T. Peck, .

Wilson, Donald M. “Pine Valley Golf Club.’’ Business News New Jersey, June , , .

Salter, Edwin. A History of Monmouth and Ocean Counties. Bayonne: E. Gardner and Son, .

Gail Greenberg

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

David J. Fowler

pine snake. Pituophis melanoleucus is a constrictor that lives in the Pine Barrens and is listed as threatened in the state. The population in New Jersey is isolated from other populations farther south in the Carolinas. Pine snakes emerge from their underground, communal hibernacula in April and disperse to foraging areas. Females dig long burrows that can be up to seven feet long, fashioning a nest at the end, nine inches below the sand surface. They lay about nine elliptical, white, leathery eggs that hatch in about two months. Pine snakes eat mice, squirrels, and other small mammals, which they kill by constricting them. They are rarely seen because they hide under logs, leaves, and ground vegetation, and spend time within logs and in subterranean burrows, except when moving to and from hibernacula or searching for mates or nesting sites. They return to traditional hibernacula in late October or early November. Up to thirty-three pine snakes overwinter together in hibernacula that contain an extensive burrow system up to six feet below the sand surface. The New Jersey pine snake has a distinctive, elegant, black-and-white pattern that makes their skins highly prized, a fact that leads to poaching. They require uninterrupted pitch pine forests for foraging, with some open sandy areas for nesting. See also reptiles Joanna Burger

Pine Valley.

.-square-mile borough in lower Camden County. This small community is one of two in the county that is a golf course. Established as a result of the blue laws of the s, which forbade golfing on Sunday, it was

Whitten, Ron. “America’s  Greatest Courses.’’ Golf Digest (May ): .

Pineys.

Golf

Pineys live a rural, isolated, selfsufficient life within the New Jersey Pinelands. With their small numbers and physical separation from the urban environment, the people of the Pinelands have had their identity speculated about, investigated, and dictated by others for many decades. Even within the Pinelands there is contention about who is a Piney and who isn’t. Much of this confusion comes from a long history of negative views creating fear of woodspeople, and outsiders’ initial failure to look closely into the traditions of this folk community. Historians and folklorists have found little or conflicting evidence for the many legends, theories, and histories about who settled the Pinelands. Some speculate that the Pineys are descendants of the Lenape Indians, Tories, and Hessian soldiers from the Revolutionary War, Quakers, pirates, smugglers, or privateers. The lack of birth and marriage records has made it difficult for a precise ancestral history of these people to be written. Pineys kept to themselves, isolated from society. Knowledge of the early Pineys is found in the products they supplied to the outside market. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, industry began to develop within the Pinelands, including iron mills, paper mills, and glass factories. Pineys also fished, hunted, and trapped food. Eventually, industry left the Pinelands and the economy reverted to agriculture and foraging. Plant gathering, and cranberry, blueberry, and huckleberry picking became common activities during the midnineteenth century. As urban areas flourished with an industrial market, the Pinelands remained a rural region, becoming ever more isolated from the city. This widened social distance allowed a particularly negative view of the Pineys to be

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formed by outsiders. Reports of incestuous relationships, illiteracy, and thievery were published in early twentieth-century newspapers. Coupled with their supposed ancestry, the public constructed the ignorant, untrustworthy, and immoral “Piney’’ image. Terms such as “Pine Rat,’’ “Pine Robber,’’ “Piner,’’ “PineHawker,’’ and “Piney’’ have been used to classify this small isolated group of woodspeople living off the land. It was not until the s and the work of folklorists that this negative image began to change. A new respect for the lifestyle of the Pineys fostered sentiment to preserve their culture. This image reversal came in the wake of land developers and suburbanites looking for a place to escape the cities. Now recognized for their surviving traditional customs, work practices, and folklore, the Pineys have begun to take pride in their name; some locals display “Piney Power’’ bumper stickers, hats, and buttons. Experts have found it impossible to say how many Pineys have lived or presently live in the Pinelands because of both their isolated locale and the confusion of who exactly is a Piney. In the past, residents of the Pinelands were negatively stereotyped so few considered themselves Pineys. In the s a folklorist asked where the Pineys were, locals replied “farther South’’ until a point when the reply changed to “north of here.’’ As the population of Burlington, Atlantic, and Ocean counties increased and the Piney stereotype changed, the number of Pineys has increased and decreased simultaneously. With increased population, available land for traditional hunting and gathering has shrunk, thus decreasing the number of traditional Pineys. Yet, the number of people who call the Pinelands their home and take pride in the culture of the area has increased, which in a sense creates more Pineys. Locals of the Pinelands differentiate even further the people that outsiders would consider Pineys. Names like “Mudwallopers’’ (those working in a swampy region), “River Rats’’ (those working on or near a river), “Woodsmen’’ and “Stumpjumpers’’ (loggers who harvest cedar trees), “Baymen’’ (those making a livelihood from the Barnegat Bay), “Bogsmen’’ (those working in cranberry bogs), and “Transplants’’ (newcomers to the Pinelands) illustrate how the relationship with the land affects the person. Present-day Pineys still hunt, gather, farm, trap, and fish throughout the New Jersey Pinelands. Working the cycle of the seasons has kept many of their practices thriving into the twenty-first century. Cohen, David Steven. Folk Legacies Revisited. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Moonsammy, Rita Zorn, David Steven Cohen, and Lorraine E. Williams, eds. Pinelands Folklife. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McPhee, John. The Pine Barrens. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, .

See also folklore; folk music; Jersey Devil

Lora Bottinelli

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Pingry School

Pingry School.

The Pingry School is a K– country day school located on two campuses. The Lower School is in Short Hills and the Middle and Upper Schools are in Martinsville. Since its founding in  by Dr. John F. Pingry, the school has had several distinct locations: Elizabeth (–), Hillside (–), and Martinsville/Short Hills (–present). In , two milestones in the school’s history occurred: it became coeducational and it acquired the Short Hills Country Day School, now the location of the Lower School. The Pingry School is known for its strong liberal arts curriculum, enriched by diverse extracurricular activities, athletics, and its student-initiated honor system, which dates to . The school has approximately one thousand students. See also education

Mimi Peteet

Pinsky, Robert

(b. Oct. , ). Poet. Robert Pinsky was born in Long Branch and raised in a lower-class Orthodox Jewish household. He graduated from Long Branch High School and attended Rutgers University, where he studied with Francis Fergusson and Mason Gross. He went to Stanford University for graduate work in English literature, where he studied with Yvor Winters. His dissertation, “Landor’s Poetry’’ (), became his first published book. Pinsky has often stated that his love for poetry began simply by hearing the way words sounded—such as the train conductor’s cry “Passengers going to Hoboken, change trains at Summit.’’ His love of jazz has been another important influence on his verse, and he plays tenor saxophone. Pinsky’s first book of poems, Sadness and Happiness (), was widely praised, and his later work, The Figured Wheel: New and Collected Poems (), was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize. His characteristic style is a contemplative mode that deals with the moral character of contemporary America. Jersey Rain () appears to mark a new, more lyrical stage in his career. Pinsky is also an important poetry critic, who combines solid academic training and a poet’s insight in the volumes The Situation of Poetry () and Poetry and the World (). His  translation of Dante’s Inferno was a critical and popular success. Pinsky became one of America’s bestknown poets during his unprecedented three terms as United States poet laureate (–). He created the Favorite Poem Project—in which , ordinary Americans recited their favorite poems on audiotape or videotape. An unabashed populist despite his academic credentials, Pinsky traveled about the country advocating for poetry—once even creating a poem from a Magnetic Poetry kit on a morning television program. Pinsky’s popularity beyond the small community of committed readers of poetry has a good deal to do with his strongly moral poetry. In

an interview with Ernest Suraez he stated: “Introspection is an important part of a work of art for me. But my next ambition as an artist was to look around me and to try and think what things seemed important and manifest in my life and the lives of other people who had not yet made their way into poems.’’ Though he left New Jersey after his days at Rutgers, Pinsky has a strong identification with the state—especially for the poor and working-class communities. In his poem “Jersey Rain,’’ he talks of it as “my rain, in streams and beads / of indissoluble grudge and aspiration: Original milk, replenished of grief, / Descending destroyer, arrowed source of passion, / Silver and black, executioner, source of life.’’ He shares the common love/hate motif of many Jersey-born artists, ranging from the poet William Carlos Williams to the filmmaker Kevin Smith. A winner of numerous major awards, Pinsky is currently a professor in the English department of Boston University.

homes dating from the eighteenth century still dot the landscape and nine of the fourteen existing historic homes in the River Road area, including the oldest home (circa ) in the county, constitute the township’s Historic District. The Metlar-Bodine House Museum, the Cornelius Low House/Middlesex County Museum, and East Jersey Olde Towne, a restored village of eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury buildings, all offer an array of activities. UMDNJ–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and  buildings on the Busch and Livingston campuses of Rutgers University are in Piscataway and a number of large corporations have facilities in the town, including Pharmacio, Telcordia, AT&T, Chanel, and ColgatePalmolive. The population in  of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hawkins, Peter S., and Rachel Jacoff, eds. The Poet’s Dante. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, .

Meuly, Walter C. History of Piscataway Township, –. Somerville: Somerset Press, .

Lerner, Michael, ed. Best Contemporary Jewish Writing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, . Shatzky, Joel, Michael Taub, and Emmanuel S. Nelson. Contemporary Jewish-American Dramatists and Poets: A Bio-Critical Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also poetry

Joel Lewis

piping plover. Charadrius melodus is a federally endangered species that usually nests solitarily along the Jersey Shore, although it sometimes nests within colonies of least terns (Sterna antillarum) because the more aggressive terns mob any predators that come within their colonies. Although ten thousand pairs used to nest along the Atlantic coast, now there are only about a thousand. Over a hundred pairs nest along the Jersey Shore. These small, black-and-white shorebirds are noted for giving a broken-wing distraction display when their nests or young are approached by people or predators. When the predator has followed a short distance away, the adult careens into the air and flies over the dunes. Burger, Joanna. A Naturalist along the Jersey Shore. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also birds; shorebirds

Joanna Burger

Piscataway. -square mile township in Middlesex County. Founded in , Piscataway is the fifth oldest municipality in New Jersey. Originally farmland, with a port at Landing Lane on the Raritan River, it has become a suburban community with light industry located off Interstate Route . Crisscrossed by British and American troops in the Revolution, Piscataway in July , was the place Gen. George Washington brought his weary Continentals for a period of rest after the Battle of Monmouth. Today,

Gabrielan, Randall. Piscataway Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Piscataway: Its Government and Schools. d ed. Piscataway: League of Women Voters of Piscataway, .

Anne Connor Gordon

Piscopo, Joe (b. June , ). Entertainer. Born in Passaic, Joseph Charles Piscopo lived much of his boyhood in Bloomfield and graduated in  from West Essex Regional High School in North Caldwell. After receiving a degree in broadcast management from Jones College in Jacksonville, Florida, he worked as a disc jockey, actor, and stand-up comedian. Piscopo’s major opportunity came in  when he joined the Saturday Night Live repertory company that succeeded the original cast of that innovative show on NBC-TV. His character inventions, among them “Doug Whiner’’ and “The Sports Guy,’’ were popular, as were his equally comic impersonations of celebrities, most memorably Frank Sinatra. For much of his time on the show, through , Piscopo was being treated for thyroid cancer. His movie credits include Johnny Dangerously () and Wise Guys (); HBO featured him in The Joe Piscopo Special; and he starred in a – revival of Grease! on Broadway. He and others launched a Newarkbased company, Avellino, for the production of film and television programming. Piscopo has been involved in programs aimed at improving the lives of inner-city youngsters in Newark and Camden, and he was honored by the New Jersey Council on Children’s Rights. He and his wife, Kimberly Driscoll, and daughter, Alexandra, live in central New Jersey. Piscopo also has a son, Joey, by his first marriage, to Nancy Jones. Hill, Doug, and Jeff Weingrad. Saturday Night: A Backstage History of “Saturday Night Live.’’ New York: Beech Tree Books, .

Edward A. Jardim

pitch pine

Pitcher, Molly

(b. Oct. , ; d. Jan. ,

). Revolutionary War hero. Joseph Plumb

Martin, a Connecticut soldier, made the following observation in his memoirs of the Battle of Monmouth, June , : “One little incident happened during the heat of the cannonade, which I was eyewitness to, and which I think would be unpardonable not to mention. A woman whose husband belonged to the artillery and who was then attached to a piece in the engagement, attended with her husband at the piece the whole time.’’ The pension application of Rebecca Clendenen, wife of soldier John Clendenen of the Third Pennsylvania Regiment, refers to a woman named “Captain Molly,’’ who carried canteens

of water to the overheated soldiers at Monmouth. Although these two accounts may not refer to the same woman, they became the core of the legend of “Molly Pitcher’’ that developed during the nineteenth century as Americans were eager to identify Revolutionary heroes as role models. Over time, the story absorbed other elements and became increasingly dramatic. There were claims that Molly assumed her husband’s position after he was wounded or killed; that she received recognition from Gen. George Washington on the battlefield; and that someone discovered the actual location of the well from which she drew water. The legend also became confused and conflated with that of another artillery

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wife, Molly Corbin (–), who was badly wounded while taking the place of her slain artillerist husband at the fall of Fort Washington, November , . Several historians have attempted to verify the battlefield incident and identify the real “Molly Pitcher.’’ Most have concluded that the woman observed at Monmouth was one Mary Hays McCauley who settled in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, after the war. She had been married to a man with the surname of Hays at the time of the battle. The historian Samuel Stelle Smith untangled the profusion of Pennsylvania veterans named Hays and deduced that Mary’s husband was William Hays, a gunner in the Pennsylvania-based artillery regiment of Col. Thomas Proctor. He was neither killed nor severely wounded during the engagement. After the war, Mr. and Mrs. Hays settled in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, where William opened a barbershop and the couple had one son named John. After William Hays’s death (c. ), Mary Hays married a man named McCauley (spelled variously as McKolly, MaCauly, and MaCauley). In  Mary Hays McCauley was awarded a military pension from the state of Pennsylvania based on her own service as a “revolutionary heroine.’’ After her death in , neighbors and acquaintances recalled hearing her stories about loading a cannon at the Battle of Monmouth. Mary Hays McCauley is buried in Carlisle, where a monument has been erected to her as “Molly Pitcher.’’ Molly’s life prior to the Revolution is still a mystery. Several towns in New Jersey claim to be her birthplace, and a number of possible maiden names have been suggested, but the truth has yet to be uncovered. Martin, Joseph Plumb. Private Yankee Doodle: Being a Narrative of Some of the Adventures, Dangers, and Sufferings of a Revolutionary Soldier. Ed. George F. Scheer. Boston: Little, Brown, . Smith, Samuel Stelle. A Molly Pitcher Chronology. Monmouth Beach: Philip Freneau Press, .

See also Monmouth, Battle of

David G. Martin and Stacy Flora Roth

Molly (Moll) Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouth. From a wood engraving.

Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

pitch pine. The most abundant species of tree found in the New Jersey Pinelands, pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.) is also found in small patches on exposed ridges and hilltops in northern New Jersey (in the Highlands and on the Kittatinny Ridge). Pitch pine is a wide-ranging species, present as far north as southern Maine and south along the Appalachian Mountains as far as Georgia. It typically occurs on sandy, dry, infertile, or shallow soils, although it is also found, in New Jersey, on wet mineral soils in the Pinelands. It is a remarkably hardy species, tolerating difficult environmental conditions and frequent fires. In the Pinelands, its abundance increases with frequent forest fires. Its most notable properties are the numerous morphological and physiological adaptations to surviving fire. A dwarf form, in which the trees are no more than six to nine feet tall and grow in

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Pitman

dense thickets, is found in three areas (called the Pine Plains) within the eastern part of the Pinelands. In colonial times, the tree was valued in shipbuilding as a source of pitch and for its resistance to decay. Its seeds are also an important source of food for many birds and small mammals. The tree is now widely used for reforestation of severely disturbed lands because of its ability to tolerate drought and poor, acidic soils. Collins, Beryl Robichaud, and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Joan G. Ehrenfeld

Pitman. .-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. Pitman’s historic center, Pitman Grove, is on the New Jersey and National Register of Historic Places. It was established as a Methodist summer revival camp in the late s, the geographic focus of which was the Camp Meeting Auditorium in the center of the Grove. Twelve avenues representing the twelve disciples of Christ run from the auditorium like spokes radiating from the hub of a wheel. Eventually, cottages were built on these avenues as Pitman transformed into the residential borough it is today. Pitman was incorporated in . A dry borough where there are no liquor stores and no liquor licenses are issued, Pitman also has a thriving business district. One of the highlights of the business district is the Broadway Theater, a functioning movie theater built in the s. In the s the borough found itself in the national spotlight as the location of the Lipari Landfill, designated one of the most toxic Superfund sites in the country. In , its population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Parker, Charles A. Pitman Grove through a Tiffany Window, –. Woodbury: Gloucester County Historical Society, . Wilson, Harold F. A History of Pitman, New Jersey: Cottagers and Commuters. Pitman: Pitman History Committee, .

Britta M. Ipri

Pitman Grove.

The New Jersey Conference Camp Meeting Association began planning annual summer revivals and organizing a rural religious resort for Methodist ministers and their families at Pitman Grove in Cumberland County in . The innovative site plan included a center circle with a preaching tabernacle and twelve broad streets radiating out from this hub. Tents fronted on the radial streets. The grove became popular with various Christian groups during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, but tensions surfaced with commuteroriented Pitman Borough over such issues as commercialization, sabbatarianism, and land use. The association sold its property to the borough in .

Wilson, Harold F. A History of Pitman, New Jersey: Cottagers and Commuters. . Reprint. Pitman: Mollenhauer, .

See also camp meetings

Peter J. Wosh

Pitney, Hardin, Kipp, and Szuch. Founded in  by John O. H. Pitney and John R. Hardin, Pitney, Hardin, Kipp, and Szuch, L.L.P., is one of New Jersey’s oldest and largest law firms. Headquartered in Morristown, with offices in New York and Red Bank, the firm employs more than two hundred attorneys, specializing in many practice areas, including antitrust, corporate, employee benefits, environmental, financial services, franchising, health care, intellectual property, labor and employment, litigation, real estate, technology, and trusts and estates. The firm serves as counsel to large- and medium-size New Jersey–based companies as well as to many national and multinational corporations. During its hundred-year history, the firm employed a number of outstanding attorneys, most notably William J. Brennan, Jr., a former justice of the U.S. Supreme Court.

Debra G. Norman

Pitney, Mahlon

(b. Feb. , ; d. Dec.

, ). Lawyer, politician, and U.S. Supreme

Court justice. The son of an attorney, Henry C. Pitney, and Sarah Louisa Halsted, Mahlon Pitney was born on a farm near Morristown. After attending private schools in the community, Pitney enrolled in Princeton University, from which he graduated (along with Woodrow Wilson) in . He then read law in his father’s office and was admitted to the bar in . He practiced for three years in Dover, then returned to Morristown to take over his father’s firm when the elder Pitney was appointed a vice-chancellor. In  Mahlon married Florence T. Shelton. They had two sons, Shelton and Mahlon Jr., and a daughter, Beatrice. In  Pitney was elected to the first of two successive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. Wanting to run for governor, and needing the backing of New Jersey’s Republican boss, William J. Sewall, he left the House in  at Sewall’s urging to take a seat in the State Senate. There Pitney served as GOP floor leader. His political career ended in , when Gov. Foster M. Voorhees nominated him for a seat on the New Jersey Supreme Court. In  Pitney was elevated to the post of chancellor, thereby becoming head of both the law and equity branches of the court of errors and appeals. His state judicial decisions reflected the growing influence of Progressivism on New Jersey. He ruled against large corporations, especially railroads, in cases involving issues of regulation and taxation. Like many Progressives, Pitney viewed unions as another form of monopoly power, threatening to middle-class interests, and while rendering numerous tort

decisions favorable to workers, he consistently ruled against organized labor. His anti-union decisions generated opposition in the U.S. Senate when he was nominated to the U.S. Supreme Court in . President William Howard Taft, then locked in a battle for the Republican nomination with his predecessor, Theodore Roosevelt, chose Pitney to curry favor in New Jersey and with Progressives. Even Democrats from his home state supported the nomination of a native son. Four insurgent Republicans refused to vote for Taft’s nominee, however, and Pitney was confirmed by a margin of only  to . Pitney served on the Supreme Court for almost eleven years. During that time he wrote  majority opinions,  dissents, and  concurrences. His specialty was tax cases. Probably his most important opinion was Eisner v. Macomber (), in which the Court defined income for purpose of the Sixteenth Amendment. Pitney enjoys an undeserved reputation as a reactionary justice, based almost entirely on his opinions in cases involving labor unions, especially one striking down a Kansas law prohibiting yellow-dog contracts. Those decisions, like his rulings in other fields, were in line with Progressive thinking. While opposing unions, Pitney consistently supported vigorous enforcement of the antitrust laws, and he generally ruled in favor of unorganized labor in cases arising under the Federal Employers Liability Act and state workers’ compensation laws. Indeed, when the Court first upheld the constitutionality of workers compensation in New York Central Railroad v. White (), it was Pitney who wrote the opinion. He retired from the Supreme Court on December , , several months after suffering a massive stroke. Pitney died a little less than two years later at his home in Washington. Belknap, Michal R. “Mr. Justice Pitney and Progressivism.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): –. Israel, Fred. “Pitney.’’ In The Justices of the United States Supreme Court, –: Their Lives and Major Opinions, ed. Leon Friedman and Fred Israel. Vol. . New York and Philadelphia: Chelsea House, . Levitan, David. “Mahlon Pitney—Labor Judge.’’ Virginia Law Review  (): –.

Michal R. Belknap

Pittsgrove. -square-mile township, located in southeastern Salem County. Pittsgrove was formed from Pilesgrove Township by royal charter in  and incorporated in ; between  and  parts of it were annexed to or from Centreville Township, Upper Pittsgrove Township, Cumberland County, Salem County, Elmer Borough, and Upper Pittsgrove. Centerton, Palatine, Greenville, Olivet, Willow Grove, Alliance, Norma, and Brotmanville are locales within the township. The latter three were planned farming communities established in  by the Hebrew

Plainfield Immigrant Society of New York to support Jewish refugees arriving from Poland and Russia without means of livelihood. Handcrafts and garment-making supplemented the farming income. Today, township residents are mostly engaged in vegetable and dairy farming. The Centerton Inn, built in  and still operating as a restaurant, said to have been visited by the marquis de Lafayette, was an important depot for strategic materials used by the Americans during the Revolutionary War. Parvin State Park, on the edge of the Pine Barrens, was successively home to the Civilian Conservation Corps, –, a summer camp for displaced Japanese American children, a German POW camp during World War II, and provided temporary housing for Kalmuks who fled eastern Europe in the s. It also is said to contain remains of ancient Native American encampments. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In  the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

place names. Double Trouble. Beetown. Good Intent. Mount Misery. Purgatory. Rudetown. Skunktown. Pickletown. Penn’s Neck. Ong’s Hat. Success. Tranquility. Contemporary and bygone road maps of New Jersey are dotted with colorful, if peculiar, place names. Some are of Indian origin (Absecon, Cinnaminson, Hoboken, Manasquan, Parsippany, Secaucus). Others are named after early landowners or colonial landmarks (Allentown, Bear Tavern, Imlaystown, Lumberton). Many are named after natural features (Cedar Grove, Fairfield, Greenwood, Island Heights). All tell stories: Baltusrol (Union County) is named after Baltus Roll, a farmer murdered in . Headquarters (Hunterdon County) was the site of Washington’s headquarters for three days in . Leonardo (Monmouth County) is named for Henry and James Leonard, the first ironmasters in New Jersey. Manunka Chunk, in Warren County, is of Indian origin. “Manunka’’ is likely from “manunxin,’’ to be cross or angry, or “manunckus,’’ which means bad or evil. “Chunk’’ or “chung’’ indicates a hill or mountain. The name Timbuctoo (Burlington County), after the African town, was probably bestowed by free slaves who settled in what is now Westampton Township. The origins of many names are shrouded in mystery; others are the stuff of legend and oft-told stories—which may be true or not. Double Trouble (also Double Trouble State

Park, Ocean County) is said to refer to a mill dam that collapsed several times due to faulty engineering—or persistent rats. The first time the dam collapsed, the mill owner reportedly said, “Here’s trouble.’’ The second time, he said, “Here’s double trouble.’’ Ong’s Hat is named after Jacob Ong, a prominent Quaker who owned  acres in Northampton Township, Burlington County. It is not known who attached the “hat’’ to Ong’s Hat; the story of a man tossing his hat into a tree after a dance is “fakelore,’’ according to Henry Bisbee, author of Sign Posts, one of the most comprehensive of New Jersey county place name guides. There is no mountain at Mount Misery in Woodland Township, Burlington County; the name probably derived from the assorted hardships suffered by workers at a local sawmill. Bivalve, in Cumberland County, is named for the once-burgeoning oyster industry there; and Jackson, in Ocean County, and Jacksonville, in Burlington County, are named for Andrew Jackson. Ship Bottom’s origins can be traced to a ship that washed ashore on Long Beach Island in . A rich Tuckerton Quaker, Stephen Willets, rescued its one survivor, a woman. But there the story branches into several relatively happy endings; no one has figured out which one actually happened. In one, the young woman, upon her rescue, immediately kneeled down on the beach and drew the sign of the cross on the sand; in another, the woman stayed in the village, married, and lived happily ever after. In a third version, the woman, a beautiful Spanish princess, left town and was never heard from again. Good luck trying to figure it out! Good Luck, by the way, was the name of a village in Ocean County in the s. Like many colorful place names in New Jersey history, it is no longer found on current state or county maps. Becker, Donald W. Indian Place Names in New Jersey. Cedar Grove: Phillips-Campbell, . Bisbee, Henry H. Sign Posts: Place Names in the History of Burlington County, New Jersey. Willingboro: Alexia Press, . Federal Writers’ Program of the Works Projects Administration in the State of New Jersey. The Origin of New Jersey Place Names. Trenton: New Jersey State Library Commission, .

Peter Genovese

Plainfield. .-square-mile city in Union County. Native Americans frequented the Plainfield area and camped along the Green Brook when they traveled between the Hudson and Delaware rivers, and their trails were used to mark the main roads and railroad in later years. By , seven Scottish families established farms along the Cedar Brook. Plainfield was known as Pinchgut, Blondyn Plains, Blew Hills, Blue Hills, and Milltown. The first use of “Plainfield’’ was in the  Barclay plantation land grant. Plainfield may refer to the plain fields of Westfield or the Plainfield Society of

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Friends (Quakers) who established a meeting house in the area in . Although the Plainfield area was mostly farmland and plantations, it was considered of sufficient military importance during the Revolutionary War to warrant a large militia post and encampment. The Blue Hills Fort and Encampment, which was built along the Green Brook in the western end of the city, consisted of ninety-five acres and guarded the main road to Quibbletown and the mountain pass. It was reactivated in , purchased by the U.S. government during the French Naval War and remained in the possession of the United States until . A post office was established in , and the name given to the village was Plainfield. Railroad service was provided in  to Elizabethtown, where travelers would board a steamboat to New York. As railroad travel improved, Plainfield grew and became a commuter town. Many New York City dwellers who came to spend their summers and vacations in the country stayed and built permanent homes. The railroad transformed the city, and hotels were built. Industries, such as hatmaking, carriage making, printing, trucking, and other manufacturing developed. Originally a part of Elizabethtown and then Westfield Township, Plainfield became its own township on , incorporated as a village in , and incorporated as a city in . Plainfield was part of Essex County until , when Union County was created. In the twentieth century Plainfield changed as wealthy residents moved out to new suburban areas and its downtown lost business to regional malls. Racial conflicts with newer residents grew and in the summer of  exploded in a riot that lasted for a week. Urban renewal leveled part of the downtown area and Plainfield slowly recovered. In , Plainfield was named an All-American City. New Jersey Monthly magazine named Plainfield as “one of New Jersey’s ten most livable cities’’ in . Plainfield remains predominantly residential with more than , residences, a central business district, and three ancillary business districts. There are eight nationally and locally designated historic districts, and there are ten individual buildings on the National Register of Historic Places. In , the population of , was  percent black,  percent white, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Adamcik, Stan, et al. Plainfield: A Can of Worms. Plainfield: N.p., . Hoffman, Robert V. The Revolutionary Scene in New Jersey. New York: American Historical Company, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren. History of Union County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Plainfield: Three Hundred Years, –. N.p.: Jostens, .

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Plainsboro

Rawson, Marion Nichol. Under the Blue Hills, Scotch Plains, New Jersey. Plainfield: Historical Society of Scotch Plains and Fanwood, . Smiley, F. T. History of Plainfield and North Plainfield. Plainfield: Plainfield Courier-News, .

Nancy A. Piwowar

PLANT HARDINESS ZONES

Plainsboro.

.-square-mile township in Middlesex County, located on the banks of the Millstone River. When Dutch and English settlers arrived in the mid-s, the land was occupied by the Lenape. The soil proved to be extremely fertile for agriculture and a farming community developed. Crops included potatoes, corn, soybeans, wheat, hay, and rye. The farmers had access to mass markets via the Delaware and Raritan Canal, the Pennsylvania Railroad, and Route . In , Walker-Gordon opened a dairy that became Plainsboro’s major industry. Originally part of South Brunswick and Cranbury, Plainsboro petitioned for separation in  after a dispute over school facilities, and was incorporated on May  of that year. Plainsboro was noted for research, housing both the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research and the Forrestal Research Campus. In , developers began buying farmland and constructing residential complexes. Several corporations also built large campuses in the township. Today, Plainsboro is primarily a suburban community. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

ZONE 5b

-10 to -15

6a

-5 to -10

6b

0 to -5

7a

0 to 5

7b

5 to 10

Average coldest winter temperature ( o F)

Karasik, Gary, and Anna M. Aschkenes. Middlesex County: Crossroads of History. Sun Valley, CA: American Historical Press, . Tindall, Edward E., and Stanton Cameron Clark. Walker-Gordon: One of a Kind. Stockton: Covered Bridge Press, .

William Hart

planned communities.

See designed

communities.

plant hardiness zones.

Plants have specific requirements that allow them to live in various environments. One of the most critical factors is the lowest winter temperature at which they can survive. Consequently, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) developed a system of classification for plants based on their abilities to withstand cold, the “Plant Hardiness Zone Map.’’ The United States is divided into eleven zones, each with a range of ◦ F, with zones – being subdivided into subzones a (colder) and b (warmer). Zone ’s winter temperatures average below −◦ F, and zone  is above ◦ F. New Jersey ranges from zone b (− to −◦ F) to zone a ( to ◦ F), with most of the state falling in zone b (− to ◦ F).

Bill Buck

N

0

Zones are approximate.

20 miles © Rutgers, The State University

Pleasantville.

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County. According to historians, the first permanent settler of Pleasantville may have been Jonathan Adams or William Lake. Adams bought property on Patong Creek near

Somers Point, in . About , he sold that property and purchased a large tract near Delilah Road, which today is nearly the center of Pleasantville. Lake, a whaler, is said to have settled on land in what is now the southern

poetry part of Pleasantville in . Before its incorporation as Pleasantville in , the area had a variety of names, among them Adamstown, Laketown, and Martstown. There is an unconfirmed story that around  the city received its name from a sign painter. Prior to , the city’s residents were employed primarily in two occupations: farming and oystering. Farms continued to be worked until the s, although the importance of agriculture to the local economy had begun to decline in the early s. At about the same time, with the advent of the trolley, which provided convenient transportation to Atlantic City, Pleasantville began to develop into a residential community. Today, Pleasantville continues to be mostly residential, with many residents employed in Atlantic City, which is only five miles to the east. In , the population was ,. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Shaw, H. Leslie., ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey— Southern Edition. Shrewsbury: National Resource Directories, .

Jerome E. Klein

Plumsted. .-square-mile township in Ocean County. Plumsted is sometimes billed as the “State’s Center’’ for its geographic location. It was created in  from a western portion of the newly formed Jackson Township. Its name derives from Clement Plumsted, the original English landholder—he was granted , acres in . Plumsted himself never left London, but English Quakers had begun entering the area soon after their arrival on the Delaware River in . The main village is New Egypt, at the junction of Routes  and . Situated in the extreme northwest corner of the township, New Egypt was known in the eighteenth century as Timmons Mills. One legend has it that the Egypt designation grew out of an offhand remark by George Washington in . The name was modified in the nineteenth century with the appendage of the prefix “New’’ to avoid confusion with other places named Egypt. The name New Egypt was officially changed to Oakford at the end of  but then restored after just a few weeks. The township is chiefly residential and rural in character, and includes some forty acres of lakefront parks and recreational fields. Plumsted’s population in  was ,, up from , in . It was  percent white.

The median household income for  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County’s Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

PNC Bank.

PNC, the Pittsburgh National Corporation, was founded in  in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. First named the Pittsburgh Trust and Savings Company, it became the Pittsburgh National Bank in . New statewide banking legislation in Pennsylvania in  led to the merger of Pittsburgh National Bank and Provident National Bank and the creation of PNC Financial Corp, PNC’s parent bank holding company. In  the holding company changed its name to PNC Financial Services Group. PNC moved into New Jersey with its purchase of Midlantic Bank for $ billion in . Midlantic Bank was the successor to one of the first banks chartered in the state in , the Newark Banking and Insurance Company. Subsequently named National Newark and Essex Bank, the bank became Midlantic in . PNC’s acquisition of Midlantic brought it branches in both New Jersey and Pennsylvania, since Midlantic had previously purchased Continental Bancorp of Philadelphia in . As of June , , PNC had  branches in New Jersey, giving it . percent of the market share in deposits in the state. The nineteenth-largest bank holding company in the United States, PNC Financial Services Group had almost $ billion in assets at the end of . See also banking

Ann Kessler

PNC Bank Arts Center. The PNC Bank Arts Center (so named since ) on the Garden State Parkway (GSP) near Holmdel was originally named the Garden State Arts Center when it opened in . The Saratoga Arts Center–style amphitheater designed by Edward Durell Stone seats , under a circular roof, with lawn seating for , around the perimeter. It is owned by the New Jersey Highway Authority and operated by Clear Channel Communications. Originally planned during the mid-s as the summer home of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, by the s it had instead become a mainstay of the pop-music circuit, presenting major stars. Summer concerts by the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra, New Jersey State Opera, and New Jersey Ballet have also been presented. The GSP Foundation presents free concerts by classical artists.

Paul Somers

poetry.

The American poetry that many readers think of as essentially “American’’—

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that is, free, open-ended, provisional, rough, and inclusive—has come largely from certain poets of New Jersey, particularly Walt Whitman, Stephen Crane, William Carlos Williams, and Allen Ginsberg. Born in Long Island, Whitman lived the last twenty years of his life in Camden, where his house on Mickle Boulevard may still be seen, and where the “deathbed edition’’ of Leaves of Grass was prepared in . Though Ralph Waldo Emerson heralded Whitman as the poet for whom America had been waiting, many of Whitman’s readers found this new poetry formally undisciplined and morally objectionable. Similar criticism was leveled at Stephen Crane, who grew up in Asbury Park, and who once said, “I am about as much of a Jerseyman as you can find.’’ The precocious author of realist fiction such as Maggie: A Girl of the Streets and The Red Badge of Courage, Crane was also an eccentric, cynical, and rebellious poet. His two poetry books, The Black Riders and War Is Kind, consist of free-verse poems, many of them epigrams and parables, written all in capitals. While his fiction is still read more than his poetry, Crane thought his poems more sincere and honest than his prose. More of a social critic than Whitman, Crane nevertheless shares with him the evolving American poetic of openness and spontaneity. Twentieth-century modernism preferred a more complex and allusive poetry than that offered by Whitman or Crane, but certain poets struggled against the modernist model, in an effort to discover, as Whitman had done, New World rhythms and subjects. The most prominent of these poets was a pediatrician from Rutherford named William Carlos Williams, whose book-length poem Paterson, published in four installments between  and , makes a transcendent poetic microcosm out of an unromantic New Jersey city. There was a quiet, orientalist quality to much of Williams’s poetry, especially the shorter, imagistic poems, yet his reliance on common speech, his contempt for the showy erudition of T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, and his attempt at the large, collagist, open-ended poem make him the most Whitmanesque of modernist poets. It was not until the s that Williams became as much a part of the modernist canon as his contemporaries Eliot and Pound had been since the s. Coincidentally, it was in the s also that Whitman began to be seen as the quintessential nineteenth-century American poet. Finally, it was in the s that a raucous, electrically charged, and oftenobscene book titled Howl () was published by another New Jersey poet, Allen Ginsberg. Ginsberg, the most famous poet of the Beat Generation, was raised in Paterson. His father, Louis Ginsberg, a successful lyric poet in his own right, was a friend of Williams, who, in turn, became a champion of the young Allen’s work. Howl was what its title suggested: a visceral cry barely containable by language— at once visionary, surreal, adolescent, and

646

Poetry Center at Passaic County Community College

more sexually explicit than Whitman had dared be. Whitman’s erotic passages were deplored by some of his contemporaries, but Howl raised the stakes, leading to a landmark obscenity trial in . Beyond the subject matter of protest and drug- and sex-induced experiences, what one saw in Howl was the Whitman style: the ecstatic, cumulative catalogs, the building of power through long repetitive clauses, and the freedom from formal restraints. Among the Greenwich Village Beats, a friend of Ginsberg’s and one of the leaders of the Black Arts Movement, was Amiri Baraka. Baraka, n´e Leroi Jones, is arguably the most famous African American poet of the last half of the twentieth century and, like Ginsberg, a national cultural figure. Born in Newark, Jones adopted Black Nationalist views following the assassination of Malcolm X in , and changed his name to Amiri Imamu Baraka. Later still, he abandoned those views in favor of Marxism and the struggle of the working class. He continues to deliver powerful readings and lectures around the nation. In addition to this cluster of poets so important to twentieth-century American poetics, are several others of historical importance. The occasional poet and essayist Philip Freneau, born in Mount Pleasant, is famous for poems on the Revolutionary War and the War of , as well as romantic poems about American Indian life and travels in the Caribbean. Though his poetry was metrically rigid and may seem artificial today, he was in fact criticized for low language and common topics—in this regard, if in no other, like Whitman. Contemporary with Freneau was the poet Annis Boudinot Stockton, who, like Freneau, wrote strictly within the eighteenth-century poetic norms, favoring odes, elegies, and pastorals. She was born in Darby, Pennsylvania, but moved with her family to the Princeton area in , where she lived the remainder of her life. Joyce Kilmer, of New Brunswick, was the author of the sentimental poem “Trees,’’ known to millions in its time and set to music by Kilmer’s mother. Serious poetry readers have ridiculed the sentimentality of the poem, yet “Trees’’ appeared in the prestigious magazine Poetry, which also published Pound and Eliot. Of contemporary New Jersey poets, Robert Pinsky, U.S. poet laureate –, is the most celebrated. Born in Long Branch, he has written two critical books, numerous collections of poetry, and an important translation of Dante’s Inferno. Important also are the significant poems written in or about New Jersey. A. R. Ammons, now a professor at Cornell University, lived on the South Jersey shore for twelve years (– ) where he wrote “Corsons Inlet’’ (the title poem of his third book), at once a description of a place and a statement of American poetics. “Corsons Inlet’’ demonstrates in both style

and content the idea that mind and world cannot stand still but must always be dissolved in movement. Poems represent not moments of repose but what Emerson called “the shooting of the gulf,’’ a principle of dynamic poetic style also in Whitman and Williams, as it is in poets who have felt their influence. New Jersey continues to host a vibrant poetry scene. The Journal of New Jersey Poets features authors such as Rachel Hadas, Daniel Halpern, X. J. Kennedy, and Gerald Stern. The biennial Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry festival, held in September at Waterloo Village, is the biggest poetry event in North America. Other large poetry programs or series are Seton Hall University’s “Poetry in the Round,’’ Princeton University’s Althea Ward Clark reading series, and the Distinguished Poets Series at the Poetry Center at Passaic County Community College. The Poetry Center also publishes the New Jersey Poetry Calendar, listing events of all these and other programs. See also literature

Jeffrey Gray

Poetry Center at Passaic County Community College. Founded in  by Maria Gillan, the Poetry Center is the most successful and longest running poetry organization in New Jersey. The center began by featuring local poets; in a few years it was hosting nationally known poets ranging from Maya Angelou to native son Allen Ginsberg. In addition to its reading series, the Poetry Center conducts workshops in the Paterson school system, organizes literary conferences, and sponsors several writing contests. The center also publishes a literary magazine Paterson Literary Review (formerly Footworks). It is noted for its inclusive programming, with an emphasis on writers who reflect Paterson’s highly diverse ethnic communities. See also poetry

Joel Lewis

Pohatcong. -square-mile township in Warren County. Pohatcong is located at the southern tip of the county where the Delaware River meets the Musconetcong River. Separated from Greenwich and incorporated in , its historic villages include Riegelsville, Finesville, Springtown, Warren Glen, and Carpentersville. Cole’s gristmill in Springtown, one of the oldest in the county, was still operating in the s. The current stone structure, said to have been built circa –, is located on the site of an earlier  mill. The mill, along with several other historic structures in the township, is listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. Carpentersville was the center of a lucrative lime-burning industry and today lime kilns, including fifteen continuous kilns, still exist. The area’s grasslands have been preserved as a bird sanctuary and residents are

making efforts to preserve the township’s history and open space as the area becomes a more suburban, bedroom community. The  census shows that the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Leary, Frank, ed. Pohatcong: The Prologue. History of People of Pohatcong. Alpha: Pohatcong Heritage Commission, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Point Pleasant. .-square-mile borough in Ocean County. Originally a part of Brick Township and West Point Pleasant, Point Pleasant Borough incorporated independently in . The irregular, saw-tooth border between Point Pleasant and neighboring Point Pleasant Beach arose in an attempt to prevent small farms from being divided by the new boundary line. Point Pleasant has water on two sides, the Manasquan River to the north and Beaver Dam Creek, along with a collection of tidal wetlands and marshes, to the south. Although lacking an oceanfront the town does have almost twenty miles of shoreline, which includes numerous artificial lagoons. A canal between the Barnegat Bay to the south and the Manasquan River bisects the borough. Begun in , it took another seventeen years before the Point Pleasant Canal could be opened to boat traffic due to difficulties obtaining rights-of-way. The arrival of the Garden State Parkway caused a drastic change in the demographics of the isolated community, shifting from farming and boat building as it increasingly became a bedroom community. Some  percent of the borough’s housing was built between the completion of the parkway and , with single-family homes being the norm. In  the population of , was  percent white and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . O’Rourke, Shaun. Natural Resources Inventory. Point Pleasant: Point Pleasant Environmental Council, .

Herwart C. Vogt

Point Pleasant Beach.

.-squaremile borough located in the northeastern corner of Ocean County. Point Pleasant Beach is the northern terminus of the Intracoastal Waterway. By , English settlers had purchased land in the area. Besides farming and fishing, the early settlers established salt works. In August  the Manasquan Salt Works, along with similar facilities located along the Jersey coast, were destroyed by Loyalist troops.

pollution However, coastal industries, fishing, and shipbuilding long remained important. Boatyards sprang up before the turn of the twentieth century, eventually specializing in the construction of Barnegat Bay skiffs, runabouts, lifeboats, and smaller military vessels under contract. Many yards are still active today, but as marinas. The borough also became a resort. A local farmer, John Arnold, formed the Point Pleasant Land Company and organized “Point Pleasant City,’’ which in  was incorporated into the borough. By  the New York and Long Branch Railroad was offering service and the beach community was being promoted as a summer resort. The Garden State Parkway opened in  and by  the population had exploded by  percent. The beaches, amusement centers, and boardwalks are popular attractions, resulting in a weekly summer tourist population that swells by an estimated ,. In  the year-round population of , was  percent white and the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Heim, Kathleen Ferris. Point Pleasant Beach: Celebrating the Early Years. Avon: Kirms Publishing, . Wolfersberger, Judy R. The Centennial Friends Historical Handbook. Point Pleasant Beach: Centennial Friends, . Woolley, Jerry. Point Pleasant.  vols. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Herwart C. Vogt

Poison Information and Education System. See New Jersey Poison Information and Education System.

Poitras, Pierre Albert “Major Tot’’ (b. ; d. ). Circus performer. Born in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Pierre Poitras relocated with his family to Morristown in the late s, when he was hired by P. T. Barnum. Billed as “Major Tot,’’ Poitras was described as “the world’s smallest perfectly developed man.’’ He grew to a height of three and a half feet, weighed ninety pounds and wore a child’s size  shoe. His father is said to have transported him to engagements in a fourteen-inch satchel. In retirement, Poitras became a familiar local sight in his pony-drawn victoria. He died of pneumonia and is buried at Evergreen Cemetery in Morristown. “Major Tot.’’ Local History and Genealogy Department, Morristown–Morris Township Free Library.

Fran Wood

Poland, William A.

(b. Apr. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Architect. Born in Hightstown,

the son of John and Martha Byles Poland, William A. Poland received training at architectural firms in New York and Philadelphia. Eventually, he became architect for the Trenton Board of Education, a job he held for over twenty-five years. His Trenton buildings include Junior High School No.  on Princeton

Avenue, Trenton’s first skyscraper—the Broad Street Bank (), and the church () and parish school () of Saint Joachim. He was president of the Trenton Architect’s Society. Poland was married to Mary Elinore Hutchinson, and with her had four children. Shuman, Eleanore Nolan. The Trenton Story. Trenton: MacCrellish and Quigley, . Withey, Henry F., and Elsie Rathburn Withey. Biographical Dictionary of American Architects (Deceased). Los Angeles: Hennessey and Ingalls, .

See also architecture

Jeanne Kolva

Poles.

The first immigrant from Poland to settle in New Jersey, in , was Olbracht Zaborowski, whose landholdings in Bergen County extended from the Hudson to the Hackensack River by . Zaborowski’s descendants, known as the Zabriskie family, were eventually assimilated into upper-class Anglo Protestant society. Following the American Revolution, poet and military officer Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz came to America in  with war hero Gen. Tadeusz Kosciusko. Niemcewicz married an American in  and lived in Elizabethtown (Elizabeth). In the first half of the nineteenth century numerous educated Polish political exiles found their way to New Jersey after the failed insurrections of , , , and . During the American Civil War, the educator Joseph Karge served with distinction as a cavalry officer in the Union Army, achieving the rank of brigadier general of the New Jersey Volunteers in . From  to , Karge taught European languages as a professor at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). Mass emigration to America from Poland began in earnest in . These were the legendary za chlebem immigrants, the “bread seekers,’’ who sought to exchange Old World poverty for American prosperity. Entering through New York, Poles flocked to the Lower East Side and the cities of northern New Jersey, where employment in factories, mills, and shipyards abounded. Although most Poles had been rural peasants in the old country, they soon grew used to the bustle of urban life. Jersey City was their threshold to New Jersey; by , the Poles were the largest ethnic group in the city. From their Jersey City base, Polish immigrants established new colonies in Bayonne, Newark, Weehawken, Union City, North Bergen, Hudson Heights, and Harrison. In , the Roman Catholic Church, consecrated the parish church of Saint Anthony of Padua in Jersey City, giving New Jersey’s Polonia a mother church. Its first pastor was the Franciscan priest Ignatius Barszcz. Although the vast majority of Poles first settled in Hudson, Essex, Passaic, Bergen, Union, and Middlesex Counties, new generations were to find homes in every county of

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the state. In the twentieth century, Poles made political gains with the elections of Alexander Cieciuch as a state legislator (), Henry Sieminski as a U.S. congressman (), and Charles Witkowski as mayor of Jersey City (). Polish immigrants continued to settle in New Jersey into the s. Well known among them was Stanislaw Walesa (–) who lived in Jersey City. His stepson, Solidarity leader Lech Walesa, became president of Poland. In , , New Jerseyans were listed as being of Polish ancestry. Notable Polish American monuments in the state are the Casimir Pulaski Memorial Skyway () and the bronze-and-granite Katyn Memorial () in Jersey City. Over the years, prominent Polish cultural, spiritual, and social institutions in the state have included Felician College in Lodi, the Polish National Catholic Church, the Association of the Sons of Poland, the Club Polonaise of Passaic, the Polish Arts Club of Newark, and the Polish Cultural Foundation in Irvington. Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, . Renkiewicz, Frank, comp. and ed. The Poles in America, –: A Chronology and Fact Book. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, .

See also ethnicity

Barry Moreno

politics.

See government.

pollution. Environmental pollution within the state of New Jersey has been a significant concern for over forty years. The origins of the state’s pollution problems can be traced to its development as an industrial center as well as its high population density. Further complicating the situation is the state’s geographic location; New Jersey is affected by emissions that have been released from many sources located in the highly populated and industrialized megalopolis of the Northeast. In the first half of the twentieth century, there were few, if any, efforts to control releases from smokestack industries. During the s, regulations were developed at the state level that attempted to prevent major emissions into the state’s air and water. However, many of these measures were initially aimed at diminishing episodic releases of pollutants and did not attempt to address problems of overall levels of air and water pollution. In the s, concerns about such pollution increased as contamination levels rose. This awareness resulted in the creation of the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection in , as well as the passage of the Clean Air Act () and Clean Water Act (). These new agencies initiated major efforts to reduce the sources of pollution, including the EPA’s initial implementation plans for the cleanup of New Jersey’s air pollution in .

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In the s major programs were established to reduce the point sources of both water and air pollution, leading to dramatic reductions in emissions between  and . During this period, levels of key toxic substances decreased throughout the state. For example, the “urban combustion smoke smog’’ that frequently occurred during the autumn generally disappeared. In addition, the contamination of the seashore decreased, and the ambient air and water began meeting many state and federal health standards. In addition to general concerns about air and water pollution, the state of New Jersey faced another legacy from the industrial revolution and development patterns of the past one hundred years: hazardous and industrial waste sites that contaminated, primarily, soil and groundwater supplies. Following the federal Comprehensive Environmental Response and Liability Act (CERCLA) of , more than one hundred Superfund sites were identified across the state, and a large number of contaminated industrial sites, including coal gasification plants, were also singled out as needing remediation. Within urban areas, polluted soil and groundwater sites were designated “brownfields.’’ These brownfields are abandoned spaces or buildings needing cleanup prior to redevelopment and use. Many of these sites have been cleaned and put back into use or are on the path to restoration. Notable examples include River Redevelopment projects found in Hoboken and other cities. Many of the cleanups in New Jersey have been covered under the New Jersey Environmental Cleanup and Responsibility Act () and the amended version called the Industrial Site Recovery Act (ISRA). Progress has been slower for Superfund sites, however; only  percent of these have been cleaned up. Both water and air pollution have been exacerbated by the growth of the state’s suburbs, which have spawned malls to service new communities while forcing the expansion of in-state and interstate road systems. This expansion has decreased the amount of open space while increasing the overall levels of motor vehicle emissions. During the s and s, New Jerseyans worried increasingly about environmental damage caused by motor vehicles. By the late twentieth century, automobiles had become the state’s dominant polluters: in , vehicles in New Jersey traveled  million aggregate miles per day throughout the state. These vehicles also leaked crankcase oil and gasoline into the state’s water supplies. The motor vehicles also emit major combustion products of volatile organic compounds (VOC)—including, for example, aromatics, olefins, and parafins—nitrogen oxides (NOx), and fine and coarse particulate matter. Many of these pollutants can be emitted by any combustion source. In the summertime there is another impact: pollutants mix with ultraviolet radiation in sunlight to

form ozone and secondary fine particles, both of which can have respiratory health effects. Efforts to control photochemical smog include national strategies for automobile design and control devices and changes in the composition of gasoline. New Jersey was one of the first states to develop and enforce an inspection and maintenance program. Because of the wide distribution of VOC and NOx sources in New Jersey and other states, ozone and fine particles accumulate in the atmosphere. Prevailing westerly winds help concentrate such pollutants in the region. As a result, the ozone and fine particle pollution levels in New Jersey are made worse by polluters located in states to the west. These levels are enhanced by the emissions of VOC and NOx sources within the state and the continued production of smog. One major source of such pollutants is the New Jersey Turnpike. The result is a large addition to the ozone burden to the eastern and northeastern parts of the state. The consequence of these events is that the only air pollutant that is consistently above the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for health in air is ozone; this occurs throughout the entire state. At a minimum, ozone has been documented to increase the number of asthma attacks each season among asthmatics who live or work in New Jersey. The future pollution problems in New Jersey will probably be determined by the lifestyles of its residents and the industrial and commercial pollutants that are introduced or removed from the state. See also brownfields; hazardous wastes

Paul J. Lioy

Pomona.

See Galloway.

Pompton Lakes.

.-square-mile borough in Passaic County. The Ramapo, Pequannock, and Wanaque rivers all run through the borough, which is located at the “waist,’’ or narrowest area of Passaic County. The name Pompton is thought to be an Indian word meaning either “meeting waters’’ or “wry mouth.’’ Originally a part of Pompton Township, Pompton Lakes was incorporated as a borough in . The borough was once famous for its forges, which provided shot and cannonballs to troops from the French and Indian War through the Civil War. DuPont Chemicals manufactured explosives in Pompton Lakes from  until the plant’s closure in . The discovery of elevated levels of lead and mercury in streams and soil led to a massive, ongoing cleanup and a  lawsuit against the corporation that resulted in a $. million settlement for local homeowners. Well-known former residents include boxer Joe Louis, who trained in Pompton Lakes during the s, and the author Albert Payson Terhune. Today it is a community of mostly single-family homes with a small-town atmosphere. The

 population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Pompton Lakes Centennial: –. Pompton Lakes: Pompton Lakes th Anniversary Souvenir Book Committee, . Struble, Evelin Armstrong. In the Ramapos: A True Story of the Terhunes and the Little Town They Loved. Paterson: Rocco Press, . Vreeland, Ethel. Pompton Area History. Pompton Lakes: Pompton Lakes Women’s Club, .

Susan Chore

Pompton Plains.

See Pequannock.

Poore, Henry Rankin

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Painter. A native of Newark,

Henry Rankin Poore was a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania and also studied at the National Academy of Design in New York City, in Paris, and New Mexico. One of the first American artists to travel to, and publish the painted work of, the Taos Pueblo, he was commissioned by the Census Bureau to create illustrations of New Mexico. Poore was a member of the Old Lyme Art Colony in Connecticut and later taught at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. En Plein Air: The Art Colonies at East Hampton and Old Lyme, –. East Hampton: Guild Hall, .

See also art

Cynthia Hertlik

Popcorn Park Zoo. The only federally licensed zoo of its kind in the United States, Popcorn Park Zoo was founded in  by the Associated Humane Societies, a nonprofit organization dedicated to the care and welfare of animals, specifically to provide a sanctuary for wild animals unable to care for themselves. To this end, it houses animals that are old, sick, abandoned, abused, or injured— animals that would not survive without the loving and nurturing care of this unique institution. Although the zoo was originally created to help indigenous animals, the zoo’s managers soon expanded their mission to include any exotic or domestic animal in distress. Residents range from abandoned Easter chicks to lions, tigers, and bears abused by unscrupulous roadside animal shows and shady circus operations. Tamer species freely wander the sevenacre habitat. Attractions include a Wild Animals Compound, monkey and reptile houses, a horse and pony corral, and a relaxing water garden and pond. More than two hundred animals reside at the zoo in Forked River in the heart of New Jersey’s Pine Barrens. Roberta Chopp Rothschild

pop music.

New Jersey made its major contribution to the world of pop music in the s with vocal harmony or “doo-wop’’ groups, and later with rhythm and blues and soul music. Rock and roll has always been

Port Authority of New York and New Jersey primarily an urban phenomenon; in fact, another popular term for early rock and roll is “street corner music.’’ Vocal or doo-wop groups like Newark’s Monotones, who charted with one of the genre’s best-known efforts, “Book of Love,’’ formed spontaneously as quartets “hit harmony’’ while walking down city streets whose buildings and underpasses provided a free echo chamber, not unlike New York and Philadelphia subways. The northeast part of New Jersey is virtually one large city, composed of many urban areas separated by name only. Urban-industrial North Jersey, including Newark, Paterson, Hoboken, Bayonne, Passaic, and the Oranges, spawned the majority of pop music artists from large African American and Italian populations. Originally an African American music form dubbed “race music,’’rock and roll grew vigorously out of the energy of North Jersey’s cities. Among the legendary artists from North Jersey were the Shirelles, from Passaic, who recorded “Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow?’’ and “Mama Said.’’ Connie Francis, from Essex Fells, had over fifty pop hits on the Billboard charts between  and , including “Who’s Sorry Now?’’ and “Where the Boys Are,’’ before shifting her focus to Italian songs. Fort Lee was the home of the Royal Teens of “Short Shorts’’ fame. In the early s during the rise of discotheques, Joey Dee and the Starlighters from Passaic recorded the “Peppermint Twist,’’ inspired by New York City’s Peppermint Lounge. Tenafly’s Lesley Gore began her career with the  hit, “It’s My Party,’’ and continued for a decade to produce songs that placed in the top ten. From Orange, the Angels charted in  with “My Boyfriend’s Back.’’ Frank Sinatra’s daughter Nancy, originally from Hoboken, recorded the novelty “revenge’’ song, “These Boots Are Made for Walking,’’ and later with her father, “Something Stupid.’’ East Orange produced stars like Dionne Warwick, who teamed with writer Burt Bacharach for a long string of classic hits like “Walk On By’’ and, a generation later, gospel great Cissy Houston’s daughter Whitney, whose recorded hits include “Saving All My Love for You’’ and her cover of Dolly Parton’s “I Will Always Love You.’’ Despite the negative image that urban North Jersey often projects, the region possessed exactly the atmosphere and dynamics necessary to create some of pop’s top artists, whose sound profoundly influenced musicians from other areas. North Jersey’s proximity to New York City gave musicians easy access to the major recording companies located there. An hour downstate, New Jersey Shore bar bands were developing a soulinflected style of their own. While not technically pop, Bruce Springsteen and his contemporaries “Southside’’ Johnny Lyon and the Asbury Jukes are firmly rooted in the soul/R&B tradition. Years before Springsteen made Asbury Park a household name, Asbury native Lenny Welch made the national charts

with ballads such as “Since I Fell for You.’’ Many Shore acts gained exposure in shows produced by Norman Seldin’s Selsom Productions, which also handled up-and-coming folk acts. Shore folk musicians who crossed over to pop include Melanie, whose ability to be taken seriously by the rock audience apparently suffered as a result, and to a lesser degree, “Society’s Child’’ composer Janis Ian. New Jersey played a vital role in pop music during the early to mid-s; then rock critics generally agree the quality of pop music suffered a decline. During this time the “British Invasion’’ threatened to overwhelm the pop charts and push out native-born rockers as the Beatles and the Dave Clark Five competed weekly for the number-one spot on America’s top forty charts. New Jersey, however, contributed two local groups that reestablished the United States as the home of the best pop music. Newark’s Four Seasons featured Frankie Valli’s trademark falsetto voice backed by tight harmonies and a deep bass voice and underscored by a kind of high-powered percussion not previously heard in vocal pop. They produced a totally unique sound that drove their first hit “Sherry’’to the top of the charts in . The Four Seasons’ “Big Girls Don’t Cry,’’ “Rag Doll,’’ and “Candy Girl’’ regularly battled back against British domination of the pop charts as they repeatedly claimed the number-one position well into the late s. Additionally, the Four Seasons’ sound influenced other groups, such as Paterson’s the Happenings. In the mid-s the Young Rascals emerged from North Jersey as one of the few white groups to record for traditionally black Atlantic Records. Their authentic “blue-eyed soul’’ vocals and instrumental work won over the notoriously hard-to-please Apollo Theatre audience in Harlem. The Young Rascals challenged the British Invasion successfully when they released their first chart-topper in , “Good Lovin’,’’ followed by a long, unbroken string of soul-flavored hits like “Groovin’.’’ While neither the Four Seasons nor the Rascals literally drove the Beatles from America’s top ten charts, together they consistently reaffirmed the security of America’s place there. New Jersey also gave disco some of its finest stars, including Gloria Gaynor, whose “I Will Survive’’ remains a disco classic. Kool and the Gang, from Newark and Hackensack, had more top forty hits in the s and s than any other group. When the scene shifted to punk in the late s, Patti Smith, the “princess of punk’’ from South Jersey, co-wrote her biggest hit, “Because the Night,’’ with Bruce Springsteen. The s heavy metal phase saw the rise of Bon Jovi. New Jersey’s contributions to popular music range from funk experimentalists George Clinton and Parliament Funkadelic in the s to the rap and hip-hop of East Orange’s Queen Latifah and Newark’s Lauryn Hill in the s. Emerging groups assure New

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Jersey’s status as a major source of successful, influential pop music.

Joseph V. Hamburger

Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. This bistate agency was created in April  by a compact between New York and New Jersey as the Port of New York Authority, with a general mission to improve transportation and terminal facilities in the Port District (which includes all of New York City and Hudson County, large portions of Bergen, Passaic, Essex, Union, and Middlesex counties in New Jersey, and smaller slices of Monmouth, Somerset, and Morris counties in New Jersey and Rockland, Westchester, and Nassau counties in New York). The agency is governed by twelve commissioners, half chosen by the governor of each state, who (since ) has the right to veto the actions of the commissioners from his or her own state. The name was changed in  to reflect the equal role of New Jersey. The initial goal of the Port Authority was to improve rail-freight movement in the region, but the railroads blocked its plans. Local demands led it to begin work in  on a series of vehicular bridges between New Jersey and Staten Island (Bayonne, Goethals, and Outerbridge), and, from  to , led by New Jersey engineer Othmar H. Ammann, it constructed the George Washington Bridge. Completing these spans ahead of schedule and below cost, it gained a reputation for political independence and efficiency; the two states then assigned the Holland Tunnel (and its profits) to the agency and approved the Lincoln Tunnel as its next project. In the s, the Port Authority took control of Newark Airport in New Jersey, as well as La Guardia and Idlewild/Kennedy airports in New York, modernized and expanded these, and built a bus terminal in mid-Manhattan. It also modernized Port Newark and in the s expanded it as the nation’s first large containerport (Port Newark/Elizabeth Marine Terminal). In the s, the agency worked with Robert Moses to develop and carry out plans to construct a second deck on the George Washington Bridge, Route  into western New Jersey, and New York’s VerrazanoNarrows and Throgs Neck Bridges. In the s, it agreed reluctantly to take control of the bankrupt Hudson and Manhattan Railroad and modernize and operate it as PATH; it built the World Trade Center; and it was embroiled in controversy over its ultimately unsuccessful efforts to gain approval for a large jetport in Morris County. The key figure in its expansion from the s to the s was Austin Tobin, who served as executive director, – . In the late s, Peter Goldmark led the agency in new directions, including the development of an industrial park in Elizabeth and a waste-to-energy plant and a legal center in Newark. Much of the agency’s effort in the

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Port Newark

past twenty years has been devoted to maintaining its thirty-four facilities and responding to demands that local political needs shape its investments. The s saw the agency blocked by interstate conflicts, led by Governors Christine Todd Whitman and George Pataki. In , the Port Authority had $ billion in assets and a net income of $ million. A rail line, connecting Newark Airport to the main New Jersey Transit tracks, was completed in . The terrorist attacks on September ,  took the lives of seventy-four Port Authority police and civilian employees, and destroyed the offices of over , agency staff. Since the destruction of the World Trade Center, the Port Authority has been in the process of building a temporary PATH station between New Jersey and lower Manhattan, and continues to work with the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation in rebuilding the site. Other proposed projects include modernizing its maritime and airport facilities and a possible rail line under the Hudson River, linking the Meadowlands to New York locations. Bard, Erwin W. The Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Doig, Jameson W. Empire on the Hudson: Entrepreneurial Vision and Political Power at the Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Doig, Jameson W., and Erwin C. Hargrove, eds. Leadership and Innovation: A Biographical Perspective on Entrepreneurs in Government. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Gillespie, Angus K. Twin Towers: The Life of New York City’s World Trade Center. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also transportation

Jameson W. Doig

Port Newark. Newark mayors Jacob Haussling and Thomas L. Raymond initiated the construction of Port Newark in . City engineers drained the Newark Meadows and excavated a ,-foot ship channel where Peddie Creek entered Newark Bay. Opening ceremonies were held on October , . Initial plans called for extending the channel to a large turning basin located at the present site of Newark Airport. The city altered these plans in  after intensive lobbying by the Aeronautical Club of New Jersey to construct a major airport in Newark. After World War II, both Port Newark and Newark Airport were leased to the Port of New York Authority (Port Authority of New York and New Jersey since ). Close cooperation between the Port Authority and Sea-Land president Malcolm McLean fostered the development of cargo containerization at Port Newark. The seaport expanded south into Elizabeth during the late s, excavating a second ship channel along Bound Creek and constructing the world’s first containerport. Port Newark’s pioneering work in containerization has attracted most of the shipping operations in New York Harbor since the late s. It is now the largest seaport

Port Newark Marine Terminal.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger. on the East Coast, handling  percent of the harbor’s general nonbulk cargoes, with the remainder divided between marine terminals in Hudson County and in New York City. The abandonment of the Manhattan and Brooklyn waterfronts caused intense resentment on the part of New York City politicians toward the Port Authority, and recurrent false accusations that the Port Authority’s investment policies discriminate against New York and favor New Jersey. Doig, Jameson W. Empire on the Hudson: Entrepreneurial Vision and Political Power at the Port of New York Authority. New York: Columbia University Press, . Port Guide New York/New Jersey: Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. New York: NYT Custom Publishing, . Port of New York Authority. Development of Newark Airport and Seaport. New York: Port of New York Authority, .

residence today in Port Republic. To this day the residents recall the revenge on the British when ebb tides trapped the British ships in the adjacent waters. The city was incorporated in , when the population was . By , its population was nearly . The  census records Port Republic as having , residents,  percent of whom were white. There are  households in the village,  of them farms, and only  operating as commercial enterprises. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Sander, Harriet. Sketches of Old Port Republic. Port Republic: Port Republic Tercentenary Committee, .

See also Port Authority of New York and New Jersey

Shaw, H. Leslie, ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Neptune: Towndata.com Network, .

Stephen Marshall

Jerome E. Klein

Port Norris.

See Commercial Township.

Port Republic. .-square-mile city in Atlantic County. Although the area was inhabited as early as , which the city calls its founding date, it was not until March , , that Evi Smith, Hugh McCullum, and Richard Westcoat applied for a royal charter to build a dam, a sawmill, and a gristmill on land they owned on both sides of the Nacote Creek. During the American Revolution, after the nearby town of Chestnut Creek was sacked by the British, its residents moved to the small village of Port Republic. One of the people who fled Chestnut Hill was an innkeeper, Daniel Mathis, whose tavern was torched. He then built the Franklin Inn, which is a private

Portuguese.

The  U.S. Census found only two residents of Portuguese nativity living in New Jersey, in Newark. People of that nationality traditionally settled in New England (and, subsequently, California) in connection with the whaling and fishing industries, and they were preponderantly from the Atlantic islands, chiefly the Azores, rather than from continental Portugal. More of the insular Portuguese (from the Azores, Madeira, and Cape Verde) arrived in the great migration that began around , attracted by relatively plentiful jobs in the New York–New Jersey region. Continentals, however, largely formed the core of the Portuguese community that began to coalesce in Newark around the time of World War I. Some were

Potter, William Appleton merchant seamen from northern Portugal who entered—often illegally—at the new () Port Newark and found shelter at boardinghouses in the adjacent Ironbound section, known familiarly as Down Neck. An early hub was Monroe Street, between Ferry and Market streets. Early organizations were the Portuguese Sports Club, founded in  and still the main social group; the Iberia Restaurant, ; Saint Joseph’s Spanish-Portuguese Church, growing out of a Catholic mission started in ; and the weekly newspaper Luso-Americano, originally launched in . But the key date in the community’s development is , when the revision of U.S. immigration policy stimulated a Portuguese influx second only to the great wave of –. The newcomers arrived from Aveiro, Minho, and other districts— many from the coastal town of Murtosa—and produced what was dubbed the “aluminum siding revolution,’’ revitalizing the Ironbound neighborhood and helping to spark Newark’s renewal. An abundance of restaurants has introduced the wider public to a distinctive cuisine, and a Portugal Day festival every June draws immense crowds. In the  census, , New Jerseyans claimed Portuguese ancestry. Pap, Leo. The Portuguese-Americans. Boston: Twayne, .

See also ethnicity

Edward A. Jardim

Porzio, Bromberg, and Newman. In January , three Morristown lawyers— Ralph Porzio, Myron J. Bromberg, and John M. Newman—started a new law firm on Washington Street in Morristown, a block away from the Morris County Courthouse. Since then, Morristown has become a major commercial center of northern New Jersey. The firm, now in Morris Township, employs sixty lawyers and over fifty paralegals. Porzio, Bromberg, and Newman, P.C., maintains a New York City office as well. The firm had a general law practice until the early s, when it limited its practice to litigation, environmental law, and business counseling, resulting in a more specialized practice and entry into major nationally litigated matters, including toxic tort and pharmaceutical liability controversies. Porzio, Bromberg, and Newman was one of the first New Jersey law firms to make substantial use of paralegals to avoid unnecessary charges for work that required intensive preparation of facts but not necessarily the time of a lawyer. This style of practice has become prevalent in New Jersey, resulting in a reduction of costs.

merely locations at which privately carried letters were left or picked up. Early postal activities in the colonies were the responsibilities of the individual legislators, and they were poorly coordinated. In , the Crown granted Thomas Neale a patent to establish a postal system for the American colonies. Neale, who never visited the colonies, became postmaster general and appointed Andrew Hamilton, governor of East and West Jersey, deputy postmaster general. Hamilton was merely to coordinate the system; all authority remained with the legislatures. With the Queen Anne Act of , the Crown asserted its right and responsibility to establish a postal system for the American colonies. However, individual legislatures continued to play the dominant role until Alexander Spotswood’s appointment as deputy postmaster general for the American colonies in . Additional post offices were established at Trenton in , New Brunswick in , Elizabethtown and Princeton in , Newark in , and Woodbridge in . With the establishment of the General Post Office by the Continental Congress on July , , there were just these seven post offices in New Jersey, all tied to the transport of mail between New York and Philadelphia. The first new post office was established at Morristown in . With the establishment of the General Post Office under the new Constitution, effective June , , there were twenty post offices. As service and coverage expanded, additional offices were established. The number of post offices in New Jersey peaked at  in . With better transportation facilities and population shifts, the number has been

reduced to fewer than  by the beginning of the twenty-first century. Until , all mail was transported on foot, by wagon, or by post rider. The first use of a railroad to transport mail in New Jersey occurred in August  on the Camden and Amboy Railroad. Within fifteen years, more than half of all mail in New Jersey was transported by rail. Although the Post Office began experimenting with airmail in , it did not start widespread service until . The first contract airmail service, Route No. , started July , , and flew mail from Hadley Field in Piscataway to Teterboro, Hartford, and Boston. Kay, John L., and Chester M. Smith, Jr. New Jersey Postal History. Lawrence, MA: Quarterman Publications, .

Edward J. Siskin

Potter, William Appleton (b. Dec. , ; d. Feb. , ). Architect. William Potter was the son of Bishop Alonzo Potter and Sarah Benedict Potter. After graduating from Union College, Potter began his career in  as an apprentice to his half brother, the architect Edward T. Potter, at Edward’s office in New York City. Potter established his own practice in , and is considered one of the most important practitioners of the American High Victorian Gothic. Chancellor Green Library at Princeton University () was his first major commission. Potter’s designs include Witherspoon Hall (–), Alexander Hall (–), and Pyne Library (–) at Princeton University; Stuart Hall at Princeton Theological Seminary (–); and the First Dutch Reformed Church of Somerville (–).

Myron J. Bromberg

postal service. The first post offices in New Jersey were established at Perth Amboy in  and Burlington in . These were

651

Alexander Hall at Princeton University was designed by William Appleton Potter.

Courtesy Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, University Archives, Princeton University Library.

652

poultry industry

Landau, Sarah Bradford. Edward T. and William A. Potter: American Victorian Architects. New York: Garland, . Wodehouse, Lawrence. “William Appleton Potter, Principal Pasticheur of Henry Hobson Richardson.’’ Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians , no.  (): –.

See also architecture

Stacy E. Spies

poultry industry.

Although the Dutch brought fowls from their homeland, poultry products were seldom mentioned in accounts of New Jersey industry prior to . A goose was worth only half a dollar in , and ducks and chickens much less. But New York and Philadelphia market demands soon led some farmers to increase their operations and improve their treatment of poultry; chickens subsequently became a significant element in New Jersey’s agricultural economy. Egg production gradually took precedence over other kinds of poultry specialization as city consumers overcame their prejudice against white eggs. The first modern or portable incubator in New Jersey was shown at an exhibit of the New Jersey Poultry Society at Elizabeth in , and the s saw its rapid adoption by poultry producers. Without the incubator, the great expansion of the industry would not have been possible. During World War I increased demand led to an increase in poultry production. In  more than , New Jersey farmers reported that they had raised approximately . million chickens that year. Cumberland, Hunterdon, Monmouth, and Burlington counties, in order of rank, were industry leaders. The poultry industry was further developed in the s by refugees from Europe, but was often bedeviled by rapid fluctuation in egg prices and the general economic depression. Between  and , however, egg production showed phenomenal growth. By  a

full third of total farm cash receipts in the state came from poultry products—included were . million meat chickens, while the state ranked fifth in the nation in egg production. After , there was a rapid decline in the industry’s output. Yet from  to  Monmouth County led the nation in the number of chickens on farms and was one of the nation’s leading producers of eggs. Lower production costs elsewhere, particularly in the South, brought prices down. The New Jersey Department of Agriculture in  stated that each laying hen produced two hundred eggs per year. Most production was concentrated in the central and southern regions of the state, with Monmouth, Ocean, and Cumberland counties then the leading producers. Since , both chicken and egg production have declined rather steeply. The state had less than half as many egg-laying hens in  as it did in . Gross income from egg sales plummeted as the price per dozen eggs sank at a time when production per hen was up slightly. Turkey production was more stable, although of much less importance in the state than chickens. By the late s, every county with egg and chicken production saw declines in revenues. Schmidt, Hubert G. Agriculture in New Jersey: A ThreeHundred-Year History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. A Geography of New Jersey: The City in the Garden. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also agriculture

Frances Pinto

Powhattan Renni Renapi.

The Rankokus American Indian Reservation and the American Indian Heritage Museum in Rancocus (Burlington County) are owned and operated by members of this incorporated group. The various exhibits in their “ancestral

village,’’ open to the public by appointment, include traditional crafts, live “buffalo,’’ and an Iroquoian-type longhouse. Although located in the area of the aboriginal Rancocas band of Lenapi, this organization traces its native links to Pocahontas and the people of the Powhatan Confederacy in Virginia. These claims have been recognized by the state, but the group has not requested and not received federal recognition. The spelling of the corporate name derives from one of the linguistic variants documented in the early colonial records for the people of the lower Delaware Valley. See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Pownall, Thomas

(b. Sept. , ; d. Feb.

, ). Colonial administrator. British-born

Thomas Pownall served extensively in the preRevolutionary era as a colonial official. He worked at the Board of Trade, secured an appointment as a secretary to New York’s governor in , was commissioned lieutenant governor of New Jersey in  (and became acting governor, briefly, in ), then was commissioned governor of Massachusetts in , a position he held for three years. As a colonial governor, Pownall demonstrated considerable sympathy with colonial demands for greater autonomy within the British Empire. His  publication, Administration of the Colonies, suggested reforms that he hoped would diffuse the growing imperial crisis between Britain and its colonies. Schutz, John A. Thomas Pownall, British Defender of American Liberty: A Study of Anglo-American Relations in the Eighteenth Century. Glendale, CA: A. H. Clark, .

Paul Clemens

Pratt, Murray Fletcher (b. Apr. , ; d. June , ). Military historian and fantasy author. Born in Buffalo, New York, Fletcher Pratt wrote more than thirty historical works for a general audience, including Ordeal by Fire (), a short history of the Civil War; The Marine’s War (); and Stanton: Lincoln’s Secretary of War (). He was dean of nonfiction at the Bread Loaf Writers’ Conference in Vermont from  to . Fletcher Pratt’s Naval War Game () grew out of his interest in the Prussian Kriegspiele of the nineteenth century and is a cornerstone of modern wargaming. A translator of the science fiction novels of Hugo Gernsback in the s, Pratt is best remembered for his numerous collaborations with L. Sprague de Camp and for his two fantasy novels, The Well of the Unicorn () and The Blue Star (). From  until his death, Pratt lived in Highlands, New Jersey.

Laurelton Farms, Lakewood, c. .

Courtesy Pike Archives.

De Camp, L. Sprague. Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy. Sauk City, WI: Arkham House, .

Henry Wessells

presidential elections

Precker, Jennie E.

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Mar. , ).

Banker, lawyer, and feminist. Born in New York City, Jennie E. Precker attended Newark Normal School (now Kean University) and the New Jersey Law School (Rutgers University Law School, Newark), and in  was admitted to the bar. The following year, Precker established the Susan B. Anthony Building and Loan Association, an institution dedicated to providing loans to women. The building and loan survived the Depression in part due to Precker’s foresight in maintaining cash reserves that exceeded contemporary legal requirements. Meanwhile Precker continued her education, earning graduate degrees in law from Rutgers and New York University. She served as legal counsel to the Salvation Army and the New Jersey Women’s Republican Club, and helped lobby for legislation aimed at equalizing wives’ shares of marital property. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also feminism

Peter Mickulas

prefabricated houses. Prefabricated houses are constructed from elements that are manufactured at a remote location and shipped to the building site to be assembled. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, the “mail-order home’’ came into prominence with the availability of precut lumber for houses and cast-iron elements. Prefabricated housing providers such as the Aladdin Company and Sears, Roebuck popularized the “mail-order home’’ concept. An expanding number of plan books offered a variety of options for prospective homebuilders, including distinguishing features such as arbors, sunrooms, and built-in cabinetry. Bungalows and picturesque revival styles were especially in favor at this time. Some of the most popular of these bungalow styles included Sears, Roebuck’s “Osborn’’ and Aladdin’s “Pomona.’’ Examples of these Arts and Crafts–influenced designs can be found in Madison, High Bridge, Pequannok, Morris, and other townships. Other popular styles built across the state included the Sears “Crescent,’’ boasting “five rooms and a neat porch,’’ which can be seen in neighborhoods in Highland Park, Rocky Hill, and Riverdale. At the onset of World War II, the Quonset hut, a metal-framed rounded structure, was invented for military use, but was sometimes pressed into service as temporary housing. Factory-produced trailers, using the same technology that massproduced diners, filled a housing need as well. The present-day modular home uses technology to custom-design homes to be delivered in sections, with much of their interiors, including dry walls and wood floors, in place. Aladdin Company. Aladdin “Built in a Day’’House Catalogue, . New York: Dover Publications, .

Guter, Robert P., and Janet Foster. Building by the Book: Pattern Book Architecture in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also architecture

Patricia F. Colrick

Presbyterians. Presbyterians have been present in New Jersey since the seventeenth century. As descendants of the Reformed wing of the Protestant Reformation, Presbyterians upheld traditional Calvinist beliefs about God and man. They also believed that church elders, rather than a clergyman or the congregation, were the ultimate administrators in any local church. Regional bodies of elders and clergy known as presbyteries and synods held individual congregations accountable on church dogma and practice. The first New Jersey Presbyterians were actually not Presbyterian, but rather Congregationalist in church polity. Congregationalist New Englanders settled around Newark and Woodbridge in the s and eventually adopted a Presbyterian form of church polity in the early eighteenth century. These Presbyterians were joined in New Jersey by a host of Scots Presbyterians who arrived beginning in the s with their Presbyterian polity in tow. They settled first in Central New Jersey and eventually spread throughout the colony. New Jersey became an important center of Presbyterianism during the eighteenth century. The New Brunswick Presbytery, led by the revival preacher Gilbert Tennent, was influential in dividing colonial Presbyterians into Old Side and New Side factions during the First Great Awakening. New Jersey would become a bastion of clergy who supported the Awakening in the s. These prorevival ministers were key to establishing the first Presbyterian college in the British colonies— the College of New Jersey at Princeton—in . This institution became a training ground for Presbyterian clergy and laity throughout the Northeast. Under the leadership of John Witherspoon (the only clergyman to sign the Declaration of Independence), Princeton emerged at the forefront in the fight for American liberty. As the American population began to migrate to the West in the nineteenth century, and Presbyterians nationally became divided over slavery and, once again, over the role of evangelicalism and revivalism in their ranks, New Jersey slowly began to lose its status as the hub of American Presbyterianism. Nevertheless, in , the Presbyterian General Assembly established Princeton Theological Seminary, the denomination’s first national school for ministerial training. Under the direction of the theologian Charles Hodge, Princeton Seminary was a center of Old School Presbyterianism for most of the century. Old Schoolers, for the most part, rejected the revivalism of the Second Great Awakening on the American frontier and defended historic

653

Reformed confessions such as the Westminster Confession of Faith. Throughout the twentieth century, New Jersey, largely because of Princeton Seminary, continued to play a significant role in religious and public life. The seminary was a lightning rod in the Fundamentalist/Modernist controversy that plagued mainline denominations in the s and s. In , Woodrow Wilson, Presbyterian governor of New Jersey, was elected to his first of two terms as president of the United States. And in , Princeton served as the site of the drafting of the most recent Presbyterian theological confession. New Jersey adherents to the Presbyterian Church–U.S.A., the current national body of mainline Presbyterians, stand at just under  percent of the state population. In , the denomination maintained  churches in New Jersey divided among seven different presbyteries (several smaller Presbyterian denominations, such as the growing Presbyterian Church in America, also maintain churches in the state). All of the PC-USA congregations and presbyteries within New Jersey are part of the denomination’s Northeast Synod. Landsman, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Longfield, Bradley J. The Presbyterian Controversy: Fundamentalists, Modernists, and Moderates. New York: Oxford University Press, . Noll, Mark A. Princeton and the Republic, –: The Search for a Christian Enlightenment in the Era of Samuel Stanhope Smith. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Trinterud, Leonard L. The Forming of an American Tradition: A Re-examination of Colonial Presbyterianism. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, .

See also religion

John Fea

Preservation

New Jersey. This statewide, nonprofit, membership-supported organization promotes historic resources, communities, and landscapes throughout New Jersey through education and advocacy. Founded in , Preservation New Jersey addresses its mission by producing an annual list of New Jersey’s ten most endangered historic sites; providing educational tours, conferences, and training workshops; publishing a quarterly newsletter; maintaining a resource library; and commenting upon legislation and public policies that affect New Jersey’s historic preservation community.

Zerbe, Nancy L., ed. Preserving New Jersey: A Handbook for Historic Preservation. Rev. ed. Perth Amboy: Preservation New Jersey, .

Pat Pizzini Huizing

presidential elections.

The results of presidential elections in the state of New Jersey reveal certain constant patterns: that the Garden State largely reflects the nation, that the state is highly competitive, and that it generally leans toward the Republican party.

654

presidential elections

New Jersey Presidential Votes, 1789–2000 Election Year

New Jersey

United States

1789

Washington, F (6), Jay, F (5)

Washington, F (69)∗

1792

Washington, F (7), Adams, F (7)

Washington, F (132)∗

1796

Adams, F (7), Pinckney, F (7), D-R (0)

Adams, F (71)∗

1800 1804

Adams, F (7), Pinckney, F (7), D-R (0) D-R (8), F (0)

Jefferson, D-R (73)∗ Jefferson, D-R (162)∗

1808

D-R (8), F (0)

Madison, D-R (122)∗

1812 1816

D-R (0), F (8) D-R (8), F (0)

Madison, D-R (128)∗ Monroe, D-R (183)∗

1820

D-R (8), I, D-R (0)

1824

D-R (41.9)

D-R (52.1)∗

D-R (30.9)

D-R (41.3)∗

1828 1832

D-R (47.9) D (49.9)∗

N-R (52.1)∗

D-R (56.0)∗

N-R (43.6) N-R (37.4)

D (49.5)

N-R (49.1) Whig (50.5)∗

D (54.2)∗

1836

D (50.8)∗

Whig (36.6)

1840

D (48.1)

Whig (51.7)∗

1844 1848

D (49.4) D (47.5)

∗

Whig (50.5) Whig (51.5)∗

D (46.8) D (49.5)∗

Whig (52.9)∗ Whig (48.1)

D (42.5)

Whig (47.3)∗

1852 1856

D (52.8)∗ D (47.2)∗

Whig (45.9)

D (50.8)∗

Whig (43.9)

R (28.5)

D (45.3)∗

R (33.1)

1860

D (51.9)∗

R (48.1)

D (29.5)

R (39.9)∗

1864

∗

D (52.8)

R (47.2)

D (45.0)

R (55.0)∗

1868

D (50.9)∗

R (49.1)

D (47.3)

R (52.7)∗

1872 1876

D (45.5) D (52.7)∗

R (54.5)∗ R (47.0)

D (43.8) D (51.0)

R (55.6)∗ R (48.0)∗

1880 1884 1888

D (49.8)∗ D (49.0)∗ D (49.9)∗

R (49.0) R (47.3)

D (48.3)∗ D (48.5)∗

R (48.3) R (48.2)

R (47.5)

D (48.6)∗

R (47.8)

1892

D (50.7)∗

D (46.1)∗

R (43.0)

1896

D (36.0)

R (46.2) R (59.7)∗

D (46.7)

R (51.0)∗

1900

D (41.1)

R (55.3)∗

D (45.5)

R (51.7)∗

1904

D (38.1)

R (56.7)∗

D (37.6)

R (56.4)∗

1908 1912 1916

D (39.1) D (41.2)∗ D (42.7)

R (56.8)∗ P (33.6) R (54.4)∗

D (43.0) D (41.8)∗

R (51.6)∗ P (27.4)

1920

D (28.4)

R (67.6)∗

D (49.2)∗ D (34.1)

R (46.1) R (60.3)∗

1924

D (27.4)

R (62.2)∗

D (28.8)

R (54.0)∗

1928

D (39.8)

R (59.8)∗

D (40.8)

R (58.2)∗

1932 1936 1940

D (49.5)∗ D (59.5)∗ D (51.5)∗

R (47.6) R (39.6)

D (57.4)∗ D (60.8)∗

R (39.6) R (36.5)

1944 1948

D (50.3)∗ D (45.9)

R (47.9) R (49.0) R (50.3)∗

D (54.7)∗ D (53.4)∗

R (44.8) R (45.9)

1952

D (42.0)

R (56.8)∗

D (49.6)∗ D (44.4)

R (45.1) R (55.1)∗

1956 1960

D (34.2) D (50.0)∗

R (64.7)∗ R (49.2)

D (42.0) D (49.7)∗

R (57.4)∗ R (49.5)

1964

D (65.6)∗

R (33.9)

R (38.5) R (43.4)∗

Monroe, D-R (231)∗

1968

D (44.0)

R (46.1)

D (61.1)∗ D (42.7)

1972

D (36.8)

R (61.6)∗

D (37.5)

R (60.7)∗

1976 1980

D (47.9) D (38.6)

R (50.1)∗ R (52.0)∗

D (50.1)∗

R (48.0)

1984

D (39.2)

R (60.1)∗

D (41.0) D (40.6)

R (50.7)∗ R (58.8)∗

1988

D (42.6)

R (56.2)∗

D (45.6)

R (53.4)∗

1992 1996

D (43.0)∗ D (54.0)∗

R (40.6)

D (43.0)∗

R (37.4)

R (36.0)

D (49.0)∗

R (41.0)

2000

∗

R (40.0)

D (48.4)

R (47.8)∗

D (56.0)

∗

S: Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections, 3d ed. (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1994). Data for 1996 and 2000 presidential elections from The Almanac of American Politics (Washington, DC: National Journal, 1996 and 2000). N: Data from 1789–1820 are electoral votes; 1789–1800 electors cast two votes, with the candidate receiving the most becoming president and the second largest number vice president; 1800–1820 electors voted separately for president and vice president. Data from 1824–2000 are percentages of popular votes. F = Federalist; D-R = Democrat-Republican; I, D-R = Independent, Democrat-Republican; N-R = National-Republican; P = Progressive; * = the winner.

These trends can be seen in the accompanying table. Presidential elections in New Jersey tend to reflect the nation. Prior to , the state voted for the national winner in thirteen of eighteen presidential elections. The state mirrored the nation in every election from  to ,  to ,  to , and from  to . All told, throughout the nation’s history, the Garden State has voted with the nation in forty-two of the fifty-four presidential contests. There have been only a few notable exceptions to that trend over the years, with the chief divergence coming around the Civil War. In the three consecutive elections of , , and , the state voted for the Democratic candidates while the country went Republican. Since the  contest, the other exceptions came in , , , and . Presidential elections in New Jersey tend to be highly competitive, and hence the state is often described as a swing state. More often than not, the popular-vote difference between the two major parties tends to be relatively small. From  to , the average difference between the vote secured by each of the two parties was . percent. The mean difference jumped to . percent between  to . From the Franklin D. Roosevelt election of  to the contest of , however, the average dropped to . percent. As a result of the closeness of the vote between the two major parties, the state has frequently shifted from the GOP column to the Democratic side and back. Indeed, the shift tends to work in streaks. As the asterisks in the table illustrate, after every few elections the state alters its electoral loyalties from one side to the other. Another consequence of the close competition between the two major parties has been that third parties tend to be almost nonexistent in New Jersey. The state tends to give more support to the Republicans than to the Democrats. In all the contests from  to , the state sided with the GOP sixteen times and with the Democrats ten times. Moreover, the state tends to be much more decisive in its support for the Republicans than for the Democrats. As the table reveals, in the years when the state voted for the GOP, it did so at a much higher percentage than when it voted for the Democrats. Notable examples of this are the elections of –, –, , , , and –. The years when the state went decisively for the Democrats have been few and far between (, , , , and ). Indeed, in the last two elections ( and ), the state displayed strong Democratic tendencies, though the longterm viability of that pattern remains to be seen. These findings reveal that New Jersey is an important player in presidential contests, given the close competition between the two major parties. By the same token, the state does not stray too far away from national

Princeton, Battle of preferences, making it a microcosm of presidential politics. Pomper, Gerald M., ed. The Political State of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rosenthal, Alan, and John Blydenburgh, eds. Politics in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also voting

Sunil Ahuja

Press of Atlantic City.

Based in Pleasantville, this daily and Sunday newspaper serves Atlantic, Cape May, Cumberland, and Ocean counties. Walter Edge, twice governor of New Jersey, founded the Atlantic City Press in . Before starting a Senate term, Edge sold the paper in . A Sunday edition began in . The newspaper’s name became the Press in  to convey its regional coverage. Abarta acquired the paper in . The Press’s name was changed to the Press of Atlantic City in , reflecting the city’s growing prominence. In  the Press’s circulation was seventy-six thousand daily and ninetyeight thousand Sundays. See also newspapers

Harry Glazer

Prestopino, Gregario

(b. June , ;

d. Dec. , ). Painter and teacher. Gregario

Prestopino, a second-generation Italian American, grew up on the Lower East Side of New York. Despite attending the conservative National Academy of Design and studying under Charles Hawthorne, “Presto’s’’ early graphic paintings were influenced more by the Ashcan school and depict working-class lives. More traditional subject matter returned in his later watercolors of nudes done in simply shaped blocks of color. He lived in the artistic community of Roosevelt in Monmouth County. During the s, he taught at the Brooklyn Museum School and New School for Social Research, and he won first prize for his art film Harlem Nights at the  Cannes Film Festival. Cummings, Paul. A Dictionary of Contemporary American Artists. th edition. New York: St. Martin’s, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

Price ran for Congress from California as a Democrat in , but lost narrowly. In  he ran for Congress from North Jersey (also as a Democrat) and won because of Whig division. He was defeated in  after his district was redrawn. In , armed with reformist appeal, ample funds, and fiery apple-brandy flowing freely at rallies, Price defeated a weak competitor to become New Jersey’s youngest governor. Serving from  to , Price reorganized the public school system, funded teacher-training institutes, and founded the state’s first teachers’ college. He improved roads and initiated bistate cooperation by regulating pier construction in New York Harbor. He arranged a geological survey to locate Jersey’s mineral deposits. He increased efficiency in clogged courts by adding judges, and enlarged the state insane asylum. During the s Price supported local referenda to decide slavery’s future in the West. Unlike the northern Democratic leader, Stephen A. Douglas, Price failed to condemn attempts to impose slavery on Kansas; yet in  he backed Douglas for president and served as state party chair. In April , Price urged Jersey to secede and go with the South, but most Jerseyans repudiated his proposal. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Price opposed the war, urging recognition of the Confederacy, thereby foiling any chance of a postwar political career. As an energetic businessman, Price tried banking, quarrying, ferrying, selling real estate, reclaiming land, and running the family estate. Each effort failed because of his mismanagement. When his embezzlement in California brought arrest and imprisonment in New Jersey in , Price’s health so deteriorated that the judge released him. Ordered to pay up or return to jail, death ended his troubles. Historians, dismissing Price as a crook and a copperhead, rank Price as one of the state’s worst governors. But as a reformist, activist, if pompous governor, Price made modest progress in advancing education and transportation.

(later African Lodge #), organized in Boston on July , , by Prince Hall (?– ). Affiliates, usually designated “(PHA)’’ within or at the end of the organizational name, have existed in New Jersey since the s. Their members pursue the ideals of liberty, equality, benevolence, friendship, and spirituality, and promote civic, economic, and educational improvements. In the mids Prince Hall Masons of New Jersey established themselves as early pioneers in African American philanthropy, volunteerism, and self-help. Prince Hall Masonry in New Jersey comprises twelve male and twelve female organizational “houses.’’ Of these, the Most Worshipful Prince Hall Grand Lodge, Free and Accepted Masons, State of New Jersey, is the foundation organization. Although, according to Masonic historian Aldrage B. Cooper, there is evidence of Masonry among “colored men’’ in Jersey City as early as June , , it was not until June , , that four local lodges in central and southern Jersey established the “Most Worshipful Union Grand Lodge of Ancient York Masons for the State of New Jersey and Jurisdiction.’’ It is said to have been the sixth grand lodge of Prince Hall Masons founded in the United States. Its first grand master was George Shreves, the first African American schoolteacher in Camden and Trenton. He began a long line of distinguished African American Masonic leaders in New Jersey, among them: the Rev. John Height Bean (–), minister of the African Methodist Episcopal Church; William Francis Powell (?–), principal of Camden’s Mount Vernon School and U.S. envoy to Haiti (–); and Lester B. Granger (–), executive director of the National Urban League (–).

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

John M. Bettis and Sibyl E. Moses

See also Civil War; governor

William Gillette

Price, Rodman M.

(b. May , ;

d. June , ). Governor. Rodman M. Price received an erratic education, then became a naval purser. When war with Mexico broke out in , Price was with the Pacific fleet off California, and he helped the United States seize California before Great Britain could. Swept up in the Gold Rush, Price misappropriated federal and private funds, invested in California real estate, and made a killing, though his fortune in gold was lost at sea. Price’s activities in California triggered a lifetime of lawsuits that tarnished his reputation.

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Prince Hall Masonic Organization. Numerous African American fraternal organizations, including the Elks, the Odd Fellows, the Knights of Pythias, and Greekletter sororities and fraternities, have sustained members in New Jersey from the period of slavery up to the present. The Prince Hall Masonic Organization is the oldest and one of the most influential in the state. The term “Prince Hall Masonry’’ applies to the family of African American Masonic fraternal bodies descended from African Lodge #

Cooper, Aldrage B. Footprints of Prince Hall Masonry in New Jersey: The Source and Course of Ancient Craft Masonry among Prince Hall Freemasons in New Jersey in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Press of Henry Emmerson, . Wesley, Charles H. Prince Hall: Life and Legacy. Washington, DC: United Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction, Prince Hall Affiliation, .

Princeton, Battle of.

In the aftermath of the American victory at the Battle of Trenton on December , , Gen. George Washington decided to move the Continental Army northward. After eluding the British at the second Battle of Trenton on January , , the troops made a night march to the outskirts of Princeton. Early on the morning of January , they encountered an enemy brigade moving south under the command of Lt. Col. Charles Mawhood. A fight ensued in an orchard between Mawhood’s troops and Gen. Hugh Mercer’s Continental vanguard. General Mercer fell, mortally wounded, but Washington, with Generals John Cadwalader and Nathaniel Greene, rode among the troops

656

Princeton Art Museum

Princeton Art Museum. The Art Museum at Princeton University was conceived of in  as an important component of the newly introduced art history curriculum for the university. The original building, designed by A. Page Brown, housed both the museum collection and the Department of Art and Archaeology. A new museum building, designed by Steinman and Cain, replaced the original structure in . A major renovation in  gave the museum ample room to display its comprehensive holdings ranging from classical to contemporary art, including renowned collections of Greek and Roman antiquities, Chinese and pre-Columbian art, old master prints and drawings, and photography. See also museums

Yukio Lippit

Princeton

Ballet Society. See American Repertory Ballet/Princeton Ballet School

James Peale, Battle of Princeton, n.d. Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy Graphic Arts Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library. to rally them. At a ravine east of the orchard, the retreating British suffered additional attacks from troops commanded by Gen. John Sullivan. Later, an artillery battery commanded by Capt. Alexander Hamilton dislodged the remaining enemy soldiers from Nassau Hall. The casualties at Princeton amounted to  Americans and  British killed or wounded. The British also had  missing. This American victory, along with the earlier combat at Trenton, helped to keep the Revolutionary cause alive at a crucial

BATTLE OF PRINCETON

Princeton Borough. .-square-mile municipality in Mercer County surrounded by Princeton Township, encompassing the commercial and historic district of greater Princeton. There were European settlers in this area by the s. The name Prince Town appeared circa , likely inspired by Kings Town (now Kingston) three miles to the northeast. (There was at one time a Queens Town between them.) The main thoroughfare Nassau Street, now a segment of Route , is believed to have followed a Native American trail between the Raritan and Delaware rivers. It was a segment of the King’s Highway

time. The main site of the engagement is now Princeton Battlefield State Park, comprising eighty acres in Princeton Township. Bill, Alfred Hoyt. The Campaign of Princeton, – . Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Dwyer, William M. The Day Is Ours!: An Inside View of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, November – January . New York: Viking Press, . Stryker, William S. The Battles of Trenton and Princeton. . Reprint. Trenton: Old Barracks Association, .

See also American Revolution

John Fabiano

Continental troops withdrawing from the Second Battle of Trenton made a night march to the outskirts of Princeton. On the morning of January 3, 1777, General Mercer's troops battled British troops in an orchard.

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Retreating British troops suffered additional attacks from troops commanded by General Sullivan.

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Some of the retreating British soldiers took shelter at the College of New Jersey (Princeton). An artillery battery led by Captain Hamiltion dislodged the remaining British soldiers from Nassau Hall.

© Rutgers, The State University

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory

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Princeton Day School.

Princeton Borough’s main intersection, Nassau and Witherspoon streets.

Courtesy Alex Makienko.

during the colonial era when Princeton was a stagecoach stop between New York and Philadelphia. The  relocation here of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) was a landmark in borough history and development. The Battle of Princeton was fought here and in neighboring Princeton Township in . Princeton was the de facto national capital in June–November  when Congress, threatened by unpaid soldiers in Philadelphia, moved its deliberations to the college’s Nassau Hall. Prior to the  creation of Mercer County, Princeton lay on the dividing line between Middlesex and Somerset counties. The borough was incorporated by the state legislature on February , , allowing a single legal jurisdiction in the town. The borough consistently provided goods and services to the surrounding township. Local commerce and residency increased during the mid-nineteenth century, heyday of the adjacent Delaware and Raritan Canal. By the late s, a significant African American population (likely starting with former slaves from area farms) lived alongside residents of English, Dutch, and Scottish descent. Although segregation of schools and theaters persisted into the mid-twentieth century, by the late nineteenth century the town had numerous businesses owned by black entrepreneurs. Italian, Irish, and other ethnic groups also successfully established themselves in the borough by the early s. In , Albert Einstein settled in town to take a position at the nearby Institute for Advanced Study. His presence drew other ´migre ´s, enhancing European intellectual e

Princeton’s international flavor. Prominent persons interred in the town cemetery include Aaron Burr, Grover Cleveland, John O’Hara, and John Witherspoon. The borough has been home to talents as diverse as Paul Robeson and Thomas Mann. George Gallup’s  establishment of his polling company helped make Princeton a world center for opinion research. The post–World War II growth of Princeton University and regional research and development activities led to increased economic activity and population in the borough. Shops, restaurants, and small businesses are numerous. Moving and reuse of houses have preserved a range of historic buildings. Princeton Borough and Township currently have a common planning board, health department, library, and school system but separate governments and police departments. Periodic ballot initiatives to consolidate with the township have failed to win approval in the borough. The population in  was ,;  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . A Community Remembers: African American Life in Princeton. Princeton: Historical Society of Princeton, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Situated on a ninety-two-acre campus in Princeton, the Princeton Day School is a coeducational college preparatory day school for grades pre-K through ; it has an average enrollment of . Founded in , it began with May Margaret Fine’s mission to educate and prepare girls for college at a time when few women attained higher education. Over the years, the school moved several times to accommodate increasing enrollment and came to be known as Miss Fine’s School for Girls. During that time, many independent schools also existed to prepare male students for entering the university. In September  the Princeton Junior School for Boys opened to provide a boarding school alternative for boys in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Renamed Princeton Country Day School in , it began the slow process of merging with Miss Fine’s School for Girls, which was completed in the late s. The process was spurred by benefactor Dean Mathey, who made generous donations to each school of adjacent properties along Great Road, which encouraged the two schools to coordinate activities, including architectural planning for a new facility. When educational trends toward coeducation gathered momentum, it became clear that the two schools would merge. Although this was not an easy transition, it eventually succeeded. In October , the renamed Princeton Day School opened.

Selden, William K. From These Roots: The Creation of Princeton Day School. Princeton: Princeton Day School, .

See also education

Tracy L. Smith

Princeton Packet.

First published on June , , this newspaper was established by printer James Tod. Originally titled the Princeton Packet and the General Advertiser, the Packet was a four-page weekly journal about ten inches wide and sixteen inches long. Only between one hundred and two hundred copies of the earliest editions were printed, but the newspaper circulated at Princeton University. The paper ceased publication about a year later, but the name was revived in  when a group of local businesspeople purchased the Princeton Press, which had been founded in . The paper expanded under the leadership of Charles LaTourette, who joined the Packet in . At the end of the twentieth century, the Packet was the biweekly flagship paper of the Princeton Packet, a chain of thirteen newspapers and online services serving central New Jersey. In , the Packet had a circulation of ,. See also newspapers

Smith, Richard D. Princeton. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Wertenbaker, Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: – . Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. The Princeton Plasma Physics Lab-

Richard D. Smith

oratory (PPPL) at Princeton University builds

658

Princeton Theological Seminary

and investigates magnetic devices that are designed to use plasmas to achieve controlled nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion could produce a safer and more efficient energy source. Lyman Spitzer, Jr. (–), a professor of astronomy, began the magnetic fusion research program at Princeton University in . At first named Project Matterhorn, in  it became the PPPL. Spitzer conceived of a magnetic fusion device he called the Stellarator (from the Latin word stella, “star’’). Most fuels, such as wood, coal, and oil, are exhaustible and polluting. Atomic energy, which comes from the conversion of mass into energy according to Einstein’s relativity equation, E = mc , is nearly inexhaustible. Atomic energy is released either by fission or fusion. Fission occurs when a heavy nucleus (the positively charged core at the center of atoms), such as U , splits into smaller pieces. Fusion takes place when two lighter nuclei, such as deuterium (H ) and tritium (H ), stick together. Fission has produced energy both explosively in atomic bombs and in controlled form in nuclear power reactors. Fission is relatively easy to produce by assembling a “critical mass’’ of fissionable material, but fission has serious disadvantages: dangers from atomic explosions and radioactivity leaks, such as occurred at Hiroshima and Chernobyl. The heat of the Sun and H-bomb come from thermonuclear fusion reactions that proceed at high pressures and temperatures of millions of degrees. Since the first H-bomb exploded in , scientists have been working to tame the fusion reaction. Controlled thermonuclear fusion would have few of the disadvantages of fossil and fission fuels. However, one cannot make a fusion furnace, as no known material could take the heat. The highest melting points, of tungsten and ceramics, are only a few thousand degrees. At thermonuclear reaction temperatures, as in the Sun and stars, all matter is in a plasma state, in which the atoms have lost all their electrons, leaving bare nuclei. Fusion reactors for power plants would contain the plasma by one of two methods: inertial or magnetic confinement. At present, inertial confinement uses an atomic explosion to blast nuclei together, as in the H-bomb. To be useful, this process must be tamed. For controlled fusion, compression would be produced by lasers, X rays, or ions (charged atomic particles). Magnetic confinement compresses a plasma by means of giant magnets. PPPL has built such devices to explore nuclear fusion: the Tokamak (–), Spherical Torus (–), and the Stellarator (planned for –). In  the Tokamak produced . million watts of controlled fusion power. In  it reached a temperature of  million degrees Celsius, twenty-five times that at the center of the Sun and five times that needed for practical production of fusion power.

PPPL also studies other applications of plasmas. PPPL is largely funded by Department of Energy grants, which total about $ million annually. Fowler, Kenneth T. The Fusion Quest. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also illustration, color section; science and technology

William Lichten

Princeton Theological Seminary. This professional and graduate school of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) is situated on twenty-six acres within Princeton Borough. Founded in  as the Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church at Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton Theological Seminary (PTS) met the increasing demands for ministers and missionaries and the need to augment the existing theological curriculum. Classes began August ,  with one faculty member, Archibald Alexander, one building, Alexander House, and three students. By mid-century about two hundred students were served by five additional faculty members; the campus included dormitories, a library, and a chapel. Charles Hodge (faculty, –) and Benjamin B. Warfield (faculty, –) were the major theologians at PTS during a critical century of development. By  PTS was among the largest Presbyterian theological seminaries in the United States, featuring a core curriculum of biblical languages, history, exegesis, and theology. Faculty-administration tensions over control of the curriculum, prompted by theological disputes, led to the resignation of several faculty members, and the dissolution of the PTS board of directors, in . A board of trustees was installed, and it made the rebuilding of the faculty a priority. PTS also

expanded its degree programs to the present total of six (four master’s plus two doctoral). Bruce Metzger, an internationally respected biblical scholar, served on the faculty from  to . Until the twentieth century the senior professor was de facto president. Francis Landey Patton (–) was the first full-time president. He was succeeded by competent, often remarkable men, namely J. Ross Stevenson (–), John Mackay (–), James McCord (–), and Thomas Gillespie (–). The current curriculum includes about  courses (not all offered simultaneously). Fifty faculty members serve five hundred students from the United States and abroad. The Center of Theological Inquiry, founded in , sponsors advanced research into contemporary religious issues. PTS produces two publications, Theology Today (since ) and Princeton Seminary Bulletin (since ). Calhoun, David B. Princeton Seminary: The Majestic Testimony, –, Vol. . Edinburgh, UK, and Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth Trust, . Kerr, Hugh T., ed. Sons of the Prophets—Leaders in Protestantism from Princeton Seminary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Selden, William K. Princeton Theological Seminary: A Narrative History, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also higher education; Presbyterians

Henry Innes MacAdam

Princeton Township.

.-squaremile municipality in Mercer County. The area along Stony Brook in the western township was settled circa , largely by members of the Society of Friends. The community was the site of the Quaker meetinghouse and the township’s first commercial enterprise, Worth’s Mill, but declined in importance with the growth of Prince Town (present-day Princeton

Alexander Hall, Princeton Theological Seminary, c. .

Courtesy Special Collections, Princeton Theological Seminary Library.

Princeton University Borough). The area was the site of the Battle of Princeton, fought on January , , and Princeton Battlefield State Park is located here. Princeton Township was formed from sections of Montgomery and West Windsor townships at the time Mercer County was created in . Well into the twentieth century, its rolling hills were dotted with orchards and farms. This open land later became desirable for small estates and large-acreage home lots. Princeton Basin, along present-day Alexander Road, was a busy commercial district on the Delaware and Raritan Canal during the midnineteenth century. The  opening of the Princeton Shopping Center abetted and symbolized the post– World War II transition to a suburban-style environment. However, through planning and retention of open space the township has retained much of its rural flavor. It is home to many public and private elementary and secondary schools, as well as the American Boychoir School, the Institute for Advanced Study, portions of the Princeton University campus, and other prominent educational institutions. The population in  was ,;  percent was white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . A Community Remembers: African American Life in Princeton. Princeton: Historical Society of Princeton, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Smith, Richard D. Princeton. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Wertenbaker, Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: – . Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Richard D. Smith

Princeton University.

Chartered in  as the College of New Jersey, Princeton University is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and the oldest in New Jersey. As a consequence of the Great Awakening, seven “New Light’’ Presbyterians, unhappy with the religious orientation of the “Old Light’’ Yale College and desiring a college for the mid-Atlantic region, established the school to prepare men for the ministry. The school quickly expanded its academic scope, however. Originally opened in Elizabeth with six students attending, it moved to Newark in  before settling in Princeton in ; the town’s residents donated land and funds to attract the college. The college was wracked by financial and administrative instability in its early decades, and five men served as president in its first twenty years, including Jonathan Edwards, who served only three months. When the Rev. John Witherspoon arrived from Scotland in  to assume the presidency (he served until ), the school began its path toward a secure future, in spite of

Cleveland Tower of the Graduate College, Princeton University. The tower was erected in  in honor of Princeton resident and Princeton University trustee Grover Cleveland.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. disruptions caused by the Revolutionary War. (Nassau Hall was captured and occupied by British forces and also served as a meeting place for the Continental Congress.) In the early nineteenth century, a combination of luck—Nassau Hall survived fires in  and —and faculty devotion allowed the College of New Jersey to weather the uncertainties then common to most colleges. In the antebellum period, the school attracted a large number of southern students who, until the onset of the Civil War, typically made up one-quarter to one-third of the student body. With the arrival of another Scottish educator, James McCosh, to serve as president (–), the school began its first great physical and academic expansion, culminating in its change in name and status to Princeton University in . During McCosh’s tenure, the Green School of Science was built, and a strong reputation in the sciences, notably geology and astronomy, and mathematics was established. Numerous students who would later accrue great wealth attended during McCosh’s tenure, including Cyrus McCormick (class of ) and Moses Taylor Pyne (class of ), and they would later support their alma mater generously. Woodrow Wilson, an  graduate, returned to join the faculty in  and became president in . His tenure as president changed the fundamental structure of the university in a number of ways, including the establishment of the preceptor system, the tightening of academic standards, and the

659

centralizing of the administration within the president’s office. Wilson coined the motto “In the Nation’s Service’’ for the institution. However, he failed in his attempts to abolish the undergraduate eating clubs and to locate the Graduate College in the center of campus. The latter battle, with graduate school dean Andrew Fleming West, contributed to Wilson’s decision to run for New Jersey’s governorship in . In this same era, Princeton, Harvard, and Yale (the “Big Three’’) dominated college football. Each year from  to  at least one of the six Poe brothers was on the gridiron for the Tigers; two of the brothers were named All-Americans. Decades later, in , Dick Kazmaier won the Heisman Trophy, but Princeton football’s glory days were already fading by then. During the Great Depression, a wise investment strategy left the university relatively financially sound, and under the leadership of Harold W. Dodds, Princeton entered the World War II era in a strong position. Under accelerated academic programs and through cooperative ventures with the armed forces, Princeton provided technical and officer training both for its students and for military personnel. A number of Princetonians also contributed to the Manhattan Project. Princeton’s immediate postwar years witnessed both an increase in the student population and physical expansion. The most notable physical addition was the acquisition of the Forrestal campus (named after James V. Forrestal, a member of the class of  and President Truman’s secretary of defense) along U.S. Route , three miles northeast of the main campus. There the university, with substantial assistance from the federal government, built a particle accelerator and a fusion reactor, cementing its reputation as a leader in the realm of cutting-edge physics. The development of the Forrestal campus reflected the expansion of the graduate school and the university’s close relationship with the federal government established during World War II. From its inception, Princeton was an allmale institution, and long a predominantly white, Protestant bastion. The small numbers of Catholics, blacks, Jews, and public school graduates admitted began to increase in the s during the presidency of Robert Goheen (–). In , women were admitted as undergraduates (women had been admitted as graduate students in small numbers since the early s), and the first six undergraduate women graduated with the class of . Among Princeton’s notable characteristics are its Collegiate Gothic architecture and the allegiance of its alumni to their alma mater. Reunion Weekend, held prior to the annual commencement, attracts former students from around the world for a celebration of class spirit and university camaraderie, with the school song, “Old Nassau,’’ heard more than once in both formal and informal

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renderings. This school spirit tangibly manifests itself in financial support for the institution. In a fund-raising campaign concluded in ,  percent of all living alumni contributed a total of over one billion dollars to the university. Princeton University has a long roll of notable graduates, including  founding fathers,  presidents, more than  governors,  cabinet members,  congressmen,  ambassadors, and  Nobel laureates. Leitch, Alexander, ed. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Oberdorfer, Don. Princeton University: The First  Years. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Wertenbaker, Thomas Jefferson. Princeton, – . Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also higher education

Daniel J. Linke

Princeton University Press. Princeton University Press was founded in  by publisher and university trustee Charles Scribner “for the promotion of education and scholarship and to serve the University.’’ Although it has always been separately owned and controlled, the press, which was reincorporated in  as a nonprofit company, maintains close ties with the university. The press’s publications span a wide range of disciplines “from art history to ornithology, population studies to philosophy,’’ and include more than fifty series. Among the distinguished titles published by the press are The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, and the Bollingen Series. See also book publishing

Ellen D. Gilbert

Princeton Woods.

Also known as the “Institute Woods,’’ this magnificent forested property is adjacent to the Institute for Advanced Study, just south of the university. Over the decades, many local residents (including Albert Einstein) have enjoyed walking the woodland trails here for relaxation. They have also been appreciated by naturalists, especially birders, for many years. The -acre woods are dominated by large beech trees (up to  years old) and spectacularly tall tulip trees (more than a century old). An abundance of wildflowers peaks in the forest in late spring. Conservationists have assured the long-term preservation of this natural treasure.

Charles F. Leck

¨ rnsson Printz, Johan Bjo

(b. July ,

; d. May , ). Colonial administrator. Born in Bottnaryd, Sweden, the son of the Rev. ¨ rn Hansson and Gunilla Svensdotter, Johan Bjo Printz received a good education and served as a professional soldier before his appointment as New Sweden’s governor (–). Printz usually was able to keep both the Dutch and the English out of the lower Delaware, except

¨rnsson Printz, Edward Berggren, Portrait of Johan Bjo . Copy of an original by an unknown artist, c. , in the parsonage of Bottnaryd Church, Jonkopingslan, Sweden.

Courtesy American Swedish Historical Museum, Philadelphia. for the English traders who were vital to New Sweden’s survival. Late in his term of office, as New Sweden’s population fell, the Dutch of New Netherland built a fort at the site of present New Castle, Delaware. Many of New Sweden’s settlers fled to other colonies, and Printz found it necessary to hang a rebellious colonist. His relations with the local Indians were ambivalent: he longed for enough soldiers to “break the necks of all the savages in the [Delaware] river,’’ but New Sweden’s weakness made good relations with the local population imperative. Large and flamboyant (he is reputed to have weighed  pounds, and the Indians are supposed to have called him “Big Tub’’), he wielded power effectively and made serious efforts to generate income from the colony. New Sweden’s poverty, lack of personnel, and lack of support from home defeated him. After he returned to Sweden he held various administrative posts, culminating in his appointment as the provincial ¨ nko ¨ pings La ¨n in . He died governor of Jo on May , , of injuries he suffered in a fall from his horse. Hoffecker, Carol E., et al., eds. New Sweden in America. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press; London: Associated University Presses, . Johnson, Amandus. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware, –.  vols. . Reprint, Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, . ———, trans. and ed. The Instruction for Johan Printz. Philadelphia: Swedish Colonial Society, .

See also New Sweden; Swedes

Richard Waldron

prisoners of war.

New Jersey has had experience with prisoners of war (POWs) during several conflicts. In the American Revolution a number of Patriots from the state were

captured by the British and interned in notoriously ill-equipped sugar warehouses in New York City and in ships in the harbor. Among them was Richard Stockton, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, who was ultimately released in ill health and died a few months later. Gen. George Washington asked New Jerseyan Elias Boudinot, president of the Continental Congress and Stockton’s brotherin-law, to become commissary general for prisoners, making him responsible for trying to improve conditions on the American side. During the Civil War, an estimated five thousand New Jersey soldiers were among the Union troops captured by the Confederacy, and about one-fifth of them died, most in the infamous Andersonville prison in Georgia. Some of the Confederate soldiers captured by Union forces were interned at Fort Delaware on Pea Patch Island in the middle of the Delaware River. There disease killed both prisoners and their guards. The dead were buried at Fort Mott on Finns Point in Salem County, which in  became Finns Point National Cemetery. It contains the remains of , Confederate and  Union soldiers. New Jersey had its most significant contact with POWs during World War II. There were several factors driving the decision to bring Axis prisoners to the United States. American ships that carried supplies and men to Europe were returning empty. Great Britain had little space and few resources for POWs, whereas the United States had room to hold them and food to feed them. Moreover, the distance from the prisoners’ home countries made escape virtually impossible. Finally, as experience soon showed, the prisoners were a valuable source of labor in this country. At one point during the war, the United States held more than four hundred thousand POWs. New Jersey received its first POWs in early  under the direction of the U.S. provost marshal general. The main POW base in New Jersey was Fort Dix, and most of the early arrivals were Germans and Italians captured in North Africa. Officers were separated from enlisted personnel, and Germans were separated from Italians. There was also an attempt to segregate prisoners along ideological lines. Individuals who were deemed to be devoted supporters of the Nazi ideology were kept apart from other Germans. To alleviate overcrowding at Fort Dix and to utilize the labor potential, numerous branch camps were established, mostly in the central and southern part of the state. However, some prisoners were held farther north, and there were numerous camps close to New York City, including Camp Kilmer in Piscataway. Camp conditions were considered good throughout the state. Aside from some problems of overcrowding, the POWs were fed well, given adequate housing, and allowed access to recreational, educational, and religious services. In fact, some citizens in New Jersey and other states charged that the federal

prisons government was “coddling’’ POWs. On this matter of policy, however, the U.S. government had to consider how the conditions afforded Axis POWs might affect the treatment of U.S. prisoners in enemy camps. The POWs in the state and the country proved a valuable source of labor. By , the United States was truly beginning to feel the negative effects of a labor shortage on the home front. To alleviate this situation, the government allowed POW labor to be used for military purposes and, later that year, in the private sector. Under the strict rules established, some companies in New Jersey took advantage of this labor source. These included the P. J. Ritter Company, a cannery south of Fort Dix, and L. Rokeach and Sons, a kosher food-packing plant. However, most POW labor in the state was used on farms, where it was desperately needed. POWs working on farms also drew less criticism from the American public and labor unions. Of the World War II prisoners who died during captivity in the United States, thirteen are interred at Finns Point National Cemetery. Krammer, Arnold. Nazi Prisoners of War in America. Lanham, MD: Scarborough House, . Records of the Provost Marshal General’s Office, Prisoner of War Division, –. National Archives, Washington, DC.

661

PRISONS

NORTHERN STATE PRISON MOUNTAINVIEW YOUTH CORRECTIONAL FACILITY

EAST JERSEY STATE PRISON

EDNA MAHAN CORRECTIONAL FACILITY FOR WOMEN

ADULT DIAGNOSTIC & TREATMENT CENTER NJ TRAINING SCHOOL FOR BOYS

NJ STATE PRISON CENTRAL RECEPTION & ASSIGNMENT FACILITY

GARDEN STATE YOUTH CORRECTIONAL FACILITY

ALBERT C. WAGNER YOUTH CORRECTIONAL FACILITY

See also Civil War; World War II

MID-STATE CORRECTIONAL FACILITY

Brian D. Stokes

prisons.

In colonial New Jersey, all convicted prisoners and those awaiting trial, regardless of gender or age, were confined in jails operated by each county. In  the state legislature authorized construction of Trenton State Prison, completed in . The threestory stone structure currently serves as the administrator’s residence on the grounds of the seventeen-acre New Jersey State Prison complex. A second prison, New Jersey State Prison, still in use, was begun on this site in  and completed in . The state’s only maximum-security prison was further expanded in the early s, doubling its capacity to approximately , inmates. Throughout the nineteenth century those convicted of minor crimes served their time in county jails, and more serious criminals were sent to the state prison, as is still the practice today. Executions, by hanging, were carried out at the various county jails until the state legislature authorized electrocution in . A death house was completed at the state prison early in  and the first electrocution was carried out in December . The last hanging in New Jersey occurred in March  in the Middlesex County Courthouse yard. In the s a movement for a correctional institution for children gained momentum as reformers argued against putting young offenders in prisons and jails with hardened adult criminals. The state’s first reform school for boys, the New Jersey Training School

RIVERFRONT STATE PRISON

SOUTH WOODS STATE PRISON

BAYSIDE STATE PRISON N

SOUTHERN STATE CORRECTIONAL FACILITY

0

20 miles © Rutgers, The State University

for Boys, still in use at Jamesburg in rural Middlesex County, was established by the legislature in  and admitted its first boys two years later. The need for a similar institution for girls was underscored by the fact that four girls between the ages of eleven and fourteen were confined in the state prison in . The State Industrial School for Girls in Trenton opened in  and operated until . East Jersey State Prison (formerly Rahway State Prison), the second-oldest prison for

adult males in the state, opened in  as a reform school and was converted to a men’s prison in . Mountainview Youth Correctional Facility (formerly Annandale Reformatory) was opened in  in Hunterdon County and houses offenders between the ages of eighteen and thirty. Other institutions for youthful offenders include the Albert C. Wagner Youth Correctional Facility (formerly the Bordentown Reformatory), which was converted

662

Progressive Era

from a prison farm in  and now houses inmates between the ages of eighteen and thirty-two. The Garden State Youth Correctional Facility in Yardville, housing , younger adult male inmates, opened in . Adult women offenders were transferred from the state prison at Trenton in  when the Clinton Reformatory for Women (now the Edna Mahan Correctional Facility for Women) was established. As the state’s prison population continued to grow in the last quarter of the twentieth century, the New Jersey Department of Corrections (DOC) opened a number of medium-security institutions around the state for adult male offenders: Bayside State Prison, Leesburg (formerly Leesburg State Prison), a prison farm dating from , was developed into a medium-security prison in the early s; the Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center (ADTC) for sex offenders, in Avenel, opened in ; Mid-State Correctional Facility, formerly the stockade on the Fort Dix

New Jersey State Prisons Adult Male, Maximum-Security Prison New Jersey State Prison, Trenton: 1,800 inmates, 750 staff Adult Male, Medium-Security Prisons Adult Diagnostic and Treatment Center, Avenel: 725 inmates, 335 staff Bayside State Prison, Leesburg, with two minimum-security satellite units at Ancora and Leesburg Farm: 2,325 inmates, 675 staff Central Reception and Assignment Facility (CRAF), Trenton, with satellite facility at Jones Farm, West Trenton: 600–1,000 inmates, 400 staff East Jersey State Prison, Rahway, with two satellite facilities, Rahway Camp and Northern Regional Pre-Release Center, Secaucus: 2,384 inmates, 775 staff Mid-State Correctional Facility (Fort Dix Stockade), Wrightstown: 630 inmates, 250 staff Northern State Prison, Newark: 2,700 inmates, 810 staff Riverfront State Prison, Camden: 1,150 inmates, 430 staff Southern State Correctional Facility, Delmont: 1,650 inmates, 550 staff South Woods State Prison, Bridgeton: 3,350 inmates, 1,200 staff Adult Women’s Prison Edna Mahan Correctional Facility for Women, Clinton: 1,170 inmates, 485 staff Youth Correctional Facilities Albert C. Wagner Youth Correctional Facility, Bordentown: 1,550 inmates, 525 staff Garden State Youth Correctional Facility, Yardville: 1,850 inmates, 550 staff Mountainview Youth Correctional Facility, Annandale: 1,235 inmates, 520 staff New Jersey Training School for Jamesburg: 500 inmates, 360 staff

Boys,

military reservation in Wrightstown, was acquired on indefinite lease from the federal government in ; Southern State Correctional Facility in Delmont opened in – ; Riverfront State Prison in Camden opened in ; Northern State Prison, adjacent to Newark International Airport, began operations in ; and South Woods State Prison, Bridgeton, a twenty-six-building complex, opened in May . The Central Reception and Assignment Facility (CRAF), opened in  on the grounds of the Trenton Psychiatric Hospital, holds approximately one thousand incoming inmates for short periods while they are evaluated and assigned to one of the adult male facilities. Inmates who work at CRAF are housed at the Jones Farm minimum-security unit in West Trenton. The New Jersey Department of Correction administers the state’s fifteen correctional facilities from its central administrative offices on the grounds of the former Industrial School for Girls on Whittlesey Road in Trenton. Barnes, Henry Elmer. A History of the Penal, Reformatory and Correctional Institutions of the State of New Jersey. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

W. James Franklin

Progressive Era.

The period between  and  was marked by the efforts of diverse groups of reformers to come to terms with the vast social and economic changes that accompanied the growth of industrial society in the United States. The rise of big business, the rapid expansion of cities, and the flood of European and other immigrants posed urgent challenges to the American political system and stimulated new concepts of social justice as progressives enlisted the power of government to make society more democratic and humane. No state, wrote one historian, offered more “impregnable defenses to the onslaughts of progressivism’’ than did New Jersey. Politically corrupt and dominated by large corporations, it had become a model of the unjust system that progressives sought to eliminate. Lincoln Steffens referred to New Jersey as “the traitor state’’ because of its lenient corporation laws. Political bosses in both parties were closely connected to banks, railroads, utilities, and manufacturing corporations. Industrial cities erupted in violence as labor unions struggled with corporations and local police to secure better wages and working conditions. The rise of the Progressive movement in New Jersey began with the election of Mark Fagan as mayor of Jersey City in . Fagan, along with his corporate counsel, George Record, battled Democrats and fellow Republicans to secure “equal taxation.’’ Railroads owned  percent of the land in Jersey City and were taxed by the state at lower

rates than ordinary property owners. In a public letter to Gov. Franklin Murphy, a Republican, Fagan declared that public officials were subservient to “corporate greed and injustice.’’ He attracted Democrats and Republicans across the state to his crusade against “the interests.’’ In nearby Essex County, progressive Republicans fought the party leadership over utility franchises and other abuses, calling their campaign the “New Idea.’’ The New Idea movement also inspired progressive Democrats, among them Joseph Tumilty, Frank Katzenbach, and Otto Wittpen, and by  both parties, although led by the bosses, had influential progressive factions. In New Jersey, the most effective and comprehensive progressive reformers were women. The New Jersey Federation of Women’s Clubs, the National Consumer League, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, and other organizations fought for legal rights for women, child labor laws, school and prison reform, civil service reform, sanitation, consumer protection, conservation, and Prohibition. Lacking the ballot, women were nonetheless able to create a climate of public opinion that enabled a series of Republican governors to support significant reforms. Progressive reform in New Jersey peaked under the leadership of Gov. Woodrow Wilson (–). Though chosen as a candidate by the Democratic party bosses, Wilson, once in office, defied them and pushed through the legislature the most comprehensive reform program in the state’s history. Between January and May  Wilson signed an election reform law, a corrupt practices act, a workmen’s compensation bill, the Walsh Act to provide cities with commission government, a law creating a Public Utilities Commission with the power to adjust rates and services, and other laws benefiting schools and labor. Within the span of a single legislative session, New Jersey had been transformed from one of the most reactionary states in the Union to one of the most progressive. Wilson’s remarkable legislative achievements gained him a national following among progressives, and in  he was elected president of the United States. Noble, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton.  vols. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, –. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Martin Paulsson

Prohibition.

On January , , the Eighteenth Amendment, which banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors, made national Prohibition

prosecutor a reality in the United States. This act was the culmination of a temperance movement, which grew out of the impetus for broad social reform that occurred in the first half of the nineteenth century. The first state prohibition law was passed in Maine in , and many other states—mostly in the South and Midwest—soon followed. During World War I, a temporary prohibition measure, designed to help conserve grain, gave a decisive push to a national prohibition law. In , Congress voted to submit the prohibition amendment to the states. The amendment was ratified on January , , and went into effect one year later. The Volstead Act, which defined an intoxicating beverage as one which contained more than . percent alcohol, passed in October  and set up guidelines providing for the federal enforcement of Prohibition. New Jersey was one of three states that did not ratify the amendment. New Jersey governor Edward I. Edwards, who campaigned on a platform of resistance to Prohibition, stated that he intended to keep the state “as wet as the Atlantic Ocean.’’ In New Jersey, state and local agencies effectively ignored Prohibition laws and placed the entire burden of enforcement on the meager resources of the federal government. Despite the lack of formal protest against the passage of Prohibition, large segments of the population consistently violated the law. The continuing demand for alcohol led to a flourishing of bootlegging (the illegal production and sale of alcoholic beverages). A number of New Jersey factories were turned into illegal distilleries and bottling plants. Speakeasies (establishments where illegal liquor was sold) proliferated on a large scale in New Jersey’s urban areas. The New York and New Jersey coasts were notorious as areas of exchange for rumrunners smuggling in liquor from ports outside the United States, while rail transport from Pennsylvania served as a principal source of illegal beer. While small wildcat breweries persisted in the rural areas, the liquor trade in New Jersey, as elsewhere, increasingly came under the control of organized crime. In , Col. Ira Reeves, New Jersey’s newly appointed federal Prohibition administrator, characterized the state as “reeking with major violations.’’ He quit a mere four months later, expressing his frustration that “Prohibition laws are unenforceable.’’ The crime and concomitant loss of tax revenue, as well as concerns over the misuse of federal authority, led to widespread disenchantment with what has been referred to as the “noble experiment.’’ The Great Depression further highlighted the prospects for increased employment and tax revenues that could be generated by a legal alcohol industry. The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in  was viewed widely as a mandate for repeal, and the Twenty-first Amendment, repealing Prohibition, was ratified on December , . A few

states continued to remain dry for some years, and today prohibition exists only on the local level. Behr, Edward. Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America. New York: Arcade Publishing, . Kyvig, David, ed. Law, Alcohol, and Order: Perspectives on National Prohibition. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Rumbarger, John J. Profits, Power, and Prohibition: Alcohol Reform and the Industrializing of America, –. Albany: State University of New York Press, .

Michele Rotunda

Project Diana. Project Diana was a research project of the U.S. Army Signal Corps Engineering Laboratories at Fort Monmouth. The powerful radar system used in these experiments was located at the army’s Evans Signal Laboratory in Belmar. It was named Diana after the Roman goddess of the Moon. Scientific history was made on January , , when a signal from the Diana radar was bounced off the Moon and detected on Earth. It was the first use of radar to detect an object outside of Earth’s atmosphere and proved that radio waves could pass through the ionosphere. By demonstrating that radio communications between Earth and space were possible, Project Diana helped to usher in an era of space research and exploration that continues to this day. This research also paved the way for the future use of communications satellites. Fitted with a new, parabolic antenna measuring fifty feet in diameter, the Diana radar was subsequently used in space research and also served as a vital component in the U.S. space-tracking network. An image of the radar antenna is featured on the official seal of Wall Township. Buderi, Robert. The Invention That Changed the World: How a Small Group of Radar Pioneers Won the Second World War and Launched a Technological Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

See also astronomy and astrophysics

Donald E. Bender

Proprietary House.

The Proprietary House, located in Perth Amboy, was the official residence of William Franklin, New Jersey’s last royal governor (–). This historic house is the only royal governor’s mansion in the United States that stands on its original site, with walls, fireplaces, windows, and doorways still in place. The Proprietors of East Jersey commissioned the construction of the mansion in the British Palladian style in , and Franklin (son of Benjamin Franklin) lived there until his arrest by American Patriots in June . Deserted and vandalized during the Revolutionary War, the mansion was partially restored in . A new owner added a third story and a new wing in . The property, sitting on a hill overlooking Raritan Bay, then became one of New Jersey’s first grand seaside hotels.

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The old mansion has had many lives. Purchased in  by Matthias Bruen, it served as a private estate for sixty-five years. For a while, it was a home for retired Presbyterian ministers. When the land was sold and divided in , the mansion became a boardinghouse. On November , , the property was purchased by the state of New Jersey. The Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Parks and Forestry administers the mansion. An architectural treasure, the Proprietary House is partially restored and is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. Randall, Willard S. The Proprietary House in Amboy: Official Residence of William Franklin, New Jersey’s Last Royal Governor. Perth Amboy: Proprietary House Association, .

See also historic sites

Patricia M. McGuire

proprietary

tracts. Seventeenthcentury proprietors in Maryland, Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey advertised their provinces to settlers in Europe by publishing pamphlets that described the products of the New World and set out the terms under which individuals could hold land, worship, and be governed. For New Jersey, these tracts ranged in length from the one-page Advertisement Concerning the Province of East New Jersey () to the -page Model of Government of East New Jersey (), by George Scott. The brief Advertisement directed those wanting further information to “Andrew Hamiltoune’s’’ to view maps and constitutions. The tracts usually emphasized the advantages of emigration and tended to portray America as a place of great abundance. Because their purpose was to attract settlers, they often exaggerated such matters as the duration of winter (brief) and the sizes of animals and crops (large). Not all reports sent back to England about New Jersey were hyperbolic. The Epistle of Penn, Lawrie and Lucas Respecting West Jersey () assured prospective settlers “that there is such a province as New Jersey.’’ Other tracts denied that the colony was barren or that there were too many trees or “musketoes.’’ A  pamphlet reported that although there were no “Gold or Silver Mines, ’’ iron, lead, and copper were present. Another accurately concluded that “[t]he Riches of this Country Consists in that which is most Substantial and necessary for the use of man, to wit, plenty of Corn and Cattle,’’ forecasting the colony’s role as a supplier of agricultural products. Greenblatt, Steven. Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, . Weiss, Harry B., and Grace M. Weiss. Early Promotional Literature of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Agricultural Society, .

See also travel accounts

Maxine N. Lurie

prosecutor.

See county prosecutor.

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Prospect Park

Prospect Park.

.-square-mile borough in Passaic County. The borough was originally part of Saddle River Township in Bergen County. In , it became a part of Manchester Township and joined the newly created Passaic County. Prospect Park was incorporated as a borough in . The earliest European settlers were Dutch, and Prospect Park continues to sustain a large population of Dutch Americans. Cannonball Road, which runs through Prospect Park, was taken by Gen. George Washington and his troops during the Revolutionary War. Located on Paterson’s northern border, Prospect Park was home to many dye shop employees, and in  was the site of the Battle of Muh’s Hill, a clash between the striking employees of Paterson shops and police. Today primarily a residential community, the borough includes single-family and multifamily houses as well as apartments buildings. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Prospect Park Fiftith Anniversary, –. Prospect Park: Prospect Park Fiftieth Anniversary Committee, .

Susan Chore

Prudential Financial.

One of the largest financial institutions in the world, Prudential offers insurance, investment management services, annuities, retirement services, brokerage services in securities and real estate, and other products through its affiliated companies. One of these affiliates, the Prudential Insurance Company of America, was founded in  by insurance agent John F. Dryden and is the company from which the current organization evolved. Prudential opened its first office in Newark where it continues to maintain its corporate headquarters. Prudential took the name of a similarly titled British company, though there was, and is, no affiliation between the two. The company’s logo is the Rock of Gibraltar; used for the first time in an  advertisement, “The Rock’’ is one of the most-recognized brand symbols among U.S. consumers. First expanding beyond North America into Japan in , Prudential now has a global presence across the Americas, Asia, and Europe. The company’s international businesses use various names, including “Prumerica’’ and “Dryden.’’ Prudential’s initial business strategy was to offer “industrial’’ life insurance policies, which were priced within reach of “people of small means.’’ Other insurance products were added later, such as disability (), health (), and automobile () coverage. In  Prudential expanded beyond insurance with its purchase of the securities brokerage firm Bache Halsey Stuart Shields, later renamed

Prudential Insurance Company of America ad, c. .

Courtesy Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Durham, NC.

Prudential Securities. In the s, in response to lawsuits and regulatory inquiries arising from its sales practices from the s to the mid-s, Prudential made widespread changes in the company’s operations, in addition to making restitution payments. From  until , Prudential was a mutual insurance company, “owned’’ by its insurance policyholders, rather than by stockholders. In  Prudential received approval from its policyholders and the State of New Jersey to convert to a stock company (“demutualize’’). Demutualization was completed with the initial public offering at $. per share of Prudential Financial common stock on December , . At this time, the parent company’s name changed from Prudential Insurance Company of America to Prudential Financial, Inc. As of December , , Prudential had consolidated assets of $ billion, equity of $. billion, and more than $ trillion of individual life insurance in force. Carr, William H. A. From Three Cents a Week . . . : The Story of The Prudential Insurance Company of America. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, .

unique among state governments at the time. It included an office of citizen complaints, which sought to resolve individual grievances against state government, and an office of public interest advocacy, which represented individuals in litigation and state agency proceedings in which broad public interests were affected. The existing functions of the public defender and rate counsel were also brought under the direction of the public advocate. The first public advocate was Stanley C. Van Ness. Others who held the office include Joseph H. Rodriguez, Alfred A. Slocum, Jr., Wilfredo Caraballo, and Zulima V. Farber. Although the public advocate’s staff handled thousands of individual matters every year and influenced governmental policy in a variety of areas, its successful lawsuits against inhumane conditions in county jails, exclusionary municipal zoning, and discriminatory beach fees, as well as its involvement in litigation challenging de facto racial segregation in the schools, stirred opposition. Gov. James Florio ceased funding the offices of citizen complaints and public interest advocacy in , and Gov. Christine Todd Whitman abolished the office in , transferring the public defender and rate counsel to other state departments.

Stephen Eisdorfer

Public Building Arts Inclusion Act. The Public Building Arts Inclusion Act of  is a New Jersey law mandating that up to . percent of the estimated cost of new state buildings must be dedicated to the inclusion of fine art. The act’s mandates are administered by the New Jersey State Council on the Arts and the New Jersey Division of Property Management and Construction. Fine art is defined as sculpture, painting, murals, crafts, photographs, or graphic arts. Selection is made by a panel that includes art professionals, architects, and representatives of the user agency, and works are either purchased or commissioned.

Meredith Arms Bzdak

public health.

See medicine and public

health.

Public Health Association. See New Jersey Public Health Association.

See also insurance industry

Lawrence D. Weimer

PSE&G.

See Public Service Enterprise

Group.

public advocate.

A state cabinet-level office established in  in response to the Watergate scandals, the public advocate headed an ombudsman agency that was

Public Service Corporation.

The premier electric intercity railway system that developed in New Jersey belonged to the Public Service Corporation (PSC). At the height of its popularity, the road had in excess of one thousand miles of track, including numerous miles of city streetcar lines. The result of a major consolidation in  of urban and rural trolley operations, PSC owned several lines that were intercity in nature and sported

public trust doctrine

Cutaway view of the Park Place Public Service Terminal, Newark, July , .

Courtesy North Jersey Electric Railway Historical Society, Rahway. Ira Deutsch Collection, Negative 950. substantial stretches of private rights-of-way. Two lines in particular possessed distinct interurban characteristics. One was the Riverside Line, officially the Camden and Trenton Railway. In  it opened for through service and immediately became a popular route. The other was the Fast Line. Although PSC could offer service between Trenton and Jersey City, such a trip would take more than eight hours. To reduce running over municipal streets, which explained the slowness of most longdistance journeys, PSC built an alternative line on largely private right-of-way between Trenton and the North Jersey area and dispatched its first car on July , . By  the company had also added branch lines to Perth Amboy and Carteret, late in the era of interurban construction. Even though PSC erected a major terminal in Newark () and slashed intercity running times, the Fast Line failed to meet financial expectations. After World War I an ever-increasing number of automobiles and better intercity roads meant that slumping revenues plagued the Fast Line and other portions of the PSC system. The company responded accordingly in , ending through service between Camden and points north of New Brunswick and reducing other schedules. Trackage disappeared, including the Riverside Line in  and the Fast Line several years later. Usually buses replaced traction equipment; some city car operations, however, lasted longer, but soon after World War II abandonment was nearly complete. In  PSC changed its name to Public Service Electric and Gas Company, under which name it does business today. Bonbright and Company. Public Service Corporation of New Jersey: and Its Subsidiary Companies. New York: Bonbright, . Cunningham, John T. Railroads in New Jersey: The Formative Years. Andover: Afton Publishing, .

Hamm, Edward, Jr. The Public Service Trolley Lines in New Jersey. Polo, IL: Transportation Trails, .

See also interurbans

H. Roger Grant

Public Service Electric and Gas Company. See Public Service Enterprise Group.

Public Service Enterprise Group. New Jersey’s Public Service Corporation was formed in  when more than five hundred streetcar companies, along with their attendant electric utilities and gas companies, were consolidated into one corporation. Thomas McCarter served as the company’s first president and remained in that capacity until . The impetus behind the corporation’s formation came partly as a result of a tragic streetcar accident in Newark that claimed the lives of nine schoolchildren in . Subsequent investigation into the accident by Thomas McCarter and others indicated that it could have been avoided if the operation of streetcars, equipment, and trackage were standardized. The mergers that made up the Public Service Corporation effectively unified a dangerous mix of competing companies and were part of a national trend that was making public utilities safer and more reliable. By the s the movement toward unifying utilities had culminated in the Public Service Corporation’s becoming part of a huge combine that serviced the entire eastern, central, and southern United States. Eventually, however, concerns involving the overpowering economic strength of these monopolies led to state and federal laws requiring their dissolution. Public Service became an individual entity again in  and renamed

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itself Public Service Electric and Gas Company (PSE&G) in . In  the company reorganized as Public Service Enterprise Group (PSEG). For more than two-thirds of PSEG’s existence, its transportation services played a significant role in the company’s business. In the beginning PSEG offered ferry, rail, and trolley services through the Public Service Railway Company and the Public Service Transportation Company. In  Public Service unified the divisions into the Public Service Coordinated Transport Company and continued to operate rail and bus systems for the next fiftytwo years. In  the company sold its transportation interests to the state of New Jersey. Today, sales of electricity provide almost two-thirds of PSEG’s revenue. Subsidiary PSE&G owns fourteen fossil-fuel generating plants, and has controlling interests in three nuclear power plants in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In  PSE&G owned , circuit miles of electric transmission and distribution systems, and , poles. Sales of natural gas account for onequarter of the company’s income. PSE&G owns approximately , miles of gas mains and has the capacity to deliver . million cubic feet of gas daily to customers. Overall, PSEG realizes revenue amounting to $. billion, ranks high on the Fortune  list, and employees twelve thousand people. The company serves . million electric and . million gas customers in a diagonal service area stretching from Bergen County to Gloucester County. Since the company began, PSEG has undergone tremendous change. Today, nearly a century after its founding, the Public Service Enterprise Group is a public utility holding company consisting of three subsidiaries: Public Service Electric and Gas Company, the regulated electric and gas transmission and distribution business; PSEG Power, an unregulated power generator; and PSEG Energy Holdings. PSEG Energy Holdings is the parent of PSEG Global, PSEG Resources, and PSEG Energy Technologies. Because of PSEG Energy Holdings, the Public Service Enterprise Group now conducts business in a global market increasingly subject to deregulation and foreign competition. Conniff, James C. G., and Richard Coniff. The Energy People: A History of PSE&G. Newark: Public Service Electric and Gas Company, .

See also energy industry

Robert C. Nelson

public trust doctrine. The public trust doctrine is the legal principle that the submerged lands and waters below mean highwater mark are owned by the state government in trust for public uses such as transportation and fishing. In  the New Jersey Supreme Court was the first in the United States to verify its application in the New World, in Arnold v. Mundy; in  the U.S.

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Public Works of Art Project

Supreme Court reaffirmed that court’s ruling in Martin v. Waddell. Both came about because of conflicts over rights to oyster grounds in the Raritan River and Bay, initially between Woodbridge oystermen who claimed common rights and a South Amboy farmer who claimed private rights to an oyster bed, and later between New Jersey and New York oystermen. The outcome was recognition of the state’s ownership as trustee for the people of the state. Subsequently, the doctrine has played important roles in waterfront development, uses and management of the Meadowlands and other wetlands, and public access to riverfronts and beaches. Coastal States Organization. Putting the Public Trust Doctrine to Work: The Application of the Public Trust Doctrine to the Management of Lands, Waters and Living Resources of the Coastal States. d ed. Washington, DC: Coastal States Organization, . McCay, Bonnie J. Oyster Wars and the Public Trust: Property, Law, and Ecology in New Jersey History. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, .

Montclair’s Bruce Mitchell to chronicle the activities of men working in Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps along the eastern seaboard. Black New Jerseyans, however, were notably absent from the PWAP’s roster of sponsored artists; some undoubtedly worked across the Hudson River in New York. The project was disbanded in , when its functions were assumed by the Treasury Department’s Section of Painting and Sculpture (later the Section of Fine Arts). While some critics have characterized much New Deal–era public art as conservative; innovative, important works, often utopian in tenor and executed in social realist style, did emerge from the Public Works of Art Project and its WPA successors. See also Works Progress Administration

Peter Mickulas

publishing. See book publishing; newspapers.

See also land use

Bonnie J. McCay

Public Works of Art Project.

As a New Deal-era arts program, established by the federal Treasury Department in , the Public Works of Art Project (PWAP) predated the more famous arts initiatives of the Works Progress Administration and the Works Projects Administration. The Treasury Department had a history of procuring art for public buildings, including post offices, and the PWAP was organized under its jurisdiction by Edward Bruce. Operating with support from Harry Hopkins, later the WPA director, and Eleanor Roosevelt, the PWAP utilized previously existing Treasury Department contacts and eventually provided assistance to over , artists nationwide. In New Jersey, the project consisted of northern and southern divisions, with the southern section under the administrative control of Fiske Kimball, head of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. The northern division was run from the Newark Museum, under the supervision of Juliana Force of New York City’s Whitney Museum. Advisory juries selected artists in each section who were then commissioned to provide work for the state’s schools, hospitals, libraries, and municipal buildings. Sponsored media included painting, murals, and sculpture, as well as historic models used in educational museum exhibits. New Jersey commissions included work by Charles Ward, Joseph Andrews, Henri Burk, and Jared French. Ward’s mural for the Trenton Post Office was the first to be completed under the PWAP’s auspices. Andrews, a Leonia resident, painted a heroic image of aviation hero Charles Lindbergh, while Burk portrayed U.S. presidents and French depicted American athletes. The PWAP also assigned

Puerto Ricans. Puerto Ricans began settling in New Jersey in , shortly after the federal government granted U.S. citizenship to the island’s residents. By , there were approximately  Puerto Ricans residing in the state. During World War II, another , islanders settled in the major industrial cities of New Jersey, and in the s more than , seasonal farmworkers were brought in yearly by the Garden State Service Association. In the two decades following World War II, Puerto Rico’s economic base was restructured from agriculture to light manufacturing, displacing hundreds of thousands of rural workers, many of whom emigrated to the United States. The majority of the Puerto Ricans who settled in New Jersey at that time had minimal formal education. After spending one or two seasons on New Jersey farms, they migrated to nearby cities in search of year-round employment. The reasons they generally gave for leaving Puerto Rico included: the lure of jobs and better pay in New Jersey, fast and inexpensive air transportation, and invitations from friends and relatives who had established themselves there. By , Puerto Ricans resided in every state of the Union. In New Jersey, destination of the second largest group of island emigrants after New York State, the Puerto Rican population rose from , in  to , in . By then,  percent of the Puerto Ricans in New Jersey lived in its major urban centers. The state’s largest Puerto Rican concentration was found in Newark (,), followed by Jersey City (,), Paterson (,), Hoboken (,), and Passaic, Perth Amboy, and Camden (each with , or more Puerto Rican residents). The same trend continued during the s and s, as more of the Puerto Ricans in the state were born in the United States and often migrated to these established enclaves

from New York and other parts of the tristate area. In , New Jersey’s , Puerto Ricans were the largest and the oldest Hispanic community in the state. They represented . percent of the state’s total . million inhabitants and nearly  percent of the ,, persons of Hispanic origin. The majority of the Puerto Ricans who came not so long ago as farm laborers and factory workers have made great strides. They have managed to learn English, find work, support their families, and educate their children and often themselves. A third or more of them have purchased their own homes and/or established businesses. They have, for the most part, served their communities by founding cultural and social organizations to help maintain ethnic awareness and to pass down their values to the younger generation. Their children, in turn, have pursued professional careers, and many have returned to their communities to serve the less fortunate by establishing a host of educational and social service agencies. They have also begun to run for political office. ´s, Carlos E., ed. Regional Perspectives on the Corte Puerto Rican Experience. New York: Arno Press, . Whalen, Carmen Teresa. From Puerto Rico to Philadelphia: Puerto Rican Workers and Postwar Economies. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, .

See also ethnicity; Latinas/os

Olga Jimenez Wagenheim

Pulaski Skyway. This elevated .-milelong viaduct crosses both the Hackensack and Passaic rivers, connecting Newark and Jersey City across the swampy Meadowlands. It has two main -foot cantilever spans with through trusses, and four -foot side cantilever spans with deck trusses. Its clearance over the water of  feet was to accommodate War Department concerns. Its designer, Sigvald Johannesson, used techniques comparable to those used on the Crown Point Bridge across Lake Champlain. The original bridge construction began in  and was completed in , at a cost of $ million (fifteen fatal accidents occurred during construction). It was named the “Most Beautiful Steel Structure’’ that year by the American Institute of Steel Construction. Inspired by the Good Roads Movement, the skyway was built under the auspices of the New Jersey State Highway Department to avoid massive traffic congestion in the area, such as that experienced as a result of troop movements during World War I, and also to feed traffic to the Holland Tunnel (). It now carries approximately sixty thousand vehicles daily. Originally called the Diagonal Highway, it was renamed in honor of the Polish-born Casimir Pulaski, cavalry leader of the Continental Army during the American Revolution. The viaduct was featured in Orson Welles’s War of the Worlds broadcast as being destroyed by Martians.

Pye, Mort DeLony, Eric. Landmark American Bridges. Boston: Little, Brown, . Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Plowden, David. Bridges: The Spans of North America. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also bridges; highways

Steven M. Richman

Pye, Mort

(b. May , ; d. Dec. , ).

Newspaper editor. Mort Pye has been credited with having transformed the Star-Ledger

into the largest and most influential daily in the state during the late twentieth century. Pye began his journalism career as a reporter on the Long Island Press in . He served in the army during World War II and returned to the Press after the war. He transferred in  to the Newark Star-Ledger, another newspaper in the Newhouse chain, as an assistant editor. “The Star-Ledger was thought of pretty much as a rag. It was a slapdash kind of operation,’’ Pye once said in an interview. Pye was named editor in  and, in , after riots destroyed much of the confidence in the

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future of the state’s largest city, Pye took Newark out of the title. He increased coverage of the outlying suburbs and was rewarded by higher circulation. In , when the statewide daily Evening News of Newark ceased publication after an editorial strike, Pye seized the opportunity to increase his staff, expand coverage, and transform the Star-Ledger into an editorial powerhouse in New Jersey with the sixteenth-largest circulation in the country. See also newspapers; Star-Ledger

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Q Quakers.

Quakers emerged in England as a distinct sect, formally known as the Society of Friends, during the s. They believed that each individual could experience God directly through the “Inward Light of Christ.’’ Thus, there was no need for an ordained ministry, outward religious rituals like the singing of hymns, or ornamental churches. Instead, the Friends met in meetinghouses, where they sat in silence until a man or woman—deemed a minister if members approved—prayed or preached extemporaneously. Friends developed a distinctive form of speech and dress— termed the “plain style’’—that set them apart from their neighbors. They refused to pay tithes, advocated religious toleration, and proselytized vigorously in England and early America. Men and women who engaged in an itinerant ministry helped to create a transatlantic community of Quakers. Quaker involvement with New Jersey dates from , when Edward Byllynge, aided by John Fenwick, purchased the share of New Jersey lands originally granted by the duke of York to Lord John Berkeley. In  Fenwick led a group of Quaker settlers to Salem; in  a second group arrived in Burlington. By , an estimated fourteen hundred Quakers lived in West Jersey, along with a small

number of Friends in the Shrewsbury area of East Jersey. When the Proprietors of East and West Jersey surrendered their civil authority to the Crown in , Quakers were guaranteed religious liberty and the right to make an affirmation rather than take an oath, allowing them to serve in the colonial assembly and council. Friends remained politically dominant in West Jersey until the American Revolution, even though they were a minority before the s. Unlike Pennsylvania Quakers, Jersey Friends did not attempt to set the tone for the entire colony, but lived quietly as farmers and artisans. The cultural unity of Quakers throughout the Delaware River Valley was more important than political boundaries. Friends created a hierarchy of local, monthly, and quarterly meetings, and a yearly one, which enforced observance of Friends’ distinctive testimonies. The yearly meeting of Friends from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware initially met on a biannual basis in Burlington and Philadelphia until , after which it was located in Philadelphia. In  John Hepburn, followed by John Woolman in , published eloquent tracts against slavery. A few Jersey Quakers began manumitting their slaves long before the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting in  pronounced slavery an evil and, in , moved to require all Friends to free slaves. Woolman, a teacher-farmer from Mount Holly, promoted the most important eighteenth-century Quaker reforms—opposition to slavery, protection of Indian rights, pacifism, refusal to pay war taxes, temperance, withdrawal from government, and a simplified lifestyle. Friends supported the colonial protest against British taxation after , but stopped holding

Quaker Meeting House at Stony Brook, Princeton, c. .

Courtesy Historical Society of Princeton.

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political office after , fearing that the dispute would lead to war. During the Revolution, Jersey Friends proclaimed their neutrality and disowned any member who took an oath or fought on behalf of either side. Friends played a minor role in the political and cultural life of New Jersey after . In  the Orthodox-Hicksite schism, over the relation of Quakerism to evangelical religion and authority within the meeting, brought years of dispute and the creation of two separate yearly meetings, which did not unite until . The separation meant that Friends declined numerically and became a tiny minority. Reunion became possible because in the early twentieth century most Delaware Valley Friends espoused liberalism or modernism, coupled with an emphasis upon social welfare and peace work. During their  years in New Jersey, Friends have combined a mystical form of worship with an emphasis upon racial justice, women’s equality, Indian rights, and opposition to war. Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost. The Quakers. New York: Greenwood Press, . Moore, John M., ed. Friends in the Delaware Valley: Philadelphia Yearly Meeting, –. Haverford, PA: Friends Historical Association, .

See also religion

J. William Frost

quarrying.

There are two types of quarry extraction—pits that quarry dimension stone (that is, large slabs or blocks of stone) for use primarily as building material, pavement, and tombstones, and pits that quarry crushed stone, construction sand, and gravel to be primarily used in road construction and as fertilizer and filler. Extraction is usually done by blasting wedges along rock grains and joints, which creates roughly rhomboid or rectangularshaped blocks of stone. The rocks quarried in New Jersey used for dimension stone are granite (including trap rock and diabase—a type of granite rock found only in New Jersey), slate, sandstone, and limestone found in Somerset, Passaic, Essex, Mercer, Sussex, Hunterdon, and Hudson counties. Crushed rock is obtained by benificiation, a process whereby the extracted rock is reduced to particles by grinding, washing, and centrifugal separation. New Jersey is the only state to produce greensand marl, an organic conditioner and soil fertilizer, and was ranked the sixth-largest producer of industrial sand and gravel in the United States as of . New Jersey’s quarry production peaked at the beginning of the twentieth century when it was among the top five state producers of quarried stone in the United States, and the value of New Jersey stone continued to rise toward the end of the century. Various large-scale construction projects,

Quinton including increased roadbuilding, continue to contribute to an active construction industry, but growing restrictions on quarrying activities due to noise disturbance from blasting, pollution, habitat destruction, and other environmental concerns have resulted in a slow decline in quarry production in recent years. New Jersey’s producing quarries have dropped from ninety-four in the early s to twenty-two as of , with nonfuel mineral production valued at around $ million per ton. Opencast Mining, Quarrying, and Alluvial Mining: Proceedings. London: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, . U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook—. Washington, DC: United States Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, . Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also mining

Nikisha Young

Queen Latifah.

See Latifah, Queen.

Quick Chek.

This food and convenience store chain, based in Whitehouse Station, Hunterdon County, was established in  by Carlton C. Durling, whose family had operated Durling Farms Dairy in Whitehouse Station since . The first two Quick Chek stores opened in Dunellen and Piscataway, and featured items far beyond the traditional stock of dairy stores, including a full-service fresh delicatessen and a broad grocery selection. This was years before later competitors such as Wawa adopted the concept. Quick Chek now operates  stores in fifteen counties, mainly in northern and central New Jersey. Its current workforce numbers about seventeen hundred.

Jim Donnelly

Quinlan case.

Some analysts regard the New Jersey Supreme Court’s  decision In the Matter of Karen Quinlan, An Alleged Incompetent as the high-water mark in the right-to-die debate. In this case, the court held that Karen Ann Quinlan, a twenty-two-year-old woman who lay in a coma and lacked all cognitive function, had the right to be disconnected from a respirator, and that this right could be exercised by her father. Quinlan had stopped breathing after ingesting alcohol and a mild tranquilizer at a party. Efforts to resuscitate her proved ineffective, and she later lapsed into a coma. She was unable to breathe independently, and she required round-the-clock nursing care and a feeding tube for nutrition and hydration. In a unanimous decision by Chief Justice Richard J. Hughes, the court held that the right to privacy encompassed the right to terminate life-sustaining treatment in cases in which there was no reasonable likelihood that a comatose patient would return to a cognitive, sapient state.

Quinlan is a landmark case because it for the first time established that incompetent individuals had the right to terminate lifesustaining medical treatment, and that someone other than the patient could exercise this right. The court held that this right to terminate treatment fell within the rubric of the right to privacy, and that in some cases states could not interfere with this right. In words that have been cited by the U.S. Supreme Court in later cases involving the right to die, the judges held that “the State’s interest [in the preservation and sanctity of human life] weakens and the individual’s right to privacy grows as the degree of bodily invasion increases and the prognosis dims.’’ Quinlan’s respirator was disconnected six weeks after the New Jersey high court issued its holding, but she survived for nearly ten more years. Her survival has been explained by two factors: the feeding tube that provided nutrition and hydration remained in place, and the nun who cared for her slowly and carefully weaned her from the respirator. Throughout the s, the New Jersey courts continued to allow individuals to refuse life-sustaining treatment, including feeding tubes; however, New Jersey was among the last states to pass a “Living Will’’ statute that codified this right. In the s, the national right-to-die debate began to focus on whether terminally ill patients had the right to hasten their deaths through physicianassisted suicide. In two cases heard by the U.S. Supreme Court in , State of Washington v. Glucksberg and Quill v. Vacco, the justices considered whether the right to terminate treatment that was first articulated in Quinlan was broad enough to encompass the right to hasten one’s death. The justices rejected the argument that this due-process right could be used to guarantee one’s right to physician-assisted suicide, holding that the right to terminate life-sustaining treatment was profoundly different than the right to hasten death by using prescription drugs or other means. Although the right to terminate life-sustaining medical treatment was constitutionally protected, the right to physician-assisted suicide was not. Shepherd, Lois. “Sophie’s Choices : Medical and Legal Responses to Suffering.’’ Notre Dame Law Review  () : –.

See also law

Suzanne U. Samuels

Quinn, Arthur A.

(b. May , ; d.

Feb. , ). Labor leader and politician. Al-

though born in Philadelphia, Arthur Quinn’s public life began with his work in organizing unions in New Jersey. The second union founded in Perth Amboy, a carpenters’ union, was one reportedly started by Quinn. He joined the Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, and served as the first general vicepresident of that union. From  to ,

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Quinn was the president of the New Jersey State Federation of Labor. He represented Middlesex County in the state legislature from  to . At the New Jersey Federation of Labor convention in , he proposed a law to limit profits. In  he was elected to the state senate, where he introduced New Jersey’s first unemployment compensation bill—which did not pass. In  Quinn was appointed by the incoming Roosevelt administration to the post of controller of the Port of New York, a position he held until . He lived in Sewaren until his death. Troy, Leo. Organized Labor in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also labor movement

David A. Norris

Quintipartite Deed. In  John, Lord Berkeley, and Sir George Carteret became the proprietors of New Jersey. Ten years later Berkeley sold his portion to John Fenwick in trust for Edward Byllynge, an arrangement devised because of Byllynge’s financial difficulties. Byllynge’s interests were subsequently placed in the hands of three Quaker trustees: William Penn, Gawen Lawrie, and Nicholas Lucas. The Quintipartite Deed, an agreement to divide New Jersey on a diagonal from Little Egg Harbor on the ocean to a northwest corner on the Delaware River, was signed on July , , by five men: Byllynge, his three trustees, and Carteret. The purpose was to mark the boundary between Carteret’s holdings in the east and those of Byllynge and his trustees in the west. The precise location of the resulting line between West and East Jersey was controversial well into the nineteenth century. Pomfret, John E. Colonial New Jersey: A History. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, . ———. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also East Jersey; West Jersey

Maxine N. Lurie

Quinton.

.-square-mile township in Salem County. First part of Monmouth Precinct (named in honor of the duke of Monmouth), Quinton was next part of Upper Alloways Creek Township, and then divided from that in  to become Quinton Township. The only village in the township is Quinton, known also in the past as Quinton’s Bridge; it was named after Tobias Quinton, an early settler. The village is located on Alloway Creek, an important waterway in Salem County, especially in early times. In March , with Gen. George Washington’s army at Valley Forge and the British army in Philadelphia, both sides foraged for food in Salem County. Quinton’s Bridge over Alloway Creek was the site of a skirmish between the

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Patriots and the British. The Quinton Glass Works operated from  to ; other early businesses were canneries. The Smick Lumber Company is the major business in Quinton today. Although mostly comprised of flat land, Burden’s Hill in the township is the highest

point in Salem County. Other than the small village of Quinton, the township is rural. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Mahan, Judith Gibison, “Quinton Township.’’ Salem County Historical Society Newsletter  (June ): –.

Patricia W. Blakely

R

Radburn.

Rabbinical College of America. Located on an eighty-one-acre campus in Morristown, the Rabbinical College of America is an affiliate of the worldwide Lubavitch movement and offers training to men in the study of Talmud, Jewish law, and Chabad Chassidism. The college describes its mission as synthesizing “Chassidic fervor and worship with Talmudic rationality and learning.’’ It prepares rabbis as well as those who merely wish to incorporate Judaic studies into their personal and professional lives. Thus, one may obtain a bachelor of religious studies degree, enter the Advanced Talmud Program, or study briefly at the college without working toward a degree. On-campus apartments are provided for families of the scholars, encouraging a total immersion in Jewish life and learning. The Rabbinical College of America came to New Jersey in  and was originally based in a small structure in Newark. A need for more space led to the move to Morristown in , reflecting the Lubavitch movement’s strong growth, which continues in the present. There are currently more than thirty Lubavitch communities in New Jersey, with the rabbinical college serving as their headquarters. The college sponsors a wide array of community programs, an annual Jewish Renaissance Fair, and the annual lighting of a large chanukiah in front of the Statehouse in Trenton. See also higher education

 acres within the Borough of Fair Lawn in Bergen County. This “town for the motor age’’ was planned in  by architects Clarence Stein (–) and Henry Wright (–) as a healthy environment at an affordable price for , families, but was only partially completed because of the bankruptcy of its builder, the City Housing Corporation, in . Radburn combined the British Garden City principles of Sir Ebenezer Howard, with the ideas of other advocates of open space in developing their superblock layout, which separated pedestrian and vehicular traffic by arranging a mix of detached, semidetached, two-family, rowhouse, and low-rise apartment buildings on lots of varying sizes around core park areas. Pathways connect the fronts of the dwellings, which face the parks, while cul-de-sacs give automobiles access to the rear of the houses and garages. The plan also included one of the first commercial buildings in the United States to provide shoppers with off-street shopping, which is still in use. Homeowners and renters are governed by the Radburn Association, which maintains the parks and recreational facilities. Radburn was designated a municipal historic district and in  was listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. A fire, in October , damaged the Radburn Plaza Building. In , Radburn, whose population never exceeded ,, had , residents, of whom  were children.

Schaffer, Daniel. Garden Cities for America: the Radburn Experience. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, . Stein, Clarence S. Toward New Towns for America. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, . ———. The Writings of Clarence S. Stein. Edited by Kermit Carlyle Parsons. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also designed communities; Fair Lawn

Patricia Ard Gail Enid Zimmer

Plan for Radburn, the “town for the motor age,’’ designed by architects Clarence Stein and Henry Wright.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

radio. Radio development in America in the first half of the twentieth century included wireless telegraphy, AM broadcasting, and the invention of FM. All of these developments have important historical connections to New Jersey. In October  Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi arrived in New York City to introduce the American press and public (and potential investors) to the wireless telegraph, which he had developed and started to exploit commercially in Europe. Central to Marconi’s first American trip was a publicity stunt involving the America’s Cup yacht race of . Marconi set up wireless transmitting equipment on the SS Ponce, a steamer selling tickets to pleasure seekers interested in following the race. As the race progressed, Marconi sent updates by wireless back to shore; these updates were received at a station set up for the purpose at Twin Lights in the Navesink Highlands and relayed to New York for ongoing public posting. In the aftermath of the yacht race and the surrounding publicity, Marconi established the Marconi American Wireless Telegraph Company (American Marconi), acquiring land at various points along the Eastern Seaboard for transmitting and receiving stations. One of the most important Marconi transmitters was the New Brunswick station, which was in fact located in Franklin Township. Marconi also built a receiving station in Wall Township at what later became Camp Evans; this station was known as the Belmar station. Transmissions from Belmar were relayed to the New Brunswick station for long-distance transmission. With the outbreak of war in Europe in , the government started to place restrictions on the operations of wireless facilities owned by foreign nationals. Such facilities were initially monitored by U.S. Navy personnel to ensure that no diplomatically or militarily dangerous messages were transmitted. When the United States entered the war in  the stations were taken over completely by the navy. The navy installed a more powerful transmitter in the New Brunswick Marconi station, and that station became the government’s key overseas communications link during and after the war. In , President Wilson’s “Fourteen Points’’ speech was transmitted to Europe from the New Brunswick Marconi station. After World War I the properties formerly owned by Marconi and other foreign wireless concerns remained under navy control; the navy did not want to return them to their prewar owners. In  the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) was formed by the navy and a consortium of manufacturing and communications companies (General Electric, Westinghouse, American Telephone & Telegraph), largely for the purpose of putting Marconi’s U.S. assets permanently in American hands. The creation of RCA involved a buyout of American Marconi; RCA thus 671

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became the owner and operator of the former Marconi stations in New Brunswick and Belmar. The towers at the New Brunswick station were demolished in . The Belmar property changed hands several times, starting in , and was sold to the U.S. Army in . The property was renamed Camp Evans and was in use for military research until . It subsequently became a National Historic Site, housing the National Broadcasters Hall of Fame, among other collections. Another wireless transmitting station of note was the Tuckerton tower, built in  by the German radio corporation HOMAG. Like the Marconi properties, the Tuckerton station was monitored, then taken over, by the navy before and during World War I; the navy closed the station for two months at the end of , reopened it under navy supervision, and then in  fired all remaining German employees. The tower became the property of RCA after the war. At the time of its construction, the Tuckerton tower was reputed to be the second highest in the world, after the Eiffel Tower. It was demolished in . In the s, broadcasting in the modern sense (regularly scheduled entertainment and information) took hold, particularly after the success of Westinghouse’s Pittsburgh station, KDKA. Westinghouse’s second station was WJZ in Newark, the first broadcasting station in the New York metropolitan area. WJZ went on the air in October . In  it was purchased by RCA and moved to New York City. WJZ subsequently became part of the NBC Blue network () and then part of the ABC network, where it was renamed WABC. FM (frequency modulation) radio was first demonstrated to the trade by its inventor, Edwin Howard Armstrong, in . Armstrong’s interest lay in establishing a regular FM broadcasting service, relying on the clearer signal and sound quality of FM to attract listeners and stimulate sales of receiving sets. However, Armstrong came up against RCA and its president, David Sarnoff, who by the s was channeling available research and expansion funds into television and who saw FM both as a threat to the existing AM industry and as a competitor for television. Rebuffed by Sarnoff, Armstrong built at his own expense an FM tower at Alpine, New Jersey. Construction began in  and regular broadcasting from the tower started on June , , on experimental station WXMN. The tower, situated on the Palisades and rising  feet from its base approximately five hundred feet above the Hudson River, was restored in the s. In , the Alpine tower was in use by, among other stations, WFDU (Fairleigh Dickinson University). In addition, several stations whose transmitters were lost in the destruction of the World Trade Center in September  used the Armstrong tower for temporary transmission facilities. These included WNBC, flagship station of the NBC

network, which was owned by RCA at the time of Sarnoff’s actions against Armstrong. According to FCC data (–), there are eighty-nine FM and thirty-nine AM stations operating in New Jersey. Douglas, Susan J. Inventing American Broadcasting, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Lewis, Tom. Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio. New York: HarperCollins, .

David A. Black Top FM stations, by transmitter power, in New Jersey The following list includes all FM stations in New Jersey broadcasting at , kilowatts and higher, based on spring  FCC data supplemented by station-specific information from other sources. Station ownership and call-letter assignment undergo fairly frequent changes, especially in the current era of ownership consolidation; thus this list should be understood as a profile from a particular set of data, not as a permanent or static record.

Owner: Millennium Radio Group Web: http://www.literock.com WIXM Location: Millville Frequency: . Format: Modern adult contemporary Owner: Millennium Radio Group Power: , watts WKDN Location: Camden Frequency: . Format: Christian Owner: Family Stations Inc. Power: , watts WKXW Location: Trenton Frequency: . Format: New Jersey talk/oldies Owner: Press Communications Power: , watts Web: http://www.nj.com

WAWZ Location: Zarephath Frequency: . Format: Inspirational (Christian) Owner: Pillar of Fire International Power: , watts Web: http://www.wawz.org

WMGM Location: Atlantic City Frequency: . Format: Classic rock Owner: The Green Group Power: , watts Web: http://www.wmgm.com

WAYV Location: Atlantic City Frequency: . Format: Adult contemporary hit radio (CHR) Owner: Equity Communications Power: , watts Web: http://www.wayv.com

WNJO Location: Trenton Frequency: . Format: Classic rock Owner: Nassau Broadcasting Partners L.P. Power: , watts Web: http://www.thehawk.com

WBZC Location: Pemberton Frequency: . Format: Music variety Owner: Burlington County Community College Power: , watts Web: http://staff.bcc.edu/radio

WPRB Location: Princeton Frequency: . Format: Diverse Owner: Princeton Broadcasting Service Inc. Power: , watts Web: http://www.wprb.com

WEMG Location: Egg Harbor City Frequency: . Format: Spanish CHR Owner: Mega Communications Power: , watts

WPST Location: Trenton Frequency: . Format: CHR/Top- Owner: Nassau Broadcasting Partners L.P. Power: , watts Web: http://www.wpst.com

WFME Location: Newark Frequency: . Format: Christian Owner: Family Stations Inc. Power: , watts WFPG-FM Location: Atlantic City Frequency: . Format: Lite rock/adult contemporary (AC) Power: , watts

WPUR Location: Atlantic City Frequency: . Format: Country Owner: Spring Broadcasting Power: , watts Web: http://www.catcountry.com WRTQ Location: Ocean City Frequency: .

radium dialpainters Format: Classical (day), jazz (night) Owner: Temple University Power: , watts Comments: Relay of Philadelphia station WRTI Web: http://www.jazzfm.temple.edu WSNJ Location: Bridgeton Frequency: . Format: Diverse/variety Owner: New Jersey Radio Partners L.L.C. Power: , watts Comments: Was privately owned until  purchase WWCJ Location: Rio Grande Frequency: . Format: Classical Owner: Mercer County Community College Power: , watts Comments: Part of WWFM (Trenton) Classical Network WWNJ Location: Dover Township Frequency: . Format: Classical Owner: Mercer County Community College Power: , watts Comments: Part of WWFM (Trenton) Classical Network WZXL Location: Wildwood Crest Frequency: . Format: Current/classic rock Power: , watts Web: http://www.wzxl.com

David A. Black

Radio Corporation of America. Between  and , the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) and its New Jersey factories and laboratories led the world in the development of broadcast and wireless communications. During World War I, the U.S. Navy took control of all wireless radio companies to assist in the war effort. After the war, the U.S. government supported domestic ownership of radio companies to prevent foreign powers from gaining control of shipto-shore wireless technology. In , the government asked the General Electric Company to oversee the merger of the existing radio companies into one company under American control. Later that year the American Marconi Company, which owned a factory at Roselle Park and stations at Belmar, Tuckerton, and New Brunswick (President Woodrow Wilson radioed Germany the terms for surrender from the New Brunswick site), was forced to sell its assets to the newly formed RCA. Initially RCA was a holding company for the radio patents of GE, Westinghouse, United Fruit,

David Sarnoff in WDY radio station studio, Roselle Park, .

Courtesy David Sarnoff Library, Princeton.

and AT&T; it also marketed the radio products of GE and Westinghouse. In , RCA’s manager David Sarnoff, an advocate of the use of radio as a broadcast medium, oversaw the broadcast of a boxing championship in Hoboken and the opening of a radio station, WDY, in Roselle Park. As home radio boomed in , RCA moved its operations to WJZ in Newark, and in  RCA built its ,-watt transmitter in Bound Brook. Sarnoff went on to organize the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in . This network, along with patent license income, became the source of RCA’s profits. Later RCA invested in talking films by forming RKO Pictures and in manufacturing through the purchase of the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden in . Now RCA could make radios as well as provide programs for them. In , to settle a federal antitrust suit, General Electric divested RCA, which became an independent corporation. As part of the settlement, RCA took over control of GE’s electron tube factory in Harrison. Together with the research staff acquired from its parent companies, RCA now had the resources to develop television, which added “radio sight to sound.’’ Sarnoff made the first television broadcast from the New York World’s Fair in . In the s RCA also developed frequencymodulated radio, radar, electron microscopes, and home facsimile. The emphasis on research led to the opening of RCA Laboratories in Princeton in . During World War II, the labs supplied the U.S. Navy with radar and sonar systems as well as cameras for guided missiles. Men and women at Camden and Harrison manufactured forty thousand radio transmitters and radar sets and millions of miniature electron and proximity fuses.

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After the war, RCA led in the improvement of monochrome television, and its Princeton researchers invented the compatible electronic color television system in . For the next twenty years the corporation expanded along with the rest of the electronics industry, stimulated by the invention of the transistor at Bell Labs in Murray Hill and by Cold War defense spending. In the s RCA added a semiconductor plant in Somerville, military products facilities in Moorestown and Woodbridge, offices at Cherry Hill, and a plant for the first weather and communications satellites in East Windsor. By , warehouses in Deptford and Edison and a record factory in Rockaway had raised company employment in the state to thirty-five thousand. At that time the corporation employed a hundred thousand people around the world. RCA technologies were instrumental in many major activities. They helped monitor Earth’s environment by satellite, enable communications from Moon landings, and establish the navy’s global positioning and AEGIS weapons systems. At the RCA Laboratories (now known as the David Sarnoff Research Center), researchers invented or modified MOS and thin-film transistors, liquid-crystal displays, CMOS transistors and microprocessors, light-emitting diodes, charge-coupled devices, solar cells, and optical recording technologies. All of these underpinned the digital communications revolution at the end of the twentieth century. In , however, RCA ceased to exist. Despite its strength in various industries and technologies, RCA’s leadership had come to fear a hostile takeover by an even larger corporation, and at the end of  chief executive Robert Frederick agreed to sell the corporation back to its founder, General Electric. The sale was completed in . GE kept NBC and the Americom satellite division, closed some divisions, and sold others, such as RCA-Victor (which was purchased by Bertelsmann AG in ). In , GE donated the David Sarnoff Research Center to SRI International, a nonprofit research institute, under which it continues to operate as the Sarnoff Corporation. In that same year both RCA’s and GE’s consumer electronics divisions were purchased by Thomson, which today continues to market products under the RCA label. Bilby, Kenneth. The General: David Sarnoff and the Rise of the Communications Industry. New York: Harper and Row, . Brown, George. And Part of Which I Was: Recollections of a Research Engineer. Princeton: Angus Cupar, . Cowie, Jefferson. Capital Moves: RCA’s Seventy-Year Quest for Cheap Labor. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Sobel, Robert. RCA. New York: Stein and Day, .

See also illustration, color section; radio

radium dialpainters.

“Dialpainters’’ were women hired at a factory in East Orange in  to apply a recently invented

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Workers were slowly poisoned as they innocently dipped their paintbrushes into pots of radium, then licked them into fine points before making precise luminescent numerals on watch dials.

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark. glow-in-the-dark paint to watches and other instruments. The majority of employees were young and single and, like other working-class women in the United States around this time, they tended to start work around age fifteen or sixteen and to leave when married or pregnant, often in their mid-twenties. The dialpainters were paid according to the number of watches or other instruments completed, and those who worked quickly and carefully earned the highest wages available anywhere to working-class women. After a few years, however, the number of dialpainters in East Orange decreased, for two reasons. First, their employer, the Radium Luminous Materials Corporation, began in  to sell luminous paint to watch-producing companies around the country, and so the luminous-painting jobs followed these sales. The company changed its name to United States Radium Corporation in . Second, over the next four years some dialpainters and former dialpainters began to suffer from frightening illnesses, such as rotting teeth and collapsing bones. When deaths spread among them, the dialpainters concluded that their illnesses must be linked to their job. Cooperating with one another and consulting with physicians, scientists, and reformers, the dialpainters initially suspected they might be suffering from phosphorous poisoning, a fatal disease among other industrial employees in and near to the Oranges. Remaining dialpainters at U.S. Radium began to quit. By , former employees (among them Katherine Schaub) learned something different, through cooperating with a workplace reformer, Katherine Wiley, executive secretary

of the New Jersey Consumers League. Wiley sent Schaub to see Dr. Harrison Martland, the medical examiner of Essex County. He tested her body with an electroscope and told her she carried radium. “I was not as frightened as I thought I would be,’’Schaub reported later. “At least there was no groping in the dark now.’’ But a half dozen people around her, including a cousin, had died: contamination with radium damaged cells and killed tissues, thus causing infections, broken bones, serious illnesses, and death. Schaub cooperated with four other former dialpainters to bring suit against U.S. Radium in . The company sought several extensions in court hearings, but widespread newspaper coverage and public support for the dialpainters compelled U.S. Radium to offer an out-of-court settlement to Schaub and her four fellow workers, offering $, each plus continued annual pension and medical coverage. These five dialpainters lived longer than expected; Schaub died in , the others by . Although other dialpainters died as late as their nineties, over the years many illnesses and deaths were caused by radium. Radium was withdrawn from illuminating watches in the s, in part as a result of federal orders, in part because it was replaced with glow-in-the-dark tritium, a radioactive form of hydrogen. Over the next thirty years, however, radium problems remained in New Jersey. Government funds covered the removal of U.S. Radium’s radioactive buildings, cement, and dirt from East Orange, and radiumcontaminated soil, used by the corporation as fill under lawns and houses, was removed from neighborhoods in Montclair, Glen Ridge, and West Orange. Clark, Claudia. Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also medicine and public health

Claudia Clark

Rahway.

.-square-mile city in Union County. European settlement of the area began in , when associates of the New England colonies and Long Island were granted lands that included present-day Rahway. The name evolved from that of a Lenape chieftan, Wawhawhack, Rahawa, or possibly Rahwack. Attracted to the fertile grounds surrounding the Rahway River, settlers established a village, along with many farms and plantations. During the Revolutionary War the village was called Spanktown, and in  it was the scene of a skirmish between the British and the Patriots, sometimes referred to as the Battle of Spanktown. Abraham Clark, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, is buried in the Rahway cemetery. The Merchants and Drovers Tavern, constructed about , is now operated as a museum. The community was incorporated as a city on March , . Over time agriculture gave way to industry. Because of its location along

the Pennsylvania Railroad, Rahway soon developed into an industrial city manufacturing drugs, chemicals, lubricating oils, metal products, books, cereals, dehydrated foods, rubber goods, furniture, and vacuum cleaners. Rahway today is a town of residential homes coexisting with industry. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Shipley, F. Alexander, Robin J. Shipley, and Linda A. Bragdon. Rediscovery of Rahway. Rahway: Shipley, Shipley, and Bragdon, .

See also illustration, color section

Patricia M. McGuire

railroads.

Although in the early nineteenth century New Jersey was known for its two strategic canals—the Delaware and Raritan and the Morris—the state also received acclaim for its pioneering commitment to railroads. Long before a train turned a wheel on a New Jersey rail, John Stevens, a railroad inventor and promoter, received the first railroad charter granted in the United States in . The concept for his New Jersey Rail Road Company was too radical for the time, and it would not be until the success of the Stockton and Darlington Rail Road a decade later in Great Britain that the idea would win investor backing and result in the chartering and opening in the early s of the Camden and Amboy Railroad. During the test period for U.S. railroads, when initial standardization occurred, the Camden and Amboy demonstrated a remarkably innovative bent with the introduction of T rails, wooden ties, and fish joints. As with railroads in other states, those in New Jersey were independent and relatively small operations, but some railroads developed close corporate relationships, most of all with the Camden and Amboy. Following the Civil War, when system building became a national phenomenon, the Pennsylvania Railroad, which evolved from the old State Works in the Keystone State, took control of the Camden and Amboy and its associated properties in . By the end of the nineteenth century, the Pennsylvania Railroad, which immodestly called itself the “Standard Railway of the World,’’ laid claim to being the dominant railroad in the state. Its famed New York– Philadelphia “raceway’’ served Newark, New Brunswick, and Trenton, a line that in the s became electrified with high voltage. Because of its location between New York City and Philadelphia, and its heavy concentration of manufacturing and population, a significant portion of New Jersey was served by a high density of railroads. By  virtually every community of note had at least two carriers and some even more. In the northern part of the state the Delaware, Lackawanna,

railroad suburbs and Western; Erie; Lehigh and Hudson River; Lehigh and New England; Lehigh Valley; New York, Ontario, and Western; and New York, Susquehanna, and Western dominated. And in the southern sections, the Pennsylvania and Reading reigned supreme. One carrier, the Central Railroad of New Jersey (CNJ), operated throughout much of the state. As in other states several short lines emerged during the post–Civil War era, including the Morristown and Erie, Raritan River, and Wharton and Northern. System building involved leasing and stock control of carriers, resulting in complex corporate genealogies. The most notable example involved the Central Railroad of New Jersey, which, typical of the time, evolved out of a number of early short lines, principally the Elizabethtown and Somerville, Somerville and Eastern, and New Jersey Southern. After the Civil War the modern CNJ took shape, including an extension on the Bound Brook line into the anthracite coalfields of northeastern Pennsylvania. But the property was not independent: from  to  the Philadelphia and Reading leased and operated CNJ. Then in  the Reading Company (successor to the Philadelphia and Reading) acquired control through the purchase of a majority of CNJ stock. About the same time the Baltimore and Ohio took charge of the Reading, a corporate maneuver that resulted in the B&O gaining direct access to Jersey City (and thus New York City) via Reading and CNJ trackage. With substantial federal regulation, typified by the Transportation Act of , the corporate structure of New Jersey railroads remained mostly stable until the merger madness of the s. A notable exception came in  with formation of the Pennsylvania– Reading Seashore Lines (PRSL). This company, controlled by the Pennsylvania, fused together the Pennsylvania’s West Jersey and Seashore Railroad and the Reading’s Atlantic City Railroad. This arrangement produced a network of lines that linked Camden (and Philadelphia) with Atlantic City, Cape May, and Salem. Since much of the traffic on the PRSL was passenger, and thus affected by competition from automobiles and buses, by the s service had dwindled to a few trains on the Camden– Atlantic City and Camden–Cape May routes. The problems confronting PRSL were not unique. The rise of keen competition after World War II from motorized vehicles meant a general retrenchment of both freight and passenger service for all railroads in New Jersey. Moreover, local carriers, especially those that operated in northern counties, faced escalating property tax assessments, which one industry leader called “confiscatory.’’ And those companies that provided commuter service, particularly the CNJ and the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, found that these operations lost money. High costs and inadequate income prompted carriers to make adjustments. Following World War II the process of dieselization encouraged managers to close

the scores of facilities (which were often heavily taxed) that steam locomotives had required. This replacement technology could help only so much, however; the best hope appeared to be corporate mergers. The process in New Jersey began in  when the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western joined the Erie to create the Erie Lackawanna Railroad. Although other unions followed, the failure in  of the Penn Central Transportation Company (the product of the  merger of the New York Central and the Pennsylvania), intense modal competition, high taxes, and a regional recession forced several roads in the state to enter bankruptcy. In , for example, the Erie Lackawanna and the Lehigh and New England fell into the hands of court-appointed receivers. The crisis in railroading in New Jersey and the East led to dramatic adjustments. In the late s the state of New Jersey began subsidizing commuter service and some property-tax relief also occurred. More significantly, Congress in  created the quasi-public Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail), which absorbed several failed roads, including CNJ, Erie Lackawanna, Lehigh Valley, and Penn Central. At this time key segments of trackage in New Jersey, including the historic Pennsylvania speedway between Philadelphia and New York, became public entities, in this case owned and operated by the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak). Out of some of the fallen-flag trackage emerged the rail operations of New Jersey Transit, which maintained, and even expanded, some commuter service. In  another major event in the railroad story of New Jersey took place with the dismemberment of Conrail. CSX and Norfolk Southern acquired most of this now-profitable company, with the latter taking much of the former Conrail in New Jersey. A robust Norfolk Southern, which had benefited along with the industry from partial federal deregulation in , offered hope for a stable future for New Jersey rails. Bryant, Keith L., Jr. Railroads in the Age of Regulation, –. New York: Facts on File, . Cunningham, John T. Railroads in New Jersey: The Formative Years. Andover: Afton, . New Jersey Department of Transportation. New Jersey Long-Range Transportation Plan Update. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Transportation, . Saunders, Richard, Jr. Merging Lines: American Railroads, –. De Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, .

See also map, color section; transportation

H. Roger Grant Railroads of New Jersey at Peak Coverage, c. 1918 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company Central Railroad of New Jersey Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad Erie Railroad Lehigh and Hudson River Railroad

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Lehigh and New England Railroad Lehigh Valley Railroad Company New York and Long Branch Railroad New York, Ontario, and Western Railway New York, Susquehanna, and Western Railway Pennsylvania Railroad Reading Railway System West Shore (New York Central Railroad)

railroad suburbs. In the nineteenth century, New Jersey railways proliferated, primarily carrying freight but also offering passenger service to farm communities and transforming them into commuter towns where former city-dwellers hoped to find, as John Stilgoe writes, the “best advantage of rural and urban living. At the heart of their belief lay a continuing respect for agriculture, particularly for small-scale vegetable gardening.’’ Godwinville, a hamlet of twenty families within Paramus, a mixture of farms and mills, received its first railway station three years after the Paterson and Ramapo Railroad was constructed in . In , the village had  homes; by  there were ,, including summer retreats for New Yorkers fleeing the city’s heat and epidemics. The focus of village activity shifted from the original enclave surrounding the Paramus Reformed Church to a new commercial district centered on the depot; renamed Ridgewood at the end of the Civil War, the town was formally incorporated in . Maplewood was no less significantly transformed. In , the thirty families of Jefferson Village in Springfield Township had unsuccessfully sought their own post office. But with the advent of the Morris and Essex Railroad in , Jefferson’s flag-stop became a nucleus of expansion for what came to be called Maplewood (the name given the depot in ). By  developments proposed or under construction elsewhere in the township included Model Park at Maplewood Loop, described by a  advertisement as the “garden spot of Essex County. . . . Homeseekers’ Paradise, the most conveniently located tract imaginable,’’ as well as Vauxhall Terrace, Hiltonia, Blue Ridge Park, Valley View, Mountain View Terrace, and the seventy-odd “villa lots’’ of upscale Roosevelt Park, formerly the country estate of Theodore Roosevelt’s mother. The coming of commuter railroads sometimes sparked the creation of new townships. Two villages in Bloomfield, Cranetown and Speertown, were home to some wealthy citizens who became dissatisfied with the service on the Bay Street spur of the Morris and Essex Railroad, built in . Disgruntled at the town’s failure to pass a vote bonding a second railroad through town, they persuaded the legislature to allow the western half of Bloomfield to split off as its own township, Montclair, in . The New York and Oswego Midland Railroad ran its first passenger trains along today’s Boonton line in , and by 

Rajoppi, Raleigh

Stilgoe, John. Metropolitan Corridor. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also suburbanization

Nick Humez

Rajoppi, Raleigh

(b. Feb. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Labor leader. Raleigh Rajoppi

was born in Milburn, the son of Anthony and Katherine Caruso Rajoppi. He joined the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America (UBC) in . In  Rajoppi was elected president of the New Jersey State Council of Carpenters; he held that office for most of the rest of his life. He was elected to the general executive board of UBC District  in . Rajoppi was also the state supervisor of the New Jersey Carpenters Funds Account; a trustee of the New Jersey Carpenters Pension, Welfare, Apprentice and Vacation Funds; a commissioner of the State Health Care Facilities Financing Authority; and chair of the Union County Board of Taxation. Rajoppi attended extension courses at Rutgers University in . His ties with the university continued until , when he led a drive by the UBC to purchase one of the last tracts of uncut forest in the Middle Atlantic states. The tract, known as the Hutcheson Memorial Forest, was donated to Rutgers University. Rajoppi received the Rutgers University Award for this work in . At the time of his death, he was the president emeritus of the State Council of Carpenters. He lived in Springfield.

Bischoff, Henry. Innovations and Realities: A History of Ramapo College of New Jersey: The First Quarter Century, –. Mahwah: Ramapo College of New Jersey, .

See also higher education

Henry Bischoff

Ramapo Fault.

Rocks of the Highlands Provinces are separated from the rocks of the Piedmont Province in New Jersey by a series of major faults or breaks in the earth’s crust, one of which is the ancient Ramapo Fault. The upthrown northwest side of the faults is composed of resistant granites and gneisses that form a prominent escarpment, ranging from  to  feet in height, that extends from Mahwah in Bergen County through Boonton, Morristown, and Gladstone and then westward in an irregular line to Milford on the Delaware River. The Ramapo River and Route  in Bergen County are located along the fault at the base of the Ramapo Mountains.

Schuberth, Christopher J. The Geology of New York City and Environs. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; geology

Robert M. Hordon

Ramapo Mountain People.

The population of approximately , racially mixed people living primarily in three towns of three counties in two states (Hillburn in Rockland County, New York; Ringwood in

Fink, Gary M., ed. Biographical Dictionary of American Labor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement; Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

David A. Norris

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Ramapo College of New Jersey. Located in Mahwah, this public college accepted its first students in . Its founding president, George T. Potter (–),

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Moss, George H., Jr. Twice Told Tales: Reflections of Monmouth County’s Past. Sea Bright: Ploughshare Press, .

planned and developed an innovative, schoolbased, student-oriented, socially critical, environmentally concerned interdisciplinary college. President Robert A. Scott (–) led Ramapo in developing an international focus, expanding internships and service learning, initiating graduate education, and increasing on-campus housing. Rodney D. Smith has been president of Ramapo since . By the year  the student body had grown to nearly five thousand and the number of graduates totaled more than sixteen thousand. In the late s U.S. News and World Report recognized Ramapo College as one of the top three public liberal arts colleges in the Northeast.

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Montclair’s property values had skyrocketed as much as  percent. The new suburbanites’ fantasies of an away-but-not-far living space was reflected in the controlled exoticism of the new village architecture, especially expressed in the railway stations themselves, from Maplewood’s mock-Tudor half-timbering to the tiled-roof California mission-style in Ridgewood’s depot. The same concern for sanitation and hygiene that made such towns attractive in the post–Civil War years had already fostered development of the summertime seashore resorts. Red Bank, Long Branch, and other Shore towns had been served by steamboats to Manhattan since , but the Raritan and Delaware Bay Railroad () and the Long Branch and Seashore Railroad () helped turn them into year-round suburbs as well.

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Passaic County; and Mahwah in Bergen County) has been known by various names at different times. Prior to the s they were called the “Jackson Whites’’; from the s to the s they were widely known as the “Ramapo Mountain People’’; and today they prefer the name “Ramapough Indians.’’ The name “Jackson Whites’’ derives from a legend that claims they are descended from several groups of people: Tuscarora Indians who migrated from North Carolina to New York State in the eighteenth century; escaped slaves who sought refuge in the Ramapo Mountains; Hessian soldiers who deserted from the British forces during the American Revolution; and prostitutes who were allegedly procured by a man named Jackson for the pleasure of the British forces occupying New York City during the Revolution. (Supposedly, the women, who were both white and dark-skinned, were referred to as either “Jackson’s Whites’’ or “Jackson’s Blacks.’’ More likely, the name came from the phrase “jacks and whites,’’ the term “jacks’’ being a common derogatory name for free blacks.) The Ramapo Mountain People themselves told a simpler version of the legend, asserting Tuscarora and Hessian ancestries. The genealogy of their common surnames (DeGroat, DeFreese, VanDunk, and Mann) suggests that they descend from a group of free, culturally Dutch blacks living on the outskirts of New York City in the s. Three of their ancestors became shareholders in the Tappan Patent of  in the Hackensack River Valley on the disputed boundary between New York and New Jersey, making them some of the earliest free black landowners in America. Around , they began to sell their land in the Hackensack River Valley and move west to the Ramapo Mountains. The probable reason for this migration was New Jersey’s passage in  of a slave statute that restricted the right of free blacks to travel across state and county borders. By then, the New York–New Jersey boundary was drawn through the middle of the Tappan Patent. Significantly, these settlers initially moved to a section of the Ramapos wholly within New Jersey. Throughout their history, the Ramapo Mountain People have had different racial and ethnic identities. During the colonial period, they were Afro-Dutch, speaking their own dialect of the Dutch language, attending the Dutch Reformed Church, and observing Dutch holidays such as Pinkster. From  until , they adopted an Appalachian Mountain cultural identity, jokingly referring to themselves as “hillbillies.’’ Since , they have taken on a Native American identity and have applied for recognition by the federal government. In  the Bureau of Indians Affairs denied their claim on the grounds that they could not prove continuous existence as a tribe. Cohen, David Steven. The Ramapo Mountain People. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Randolph, Florence Spearing See also African Americans; American Indians; ethnicity

David S. Cohen

Ramapo Mountains.

The twentymile-long Ramapo Mountain range extends northeast to southwest in southeast New York and northeast New Jersey. Its highest point is , feet above sea level. One of the oldest mountain ranges in the Appalachian system, it was formed more than – million years ago during the Precambrian geologic period. These mountains consist of very hard metamorphic rocks. An ancient fault or fracture stretches along the east side of the mountains and abruptly separates the Piedmont Region or Newark Basin from the Appalachian system. Because of the fault, Newark Basin tilted or settled  to  degrees toward the northwest. The eastern slope of the Ramapo Mountains is steep and imposing. The top is somewhat flat. The western side merges with the Highland Region of Precambrian rocks called the Reading Prong. Iron, zinc, and marble were found in these mountains. In the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the wood-fired forges of this region produced iron, which stimulated New Jersey’s early industrialization. As a result of iron production, these mountains were completely denuded of forests. The present forests were reestablished after the forges stopped functioning in the region. A tract of , acres covering the southern section of the Ramapo Mountains is now a state park. In a cultural context, these mountains have been home to the Jackson Whites (also known as the Ramapo Mountain People).

Kelland, Frank S., and Marylin C. Kelland. New Jersey: Garden or Suburb?: A Geography of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, .

See also geography; geology; physiography

Harbans Singh

Ramsey, Alice Huyler d. Sept. , ).

(b. Nov. , ;

Pioneer long-distance motorist. Alice Ramsey was born in Hackensack. She dropped out of Vassar College after two years to marry John Ramsey, a well-to-do attorney. In that era before mass-produced automobiles, she discovered that she had a talent for driving. A sales manager from the Maxwell Company came up with the public relations inspiration of having the twenty-two-year-old Ramsey become the first woman to drive a car from coast to coast. After obtaining her husband’s permission, she agreed. Accompanied by three female chaperones (her two sistersin-law and a Hackensack friend) she set off from New York on June ,  for the , mile trip. It was a perilous undertaking. Outside of a few big cities, there were virtually no paved roads in the nation and no road maps. The conditions were often primitive. Ramsey did all of the driving and made many of the repairs. She enjoyed the surprise caused out west by her New Jersey license plates. Ramsey

lived to be ninety-seven years old, and continued to drive from coast to coast well into her seventies. The American Automobile Association declared her the “Woman Motorist of the Century.’’ Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Ramsey. .-square-mile borough in the foothills of the Ramapo Mountains in Bergen County, now  percent developed. First settled early in the eighteenth century by Dutch farmers who paid the Lenape for what was then known as Ramapough Tract, Ramsey was located on the Isan Land Road, which led to the colonial iron mines in Ringwood. During the Revolutionary War the farmer at what is today’s Old Stone House Museum—a state and national historical landmark—opened his parlor to feed travelers to the mines. In , Peter Ramsey bought the acres that made the town the “Strawberry Capital of America.’’ When the Paterson and Ramapo Railroad was built, the Ramsey family sold land for a train station, and as many as eight railroad cars full of berries headed for the Manhattan market every night. In  the town dropped the “s’’ on the name Ramsey’s, and in  Ramsey became an incorporated borough. The municipality has tripled in size since the end of World War II. Farms are gone. But the railroad is still important for the numerous people who work in New York City. Others travel by car or bus, and many work in northern New Jersey. Three elementary schools, a middle school, and a high school educate Ramsey children. The town has a library, six churches, a golf and country club, and sports programs. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Kase, Ron. Ramsey. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Letitia Lyon Sage

Randolph,

Florence

Spearing

(b. Aug. , ; d. Dec. , ). Minister and

social activist. Florence Spearing Randolph was born in Charleston, South Carolina, the seventh child of John and Anna Spearing. Her father was a prosperous cabinetmaker, and both parents were members of old free African American families. Randolph attended local public schools and graduated from Charleston’s Avery Normal Institute. At that time, employment options for black women were restricted to domestic work, teaching, music, or dressmaking. Randolph chose dressmaking. In , while visiting her older sisters in New York City and Jersey City, she decided to move north. On May , , she married Hugh Randolph, a Richmond,

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Virginia, native employed as a cook by the Pullman Company. They purchased a home in downtown Jersey City and converted an upper story into a workroom for Randolph’s already profitable dressmaking business. The Randolph’s one child, Leah Viola, was born on February , . Hugh Randolph died on February , . Randolph was an ardent and lifelong Christian activist. In Jersey City she affiliated with the Monmouth Street African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AMEZ) Church and was appointed a Sunday school teacher and youth class leader. Her avocation led to private study of the Bible. She later completed a course with the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago, as well as special work at Drew Theological Seminary. Randolph’s active public service career began in , when she accepted an invitation to join the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) of Jersey City. Her WCTU work inspired the organization of a Kings Daughters Society, which engaged in city missionary work. Randolph’s religious and community service fused when in  she sought a license to preach. Although her gender instigated opposition among older AMEZ bishops and ministers, the license was granted. With support from Bishop Alexander Waiters (one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People [NAACP]), Randolph progressed through the subsequent stages toward ordination. Randolph was chosen as the pastor of Newark’s Pennington Street AMEZ Church. During her ministry she led five small, poor, and struggling churches in New Jersey and New York, working without salary for the first twelve years. She is, however, most often associated with Wallace Chapel, the Summit church that she organized and built up after being appointed as temporary supply pastor in . Members worshipped at the Lincoln YMCA until a chapel was built in . Ten years later a new sanctuary, parsonage, and community center were added. In , after serving Wallace Chapel for twenty-one years, Randolph retired from the active ministry. Throughout her ministry, Randolph participated in state and national AMEZ activities. Among her highest priorities were foreign missions, particularly those in Africa. She served several terms as president of the New Jersey Women’s Foreign Missionary Society, followed by many years of foreign work inspired by her travels between  and  through the interior of Liberia and the Gold Coast. Randolph helped organize the New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs (NJFCWC) in  and then served as president for twelve years. Her work in interracial organizations other than the WCTU included two years as superintendent of the Negro Work for the Christian Endeavor Society of New Jersey. Her continued Christian Endeavor and temperance work led to active participation in the equal rights movement.

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Randolph, Oliver

She served on the executive board of the New Jersey Woman’s Suffrage Association, and in , was invited to assist in Warren G. Harding’s presidential campaign. Randolph’s work was recognized in , when Livingstone College (Salisbury, North Carolina) awarded her an honorary doctor of divinity degree. In  the NJFCWC selected Randolph to introduce First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt at Bordentown Industrial School. After her retirement, Randolph made her home in Montclair with her widowed daughter and her grandson, J. Randolph Johnson. Randolph died, at age eighty-five, at the Jersey City Medical Center. Collier-Thomas, Bettye. Daughters of Thunder: Black Women Preachers and Their Sermons, –. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, . ———. “Minister and Feminist Reformer: The Life of Florence Spearing Randolph.’’ In This Far by Faith: Readings in African-American Women’s Religious Biography, eds. Judith Weisenfeld and Richard Newman. New York: Routledge, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also African Church

Methodist

Episcopal

Gloria Dickinson

Randolph, Oliver

(b. ; d. Oct. ,

).

Lawyer. A Mississippi native, Oliver Randolph was the only African American of eighty-one delegates elected to the  New Jersey Constitutional Convention. Randolph was a Newark lawyer and a Republican member of the New Jersey Assembly in . He sponsored the New Jersey Anti-Lynching Act. He then was appointed assistant U.S. attorney, serving for over ten years. During the  constitutional convention, representing Essex County, Randolph served on the Committee on Rights, Privileges, Amendments, and Miscellaneous Provisions, and was the moving force behind what is

Oliver Randolph.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

now Article , paragraph  of the New Jersey Constitution, barring discrimination in the enjoinment of civil or military rights, and segregation in the militia and the public schools. See also discrimination

Robert F. Williams

Randolph, Theodore F.

(b. June ,

; d. Nov. , ). Businessman, politician,

U.S. senator, and governor. Originally a Whig, Theodore F. Randolph became a Democrat in the s. His political career advanced rapidly. In  he was elected to the assembly from the First District in Jersey City by a coalition of nativists and Democrats. A year later he was chosen to fill a vacancy in the State Senate, and in  he was elected to a full three-year term. A strong supporter of the Union, Randolph distinguished himself as the chief legislative ally of Democratic governor Joel Parker during the Civil War. Working with Parker, he helped to thwart a peace resolution sponsored by the Peace Democrats in the legislature. While remaining critical of Abraham Lincoln’s war policies, he consistently championed efforts to recruit troops and care for wounded soldiers. He even earned the respect of some state Republicans. In  Randolph sought the Democratic nomination for governor but lost to Theodore Runyon. One year later he became president of the Morris and Essex Railroad. In  he returned to politics as a candidate for governor. Randolph’s victory reflected some dissatisfaction in the state with federal Reconstruction policies. In addition, his opponent, John I. Blair, had serious liabilities as a candidate. A political newcomer, Blair was no match for veteran Randolph. Randolph’s leadership combined some traditional Democratic approaches along with a number of new departures. Although he recommended that the legislature reject the Fifteenth Amendment, he received praise from some Republicans for suggesting that race by itself was not sufficient justification for disfranchisement. Instead, Randolph called for the creation of voting qualification standards for all, regardless of race. He was also one of the first Democrats in the state to acknowledge that further resistance to black voting would be counterproductive. In general, he sought to moderate the extreme conservative tone of many state Democrats in dealing with Reconstruction. On other issues, Randolph emerged as a strong advocate of reform and received support from both Democrats and Republicans. During his tenure a general tax of  percent was placed on all corporations chartered by the state. Randolph repeatedly urged the legislature to end the practice of granting special treatment and exemptions to favored corporations. In addition, Randolph modernized the state’s prison system and called for improved facilities in insane asylums. He called for a

number of laws designed to reduce corruption in the legislature and to curtail voter fraud. Randolph remained active in Democratic politics after his term ended in . He was elected to the U.S. Senate in  and served until . He continued to sail an independent course, sometimes at odds with the majority position of his party. Although he was a loyal Democrat, Randolph was not ritualistic in his devotion to party principles. His capacity for independent action distinguished him as a pragmatic and effective political leader. Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor; Reconstruction

Louis Moore

Randolph.

-square-mile township in central Morris County. Located in the rugged western Highlands, Randolph was set off from Mendham Township in . It was named for Hartshorne Fitz-Randolph, an early prominent citizen. Iron mining and manufacturing was important to its economy in the nineteenth century, with industries producing both cast and bar iron. Agriculture was of lesser importance. In the early twentieth century many resort communities were established, and many residential lake communities still dot the township. Route  crosses Randolph, which has seen considerable residential and commercial development since the s. Today it remains partly rural with pockets of suburban development. The County College of Morris is located in the township. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Irwin, Richard T., ed. A History of Randolph Township. Ironia: American Revolution Bicentennial Observance, Randolph, . History of Morris County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Ranney, William Tylee (b. May , ; d. Nov. , ). Painter. William Tylee Ranney was born in Middletown, Connecticut, to William Ranney and Clarissa Gaylord Ranney. His father, a sea captain, was lost at sea in . The young Ranney spent his adolescence with relatives in Fayetteville, North Carolina, where he apprenticed as a tinsmith. A move to Brooklyn around / coincided with his emerging artistic interests. Ranney interrupted his art studies, however, by enlisting in the Army of the Republic of Texas in . After serving for eight months, he returned to Brooklyn to pursue his career as an artist.

rare, endangered, and threatened species

William Tylee Ranney, Duck Hunters on the Hoboken Marshes, . Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Gift of Maxim Karolik for the M. and M. Karolik Collection of American Paintings, 1815–1865, 1948 48.470. Photo Copyright Museum of Fine Arts. From  to , New York City directories listed Ranney as a portrait painter. By , he had settled in Weehawken. He married Margaret Agnes O’Sullivan in ; they had two sons. In  the National Academy of Design elected Ranney an associate member. At this time, Ranney and his family lived in New York City, but before the end of  they had relocated to New Jersey. The artist built a house in West Hoboken, where he spent his remaining years. During the s and s, Ranney’s works often appeared in exhibitions sponsored by the National Academy of Design and the American Art-Union. The latter popular organization distributed prints of three Ranney paintings to its national membership, which earned the artist wide recognition. One of these prints, On the Wing (), depicts a duck hunter crouching in the New Jersey marshlands. These wetlands appear in a number of Ranney’s depictions of sporting scenes, a subject with which he became closely identified. He also gained a reputation as a painter of American historical subjects and Western genre images. Among his best known works are Hunting Wild Horses (, Gene Autry Western Heritage Museum, Los Angeles), Boone’s First View of Kentucky (, Thomas Gilcrease Institute of American History and Art, Tulsa), Duck Hunters on the Hoboken Marshes (, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), and Marion Crossing the Pedee (, Amon Carter Museum, Fort Worth). The props Ranney used in his compositions filled his West Hoboken studio, which one contemporary described as being “so constructed as to receive animals; guns, pistols, and cutlasses hung on the walls; and these, with curious saddles and primitive riding gear, might lead a visitor to imagine he had entered a pioneer’s cabin or border chieftain’s hut.’’

The esteem that Ranney’s peers accorded him and his art was evident the year after his death, when friends organized an exhibition to honor him and raise money for his family. Known as the Ranney Fund Exhibition, the event included works of art contributed by ninety-five artists and generated $, for the Ranney family. In its notice of the exhibition, the leading American art journal—The Crayon—summarized the importance of this New Jersey artist’s work by declaring: “A specimen of Ranney is indispensable wherever a collection of American Art exists.’’ Grubar, Francis S. William Ranney: Painter of the Early West. Washington, DC: Corcoran Gallery of Art, . Thistlethwaite, Mark. William Tylee Ranney: East of the Mississippi. Chadds Ford, PA: Brandywine River Museum, .

See also art

Mark E. Thistlethwaite

Raptor Trust. The Raptor Trust is one of the nation’s foremost wild-bird rehabilitation centers. Privately funded, the trust is located in Millington, adjacent to the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Morris County. The sixteen-acre center includes a modern medical facility, an education building, and exterior housing for several hundred birds. The Raptor Trust provides free care to injured and orphaned wild birds and offers educational programs to schools, scouts, nature clubs, and all interested organizations. See also birds

Leonard J. Soucy, Jr.

rare, endangered, and threatened species. Rare species are those that are uncommon in a particular geographical

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area. The network of Natural Heritage Programs defines a species to be rare if there are fewer than  local populations in the world, nation, or state. Of New Jersey’s native vascular plants and vertebrate animals, respectively, sixty-five ( percent) and nineteen ( percent) are globally rare, and  ( percent) and  ( percent) are rare in the state. Rare, endangered, and threatened species are of concern for conservation. “Endangered’’ and “threatened’’ are legal terms identifying species listed pursuant to the federal Endangered Species Act of , the New Jersey Endangered and Nongame Species Conservation Act of , or the New Jersey Endangered Plant Species List Act of . Although legal definitions vary slightly from law to law, an “endangered’’ species is generally considered to be one whose prospects for survival in the state or nation is in jeopardy. A “threatened’’ species is one that may become endangered if conditions surrounding the species begin or continue to deteriorate. While most endangered species are rare, most rare species are not endangered. The major threats to endangered and threatened species in the United States are habitat loss/degradation (> percent), competition/predation from alien species (> percent), pollution (> percent), and overexploitation (< percent). A number of factors can contribute to the rarity of a species. Predation, disease, overexploitation, diminished dispersal ability, and competition with other species can all play a role in constraining the distribution and abundance of a species. Many species are rare because they are restricted to particular habitat conditions that are scarce. Rare habitats in New Jersey can be home for large numbers of rare species: for example, calcareous sinkhole ponds have thirty-three rare species; Pine Barrens riverside savannas have thirty rare species; and traprock glades have thirtytwo rare species. Three species that were once native to New Jersey are now extinct in the world: the Labrador duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius), the passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), and the Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis). An additional forty-four species still exist in the world but are lost from New Jersey. They include animals and plants such as the gray wolf (Canis lupus), greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cupido), ringed boghaunter damselfly (Williamsonia lintneri), Jacob’s ladder wildflower (Polemonium vanbruntiae), Meads sedge (Carex meadii), and silver plumegrass (Erianthus alopecuroides). Less than  percent (one species) of the New Jersey vascular flora and  percent (fifteen species) of vertebrate fauna are listed as endangered in the nation, including the chaffseed wildflower (Schwalbea americana) and shortnose sturgeon (Acipensor brevirostrum). Approximately  percent ( species) of the vascular plants and  percent ( species) of the vertebrate animals in New

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Jersey are endangered in the state, including side-oats gramma grass (Bouteloua curtipendula), false asphodel wildflower (Tofieldia racemosa), blue-spotted salamander (Ambystoma laterale), and the least tern (Sterna antillarum). Endangered species have been documented from every county of New Jersey, with the greatest number being recorded from Sussex () and Cape May () and the least being recorded from Union () and Essex (). Beans, Bruce E., and Larry Niles, eds. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Thomas F. Breden

Raritan Arsenal.

The arsenal was constructed in  in Raritan (now Edison) and Woodbridge townships as an assembly and repair facility for motorized equipment and as a training camp for twenty thousand American soldiers. After World War I, the arsenal functioned primarily as a storage facility for surplus ammunition. During World War II, the facility grew to , acres and employed , civilians. At full capacity in , Raritan Arsenal shipped ,, pounds of munitions. Decommissioned in , the property is now occupied by the Raritan Center business park, Middlesex County College, a park, and the U.S. government.

Stacy E. Spies

Raritan Bay.

MacKenzie, Clyde L., Jr. The Fisheries of Raritan Bay. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan for the New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary. New York: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region II, .

John A. Tiedemann

Raritan Bay Union. Born in  of factionalism within the nearby North American Phalanx, this communitarian experiment was founded in Perth Amboy by wealthy Christian socialists Marcus and Rebecca Spring. Although never as economically successful as the Phalanx, the Raritan Bay Union gained a greater cultural and literary prominence. It was best known as the home of Eagleswood, a progressive coeducational and interracial

H U DSO

KI LL

Raritan Bay encompasses approximately  square miles of lower

New York Harbor and drains a watershed of approximately , square miles. The bay receives inflow from the Hudson, Raritan, Shrewsbury, and Navesink rivers and numerous smaller tributaries in Staten Island and New Jersey. It receives indirect inflow from the Hackensack and Passaic rivers via Newark Bay and the Arthur Kill. The abundance of the bay’s inhabitants has fluctuated over time because of problems associated with industrial and sewage discharges and nonpoint source pollution such as storm water, vessel discharges, accidental spills, and runoff. The area remains, however, a significant habitat for a diversity of fish, shellfish, migratory birds, and wintering waterfowl.

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Always plagued by poor management, the Union was handicapped by the diversity of its membership and by the absence of a unifying ideology to which all members were committed. It lasted until . Guarneri, Carl J. The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth-Century America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

See also utopian communities

Marie Marmo Mullaney

Raritan Borough. .-square-mile borough in Somerset County. First settled by the Dutch in the s and named for the Raritans, a tribe of the Lenape, the village slumbered peacefully until  when a canal harnessed the power of the Raritan River. Factories sprang up along the canal’s banks, and a bustling manufacturing center arose. The Raritan Woolen Mills, founded , produced blankets for troops from the Civil War to World War I. Rope, bagging, gutta-percha, machine tools, and iron were among the products made during the boom years – by the German, Italian, Irish, Hungarian, Slovak, and Polish immigrants who settled here. By  most of the plants were bankrupt and the community today is predominantly residential, with modest single-family homes most numerous. A plaque at the Somerville Circle marks the site of a mansion where, on July , , President Warren G. Harding signed the Treaty of Raritan ending World War I. Marine Sgt. John Basilone, awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism at Guadalcanal, is immortalized by a life-size statue downtown. Formed within Bridgewater Township April , , Raritan became a borough May , . The population in  of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bonsigniore, Robert J., and Donald Esposito. Raritan, New Jersey: Centennial Dedication Book. Raritan: Centennial Committee, . Esposito, Donald N. The First History of Raritan, New Jersey, –. Raritan: D. N. Esposito, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

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Alan A. Siegel

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SHREWSBURY & NAVESINK RIVERS 0

school led by principal Theodore Weld. Faculty included the noted reformers Sarah and ´ and Elizabeth Peabody. Angelina Grimke

2 miles @Rutgers, The State University

Raritan River. From its headwaters in Budd Lake at an elevation of  feet, the Raritan River flows for eighty-five miles through the Highlands, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain Provinces of north-central New Jersey, until it empties into Raritan Bay at Perth Amboy. The Raritan Basin has an area of , square miles, making it the largest in New

rattlesnakes

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The First  Years of Hunterdon County, –. Flemington: Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Hunterdon’s Role in the Revolution: Published July , , in Honor of Our Nation’s Bicentennial Year on the Occasion of the Celebration of the th Anniversary of the Hunterdon County Democrat. Flemington: Hunterdon County Democrat, . Kovi, Louis V. As Ye Sow: The Story of an American Rural Community. Flemington: Hunterdon County Board of Agriculture, . Raritan Township Bicentennial Committee. Raritan Township, Flemington, and Environs: A Pictorial and Narrative History. Flemington: Raritan Township Bicentennial Committee, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Marfy Goodspeed

Raritan College.

John Jesse Barker, View of the New Brunswick Railroad Bridge, c. . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick. Photo: Jack Abraham.

Jersey (. percent of the entire state). Unlike the Passaic River Basin, which is the second largest ( square miles), it is entirely within the borders of the state. Two large reservoirs within the basin (Round Valley and Spruce Run) allow the river to be a major source of water supply for central New Jersey. See also geography; rivers

Robert M. Hordon

Raritan River Railroad.

The Raritan River Railroad began construction in  and was completed in  between South Amboy and New Brunswick. Originally, the railroad was to extend to Bound Brook to join the far-reaching systems of the Lehigh Valley, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Central Railroad of New Jersey, and the Reading Company. Legal and financial difficulties limited the Raritan River to tracks between South Amboy and New Brunswick, with spurs to Sayreville and the lead mines and docks that lie adjacent to the Raritan River itself, just around the bend from Perth Amboy and the Raritan Bay. In its beginnings, the railroad was about twelve miles in length, operating without signals or telephonic dispatching, and having a motive power of only eight steam locomotives. Among the businesses and companies that the railroad served were brick kilns, coal yards, and pie factories. It also served the Hercules and Du Pont chemical companies in Parlin and the Squibb Pharmaceutical Companies in North Brunswick. The Raritan River had passenger service as well, discontinued in  after forty-eight years. Its last passenger revenue was the sum of $ earned in . It once carried some nine thousand commuters weekly in its passenger trains, all absorbed by buses and private motor cars. On April , ,

the ninety-two-year-old Raritan River Railroad was absorbed into, and taken over by, Conrail. Deibert, Frederick W. Rails up the Raritan: A History of the Raritan River Rail Road. Piscataway: Railpace, .

See also railroads; transportation

V. Gary Petrie

Raritan Township.

.-square-mile township in Hunterdon County. Raritan’s first known European settler was John Philip Kase, who arrived in the s and whose neighbor and close friend was Tuccamirgan, a Lenape chief. The Dutch and Germans followed Kase into the area. The township was the scene of a Revolutionary War skirmish in which British officer Francis Geary was killed. Created by the division of Amwell Township in , with the South Branch of the Raritan River as its northeast border and the Old York Road as the southeast, Raritan Township is bisected by State Highway . The County Agricultural Fair, long known as the Flemington Fair, was first held in the Flemington section of Raritan in . In , Flemington was set off from Raritan as a borough. Raritan has long been a transportation hub for the county. Railroads, including the Easton and Amboy and the Flemington Railroad (later the Pennsylvania Railroad), transported agricultural produce—especially peaches—to area cities during the nineteenth century. In , through the efforts of the County Board of Agriculture, the Hunterdon Medical Center was opened. Today, Raritan is a major commercial center and the fastest growing municipality in Hunterdon County. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Valley

Community

This two-year, public, coeducational institution is located in North Branch. Founded on November , , the school was originally known as Somerset County College; its name was changed in . Classes were first held at Green Brook Township High School in  before the college moved to temporary facilities on its present location in . In  its permanent facilities opened. The first diplomas were awarded in . The school became the state’s first bicounty college in  when Raritan Valley Community College began to educate students from both Somerset and Hunterdon Counties. The -acre campus hosts a student body of about fifty-five hundred per semester. See also higher education

Alan Delozier

rattlesnakes. New Jersey is home to only one species of rattlesnake, the timber rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus). Persistent persecution and habitat loss has left only scattered populations in the Appalachian Mountains of northern New Jersey and the Pine Barrens of southern New Jersey. Because of its rarity and limited occurrence, it is listed by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection as an endangered species. Although venomous, timber rattlesnakes are secretive and retiring denizens of forested habitats. In mountainous areas they overwinter at communal hibernating sites and use nearby rocky outcrops for basking. In the Pine Barrens, timber rattlesnakes overwinter locally, aggregated in small groups in wooded swamps along stream corridors. Timber rattlesnakes are twelve to fourteen inches at birth and average thirty-four to forty-two inches as adults. There is extensive variation in individual body color, from yellow with dark crossbands to completely black. The timber rattlesnake’s diet consists of mice, squirrels, and other small mammals. See also reptiles Howard K. Reinert

682

Ray, Man of William Henry Harrison, the Whig presidential candidate. Shortly thereafter, Read moved to Boston, where his first book of poems was published in . In  Read moved back to Philadelphia and also lived for a time in Bordentown, New Jersey. He painted portraits of the family of New Jersey governor Marcus L. Ward. In  he traveled to Europe where he studied art, wrote poetry, and painted. He returned at the beginning of the Civil War and enlisted in the Union Army. An ardent supporter of the Union, he wrote many patriotic poems. The most famous, “Sheridan’s Ride,’’ was enthusiastically received by audiences throughout the North. His painting of the same name is his most noted work. In  Read returned to Europe. He died of pneumonia in New York shortly after arriving for a visit. At the time of his death he was considered one of America’s leading poets. DAB. Holzer, Harold, and Mark E. Neely, Jr. Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory: The Civil War in Art. New York: Orion Books, . Townsend, Henry Clay. A Memoir of T. Buchanan Read. Philadelphia: Privately printed, .

See also art; poetry Man Ray, Ridgefield Landscape, . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Jan Kelsey

Courtesy Montclair Art Museum. Gift of Naomi and David Savage, 1998.13. Copyright 2001 Man Ray Trust/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY/ADAGP, Paris. Photo: Peter Jacobs, 1998.

Ray, Man

(b. Aug. , ; d. Oct. , ).

Painter and photographer. Best known as a Dadaist photographer, Man Ray was born Emmanuel Radnitsky in Philadelphia, to Manya and Melach Radnitsky, a garment worker. After the family moved to Brooklyn, Ray attended Boys’ High School, where he excelled in draftsmanship. He vowed to devote his life to painting and studied under Robert Henri at the Ferrer School. As a young, introspective painter in , he moved to Ridgefield, New Jersey, a bucolic village that attracted other vanguard artists. Ray married the poet Adon Lacroix and remained in Ridgefield until the end of . He painted several pictures of the Ridgefield hills while there, but his major renown would occur after he met Marcel Duchamp, relocated to New York in , and took up photography. He died in Paris. Baldwin, Neil. Man Ray: American Artist. New York: C. N. Potter, .

Jersey, in . Read, like his father and grandfather, took an active role in the politics of the burgeoning colonies, and upon arriving in Burlington became both a court clerk and customs collector. He subsequently served as provincial secretary, legislator, supreme court justice, and colonel of the Burlington County militia. Read was also involved with agricultural experimentation, lumbering, and especially iron production, most notably at Batsto, Atsion, Etna, and Taunton. It is believed that he died in North Carolina in .

Reading, John

(b. June , ; d. Nov. ,

).

Surveyor and interim colonial governor. John Reading was born in New Jersey, the son of a West Jersey proprietor and surveyor, but was educated in England. Upon returning to the colony he married Mary Ryerson and settled on  acres he purchased near Flemington. There he owned several mills

Boyer, Charles S. Early Forges and Furnaces in New Jersey. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Pierce, Arthur D. Iron in the Pines. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Woodward, Carl Raymond. Ploughs and Politicks: Charles Read of New Jersey and His Notes on Agriculture, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also iron industry

John Louis Morsa

Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Naumann, Francis. Conversion to Modernism: The Early Work of Man Ray. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press and Monclair Art Museum, .

See also art

Jeanne Kolva

RCA.

See Radio Corporation of America.

Read, Charles

(b. Feb. , ; d. ).

Colonial official. Charles Read, born in Philadelphia in , moved to Burlington, New

Read, Thomas Buchanan

(b. Mar.

, ; d. May , ).

Painter and poet. Born in Chester County, Pennsylvania, Thomas Buchanan Read had little formal education. Apprenticed to a tailor, he ran away to Philadelphia, where he worked for a cigar maker. In  he moved to Cincinnati and worked as a house painter and as an assistant to sculptor Shobal V. Clevenger. Read established himself as a portrait painter and gained his first recognition in  with his portrait

Thomas Buchanan Read.

Courtesy Thomas Buchanan Read Collection (#6958), Clifton Waller Barrett Library, Albert H. Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia Library, Charlottesville.

Reconstruction

READING RAILWAY

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and farms. Reading was appointed to the provincial council in , and served until his death. Twice, first on the death of Gov. John Hamilton in , and again on the death of Gov. Jonathan Belcher in , he acted as governor until a royally appointed successor arrived. A Presbyterian, he was one of the original trustees of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). Reading left a large family, and a number of his sons and grandsons saw active service during the Revolution. Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Reading Railway System (Reading Company). Primarily serving Pennsylvania, the ,-mile Reading had a small but important presence in New Jersey over a corridor between Philadelphia and Jersey City. This route was also used by the B & O to reach the New York area. Owning a major interest in the Central Railroad of New Jersey gave the Reading an additional route to the tidewater via the Central’s main line, which crossed the state eastward from Phillipsburg. A major component of the Reading’s business was anthracite coal, much of which was shipped to Port Reading, on the Arthur Kill, for destinations in the Northeast. CSX now uses the route out of Philadelphia. Holton, James L. The Reading Railroad: History of a Coal Age Empire. Laury’s Station, PA: Garrigues House, . Lewis, Robert G. Handbook of American Railroads. New York: Simmons-Boardman Books, .

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

Readington. .-square-mile township in Hunterdon County. Readington was created as “Readings’’ by royal charter on July , . It was named for the John Reading family, one of the most respected colonial families in New Jersey. The township was incorporated on February , . Readington is bounded on the north by the Lamington River and the Rockaway Creek; on the west by the West Jersey line, on the south by the South Branch of the Raritan River, and on the east by Somerset County and the old East–West Jersey line. Early settlers were Dutch, with the Readington Dutch Reformed Church being the mother church to all Christian churches

in the township. Religiously, socially, and politically, the Dutch dominated the township through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the northwest section of the township was an early settlement of Germans. About  these settlers erected the first German Lutheran church in New Jersey. Land for the church was donated by Aray Van Guinea, a free black man who was a prominent churchman. By  the church congregation had moved up the road to New Germantown, which is Oldwick, Tewksbury Township, today. Villages of yesteryear were Potterstown, White House, White House Station, Readington, Stanton, Centerville, and Three Bridges. All were surrounded by farmland. Large-lot zoning for residential single-family homes and remaining farms have consumed the lands between the old villages. Industries include the world headquarters of Merck and Company, which is located on more than one thousand acres of land in the northerly part of the township. The population in  was ,;  percent of the residents were white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Stevens, Stephanie B. Readington’s Reflections. Readington: Readington Township Bicentennial Committee, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

recall.

Recall is one of the three mechanisms of popular, or direct, democracy. It has its origin in the Progressive Era (–) in the United States, along with the initiative (by which members of the public can bypass the state legislature and suggest laws) and the referendum (through which members of the public may vote on laws already passed by the legislature). Recall provides for the calling of a special election to cut short the term of office of a public official prior to its expiration. Recall of public officials is a political process, in contrast to the more legal process involved with impeachment. While recall was included in the state constitutions of a number of western states at the beginning of the twentieth century, it was adopted in New Jersey only in  by adding paragraph b to article , paragraph  of the state constitution. It provides that, after at least one year of service, any elected official in the state may be subject to a recall election upon petition of at least  percent of the registered voters in the officeholder’s district. The reasons, or grounds, for recall are not reviewable by the courts. The New Jersey legislature implemented the state constitutional recall provision by statute in .

683

Williams, Robert F. The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference Guide. Updated ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also constitution

Robert F. Williams

Reconstruction.

New Jersey’s political development during the Reconstruction era that followed the Civil War was characterized by both change and continuity. The major reforms of the period enfranchised blacks and intensified partisan conflict. Yet there was no voter realignment or formation of new parties, as some pundits had predicted. Instead, New Jersey’s two major parties endured. For most of the period, political campaigns centered on Reconstruction issues, especially the status of blacks. Republicans and Democrats largely drew upon the same coalitions that had supported them before and during the Civil War. Relying on strong organizations and party loyalty, partisans on both sides often reacted to the tight balance of power by trying to blunt the influence of key constituencies in their opponents’ camp. Democrats viciously resisted the enfranchisement of blacks, while Republicans sought to curtail the power of immigrants and workingmen, who were mostly Democrats. As had long been the case in New Jersey, intense competition and close electoral contests remained the norm. Although Democrats held the governorship for all but one term between  and , Republicans controlled the legislature for more terms than the Democrats did. In certain elections, notably in , , and , national issues threw the state out of political balance. But the equilibrium quickly returned. Neither coalition was able to transform a temporary triumph into long-term dominance. Reconstruction nevertheless generated some important reforms in New Jersey. The war’s outcome brought the hope of additional political and social progress for the more than twenty-five thousand black New Jerseyans. Proportionately, they constituted the largest African American population in any northern state. The enfranchisement of black men proved to be especially important in maintaining the strength of New Jersey’s Republican party. In practice, however, black suffrage also had a conservative effect on politics in the state. By shoring up the Republican position, black suffrage allowed Republicans to cling to their established constituencies and electoral strategies. There were other indications of Reconstruction’s effect on New Jersey. In , by a sweeping margin of over  percent, New Jerseyans finally struck the word “white’’ from state voting requirements and achieved symbolically what the Fifteenth Amendment had already secured in fact. Bipartisan progress toward racial justice continued in the early s with the passage of two civil rights measures

684

Record, George Lawrence Throughout the s Record maintained an extensive correspondence with reformers across the country and influenced their thinking and actions when in office. In  he actively supported Robert LaFollette’s campaign for the presidency, and himself made an unsuccessful run for the U.S. Senate on the Progressive ticket. Record initially supported Franklin Roosevelt, but became disillusioned with the early New Deal (which he felt was insufficiently radical). He died on September , , in Portland, Maine.

designed to end school segregation and guarantee equal access to public accommodations. Along with political change, the pace of social and economic transformation remained intense. By  the state’s population reached one million, and more New Jerseyans lived in cities than on farms. New voting blocs of Catholics and workers demanded policies to serve their interests. In addition, political corruption and the parties themselves came under fire from reformers demanding clean and efficient government. The election of  confirmed that Reconstruction was rapidly receding from its place at the center of state politics. Industrialization, urbanization, and immigration were generating other forces and new issues. Sensitive to these developments, leaders in both parties proposed sweeping reforms to New Jersey’s constitution between  and . Constitutional amendments were approved to reduce political corruption, increase access to public schools, and modernize state government. As organizations, the parties had survived. But the issues and forces that drove state politics during the era of the Civil War and Reconstruction were finally being eclipsed.

Noble, Ransom E. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Steffens, Lincoln. Upbuilders. . Reprint. Seattle: University of Washington Press, . Tobin, Eugene M. George L. Record and the Progressive Spirit. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also Progressive Era

Joseph Francis Mahoney

Record, The. For much of its century-long

Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Civil War

Louis Moore

Record, George Lawrence , ; d. Sept. , ).

(b. Mar.

Lawyer and political reformer. Born in Auburn, Maine, George L. Record attended Bates College, and taught school briefly in his native state before moving to New York City to study law. He married Eliza Hanscom of Auburn, Maine, on February , . After admission to the bar he practiced in Jersey City. Appointed corporation counsel of Jersey City by Mayor Mark Fagan, he fought the railroad and utilities corporations whose domination of the leadership of both major parties gave them outrageously favorable tax breaks (particularly in the larger cities) and stymied efforts to improve municipal services. Record’s efforts in this instance put him in the forefront of a slowly growing progressive reform movement (the New Idea) in his own Republican party and in the opposing Democratic organization. An adherent of Henry George’s single-tax theory, Record became a principal theorist of the New Jersey reform movement in the period –. During Woodrow Wilson’s  gubernatorial campaign, Record’s open letter to the candidate gave Wilson the opportunity to proclaim his conversion to the reform cause. For the Wilson administration, Record drafted new primary and general election bills aimed at freeing the electoral process from boss manipulation, a bill for an effective public utilities commission, and a corrupt practices measure. The

George L. Record.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

passage of these laws radically altered the state of politics in New Jersey and catapulted Wilson into the front rank of presidential possibilities for . While continuing to serve as an adviser to Governor Wilson, Record remained a Republican progressive and an active leader in the New Idea movement. In  he went with Theodore Roosevelt and the Bull Moose Party. After the campaign, like most Bull Moosers, he slowly drifted back into the regular GOP structure, there being no other practical place to go. Record frequently sought elective office, but never successfully. Defeats did not embitter him; he looked upon every campaign as an opportunity to educate the voters, and realized this would be a long process. At the end of World War I he and a group of progressives formed the Committee of Forty-eight, so named because it was intended eventually to have members from every state. The committee was to be a forum for developing and presenting reform ideas and proposals. One of its concerns was finding a way to unite agrarian and labor reformers, and there were efforts in  to find common ground. Record stayed with the committee through its brief life, but he was doubtful of an alliance with leaders of industrial labor because of their class orientation.

history, Bergen County’s Evening Record has been associated with the Borg family. Founded in  in Hackensack, the county seat, the Evening Record in its early years competed for circulation with several other local dailies and struggled to stay in the black. In  it was sold by the Whitbeck family to a syndicate that included the local postmaster, banker, several New York businessmen, and two key figures: veteran journalist Matt Ely and Wall Street investor John Borg. Ely injected a new professionalism into the operation. Borg gradually bought out all other investors, including Ely, provided capital for physical improvements, and launched a range of ingenious circulationbuilding promotions. During the s boom, the Evening Record cemented its dominant position in the Bergen County newspaper market through detailed reportage of news in all seventy Bergen communities, expansive sports coverage, and periodic crusades against malfeasance in county government. Cognizant of the benefits of population growth in the county, Borg crusaded for a bridge over the Hudson River. In  the Evening Record launched a series of muckraking reports on the corrupt operations of a “political ring’’ in Hackensack. State Senator Ralph Chandless, who, as the county’s political boss, controlled the grand jury, had John Borg indicted on bogus charges that ultimately boomeranged. Chandless was subsequently expelled from the state senate. The socalled Lodi Sewer Scandal catapulted Borg into national prominence and cemented his reputation as a fearless champion of good government. During the s Borg’s paper held its own during tough economic times thanks to its distinctive local coverage and promotions, including sponsorship of boxing tournaments. The paper supported Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal until the court-packing fight of ; for the remainder of Roosevelt’s tenure in office

Red Bank Battlefield the Evening Record was a consistent critic of his policies. As publisher, Borg also took a semiisolationist position on foreign affairs, though he became an enthusiastic supporter of the war effort after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. As the Evening Record’s circulation rapidly grew with the suburban thrust of the s and s, the paper focused increasingly on regional and statewide topics. Under the stewardship of Borg heirs, the paper remained independent in its political orientation, hired first-class talent, continually upgraded its press operations, and in its editorial columns advocated regional solutions to problems associated with population growth. The Borgs changed the paper’s name to The Record in , launched a profitable Sunday edition in , and converted from evening to morning publication in . Daily circulation reached , in  but has remained largely stagnant since. Veteran columnist William Caldwell earned a Pulitzer Prize for commentary in . Under the direction of John Borg’s grandson Malcolm Borg, The Record remains a significant force in North Jersey and aspires to be recognized as one of the nation’s leading newspapers. Sherlock, Patricia. On and Off The Record. Hackensack: Bergen Record Corporation, .

See also newspapers

Michael J. Birkner

recreation areas. New Jersey has three state recreation areas, public lands acquired and developed mainly to provide rural, outdoor recreation for visitors and nearby residents while maintaining scenic quality. The areas have many facilities designed to handle intense day and overnight use. Unlike state parks and forests, recreation areas are not designed to protect or give public access to historical, archeological, or other specific features. Nevertheless, the state strives to maintain their beauty. The two major areas, Round Valley Recreation Area and Spruce Run Recreation Area, are built around large bodies of water that provide a variety of sporting and leisure opportunities. Recreation areas attempt to maintain a balance between protecting the site’s environment and allowing the public to enjoy it. Spruce Run covers , acres in the hills of Hunterdon County about three miles north of Clinton. Its key attraction is the ,-acre Spruce Run Reservoir, one of New Jersey’s first state-developed public water supply facilities. The reservoir, holding  billion gallons behind a ,-foot earthen dam and two earthen dikes, is the third largest reservoir in the state, after Round Valley and Wanaque. It was opened in . It is part of a water supply system that also consists of Round Valley Reservoir and the Delaware and Raritan Canal Transmission Complex, which together can deliver  million gallons per day to the water utilities that serve central New Jersey.

Spruce Run’s fifteen miles of shoreline are popular with picnickers, swimmers, fishermen, boaters, and campers. Spruce Run features playgrounds, in-line skating, basketball, volleyball, swimming, boating, windboarding, picnic tables, grills, picnic shelters, group picnic facilities, a food concession, and other facilities. Round Valley Recreation Area covers , acres about four miles east of Clinton in Hunterdon County. Its main feature is the massive Round Valley Reservoir, which, more than  feet deep and holding  billion gallons, is the deepest body of water in the state. Formed by two dams and a dike that closed off gaps in a natural horseshoe-shaped valley, it was opened in . The swimming area is separated from the main reservoir by an earthen dam that crosses a narrow waterway on the reservoir’s west side. Round Valley is one of the few state facilities that allows wilderness camping. Eightyfive campsites, on the eastern side of the reservoir, are accessible only to hikers or boaters. Round Valley Reservoir is stocked with lake trout and is popular with anglers. Although boating on the reservoir is permitted, Round Valley—unlike Spruce Run—does not offer boat rentals. It does, however, feature hiking and nature trails. The -acre Warren Grove Recreation Area in Ocean and Burlington counties is the state’s third recreation area, but it has yet to be developed for public use. It has no water bodies or trails. Warren Grove, occupying surplus property donated by the federal government and made up of mostly short pines and sand, came to be owned by New Jersey in . See also state parks

Fred J. Aun

Red Bank.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Red Bank’s earliest known inhabitants were the Navesink Indians, who sold Red Bank and the surrounding area to seven English settlers in . In the late s, while still part of Shrewsbury Township, it was officially designated a village. Then, in , it was incorporated as a town, governed by a board of commissioners. It split from Shrewsbury Township and became a borough on March , . Named for the reddish-orange soil of the Navesink River banks upon which it is situated, Red Bank thrived as a maritime center from the mid-s to the late-s. Sloops, and later steamboats, carried passengers and goods to New York and returned with merchandise. Boatbuilding and fishing were major industries. River trade began to decline with the arrival of the first passenger train in the s, and three disastrous fires between  and  slowed growth. However, by the early s, retail trade, manufacturing, and tourism flourished due to improved rail transportation. Today, the economy is

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centered upon retail business; healthcare; financial, professional, and other services; and recreation. Land use is predominantly singlefamily residential. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Cottonport, LA: Polyanthos, . Phillips, Helen C. Red Bank on the Navesink. Red Bank: Caesarea Press, .

Joann E. Donatiello

Red Bank, Battle of. After capturing Philadelphia by overland march, Gen. William Howe’s British forces began to clear the Delaware River of American defenses, which included Fort Mercer at Red Bank, Gloucester County. On October , , Gen. George Washington ordered Col. Christopher Greene’s two Rhode Island regiments, numbering about four hundred men, to Fort Mercer. General Howe dispatched Col. Carl Emil Kurt von Donop’s twelve hundred Hessians to capture the fortification. They crossed the river on October , camped in Haddonfield, and arrived at Fort Mercer the next afternoon. When Colonel Greene refused to surrender, the Hessians started the battle around : .. with a cannonade. Uncoordinated attacks were met by heavy cannon and musket fire from the American defenders, resulting in a Hessian retreat. The American force suffered  killed and  wounded. Hessian casualties were  killed,  wounded, and  captured, including Colonel Donop. Greenman, Jeremiah. Diary of a Common Soldier in the American Revolution, –: An Annotated Edition of the Military Journal of Jeremiah Greenman. Edited by Robert C. Bray and Paul E. Bushnell. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, . Jackson, John W. Fort Mercer: Guardian of the Delaware. Woodbury: Gloucester County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . ———. The Pennsylvania Navy, –: The Defense of the Delaware. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution

Joseph-James Ahern

Red Bank Battlefield.

The site of an American victory during the Revolutionary War, the battlefield is located on the Delaware River in National Park. Fort Mifflin in Pennsylvania is opposite; both forts and a river-defense (cheveaux-de-frise) were constructed to protect Philadelphia from a water attack. British attempts to clear the river led to the Battle of Red Bank and a British defeat in . Today the battlefield is a federally owned forty-four-acre passive park system, with access to the waterfront, maintained by the Gloucester County Freeholders. The James

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Reeves, Ira L.

and Ann Whitall House, which served as a hospital after the battle, is open to the public. See also American Revolution; historic sites

Kathryn Smith Dodson

Reeves, Ira L.

(b. ; d. Oct. , ).

Law enforcement official. In , the Prohibition Bureau, a federal agency charged with enforcing the ban on alcohol authorized by the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution, appointed Ira L. Reeves to direct the New Jersey district. Reeves was fifty-four years old, a wounded, decorated army veteran who had risen to the rank of colonel in World War I. He was a teetotaler and a churchgoer, and had once been president of a military college. But New Jersey, where the Prohibition laws were openly flouted, was a difficult assignment for Reeves. He was ridiculed in the newspapers and refused cooperation by local law enforcement authorities. He found that his agents were bribed by bootleggers. Reeves became disillusioned. He felt that Prohibition was unworkable and that it was turning America into a nation of lawbreakers. He resigned after eight months and subsequently became an officer in the Crusaders, an antiProhibition organization. He wrote a book about his experience in New Jersey entitled Ol’ Rum River. The title came from his sentiment that despite his attempt to keep New Jersey sober, the river of illegal alcohol kept rolling along. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Reeves, Ira L. Ol’Rum River: Revelations of a Prohibition Administrator. Chicago: Thomas S. Rockwell, .

See also Prohibition

Reid, John

(b. Feb. , ; d. Mar. ,

). Surveyor, legislator, and judge. Born in

Kirkliston, Scotland, John Reid married Margaret Miller in . They had three daughters and one son. The family came to New Jersey in  and settled in Perth Amboy, and in , they moved to the Wickatunk section of Marlboro. Reid was hired by the Proprietors of East New Jersey to work on the demarcation line dividing East Jersey from West Jersey. As surveyor general, he mapped most of Monmouth County, and served on the commission laying out the roads in the county. Later he became a member of the Provincial Assembly and served as a county judge. Ellis, Franklin. History of Monmouth County New Jersey. . Reprint. Shrewsbury: Shrewsbury Historical Society, . History of Monmouth County, New Jersey, –. Chicago: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Nathan Handlin

Reid, Sarah Tabitha (b. Nov. , ; d. Mar. , ). Diarist. Reid was the daughter of

Sarah Lawrence Reid and Abijah Appleton. She married William Henry Reid on December , , and they had five children. Although she had a limited education, Reid kept a diary from November , , to December , . This introspective account provides a rare glimpse of the nature of an ordinary woman’s life in the nineteenth century, from her daily farm chores to her family and community activities. A devout member of Old Tennent [Presbyterian] Church, Reid’s diary also reveals the important role of faith in her life. Reid, Sarah Tabitha. The Diary of Sarah Tabitha Reid, –. Edited by Delight W. Dodyk. Freehold: Monmouth County Historical Association, .

Marc Mappen Carla Z. Tobias

Reeves-Reed Arboretum.

This arboretum is part of a .-acre nature conservancy in Summit. In  Calvert Vaux, who with his partner, Frederick Law Olmsted, designed Central Park and Union County parks, among others, prepared a landscape plan for “The Clearing,’’ the country home of John Hornor Wisner. The second owner, Susie Graham Reeves, commissioned landscape designer Ellen Biddle Shipman of New York to add a “garden room’’ with connecting rose and rock gardens, which was built in  by Reeves and Carl F. Pilat, a New York City landscape architect. In  Summit citizens, city government, and third owner Charles L. Reed, Jr., combined contributions and donated land to create a public arboretum. Today it is owned by the city but funded and run by a nonprofit organization.

Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Betty McAndrews

religion. Religious pluralism has been a fact of life in New Jersey since the colonial period. Although the original inhabitants of New Jersey, the Lenape, did not have an institutionalized religion, they believed in ¨muko ` ng. Lesser spirits, a creator-god, Kishele `k, had specific jurisdictions called man¨etuwa and helped the Lenape cope with everyday problems. Believers had to appease these spirits through ceremonies of song, dance, and presentations of firstfruits. After the arrival of Europeans, the Lenape became the focus of missionary efforts. Some missionaries scorned their religion as devil worship, but others thought that their belief system would make them receptive to Christianity because they were already practicing many of its ethical precepts. The first permanent European settlement in New Jersey was an extension of the Dutch colony of New Netherland, based in Manhattan. The Dutch brought with them their established church, the Dutch Reformed Church, which was Calvinistic. Although official recognition was extended only to this church,

the Dutch were tolerant of other Christian churches and of Judaism. The early colonists of New Netherland included Sephardic Jews, as well as a variety of Protestants and some Catholics. After the English conquest of New Netherland in , the Dutch tried to maintain their distinctiveness. In New Jersey, they developed a more pietistic type of religion that emphasized “new birth’’ and personal holiness. By the s, this strain of Dutch religion was well suited to the New Light theology of the Great Awakening. A Dutch pastor in New Jersey, Theodorus Frelinghuysen, is regarded as one of the founders of the Great Awakening. Frelinghuysen formed alliances with other New Lights, notably the controversial Presbyterian Gilbert Tennent; such alliances strengthened the awakening and also provided another means of assimilation. The Dutch Reformed Church (known since  as the Reformed Church in America) still exists, with more than one hundred congregations in New Jersey. The colony of New Sweden, founded in , consisted of settlements on both sides of the Delaware River. The Swedes regarded the Lutheranism they brought with them as unbroken in apostolic succession; that is, they traced a continuous line of bishops dating back to Jesus’ apostles. They disdained other brands of Lutheranism, with the exception of Anglicanism, as following a broken line. Thus, the Swedish Lutherans and Anglicans could cooperate with each other to a much greater extent than either could with other Protestant denominations. Because both held to the apostolic succession, clergy were allowed to administer the sacraments in each other’s churches. Both churches faced severe clergy shortages, and the willingness to call upon each other for assistance made a significant difference in their ability to develop viable congregations. In New Jersey, Swedes and Anglicans shared pulpits and developed joint ministries in Salem and Gloucester Counties. After the American Revolution, the two Swedish parishes in New Jersey joined the newly formed Episcopal Church (successor to the Anglican Church). With the English conquest of New Netherland in  (the Dutch had previously conquered the Swedes in ), all of New Jersey came under English control. The established Church of England, however, gained no particular advantage from being the state church in a highly diverse colony with long entrenched rival ecclesiastical institutions. Anglican parishes were organized in East and West Jersey with clergy supplied by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the bishop of London. But the presence of so many other Christian denominations precluded them from dominating the religious scene as they did in some other colonies. Although the Anglicans had the assistance of

religion the Swedes in West Jersey, in East Jersey they were outnumbered by their Calvinist rivals, the Presbyterians and the Congregationalists. Once under English rule, New Jersey never had an established church, nor were its colonists forced to contribute through taxation or tithe to any church. Anglicans found it difficult to recruit American-born clergy. For political reasons, there was no bishop present on American soil, although one New Jersey priest, Thomas Chandler, was in the forefront of the effort to change that situation. In the meantime, ordination required a trip to England. Anglicans nonetheless survived, and after the Revolution they reorganized their church as the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Quakers (Society of Friends) played a major role in the development of West Jersey. In  two Quakers, John Fenwick and Edward Byllynge, bought Lord Berkeley’s half of the colony, and West Jersey became the first Quaker colony. In  a group of twelve Quaker investors purchased East Jersey from Sir George Carteret’s widow. They soon sold their shares to non-Quaker investors, however; thus Quaker influence was more important in West Jersey. The New Jersey Quakers left a lasting legacy in the good relations they maintained with the Indians, who found them trustworthy and honest. Quakers were also nonresistant pacifists, and many of them were Loyalists during the Revolution. After the Revolution, the Quakers became known as the first denomination formally to adopt an antislavery stance. The number of Quaker congregations has remained remarkably stable since the s (about thirty-seven), although the percentage of the population that adheres to Quakerism has dropped, from  percent in  to . percent in . Roman Catholicism was seen by British authorities and most of Protestantism as foreign and unpatriotic. Nonetheless, Catholics made an appearance in colonial New Jersey. Two priests visited in  to minister to Catholics at Woodbridge and Elizabethtown. By , there were five Catholic congregations, but they were totally dependent on the ministrations of traveling priests, who were not particularly welcome in New Jersey. One priest was put to death for his alleged role in a slave uprising. Another was shot at several times. There was also legal discrimination against Catholics, at least on paper. Instructions in  to the royal governor, Lord Edward Cornbury, advised him to permit liberty of conscience to all except “papists,’’ but this stricture seems never to have been enforced. Two denominations descended from Calvinism, Presbyterianism and Congregationalism, also played a key role in colonial New Jersey. The Congregationalists, descendants of the New England Puritans, founded Newark in . Presbyterians, largely of

the Scots-Irish variety, soon outnumbered Congregationalists. Because the two denominations were identical in Calvinist doctrine (differing only in church polity), the few Congregational parishes joined the Presbyterian Church around , largely to present a united front against the Anglicans. The Presbyterians flourished in New Jersey, where they played a major role in the Great Awakening and were in the forefront of the independence movement. New Jersey played a significant role in the series of dramatic and divisive religious revivals in the s and s known as the Great Awakening. The greatest of the revivalist preachers, George Whitefield, preached in New Jersey on numerous occasions. The Great Awakening divided Protestants into two groups, New Lights (prorevival) and Old Lights (antirevival). The division cut across denominational lines and blurred denominational distinctiveness. New Jersey’s first state constitution, written in , contained two clauses pertaining to religion. Article XVIII stated that “no person shall ever, within this Colony, be deprived of the inestimable privilege of worshipping Almighty God in a manner agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience; nor, under any pretence whatever, be compelled to attend any place of worship, contrary to his own faith and judgment.’’ Likewise, no one would “ever be obliged to pay tithes, taxes, or any other rates’’ for the support of any church. Article XIX, while affirming that there would “be no establishment of any one religious sect in this Province, in preference to another,’’ nonetheless restricted officeholding to those “professing a belief in the faith of any Protestant sect.’’ The Methodist movement, an offshoot of the Church of England, made a strong impact in New Jersey after the Revolution and well into the nineteenth century. By , there were fifteen Methodist congregations in the state. Originally regarded as an “upstart’’ sect, the Methodists sought converts through camp meeting revivals. Their unique legacy to New Jersey was the establishment of the Ocean Grove Camp Meeting Association in , a corporation, religious society, and town all in one. The trustees of the corporation were the municipal authority, a power granted to them by the legislature and held by them until . The society survives, and revivals are still held in Ocean Grove. The auditorium, with its impressive organ, has hosted many famous preachers, musicians, and the occasional politician over the years. African Americans, both slave and free, have been present in New Jersey as long as Europeans. Although their religious life has been vibrant and varied, generalizations about it are difficult, because blacks participated in numerous Christian denominations. Sometimes they formed separate denominations (for example, the African Methodist Episcopal Church), sometimes they worshiped

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with whites, and sometimes they organized black parishes within existing denominations. Scholars debate the extent to which Africans Americans adapted Christianity to their African religions. One example of crosscultural adaptation concerns black slaves of Dutch masters, who were allowed full participation in the freewheeling Dutch holiday of Pinkster (Pentecost). Blacks in New Jersey continued to celebrate it long after the Dutch had ceased to do so. The new state constitution of , unlike that of , contained an explicitly religious preamble: “We the people of the State of New Jersey, grateful to Almighty God for the civil and religious liberty which He hath so permitted us to enjoy, and looking to Him for a blessing upon our endeavors to secure and transmit the same unimpaired to succeeding generations, do ordain and establish this constitution.’’ Article I, Section , guaranteed religious liberty and virtually repeated Article XVIII of the  constitution. More significantly, Article I, Section , eliminated the religious test for public office: “no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust; and no person shall be denied the enjoyment of any civil right merely on account of his religious principles.’’ The preamble and Article I, Section , were repeated verbatim in the constitution of ; Article I, Section , was slightly reworded. The s and s brought new waves of immigration, and for the first time significant numbers of Catholics and Jews came to New Jersey. Prior to , Catholics in New Jersey were under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Baltimore. In  the Dioceses of New York and Philadelphia were formed, and New Jersey Catholics were assigned to one of those bodies, depending on where they lived. In  the Diocese of Newark took over jurisdiction of the entire state. As the number of Catholics continued to grow, the Diocese of Trenton was created in , embracing the fourteen southern counties. In  the Dioceses of Paterson and Camden were formed, and in  the Diocese of Metuchen was created. In  there were only  Catholic parishes in New Jersey, and Catholics constituted . percent of the population; in  there were  parishes, and Catholics made up  percent of the state’s population. Jews were in New Jersey during the earliest colonial years, but their numbers then are impossible to determine. In  there were no Jewish congregations in the state. By , there were approximately , Jews (not all religiously observant) in New Jersey, constituting . percent of the population (the highest percentage outside of New York). One of their most significant contributions to New Jersey was the creation of Jewish agricultural communities in the southern part of the state, beginning in . Jewish American philanthropists provided funds for Jews fleeing tsarist Russia to come to rural New Jersey. By

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religious architecture

, , Jews lived in these farming communities, but their numbers began to decline in the s and s as the younger generation moved away. Still, as late as  Jewish farmers supplied three-quarters of New Jersey’s eggs. Although not typical of the experience of most of New Jersey’s Jews, who lived in urban commercial settings, this experiment was a unique contribution to the state’s history. Post–World War II immigration has brought further variety to religious life in New Jersey, including followers of Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. New Jersey has the largest percentage of Hindus outside of New York. The state has the same percentage of Muslims as California and Washington, D.C.; only New York has a higher percentage. Muslims point out, rightly, that they have been in America for a long time, given that many African slaves (estimated at  to  percent) were Muslims. It remains to be seen how quickly these “new’’ religions will grow and what kinds of adaptations (in both directions) will take place. A good deal of Americanization can already be seen in the way these groups routinely use “Sunday school,’’ “board of trustees,’’ “pledge,’’ and “scripture study’’ in their communications. For more than three hundred years, New Jersey has presented one of the most diverse religious scenes in the nation. By all indications, it will continue to do so. Balmer, Randall H. A Perfect Babel of Confusion: Dutch Religion and English Culture in the Middle Colonies. New York: Oxford University Press, . Brandes, Joseph. Immigrants to Freedom: Jewish Communities in Rural New Jersey since . Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, . Curley, Augustine J., comp. New Jersey Catholicism: An Annotated Bibliography. South Orange: New Jersey Catholic Records Historical Commission, . Finke, Roger, and Rodney Stark. The Churching of America, –: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Saint Mary’s Church, Burlington.

Photo: Frank L. Greenagel.

Suzanne Geissler Bowles

religious architecture.

The midAtlantic region is known for the variety and quality of its religious architecture, although New Jersey’s legacy is less celebrated than New York’s or Philadelphia’s. The state can boast of fine examples of all the national ecclesiastical styles (except Spanish colonial and southwestern adobe), including Georgian, Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, Romanesque, Italianate, Renaissance, carpenter Gothic, boardand-batten, Shingle style, Moorish, and the distinctive Quaker meeting house, as well as many vernacular churches of unusual quality. The churches and synagogues of New Jersey reveal the state’s ethnic and religious diversity dating from the earliest colonial settlements in the s. Until national architectural styles overwhelmed the regional variations that had

Old Tennent Presbyterian Church, Manalapan.

Photo: Frank L. Greenagel

developed by the s, one might have inferred the nationality and religion of the settlers from the religious architecture of the region. Clearly, immigrants brought with them not only their domestic architecture, as can still be seen in the old Dutch houses of Bergen County and the German barns scattered in western counties, but also their characteristic houses of worship. Many of the Quaker meeting houses from Burlington through Salem, built between  and , would be immediately recognizable to the visitor from the English Midlands, where many of the Quakers originated. The largely unadorned frame meeting houses erected by Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Reformed settlers from New England or Long Island would have been familiar to anyone from those regions. The earliest houses of worship in the state were log cabins, none of which have survived. The second building was usually a permanent one, often made of brick or stone, although many congregations outgrew these structures

religious communities of women

Mount Sinai Synagogue, Jersey City, .

Photo: Leon Yost. by the s and erected larger ones in the prevailing style. Following the arrival of German and Irish Catholic immigrants in the s and s, large German and French Gothic churches favored by that denomination were erected. Jews from Germany immigrated to Newark, Paterson, and other manufacturing centers about the same time, and built synagogues in neo-classical, Greek Revival, and Moorish styles, as did the later Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. There was always a significant African population in the state, and beginning in the early decades of the nineteenth century, they erected small vernacular churches until population shifts and their rising affluence made many of the large churches vacated by mainstream Protestant denominations available to them. In some industrial centers like Paterson, Trenton, and Roebling, one can find a variety of early twentieth-century Catholic, Lutheran, and Orthodox churches, built by Hungarian, Polish, Ukrainian, Russian, and other Central European nationalities in a Gothic idiom characteristic of those regions. The more recent Latino, Haitian, and Asian immigrants rarely build new houses of worship because of the availability of existing churches abandoned by previous congregations, but new Buddhist temples and Islamic mosques testify to the continuing diversity of the state. In the last half of the twentieth century, few really large churches were erected, and even fewer would be considered of architectural distinction. Because there was no established state religion in New Jersey, no single style of religious architecture came to dominate the area as the white clapboard Congregational church, with its multitiered steeple, characterizes New England. The state is graced with more than eleven hundred churches that predate , including over forty Quaker meeting houses,

half of which were built in the eighteenth century, and more than thirty Greek Revival buildings from the s and s. Churches based on the Old North Church in Boston or on some modest variant of the buildings that Christopher Wren designed for London after the great fire of  can be found throughout the state, often built by Presbyterian, Lutheran, and Baptist congregations. The Gothic Revival style in America can trace its roots, in part, to three Anglican churches built in the s (the Chapel of the Holy Innocents and Saint Mary’s Church, both in Burlington, and Saint John’s Church in Glassboro). Although there are none of Henry Hobson Richardson’s influential Romanesque Revival churches in New Jersey, there are dozens of modest churches whose architects worked in that style, as well as in the fin-de`cle Shingle and Stick manner. In general, sie Protestant congregations in the northern and central part of the state looked to Boston and New York for architectural styles, while the southern part of the state was more influenced by the Georgian style of Philadelphia. Roman Catholics built German and French Gothic buildings, and Jews usually adapted neo-classical or Moorish styles, although many nineteenth-century synagogues in the state are simple vernacular buildings, hardly distinguishable from a rural schoolhouse. Many of the country’s major architects are represented in the state, including Peter Smith (Christ Church in Shrewsbury, Saint Peter’s Church in Freehold), Richard Upjohn (Saint Mary’s Church in Burlington, Saint Peter’s in Spotswood, Grace Church in Newark), William Notman (Holy Innocents in Burlington, Saint John’s in Glassboro), Frank Wills (House of Prayer in Newark), Ralph Adams Cram (Trinity in Princeton), William Post (High Bridge Reformed), Charles McKim

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(Saint Peter’s in Morristown), and William Strickland (Saint John’s in Salem, Second Presbyterian in Bridgeton). Patrick O’Rourke, who reputedly designed more than six hundred Catholic churches across the county, was responsible for at least six churches in the state, including Saint John’s in Orange and the Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Newark. Patrick Keeley, who also designed numerous French Gothic churches for Catholic congregations across the county, was responsible for Saint Patrick’s in Jersey City and Sacred Heart in Mount Holly. Louis Kahn, the only important twentieth-century architect represented here, designed the Trenton Jewish Community Center Baths and Day Camp Pavilions near Trenton. There are several churches that repeatedly appear in surveys of American architecture, including Saint Mary’s in Burlington; the Chapel of the Holy Innocents, also in Burlington; Crosswicks’ Friends, the Old Tennent Presbyterian Church near Freehold; the Springfield Presbyterian Church; the South Park Presbyterian Church in Newark (now largely a ruin); and the Great (Methodist) Auditorium in Ocean Grove. As of , there were almost two hundred New Jersey churches, meeting houses, and synagogues on the National Register of Historic Places. The oldest surviving religious building in the state, the original Saint Mary’s Episcopal Church in Burlington, was built in , and there are roughly fifty other churches and meeting houses built before  that remain, most of them still holding regular or periodic services. Although often overlooked in architectural surveys, the religious architecture of the state presents a remarkable quality and diversity of styles, and few states contain as many houses of worship dating to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as New Jersey. Greenagel, Frank L. The New Jersey Churchscape: Encountering Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Churches. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Rifkind, Carole. A Field Guide to American Architecture. New York: New American Library, . Williams, Peter W. Houses of God: Region, Religion, and Architecture in the United States. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also architecture

Frank L. Greenagel

religious women.

communities

of

The religious communities of women in New Jersey, found predominantly in the Roman Catholic Church, besides being communities devoted to prayer, have founded or staffed many parochial schools, health care facilities, and social service agencies. Some are of pontifical rite (that is, under the pope); others are diocesan rite (that is, entirely under the supervision of the local bishop). Some are devoted entirely to a life of prayer as contemplative communities, such as the Dominican monastery in Newark, or

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the Carmel at Morristown. Others are active communities, spending much of their time in ministry (without neglecting prayer). Some are mixed, having both contemplative and active elements to their lives. The first religious community of women to be represented in the state was the Sisters of Charity of Convent Station, who first came to Newark to take over the care of Saint Mary’s Orphanage. They have been best known for running schools, including the College of Saint Elizabeth in Convent Station. They were soon followed by the Sisters of the Poor of Saint Francis, who opened hospitals in Hoboken and Jersey City in  and Newark in ; and the Sisters of Mercy, whose motherhouse was established in Bordentown in . Over the years, the religious communities of women have provided various services. The Sisters of the Good Shepherd were devoted to the redemption of “fallen women,’’ and their community in Newark included a number of these “Magdalens.’’ The Little Sisters of the Poor, who are committed to the care of the indigent elderly, opened their first house in Newark in , and now run Saint Joseph’s Home in Totowa. The Sisters of Saint Joseph of Peace opened a home for working women in Jersey City in  and a home for the blind in . A number of communities ran orphanages, such as the former Saint Anthony Orphanage in Kearny, which was run by the Pallottine Sisters. Some communities came to New Jersey to serve the immigrants of their own nationality, such as the Baptistine Sisters from Italy and the Felician Sisters from Poland. The Trinitarian Sisters worked among the African Americans. More recently, a house of Mother Teresa’s Missionaries of Charity was established in Newark in ; they run a soup kitchen and a shelter for women. Although in the past most women religious engaged in a ministry that was shared with others in the community (such as staffing a school or hospital), today many women religious engage in individual ministries. Many hold positions formerly reserved for male clergy. Some are administrators of parishes without a priest-pastor; others hold high positions in diocesan administration. Retreat work has also taken on a prominent role. In  there were more than , women religious from more than sixty communities serving in the state. The vast majority of these are of the Roman rite, although there are also some religious of the Byzantine rite. The motherhouse of the Episcopalian Sisters of John Baptist is located in Mendham, where the sisters first opened an orphanage in . They now conduct a retreat house. Curley, Augustine J., comp. New Jersey Catholicism: An Annotated Bibliography. South Orange: New Jersey Catholic Historical Records Commission, . O’Neill, James F., Jr. “Religious Communities.’’ In Upon This Rock: A New History of the Trenton Diocese, ed. Joseph C. Shenrock. Trenton: Diocese

of Trenton; Pennington: Cardinal Publishing, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Augustine J. Curley

Religious Teachers Filippini.

Lucy Filippini and Cardinal Mark Anthony Barbarigo founded the Religious Teachers Filippini in . When Pope Pius X sent five Religious Teachers to New Jersey in  to care for the Italian immigrants in Trenton, they quickly opened Saint Joachim School. Under the leadership of Mother Ninetta Jonata and Bishop Thomas Joseph Walsh, the work of the Religious Teachers flourished. In  their motherhouse was transferred from Villa Victoria to Villa Walsh in Morristown. The Religious Teachers Filippini helped preserve the customs and traditions of the Italian community in New Jersey. Today, the sisters serve in thirty-four elementary and three secondary schools, one day care center, two retreat centers, and fifteen religious education centers. Some members also serve in parish ministry.

Bergamaschi, Pietro. From the Land of the Etruscans: The Life of Lucy Filippini. Translated and adapted by Margherita Marchione. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Margherita Marchione

reptiles. New Jersey is host to a total of thirty-nine different species of reptiles. An additional five species of marine turtles are occasionally sighted moving through New Jersey’s coastal waters, but they usually pass up the sandy beaches for warmer egg-laying sites along the coasts of southern states. Reptiles in the state can be divided into three general groups: snakes, turtles, and lizards. Among these, snakes are the largest group, with a total of twenty-three species. The diverse assemblage of snakes varies greatly in individual size, behavior, and distribution throughout the state. For example, the secretive worm snake rarely grows larger than one foot in length, while the black rat snake is frequently seen and can grow to lengths exceeding seven feet. Most of New Jersey’s snakes are harmless to humans, but two species, the northern copperhead and the timber rattlesnake, are venomous. Timber rattlesnakes are found in both the northern and Pinelands regions of the state, while the distribution of copperheads in New Jersey is limited to northern counties. Timber rattlesnakes and corn snakes are both endangered species in New Jersey and the northern pine snake is listed as threatened. The thirteen species of turtles that occur in New Jersey occupy almost every available habitat type in the state. The federally endangered, and elusive, bog turtle makes its home in wet meadows and marshes and has experienced major declines in its population over

the past ten years. The threatened wood turtle is considered a riparian species that occupies streams and the surrounding terrestrial habitats. The eastern box turtle leads a more terrestrial lifestyle, and is found in upland habitats great distances from streams and other bodies of water. Eastern painted, redbelly, musk, and mud turtles are all commonly seen basking in freshwater ponds and reservoirs. Even New Jersey’s extensive saltwater marsh habitats are used by turtle species like the northern diamondback terrapin, which is often seen crossing coastal roads in the spring when the females move out of the marshes to lay their eggs. Only three species of lizards live in New Jersey. The northern fence lizard is common in the southern half of the state (especially in the Pinelands region) and can be easily identified by the keeled, pointed scales that cover its body. The common five-lined skink and the infrequently seen ground skink have smooth scales and a sleek appearance.

David Golden

restoration ecology.

This discipline improves environmental resources by rebuilding communities of plants and animals in degraded areas. Such restoration improves biodiversity and adds ecological services, such as clean and cool air, groundwater recharge, erosion control, and habitat for important migratory species. Restoration is carried out in areas that have been cleared or fragmented by past land uses or contain invasive alien species that have choked out native plants or dominated resources. Restoration ecologists and engineers determine and install the appropriate native species for the local soil and climate. In New Jersey, much restoration is attempted by public agencies and nonprofit environmental organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy and New Jersey Land Trust on freshwater and tidal wetlands. Major projects are in the Meadowlands, where water quality is improved, elevation is lowered, and phragmites marshes are replaced by diverse freshwater vegetation. At the Delaware Bayshores, phragmites marshes are being lowered, saltwater introduced, and spartina saltmarsh stands installed. These marshes are high-quality habitat for marine wildlife and are highly valued under federal and state regulations. The state requires restoration of wetlands as mitigation when construction covers up protected areas. Upland areas are also restored, particularly in buffer zones between parks and human-dominated land, and in municipal landfills that have closed (e.g., Kearney and East Brunswick).

Urbanska, K. M., N. R. Webb, and P. J. Edwards, eds. Restoration Ecology and Sustainable Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, .

See also ecology

Steven N. Handel

Revolutionary War societies

retirement communities.

In , an entrepreneur named Ross Cortese opened the first retirement community in New Jersey in Monroe Township. Built on  acres and featuring an eighteen-hole golf course, it was designed to look like a New England village and was marketed to active retirees in good health. First called Leisure World, the development was eventually renamed Rossmoor and is one of several Rossmoor communities throughout the United States. Thirtyfive years after it was built, Rossmoor New Jersey remains the prototype for such developments, offering more than ninety clubs and its own self-published monthly newspaper. Today Rossmoor is organized in a complicated cooperative ownership model, with residents owning their dwellings and sharing in the ownership and upkeep of the community’s common areas. In , half of Monroe Township’s population was seniors. Rossmoor opened a new niche in the New Jersey real estate market. Age-restricted communities, many of them featuring security gates, golf courses, swimming pools, fitness centers, and clubhouses, have flourished in the Garden State, particularly in central New Jersey and at the Jersey Shore. Most of the agerestricted communities allow residents age fifty-five and older and spouses as young as forty-eight. Many of these developments offer luxury homes and cater to people retiring from professional jobs, with good pensions, who do not depend on Social Security. In some cases, “retirement’’ is a misnomer, because the residents still work full-time or in a consulting capacity. Occasionally, the demand for these houses is so strong that people will wait in line all night when a new block of homes becomes available. Sometimes, developers will institute a lottery to deal with demand. An accurate count of retirement communities in New Jersey is difficult because there are so many types of them. In addition to the fifty-five-plus communities, there are complexes that offer varying degrees of health care and other services, including meal preparation, housekeeping, laundry, nursing, and complete medical care. Senior Alternatives for Living, a national publication, lists eighteen “retirement communities’’ in New Jersey that offer some kind of food or housekeeping service and fiftythree “assisted living communities’’ that include some form of health aid. The New Jersey Association of Non-Profit Homes for the Aging lists twenty-one “continuing care’’ retirement facilities in the state that offer a continuum of housing, from independent units to full nursing-home-style care. None of these numbers include the age-restricted communities, which provide recreational opportunities but no ameliorative services. However, at least twenty-six such communities in the state had new homes for sale in October . There are dozens more of older restricted-age

communities throughout New Jersey without any new units for sale. Although New Jersey has a large number of retirement alternatives, census data suggest that the state is not a lure for out-of-state retirees. The portion of New Jersey residents age sixty-five and over does not significantly exceed the national average.

Debra Galant

Reuterdahl, Henry

(b. ; d. Dec. ,

). Painter, illustrator, and writer. Henry Reuterdahl was born in Malmo, Sweden, but came to the United States at a young age and lived in Weehawken. He was a selftaught artist noted for his marine canvasses. Reuterdahl earned his reputation as an illustrator-correspondent in the SpanishAmerican War. He traveled extensively with the U.S. Navy during the pre–World War I years and became the navy’s official artist during the war. He retired as a lieutenant commander in the navy in . Many of Reuterdahl’s works are owned by the U.S. Naval Academy and most of his more stirring illustrations were used as advertisements for the Liberty Bond drives of –. See also art

Robert C. Nelson

Revere, Joseph Warren (b. May , ; d. Apr. , ). Naval officer, author, adventurer, and Civil War general. Joseph Warren Revere was born in Boston, the grandson of Paul Revere. He began his military career in the navy as midshipman in  and was later promoted to lieutenant. He served all over the globe and saw action in California and Mexico during the Mexican War. In  he resigned from the navy. He then served heroically in the merchant marines as a lieutenant colonel of artillery in the Mexican Army. He was honored by both the Spanish and Mexican governments for his actions. In  Revere moved to Morristown to live in an estate called The Willows. During the Civil War, Revere reentered the American military. As colonel of the Seventh Regiment of New Jersey Volunteers he fought through the Peninsular Campaign and at Seven Pines and Antietam. After his promotion to brigadier general in October , Revere took command of the New York Excelsior Brigade at the Battle of Chancellorsville. Here, Rebel forces delivered the Union Army a crushing blow. During the battle Revere assumed command after the death of his division commander, Maj. Gen. Hiram C. Berry. Amid the chaos of battle, Revere marched toward the rear to regroup. When he reported to the front with two thousand men, he was relieved of his command for having acted without orders and subsequently court-martialed. In  President Lincoln exonerated Revere, allowing him to resign after restoring his rank. In  the Congress conferred upon Revere

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the rank of brevet major general—a special honorary rank usually granted to men in the field for acts of heroism. Though Revere’s health declined in his later years, he continued his travels. He died of heart disease at Busche’s Hotel, Hoboken. His wife, Rosanna Duncan, and three of their five children survived him. Revere is buried at Holy Rood (Catholic) Cemetery in Morristown. Mitros, David. Gone to Wear the Victor’s Crown: Morris County, New Jersey, and the Civil War: A Documentary Account. Morristown: Morris County Heritage Commission, . Revere, Joseph Warren. Keel and Saddle: A Retrospect of Forty Years of Military and Naval Service. Boston: James R. Osgood, 

See also Civil War

David Mitros

Revey, James “Lone Bear’’

(b. date

unknown; d. ).

In the latter part of the twentieth century Jim Revey (or Revy) was one of the first people of American Indian ethnic origin in New Jersey to emphasize his heritage and to create a market for Native American folklore. Revey was born in Neptune to parents of native descent. They lived in an area that in the s had been called Indian Hill. Lone Bear attended Bacone College in Muskogee, Oklahoma. He founded the New Jersey Indian Commission, and was also involved with the New Jersey Indian Office in Orange. In later life his interests extended to the Munsee area of northwestern New Jersey and to the Ramapo group known as the Ramapough Mountain Indians, Inc., of Mahwah, who live near the New Jersey–New York border. See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Revolutionary War.

See American

Revolution.

Revolutionary

War

societies.

There are a number of associations in New Jersey whose members trace their roots back to the eighteenth century. These include the Sons of the American Revolution (SAR), the Sons of the Revolution (SOR), the Society of Cincinnati, and the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR). The SAR was started as a national organization in  by men who could trace their lineage to men who participated in the American Revolution. In  there were , members nationwide, while New Jersey had fourteen chapters, with  members. The organization promotes research and discussion on Revolutionary War history, conducts reenactments of battles, and presents awards for patriotism. The SOR, a rival organization with similar objectives, began in . There are now five chapters in the state. Organized in  by Continental Army officers, the Society of Cincinnati has chapters in each of the original thirteen states. Membership is hereditary, a requirement originally seen as undemocratic. Today

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five states still have organizations, including New Jersey. The DAR was founded in  for women who could trace their ancestors to the Revolution. There are fifty-seven chapters of the DAR in New Jersey, with over , members. The group has worked to acquire and preserve historic buildings (such as Buccleuch Mansion in New Brunswick), as well as to explain their significance. It has also funded research and publication, and promoted patriotic celebrations, all under the mantel of its motto “God, Home, and Country.’’

(–), and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr. (-present). Stockton offers courses in twenty-seven academic disciplines on the undergraduate, graduate, and professional levels. During the fall  semester, the overall enrollment of , was  percent male and  percent female. Approximately  percent of the total student population attended class on a full-time basis. A Brief History of the College. Pomona: Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, .

See also higher education

Alan Delozier Mark McGarrity

Ricalton, James

(b. ; d. Oct. , ).

Photographer. Born in Waddington, New York, James Ricalton moved to Maplewood in  to work as a schoolteacher and, in , school principal. In , Ricalton became a professional photographer for Underwood and Underwood. Between  and  he traveled over a half million miles and took more than one hundred thousand photographs and thirty miles of movie film. Thomas Edison sent him around the world twice, in  and . Due to the popularity of Ricalton’s stereographs, his work was seen by more Americans than that of any other photographer’s between  to . Between trips, he lectured New Jersey audiences with his lantern slides of the Boxer Rebellion and other subjects. He died in Waddington, New York. Darrah, William C. The World of Stereographs. Gettysburg, PA: Darrah, .

Richards, William T.

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Nov. , ). Painter. William T. Richards

was born in Philadelphia to Benjamin Moore Richards and Anna Trost. His formal education at Central High School of Philadelphia ended with the death of his father in . Williams pursued his artistic studies while working as a metalwork designer. In  his work was exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, which encouraged Williams to open his own studio in . In  he married Anna Matlack, a Quaker, and they had five children. He is best known for his marine and landscape paintings. Williams painted the Atlantic coast and was a frequent visitor to the Jersey Shore, which he used in his On the Coast of New Jersey (). In  Williams died at his home in Newport, Rhode Island, and is buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia.

Loke, Margarett. The World as It Was, –: A Photographic Portrait from the Keystone-Mast Collection. New York: Summit, .

Ferber, Linda S. William Trost Richards (–): American Landscape and Marine Painter. New York: Garland, .

Lucas, Christopher J., ed. James Ricalton’s Photographs of China during the Boxer Rebellion: His Illustrated Travelogue of . Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen Press, .

Morris, Harrison S. William T. Richards: A Brief Outline of His Life and Art. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, .

Ricalton, James. Hongkong and Canton: A Part of Underwood and Underwood’s Stereoscopic Tour Through China. New York: Underwood and Underwood, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. Founded in , this fouryear, state-operated institution is located in Pomona. The school was named in honor of Richard Stockton, one of New Jersey’s leading colonial-era patriots. The first classes were held at the Mayflower Hotel in Atlantic City during the fall of , prior to construction of the present-day ,-acre physical plant and campus in the Pinelands of Atlantic County. The coeducational student body numbered approximately one thousand by the end of the first academic year. Among this group were  who eventually earned diplomas at the school’s first commencement exercises, which were held on June , . There have been four college presidents in school history to date: Richard E. Bjork (–), Peter Mitchell (–), Vera King Farris

See also art

Patrice M. Kane

Richardson Manufacturing Company. Founded in , Richardson Manufacturing Company evolved from a small company of two partners to a dominant manufacturer, offering full lines of gold and silver jewelry, silver novelty items, and desk sets. Enos Richardson, born in Attleboro, Massachusetts, apprenticed in Philadelphia before relocating to Newark where, in , he established Daggett, Richardson, and Company; this became Daggett and Richardson in . Six years later, he formed a partnership with John B. Palmer, built a factory at  Columbia Street, and, like many other Newark manufacturing jewelers, opened a New York selling office. Their business was strictly wholesale, either sold at the New York office to visiting retailers or distributed throughout the country by traveling salesmen. Upon Palmer’s retirement in , the name of the firm was changed to Enos Richardson and Company. By , the company had grown to about four hundred employees and the partners included

Leonard P. Brown, William P. Melcher, and Richardson’s sons, William S. and Frank H., the latter operating as the New York office manager. The firm’s name further evolved to Enos Richardson Manufacturing Company in  and Richardson Manufacturing Company in . Upon his father’s death in , Frank H. Richardson became head of the company. In the nineteenth century, this firm’s product line included enameled jewelry of lockets, sleeve buttons, and bracelets; intaglio sets; and -karat gold chains; cameo sets; diamond articles such as hair ornaments, bracelets, and sleeve buttons; and ear drops, lockets, and crosses in Roman finish. They also produced cigar cutters, pocketknives, and silver matchboxes. In the s, Enos Richardson and Company advertised the “‘Dicksonite,’ the perfect imitation diamond, mounted in gold, wholesale only by Enos Richardson and Company.’’ The company was also the sole distributor of the “Benedict’’ patented collar button. In , Richardson Manufacturing Company expanded and modernized its building. When soliciting for future tenants, the company ran an advertisement in The Jewelers’ Circular Weekly boasting that it “was the only strictly fire-proof manufacturing building in the city of Newark, N.J.’’ with “Elevator Service, Electric Power, Electric Light, Steam Heat, Compressed Air, Hot and Cold Water.’’ The firm also had an office in San Francisco at the corner of Post Street and Grand Avenue. When Frank Richardson died in , the firm incorporated with George V. Tucker, W. E. Reeder, and Mrs. Frank H. Richardson as officers. In the twentieth century, the company stock reflected the fashion of the times with - and -karat gold and platinum chains; ladies and gentlemen’s watch fobs; sleeve and link buttons; hat, scarf, veil, and handy pins; and sautoirs. In the s, when the country was in the throes of the Great Depression, Richardson continued to make stylish gold jewelry while others were making rolled-gold plate. Highlighting its line were clip brooches set with colored gemstones and diamonds in the new geometric styles with modern designs. In , Richardson Manufacturing Company closed after  years in Newark. Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also jewelry industry

Janet Zapata

Rider University.

Rider University was founded as Trenton Business College in  by Henry B. Bryant and Henry D. Stratton in response to the demand for business college training brought on by the industrialization of the nation’s economy. Twenty-two-year-old Andrew Jackson Rider was hired as the college’s first president. In , a year after the college’s opening, women were admitted. The

Ridgefield Park college was incorporated as Rider Business College (in Andrew Jackson Rider’s honor) in , and in  the name was shortened to Rider College. Subsequent presidents transformed Rider from a private, proprietary business school into a nonprofit, multipurpose institution of higher learning. This transformation enabled the college to take advantage of the post–World War II boom in higher education. During the s Rider augmented its degrees in business and education with several new academic programs in liberal arts and graduate study, positioning itself for extensive enrollment growth during the s and s. In  the college purchased . acres in Lawrence Township to build a new campus. Additional property acquired since then has more than doubled the size of the campus to  acres. In  the faculty organized a collective bargaining chapter of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) and became the first chapter at a private, fouryear institution of higher education to go on strike. This successful strike resulted in the first of many collective bargaining contracts, which have provided faculty participation in the governance of the college. In  the world-renowned Westminster Choir College in Princeton became part of Rider College. Two years later Rider College was granted university status and renamed Rider University. By  the institution that began as a private business school in a rented room in downtown Trenton was a teaching university enrolling nearly fifty-five hundred students and offering fifty-eight undergraduate, and seventeen graduate, programs. See also higher education

Joseph Gowaskie

Ridge and Valley.

The Ridge and Valley region includes about one-twelfth of the area of New Jersey. It lies immediately to the northwest of the Highlands and runs (as do the Highlands) northeast-southwest. This section is made up of conglomerates and sandstones, which comprise the upland surfaces, while softer limestones and shales occcur at lower elevations. The largest part of the section is the Kittatinny Valley, lying between  and  feet above sea level, where limestone is prevalent and between  and , feet above sea level where harder shales predominate. Northwest of the Kittatinny Valley lies Kittatinny Ridge or Mountain, which is one to five miles wide and from , to more than , feet above sea level. Fronting the Delaware River on the other side of Kittatinny Ridge is the area known as the Minisink Valley. The Delaware flows through Kittatinny Ridge at the Delaware Water Gap.

Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

geography; physiography

Peter O. Wacker

Ridgefield.

.-square-mile borough in the southeast part of Bergen County. Originally part of the English Neighborhood, which stretched from Fairview to Englewood, the name was changed in  to Ridgefield Township. Incorporated in  as Ridgefield Borough, the present community is what was left after numerous municipalities seceded from it, principally Ridgefield Park (), Edgewater (), Fairview (), Leonia (), Cliffside Park (), Palisades Park (), and Fort Lee (). Three sections or neighborhoods make up the borough: Ridgefield, Ridgefield Heights, and Morsemere. Ridgefield was an artist’s colony in the early s. Morsemere was named after Samuel F. B. Morse, who was an early property owner in the Ridgefield section. The Morsemere section was also home to the Great Bear Spring Water, which drew water from Trinity Spring. Much of the early development of the borough was the result of the Northern Railroad of New Jersey (), which connected Ridgefield and points north to Nyack, New York, with the Hoboken ferry to New York City. The village also hosted two tollgates on the Bergen Turnpike to Hackensack, located at each end of town. Locals liked to point out that “they get you coming and going.’’ Today, with the exception of a large Public Service Electric and Gas generating plant in the Meadowlands, Ridgefield is almost entirely residential. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

A History of the Borough of Ridgefield. Ridgefield: Ridgefield Tercentenary Committee, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Robert D. Griffin

Ridgefield artists’ colony.

Near the turn of the twentieth century, Ridgefield, located on the western slope of the Palisades, had become a magnet for many writers, poets, and political agitators of the day. About , several avant-garde painters established studios in Ridgefield. Some rented cottages from local farmers, others built small shacks they occupied only during weekend retreats from Manhattan. Many of them considered Ridgefield an escape from the sordidness of the city. The rugged beauty of the area, its accessibility to the city, and the spirit of camaraderie they collectively engendered, attracted a variety of artists, many of whom became quite famous in American art. Among these were Man Ray, the painter and photographer; Marcel Duchamp, the French-born painter; watercolorist John Marin; Rutherford poet William Carlos Williams; Max Eastman, editor of The Masses; and the anarchist Emma Goldman.

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Drawing inspiration from the serene and scenic surroundings, and holding frequent parties to discuss art, politics, and the social order of the day, those who lived and worked in the colony did so in simplicity. While Manhattan was only an hour away, there was no electricity, and oil lamps were the only source of illumination. Water came from wells. Chickens, milk, and eggs were available from local farmers, but the nearest shops were several miles away in Fort Lee. The best-known artist of the colony, Man Ray (born Emmanuel Radnitzky) painted several abstract landscapes while living in Ridgefield, and eventually was credited with the leadership of the Dada and surrealist art forms. Many often think of Ray’s experimentation with photography before his painting. Marcel Duchamp, a contemporary of Ray’s in Ridgefield, is frequently credited with the expansion of the Dadaism and cubism movements. Today, Ridgefield is a comfortable suburban community, and the only references to the once famous art colony are some of the street names, including Art Lane, Rembrandt Terrace, Studio Road, and Sketch Place. Gerdts, William H. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Stephen Maynard

Ridgefield Park.

.-square-mile village in Bergen County, located at the junction of the Hackensack River and Overpeck Creek. The earliest European settlers were Dutch. The borough was part of Hackensack Township until about , when it joined the newly formed Township of Ridgefield. It was known as Overpeck Village until , when the borough was thought to have been incorporated as the Village of Ridgefield Park, but because of an oversight, the papers were never filed with the state. In , the Township of Overpeck, with boundaries matching those of Ridgefield Park, was created by an act of the state legislature. The village’s name was not officially changed to Ridgefield Park until . It was referred to as “The Park’’ in the late s because of the many recreational activities related to Overpeck Creek, the Hackensack River, and its woodlands and park areas. Ridgefield Park’s Fourth of July parade is the oldest in New Jersey, first held in . Today it is a residential community of singlefamily residences, as well as some apartment and condominium complexes. Many homes more than one hundred years old still exist in the borough. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Albig, George L. Ridgefield Park: Bergen County’s Most Modern Community. Ridgefield Park: G. L. Albig, .

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Ridgefield Park, –. Ridgefield Park: N.p., .

History of a Village: Ridgewood, New Jersey. Ridgewood: Ridgewood State Tercentenary Committee, .

Susan Chore

Parrillo, Vincent, Beth Parrillo, and Arthur Wrubel. Ridgewood. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Ridgewood.

.-square-mile residential village in Bergen County. Ridgewood, first part of Franklin Township and then of Ridgewood Township, was also known as Paramus and Godwinville. An agricultural community of Jersey Dutch farmers, community life centered on the Paramus Reformed Church, whose congregation was established in . The Ramapo and Paterson Railroad was built through the area in , providing easy access to New York City. Both new and established residents bought land for estates and for future subdivision. Thus the suburbanization of Ridgewood (named in ) began. The Village of Ridgewood was incorporated in . Ridgewood’s downtown developed in the first decades of the twentieth century and looks today much as it did in , with a Mission-style railroad station, two towered commercial buildings, and the Pease Library building forming the core of the downtown historic district. By  Ridgewood’s land was fully developed and population reached a peak of ,. Today Ridgewood’s neighborhoods reflect building styles from Dutch colonial sandstone homes through Victorian, turn-of-the-century colonial revival, pattern-book, and postwar Cape Cod houses. Ridgewood’s population in  of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Ridgewood Centennial Celebration Committee. Celebrating a Centennial: A History of Ridgewood, New Jersey. Ridgewood: Village of Ridgewood, . Ridgewood Past and Present. Ridgewood: Citizens Semi-Centennial Association, .

Peggy W. Norris

medically necessary to preserve a woman’s health, even when her life was not in danger. Emotional, psychological, and other factors could be taken into account in determining medical necessity and health. New Jersey is one of sixteen states requiring state medicaid funding for abortions. Burtchaell, James Tunstead, ed. Abortion Parley. New York: Andrews and McMeel, .

Suzanne Travers

Right to Choose v. Byrne.

In  a New Jersey Supreme Court decision required the state of New Jersey to pay for abortions as part of its medicaid program, which provides health coverage to the poor. The ruling extended to cases where abortion is deemed medically necessary to preserve the life or health of the mother. It did not include coverage for elective, nontherapeutic abortions. The case challenged a statute by the New Jersey state legislature allowing state medicaid funding for abortions only when necessary to preserve the mother’s life. Federal law (the  Hyde Amendment) prohibited use of federal medicaid funds for abortions except in limited circumstances, but this case concerned the use of state medicaid funds. Fundamental to the court’s decision in the case was its understanding that, in our federalist system of government, state constitutions may, in appropriate cases, go beyond the federal Constitution in protecting individual rights and liberties. Because New Jersey’s constitution accords high priority to the preservation of individuals’ health, the court ruled that the state was obliged to fund abortions in cases where abortion was deemed

Riker, Danzig, Scherer, Hyland, and Perretti. Riker, Danzig, Scherer, Hyland, and Perretti, L.L.P., a -lawyer, fullservice law firm located in Morristown and Trenton, traces its roots to the  Newark law firm of Riker and Riker. The  merger of Riker, Marsh, and Scherer, including well-known New Jersey Superior Court Judge Everett M. Scherer, and Emerson, Emery, and Danzig, with prominent trial attorney Charles Danzig, created the Riker-Danzig connection, which has become a New Jersey institution. Throughout the last century, the firm earned a reputation for its expertise in New Jersey banking law. Other practice areas include commercial litigation, governmental affairs, corporate counseling, appellate practice, bankruptcy, insurance, and public utilities law. Notable former and current attorneys include U.S. congressman William J. Hughes; New Jersey Supreme Court justices Stewart G. Pollock, Sidney M. Schreiber, and Marie L. Garibaldi; New Jersey attorneys general William F. Hyland and Peter N. Perretti, Jr.; United States District Court Judge Dickinson R. DeBevoise; and U.S. Attorney General Nicholas deB. Katzenbach.

Richelle J. Delavan

Ringoes.

See East Amwell.

Ringwood.

Ridgewood Avenue looking east from the train station, c. .

Courtesy Ridgewood Public Library.

.-square-mile borough in Passaic County, located among the Ramapo Mountains and bordering New York State to its north. The origin of Ringwood’s name is uncertain, although it may derive from the estate of Ringwood in Hampshire, England. Originally a part of Pompton Township, Ringwood was incorporated as a borough in . Ringwood played a key role in the Revolutionary War as a military route and a stopover for Gen. George Washington. Known for the iron mines and forges that provided ammunition to American troops from the Revolutionary War to the Civil War, the area’s mines remained in use into the twentieth century. Some were purchased by the U.S. government during the Second World War in order to safeguard national iron supplies. Ringwood Manor, the nineteenth-century estate of the Ringwood forge managers (including Peter Cooper and Abram S. Hewitt), and Skylands Manor, a s mansion designed by John Russell Pope, remain major historic attractions. The latter was purchased by the

rivers state in  and has been maintained as a botanical garden since . Protected lands, including Ringwood State Park, the Wanaque and Monksville reservoirs, Norvin Green State Forest, and the New Jersey Botanical Gardens, account for over half of the borough’s territory. In , the borough was a rural residential community of predominantly singlefamily homes. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cottrell, Alden T. The Story of Ringwood Manor. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Conservation and Economic Development, . Hewitt, Erskine. The Forges and Manor of Ringwood: George Washington Bicentennial, –. New Jersey: New Jersey Washington Bicentennial Committee, . Ringwood, Golden Jubilee, –: July –, . N.p., .

Susan Chore

Ringwood Furnace.

In , the first blast furnace was built at Ringwood by the Ogden family of Newark, who formed the Ringwood Company. The furnace smelted ore mined from deposits in the Ramapo Mountains, which lie within the Reading Prong geological region, an area rich in magnetite iron. During the Revolutionary War, the Ringwood furnace supplied material to, and served as a supply depot for, Gen. George Washington. The Ringwood furnace, which operated continually for about one hundred years, was rebuilt by various ironmasters, including Peter Hasenclever, Robert Erskine, and Martin Ryerson—the last person to run the furnace. In the mid-s, Abram Hewitt purchased the land the furnaces were on in order to make Ringwood Manor, home to the ironmasters, his summer dwelling. Although he

dismantled the furnace, Hewitt continued to call his nearby Civil War furnaces at Long Pond the Ringwood furnaces. Ringwood Manor and the surrounding land were given to the state by Erskine Hewitt in . Both are now part of Ringwood State Park. Cottrell, Alden T. The Story of Ringwood Manor. Trenton: Department of Conservation and Development, Division of Forests and Parks, . Hasenclever, Peter. The Remarkable Case of Peter Hasenclever, Merchant. . . . . Reprint. Newfoundland: North Jersey Highlands Historical Society, .

See also iron industry

Riverdale.

.-square-mile township in northeast Morris County. Riverdale was originally settled in the early s by Dutch and English farmers. By the mid-s, however, a number of mills began producing manufactured products. These included iron, woolen, and rubber goods. Riverdale was once a part of Pequannock Township but seceded in the early s. The municipality was incorporated in  and adopted the borough form of township government. Currently the town is residential in character although more than three hundred small businesses make Riverdale their home. In the past few years the growth of highway systems, particularly Routes  and , have had a major impact upon the town. Because of the volume of traffic now passing through Riverdale, emergency services are strained, and quality-of-life issues related to highway development are at the forefront of local politics. In  the population of Riverdale was ,, of whom  percent was white. In  the household median income of the community was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Robert C. Nelson

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

other merchandise. Until the construction of Route , along the southern border of the borough, and its connection to the George Washington Bridge in , over  percent of the land within River Edge was devoted to growing produce—principally corn and tomatoes. However, in the years that followed, residential housing development quickly overtook farming interests, especially during the period –. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Martin Deeks

Hester, Thomas, “Towns Seek Relief from High Cost of Accident Response.’’ Star Ledger, Feb. , .

Remains of ironworks at Ringwood Manor State Park, .

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River Edge. .-square-mile borough lying along the western shore of the Hackensack River in Bergen County, previously known as Demarest Landing, Steenrapie, Cherry Hill, North Hackensack, New Bridge, and Riverside. In , River Edge and Cherry Hill (North Hackensack) incorporated as Riverside Borough. In , the voters elected to change the name to River Edge. The first European settlement of River Edge was in . The state-owned Steuben House, a Jersey Dutch sandstone mansion built by Jan Zabriskie in , is located in the southeastern part of the borough in Historic New Bridge Landing Park. During the nineteenth century, shallow-draft sailing schooners known as the windjammers of the Hackensack conducted an active shipping trade carrying bricks and

Howitt, Naomi, and George Howitt. Musket, Anchor, and Plow: The Story of River Edge, –. New York: Arno Press, . Koehler, Francis C. Fiftieth Anniversary of the Borough of River Edge. Englewood: Hoeger Press, . Uminski, Sigmund H. The History of River Edge, – . River Edge: Borough of River Edge, .

Robert D. Griffin

river otter. The river otter (Lutra canadensis) may measure up to fifty-one inches long and weigh twelve to twenty-five pounds. Its pelt is a dark brown above, blending to a tan or gray underneath. The river otter can be found throughout New Jersey, except in heavily urbanized Union, Essex, and Hudson counties. They like marshes, swamps, streams, rivers, and lakes that hold a good source of fish and aquatic invertebrates for food as well as sufficient nearby vegetation for cover. Mason, C. F., and S. M. Macdonald. Otters: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, .

Lee E. Widjeskog

rivers.

Although New Jersey is one of the smaller states in the nation, the hydrologic characteristics of the numerous rivers in the state vary substantially. For example, rivers in the Coastal Plain of southern New Jersey that are underlain by unconsolidated geologic formations (such as sand) with large amounts of ground water have much less variation from low to high flow than rivers in northern New Jersey. These northern rivers drain consolidated rock formations (such as shale and granite) that have smaller amounts of ground water and lower rates of infiltration. Thus, the rivers in northern New Jersey tend to have more variability in flow than rivers in southern New Jersey. The combined area of all of the rivers that drain into the Delaware River is , square miles (or . percent of the entire state). The three largest river basins that are either predominantly or entirely within the state are the Raritan and Passaic (, and  square miles, respectively) in north Jersey, and the Mullica ( square miles) in south Jersey. The flow of many rivers in the state is highly regulated by reservoirs, diversions for water supply, and low-flow release requirements. The U.S. Geological Survey maintains approximately one hundred gauging stations

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in New Jersey that measure stream flow on a continuous basis. Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; water; water resources map, color section

Hackensack River Basin (west to east) Pascack Brook Hackensack River

Jim Donnelly Arthur Kill Basin (west to east) Rahway River Elizabeth River

Robert M. Hordon Rivers of New Jersey Delaware River Basin in New Jersey (north to south) Shimer’s Brook Flat Brook Vancampmens Brook Paulins Kill Delawanna Creek Pequest River Lopatcong Creek Pohatcong Creek Musconetcong River Hakiokake Creek Harhiokake Creek Nishisakawick Creek Copper Creek Lockatong Creek Wickecheoke Creek Alexauken Creek Jacobs Creek Assunpink Creek Crosswicks Creek Blacks Creek Crafts Creek Assiscunk Creek Rancocas Creek Pennsauken Creek Coopers Creek Big Timber Creek Mantua Creek Repaupo Creek Racoon Creek Oldmans Creek Salem Creek Alloways Creek Delaware Bay Basin (west to east) Stow Creek Cohansey Creek Maurice River Wallkill River Basin in New Jersey (west to east) Papakating Creek Wallkill River Pochuck Creek Passaic River Basin (west to east) Wanaque River Pequannock River Rockaway River Whippany River Upper Passaic River Ramapo River Pompton River Saddle River Lower Passaic River

Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Raritan River Basin (west to east) South Branch Raritan North Branch Raritan Millstone River Lower Raritan Lawrence Brook South River Atlantic Coastal Basin (north to south) Matawan Creek Navesink River Shrewsbury River Shark River Manasquan River Metedconk River Toms River Cedar Creek Mullica River Great Egg Harbor River Tuckahoe River

Riverside. .-square-mile township in Burlington County along the confluence of the Delaware River and the Rancocas Creek. In , when railroad tracks along the Delaware River were laid in the county, the village here was known as Goat Town. Shortly thereafter, local residents redubbed it Progress. Part of Cinnaminson Township until , it was reincorporated into Delran Township twenty years later, and, in , separated as independent Riverside Township. The largest early immigrant contingent was German and the town was nicknamed “Germantown’’ as it evolved from farmland into industrial and mill usage. A key figure in local history was Swiss immigrant Theophilius Zurbrugg, who established the Keystone Watch Case Company in the s, and an adjacent metal-smelting firm to ensure a steady supply of raw materials. Numerous company houses were built for his workers. He was instrumental in founding of Zurbrugg Memorial Hospital in Riverside, which still exists as senior-citizen housing and a medical arts complex. In , he relocated his factory to the huge Watch Case Building that, with its distinctive clock tower, is Riverside’s dominant landmark and now a preservation target. The metals firm still operates today under independent ownership. In more recent years, Riverside has been home to Italian and Portuguese immigrants. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Riverton. .-square-mile borough in Burlington County along the Delaware River. Riverton formed in  as a separate borough from part of Cinnaminson Township and originally included all of what is now Palmyra. In , part of Riverton was ceded to create Palmyra. Its borders have been intact since a slight adjustment with Cinnaminson in . Riverton was one of the first planned communities in the United States and originally drew residents from among Philadelphia’s wealthiest merchants. The Riverton Yacht Club, founded in , was only the ninth such group created in the United States. It early members included such Philadelphia mercantile and financial luminaries as Rodman Wharton, William Biddle, and Caleb Clothier. The yacht club’s Victorian clubhouse, a landmark that still stands today, was built in . Beginning in the s and continuing well into the twentieth century, the Dreer family of Philadelphia established gardens for raising exotic flora that made Riverton a famed stop for horticulturists. Today, the gardens are the site of Riverton Memorial Park. The borough retains its tony, eclectic mix of housing ranging from grand Victorian mansions and other manor houses to costly, more modern ranches. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Billetter, Jean R. Two Hundred Years of Religion in Cinnaminson, Palmyra, Riverton, New Jersey. Riverton: Cinnaminson Palmyra Riverton Council of Churches, . Griscom, Lloyd E. Tales of Three Towns: Cinnaminson, Palmyra, and Riverton. N.p.: Lloyd E. Griscom, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

River Vale.

.-square-mile township in Bergen County. In September , during the Revolutionary War, , British troops under Lord Cornwallis began a three-pronged movement to neutralize the local Bergen County defenders. Col. George Baylor encamped and allowed his Patriot forces to go to sleep. The British force under Gen. Charles Grey marched north during the night, and then swiftly and brutally attacked Baylor’s encampment, massacring most of his men. The Baylor Massacre Burial Site, located in what is today River Vale Township, is a memorial to these men. Early industries in River Vale, named for its location along the Hackensack River, included chair factories and sawmills. In  River Vale became part of Washington Township, and later part of the new borough of

Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital Eastwood. Eastwood could not maintain itself and surrendered its charter two years later. In , River Vale decided to try selfgovernment again and chose to become a township rather than a borough, as the freeholders were elected directly from the townships. This residential community, known today as the “Garden Spot of the Pascack Valley,’’ centers on the “Four Corners’’ office and commercial area. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . New Jersey Gazetteer. Wilmington, DE: American Historical Publications, . This Is River Vale, –. River Vale: Townswomen of River Vale, .

Linda J. Barth

Rix, Julian Walbridge (b. Dec. , ; d. Nov. , ).

Painter and etcher. Julian Rix was born in Peacham, Vermont, to Alfred Rix and Maria Walbridge, a family that could trace its roots to the early settlers of Salem, Massachusetts. In  the family left Vermont for San Francisco, where Alfred Rix became a judge. The family did not support Julian’s interest in art, so Rix was mainly self-taught, although later tutored by Jules Tavernier. Subsequently, the two men shared an art studio and joined San Francisco’s Bohemian Club. Rix’s Pacific landscapes caught the attention of East Coast art patron William Ryle in . At his urging Rix moved to New Jersey and opened a studio in New York City. Rix gained in popularity following his death in . He is buried in Cedar Lawn Cemetery. See also art

Patrice M. Kane

Rizzuto, Phil

(b. Sept. , ). Holy cow! Although born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, legendary New York Yankee shortstop Philip Francis Rizzuto is a longtime New Jersey resident. Rizzuto was an integral part of the baseball team’s dynasty of –. Although his career was interrupted for military duty in –, Rizzuto helped the Yankees win seven of nine World Series championships during his thirteen years with the team and is among the all-time leaders in many World Series statistics, including steals, walks, runs, hits, at-bats, and games played. His . batting average in the  fall classic earned him the World Series MVP award. Nicknamed “The Scooter’’ for his diminutive stature (height  foot , weight ) by teammate Billy Hitchcock, Rizzuto was a sturdy player and expert bunter who ended his career with a . lifetime batting average. This five-time All-Star selection was named the

American League MVP in  (he finished second in the  voting behind Ted Williams). Rizzuto led the American League three times each in double plays and total chances per game, twice each in fielding and putouts, and once in assists. Rizzuto moved to the Yankee broadcast booth upon his retirement in  and spent forty years as one of the team’s most beloved commentators. The Yankees retired his number  jersey in , and Rizzuto was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, in . See also baseball

Lisa M. Gillard Hanson

roadside attractions.

The oddest roadside attraction in New Jersey history was an eighteen-spired, pastel-colored castle in Vineland made of auto parts, clay, stone, and assorted junk. The Palace Depression opened on Christmas Day in . It was the creation of George Daynor, an Alaskan gold miner who hoped his surreal roadside attraction would lift the spirits of people beaten down by the Depression. After Daynor’s death in , the city razed the site. While the Palace may have been the most bizarre, the state has long been a haven for peculiar, weird, wonderful, and wacky roadside attractions. Lucy the Elephant in Margate, the state’s best-loved roadside attraction, is one of dozens of giant figures looming over the Garden State landscape. There’s the eighteenfoot-tall Miss Uniroyal on Route  in Blackwood, who sports a tight green skirt, red fingernails, and the mother of all come-hither looks on her face; The Man, the Paul Bunyan– like figure in front of Wilson’s Carpet and Furniture in Jersey City (seen in the opening credits of The Sopranos); Mr. Bill, on Route  in Winslow, a jug-eared, goofily-grinning figure named after the Saturday Night Live clay man who kept getting smacked around; the horned-helmeted Viking on Route  in Deerfield; and the smiling cowboy who greets visitors at the entrance of Cowtown on Route  outside Woodstown. There’s the Statue of Liberty in Vineland. The one Lady Liberty indisputably in New Jersey, she is a twenty-foot-high statue in the backyard of a house on Main Road (Route ). George Arbuckel, her builder, added ornamental lions, nymph-bedecked fountains, and messages written in the walkways. The display attracted gawkers from as far as New York and Philadelphia in the s and s. Several mock pirate ships once sailed the state’s commercial strips; only one remains, on Route  in Absecon. A giant shoe—of the old woman who lived in the shoe fame—is a landmark at Fairy Tale Forest in Oak Ridge. New Jersey may lead the nation in hubcap dealers per square mile, but there is only one Hubcap Pyramid, a roadside wonder on Route  in Weymouth and known as far away as

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Great Britain and Germany. Display World, the self-billed World’s Largest Stone Museum— part landscape business, part playground—is on Spotswood-Englishtown Road in Monroe, Middlesex County. Monumental roadside structures and displays, like the giant ark Kea Tawana singlehandedly built in a Newark church parking lot in the s, no longer dot the New Jersey landscape; you just can’t go out and build a -foot-long ark on your front lawn anymore. But roadside wonders still abound. And they’re free to look at. There’s Josephine Stapleton of Mays Landing, who maintains the state’s oddest year-round art gallery on her front lawn. Josephine takes gallon plastic jugs, fills them with dye-colored water, and makes multihued American flags, rainbows, Santa Clauses, and other colorful creations. Who could forget John Mihalchek’s Fabulous Fifty Acres, a rambling, ramshackle display of anarchic signs and billboards spread out along Route ? Genovese, Peter. Roadside New Jersey. Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

New

Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Peter Genovese

Roberts, Needham

(b. c. ; d. Apr.

, ). Soldier. Needham Roberts was the

son of the Rev. Norman Roberts of Trenton. He served in Harlem’s th Infantry Regiment, an African American regiment attached to the French army. On the night of May –, , he and one other black soldier, Sgt. Henry Johnson, routed a force of over twenty Germans who attacked their post near the Aisne River in France. Johnson and Roberts became the first Americans to receive the French Croix de Guerre. Roberts committed suicide in New York City in . David, Jay, and Elaine Crane. The Black Soldier from the American Revolution to Vietnam. New York: William Morrow and Company, . Lee, Ulysses. The Employment of Negro Troops. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, .

See also 369th Infantry Regiment; World War I

David A. Norris

Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital. In , New Brunswick’s Hospital Aid Association, a group of women, was formed by Grace Wells in response to the need for hospital beds in central New Jersey. Simultaneously, the New Brunswick City Hospital was incorporated by civic leaders in . The two groups joined efforts to establish a hospital in a rented house in . The staff of six physicians treated fifteen patients in the first year, including the victims of three railroad accidents. An “outdoor’’ (outpatient) department was added in . Wells later funded the fifteen-bed John Wells Memorial

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Robeson, Paul

Hospital, which opened in  at the site of the present hospital. The Middlesex Pavilion, with forty beds, opened in  and the name was changed to Middlesex General Hospital. The hospital continued to expand, becoming the primary teaching hospital for the University of Medicine and Dentistry–Rutgers Medical School in . The hospital and medical school were renamed for Robert Wood Johnson in . The Medical Education Building () houses faculty, teaching, and research facilities. Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital is a major academic center of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, offering specialized programs such as organ transplantation and advanced cancer treatment at the Cancer Institute of New Jersey. It is a state-designated trauma center. The Bristol-Myers Squibb Children’s Hospital opened there in . See also hospitals and hospital systems; medical and dental education

Sandra Moss

Robeson, Paul

(b. Apr. , ; d. Jan.

, ). Singer, actor, athlete, and political

activist. Possessing an extraordinary capacity to excel in many fields, Paul Robeson is arguably New Jersey’s most illustrious native. He was the fifth and last child of the Rev. William Drew Robeson, pastor of Princeton’s Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church at the time of Paul’s birth, and Louisa Bustill Robeson, a former schoolteacher. Because Robeson’s mother died in a fire in the Robeson home when he was not yet six, he was essentially raised by his father, whom he idolized and who had the greatest influence on

shaping his character. Following his father’s dismissal from his church in , the Robeson family moved to Westfield in  and three years later to Somerville. In both communities Robeson’s father served as the pastor of an African Methodist Episcopal Zion (AMEZ) church. It was at Somerville High School that Robeson first excelled both athletically and academically. This was repeated at Rutgers University, which he entered in  on an academic scholarship, and where he was the only black student. He became a Phi Beta Kappa scholar and the class valedictorian and won letters in four sports, becoming Rutgers’s first All-American football player. He graduated from Columbia University Law School in , but had trouble finding a position. He launched a career as a dramatic actor, one that would see him star between  and  in a number of plays, including The Emperor Jones and Othello, his signature role. In  Robeson appeared in Oscar Micheaux’s silent movie Body and Soul; he was featured in nine feature films between  and . Robeson’s greatest artistic mark, however, was using his rich bass-baritone voice to sing Negro spirituals, and eventually the folk songs of other ethnic and national groups and the songs of workers. While living in London during the s his concert singing fused with his emergence as a political activist, for it was during this period that he came to embrace three major causes: Marxist socialism, the African liberation struggle against European colonialism, and the fight against racial discrimination and bigotry in America. Robeson returned to the United States in  and dug deeper into political activism. His refusal to compromise his political beliefs led during the Cold War to his persecution by the U.S. government, a rapid decline in his popularity in the states, and, in , to the revocation of his passport. With the return of his passport in , after having sued the federal government, Robeson moved to London and began to travel extensively, mainly throughout Europe. By , his health had begun to fail, and he spent the next several years receiving medical treatment in London and then East Berlin. He returned to New York City in  very much a broken man physically and retired from public life. In late , following the death of Eslanda Goode Robeson, his wife of forty-four years, he moved to the Philadelphia home of Marian, his only sister. Here he spent his last eleven years, becoming, with the exception of cherished contact with a few very close friends, essentially a recluse. Brown, Lloyd L. The Young Paul Robeson: “On My Journey Now.’’ Boulder, CO: Westview Press, .

Paul Robeson in his Rutgers University football uniform.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Duberman, Martin Bauml. Paul Robeson: A Biography. New York: Ballantine Books, . Foner, Phillip S., ed. Robeson Speaks. New York: Citadel Press, . Robeson, Paul. Here I Stand. New York: Othello Associates, .

Jackie Robinson.

Courtesy National Baseball Hall of Fame Library, Cooperstown, NY. Stewart, Jeffrey C., ed. Paul Robeson: Citizen and Artist. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Giles R. Wright

Robinson, Jackie

(b. Jan. , ; d.

Oct. , ). Baseball player. Born in Cairo,

Georgia, Jack Roosevelt Robinson was reared in Pasadena, California, and excelled as a student-athlete at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). After serving in the army during World War II, Robinson joined the Negro National League’s Kansas City Monarchs. Desirous of breaking baseball’s color barrier, Branch Rickey, the Brooklyn Dodgers’ general manager, signed Robinson and assigned him to the Montreal Royals of the International League. On April , , , fans witnessed Robinson’s historic debut against the Jersey City Giants at Roosevelt Stadium. With this act, and his subsequent distinguished career with the Dodgers, Robinson helped to usher in the modern civil rights era in sports. Kahn, Roger. The Boys of Summer. New York: HarperCollins, . Rampersad, Arnold. Jackie Robinson: A Biography. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Tygiel, Jules. Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy. New York: Oxford University Press, .

See also baseball

James P. Quigel, Jr.

Robinson v. Cahill.

In  the New Jersey Supreme Court held that the state’s system of financing public education violated the “thorough and efficient’’ education clause of the state constitution. At that time funding for public schools was derived from local property taxes and state and federal aid. In the Robinson v. Cahill decision the court found that local property taxes accounted for  percent of the public schools’ operating expenses and

Rockaway Township state aid for only  percent. While the court discussed equal protection violations, it hesitated to decide the public school funding issue based upon either the federal or state equal protection clauses. The justices had difficulty in concluding that wealth is a “suspect classification’’ and education is a “fundamental right.’’ Prior to this decision, the U.S. Supreme Court had decided that the funding of public schools by local property taxes did not violate the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution. Instead, the New Jersey Supreme Court relied upon a provision of the New Jersey constitution that provided “for the maintenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of free public schools for the instruction of all the children in the State between the ages of five and eighteen years.’’ The court emphasized that this constitutional provision was meant to ensure equal educational opportunity for children. Although the court doubted that the thorough and efficient system of schools required by the constitution could be met by relying upon local property taxes, it did not prohibit the state from imposing this obligation upon local government—provided the result met what the constitution commanded. The court found that the quality of educational opportunity did depend upon the dollar input per pupil, but recognized that the “equality of dollar input will not assure equality in educational results.’’ In deference to the doctrine of separation of powers, the court decided not to intervene unless the legislature failed to act by December , . Subsequent legislative action failed to satisfy the court, which was later forced to revisit the funding of public education in five additional Robinson v. Cahill opinions. These decisions ultimately forced the legislature to adopt a state income tax in  for the full funding of the public school financing law in conformance with constitutional requirements. In , the court was compelled to revisit the funding of public schools in Abbott v. Burke. Despite legislation passed in , the means of funding public schools remains in dispute.

Milford, Maywood, and Paramus. After four of these settlements became independent boroughs in , Midland Township contained only Paramus and Rochelle Park. In , the Midland Township name disappeared completely when Paramus split off from the town and its only remnant, Rochelle Park, incorporated as Rochelle Park Township. Rochelle Park was a semi-rural community until World War II. After the war, Rochelle Park benefited from the Garden State Parkway, Routes  and , and the Garden State Plaza shopping mall in neighboring Paramus. The community gained single-family homes, garden apartments, and residents, and increased in population from , in  to a peak of , in . Rochelle Park remains a residential community today. In ,  percent of the population was over sixty-five years old. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Jameson, D. Matthew. “Developments in State Constitutional Law: —Education Clauses in State Constitutions and Their Effect on Public School Financing.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

Brown, William Wells. The Black Man, His Antecedents, His Genius, and His Achievements. . Reprint. New York: Johnson Reprint Corporation, .

Tractenberg, Paul L. “Robinson v. Cahill: The ‘Through and Efficient’ Clause.’’ Law and Contemporary Problems  (): –.

Contee, Clarence G. “John Sweat Rock, M.D., Esq., –.’’ Journal of the National Medical Association  (May ): –.

See also Abbott v. Burke; education; “thorough and efficient’’ clause

John Harlan Buzby

Peter F. Bariso, Jr.

Rochelle Park. -square-mile borough in Bergen County. The community was originally known as New Rochelle, part of New Barbadoes Township, until the Rochelle Park name was put on the new railroad station in . A year later, in , the community was included in the newly created Midland Township along with Oradell, River Edge, New

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Rochelle Park, New Jersey: th Anniversary,  to . Rochelle Park: Rochelle Park Borough, .

ROCK-A-BYE BABY RAILROAD

WATNONG MORRIS COUNTY MORRISTOWN GLADSTONE

HUNTERDON COUNTY

Centra lR R

699

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SOMERSET COUNTY 0 WHITEHOUSE

5 miles

© Rutgers, The State University

, baskets, half of which was lost to bruising when carried by horse-drawn wagons. The freight and passenger train also transported the yield from lime kilns, gristmills, and lumber tracts. Commencing at Whitehouse, the line was never completed beyond Speedwell Lake in Morris Township. Early passengers provided the colorful nickname after experiencing the side-to-side rocking motion resulting from cheap construction and a crude roadbed. Cut corners also caused formidable maintenance problems and, ultimately, bankruptcy. Deemed unsafe and dangerous, the line closed in . See also railroads; transportation

Fran Wood Evelyn Gonzalez

Rock, John Stewart

Rockaway Borough. .-square-mile (b. Oct. , ;

d. Dec. , ).

Teacher, dentist, physician, lawyer, and political activist. John Stewart Rock was born in Salem and taught school there while studying dentistry and lobbying for the enfranchisement of African Americans. Moving to Camden, he practiced dentistry in Philadelphia, taught at the Apprentice High School, and graduated from the American Medical College. On August , , he marred Catharine Bowers. The couple moved to Boston, where Rock became a lawyer and eloquent orator for African American causes. He was the first black lawyer to be admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States on February ,  and was the first to be received and introduced on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Rock-a-Bye Baby Railroad.

A spur of the Rockaway Valley line running between Whitehouse and Watnong (near Speedwell in Morristown), the Rock-a-Bye Baby Railroad was twenty-five miles in length, and a working line for exactly that many years starting in . Its mission was to connect rural Hunterdon County with Morristown in order to transport Tewksbury Township’s peach crop. The Peapack crop alone could reach

borough in Morris County. Now primarily a residential and lake resort community, Rockaway was settled by the Dutch in , and in  mining and iron ore refining began there. Many forges operated along the Rockaway River, their works fueled by local forests. So essential was the industry to the American Revolution that the legislature exempted from military service the seventy-five men working at the Hibernia and Mount Hope mines. When the Morris Canal opened in , the mines began to import anthracite coal from Easton, Pennsylvania, to fuel the forges, and to ship out the ore and finished iron by barge. By , railroads replaced the canal, but the discovery of the Mesabi Range in Minnesota in  had already signaled the decline of New Jersey’s mining industry. Initially part of the larger township, Rockaway Borough was incorporated in , and is now a wooded suburbia with steep hills, quaint village streets, and small businesses. Rockaway Townsquare Mall and the nearby Picatinny Arsenal are major employers. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Ransom, James M. Vanishing Ironworks of the Ramapos. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Scott, William W. Passaic and Its Environs. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Maureen Dillon

Rockaway Township.

.-squaremile township in Morris County. Rockaway

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Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research

Township was set off from Pequannock Township in . The iron industry played an important role in the town’s nineteenth-century history, with Split Rock Furnace and numerous iron mines being active. Easily available waterpower led to milling as a major industry, as were distilling and tanning; the terrain limited agricultural uses. In the s, the U.S. Army acquired large tracts here for the munitions development and depot facility, now Picatinny Arsenal, which remains a major employer and a notable army installation. While the southern portion of the township, along Routes  and , has seen major commercial development, much of the rest of the township remains as open space, including Split Rock Reservoir and Farny State Park. Green Pond, in the northern part of the township, is an important golf and summer resort. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . History of Morris County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, . Know Your Town: Rockaway Township. Rockaway Township: League of Women Voters, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research was created in , became the Rockefeller University in , and has always had headquarters, hospital, and laboratories in New York City. However, from  to , the Institute had a significant presence in New Jersey, first as a .-acre farm in Clyde (Franklin Township) for maintaining dogs and horses, and then as a distinguished center for biological, human, and veterinary medical research on about eight hundred acres in the region of Penns Neck (West Windsor Township), near Princeton. The center began in  as the Department of Animal Diseases, and the first of the complex of buildings and facilities were occupied in . In  a botanical division was added and the center was renamed the Department of Animal and Plant Pathology. From its opening to its closure, the directors and staff scientists maintained an outstanding level of productivity and quality of research in bacteriology, parasitology, virology, and other fields, resulting in two Nobel Prizes in chemistry in . In  the Rockefeller Institute sold the property to Princeton University, under whose control it became the Princeton Forrestal Center. The home of Theobald Smith, the department’s first director, has been retained as the clubhouse for the Princeton Landing residential development.

Corner, George W. A History of the Rockefeller Institute –: Origins and Growth. New York: Rockefeller Institute Press, . Schlesinger, R. Walter. “Virus Research at the Princeton Rockefeller Institute, –: Recalling a Wellspring of Discoveries.’’ Infectious Agents and Disease  (): –.

Carrick, Elizabeth Bates. The Rockingham Story. Princeton: Rockingham Association, . Muser, Jeanette K. Rocky Hill, Kingston, and Griggstown. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

See also American Revolution

Margaret Carlsen

Frank F. Katz

rocketry.

Significant advances in the field of rocketry occurred in New Jersey. Denvillebased Reaction Motors Incorporated (RMI) was the nation’s first company organized to design and manufacture liquid-fuel rocket motors. RMI produced innovative rocket motors for military missiles, research rockets, and experimental aircraft. The Bell X- that made aviation history in October , when it became the first manned aircraft to pass through the “sound barrier’’ in level flight, was powered by an RMI-designed rocket motor. In , RMI merged with Trenton-based Thiokol Chemical Corporation, a manufacturer of solid-fuel rocket motors. Curtiss-Wright Corporation, in WoodRidge, developed ramjet and rocket motors, including the rocket motor for the Bell X- research aircraft. Supersonic ramjet engines were tested at Island Beach by the U.S. Navy and Johns Hopkins University in , leading to the development of the Talos missile system. The Naval Air Rocket Test Station, located adjacent to the army’s Picatinny Arsenal in Dover, operated rocket test facilities from  through .

Becklake, John, ed. History of Rocketry and Astronautics. San Diego: American Astronautical Society, . Crouch, Tom D. Aiming for the Stars. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

Rockleigh. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County, located on the western slope of the Palisades, bordering New York State to its north. Originally a region claimed by both New York and New Jersey, Rockleigh became part of this state after the boundary was settled in the s. Sneden’s Landing Road (now Rockleigh Road), an active artery since the early s, led to the New York City ferry and was used by troops during the Revolutionary War. First part of Harrington Township, Rockleigh was later the East Northvale section of Northvale. In , it seceded over a water line dispute and was incorporated as a borough. Today a sparsely populated community with fewer than seventy homes, Rockleigh has no public library, schools, or police force. The -acre Rockleigh Industrial Park, housed in a rural setting, occupies a majority of the land area. The remaining territory is exurban in nature, comprised of single-family residences, undeveloped parkland, a golf course, and a country club. Its historic district of eighteenthand nineteenth-century homes is the largest in the county. The  population of  was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fiftieth Anniversary, Borough of Rockleigh, New Jersey: –. Rockleigh: Rockleigh Anniversary Committee, .

See also missiles

Susan Chore Donald E. Bender

Rocky Hill. Rockingham. Rockingham is believed to be one of the oldest houses in the Millstone River valley, with the earliest section dating back before . Built by the Higgins family, it was enlarged under the ownership of John Berrien, a justice of the courts in New Jersey who lived at Rockingham until his death in . In , while it was meeting at Nassau Hall in nearby Princeton, the Continental Congress rented the house from Margaret Berrien for use by Gen. and Mrs. George Washington. The Washingtons occupied the house from August  to November , . It was at Rockingham, in the upstairs study, that Washington penned his “Farewell Orders to the Armies of the United States,’’ dated November , . Because of quarrying activities in the vicinity, Rockingham has been moved three times in its long history and is now in Kingston. Operated by the Division of Parks and Forestry, the house contains an excellent collection of eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century furnishings.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. Once part of lands belonging to the Unami, a family group of the Lenape, the area was deeded to John Harrison in  and settled by the Dutch. Rocky Hill takes its name from the stone outcroppings on which it is situated. In , while attending sessions of the Continental Congress in Princeton, George Washington wrote his Farewell Address to his troops at Rockingham, a state historic site built  and since moved to nearby Kingston to avoid an encroaching quarry. Originally part of Montgomery Township, Rocky Hill was formed by referendum December , . Twentieth-century industries included the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company, manufacturer of architectural ornamentation, Hercules Powder Company (which maintains research facilities in the borough), and Delaware River Quarry Company, which drew hundreds of Italian immigrants to the village. Quarrying operations continue in the vicinity. A suburb of Princeton, the community is predominantly residential. The population in  of  was  percent white.

Roebling The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Shenandoah rivers, as well as aerial observation from balloons. In  he resigned his commission to return to bridge-building and, in particular, to assist on the Cincinnati and Covington Bridge across the Ohio River. Following John A. Roebling’s death, he became chief engineer on the Brooklyn Bridge. During the course of his work on that project he became seriously ill from the caisson disease, or the “bends,’’ and directed the conclusion of the work from his Brooklyn home through his wife, Emily, whom he had met at an officers’ ball during the war. She became in essence the assistant to the chief engineer. Roebling became president of John A. Roebling’s Sons Company in . Settling in Trenton in the late s, he also became known for his collection of rare minerals.

Bolmer, Thayer A. Memoirs of Rocky Hill. Rocky Hill: N.p., . Engelbrecht, Vivian F. Rocky Hill, New Jersey: – . Rocky Hill: Rocky Hill Tercentenary Committee, . Muser, Jeanette K. Rocky Hill, Kingston, and Griggstown. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Alan A. Siegel

Rodino, Peter W., Jr.

(b. June , ).

U.S. congressman and lawyer. Peter Rodino was born in Newark and educated locally, earning a law degree from the New Jersey School of Law (now the Rutgers University Law School) in . While serving in the army from  to , Rodino rose to the rank of captain and was awarded a Bronze Star among other honors. In , he won election to the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey’s th District, and continued to serve in Congress for the next forty years. Rodino’s career in Congress included appointments as assistant majority whip, membership on the House Steering Committee, and chairing the House Judiciary Committee. It was in this last capacity that Rodino rose to national prominence when that committee drafted articles of impeachment against President Richard M. Nixon in . Nixon resigned from office before the House voted on these articles. As a member of the Judiciary Committee, Rodino authored the majority reports that became the basis for various pieces of civil rights legislation passed in the late s and throughout the s and the  Voting Rights Act Extension. Rodino left Congress in  and joined the faculty of Seton Hall University School of Law.

McCullough, David. The Great Bridge. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

Monument dedicated to John A. Roebling in Cadwalader Park, Trenton.

Courtesy Pike Archives.

, ; d. July , ).

(b. June

Engineer and manufacturer. Born in Thuringia, Germany, John A. Roebling graduated from the Royal Polytechnic Institute in Berlin, where he studied engineering, bridge construction, and philosophy. After graduation he built roads in Germany for three years, and then immigrated to the United States in  with his brother Karl to form an agrarian community in Pennsylvania called Saxonburg. The experiment failed, but in  Roebling became an American citizen and began working on canal projects in Pennsylvania. In  he established a factory for wire rope, designed to replace the hemp rope cables used on canal boats, which would later find use in his suspension bridges. That year he also published a paper on cable and chain bridges identifying the problems in suspension bridges to date. His suspension aqueducts earned him a national reputation; one still stands at Lackawaxen, Pennsylvania, over the Delaware River. His first wire suspension

Schuyler, Hamilton. The Roeblings: A Century of Engineers, Bridge-builders, and Industrialists. . Reprint. New York: AMS Press, . Steinman, David B. The Builders of the Bridge: The Story of John Roebling and His Son. d ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, .

Steven M. Richman bridge was built in – across the Monongahela River in Pittsburgh. In  he located his wire rope factory in Trenton. From  through  he supervised construction of the -foot Niagara Gorge railroad suspension bridge. His most famous project, however, was the Brooklyn Bridge, designed with his son, Washington. As a result of an accident while he was on a survey pontoon attempting to fix a tower location for the bridge, his foot was crushed and subsequently amputated. He died of tetanus a few weeks later.

Joseph R. Marbach

Roebling, John Augustus

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McCullough, David. The Great Bridge. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Petroski, Henry. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Schuyler, Hamilton. The Roeblings: A Century of Engineers, Bridge-builders, and Industrialists. . Reprint. New York: AMS Press, . Steinman, David B. The Builders of the Bridge: The Story of John Roebling and His Son. d ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, .

Steven M. Richman

Roebling, Washington Augustus (b. May , ; d. July , ). Engineer, sol-

dier, and manufacturer. Born in Saxonburg, Pennsylvania, the agrarian community founded by his father John Augustus Roebling, Washington Roebling graduated from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York in  and began work in the Roebling wire rope factory. He volunteered for service in the Civil War on the Union side, rising to lieutenant colonel. Although he saw action he was primarily involved in bridge-building, particularly across the Rappahannock and

Roebling. Roebling is a planned industrial village, now a part of Florence Township, designed and built in  by the Roebling family, noted Trenton industrialists. The village is located on the Delaware River, about ten miles south of Trenton. The Roeblings purchased a -acre farm, with more than one mile of river frontage, in the small village of Kinkora, Burlington County. Over time, the site was expanded by an additional fifty acres reclaimed from the river. A new state-of-theart steel mill was built first. The town was subsequently developed to attract and retain a permanent labor force for the mills. The plan for this company town established a modified grid of pleasant, human-scale blocks, served by rear alleys. Main Street terminates symbolically at the front gate to the Kinkora steelworks. The plan created a complete community, with some  units of varied housing types, a post office, drugstore, grocery store, bakery, barbershop, firehouse, hospital, jail, bank, school, inn with a bar, recreation center, athletic fields, -seat assembly hall with a free public library, and a large park along the river. The Roeblings sold the steel mill to Colorado Fuel and Iron in . CFI continued to run the mill until  when it ceased operations. In , the mill was declared a federal Superfund site. Currently, Florence Township is working to redevelop the area. Today, Roebling is a residential neighborhood of more than , residents. “The Industrial Village at Roebling, New Jersey.’’ Iron Age  (Aug. , ).

702

Rogers, Charles H. Rogers had worked in a Broadway cigar store, a somewhat unsavory occupation for an unmarried female in that era. The truth of the matter seems to be that she died in a botched abortion at a seedy Weehawken inn, after which her corpse was tossed into the river. The case is remembered as one of the first examples of the sensationalist, mass market journalism of the penny press. It also occupies a place in literary history. One of those attracted to the newspaper accounts of the “Beautiful Cigar Girl’’ was the author Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote a fictionalized short story closely based on the case, entitled “The Mystery of Marie Roget.’’ The story is considered one of the classics of early detective fiction. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Srebnick, Amy Gilman. The Mysterious Death of Mary Rogers: Sex and Culture in Nineteenth-Century New York. New York: Oxford University Press, . Walsh, John. Poe the Detective: The Curious Circumstances behind “The Mystery of Marie Roget.’’ New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Marc Mappen

Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works. The most successful and well

Ad for John A. Roebling, civil engineer, with the Niagara Gorge railroad suspension bridge, which used his patent wire rope, in the background, .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. Zinc, Clifford W., and Dorothy White Hartman. Spanning the Industrial Age: The John Roebling’s Sons Company, Trenton, New Jersey, –. Trenton: Trenton Roebling Community Development Corporation, .

, when he was recovering from a heart attack). Rogers was president of the New Jersey Audubon Society from  to .

William J. Boyle, Jr.

See also Florence

Carlos Macedo Rodrigues

Rogers, Mary Cecilia

(b. ; d. July

, ). Murder victim. On July , , the

Rogers, Charles H.

(b. ; d. Feb.

, ). Ornithologist. Born in Philadelphia, Charles H. Rogers, New Jersey’s leading ornithologist for most of the twentieth century, graduated from Princeton University in , then spent a year on Wall Street before joining the American Museum of Natural History. In  Rogers returned to Princeton University to teach biology and ornithology and became curator of the university’s bird collection, which he enlarged to become one of the finest small collections in the country. An outstanding field ornithologist, he participated in every National Audubon Society Christmas Bird Count from its inception in  until his death in  (with the exception of

dead body of Mary Rogers, about twenty-one years old, was found floating in shallow water on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River. The young woman had been missing from her mother’s boardinghouse in Manhattan for several days. It was evident from the battered condition of the corpse that she had been murdered, presumably in the Hoboken/ Weehawken area. The case became headline news, and for weeks there was speculation in the press about who could have slain the attractive young woman, along with pages of interviews with those involved in the case and accounts of her beautiful face and figure. Adding to the titillating aspect of the story was the fact that

known of several locomotive works, the Rogers Works made Paterson the leading producer of railroad locomotives by the time of the Civil War. Thomas Rogers, a machinist with experience building power looms, established the firm, whose first locomotive was the Sandusky, built in . The Rogers Works was responsible for much of the early American innovation in locomotive design, but the firm lost ground to larger producers in the s, and was eventually sold in the early twentieth century to the American Locomotive Company, which had monopolized much of the market. Paterson firms built almost ten thousand locomotives before the last factory closed down in the s. Nelson, William, and Charles Shriner. History of Paterson and Its Environs (Silk City).  vols. New York and Chicago: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Rogers Locomotive Catalog, . Introduction by John H. White. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Paul Clemens

The locomotive Sandusky was introduced by Thomas Rogers in . The engine’s innovative driving wheels became standard equipment on most American locomotives.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

Roman Catholic Church

Roman Catholic Church. By the late seventeenth century a few isolated Catholics lived in the area that became New Jersey. Despite legal disabilities, de facto toleration allowed a slow growth throughout the eighteenth century. Much of this occurred at two centers: one along Alloways Creek in Salem County, where a glassworks established in  supported a nucleus of German and Irish skilled craftsmen who in  began to be visited regularly by Reverend Theodore Schneider, S.J., from Philadelphia; and the other at the northern end of the state, where ironworks in the vicinity of Macopin, Mount Hope, and Greenwood Lake employed Irish workers who were visited regularly by Reverend Ferdinand Farmer, S.J., also from Philadelphia. Farmer continued his mission through the American Revolution until his death in . Post-Revolutionary New Jersey incorporated into its constitution the colonial proviso that Catholics, who by  numbered about one thousand, could not hold public office. They were intermittently visited by priests from New York or Philadelphia. This haphazard pastoral arrangement was formalized in , when each city became the see of a new diocese, and New Jersey was divided between them. This restructuring occurred just in time to face the challenges posed by an influx of Catholics. Refugees from the French Revolution formed a small early cluster, soon joined by refugees from the West Indies. A more notable growth of Catholicism began with the post- influx of Irish and German

immigrants who helped swell the state’s population to , in . In  Saint John’s in Trenton became the first Catholic church in the state. In  a new state constitution allowed Catholics to hold public office and ended official discrimination. In  the Holy See recognized the growth of the Catholic community in New Jersey by establishing a new diocese at Newark to include all Catholics in the state, and named Reverend James Roosevelt Bayley its first bishop. Bayley recruited priests in Europe, received religious communities of men into the diocese, and established Seton Hall College in  to prepare local young men for theological study and ordination to the priesthood. Realizing that his flock needed education, he strongly encouraged pastors and the laity to establish parochial schools and supported the foundation of the Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth to recruit and train the teachers. Not only educational facilities, but religious, welfare, fraternal, and social organizations had to be established. The Little Sisters of the Poor of Saint Francis began Saint Mary’s Hospital in Hoboken in , and opened Saint Francis’s in Jersey City and Saint Michael’s in Newark by . Immigration continued to expand the Catholic population, but post–Civil War immigration came increasingly from southern and eastern Europe. Large new ethnic groups needed the Church’s services—Italians, Slovaks, Poles of the Roman rite, and also Byzantine Catholics and Ukrainian Catholics of the Eastern rite. Bayley was appointed archbishop of Baltimore in

The Twenty-fifth Anniversary of Bishop Thomas Walsh’s being raised to the hierarchy, Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Newark, July , .

Courtesy Seton Hall University Archives and Special Collections, West Orange.

703

. The diocese of Newark had grown during his tenure to  churches, with  diocesan priests, assisted in parochial work by members of  religious communities of men. The largest of the religious communities of women, the Sisters of Charity, numbered . An extensive network of educational and social service institutions flourished. Massive immigration continued and grew more diverse. Michael Augustine Corrigan, a native of Newark and a member of the first class at the North American College in Rome, succeeded Bayley. He had served as professor in both Seton Hall College and Immaculate Conception Seminary and as vicar general of the diocese. Corrigan maintained Bayley’s policies, furthered the development of Catholic schools, and fought several manifestations of a lingering anti-Catholic animus in United States society. As the Catholic population continued to expand, more parishes were established, new social services institutions began, and new religious communities entered the diocese. By , diocesan priests numbered , a network of parochial and prep schools served about thirty thousand students, over  religious sisters served in schools and hospitals. In  Corrigan was appointed coadjutor to Cardinal John C. McCloskey, archbishop of New York. Before Corrigan’s successor was named, Rome divided the diocese in two, retaining the seven northern counties of the state in the diocese of Newark and establishing the diocese of Trenton, which contained the fourteen remaining counties. Reverend Winand M. Wigger, a native of New York City and a priest of the diocese of Newark, succeeded to that diocese, and Irish-born Reverend Michael J. O’Farrell, a priest of the diocese of New York, became the first bishop of Trenton. Although there were now two dioceses, their challenges remained essentially the same: to provide ministry to a Catholic population of very varied ethnic background and paraliturgical customs, to preserve their unity of faith, and to enhance their knowledge of the faith. The years up to World War I saw numerous squabbles occasioned partly by ethnic tensions and partly by the lack of resources to satisfy every group’s need. Although some priests of each immigrant group came to this country, usually not enough were available to meet all demands. Each diocese faced such problems, as well as conflicts between ethnic groups and, beginning around , between members of different rites, between clergy and bishop, and between clergy and laity. Catholics settled most of these problems reasonably amicably during the last third of the nineteenth century, and greatly expanded their educational efforts and their social welfare institutions. High levels of Catholic immigration continued until the outbreak of World War I. By then a vigorous Catholic community showed stability, variety, and fidelity to the faith. Catholics served in the armed forces and in the auxiliary services that sought to

704

Ronson Corporation

provide some amenities to the troops. Immigration slowed somewhat after World War I, but Catholics continued to increase in number and to expand their institutions. Rome recognized the development in , in making Newark an archdiocese and establishing the new dioceses of Paterson and Camden by reducing the size of the dioceses of Newark and Trenton. Newark’s bishop, Thomas J. Walsh, became the first archbishop. By the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor, New Jersey’s Catholics constituted a predominantly urban, working-class community, active in all aspects of the state’s life. The aftermath of World War II changed the community into a suburban one and opened middle-class life to the Catholic community. Churches, schools, and other facilities had now to be built where the people were. Simultaneously, Vatican Council II (–) undertook a series of liturgical and other reforms that upset many Catholics. In  the establishment of the Eparchy of Passaic provided diocesan organization for the numerous Ruthenian Byzantine Catholics on the East Coast, and in  the diocese of Metuchen was established to accommodate the suburbanization of the Catholic population. Immigration continued to be a major factor in growth—from Latin America in extremely large numbers and increasingly from Asia and elsewhere. The diocese of Our Lady of Deliverance for Syriac Catholics in the United States and Canada has Newark as its see city. By the year  the Catholic community of New Jersey, estimated to be about . million, appeared to have absorbed the numerous changes and to have adapted well.

Roosevelt built the first steamboat to navigate the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. He sailed the craft from Pittsburgh on October , , arriving in New Orleans eighty-one days later. Although Roosevelt later founded his own steamboat company in Shrewsbury, he could not protect his patents and went out of business. Dohan, Mary Helen. Mr. Roosevelt’s Steamboat. New York: Dodd, Mead, . Latrobe, John H. B. A Lost Chapter in the History of the Steamboat. Baltimore: John Murphy, .

See also transportation

Jon Blackwell

Roosevelt. “De Light’’ cigarette lighter, c. –. Gold, platinum, and diamond Ronson lighter bearing the initials of Louis V. Aronson.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of N. S. Rosengarten in Memory of His Grandfather, Louis V. Aronson, 1991. Cummings, Urban K., Ronson, the World’s Greatest Lighter: Wick Lighters, –. Palo Alto, CA: Nosno Lighter Books, .

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Roosevelt, Nicholas J. (b. Dec. , ; d. July , ). Steamboat pioneer. New York

City-born Nicholas J. Roosevelt became the operator of a copper mine in North Arlington in . In  he designed a side paddlewheel for a steamboat project that failed. Robert Fulton used the design successfully, however, six years later. In collaboration with Fulton,

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Originally called Jersey Homesteads, Roosevelt was established in  by the U.S. government as an agriculturalindustrial cooperative community for Jewish garment workers and farmers. It was one of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s experiments for dealing with the social and economic distress caused by the Great Depression. In , Jersey Homesteads separated from Millstone Township and incorporated as an independent borough. Its name was changed to Roosevelt in  to honor the deceased president. The community is on the State and National Registers of Historic Places as the Jersey Homesteads Historic District. The founder of Jersey Homesteads, Benjamin Brown, was an immigrant from Russia, who previously established Jewish cooperatives in the West and hoped the town would serve as a model for similar settlements in which Jewish culture and the Yiddish

Giglio, Charles J., ed. Building God’s Kingdom: A History of the Diocese of Camden. South Orange: Seton Hall University Press, . Kupke, Raymond J. Living Stones: A History of the Catholic Church in the Diocese of Paterson. Clifton: Diocese of Paterson, . New Jersey Catholic Historical Records Commission. The Bishops of Newark. South Orange: Seton Hall University Press, . Shenrock, Joseph C., ed. Upon This Rock: A New History of the Trenton Diocese. Trenton: Diocese of Trenton; Pennington: Cardinal Publishing, .

See also religion

Joseph F. Mahoney

Ronson Corporation.

The Art Metal Works, a manufacturer of lighters and metal goods, was founded by Louis V. Aronson. When Aronson moved from New York City to Newark in , he was listed in the city directory as a metallurgist and president of the Art Metal Works. Aronson’s patents ran into the hundreds; the most famous was the “one motion’’ lighter, which lit instantly when pressed and went out when the thumbpiece was released. Although the Ronson trade name existed by , it was not until the late s it became associated with “the Famous Ronson Lighter.’’ Today the firm, located in Somerset, continues to sell lighters internationally.

Ben Shahn created this fresco mural to commemorate the New Deal resettlement community of Jersey Homesteads, now called Roosevelt.

Courtesy Riccardo Barros/Roosevelt Arts Project.

Roselle Park language could be preserved. Albert Einstein was among the many prominent members of the Jewish community supporting the project. Architecturally, the town was built under an innovative plan that clustered the houses, leaving common open space in the middle of each block and a green belt behind each home. The buildings were designed in the functional Bauhaus style; its original houses are one-story with flat roofs. After the Second World War, the government sold the homes and factory. Since , when Ben Shahn came to town to create the mural that adorns the public school, the community has attracted artists and other notable individuals, including the Rev. John Grauel, the only non-Jew aboard the ship Exodus, who later was one of the foremost Christian clergymen to testify before the United Nations on behalf of the establishment of Israel. Roosevelt today is a safe, quiet community with no police or home mail delivery. It is surrounded by farms, open spaces, and a wildlife preserve. The  population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Barth, Helen, et al. Roosevelt, New Jersey: The First Fifty Years, –. Roosevelt: Roosevelt First Aid Squad, . Roosevelt Collection. Special Collections and Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. Rosskam, Edwin. Roosevelt, New Jersey: Big Dreams in a Small Town and What Time Did to Them. New York: Grossman Publishers, .

Arthur Shapiro

Roosevelt Stadium. This minor league baseball stadium opened April , , at

Droyer’s Point in Jersey City. The stadium was the home of the International League Jersey City Giants from – and – and the Eastern League Jersey City Indians in – . The Brooklyn Dodgers played fifteen home games in Roosevelt Stadium in – . The stadium hosted many local sporting events, and football franchises played there in the s, s, and s. It was demolished in . Roosevelt Stadium’s most historic event was the minor league debut of Jackie Robinson on April , . Robinson collected four hits, including one home run, as the Montreal Royals beat the Giants –. See also baseball

Kenneth French

for local school control, Roseland split off from Livingston and on April , , was incorporated. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bush, Robert A. A Small House in New Jersey: The Harrison House in Roseland and the Families Who Lived There—Williamses, Harrisons, and Teeds, – . Roseland: Roseland Historical Society, . Flammer, George, et al. Centreville, Roselyn, Roseland: The History of a Community. Roseland: Heritage Committee, . Folsom, Joseph F., Benedict Fitzpatrick, and Edwin P. Conklin. The Municipalities of Essex County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Poekel, Charles A., Jr. West Essex, Essex Fells, Fairfield, North Caldwell, and Roseland. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Roseland.

.-square-mile borough in Essex County. Evidence was found in  showing that dinosaurs had roamed through the area that later became Roseland. Originally part of the Horseneck Tract, which was purchased from the Lenape, it was first called South Caldwell and then Centreville, which formed a part of Livingston Township in . The early s saw shoemaking as an important industry. The Harrison House dates from the s and is the headquarters of the Roseland Historical Society. After the Civil War farming became predominant and the Henry Becker Dairy Farm at one time consisted of , acres—one-third of the borough. Desiring a post office of their own and because a Centreville Post Office already existed in Hunterdon County, in  the citizens decided to select a new name. At the suggestion of Sarah Condit Harrison the name Roselyn was chosen. Due to perhaps a misspelling or by design, the name became Roseland. In a quest

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Charles A. Poekel, Jr.

Roselle. .-square-mile borough in Union County. Originally home to the Lenape Indians, Roselle was settled in the seventeenth century by the Dutch and English. The area was known as Mulford in the eighteenth century; with the arrival of the Elizabethtown and Somerville Railroad in the s it became known as Mulford Station. It was formally named Roselle in midcentury, possibly in honor of Col. John Rose, a local land developer. Roselle separated from Linden in  over a sewer dispute, and was incorporated as a borough in . The town has historical significance because it was the home of Abraham Clark, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, as well as the site of Thomas Edison’s first electrical plant. Roselle was also the first community to be wired for electricity and to use incandescent bulbs in streetlights. The First Presbyterian Church, built in , was the first church to be lit by electric lights, and the original lightolier is still in use. The town is primarily residential. In  the population was ,, of which  percent was black,  percent was white, and  percent was Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bart, George H. Roselle History. Roselle: Roselle Public Library, . Horner, Edith R. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Mary McAleer Balkun

Roselle Park.

Roosevelt Stadium, Jersey City, c. .

Courtesy Jersey City Free Public Library.

.-square-mile borough in Union County. Originally part of Elizabethtown, Roselle Park was first settled by the Williams family—Samuel Williams, his wife, and their five sons and three daughters—in the early s. Revolutionary War troops traveled up Galloping Hill Road, one of three roads intersecting the community, on their way to the Battle of Springfield. The community became part of Union Township in . Reacting to insufficient sewer and police services, Roselle Park broke away to become an independent

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Rosenhayn

borough on March , . It was incorporated that same year with a population of approximately , and  homes spread over  acres. The arrival of the railroad in  connected the borough to Elizabeth to the east and Somerville to the southwest. An important industry in the town was the American Marconi Company, founded in . The firm manufactured wireless equipment used by the U.S. Navy, and the borough was the site of the first successful transatlantic broadcast. One of the first licensed radio stations in the country, WDY, was also located in the borough. Roselle Park is governed by a mayor and council and remains primarily residential. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race), and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Morgan, Audrey, Patricia Pagnetti, and Barbara Stock. Roselle Park. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Mary McAleer Balkun

Rosenhayn.

See Deerfield.

Rosenthal, Ida Cohen

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Businesswoman and philanthropist. After immigrating to Hoboken from her native Russia around , Ida Rosenthal managed sales and finance at the dressmaking business she started with her husband. At a New York City dress shop, she developed the design of the contemporary brassiere with her partner Enid Bissett in . In , their firm established a manufacturing facility in Bayonne, which became the Maiden Form Brassiere Company and then, Maidenform, Inc. At Maidenform, Rosenthal served as treasurer until , then president and chairman. Ida Rosenthal helped to establish Camp Lewis in Sussex, and was active in Jewish philanthropy. She was the wife of William Rosenthal and the mother of Lewis Rosenthal and Beatrice Rosenthal Coleman. Brody, Seymour. Jewish Heroes and Heroines of America. Hollywood, FL: Lifetime Books, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Maidenform

Elaine L. Schwartz

Ross, H. Browning d. Apr. , ).

(b. Apr. , ;

Athlete. H. Browning Ross was a two-time Olympian in the steeplechase, finishing seventh overall, highest American, at the  Games in London. In , as a high school teacher and track coach in Woodbury, Ross started Long Distance Log, the first newsletter for road runners. In February , Ross organized the Road Runners Club of America (RRCA) as a way to give long-distance runners a voice and to bring more people, especially women, into the sport. The RRCA now

has  chapters with a total of , members nationwide. Cooper, Pamela. The American Marathon. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also track and field

Pamela Cooper

Roth, Frederick George Richard von (b. Apr. , ; d. May , ). Sculptor. Son of Johannes and Jane Bean von Roth, Frederick G. R. von Roth was born in Brooklyn and raised in Europe, where he studied at the fine arts academies in Vienna and Berlin. Roth used various materials, first specializing in small bronze animals. He married Madeleine Forster in  and settled in Englewood, where they raised two sons. His work includes an equestrian statue of George Washington located in Morristown and pieces in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Smithsonian. He was sculptor-in-chief of New York’s Central Park, where his work can be viewed today. His most beloved statue (created in his Englewood studio) honored Balto, a husky who went through a blizzard in Alaska to deliver vaccine, a feat that inspired the annual Iditerod dogsled race. See also sculpture

In  Roth’s novel Portnoy’s Complaint earned him not only literary fame but also the wrath of some Jews who read his comedy as autobiographical confession and a shameful indictment of Jewish family life. Although he insists that he is not Portnoy, he does admit to using his own life as a springboard for his fiction. In My Life as a Man () he detailed how the consequences of his disastrous marriage to Margaret Martinson Williams almost sabotaged his career as a novelist. Critics also suspect that his short-lived marriage to the actress Claire Bloom is thinly disguised in I Married a Communist (). In Patrimony (), he set aside fiction in order to write a memoir of his father, Herman, whom he has affectionately referred to as the bard of Newark, a title more aptly belonging to himself as evidenced in his trilogy: American Pastoral (), I Married a Communist, and The Human Stain (). On awarding the  National Medal of Arts to Philip Roth, President Bill Clinton said: “What Dublin was to Joyce, what Yoknapatawpha County was to Faulkner, Newark is to Philip Roth.’’ Cooper, Alan. Philip Roth and the Jews. Albany: SUNY Press, . Roth, Philip. Reading Myself and Others. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, .

See also fiction; literature

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

Ellen Gerstle

Roth, Philip

(b. Mar. , ).

Writer. Born in Newark, Philip Roth was educated at Rutgers University, Newark (–), Bucknell University (B.A., ), and the University of Chicago (M.A., ). After a short stint in the army, he was working toward a Ph.D. in literature when he decided to be a novelist. Between  and , Philip Roth was a teacher, lecturer, and writer in residence at various universities, notably Princeton University (–). In , he published Goodbye, Columbus, which won the National Book Award for fiction (), the first of his numerous literary prizes. For Neil Klugman, the hero of Goodbye, Columbus, Newark is the place from which he thinks he wants to escape but to which he feels emotionally drawn—much like Roth who, despite leaving New Jersey as a young man, is constantly returning in his books. Short Hills, South Orange, and the Jersey Shore are among the locations that figure in many of Roth’s books, but Newark, its downtown section and the Weequahic neighborhood of his childhood, appear most often. Newark becomes the paradigm for the history of the immigrant experience, the growth and decay of American cities with changing industrial bases, and middle-class flight to the suburbs. Through the lens of Newark, Roth examines the promises and lies of the American Dream, the difficulties of assimilation, racial tensions, and family conflicts. Into the chronicle of Newark he also weaves larger historical themes like World War II, McCarthyism, and the Vietnam War.

Route 1.

U.S. Route  is among the federal highways (like Route ) created in . One of this country’s great undiscovered pleasures, it runs through Boston, New York City, Washington, D.C., Richmond, and Miami. New Jersey’s sixty-five-mile stretch of U.S. —from the George Washington Bridge to the TrentonMorrisville bridge—is probably the least interesting in the fourteen states the highway traverses. (The fifty-cent toll between Trenton and Morrisville is the only southbound toll on the entire highway, although there is a toll for northbound motorists on the George Washington Bridge.) Route  may be much more interesting in other states, but there are many wonders in New Jersey. The Pulaski Skyway, one of the most viscerally exciting

ROUTE 1

George Washington Bridge

New Brunswick

N

1 0

10

miles

Trenton - Morrisville Bridge @Rutgers, The State University

rubber industry highways anywhere, carries U.S.  from Jersey City to Newark. Newark International Airport is on U.S. ; the Budweiser brewery, which makes more regular Bud than anywhere else in the world, is across the highway. The country’s first cloverleaf was built at the intersection of Routes  and  and Route  in Woodbridge. In the s, U.S.  was called the Straight Highway; in the s, the section of U.S.  through Newark and Elizabeth was the busiest highway in the world. The “farms, woodlands and nurseries’’ that the WPA Guide observed from Linden south to Trenton in the s are gone, replaced by shopping malls, hotels, and office parks. The highway’s undeniable kitschy charm remains. U.S.  ends far from New Jersey, with little fanfare, in front of the Monroe County Courthouse in Key West, Florida. Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Genovese, Peter. The Great American Road Trip: U.S. , Maine to Florida. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Malcolm, Andrew, and Roger Straus. U.S. : America’s Original Main Street. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

See also highways; transportation

Peter Genovese

Rowan

University. In  Gov. Woodrow Wilson appointed Calvin Kendall to oversee the school system in New Jersey. Kendall found that many New Jersey schoolteachers were inadequately prepared for their positions. He proposed that the state create at least two more teacher-training schools and that one of these schools should be in southern New Jersey. In , the state appropriated the necessary funds. The competition among towns for the new school was intense. Residents of Glassboro pushed hard for their community to be selected and even purchased twenty-five acres for the site of the new school. Glassboro Normal School opened its doors on September , , with  full-time students, all young women. The school developed rapidly, and the college began offering a four-year degree program for teachers in . The school then changed its name to the Teachers College at Glassboro. During the s, the college curriculum grew beyond training teachers, and the college greatly expanded, adding  acres to its site. In  the name of the school changed to Glassboro State College. In June  the college, chosen for its location between Washington, D.C., and New York City, hosted a summit between President Lyndon Johnson and the Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin. In  businessman Henry Rowan and his wife donated $ million to the college; at the time this was the largest gift ever to a public institution of higher learning in the United States. The college then changed its name to

707

Rowan College in recognition of the gift and achieved university status as Rowan University in . By  the university had evolved into a graduate school and six academic colleges. There are thirty-one undergraduate majors, twenty-five master’s degree programs, and a doctoral program in educational leadership. The university has an enrollment of approximately ten thousand students. Bole, Robert. More than Cold Stone: A History of Glassboro State College, –. Glassboro: Glassboro State College Press, . ———. Summit at Holly Bush. Glassboro: Glassboro State Endowment Fund, .

See also higher education

Brian Stokes

Roxbury.

.-square-mile township in Morris County. The fourth municipality in Morris County, Roxbury was founded on December , , and reduced to today’s boundaries in . The township is divided into five traditional segments: Succasunna, Kenvil, Ledgewood, Landing, and Lower Berkshire Valley. Landing was part of the Lake Hopatcong summer resort community, as was a sixth segment, Mount Arlington, which seceded in  after the explosion of a munitions plant on the Shore Hills in Landing created a rift of opinion in the population over safety and contamination of the lake. The first white settlers were the Rogerenes, a religious sect from Connecticut. They settled Mountain Pond Colony in what is now Landing in . There were a number of Indian villages along the Succasunny Plains, but the first recorded white land purchase was on May , , by Peter Gairbut and Francis Beck. The township was traversed by the Morris Canal, and Inclined Plane # at Ledgewood was reconstructed during the s. In the mid-twentieth century, the township was populated primarily by professionals employed at nearby Picatinny Arsenal. Since then, many housing developments have been constructed for commuters to industries in the east. Ledgewood and Succasunna have an extensive contiguous highway commercial district. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Hosking, Annie Stelce, and Harriet Meeker. The History of Roxbury Township. Netcong: Pyramid Press, . ———. The History of Roxbury Township. Vol. . Netcong: Pyramid Press, . Seraly, Ruthann, and Frances Lyman. Old Homes of Roxbury Township. Boonton: Diversi-Comm, .

Jane R. Primerano

rubber industry.

One of America’s first rubber factories was built in New Brunswick in . There Horace H. Day made shoes by dipping wooden lasts into his own handmixed combination of alcohol, white lead,

Catalog of “Snag-Proof Rubber Footwear’’ manufactured by Lambertville Rubber Company, Lambertville, c. –.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick. lampblack, and rubber that he had obtained by cutting up the crude shoes and bottlelike syringes that had been shipped to New Brunswick from Brazil on ships owned by fellow New Brunswick resident James Bishop. Another early shoe manufacturer, Christopher Meyer, built a rubber factory in  in what is now Milltown. A founder of the U.S. Rubber Company, Meyer was one of the first rubber pioneers to receive a license from Charles Goodyear, who had obtained a patent in  to manufacture vulcanized rubber. Horace Day, insisting that he, not Goodyear, first vulcanized rubber, refused to purchase a license, and was sued by Goodyear for patent infringement in the sensational “Great India Rubber Trial’’ of . With U.S. Secretary of State Daniel Webster as his lawyer, Goodyear defeated Horace Day, who was financially ruined by ongoing litigation with other Goodyear licensees. Despite this legal setback, New Jersey continued to be the center of the American rubber industry until the latter decades of the nineteenth century when production moved to Akron, Ohio. But New Jersey rose to prominence again in  when the Michelin Tire Company of France built the world’s most modern tire factory on the Milltown site of the old Meyer factory. Employing over two thousand workers, this factory produced , tires and , tubes each day. Because hundreds of French employees were transferred to Milltown, for several decades the French language and culture influenced the political and social life of the town. In the s Thomas Edison began a series of pioneering experiments in West Orange with the elusive goal of producing

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Rudyard, Thomas

rubber from goldenrod. Backed by Harvey Firestone and Henry Ford, these unsuccessful experiments continued until his death. New Jersey’s century of prominence in the rubber industry came to an end when the Michelin factory closed in  and Thomas Edison died a year later. Wolf, Ralph F., and Howard Wolf. Rubber: A Story of Glory and Greed. New York: Covici, Friede, .

Rudyard, Thomas

Dorwart, Jeffery M., and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gabrielan, Randall. Rumson. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

William W. Leap

Leap, William W. The History of Runnemede, New Jersey, –. Runnemede: Borough of Runnemade, .

———. Rumson. Vol. . Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Runyon, William Nelson

Andrea C. Dragon

Moss, George H., Jr. Another Look at Nauvoo to the Hook. Sea Bright: Ploughshare Press, .

; d. Nov. , ). State senator and federal

(b. ; d. ).

———. Nauvoo to the Hook: The Iconography of a Barrier Beach. Locust: Jersey Close Press, .

Proprietor and deputy governor. Born in Straffordshire, by the s Thomas Rudyard was a London lawyer and an important Quaker activist who served as a defense attorney in the Penn-Mead trial involving religious freedom. A friend of William Penn, he became involved in Quaker colonization efforts, becoming a first purchaser (investor) of Pennsylvania and a proprietor of both West and East Jersey. When the proprietors purchased half the province of East Jersey in  they appointed Robert Barclay governor and Rudyard his deputy. While Barclay remained in England, Rudyard moved to the colony. He served as deputy governor until succeeded by Gawen Lawrie, then continued as secretary and register of land deeds. He was replaced because he wanted to distribute lands and encourage settlement more rapidly than did the proprietors remaining in England. In  he emigrated to Barbados. Keasbey, Edward Q. The Courts and Lawyers of New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Pomfret, John. “The Proprietors of the Province of East New Jersey, –.’’ Pennsylvania Magazine History and Biography  (): –. ——. The Province of East New Jersey, –: The Rebellious Proprietary. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Rumson.

began settling into small homes and cottages in the area. The population of Rumson was , in ,  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. The early Native American name for Rumson was Navarumsunk. Variations of the name evolved from the s. In , Rumson separated from Shrewsbury Township and became a borough. Rumson is bordered by the Navesink and Shrewsbury rivers. These waterways provide access to Sandy Hook Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, making Rumson an excellent location for fishing and water recreation. Rumson was a rich farming and fishing community through the nineteenth century. In , Thomas Hunt built the Port Washington Hotel, which later became known as the Pavilion Hotel. He also built a pier and established a line of steamships that turned the quiet coastal community into a summer resort area. From the late s through the early twentieth century, large summer residences were constructed. Rumson remained primarily a resort community until the s, when the hired help of the summer residents

Rumson Historical Committee, eds. History of Rumson, –. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, .

Barbara Pepe

Rundlett, Emilie Melanie Viett (b. Jan. , ; d. Nov. , ). Physician. Born

in Charleston, South Carolina, Emilie Melanie Viett Rundlett graduated from the Medical College of South Carolina in , married a doctor, Henry Albert Rundlett, in , and was widowed in . She practiced medicine in Jersey City from  to , specializing in pediatric infectious diseases. Her research included the use of sulfadiazine in meningococcal treatment, and she encouraged Sister Kenny’s physiotherapeutic approach to treatment of poliomyelitis. Rundlett was the first woman to graduate with a medical degree in South Carolina, to head a clinical service (infectious disease), and to be medical staff president in a major teaching hospital (Jersey City Medical Center).

William Sharpe

Runnemede. .-square-mile borough in Camden County. Runnemede was settled in  by the British on the site of the Indian village of Armewamex in old Gloucester County. The community benefited from its location on the tidal waters of Great Timber Creek and seven-mile proximity to Philadelphia. In , Runnemede was included in Union Township and in  became part of the new Camden County. In , it became part of Center Township. In , it split off from Center Township and incorporated into a borough. The  advent of a railroad with ferry connections to Philadelphia initiated a change from a completely agrarian society to a community of commuters to the industries and businesses of Camden and Philadelphia. Runnemede remains predominantly residential with mostly single-family homes. There are few industries, the most notable being Mister Softee. Transportation is convenient. New Jersey Turnpike’s Exit  is on the borough’s border with Routes , , , and the Atlantic City Expressway is within three miles. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

(b. Mar. ,

judge. William Nelson Runyon was born in Plainfield, the son of Nelson and Wilhelmina Troy Runyon. He graduated from Yale University in , and from New York Law School in . Runyon married Florence McDonald, and in addition to having several of their own, the couple adopted two children. Runyon’s political career began in  with his election to Plainfield’s common council. He was city judge (–), member of the General Assembly (–), and state senator from Union County (–). Runyon was the Republican candidate for governor in , campaigning in support of Prohibition and against the rising power of Hudson County boss Frank Hague. He lost to George S. Silzer. In December, President Warren Harding appointed him to the U.S. Circuit Court for the District of New Jersey, a position he held until his death in .

Richard J. Connors

Russell, Henry Norris

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Feb. , ).

Astronomer. Henry Norris Russell is remembered today as the first theoretical astrophysicist in the United States and one of the most influential astronomers worldwide in the first half of the twentieth century. Born in Oyster Bay, New York, he was the son of a Presbyterian minister, Alexander Gatherer Russell, who had trained at the Princeton Theological Seminary, and Elisa Hoxie Norris, the daughter of a prominent Princeton resident. He was sent to the Princeton Prep School at age twelve, lived with his aunt Ada Norris on Canal Street (now Alexander), and remained based in Princeton for the rest of his life. His scientific specialties included the gamut of solar and stellar astrophysics, planetary atmospheres, double stars, atomic physics, and spectroscopy. DeVorkin, David H. Henry Norris Russell: Dean of American Astronomers. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also astronomy and astrophysics

David H. DeVorkin

Russians. A Russian presence in New Jersey was not felt until the late s, when the first of five waves of Russian immigrants arrived. The first group, largely land-poor peasants and small farmers fleeing oppressive feudal landlords, came between  and . Immigrant organizations developed, such as the Russian Consolidated Mutual Aid Society, which in  purchased , acres,

Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

The Three Saints Russian Orthodox Church, Garfield.

Photo: Joe Gigli. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

later known as Rova Farm, in Cassville. The second group, mainly White Russians, comprised tsarist army officers, professionals, large landowners, and representatives of political parties ranging from moderate socialists to the extreme left. They came in the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution, the White armies’ defeat, and the famine of the early s. World War II, its aftermath, and legislation facilitating the entry of displaced persons were responsible for the third wave of immigration. The fourth group was the Kalmyks, Asians from the steppes in the Caspian Sea region. Displaced by the Bolshevik Revolution and again by World War II, they were reclassified as Europeans and permitted to enter the United States in . The final wave came after the fall of the Soviet Union and its dissolution into fifteen independent republics. Initially, Russians settled in industrial areas and worked in plants and factories. Churches and parishes soon followed. The first Russian Orthodox parish, the Three Saints Russian Orthodox Church, was established in , and its church was built in . Today it includes a cultural center and pavilion in addition to a new church. By the s, most major New Jersey cities had at least a small Russian community. Between the two world wars, there was a shift to agricultural areas, such as Lakewood and Cassville. At the end of the twentieth century, fifteen Russian Orthodox parishes continued in New Jersey. Many of their congregations have been enlarged with immigrants who arrived after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. However, some Russian communities, such as Rova Farms, face a markedly declining population. In addition to Russian communities, which extend from Garfield and Rahway to the Millville/Vineland area, there are many sites

of Russian religious and cultural interest in New Jersey. Among them are the Kuban Cossack Library and Museum in Howell; the All Cossack Stanitza in Vineland; Saint Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Howell, with its Saturday school offering instruction in the Russian language, history, and religion; the nearby cultural center of Rodina; and Rova Farm, with its restaurant and hall, weekly flea market, Pushkin Memorial Home for the Aged, and monuments. Adjacent to Rova Farms are two Russian Orthodox churches, Saint Vladimir’s and Saint Mary’s, and a large Russian Orthodox cemetery. Russian culture is also manifested in New Jersey in holidays and feast days. Russians celebrate Christmas and Easter, for example, thirteen days after most Christian denominations. Other important Russian holidays include the feast of Saint Thomas, which involves the blessing of graves and the sharing of food in the cemeteries on the Sunday after Easter; the Blessing of the Fruit, specifically the first harvest of grapes on August ; the Blessing of the Flowers on August ; the Easter vigil; and Saint Vladimir’s Day, the last Sunday in July. At Rova Farms, thousands of visitors gather on Saint Vladimir’s Day to view the icon of Our Lady of Pochaev and to partake of traditional Russian foods, including kotley, borsch, pirozhki, and nut pastries. Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also ethnicity

Barbara L. Godbold

Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. Founded as Queen’s College in , Rutgers is the eighth-oldest college in the United States. The institution owes its

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existence to a group of Dutch Reformed clerics who fought to secure the right to educate ministers in the colonies. On November ,  William Franklin, the royal governor of New Jersey, granted a charter for Queen’s College, named in honor of Charlotte, the Queen Consort. The college trustees convened for their first meeting in Hackensack in May , but it took five years for Queen’s College to become operational. After repeated efforts to amend the original charter, Governor Franklin issued a new charter on March , . In November  the college commenced instruction at the Sign of the Red Lion, a former tavern located on the corner of Albany and Neilson streets in New Brunswick, which housed the students of the college and the grammar school, as well as Frederick Frelinghuysen, the first tutor. By , when the first commencement was held, there were over twenty students enrolled. The Rev. Jacob Hardenbergh, a staunch supporter of Queen’s College, conferred the first and only degree of the day on Matthew Leydt of New Brunswick. Soon after, students, tutors, and trustees alike joined in the struggle for independence. In , during the British occupation of New Brunswick, half a dozen students gathered in an abandoned church at North Branch to resume their studies. The college relocated to Millstone the following year, and returned to New Brunswick in the spring of . Queen’s College prospered under the leadership of Hardenbergh, who became the first president of Rutgers. Enrollment climbed slowly, and by  the graduating class included ten students. But the college fell upon hard times following Hardenbergh’s death in . The trustees closed Queen’s in , and it remained dormant for the next twelve years. A new college building signaled the revival of Queen’s College, but financial difficulties forced the college to close again in ; it reopened in , named for Henry Rutgers, Revolutionary war hero and supporter of benevolent causes. The revitalized college had a small faculty who offered a curriculum that followed a classical and “modern’’ course of study. In  students received lectures in geology, mineralogy, chemistry, and moral philosophy. Enrollment in the college slowly increased over the next several years as students, predominantly from Dutch families of New York and New Jersey, came to New Brunswick. Rutgers College was transformed considerably during the decades following the Civil War. The Rutgers Scientific School, established in , was designated by the legislature as the land-grant college for New Jersey in  under the Morrill Act, bringing Rutgers into a relationship with the state for the first time. In January  the first issue of the student newspaper, the Targum, was published, and two years later the first yearbook, the Scarlet Letter, was issued. In  the Rutgers Glee

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Rutgers Preparatory School

Club formed and with it came the school song, “On the Banks of the Old Raritan.’’ In  the first intercollegiate football contest was played between Rutgers and Princeton. As Rutgers approached the new century, it secured increased state and federal aid. In , under the provisions of the Hatch Act, the agricultural experiment station was established. Rutgers also obtained additional federal funds for the Scientific School with the passage of the second Morrill Act of . The state erected New Jersey Hall in  on land conveyed to it by the college for the State Agricultural Experiment Station. In  the legislature passed the State Scholarship Act, which provided one scholarship in each of the sixty assembly districts in New Jersey. Under the stewardship of William H. S. Demarest, Rutgers achieved several milestones. The college aided the war effort in  by establishing a unit of the Student Army Training Corps. The Agricultural College was designated the State University of New Jersey in . The New Jersey College for Women emerged the following year. By  total university enrollment hovered around twentyfive hundred students. In  Rutgers College changed its name to Rutgers University and shifted its focus toward becoming a public institution. What followed was a period of growth and expansion in student enrollment, academic programs, and physical facilities. By  the university consisted of seven schools and colleges, with an undergraduate population of , students. However, when the nation was plunged into the depths of the Depression, state appropriations were drastically reduced. Nonetheless, President Robert Clothier embarked on an expansion program, which proved to be valuable for planning future development of the university. With America’s entry into World War II, Rutgers found itself once again in the throes of a national emergency. The university immediately committed its resources to the war effort. The campus became host to the Army Specialized Training Program, which helped maintain enrollment levels. Through the program, Rutgers trained , men. During the postwar years, Rutgers renewed its call for growth and expansion, as more than nineteen thousand veterans flooded the campus through the benefits of the GI Bill. Under the provisions of the State University Acts of  and , the state legislature designated all units of Rutgers as the State University. In  the arts and science, business, and law schools of the former University of Newark became Rutgers-Newark. By  Rutgers acquired a law school and the twoyear College of South Jersey in Camden. To solidify its relationship with the state, Rutgers reorganized its governing structure by creating a board of governors to provide the state with a larger role in the control of the university. The board consisted of eleven

voting members, six appointed by the governor and five from among the trustees, who continued to serve in an advisory capacity, manage certain funds, and oversee educational standards. During the turbulent decade of the s, under the leadership of President Mason Gross, Rutgers witnessed unprecedented growth and development. Three bond issues enabled the university to embark upon a massive building program. By  enrollment had doubled, with more than twelve thousand full-time undergraduate students. In  Rutgers acquired from the federal government  acres of the former Camp Kilmer army base where Livingston College opened in . Scientific research and teaching facilities emerged on the Busch campus. The decade was also one of political action and social awareness; Gross promoted a sense of calm and reason when confronted with black student demands on the Newark campus in , and again with the student protests over the Vietnam War in . During the final decades of the twentieth century, Rutgers achieved distinction as a public research university, as it enjoyed the benefits of a healthy economy and a governor who gave strong support to higher education. In  the university joined fiftysix other prestigious academic institutions that make up the Association of American Universities. As the s unfolded, Rutgers University confronted massive cuts in state funding, prompting an intensive campaign for public support. The university redirected its energies toward teaching and undergraduate education, and renewed its commitment to support and include minorities through enrollment and hiring.

Committed to a diverse student body, Rutgers Prep has been recognized as a national “blue ribbon’’ school. McCormick, Richard P. Rutgers: A Bicentennial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Sperduto, Frank V. A History of Rutgers Preparatory School. Somerset: Rutgers Preparatory School, .

See also education

Arlene Gibbs Wacker

Rutgers University–Camden Center for the Arts. A division of Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, the Center for the Arts on the Camden campus has a mission to serve the regional community with a year-round calendar of arts education and public presentation programs that promote a full appreciation and enjoyment of the arts and an understanding of their connection to all facets of life. RCCA’s main facilities are located in the Fine Arts Complex, which opened in —the Stedman Gallery, the Walter K. Gordon Theater, and the black box theater. Programs for the general public include visual arts and cultural heritage exhibitions; music, theater, dance, and multidisciplinary performances; film presentations; and other programs that seek to expand knowledge of the arts. RCCA also conducts innovative arts education and enrichment programs for children and families throughout the year. The curricular-related Museum and Mainstage Education programs for the region’s K– school community provide direct access to the arts and are offered both on-site and via videoconferencing. Other programs are designed to serve the needs of the children of Camden City, such as Shared Visions, Shared Rhythms, and Art Soup.

Frusciano, Thomas J. “Leadership on the Banks: Rutgers’ Presidents, –.’’ Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries , no.  (): –. ———. “To Cultivate Piety, Learning, and Liberty: The College of New Jersey and Queen’s College, –.’’ Journal of the Rutgers University Libraries , no.  (): –. McCormick, Richard P. Rutgers, A Bicentennial History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also higher education

Thomas J. Frusciano

Rutgers Preparatory School.

The oldest independent school in New Jersey, Queen’s College Grammar School was chartered in  as the grammar school portion of Queen’s College (now Rutgers University). Its original purpose was to train male students for the college. In  the name was changed to Rutgers Preparatory School, but it remained in New Brunswick and close to the college until , when it obtained separate status. Today it is located on a thirty-five-acre campus in Somerset. A coeducational day school covering pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade, it serves approximately  students.

Virginia Oberlin Steel

Rutgers University Press. Rutgers University Press is a nonprofit academic publishing house, operating in Piscataway under the auspices of Rutgers University. The press was founded in , and since that time has grown in size and in the scope of its publishing program. The press publishes books in the humanities, social sciences, and sciences, and is known for its large collection of books about the state and the region. Press books that have been particularly influential include The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Black Athena, The History of Interest Rates, Quicksand and Passing, Looking for America on the New Jersey Turnpike, Jersey Diners, and Twin Towers. See also book publishing Marlie Parker Wasserman

Rutherford.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. First settled by Europeans in the seventeenth century, Rutherford developed as a residential suburb when New York

Ryle, John City investors began subdividing farmland into town lots. The first lots were auctioned off in . By the s the area had hotels, fine homes, and a host of land development companies. By  promoters had named it Rutherford Park. In , it left Union Township and incorporated as Rutherford borough. With urban amenities in a country setting and rail access to business centers in New York and New Jersey, Rutherford soon became one of Bergen County’s most desirable communities. By , its , residents lived in spacious suburban homes on the higher ground overlooking the Hackensack Meadowlands. Rutherford was the original site of Fairleigh Dickinson University from  until . It was also the home of the poet William Carlos Williams, and now contains the William Carlos Williams Center for the Arts, as well as the Meadowlands Museum on area history. Rutherford’s population peaked at , in . It remains a residential community with commerce along Route . In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Historical Program, –: Rutherford Diamond Jubilee, September –. Rutherford: N.p., .

Westergaard, Barbara. New Jersey: A Guide to the State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Ryan, Anne (b. July , ; d. Apr. , ). Painter, collagist, printmaker, and poet. While she published her first written work in , Anne Ryan did not begin her art career until . Influenced by the art she saw during a European sojourn (–), Ryan began painting with the encouragement of Hans Hoffman. In , she had her first solo exhibition. She studied printmaking at Stanley William Hayter’s Atelier , and inspired by Kurt Schwitters’s work, she began making collages in . Her work has been exhibited widely and is included in the collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Brooklyn Museum of Art, Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, and the Newark Museum. Armand, Claudine. Anne Ryan: Collages. Trans. David ´e d’art ame ´ricain, Wharry. Giverny, France: Muse . Ashberry, John. “A Place for Everything.’’ Artnews  (Mar. ): –, –. Myers, John Bernard. “Anne Ryan’s Interior Castle.’’ Archives of American Art Journal , no.  (): –.

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See also art

Sharon Matt Atkins

Ryle, John

(b. Oct. , ; d. Nov. ,

).

Silk industry entrepreneur. Born in Bollington, England, John Ryle studied the silk manufacturing process and by age twentytwo was the superintendent of a mill owned by his two brothers. Immigrating to the United States in , he obtained the position of superintendent in a small silk mill in Northampton, Massachusetts. While employed there he became acquainted with George W. Murray who, in , purchased Christopher Colt’s silk mill, the first in Paterson. Ryle went to work for Murray and in  became a partner in the renamed firm of Murray and Ryle. In  Ryle, with the help of his brothers, bought out Murray’s interest in the firm. Ryle’s company, which manufactured both spooled sewing silk and woven silk goods, became the center of the silk industry in Paterson. Active in politics, Ryle was mayor of Paterson from  to . He died while on a visit to Macclesfield, England in . Heusser, Albert H., ed. The History of the Silk Dyeing Industry in the United States. Paterson: Silk Dyers’ Association of America, .

See also silk industry

Bruce Balistrieri

S

and  within a quarter mile of its border. In , the population of , was  percent white and  precent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Westervelt, Frances A. History of Bergen County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Robert D. Griffin

Sackett, William E.

(b. May , ;

d. Nov. , ). Journalist. Sackett, the son of

William and Josephine Findlay Sackett, was educated at the Anthon School and the New York Free Academy. Originally intent on becoming a lawyer, he clerked for three years (from  to ) in the law office of Chester A. Arthur, who later became president of the United States when James A. Garfield was assassinated. A veteran reporter for the New York Times and New York Herald, Sackett is perhaps best known for his delightful two-volume work aptly titled Modern Battles of Trenton. The first volume, which chronicles New Jersey politics from  to , ranks as a classic in muckraker literature. The second volume, published in , covers the gubernatorial administrations extending from George Werts to Woodrow Wilson. Although there is much hearsay and exaggeration in both volumes, they offer an invaluable chronicle of state politics from just after the Civil War to World War I. A reform Democrat disillusioned with machine politics and political bossism, Sackett made a futile attempt to seek his party’s nomination for governor in  during the high noon of progressivism. Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton.  vols. Trenton: J. L. Murphy, –.

Richard A. Hogarty

Saddle Brook. .-square-mile township in west-central Bergen County. Saddle Brook was originally formed in  from New Barbadoes Township, along a well-traveled wagon route to Newark called “Old Swamp Lane’’ and bordered by the Passaic River on the west and the Saddle River on the east. It was incorporated as Saddle River Township in . The present community is what was left after numerous municipalities seceded from it, principally Franklin Township (), Garfield (), East Paterson (now Elmwood Park, ), and Fair Lawn (). The name was changed to Saddle Brook in  as a requirement for obtaining a post office, to avoid confusion with other similarly named towns in the county. Agriculture—especially corn, potatoes, and hay—small-scale dairies, and poultry farms predominated until the first decade of the twentieth century. Like many communities in Bergen County, Saddle Brook experienced rapid residential development in the s. It is conveniently located at the hub of three major arteries, I-, the Garden State Parkway, and Route , with major Routes  712

Saddle River.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Native Americans called the eastern side of the Saddle River “land of the grapes.’’ Albrecht Zaborowsky bought land from them in . In  he deeded the tract to Thomas Van Buskirk (Van Boskirk). Van Buskirk’s son, Andries Thomas, built the first house in Saddle River around . Saddle River has been part of many different communities over the years. In  Orvil Township was created, which included Saddle River along with Allendale, Ho-Ho-Kus, Upper Saddle River, Waldwick, and Woodcliff. In late  the township was dissolved into individual entities. Saddle River was originally a farming community. Over time, mills were erected along the namesake river, which bisects the borough. These included gristmills, sawmills, cotton mills, bark mills, and shingle mills. The area also hosted small industry. A basket factory, triphammer factory, iron foundry, and hat factory were among the manufacturers. Today, Saddle River Borough is a residential community bordered on the east by the Garden State Parkway and the west by Route . It was the home of President Richard M. Nixon from  until his death in . The  census shows a population of , with  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Van Benschoten, Sandra G. The History of Saddle River: A Compilation of Facts and Data. Saddle River: Borough of Saddle River, .

William Hart

Saffron, Morris H.

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Apr. , ). Physician, medical historian,

and bibliophile. Morris H. Saffron was born in Passaic to Abraham and Bertha Saffron, emigrants from Russia. He attended Columbia College in New York (A.B., ) and the University of Maryland Medical School (M.D., ). He served his internship (–) and was the director of dermatology (–) at Saint Mary’s Hospital, Passaic. His special interest in history led him to earn an M.A. () and a Ph.D. () from Columbia University. While he practiced medicine (dermatology) in New Jersey and New York, Saffron also devoted himself to medical history: teaching, as a professor of medical history at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, and writing books and papers. He established the Medical History Society of New Jersey

Morris Saffron.

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark.

(MHSNJ) and generously supported the New Jersey Historical Society. Saffron created and funded an endowment at UMDNJ so students would appreciate and become knowledgeable about the history of their profession. The rare book collection of UMDNJ and an annual MHSNJ lecture are named after him.

Frank F. Katz

Sagan, Carl Edward

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Dec. , ).

Astronomer and science writer. Born in Brooklyn, New York, Carl Sagan decided to become an astronomer while he was a student in Rahway High School, where he graduated in . His later education was at the University of Chicago. Winner of many awards, author of more than twenty books and six hundred scientific papers. Sagan pioneered in the study of other planets. A believer in the existence of extraterrestrial life and intelligence, he played a leading role in the search for living matter on Mars. He helped create the disputed concept of “nuclear winter,’’ which portrayed the horrors of nuclear war. He also warned of the consequences of global warming. His television program Cosmos, cowritten with his wife, Ann Druyan, was seen by half a billion viewers in sixty countries, and his book The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Origins of Human Intelligence won a Pulitzer Prize. Davidson, Keay. Carl Sagan: A Life. New York: John Wiley, . Poundstone, William. Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos. New York: Henry Holt, .

See also astronomy and astrophysics

William Lichten

Saint Barnabas Medical Center. The “Saint Barnabas House’’ began humbly in Newark in  under Episcopalian auspices. In , the year it received its charter as Saint Barnabas Hospital, it housed ten patients. At present, as a nonsectarian institution located

Saint Peter’s University Hospital in Livingston, it is a -bed facility, one of the largest hospitals in the state. It has New Jersey’s only certified burn treatment facility; provides pediatric cardiac surgery services in affiliation with the Cardiac Surgery Program at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia; has the state’s only center for heart and lung transplants; and has one of the most active kidney transplant centers in the country. Saint Barnabas is an affiliate of the Saint Barnabas Health Care System, which includes nine additional hospitals in the state. The Saint Barnabas Health Care System annually trains  residents and fellows in nineteen residency programs and is a teaching affiliate of New York’s Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Bruce R. Cowen

Saint Benedict’s Preparatory School. Originally an all-male Catholic college founded in  by Benedictine monks, Saint Benedict’s dropped its college program in  in favor of a college preparatory curriculum. Over the next five decades the Newark school developed a reputation as an academic and athletic powerhouse. Although Saint Benedict’s enjoyed growing enrollment and unprecedented success through the s, changing demographics and a negative image of the city led to its closing in . After a one-year hiatus it reopened, demonstrating the monks’ commitment to Newark. Now serving a predominantly African American and Hispanic student body, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the school was in the midst of a fifty-million-dollar endowment and building campaign to ensure its future. McPadden, Malachy, O.S.B., ed. The Benedictines in Newark, –. Newark: Newark Abbey, . Smith, Frederick T. “Miracle on High Street.’’ New Jersey Monthly , no.  (Dec. ): –, –.

See also education

Tom McCabe

Saint John’s Church.

The first Roman Catholic congregation in Newark was established in . Saint John’s original wooden church, completed in , burned down shortly thereafter and was replaced by a stone building. The Reverend Patrick Moran (pastor, –) enlarged the church according to his own design, adding the present neo-Gothic fac¸ade constructed of Newark brownstone. Further additions to the original building were made in the s. Today the parish serves commuters and the urban poor. Saint John’s Church was given landmark status by the New Jersey Historic Preservation Office and has been designated a National Historic Site.

New Jersey Catholic Historical Records Commission. The Bishops of Newark, –. South Orange: Seton Hall University Press, .

See also Roman Catholic Church

Robert J. Wister

Saint Michael’s Medical Center. Four Sisters of the Poor of Saint Francis arrived in Newark in  to staff a thirteen-bed hospital in a converted residence. The threestory -bed Saint Michael’s Hospital, built to accommodate escalating demand, opened in , and Saint Michael’s was officially incorporated by the state legislature. Soon outpatient services and a women’s hospital were added. In , Saint Michael’s expanded again, doubling its beds. An early patient was Annie Oakley, who was treated for a back injury in . By ,  beds were added and yet a third wing was built. In , a nursing school was created, and in , a five-story maternity wing. Bed capacity peaked at  in . Saint Michael’s pioneered in cardiac care, opening the state’s first cardiac clinic in , the first cardiac catheterization laboratory in , and performing New Jersey’s first openheart surgery in . Saint Michael’s Medical Center, a member of the Cathedral Healthcare System of the Archdiocese of Newark, is presently a -bed regional care, teaching, and research facility. See also hospitals and hospital systems

Sandra Moss

Saint Clare’s Hospital.

Opened in  as an extension of the Saint Francis Health Resort in Denville (founded in ), Saint Clare’s Hospital is operated by the Roman Catholic Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother. Enlarged in , it is today part of the Saint Clare’s Health System, which also maintains hospitals in Boonton, Dover, and Sussex. Its geriatric services operate the Franciscan Oaks Continuing Care Retirement Community and the Saint Francis Residential Community in Denville. Since , Saint Clare’s hospitals in Denville and Dover have included oncological facilities operated by Manhattan’s Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, the only offcenter facilities of this institution. See also hospitals and hospital systems

¨ Wolfgang Jochle

Saint Peter’s College. Saint Peter’s College, the Jesuit College of New Jersey, was chartered by the state on April , ; it now offers a liberal arts education in thirty-eight bachelor’s and ten associate’s degree programs in addition to four master’s programs with numerous concentrations. The main campus is on Kennedy Boulevard in Jersey City with course offerings on the Jersey City Waterfront and a branch campus for adult learners in Englewood Cliffs. In  Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley of Newark invited a group of French Jesuits to found a college for men in Jersey City and take over Saint Peter’s parish on Grand Street. The college, with its Preparatory Division, began classes on September , .

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The college closed temporarily in  but, under the leadership of Dean Robert I. Gannon, S.J., it reopened in  in the Chamber of Commerce Building in downtown Jersey City. In  Saint Peter’s initiated its evening division and adopted the peacock as its symbol. It moved to its present location on Kennedy Boulevard in . One of twenty-eight American Jesuit colleges and universities, Saint Peter’s has been fully coeducational since , with a student population reflecting the rich diversity of the metropolitan area. The college opened residence halls in . In autumn , Saint Peter’s enrolled , undergraduates, with  percent of the full-time students in residence, and  graduate students. Cronin, Richard J., S.J. The Closing and Reopening of Saint Peter’s College: –. Jersey City: Saint Peter’s College, . ———. The Jesuits and the Beginning of St. Peter’s College. Jersey City: Saint Peter’s College, . O’Donnell, Jim. Jesuit College in Jersey City. Jersey City: Saint Peter’s College, .

See also higher education

Eileen L. Poiani

Saint Peter’s Preparatory School. This Jesuit high school near the Hudson River waterfront on Grand Street in Jersey City serves young men in grades nine through twelve. College preparatory classes began on September , , under the Charter of Saint Peter’s College issued by the state of New Jersey in . The preparatory school and college grew together as part of Saint Peter’s parish, which had had an elementary school since  and was taken over by the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in  at the request of Archbishop James Roosevelt Bayley of the Newark Catholic archdiocese. It was not until after  that the documents of Saint Peter’s distinguish enrollment between the high school and the college. Founded by French Jesuits to serve the sons of Catholic immigrants, originally mostly of Irish ancestry, Saint Peter’s Prep has educated young men commuting from a broad geographic area. For the – year,  students traveled from  New Jersey communities and  boroughs of New York City. Ninety-nine percent of Saint Peter’s Prep graduates attend four-year colleges and universities, including many highly selective institutions. Cronin, Richard J., S.J. The Jesuits and the Beginning of Saint Peter’s College. Jersey City: Saint Peter’s College, . O’Donnell, Jim. Jesuit College in Jersey City. Jersey City: Saint Peter’s College, .

See also education

Eileen L. Poiani

Saint Peter’s University Hospital. Saint Peter’s was founded in  as a sixteenbed hospital. Located in New Brunswick and sponsored by the diocese of Metuchen, by  it had grown to a -bed facility. Saint Peter’s

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Saint Vincent Academy

became one of only ten hospitals in the nation to receive the prestigious designation of “magnet’’ status, conferred by the American Nurses Credentialing Center, for excellence in nursing. In its role as University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School teaching affiliate, Saint Peter’s provides residency training for doctors specializing in nine different fields of medicine. Saint Peter’s is the state’s only Center of Excellence in Maternal-Child Health, and its maternity service is one of the largest in the nation. Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Bruce R. Cowen

Saint Vincent Academy. A Catholic high school for girls located in Newark, Saint Vincent Academy was established in  as a finishing school for young women that also included an elementary school for girls and boys. The elementary school closed in , while what had become a high school expanded in size and programs to include business as well as industrial arts courses. Today the school, run by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth, provides a college preparatory curriculum for approximately three hundred students from diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. Building on Tradition. Academy, .

Newark:

Saint

Vincent

See also education

Pat Gordon

Salem. .-square-mile city in Salem County. “New Salem’’ was founded in  by English Quaker John Fenwick as the capital of Fenwick’s Colony in the province of West Jersey. It was the first permanent English settlement in the Delaware River Valley. Fenwick’s innovative democratic form of government influenced others to immigrate to West Jersey and Pennsylvania. In  Salem was incorporated, and in , chartered as a city by the state legislature. Salem became a busy colonial port of entry and site of government, commerce, and industry. During the Revolutionary War, the British occupied Salem briefly in . Important nineteenth-century industries here were glass, canning, floor coverings, milling, and shipping. Salem continues as the county seat of Salem County, a port of entry, and a site of glass and electrical components manufacturing. Historic neighborhoods are mostly comprised of single-unit houses built before . Today, the streets that John Fenwick laid out in , Market Street and Broadway, are historic districts on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. In  the population of , was  percent black and  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Harper, Robert W. John Fenwick and Salem County in the Province of West Jersey, –. Salem:

Salem County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Johnson, R. G. An Historical Account of the First Settlement of Salem, in West Jersey. Philadelphia: Orrin Rodgers, .

Janet L. Sheridan

Salem Community College.

Located in Carney’s Point Township, Salem Community College began as a career education center in  and became the Salem County Technical Institute in . In  it affiliated with Wilmington College in Delaware and became Salem Community College upon receiving degree-granting authority in . It achieved Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools regional accreditation in . Salem Community College is particularly well known for having the nation’s only associate degree program in scientific glassblowing technology. Facilities established since  include a fivethousand-square-foot Glass Center, the Paul J. Stankard Gallery, a distance-learning center, and a classroom center in the city of Salem. See also higher education

Janet L. Sheridan

Salem

County. .-square-mile county located in the southwestern part of the state. Salem’s name is derived from the Hebrew word shalom, meaning “peace.’’ The county is the site of the first permanent English-speaking settlement on the Delaware River in . The first European arrivals, however, were Dutch traders, followed by Swedes and Finns in , who established

SALEM COUNTY

Salem

0

15 miles

county seat

New Sweden, of which Salem County was a part. An attempt at English settlement followed in the s, but failed after a few years. From the outset, relations between the county’s native peoples, the Lenape, and the Europeans were generally amicable, so that when English Quaker John Fenwick arrived in , he and his fellow colonists built upon these peaceful precedents. Local tradition maintains that Fenwick treatied with the Lenape beneath the Salem Oak, still a revered landmark in Salem City. Fenwick’s arrival marked the beginning of the first Quaker colony in North America, predating Pennsylvania by seven years. Known as the Salem Tenth, the colony originally encompassed both present-day Salem and Cumberland counties. It slowly began attracting settlers reflecting the developing diversity of the Middle Atlantic colonies. Salem City was planned as the “shire town’’ of the little colony, and remains so today as the seat of county government. Nonetheless, Fenwick’s settlement was relatively quickly outpaced by nearby Philadelphia as the region’s commercial and cultural hub, due largely to that city’s more favorable location. Salem County’s towns and villages developed as local and regional centers of trade. The county was the scene of some military activity during the American Revolution. Both the Continental and British armies occupied the county in  while on foraging expeditions. The British occupation came to be known as the Salem Raid, during which time several skirmishes occurred with members of the local militia. Most horrific, however, was the Hancock House massacre in which the Queen’s Rangers carried out a surprise raid on the militia’s outpost at Hancock’s Bridge, bayoneting a number of militiamen to death. The house remains as a historic shrine, rescued from destruction through the efforts of the Salem County Historical Society in the s. The Revolution marked the last time that war directly touched Salem County soil. The events leading up to the Civil War, however, greatly affected the county’s citizenry. One route of the Underground Railroad passed through the county, and a documented station survives today in Salem City, as well as a number of other associated sites. Salem County has long been home to an important African American community. Mount Pisgah A.M.E. Church in Salem was founded in  and is one of America’s oldest African American churches. During the Civil War, nearby Fort Delaware was used as a prison for captured Confederates, and hundreds of soldiers who died there lie in Finns Point National Cemetery in Pennsville. Industrial development did not take place to any great degree until the mid-nineteenth century, with the notable exceptions of the glassmaking and shipbuilding industries. Casper Wistar established the first successful glassworks in America in  in Alloway

salt hay Township, and the Reeve Brothers operated a prosperous and technologically innovative shipyard in Alloway village in the early nineteenth century. Most industrial activity, however, began in earnest in the s, including glassmaking, food processing, ice cream making, and the floor covering manufacturing. With this modest industrial expansion also came an accompanying growth in population, although the county still remained largely rural and agricultural. One of the most interesting settlements—Alliance—was established as an agricultural colony for Jewish immigrants in the s in Pittsgrove Township and environs. In the late nineteenth century the DuPont Company established a gunpowder works in Carney’s Point, initiating a great period of industrial expansion later spurred on by the military needs of World War I. An improved and expanded network of highways in the twentieth century, including the construction of the Harding Highway (U.S. Route ), the Delaware Memorial Bridge, New Jersey Turnpike, and Interstate , have perhaps brought about more change locally than any other single factor, for these transportation improvements mitigated the county’s previously isolated location. Although the county remains largely agricultural, urban and industrial sites have developed in the riverfront communities. Despite this modest development, however, the county retains to a remarkable degree its traditional character. An astonishing array of historic architecture survives throughout the county, including a unique concentration of eighteenth-century patterned-brick buildings, in which darkhued brick were used to create designs on the exterior walls. One early example, the Abel and Mary Nicholson House (), Elsinboro, was declared a National Historic Landmark in , the first such designation in the county. Two National Register Historic Districts are also to be found in Salem City. State, county, and religious organizations maintain a number of historic sites throughout the county, which serves as the southern anchor of the New Jersey Coastal Heritage Trail. Perhaps most notable, however, is the large number of residents who can trace their family histories here a century and more, including many descendents of the original seventeenth-century European and African settlers. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, with a median family income of $,. The county consists of fifteen municipalities: Alloway, Carneys Point, Elmer, Elsinboro, Lower Alloways Creek, Mannington, Oldmans, Penns Grove, Pennsville, Pilesgrove, Pittsgrove, Quinton, Salem City, Upper Pittsgrove, and Woodstown. Quaker founder John Fenwick boasted in  that Salem County was a “terrestrial Canaan, where the land floweth with milk and honey.’’ Three centuries later, the county remains a land rich in history and scenic beauty and one of the Northeast’s most unspoiled rural areas.

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Harrison, Charles. Salem County: A Story of People. Norfolk, VA: Donning, . Harper, Robert W. John Fenwick and Salem County in the Province of West Jersey, –. Salem: Salem County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Johnson, Robert G. An Historical Account of the First Settlement of Salem in West Jersey. Philadelphia: Orrin Rogers, . Sickler, Joseph S. The History of Salem County, New Jersey. Salem: Sunbeam Publishing, .

James Turk

Salem County Historical Society. Founded in , the society is one of the oldest historical organizations in southern New Jersey. It maintains extraordinarily rich archival and museum collections focusing on the history of Salem County. This historic complex consists of the Alexander Grant House (), the Rumsey Wing (c. ), the John Jones Law Office (c. ), a reconstructed log cabin (c. ), and a stone barn (). The society also owns the Eakin House and Law Office () nearby on Market Street. The research library and museum, which are open to the public six days a week, year round, feature permanent and changing exhibitions and programs.

James Turk

Salisbury, Rollin D.

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Geologist. Rollin D. Salisbury

was born in Spring Prairie, Wisconsin, to Daniel and Lucinda (Bryant) Salisbury, farmers. He graduated from Beloit College in , worked as a glacial geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey, and returned to Beloit in . He took a position at the University of Wisconsin in  and then left for the newly created University of Chicago in . He remained at Chicago until his death in . In , New Jersey State Geologist John Smock, aware of Salisbury’s glacial studies in Wisconsin, hired him to survey the Pleistocene deposits of New Jersey. Salisbury, assisted by his students Henry B. Kummel, Charles E. Peet, and George N. Knapp, completed this work during the summers between  and . The results were published in three New Jersey Geological Survey reports: The Physical Geography of New Jersey (), The Glacial Geology of New Jersey (), and The Quaternary Formations of Southern New Jersey (). Some of the best survey works of their time, these reports remain valuable today. Among their accomplishments were the recognition of pre-Wisconsinan glacial deposits and the definition and mapping of the Bridgeton, Pennsauken, and Cape May formations of southern New Jersey. Chamberlain, Rollin T. “Memorial of Rollin D. Salisbury.’’ Bulletin of the Geological Society of America  (): –.

See also geology

Scott D. Stanford

Salsbury, Nathan

(b. ; d. Dec. ,

). Actor and theatrical manager. Born in

Nate Salsbury.

Courtesy Buffalo Bill Museum and Grave, Lookout Mountain, Golden, CO. Freeport, Illinois, in , Nate Salsbury joined the Union Army at the age of sixteen and entertained the troops by singing and dancing. After the Civil War, he secured a theatrical job at the Boston Museum. He started a stock company known as The Troubadours and wrote successful comedies for his troupe including The Brook. In , Salsbury met showman William F. “Buffalo Bill’’ Cody and soon became Cody’s business partner and the skillful manager of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show. Salsbury hired sharpshooter Annie Oakley and Chief Sitting Bull and arranged European tours for the popular exhibition. In , Salsbury married actress Rachel Samuels. The couple lived on Liberty Street, Long Branch, with their four children—Nate Jr., Milton, and twins Rebecca and Rachel. Salsbury invested in local real estate and was active in civic affairs. In , he built nine luxurious oceanfront cottages known as The Reservation (because they were named for Native American tribes) at North Long Branch. All the houses but one were razed in the s and the thirty-three-acre site became Seven Presidents Oceanfront Park, part of the Monmouth County Park System. Salsbury died in Long Branch at his Liberty Street home.

Karen L. Schnitzspahn

salt hay.

Spartina patens is a dominant plant in many New Jersey salt marshes. Early settlers along the shore quickly learned to harvest this grass, which required no cultivation, could be cut several times a year, and was reasonably good cattle feed. Salt hay also found use as packing material, insulation, stable bedding, and mulch, and attempts were made to use it as a raw material for papermaking. Harvesting required special equipment, including mud shoes for the horses

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saltwater taffy in Rutherford, Teaneck, and Madison and an overseas campus, Wroxton College in England. The school also opened a College of Dental Medicine and began offering a master’s degree in business administration. Sammartino also founded the Restore Ellis Island Committee and the International Association of University Professors (IAUP), serving as president of the latter. A prolific author, he wrote over two dozen books, including an autobiography, Of Colleges and Kings (), and The Man Who Was William Shakespeare (). Fairleigh Dickinson’s School of Education bears his name. Marchione, Margherita. Peter and Sally Sammartino: Biographical Notes. New York: Cornwall Books, . Sammartino, Peter. Of Colleges and Kings: The Autobiography of Peter Sammartino. New York: Cornwall Books, .

See also Fairleigh Dickinson University

John Paul Hill Fralinger’s was a typical saltwater taffy emporium found along the Boardwalk in Atlantic City, c. .

From Greetings from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike.

in early times and oversized balloon tires or wide treads on mechanical equipment in more recent times. By the end of the twentieth century, synthetic materials replaced salt hay for most of its uses, and commercial production greatly declined. Moonsamy, Rita Zorn, David Cohen, and Lorrainne Williams, eds. Pineland Folklife. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wilson, Harold F. The Jersey Shore: A Social and Economic History of the Counties of Atlantic, Cape May, and Ocean. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Karl Anderson

saltwater taffy. A chewy candy best known as a traditional souvenir of the New Jersey Shore, saltwater taffy does not contain ocean water. But several versions of a popular legend attribute the origin of its name to Atlantic City boardwalk shop owner David Bradley, whose taffy supply was saturated during a storm in the early s. Two famous Atlantic City saltwater taffy companies, Fralinger’s (founded in ) and James’ (established in ), are still in business. The taffy, once pulled by hand and later by machine, is available in a variety of flavors, individually wrapped in small pieces, and is shipped worldwide. See also Jersey Shore Karen L. Schnitzspahn

Samaras, Lucas (b. Sept. , ).

Artist. In the late s, Lucas Samaras was a student of Allan Kaprow at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, where he found an art environment that encouraged the exploration of radical ways of making art. Following Kaprow’s lead, Samaras, while at Rutgers and shortly thereafter at his home in West New York, created innovative works: figure sculpture out

of rags and plaster; assemblages of eating utensils, plates, and glasses; and boxes filled with tacks, colored yarn, feathers, and mirrors. Samaras used these materials to evoke states of mind and physical conditions (the work had a strong self-referential quality that addressed his own emotional and physical condition), anticipating the artists of the s who explored similar themes and made this a major preoccupation for the s and s. Samaras also studied acting and was a key performer in Kaprow’s Happenings and the Theater Pieces of Robert Whitman, a fellow student a Rutgers. Samaras currently lives and works in New York City. Lifson, Ben. Samaras: The Photographs of Lucas Samaras. New York: Aperture Foundation, . Lucas Samaras: Objects and Subjects, –. New York: Abbeville Press, . Marten, Joan M. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also assemblage art; performance art

Joseph Jacobs

Sammartino, Peter

(b. Aug. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Author, educator, and uni-

versity president. New York City native Peter Sammartino was the son of Guy and Eva (Amendola) Sammartino. A  Ph.D. graduate of New York University, he married Sylvia (Sally) Scaramelli on December , . Aspiring to provide quality education to area students unable to afford travel to faraway colleges, Sammartino in  helped found Fairleigh Dickinson College (now Fairleigh Dickinson University) in Rutherford. Sammartino became the college’s first president, a position he held for nearly a quarter century. During his tenure, the school expanded from a small, two-year college into a four-year institution with in-state campuses

Sand Hill Delaware.

Among the several contemporary ethnic groups in New Jersey said to descend from Native Americans are the people of the Sand Hill Band of Lenape. James Revey published the only known recollections of the Sand Hill group in , describing them as native descent people living in the Asbury Park area; in  they moved a few miles inland to an area “near Indian Hill in what was then called Whitesville.’’ By about , this community had dispersed, but members continued to gather for summer pow-wows until . A chief and four-man council survived until . See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Sandoz. Founded in Basel, Switzerland, in  as a chemical company making textile dyes, Sandoz started producing pharmaceuticals in , and set up a research department in . Its first U.S. subsidiary, Sandoz Chemical Works, began operation in New York in . Sandoz introduced the antipsychotic drug Mellaril (thioridazine) in , and initiated large-scale production of antibiotics in . In  Sandoz developed a research center in East Hanover, its first outside Switzerland. Within a few years, the company moved into dietetics, acquiring the Gerber baby food company in . In  Sandoz merged with Ciba-Geigy to create Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation. Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, .

See also Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation; pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Sandy Hook.

Sandy Hook is a worldfamous coastal feature that forms the Atlantic shoreline of northern Monmouth County. It is a barrier spit that extends for . miles from

Sandy Hook Pilots

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artillery fire. The lighthouse passed to federal ownership in . Once located five hundred feet from the tip of the Hook, land accretions lengthened that distance to about . miles, requiring the erection of a north beacon in ; a west beacon on the Hook’s river side was also built then. Both were later dismantled. The lighthouse, lit by a variety of illuminants, was electrified, first briefly in  and then permanently in the s; it was fitted with a third-order Fresnel lens in . Although Sandy Hook is still lit twenty-four hours a day, the Ambrose Light Tower, located . miles off the east coast of Sandy Hook, provides the main light to the harbor. The lighthouse was designated a National Historic Landmark in . Bachand, Robert G. Northeast Lights: Lighthouses and Lightships, Rhode Island to Cape May, New Jersey. Norwalk, CT: Sea Sports Publications, . Holland, F. Ross. America’s Lighthouses: An Illustrated History. . Reprint. New York: Dover Publications, .

See also lighthouses

Randall Gabrielan

Sandy Hook Pilots. An organization of

The map reads: “A chart of Sandy Hook Bar, the entrance of Hudson’s River. Showing the position of the British fleet, under the command of Admiral Lord How[e], and the works erected at Sandy Hook for the defense of the light house under the command of General Charles O’Hara, July , .’’

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Long Branch, through Monmouth Beach and Sea Bright into Raritan Bay. Over the centuries, numerous inlets have opened and closed in various portions of the barrier. Sandy Hook has been an island, or attached to the mainland at The Highlands or at Long Branch. Following a major storm in , a rock seawall was constructed over the next thirty years along the southern portion of the spit for seven miles to protect an existing railroad bed and to deter further changes. The northern six miles of Sandy Hook is federally owned, managed by the National Park Service as part of Gateway National Recreation Area. Overseen by the park service are the Fort Hancock and Sandy Hook Proving Ground National Historic Landmark, the largest maritime forest remaining on the East Coast, the oldest continuously operating lighthouse in the United States, and a bathing beach that accommodates over two million visitors per year. Moss, George H. Another Look at Nauvoo to the Hook. Sea Bright: Ploughshare Press, .

Psuty, Norbert P., and Douglas D. Ofiara. Coastal Hazard Management: Lessons and Future Directions from New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

professional mariners who guide oceangoing vessels in and out of New York Harbor, Sandy Hook Pilots are trained for fifteen years and must combine knowledge of the harbor with ship-handling skills. Pilots board and leave vessels on the seas off Sandy Hook. Because of strong tidal currents and sandbars, pilots have been required for the port of New York since . For the next two hundred years, pilots were licensed but not organized into one body. The wreck of several pilot boats in an  storm forced the pilots to combine resources, and the present organization was born. Albion, Robert. The Rise of the Port of New York. New York: Scribner’s, . Bunker, John. Harbor and Haven: An Illustrated History of the Port of New York. Woodland Hills, CA: Windsor Publications, .

Kevin Olsen

See also coast; geography

Norbert P. Psuty

Sandy Hook Lighthouse.

A -foot navigational aid on the barrier beach in Middletown Township on the Atlantic Ocean, the Sandy Hook Lighthouse is the nation’s oldest operating lighthouse, completed in . Its construction was authorized by the New York assembly because shipowners had been incurring heavy losses in the treacherous waters approaching New York Harbor. The building by Isaac Conro of the octagonal brick structure was financed by two lotteries; maintenance was paid through a tax on incoming shipping. The British stationed Loyalist forces at Sandy Hook throughout the Revolution for protection. Patriot forces tried unsuccessfully on June , , to destroy the lighthouse with

Insignia of the Sandy Hook Pilots.

Courtesy United New Jersey Sandy Hook Pilots.

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Sandyston

Sandyston.

.-square-mile township in western Sussex County. Sandyston was set off from Walpack Township in . Bounded by the Delaware River on the west and Kittatinny Ridge on the east, it is somewhat geographically isolated. Settlement along the fertile Delaware Valley occurred by the early eighteenth century. Much of the township is occupied by public open space, notably the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area on the west and Stokes State Forest on the east. The Big Flatbrook, one of the state’s most important trout streams, flows south through the township. Located in Stokes State Forest is the New Jersey School of Conservation, operated by Montclair State University. Peter’s Valley, a historic village in Delaware Water Gap NRA, has been preserved and is a noted arts and crafts center. The historic Dingman’s Ferry Bridge, spanning the Delaware here, is one of the last privately operated toll bridges in the northeast. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income () was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

sanitary ware industry.

The New Jersey and U.S. sanitary ware industry were both born in Trenton in  when Thomas Maddock joined Millington and Astbury Company and began making toilets, tubs, sinks, and other bathroom and kitchen appliances for a growing indoor plumbing market. The city claimed seven of the nation’s eight sanitary potteries by , and  saw the industry’s first merger as the Trenton Potteries Company (Tepeco) united five firms. By , New Jersey sanitary potteries employed thousands of workers as new shops entered the field. Price competition reigned until  when, led by Tepeco president John Campbell, the nation’s sanitary potters formed the Sanitary Potters’ Association. This organization acted as a virtual cartel, setting prices, dividing markets, and restricting sales to wholesalers and jobbers. Technological innovation occurred during the early s at the same time the federal government broke the employers’ cartel through antitrust litigation (–). These changes presaged takeovers by large, vertically integrated plumbing-supply companies like Crane, American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Corporation (later American Standard), and Kohler. Smaller firms failed during the Great Depression and, by , New Jersey claimed only seven of the nation’s forty sanitary potteries. Two of these, Crane and American Standard,

remained in Trenton. The former suffered a terrible fire in  and shut its doors for good in , while the latter closed in December . By June , only the Woodbridge Sanitary Pottery Corporation still manufactured sanitary pottery in New Jersey. Cumbler, John T. A Social History of Economic Decline: Business, Politics, and Work in Trenton. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Maddock, Archibald M. The Polished Earth: A History of the Pottery Plumbing Fixture Industry in the United States. Trenton: Privately published, . Stern, Marc Jeffrey. The Pottery Industry of Trenton: A Skilled Trade in Transition, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also ceramics industry

Marc J. Stern

s, when another downturn hit the industry. The Sayre and Fisher plant finally closed in . While the industrial buildings were razed, remnants of the area’s brickmaking past still remain, including some brick dwellings, formerly company housing; a water tower; and the Sayre and Fisher Reading Room, a brick edifice constructed in  for company recreational use and for showcasing the firm’s ornamental products. Karcher, Joseph T. History of the Sayre & Fisher Brick Co. of Sayreville, N.J., –. Sayreville: N.p., . McCormack, John B. Our Town BicentennialCentennial Album. Sayreville: Sayreville Historical Society, .

See also ceramics industry

Diane Jones Sliney

Save Barnegat Bay.

Founded in , Save Barnegat Bay is a not-for-profit environmental group that works to conserve undeveloped natural land and protect water quality throughout the Barnegat Bay watershed. It is a local chapter of the Izaak Walton League of America, a national organization whose major goals are the protection and sustainable use of natural resources and the guarantee of a high quality of life for people of all generations. Save Barnegat Bay’s efforts to protect natural land take two basic forms: first, scrutinizing development proposals on the local and state level; and second, working with local, state, and national organizations and governmental agencies to purchase environmentally sensitive land in order to convey it to public ownership as permanently protected natural open space with public access provided.

John A. Tiedemann

Sayre and Fisher Brick Company. Established around  by Joseph R. Sayre, Jr., and Peter Fisher in a village then known as Wood’s Landing, the Sayre and Fisher Company became in time one of the country’s leading manufacturers of fire brick, enamel brick, and ordinary building brick. In  the region was renamed Sayreville, after the company’s cofounder, and incorporated as an independent township in Middlesex County. The brickworks, which provided employment for a large proportion of area residents, also included a power plant, a granary, a bakery, a slaughterhouse, a coal yard, an ice plant, a general store, a machine shop, and a blacksmith shop, as well as company housing. By  Sayre and Fisher, which had acquired a number of neighboring brickmaking factories, was operating a facility extending two miles along the Raritan River. It included thirteen separate yards with a production capacity of  million bricks per year; by  production capacity had increased to  million bricks per year. Brick manufacturing suffered a marked decline in the s, then rebounded as the country pulled out of the Depression and remained profitable through the

Sayreville. -square-mile borough in Middlesex County. The borough of Sayreville is situated on the south bank of the Raritan River connected by three bridges to the north bank of the river. Originally part of South Amboy, Sayreville started life as a township around  and became a borough in . The area was noted for its fertile farms and its fine fishing. The Sayre and Fisher Brickworks, now defunct, was its principal industry. Large industries located in Sayreville included Hercules Powder and DuPont. During World War I munitions makers came to the Parlin and Morgan sections of Sayreville to set up plants. On October , , blasts at the T. A. Gillespie shell-loading plant lasted fourteen hours, terrified people for thirty miles, broke local windows, killed  people, and cost $ million. Even in , the Army Corps of Engineers continues digging remnants of the blast from the soil in Sayreville; some believe the explosions were an act of sabotage. Sayreville has grown from a small bluecollar town to a large blue- and white-collar borough in the last twenty years. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Karcher, Joseph T. A Municipal History of the Township of Sayreville,  to . Boston: Meador Publishing, . ———. A Municipal History of the Township of Sayreville,  to . Boston: Meador Publishing, . McCormack, John B. Our Town BicentennialCentennial Album. Sayreville: Sayreville Historical Society, . Our Town: Borough of Sayreville. Sayreville: League of Women Voters, .

Sylvia Borsuk

Schering-Plough

Corporation.

First established in the United States in  to distribute the pharmaceutical products of Schering AG, a German firm, Schering was dissolved during World War I. The company reestablished itself in New York City in , incorporated in Madison, New Jersey, in

school desegregation , and became a leader in the synthesis of steroid drugs. Schering was nationalized by the U.S. government during World War II and never returned to affiliation with Schering AG. The popular antihistamine Chlor-Trimeton, introduced shortly after the war, enhanced Schering’s profits. In , a group headed by Merrill Lynch acquired Schering, which increased its financial success with the  release of two new corticosteroids, Meticorten (prednisone) and Meticortelone. In  Schering introduced the antibiotic Garamycin (gentamicin). Abe Plough began his career in the early s in Memphis, Tennessee, as a peddler of home-manufactured cure-alls. With the purchase of the St. Joseph Company of Chattanooga in , Plough brought children’s aspirin into his inventory. In the s, well before the widespread promulgation of safety regulations, Plough required childproof caps placed on his product. In  Plough, Inc., merged with Schering, bringing DiGel, Coppertone sun care products, and the Maybelline cosmetics line into the Schering-Plough Corporation. The new company acquired Scholl, Inc., manufacturers of Dr. Scholl’s foot-care products. Other wellreceived over-the-counter Schering-Plough products include a number of cold, flu, sinus, and allergy medications, such as Afrin, Coricidin, and Drixoral. Most of the company’s sales come from prescription pharmaceuticals such as the Claritin (loratadine) antihistamine line, Proventil (albuterol) for asthma, and the anticancer/antiviral drug Intron A (interferon alfa-b, recombinant), used in the treatment of various diseases including malignant melanoma and hairy cell leukemia. Starting in , Schering-Plough made an increasing commitment to biotechnological research, acquiring a share in Biogen, a Swiss firm. The company later bought two California biotechnology companies, DNAX Research Institute and Canji. In  ScheringPlough built a new research facility in Kenilworth, also the location of the company’s worldwide headquarters. See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Schirra, Walter Marty, Jr.

(b. Mar.

, ). Astronaut. Wally Schirra was born in

Hackensack and attended junior high school in Oradell and Dwight Morrow High School in Englewood, where he was an outstanding student and athlete. He studied for a year at Newark College of Engineering and graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in . Schirra flew ninety combat missions during the Korean War and shot down two MiG fighter jets. His father had been a fighter pilot in World War I, his mother a stunt aviator. After his combat service Schirra became a navy test pilot and helped develop the Sidewinder missile before becoming one of

America’s seven original astronauts in  and laying the foundation for the historic Moon landing a decade later. He rocketed into space in , orbited the Earth again in , and three years later became the only one of the original group to fly in all three pioneering programs—Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. He produced the first U.S. telecast from space, took part in the initial rendezvous of two spacecraft, and was command pilot for the eleven-day Apollo  mission that cleared a path for the Moon flight of . Schirra founded a consulting company in  in California, where he and his wife, the former Josephine Cook Fraser, reside. They were married in . Baker, David. The History of Manned Space Flight. New York: Crown, . Zimmerman, Robert. Genesis: The Story of Apollo : The First Manned Flight to Another World. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, .

Edward A. Jardim

Schnitzler, William F.

(b. Jan. , ;

d. June , ).

Labor leader. William F. Schnitzler was born in Newark, and his first job was working on a peddler’s wagon. During World War I he worked in an ammunition factory before becoming a metal polisher during the s. When that firm closed, he became an apprentice baker with the Peerless Baking Company of Newark, where he joined Local  of the Baker and Confectionery Workers International Union of America. Schnitzler was elected the union business agent in  and general secretary-treasurer in . In , he replaced retiring president Herman Winter as head of the union and was elected to a full five-year term the next year. He succeeded George Meany as secretarytreasurer of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) when Meany became president of that organization in . Schnitzler was a prominent member of the committee that negotiated the merger of the AFL and the CIO in . He chaired a committee organized in  to investigate discrimination against minorities in unions and promised to “bust’’ racial discrimination. In , Schnitzler retired from the AFL-CIO. He was living in Lewes, Delaware, at the time of his death in . See also labor movement

David A. Norris

school desegregation. According to the National Center of Education Statistics, New Jersey’s schools are among the most segregated in the nation. As of school year –, . percent of black students and . percent of Latino students attended schools that were  percent minority. Only Michigan, Illinois, and New York had higher percentages for black students and New York, Texas, and California for Hispanic students. These attendance disparities do not necessarily result from intentional school

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segregation. Rather, they result from racial disparity in the state’s residential living patterns. Further, many of the state’s more than six hundred school districts are small, and the relatively modest-sized districts tend to be substantially white or black. The school districts reflect the disparate racial living patterns of their communities. As a result, while the state’s population as a whole grows more diverse, its pattern of school attendance reflects racial separation. Such segregated patterns, as exist in New Jersey, have been termed de facto segregation, that is, segregation that results from geographical conditions rather than legal intention. The state does, however, have a history of de jure, or legalized, segregation, notwithstanding an  statute that prohibited excluding children from any public school on the grounds of race. For example, an  case involved the city of Burlington, which at that time operated four public schools, one of which was designated for “colored’’ children only and the others exclusively for white children. It was acknowledged at the state’s  constitutional convention that in southern New Jersey, some of which lies below the latitude of the Mason-Dixon line, legalized school segregation existed through the s. The  constitution, which contains strong antisegregation language, and the school laws reflect a policy that has been interpreted by state courts to go beyond those required by the federal Constitution. Thus, in a few situations, state courts have ordered desegregation remedies that would not have been required under federal constitutional law. Most remarkably, the state supreme court in  ordered regionalization of the Morristown and Morris Township school districts in order to avoid racial concentration in the Morristown schools. The case arose when Morris Township sought to withdraw its students from Morristown High School and form its own high school, which would have been predominately white. However, the Morristown case has proved unique. In other situations involving withdrawal from sending-receiving relationships, such as the Englewood–Englewood Cliffs case decided in  by the state supreme court, the court has sought other remedies, such as magnet schools, rather than ordering regionalization. Further, in the absence of any sending and receiving relationship between communities, regional school attendance disparities based on racial housing patterns have prevailed. Neither the state’s substantial efforts to equalize school funding through the Abbott v. Burke line of decisions nor its efforts to promote affordable housing opportunities in suburban jurisdictions through the Mount Laurel cases have yet resulted in the amelioration of patterns of school segregation. The state has made efforts to integrate individual school districts. Through the year

Schooley’s peneplain

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, approximately sixty districts had desegregation orders based on racial imbalances— again going beyond what the United States Supreme Court would require—in place. However, because the racial composition of many communities is predominantly of one race or the other, even these state initiatives have not significantly altered patterns of racial disparity throughout the state. Board of Education of the Borough of Englewood Cliffs v. Board of Education of the City of Englewood, New Jersey Supreme Court A-- (), affirming New Jersey Superior Court, Appellate Division, vol. , p.  (). Booker v. Board of Education of the City of Plainfield, Supreme Court of New Jersey, vol. , p.  (). Jenkins v. Township of Morris School District, Supreme Court of New Jersey, vol. , p.  (). “N.J. School Segregation Grows Worse.’’ The StarLedger, July , , , . Pierce v. Union District School Trustees, New Jersey Supreme Court, New Jersey Law Reports, vol. , p.  (), affirmed, by the Court of Errors and Appeals in vol. , p.  ().

See also discrimination; education

Peter A. Buchsbaum

Schooley’s peneplain.

A peneplain is a land surface of slight relief that occurs in the late stages of landmass denudation, following millions of years of erosional activity. The plateau-like summits of Schooley’s Mountain, Kittatinny Mountain, the Hunterdon Plateau, the Watchungs, Sourland Mountain, and the Palisades represent remnants of an ancient landscape that has since become eroded. The largest remnant of this nearly horizontal summit level is on top of Schooley’s Mountain in northwestern New Jersey; the surface is called Schooley’s peneplain. This cycle of peneplanation was developed on an older erosion surface called the Fall Zone peneplain.

Schuberth, Christopher J. The Geology of New York City and Environs. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, . Strahler, Alan H., and Arthur N. Strahler. Physical Geography. New York: Wiley, . Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

KITTATINNY MOUNTAIN

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SCHOOLEY'S PENEPLAIN

SCHOOLEY'S MOUNTAIN

WATCHUNGS SOURLAND MOUNTAIN HUNTERDON PLATEAU

0

10

miles © Rutgers, The State University

Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; geology

Robert M. Hordon

school funding. The funding of public education in New Jersey has a long and controversial history. The state was slow to establish a source of funds to educate its children, not providing real state responsibility and aid until the s. Then it provided for the “thorough and efficient’’ education of children between “the ages of five and eighteen’’ in free public schools. The same wording was later included in the  state constitution. Most of the money for education, however, came from local real estate taxes, and went to the many school districts in the state (there are currently  districts). While it was long clear that this led to increasing differences in funding between wealthy (often suburban) and poor (largely urban) districts, little was done to rectify the situation until the s. At that time, the New Jersey State Supreme Court, in Robinson v. Cahill (), ruled that near total reliance on property taxes was both unconstitutional and unfair because it ended up being unequal. After the court insisted on change, the legislature in  enacted a gross income tax so that the state could increase its contribution to the costs of local public schools and reduce the disparities in resources available to finance education among local school districts. The result was an increase in state contributions to education, but not the elimination of all differences between wealthy and poor districts. These remaining differences reflect regional costs of living, community preferences, efficiency in services, and quality of education as well as variation in the available tax base. The state supreme court, in a series of Abbott case decisions from  to the present, has repeatedly returned to the issue of an educational funding that is neither “thorough and efficient’’ nor equal, without totally resolving it. Since the s, school funding has also been impacted by new state laws requiring funding for special education, bilingual education, vocational education, at-risk pupils, transportation, and teacher retirement (pensions), in addition to basic instruction. Also in the recent Abbott decisions the court has extended the age of children covered by the “thorough and efficient’’ definition to threeand four-year-olds in disadvantaged (poorer) Abbott districts. By  New Jersey schools were funded by local taxes ( percent), state aid ( percent), and federal aid ( percent). Total state aid in  was $. billion for basic education, with total funds for local education coming to nearly one-third of the state’s budget. Despite the increase in state spending since the s, school spending is by far the largest component of local property taxes, and New

Jersey still depends more on property taxes than other states. In , $ billion was spent to educate the approximately . million public school pupils in New Jersey, with per pupil spending the highest in the nation but varying between districts. At the same time, while the state has very poor districts (Camden is ranked as the fifth poorest city in the country with  percent of its population living in poverty), according to the  census New Jersey is the wealthiest state in the nation. The state has yet to come up with a perfect plan for school funding that reconciles all of its differences with the needs of the children in its public schools. Firestone, W.A., M. E. Goertz, and G. Natriello. The Struggle for Fiscal Reform and Educational Change in New Jersey: From Cashbox to Classroom. New York: Teachers College Press, . Reock, Ernest C., Jr. State Aid for Schools in New Jersey: –. d ed. New Brunswick: Center for Government Services, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, .  New Jersey Legislative District Data Book. New Brunswick: Center for Government Services, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, .

See also education

Henry A. Coleman

school laws.

Responding to the increase in the size and diversity of New Jersey’s schoolage population, the legislature in  passed several school laws that changed aspects of the state’s existing ways of funding its educational system. Legislation adopted in that year enabled towns to raise funds for school costs not covered by the state school tax, and ensured that state school funds were to be used exclusively for educational purposes. The laws also provided state funding for teacher education institutions, a state vocational school for girls, and a state reform school. Cities were authorized to borrow money to cover teacher salaries. State matching funds were provided for the establishment of vocational schools. Perhaps the most important legislation in  was a law sponsored by Sen. James C. Youngblood of Morristown to end the exclusion of children from public schools because of religion, nationality, or color. This law resulted in the desegregation of schools in the northern counties of the state. The law did not prohibit the establishment of separate schools, however, which enabled segregation to continue in the southern part of the state. Many members of the black community in South Jersey felt that the establishment of separate schools was preferable to having their children attend integrated schools where they would encounter hostility. See also education; educational equity

Harriet Sepinwall

schooner. A schooner is a type of foreand-aft rigged sailing vessel. The sails are supported at the top edge by a spar known as the gaff and usually along their lower edge by a spar called the boom. Gaff and boom are attached to the masts at their ends so that

Schultz, Dutch at rest they are parallel to the hull’s centerline. The forward end of the gaff is lower than the rear so the sail’s leading and tailing edges are parallel but the top and bottom edges are not. Schooners had between two and seven masts although were rarely built with more than four. There are many variations on this basic sail plan. Hulls differed with use: deeper for the open ocean, shallower with flatter bottoms for inshore work, and scow-shaped for rivers and bays. The schooner’s sail plan made it highly maneuverable so that it was principally used as a coastal freight carrier or fishing vessel. Few were transoceanic transports, although many operated in the Caribbean. Before , percent of all vessels built in New Jersey were single-masted sloops. The schooner became more popular with demands for greater capacity. During the s almost all New Jersey schooners had two masts. Data on northern New Jersey schooners show that they ranged from  to  feet long and  to  tons burden. They usually had six-man crews. Shipyards along Dennis Creek in Cape May County built many large schooners in the s and early s, while schooners with up to five masts were built on the Maurice River. There were two schooner types unique to New Jersey: the periagua and the Delaware Bay dredgeboat. The periagua appeared in the New York Harbor region in the mid-s and had disappeared by the mid-s. It used a modified cat rig (no sails carried ahead of the forward mast), flat-bottomed usually scow-shaped hulls, and leeboards instead of a deep keel. In the s, periaguas were about  feet long; by the mid-s some were up to  feet long. Built between  and , over five hundred Delaware Bay dredgeboats were used in the oyster fishery. The largest was  feet long, although most were  to  feet long. The Delaware Bay boats differ from similar vessels on the Chesapeake by their deeper hulls—better suited to less sheltered water. A topmast and triangular topsail on the mainmast characterized the “old boats.’’ The last of these was launched in . The “new boats’’ lacked topsails and generally had spoon-shaped bows. As internal combustion technology improved and regulations demanding oysters be dredged only under sail were relaxed, the sailing rigs were relegated first to auxiliary, then to backup, status and finally removed in the s. Commercial schooners largely disappeared from New Jersey by . Four Delaware dredgeboats survive as passenger vessels and another forty work the fishery as motor vessels. The A. J. Meerwald, launched in , has been restored by the Delaware Bay Schooner Project and sails as a floating classroom. Levitt, James H. For Want of Trade: Shipping and the New Jersey Ports,  to . Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Olsen, Kevin K. A Great Conveniency: A Maritime History of the Hackensack River, Passaic River, and

Newark Bay. Ringwood: North Jersey Highlands Historical Society, . Rolfs, Donald H. Under Sail: The Dredgeboats of Delaware Bay. Wheaton: Wheaton Historical Association, .

See also boats

721

Society, American Ethnological Society, and the New York Academy of Sciences. Schrabisch, Max. Archaeology of Warren and Hunterdon Counties. Trenton: New Jersey Division of Geology, .

Kevin Olsen

———. Indian Habitations in Sussex County, New Jersey. Trenton: Geological Society of New Jersey, .

Schrabisch, Max (b. Mar. , ; d. Oct. ,

Veit, Richard. Digging New Jersey’s Past: Historical Archaeology in the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

). Archaeologist and writer. Max Schrabisch was born in Stettin (Pomern), Germany, to Julius Schrabisch and Emma Meinert Schrabisch. He was educated in Berlin at the Royal Real Gymnasium, the Royal Conservatory of Music, and the University of Berlin. In , at the age of twenty-one, he immigrated to the United States and arrived in Hoboken. Between  and  he was a private secretary to Gen. Carl Schurz. Schrabisch taught music and authored numerous books, articles, and essays concerning political and social issues. From  through , he was a writer for the Paterson Morning Call. It is not known what sparked his interest in archaeology, but between  and  he located and documented hundreds of prehistoric sites in northern New Jersey, southern New York, and northwestern Pennsylvania. By today’s standards, Schrabisch’s excavation techniques were primitive, but his Indian Site Survey volumes, published by the New Jersey Geological Survey, are still basic reference tools. Schrabisch was a member of the American Eugenics Society, American Anthropological Society, Passaic County Historical

See also archaeology

Anthony P. DeCondo, Sr.

Schreyvogel, Charles

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Jan. , ). Painter, sculptor, and lithog-

rapher. Charles Schreyvogel was the second of three sons born to German immigrant shopkeepers, Paul and Teresa Erbe Schreyvogel, in New York City. During the artist’s childhood the family moved to Hoboken, where he lived and worked for most of his life. As a young man, Schreyvogel tried several professions, but by  settled on lithography and art teaching. In , he traveled to Europe for three years and studied at the Munich Art Academy with Carl Marr and Frank Kirchbach. Ironically, Schreyvogel’s interest in depictions of the American frontier originated during his stay in Europe. After returning to the United States, in  he made the first of many extended trips West. During the s, however, he sold very few Western paintings and relied upon portrait and miniature painting to support himself and his wife, Louise Walther. Success, when it came, arrived virtually overnight. Schreyvogel’s exhibition of My Bunkie () at New York’s National Academy of Design in  generated national recognition. Despite criticism by America’s premier Western artist, Frederic Remington, Schreyvogel enjoyed consistent popularity during the early twentieth century. After Remington’s death in , Schreyvogel became known as the greatest living painter of the American West, a reputation that was cut short by his early death in . Horan, James David. The Life and Art of Charles Schreyvogel. New York: Crown, . Taft, Robert. Artists and Illustrators of the Old West, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also art

Mark D. Mitchell

Schultz, Dutch

(b. Aug. , ; d. Oct. ,

). Gangster. Dutch Schultz’s real name was

Max Schrabisch at Bear Rock near Boonton, .

Photo: Albert H. Heusser. Courtesy Albert H. Heusser Collection, Passaic County Historical Society, Paterson.

Arthur Flegenheimer. He grew up in the Bronx, where his reputation for toughness earned him the nickname Dutch Schultz after a legendary neighborhood gang leader. By the time he was thirty, Schultz had become a major figure in New York City bootlegging, the numbers racket, and corrupt labor unions—an empire tied together by his willingness to inflict pain and death on those who stood in his way. When the authorities in New York bore down

722

Schuyler-Hamilton House

John Watson (attributed), Arent Schuyler, n.d. Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

Courtesy New-York Historical Society. Negative number 57109, Accession number 1979.75.

Schuyler Mine.

Charles Schreyvogel in his Hoboken studio c. .

Courtesy Archie Carothers, Charles Schreyvogel Collection, A.100.36. Donald C. and Elizabeth M. Dickinson Research Center, National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum, Oklahoma City, OK.

on Schultz, he switched his base of operations to Newark. On the evening of October , , the gangster and three members of his mob were eating dinner and discussing their plans in the Palace Chop House on East Park Street in downtown Newark, when two gunmen burst through the door and began shooting. Police called to the scene found that Schultz and his men had all been shot and that the gunmen had escaped. The four wounded men were taken by ambulance to Newark City Hospital, where one by one they died, with Schultz passing away at : p.m. the next evening. After the Saint Valentine’s Day massacre in Chicago, it was the largest gangland killing of that era. The two hitmen were later apprehended. One died in the electric chair, and the other served twenty-three years in New Jersey prisons. It has been theorized that they acted on the orders of organized crime leaders who wanted Schultz removed. The legend of the Dutchman oulived him. Before he died, Schultz began speaking in a feverish delerium, and police stationed a stenographer at his bedside to take down his words in case they might constitute evidence. The transcript contains strange phrases like “a boy has never wept, nor dashed a thousand kim.’’ This stream-of-consciousness prose appealed to the avant-garde. The writer William S. Burroughs did an experimental work entitled The Last Words of Dutch Schultz. The character of Dutch Schultz has appeared in Hollywood movies, on television, and in

fiction. In these works his violent death has often been depicted as taking place in New York City. Mappen, Marc. Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Sann, Paul. Kill the Dutchman! The Story of Dutch Schultz. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, .

See also murders; organized crime

Marc Mappen

Schuyler-Hamilton

House. Dr. Jabez Campfield, Revolutionary War surgeon and New Jersey militia officer, bought this house in Morristown in . During the winter of –, Dr. Campfield and his wife hosted Dr. John Cochrane, chief physician and surgeon of the Continental Army, and his wife, the sister of Gen. Philip Schuyler of Albany, New York. It was in the Campfield house that Dr. Cochrane’s wife’s niece, Elizabeth Schuyler, was courted by Alexander Hamilton, who was billeted at the nearby Ford Mansion, which served as Gen. George Washington’s headquarters. Campfield’s house was purchased and restored in  by the Morristown chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution, who renamed it the SchuylerHamilton House and use it as their chapter house and museum.

Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail for Families and History Buffs. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Around  Arent Schuyler, son of a wealthy Albany, New York, family, established one of the earliest colonial copper-mining operations on the western fringe of the Hackensack Meadows. Situated four miles northeast of present-day Newark’s Broad and Market streets, the mine, also known as the Arlington, Belleville, or Victoria mine, was operated by Schuyler’s slaves until the arrival in the s of experienced Welsh and Cornish miners. Under the management of one of these immigrants, Josiah Hornblower, the Schuyler Mine began using steam engines to pump water from deep mine shafts. Extracted ore was ferried across the Hudson River to New York and then shipped to Holland or, after the enforcement of British colonial policies, directly to England. Although idled during the Revolutionary era by accidental fire damage and war, by the s the mine was once again supplying ore to a set of shops and foundries established by new investors. It was here in the s that the first steam engine was manufactured in the United States. Yet the amount of copper ore extracted from the site—never enormous— was greatly depleted by the nineteenth century. Various manufacturing concerns continued to remove what little ore remained up until , when the mine closed permanently.

Weiss, Harry B., and Grace M. Weiss. The Old Copper Mines of New Jersey. Trenton: Past Times Press, . Woodward, Herbert P. Copper Mines and Mining in New Jersey. Trenton: Department of Conservation and Development, State of New Jersey, .

See also copper; mining

McDonald, Forrest. Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton, .

Peter Mickulas

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Schwarzkopf, H. Norman (b. Aug. ,

Marlene Craig

; d. Nov. , ).

Soldier and State

science and technology state service as the administrative director of the Department of Law and Public Safety and was responsible for coordinating and supervising all law enforcement activities for the department. He died at home on November , . Coakley, Leo J. Jersey Troopers: A Fifty-Year History of the New Jersey State Police. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Lindbergh kidnapping case; State Police

Mark W. Falzini

science and technology.

Col. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, the first superintendent of the New Jersey State Police, .

Courtesy New Jersey State Police Museum, Trenton. Police superintendent. Herbert Norman Schwarzkopf was born in Newark and later resided in Lawrenceville and West Orange. A graduate of West Point and veteran of World War I, he was appointed as the first colonel and superintendent of the New Jersey State Police in July . During his tenure as superintendent he directed the investigation of the Lindbergh kidnapping that took place in  and testified at the trial of Bruno Richard Hauptmann. After serving three terms as superintendent, he left the State Police in  and became an executive with the Middlesex Transport Company and also narrated the weekly radio program Gang Busters. Schwarzkopf reenlisted in the military and served in Europe during World War II and in Iran, where he organized the Imperial Iranian Gendarmerie. In  he returned to

The history of science and technology in New Jersey has been greatly influenced by the nature of the state’s geography and geology. The effort to understand and exploit the state’s natural resources dominated much of the early scientific work that took place in New Jersey, and these resources were extremely important in determining the kinds of technology and industry that took root in the state. New Jersey’s position on the Atlantic seaboard, poised between two of the nation’s principal cities, proved equally important as an influence. The Lenape, the Native Americans who populated the region, were skilled farmers and transmitted knowledge of indigenous plants to the European settlers. In time, the fertility of the soil and the ready markets of the nation would earn New Jersey the nickname “The Garden State.’’ The notion of the garden state was enhanced in the s when Peter Hendersen, considered by his contemporaries to be “the father of horticulture and ornamental gardening’’ in the United States, industrialized horticulture, building huge, technologically sophisticated greenhouses. By  he had five acres covered by glass and was producing seeds and plants for suburban gardens. Commercial farming has long been significant in New Jersey, which remains an important producer of fresh market produce. New Jersey’s role in food preservation, an important industry in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, has also been significant. Beginning in the s, southern New Jersey was an early center of canning, and in the s the Campbell Soup Company of Camden grew on the basis of Dr. John T. Dorrance’s invention of condensed soup. Forty years later, the frozen food industry got its start at Seabrook Farms. Though agriculture has given the state its nickname, New Jersey is best known as an industrial state. The rivers and streams in the northern part of the state are well suited to water power, and the first important industrial technology introduced into New Jersey was the watermill, which served a variety of industrial and agricultural purposes. The first new national technological enterprise in New Jersey was the Paterson mills, built in the s in accordance with the vision of Alexander

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Hamilton’s Society for Establishment of Useful Manufactures, to take advantage of the seventy-seven-foot Great Falls of the Passaic River. Newark drew on the power and water supplied by the river to become an important industrial center. By the eve of the Civil War, Newark had a larger percentage of its population engaged in manufacturing (. percent) than any other city in the nation. Its most important nineteenth-century industry was shoemaking, which was advanced by Seth Boyden’s  invention of patent leather; by  Newark manufactured  percent of America’s patent leather. A wide variety of other crafts and industries could be found in Newark and in other nearby cities. Of particular note was the extensive manufacturing enterprise of the Singer Sewing Machine Company, which became the worldwide leader in the industry. Clothing and apparel manufacture were particularly important through much of New Jersey’s history. During the nineteenth century the most important technological enterprise in the state was the iron industry. Although the native inhabitants knew of iron deposits, they seem not to have used the metal themselves. However, iron was a mainstay of European culture, and colonists had built ironworks in the new land as soon as they could. New Jersey, with iron deposits near the surface, had its first forge in  at Tinton Falls (Monmouth County). Iron mining in the Jersey Highlands began shortly after the turn of the eighteenth century and became a major industry within fifty years. However, its success led to deforestation, and by the early nineteenth century the forges were starved for fuel. The Morris Canal brought anthracite coal and an ironmining revival that lasted through most of the century. Miners worked bog-iron deposits in the Pine Barrens, especially after Highland iron production declined in the early nineteenth century, but the arrival of anthracite as fuel doomed the southern mines. Particularly important in the development of the state’s iron industry was Seth Boyden’s process for making malleable iron, which he developed in Newark in . Twenty-two years later he also devised a process for zinc smelting that put New Jersey at the fore of the zinc industry for the rest of the century. Transportation was vital to American industrialization, and the nineteenth century saw the construction of huge transportation projects, notably canals and railroads. The Morris Canal, built to connect the New York metropolitan area with the northern Delaware River, was a marvel not just for its size but for the way boats were cranked up inclined planes to scale the northwestern heights of the state. One of the most important early iron enterprises in northern New Jersey was the Speedwell Iron Works founded by Stephen Vail near Morristown, which contributed to the development of steamship technology. It was also here that Vail’s son Alfred assisted

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Scotch Plains

Samuel Morse in developing the electric telegraph in –. A major use of iron in the nineteenth century was for railroads. This spurred the establishment by Peter Cooper and Abram Hewitt of the Trenton Iron Works in , which remained the industry leader in America until the s. Their success was instrumental in John Roebling’s decision to open his wire-rope works in Trenton a few years later. Roebling’s innovations lay behind the nation’s great suspension bridges as well as the elevators that made skyscrapers possible. The Stevens family—Colonel John and his sons Robert and Edwin—were in the vanguard of inventors and promoters of steam railroads. They imported the famous ten-ton English locomotive John Bull for their venture. Among their many innovations, Robert devised the T-rail design still in use, the spike to hold it, the plates and rivets to join it, and the use of wooden ties with crushed stone for a roadbed. The Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken was founded in  by a bequest in the will of Edwin A. Stevens. Science and technology came to prominence in New Jersey’s higher education during the mid-nineteenth century with Joseph Henry’s tenure at Princeton University, where he was a professor of physics before becoming secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. George H. Cook, a professor of chemistry at Rutgers College, conducted a geological survey of the state. He was subsequently instrumental in Rutgers’s acquisition of federal Morrill Act land-grant funds, and the Rutgers Scientific School was founded in . Scientific agriculture was centered at Rutgers, especially in the agricultural experiment station established in , with George Cook as its first director. Under Jacob Lipman, the school investigated soil microbiology in the early twentieth century. Selman Waksman, discoverer of streptomycin and other antibiotics (a word he coined), followed Lipman as director. Royalties from Waksman’s antibiotics patents enabled Rutgers to establish the Waksman Institute of Microbiology. Waksman’s work and the work of the Institute bolstered the pharmaceutical industry, already well established in the state. Apart from these examples, little significant research took place at New Jersey’s institutions of higher learning in the nineteenth century. Instead, the most important research centers in the state were Thomas Edison’s research and development laboratories in Menlo Park () and West Orange (), which produced many key inventions in sound recording, telephony, and electric light and power, as well as the first motion picture camera and innovations in cement manufacture and battery technology. Edison helped to change invention into industrial research with these laboratories, which were better equipped than any possessed by his contemporaries, including those available to

the American scientific community. Edison’s laboratory became a model for others in the electrical industry, including Newark electrical instrument manufacturer Edward Weston. Edison’s success also helped lay the groundwork for modern industrial research and development by showing how invention itself could be an industrial process and that corporate support for it could produce large benefits. Edison’s laboratories became models for the early research organizations established at corporations such as Bell Telephone and General Electric, which in turn forged a new style of science-based industrial research during the first decades of the twentieth century. Bell Laboratories, which helped to establish a new model for industrial research, dominated advances in telecommunications technology during the second half of the twentieth century. The first laboratory established by the Bell Telephone Company in Boston drew on Edison’s model, but by the s, first in New York and then later in New Jersey, AT&T created a new type of industrial research laboratory in which basic scientific research became the foundation of new communications technology. One consequence of this is that eleven researchers at the laboratory have shared in six Nobel Prizes in physics ranging from the transistor to radio astronomy. Bell scientists and engineers have also been responsible for some of the key innovations in modern communications and electronics, including transistors, lasers, digital transmission and switching, cellular telephone technology, digital signal processing, and the Unix operating system. These contributions are part of a long history of New Jersey innovations in communication. First, Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail invented the instruments and code for telegraphic transmission at Speedwell. Then, at his Newark shops, Thomas Edison developed several telegraph innovations, most notably improved stock tickers and the quadruplex telegraph, which enabled four messages to be sent simultaneously on a single wire. After moving to Menlo Park in , Edison developed the transmitter that made the telephone a practical instrument, while at the same time producing the phonograph, and he also developed the first practical system of incandescent light and power. Later, at his West Orange laboratory he developed improved technology that was crucial to the commercial success of the sound recording industry. His principal rival in the s and early twentieth century was the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden, maker of the first commercial disk records. American motion pictures also began at Edison’s West Orange laboratory in the mid-s. While radio did not originate in New Jersey, it has been an important center in the development of the industry. Guglielmo Marconi transmitted his first news reports from New Jersey, and the first transatlantic

transmission originated in the state as well. David Sarnoff founded the RCA laboratories near Princeton, which played a crucial role in electronics research, including the development of early television and color television, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and electron microscopy. Pharmaceutical innovation has been the other key product of New Jersey industrial research in the twentieth century. Although a significant pharmaceutical industry emerged in New Jersey in the late nineteenth century, science-based research was very limited until the s. The first significant laboratory was probably the one established by Squibb in  in New Brunswick, which expanded significantly during World War I. Another early laboratory was the Takamine Laboratory in Clifton. The development of antibiotics in the late s and early s, including Selman Waksman’s work at Rutgers, spurred the industry to establish modern research laboratories, with Merck and Squibb leading the way. Today, most of the major pharmaceutical companies are based in New Jersey or have a strong presence in the state, which remains a leading center of pharmaceutical research and manufacturing. While industrial rather than university research has been a dominant feature of New Jersey history, the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton emerged as an important center during the s. While maintaining close ties to Princeton University, the Institute has its own faculty, which have included such ´ scientists as Albert notable European emigre ¨ del, and John von Neumann. Einstein, Kurt Go Especially in its early years the Institute was an important center for research in mathematics, physics, and computing. Although Princeton University and Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, have become significant research universities, it is in the field of industrial research that New Jersey has excelled. The state remains today a center of innovation, with the highest concentration of scientists in the nation and a ranking of fourth among states in the amount of money spent on research and development. The Garden State has become the Innovation State. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Israel, Paul. Edison: A Life of Invention. New York: John Wiley and Sons, . Waksman, Selman A., Robert L. Starkey, and Richard Donovick. Microbiology in New Jersey: Origins and Development. N.p.: American Society for Microbiology, .

Paul Israel and Robert Rosenberg

Scotch Plains.

.-square-mile township in Union County. First settled by Scots in the s, the village of “Scotsplain’’ grew beside the Green Brook near the gap in the First Watchung Mountain. The agricultural

Scott, Julian village was centered on the intersection of the trail from Piscataway and the road “from Rahway to the mountain.’’ Stagecoaches began making stops at the crossroads Stage House Inn in . Farming and mills contributed to the economic well-being of the community through the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century. Located in the “West Fields’’ of Elizabethtown until , the settlement was part of Westfield Township until , when Fanwood Township was separated from it. Fanwood Borough split off from the township in . The municipality officially took the name of the Township of Scotch Plains in . Post–World War II housing demands significantly impacted the community and open farmland was developed into housing, causing the population to double between  and . The community remains largely residential and single-family homes predominate. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

general, and Erskine became “Geographer and Surveyor-General’’ for the Continental Army. In the first census in , Scots accounted for  percent of the population of New Jersey. They continued to arrive in some numbers throughout the nineteenth century. Some with mechanical skills were recruited by early manufacturers in Paterson and other cities. By mid-century, Scots had established linen, jute, thread, and carpet factories in New Jersey. They also formed numerous clans and clubs in the state. Although few Scots emigrated to the state in the twentieth century, New Jerseyans of Scottish ancestry have maintained a number of centers. In , some , New Jersey residents claimed Scottish ancestry. Graham, Ian Charles Cargill. Colonists from Scotland: Emigration to North America, –. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Landsman, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Bousquet, Richard, and Suzanne Bousquet. Scotch Plains and Fanwood. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Rawson, Marion Nicholl. Under the Blue Hills. . Reprint. Scotch Plains: Historical Society of Scotch Plains and Fanwood, .

Stacy E. Spies

Scots. The Scots were an important force in the development of colonial East Jersey. In the s, after the British takeover of New Netherland, a group of influential Scots became a dominant force among the Proprietors of East Jersey. They established the governing center for the colony at Perth Amboy and encouraged their countrymen to settle in its environs, in Monmouth County and in the Raritan River Valley. Some Scots were able to buy land from the Proprietors; others arrived as indentured servants. Later in the eighteenth century, a number of affluent Scot families, like the Alexanders, fled political upheaval at home and established large estates and gained political influence in East Jersey. An important contribution of the Scots was their establishment of the Presbyterian Church in New Jersey. By the s, onethird of the churches in New Jersey were Presbyterian. Scots also played an important role in the development of the College of New Jersey in Princeton. One of its most important early presidents, the Rev. John Witherspoon, came from Scotland in . In early industry, Robert Erskine, a Scot, was appointed manager of the American Iron Company, centered in Ringwood. Upon the outbreak of the Revolution, some Scots were Loyalists, but a larger number joined the fight for independence. Scots not only favored political freedom, but as members of a dissenting church, they also sought greater religious freedom. William Alexander (Lord Stirling) became a leading Patriot

Henry Bischoff

Scots-Irish.

Originally farmers and merchants from lowland Scotland who moved to Ulster, Ireland, in the seventeenth century, the Scots-Irish formed the first substantial group from Ireland to emigrate to New Jersey. The attraction for these immigrants in the late seventeenth century was the double prospect of material prosperity and religious freedom, both of which were under threat in Ulster. Even in heterogeneous New Jersey, the Scots-Irish remained ethnically distinct. Contemporaries acknowledged, and sometimes disparaged them. In Burlington County in  several men described as “Scotch-Irish’’ were accused of murdering two Indian women. This crime, though unusual, was not entirely surprising. The religious beliefs of the settlers (stoutly Calvinist) and their land hunger tended to make them, in the words of James Logan, provincial secretary of Pennsylvania in , “troublesome settlers to the government and hard neighbors to the Indians.’’ Yet all was not frontier crudity. The College of New Jersey in Princeton (today Princeton University) was largely a Scots-Irish creation. Morris, Hunterdon, and Sussex counties were the immigrants’ favored areas for settlement. Hackettstown in Morris County was founded by Samuel Hackett of Tyrone in the s. Flemington in Hunterdon County was the creation of Thomas Fleming, also of Tyrone, in . This pattern had later significance. It was Scots-Irish New Jersey (especially Morris County) that was most fervently Patriotic during the American Revolution. Constituting less than  percent of New Jersey’s white population in the census of , the Scots-Irish were disproportionately important as the builders, writers, and fighters who

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helped to make a new nation at the end of the eighteenth century. Graham, Ian Charles Cargill. Colonists from Scotland: Emigration to North America, –. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Landsman, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Vecoli, Rudolph J. The People of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Dermot Quinn

Scott, Eliza Chadwick Roberts (b. Mar. , ; d. June , ). Milliner and au-

tobiographical writer. Eliza Chadwick Roberts Scott was born in Shrewsbury, the daughter of Thomas and Elizabeth Wooley Chadwick. Her father was “disapointed as to [her] sex and oftimes wished [her] a boy to partake of the spirit of the times.’’ She moved to New York City and on December , , married seaman William Roberts, who drowned in . In , she began composing her life story, starting with a history of Shrewsbury and both her parents’ heroic experiences during the Battle of Monmouth. She found that women could partake of the spirit of the times. In one of the first autobiographies by a working woman, she detailed her struggles with disease and family tragedy as well as happier times in New Jersey and the Caribbean. She continued her life story through , including her second, brief marriage in June , , to Dr. Robert Scott, who died on June , . She had five children by her first husband, one by her second. Her surviving memoirs and a long religious poem have not been published, but her introspective and narrative writings illuminate the history of the period as well as her personal experiences. American Association of University Women. Ladies at the Crossroads: Eighteenth-Century Women of New Jersey. Morristown: Compton, .

Susan E. Klepp

Scott, Julian (b. Feb. , ; d. July , ). Painter. Born in Johnson, Vermont, at fifteen Julian Scott lied about his age in order to enlist as a fifer in the Third Vermont Volunteer Infantry. His experiences during the Civil War later became sources for several memorable paintings, including The Death of General Sedgwick (–), which depicts the death of Brig. Gen. John Sedgwick at the Battle of Spotsylvania in . The work reveals Scott’s fine draftsmanship and traditional approach to grand style history painting that he exhibited well into the last years of the nineteenth century. After his discharge from the army in , Scott enrolled at the National Academy of Design in New York and also studied with Emanuel Leutze. Following a period of training in Europe, he returned to Vermont to create an enormous painting documenting that state’s participation in the Civil War. In , Scott

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Scudder, Wallace M.

became an associate of the National Academy of Design in New York but soon decided to move his wife and young family to Plainfield, where he established a studio on West Front Street. With the coming of the nation’s centennial celebration, Scott began to devote his growing talent and reputation as a history painter to works documenting events and sacrifices related to the establishment of American independence. In , after a long illness, he died in Plainfield at the age of fifty-five. Titterton, Robert J. Julian Scott: Artist of the Civil War and Native America. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Barbara J. Mitnick

Scudder, Wallace M.

(b. Dec. ,

; d. Feb. , ).

Newspaper publisher. Wallace M. Scudder, the son of a New Jersey Supreme Court justice, was a lawyer by profession when he joined with two journalists to publish the Newark Evening News in . He became sole owner of the afternoon newspaper in  and expanded it to include a Sunday edition. His son, Edward W., became editor in  and took over as publisher in  when his father died. The newspaper continued as a family entity when the founder’s grandsons, Edward W. Scudder, Jr., and Richard B. Scudder, took control in . Richard became involved in refining techniques for newspaper recycling with his Garden State Paper Company. After the grandsons sold the newspaper in  to Media General, Richard Scudder and a colleague also began purchasing other newspapers in New Jersey and around the country and built a significant chain. The News itself, once out of Scudder family management, disintegrated. The last issue appeared on August , . See also Newark News; newspapers

Labor Relations Board. Scully also edited The Master, Mate, and Pilot magazine. Failing health forced him to retire from the magazine and public office in . See also labor movement

David A. Norris

sculpture. New Jersey has a strong legacy of sculptural achievement, including ties to prominent sculptors who have made the state their home, academic institutions that offer advanced instruction in the visual arts, and an enviable roster of museums that have long collected and promoted sculpture. Perhaps most important, New Jersey boasts an impressive and diverse collection of works in the public realm that numbers over seven hundred pieces. As early as the first decades of the nineteenth century, when sculpture was in its infancy in America, one of the field’s pioneers, John Frazee (–), settled in New Jersey. Since that time, many nationally known sculptors have left their imprint on the state, including Daniel Chester French (– ), Gutzon Borglum (–), Charles Keck (–), Albert Laessle (–), Frederick MacMonnies (–), John Massey Rhind (–), Malvina Hoffman (–), Anna Vaughn Hyatt Huntington (–), Waylande Gregory (–), Tony Smith (–), Clyde Lynds (b. ), Athena Tacha (b. ), Melvin Edwards (b. ), and Alice Aycock (b. ). It is through sculptural works in the public realm that the field can best be appreciated in New Jersey. Works exist in many locations, from parks to public plazas, to government and religious buildings. Many of the state’s

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Scully, John James Joseph (b. Feb. , ; d. Apr. , ). Labor leader. Born in South Amboy, John J. Scully was the son of Stephen and Mary B. (Kelly) Scully. He married Mary Ann Coleman on February , . After attending the U.S. Navy Reserves’ Columbia Training University, he became a ship pilot in . In the same year, he joined the American Brotherhood of Steamboat Pilots (which became the National Organization of Masters, Mates, and Pilots of America, or NOMMPA, in ). Also in , he served on an eight-hour day committee headed by AFL president Samuel Gompers. Scully continued in the Naval Reserve and headed a minesweeping school at the Staten Island lighthouse station from  to . He served as secretarytreasurer of NOMMPA from the end of World War I until , the president of the New Jersey State Pilots Commission, and, for two terms, the harbor master of Hudson County. During Franklin Roosevelt’s administration, he was a regional director of the National

George Segal, The Constructors, , installed . Bronze with white patina.

Photo copyright 1999 Douglas Petersen.

colleges and universities house outdoor works, with Princeton University’s John B. Putnam, Jr., Memorial Collection among the finest groupings. The majority of outdoor monuments are memorials to the veterans of war, comprising nearly  percent of the total. Monuments to World War I are the most plentiful. Much of the state’s public sculpture is located in the urban centers of the north. Several of these centers developed strong associations with resident sculptors. In Paterson, Gaetano Federici (–) produced several hundred sculptural works, over forty of which were designed for placement outdoors. Jersey City’s Archimedes Giacomantonio (–), while not as prolific as Federici, nevertheless carried out a substantial number of commissions over several decades within Jersey City and its neighboring communities. The period –, known as the American Renaissance, was one of the most fruitful in terms of the creation of sculpture. During this period, there was a general increase in the production of art, in the number of arts institutions, and in art-related activities, both nationally and locally. In New Jersey, the establishment of the Newark Museum in  and the Montclair Art Museum in  fostered a climate favorable to the production of new works. Newark led the state in the commissioning of public sculpture during the American Renaissance, due largely to the generosity of several private donors. The most prominent was Amos Van Horn, a Civil War veteran who amassed a fortune in the furniture business and sponsored a total of three works: the seated Abraham Lincoln (–) at the Essex County Courthouse, George Washington () in Washington Park, and Wars of America () in Military Park. The construction of major public buildings during the American Renaissance also contributed to the growing wealth of outdoor sculpture. For instance, the eleven works of Andrew O’Connor, Jr. (– ) that adorn architect Cass Gilbert’s Essex County Courthouse in Newark () include nine marble pediment figures and two freestanding bronzes. Private estates erected near the turn of the century were frequently enhanced by sculptural works. George Jay Gould ornamented his estate, Georgian Court in Lakewood (now Georgian Court College), with rare, mythologythemed sculpture from abroad. At the center of the former estate stands the dramatic Fountain of Apollo, executed in marble by sculptor John Massey Rhind. Further inland, the James Buchanan Duke Estate in Hillsborough incorporated thirty-five fountains and several different, themed gardens embellished with classical sculpture imported from Europe. Artists’ colonies began to form in the late nineteenth century, reaching their full prominence in the first decades of the twentieth century. The most noted of the artists’colonies

Sea Bright skiff was the Montclair Art Colony, which primarily centered on a group of painters led by George Inness, although sculptors could also be counted among their numbers. Sculptors included William Couper (–) and Jonathan Scott Hartley (–), known as a portrait sculptor and art instructor. Couper’s father-in-law, realist sculptor Thomas Ball (–), became part of the Montclair community in . Both Ball and Couper were active participants in local events, with Couper serving as one of the first trustees of the Montclair Art Museum. While less prominent and less well documented than the Montclair Art Colony, several other New Jersey locales supported their own communities of sculptors during the early part of the twentieth century. At least three sculptors—Karl Bitter (–), John Rapetti (–), and Francis Edwin Elwell (–)—settled in Weehawken, in northern Hudson County. A strong arts community, the history of which remains largely unexplored, also flourished in Bergen County and included sculptors Frederick G. R. Roth (– ), Emilio F. Piatti (–), Charles Henry Niehaus (–), John Oscar Bunce ( – ?), and Mahonri Young (–). Two New Jersey–based sculptors—George Segal (–) and J. Seward Johnson, Jr. (b. )—have made significant contributions to the field nationally during the twentieth century. Segal, who made his home in New Jersey for many years, began working as an artist during the s. He was an important presence at Rutgers University during the late s and s, when that institution became a crucible for experimental work in the visual arts. Ultimately, Segal became known throughout the country for his white, plasterdraped figures that personified important political themes and also represented the everyman engaged in daily activities. Like Segal, J. Seward Johnson, Jr., has drawn considerable inspiration from daily life in creating realistic bronze figures that can be seen in numerous public places. His contribution to the field also includes the establishment of the Johnson Atelier in Mercerville, which secures the future of traditional bronze casting for future generations. Johnson’s associated sculpture park and gallery in Hamilton, Grounds for Sculpture, educates new audiences in the appreciation of the sculptural medium. One of the most significant developments in terms of the commissioning and placement of twentieth-century sculpture, both indoors and out, has been the establishment of the Public Building Arts Inclusion Act, administered by the New Jersey State Council on the Arts, which became law in . Similar programs were begun in a number of states across the country during the late s. In New Jersey, the act mandates that up to . percent of the total estimated cost of a public building or group of public buildings constructed

by the state will be spent on the inclusion of fine arts. Approximately  to  percent of the works commissioned under the Public Building Arts Inclusion Act have been works of sculpture. Bzdak, Meredith Arms, and Douglas Petersen. Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

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latter twentieth century. Most of the large houses are gone, some converted to multiple dwellings. Storms often ravish the beachfront town, nearly destroying it in the winter of – . In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Monmouth Beach and Sea Bright. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Marter, Joan, ed. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Moss, George H., Jr. Another Look at Nauvoo to the Hook. Sea Bright: Ploughshare Press, .

The Montclair Art Colony, Past and Present. Montclair: Montclair Art Museum, .

Randall Gabrielan

Meredith Arms Bzdak

Seabright Lawn Tennis and Cricket Club. The second oldest surviv-

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County along a barrier beach on the Atlantic Ocean. Sea Bright was formed from Ocean Township in , with its northern section added in . For many years the future borough of Sea Bright was part of the Wardell farm, sold in  by Henry Wardell’s heirs to Arthur V. Conover, who sold the northern section to investors Mifflin Paul, Samuel B. Dodd, and William W. Shippen. They began settlement near the wide beach in the center of the five-mile-long town. The Long Branch and Sea Shore Railroad was built in  to connect Sandy Hook and Long Branch. Some rail stations became communities, including Normandie and Highland Beach. A bridge to the mainland in  enhanced Sea Bright’s transportation access. Life in town included a fishing community of Swedes, hotels, boarding houses, substantial waterfront summer cottages, and modest houses. The hotels are gone, but the last, Peninsula House, destroyed by fire in , was a hospitality landmark. The Sea Bright Beach Club, founded in  by nearby Rumsonites, is a significant Monmouth County social organization. Sea Bright became a year-round community in the

ing tennis club in America, Seabright, located in Rumson, traces its origins to . Formal organization dates to , and the first club championships were held in . Seabright, a major site on the American tennis circuit in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, hosted the world’s greatest players, including Bill Tilden and Helen Wills. Club officer Holcombe Ward was the  United States national amateur champion and a member of the first Davis Cup team. The club is famed for its meticulously kept grass courts, and its members meet in an  Shingle Style clubhouse designed by Renwick, Aspinwall and Russell. The clubhouse was designated a National Historic Landmark in .

Sea Bright.

Seabright Lawn Tennis and Cricket Club. The History of the Seabright Lawn Tennis and Cricket Club. Rumson: The Club, n.d. Gabrielan, Randall. Images of America: Rumson. Vol. . Dover, NH: Arcadia Publishers, .

See also tennis

Randall Gabrielan

Sea Bright skiff.

The Sea Bright skiff is an open boat designed for surf launching, originally used from the early s to the early s by fishermen working between the

Louis Comfort Tiffany, Sea Bright, New Jersey, Oil on canvas,  ×  / in.

Courtesy New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. FA1973.40.

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Seabrook Farms

Shark River and Sandy Hook. Sea Bright skiffs have rounded bilges, measure fifteen to seventeen feet long, five to six and a half feet wide, and are propelled by oars and sprit sails. A slightly rockered plank keel measures a third of the total beam. There is a prominent skeg under a U-shaped transom. Shore communities still use oar-powered versions as lifeguard patrol vessels. Although built of fiberglass, the basic design remains unchanged. Cohen, David. The Folklore and Folklife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Guthorn, Peter. The Sea Bright Skiff and Other Jersey Shore Boats. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also boats

Kevin Olsen

Seabrook Farms.

A major agribusiness located in Upper Deerfield, Cumberland County, Seabrook Farms operated between , when it was incorporated by Charles F. (C. F.) Seabrook, and , when it ceased operations under that name. The business started as an unnamed truck farm, begun in  by Albert P. (A. P.) Seabrook, C.F.’s father. One of many “firsts’’ to occur at Seabrook Farms was the introduction of overhead irrigation in . Another first attributed to Seabrook Farms was the use of a gasolinepowered tractor. This early utilization of power-driven equipment in the field and in processing, packaging, and warehouse operations caused Seabrook Farms to be described as “probably the most highly mechanized farm in the country.’’ The company experimented with quick freezing twenty thousand pounds of lima beans in the summer of , using ammonia produced by an ice-making plant built during World War I to provide ice for railroad cars loaded with fresh vegetables. Shortly thereafter, Seabrook Farms proposed

to General Foods Corporation that it was the best choice to produce frozen vegetables under the Birdseye label, then owned by General Foods. The proposal was accepted, and Seabrook Farms consequently became the first major supplier of produce for the U.S. armed forces and the world market. According to a November  Coronet Magazine article, Seabrook Farms was “the first big farm to unionize in this country.’’ The company had negotiated a closed-shop agreement with the AFL. Also, at that time, Seabrook offered its full-time employees group life insurance and hospital insurance plans, rare worker provisions in the s. The company continued to prosper after World War II. In , more than  million pounds of frozen vegetables and fruits (twenty-nine varieties) were produced by some thirty-two hundred part-time and full-time employees working on fifty thousand acres in three states and in the processing and packaging plants. In a January  article, Life magazine referred to Seabrook Farms as the “Biggest Vegetable Factory on Earth.’’Among those thirty-two hundred workers were many Japanese Americans who had been released from internment and relocation camps during the last years of the war. They contributed greatly to the global village created at Seabrook, where men and women from approximately thirty countries lived and worked together. In addition to the Japanese Americans (some twenty-five hundred arrived at Seabrook between  and ), other ethnic groups included Italians; residents of seven Caribbean Islands; Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, and Germans from postwar displaced persons camps in Europe; and African Americans. C. F. Seabrook sold Seabrook Farms to Seeman Brothers in , which continued to operate the company as Seabrook Farms until  when Seeman Brothers made the company a subsidiary and renamed it Seabrook Foods. By the mid-s, the Seabrook name and label had disappeared altogether, but in  they were resurrected by C.F.’s grandsons, James and Charles II. They incorporated as Seabrook Brothers and Sons. In , the new company produced as many pounds of frozen vegetables as Seabrook Farms did in its heyday. Most of the vegetables are grown today on the same acres that were harvested in the middle decades of the twentieth century and warehoused in the same cold storage building. Seabrook, John M. The Henry Ford of Agriculture: Charles F. Seabrook – and Seabrook Farms –. Upper Deerfield: Seabrook Educational and Cultural Center, .

See also agriculture; Birds Eye

Charles H. Harrison During the Second World War, Japanese Americans interned for the duration of the conflict were released to work at Seabrook Farms in Upper Deerfield. ID badge of one such worker, Shirley Ohara.

Courtesy Seabrook Educational and Cultural Center.

Seabrook Farms strike.

Three hundred mostly African American and Italian farm and cannery workers joined in a peaceful strike for higher pay and union recognition at Seabrook Farms in Upper Deerfield on April ,

. After just four days, owner Charles F. Seabrook agreed to double wages to thirty cents an hour for men and twenty-five cents for women, and pledged to hire and fire workers without discrimination on the basis of race. Then in June, Seabrook announced the layoff of  workers, most of them black, and the imminent reduction of wages to eighteen cents. Employees began picketing on Monday, June , in protest. Charging communist influence, Seabrook rallied local law enforcement authorities and assembled a force of deputized vigilantes to break up the strikers. In a series of clashes on July , workers were met with clubs, tear gas, and fire hoses as Seabrook tried to get his tractors to the fields. The escalating violence brought the strike to the front page of the New York Times. A total of fifty-four strikers were arrested during the two-week confrontation. The workers appealed to the U.S. Department of Labor, and a federal mediator arrived on July . A settlement was quickly negotiated, which maintained April wages and appointed an arbitration board for future grievances. However, the agreement made no provision for worker representation, the union was dissolved, and the strikers were not rehired. Hahamovitch, Cindy. The Fruits of Their Labor: Atlantic Coast Farmworkers and the Making of Migrant Poverty, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Seabrook, John M. The Henry Ford of Agriculture: Seabrook Farms, –, and Charles Seabrook, –. Seabrook: Seabrook Educational and Cultural Center, .

See also labor movement

Kimberly Avagliano

Sea Girt.

.-square-mile borough on the south coast of Monmouth County. The borough’s name had its origin when in  Commodore Robert Stockton purchased a acre seaside farm and named it “Seagirt.’’ This farm and other land were bought by Philadelphia investors in  to develop a summer resort. They commissioned Charles F. Ingham to design a town in , but its cartwheel pattern proved unworkable and only the hub park remains, now called Crescent Park. It contains a unique .-acre forest of mature American holly. The Sea Girt Light House, currently a museum for local history, was built at the north end of the town in . Sea Girt became a borough in  breaking away from Wall Township. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the borough was a popular seaside resort with a large Beach House Hotel and a county club that included a racetrack. In , a -acre center, adjacent to Stockton Lake at the southern end of the borough, was annexed. It is the location of the New Jersey National Guard and the New Jersey State Police training centers. The Governor’s Day Review is held on the parade ground every summer. After World War II, Sea Girt increasingly became the year-round wealthy residential

Seaside Park community that it is today. The  population of , was  percent white. There are , housing units with  available for seasonal use. The median household income in  is $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Kobbe, Gustav. The New Jersey Coast and Pines. . Reprint. Baltimore: Gateway Press, . Venino, Richard O. History of Sea Girt, –. Sea Girt: Privately printed, . ———. Vignettes of Sea Girt. Sea Girt: Privately printed, .

Station opened as a recreational center in  and was expanded in  to house the International Seafarer’s Center. The Lookout. New York: Seamen’s Church Institute of New York and New Jersey, –. Rousmaniere, Leah Robinson. Anchored within the Vail. New York: Seamen’s Church Institute of New York and New Jersey, . Whittemore, James R. “The Seamen’s Church History:  Years and Beyond.’’ D.Min. diss., New York Theological Seminary, .

See also Episcopal Church

Mark J. Duffy Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

Sea Isle City.

.-square-mile city in Cape May County. Charles Landis purchased Ludlam’s Beach in  and intended to develop a city to rival Venice, Italy, with canals, fountains, and sculpture. By  a branch line of the West Jersey Railroad ran across the marshes from the Seaville station to Ludlam’s Beach and later rail service was extended to Townsend’s Inlet, a major improvement from a wagon road of logs and wooden bridges. That same year Landis and his partners had an excursion house and ten cottages completed. Gas lines, electricity, and waterworks were in place and residents voted to sever ties with Dennis Township, incorporate as a borough, and send two representatives to sit on the Board of Chosen Freeholders. By ,  people lived in Sea Isle, including thirteen Italian families, many of them fishermen. The town also attracted a group of German immigrants, and the town’s first newspaper was written in German. Today, the population of the city includes descendants of many of the early Italian immigrants who settled in Sea Isle. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Vertical files. Cape May County Library, Cape May Court House.

Barbara St. Clair

Seamen’s Church Institute of New York and New Jersey. Organized as an independent religious organization in , the Seamen’s Church Institute has its origins in the Episcopal City Mission movement. Chaplains combined interests in providing spiritual direction with aid to sailors— at first with food and safe lodging, but by the s, with social and educational services. By the s, the then-named Episcopal Church Missionary Society for Seamen offered medical and legal referral services. In the post– World War II period, the institute focused attention on seamen and -women in the ports of Newark and Elizabeth. The Port Newark

search and seizure.

New Jersey state constitutional protections against unreasonable search and seizure parallel those found in the federal Constitution, and both require warrants and a finding of probable cause before a search is conducted. Over the last decade of the twentieth century, however, federal courts greatly expanded the warrantlesssearch exception, while New Jersey courts continued to view this exception quite narrowly. While federal courts tend to employ a reasonableness standard that allows a balancing of public safety against individual privacy interests, the New Jersey high court has employed much stricter standards. For example, like its federal counterpart, the New Jersey constitution recognizes an automobile exception to the warrant requirement, but state case law requires that police demonstrate that exigent circumstances necessitate the search, rather than looking at the reasonableness of the search or broadly permitting good-faith exceptions to the warrant requirement. Similarly, the state high court recently ruled that consent by a motorist or passenger did not eliminate the need for a police officer to demonstrate that there is a reasonable and articulatable suspicion of wrongdoing. The state courts are currently considering whether the federal standard permitting the random drug-testing of high school students should be adopted under state law, or whether state constitutional protections should require that special needs be met before a school district can undertake such a search.

Braithwaite, Dennis J. “An Analysis of the ‘Divergence Factors’: A Misguided Approach to Search and Seizure Jurisprudence under the New Jersey Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (fall ): –. Yannitte, Kate L. “Casenote on the Fourth Amendment.’’ Seton Hall Constitutional Law Journal  (summer ): –.

See also constitution; law

Suzanne U. Samuels

Seaside Heights.

.-square-mile borough on the Barnegat barrier island in Ocean County. The barrier islands were originally visited by Lenape Indians in search of fish. Henry Hudson was one of the first Europeans to chart Barnegat Bay and its islands in . Fishing shacks were the earliest buildings erected

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in the community. In , developers advertised building lots and provided transportation to prospective buyers on the Pennsylvania Railroad from Philadelphia. An automobile bridge was then built, connecting the community with the mainland. In , the community split from Berkeley Township. Located just north of Seaside Park, the borough was incorporated as Seaside Heights. The community is a summer resort, thriving on tourism. A wide boardwalk, built after , spans the entire length of the borough’s oceanfront. It is lined with games of chance, arcades, amusement rides, miniature golf, ice cream and pizza parlors, and a water park. The community has a mixture of single-family residences, multifamily residences, and several hotels and motels to accommodate the summer tourists. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Ocean County Principals’ Council. Tides of Time. Philadelphia: C. E. Howe, .

Andrew J. Anderson

Seaside Park.

.-square-mile borough on the Barnegat barrier island in Ocean County, first visited by Lenape Indians in search of fish. They called the area seheyichbi, meaning “land bordering the ocean.’’ A LifeSaving Service (now Coast Guard) station was built in . The community was permanently settled in  as a Baptist retreat. The settlers wanted to landscape a park in the center of town, but discovered that nonnative trees from the mainland would not grow in the sand. The community became more accessible in , when the Pennsylvania Railroad came through town. Fish was then shipped from local pounds to markets in Philadelphia and New York, and tourists traveled from these cities for summer-long vacations in Gilded Age hotels. In , the community split from Berkeley Township and incorporated as the Borough of “Sea Side Park.’’ Additional land was annexed from Berkeley Township in . The Seaside Park Yacht Club was incorporated in , with Philadelphia mayor John Weaver serving as first commodore. The railroad tracks were removed in ; the last Gilded Age hotel demolished in . Although still a tourist destination, the borough has slowly evolved from a seasonal summer resort to a year-round residential community. In , the population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Anderson, Andrew J. Seaside Park. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

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Seawell et al. v. Macwithey et al.

———, and D. Gail Anderson. Sea Side Park Memories and Remembrances. Manahawkin: Surf Printing, .

Andrew J. Anderson

Seawell et al. v. Macwithey et al. At issue in Seawell v. Macwithey was a decision by the Chancery Division of the Superior Court to enjoin the city of East Orange, its mayor, and members of its city council from segregating whites and blacks seeking housing in newly built veterans’ housing projects. These projects were funded under the state’s Veterans Emergency Housing Act, which barred racial discrimination in occupancy decisions. The Chancery Division found that, by segregating blacks and whites into two separate developments, East Orange and its officials had violated not only this statute and various regulations, but also the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution. When the New Jersey Supreme Court considered the chancery court’s decision in , however, it found that there were no violations of constitutional, statutory, or regulatory law, since there was no official record of municipal action on this matter. The court found that the Veterans Permanent Housing Committee, which made occupancy decisions, had never received municipal authorization for this task. The court held that in the absence of proof of wrongdoing, neither the city nor it officials should be faced with an injunction. This decision sharply limited the responsibility of municipal agents for combating racial discrimination in housing. See also discrimination

Suzanne U. Samuels

Secaucus. .-square-mile town in Hudson County. The origin of the place name Secaucus has been variously explained as Native American for sukit, “black,’’ and achgook, “snake’’ (sukachgook); sikakes—sik meaning “fright’’ and aki meaning “land’’ (“land of terror because of the snakes’’); or sikkakaskeg, meaning “salt sedge marsh.’’ Later, the Dutch found snakes on Snake Hill and called it Slangbey, meaning “snake hill.’’ Originally a part of North Bergen, Secaucus is an island surrounded by water, including the Hackensack River and many smaller rivers, streams, and marshes. The area on which Secaucus sits was originally occupied by the Lenape Indians and then the Dutch. As was the case with the entire region, initially there was a great deal of conflict between the new settlers and the native Indians. Because of this, all of the settlers settled in a single fortified village, known as Bergen. The village of Bergen included all of the territory now known as Jersey City, Hoboken, Bayonne, North Bergen, Secaucus, Union City, Guttenberg, and Weehawken. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, the area had become a busy and thriving community with the area now known as Secaucus being merely an isolated farming district. In  the

disintegration of Bergen Township began with the incorporation of Jersey City. In , Jersey City was set off from the Township of Bergen and Bergen then became known as North Bergen, with Secaucus becoming a part of the newly formed North Bergen. Secaucus was incorporated separately in . Because of its location within the state (between Hoboken and Paterson), Secaucus was crossed by both a railroad and a turnpike, which became known as Paterson Plank Road—one of the first plank roads in the country. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the town began to experience a growth spurt in three areas: the development of Snake Hill—which included a hospital, an almshouse, lunatic asylum, and penitentiary; the establishment of a foundry and Sauer Island Colony; and immigration, wherein by ,  percent of the population were German immigrant farmers. The quiet farming community of Secaucus came alive politically in  when it was separated from North Bergen. Many residents welcomed this change, which they felt had been long overdue since they wanted more local control of their own affairs and taxes. Prior to and during World War II, the town thrived as a hog, vegetable, and flower farming town and was a major food producer for the war effort. Significant changes took place in post–World War II Secaucus and most of the farms disappeared with the construction of the New Jersey Turnpike and the development of single-family homes. In the last half of the twentieth century, the town has seen the development of many warehouses, distribution centers, and factory outlets as well as hosting the headquarters of major regional, national, and international businesses. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). In , the median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lovero, Joan Doherty. Hudson County: The Left Bank. Sun Valley, CA: American Historical Press, . Robinson, Walter Francis. Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, . Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Winfield, Charles Hardenburg. History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, n.d.

Daniel R. Campbell

Seeing Eye.

The Seeing Eye, located in Morristown, is North America’s oldest dogguide school. Although the concept of a dog leading a blind person was not new, Seeing Eye was the spark that ignited the modern dog-guide movement. Originally founded in Nashville, Tennessee, in , Seeing Eye moved to New Jersey in .

Morris Frank, the first American to use a Seeing Eye dog, with Buddy, the first Seeing Eye dog, and Dorothy Harrison Eustis, the founder of the Seeing Eye, Morristown, .

Courtesy The Seeing Eye, Inc., Morristown. The two elements that created this spark were a wealthy Philadelphia woman, Dorothy Harrison Eustis, whose interest was the scientific breeding of German shepherds as working dogs, and Morris Frank, a nineteen-year-old native of Nashville who was blinded in two separate accidents. Eustis was conducting her experiments in Switzerland when she learned of a program in Potsdam, Germany, that trained German shepherds to guide blinded veterans of World War I. Deeply impressed, she reported on the work of the school in an article for The Saturday Evening Post. Morris Frank learned of the article and wrote to Eustis, asking her to train a dog for him. In return, he promised, he would help establish a school where blind people could learn to be independent and function “wholly on their own.’’ Frank traveled to Switzerland to train with the dog and returned to America with Buddy, the first Seeing Eye dog. Frank’s job was clear: convince the public that with a dog by their side, blind people could be independent. After a year, Eustis provided $, to start the school, which she and Frank incorporated in Nashville. The school was called The Seeing Eye after a verse from the Bible (Proverbs :): “The seeing eye, the hearing ear; the Lord hath made them both.’’ After the first year, seventeen people had newfound freedom with their Seeing Eye dogs. Today, more than seventeen hundred “graduates’’ of the school lead active lives, reflecting the Seeing Eye’s mission of enhancing the independence and self-confidence of blind people through the use of a Seeing Eye dog. Nearly thirteen thousand specially bred and trained dogs have been placed with blind

Segal, George people since the school’s founding. The school maintains its own breeding colony where German shepherds, Labrador retrievers, and golden retrievers are bred for the program. At eight weeks of age, puppies enter the homes of volunteer puppy-raiser families, who provide a nurturing environment for the puppies, teach them basic obedience, and expose them to a variety of social situations and environments they may encounter as Seeing Eye dogs. When the dogs are about fifteen to eighteen months old, they return to the Seeing Eye for their formal training with a sighted instructor. After a four-month course of instruction in guide work, dogs are carefully matched with a blind person. The person and dog train together at the school under the tutelage of the instructor. After three to four weeks, the person and dog return to their home and start their life together. There are approximately twelve other schools in the United States, and many others internationally, training dogs to be guides for people who are blind or visually impaired. Frank, Morris, and B. Clark. First Lady of the Seeing Eye. New York: Henry Holt, .

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Michael J. Birkner

Segal, George

(b. Nov. , ; d. June ,

). Sculptor. Throughout his long career

as a sculptor, George Segal made the quotidian tragedies of the common man his specialty. His subjects dwell in boredom and banality: a man hanging letters on a theater marquee (Cinema, ); a late-night customer staring into his coffee (Diner, –); a woman chopping the head off a chicken (The Butcher Shop, ), based on his father’s job as a kosher butcher in Brooklyn. The ghostlike plaster figure, cast from life yet somehow dead as ash, became Segal’s aesthetic signature, and waiting his major theme. Born in New York City, George Segal moved with his family in  to a chicken farm in South Brunswick, part of a Depression-era federal program intended to bolster wartime food

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production. He never left. Over the next half century Segal converted the chicken coops into a rambling studio. He even married the girl on the farm next door, Helen Steinberg, in , and raised two children there. Segal’s education balanced a demanding work schedule. He attended the Cooper Union School of Art and Architecture in Manhattan from  to  and the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn from  to . He studied part-time at Rutgers University in New Brunswick through all this time but finally got a B.S. in art education from New York University in . To stave off bankruptcy, from  to , Segal taught at local New Jersey high schools. From  to  Segal was enrolled in the MFA program at Rutgers. Segal didn’t give up chicken farming completely until , which may explain his sympathy for people working tedious jobs, like the figure in the New Jersey Turnpike Toll Booth in the garden of the Newark Museum. In , Segal was host at the chicken farm for the first of what became known as “Happenings,’’ a kind of unscripted art event that would be very popular in the s and

Putnam, Peter. Love in the Lead: The Miracle of the Seeing Eye Dog. Lanham,MD: University Press of America, . ———. The Triumph of the Seeing Eye. New York: Harper and Row, .

Melissa Drake Campbell

Seeley, Elias Pettit

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Aug. , ). Lawyer and politician. Born

in Deerfield Township (later Bridgeton), the son of Ebenezer and Mary Clark Seeley, Elias Pettit Seeley was educated informally and studied law with Cumberland County attorney Daniel Elmer. In  Seeley married Jane E. Champneys. The couple had two children— Elias P., Jr., and Rebecca. Seeley entered politics in the s, running successfully as an anti-Jacksonian candidate for the legislative council. In , when the National Republicans gained power, he was named vice president of the council. Several months later, when Gov. Samuel Southard resigned the governorship to enter the U.S. Senate, Seeley was chosen to succeed him. As governor, Seeley was more of a political target than an active administrator would have been. Because he was not elected until the close of the legislative session, he was limited to making certain appointments, serving on the final appeals board of the state, and preparing an address to the legislature after the October elections. His major legacy as governor was his vote on the court of appeals against the Hicksite cause in a bitter struggle between two Quaker factions. This vote contributed to the National Republican party’s defeat in that autumn’s legislative elections. Following his seven months as governor, Seeley returned to private law practice and later served several terms in the legislature. He died of cancer in  at the age of fifty-four.

George Segal, The Bus Driver, . Figure of plaster over cheesecloth; bus parts including coin box, steering wheel, driver’s seat, railing, dashboard, etc. Figure:  / ×  / ×  in.; overall  ft.  in ×  / in. ×  ft.  / in.

Courtesy Museum of Modern Art, New York. Philip Johnson Fund (337.1963.a-u). Digital image copyright Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Art copyright The George and Helen Segal Foundation/Licensed by VAGA, NY.

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Selikoff, Irving J.

ultimately lead to today’s performance art. For Segal, who was still primarily a painter, it was a turning point. Afterward, he said, he knew that what he wanted to do was “bring a little real life into art.’’ At first he made his plaster figures by hand, building the raw plaster on chicken-wire armatures. But soon he had decided to cross what had been a technical taboo in sculpture since the late eighteenth century—casting from life. He developed a method of making sculptures by applying plaster-soaked gauze strips directly on the models’ bodies, removing them before they were completely dry, and reassembling them into fully rounded sculptures. Later, he was able to use this method to make molds, allowing him to cast intensely lifelike details. Many of these figures he would assemble into existential tableaux fleshed out by props the sculptor had found: a man in a pea coat sitting on a barstool, lit up in flickering blues by a TV, or a man sitting between a Coke machine and a rack of Pennzoil cans in a gas station doorway under a Bulova clock. Inspired by Segal, prominent American sculptors today cast from life and make “environments,’’ constructed out of found objects. Segal died of cancer in . Hunter, Sam, and Don Hawthorne. George Segal. New York: Rizzoli, . Livingstone, Marco. George Segal: Sculptures, Paintings, Drawings. Montreal: Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, . Marten, Joan M. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also sculpture

Dan Bischoff

Selikoff, Irving J.

(b. Jan. , ; d.

May , ). Physician, epidemiologist, and

leading researcher of occupational diseases. Raised in Brooklyn, Irving J. Selikoff took his B.S. at Columbia University and his M.D. at the Royal College of Physicians of Scotland. He interned in Newark. For his pioneering clinical trials on isoniazid treatment for tuberculosis at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York City, Selikoff received the Lasker Award in . His observations of lung diseases among workers at the Union Asbestos and Rubber Company in Paterson alerted labor unions, the medical professions, policymakers, and the public to the dangers of occupational exposure to asbestos. His long-term epidemiological studies of thousands of North American asbestos workers demonstrated a causal relationship between asbestos exposure and several kinds of cancer (a risk greatly increased by smoking cigarettes). Selikoff’s research played a major role in the precedent-setting product liability lawsuit () against Johns-Manville Corporation, which had an asbestos plant in Manville. He expanded his research to occupational diseases associated with electrical, chemical, and textile plants, shipyards, and

firefighting. Selikoff wrote more than  scientific articles and two books, edited eleven volumes of the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, and founded several organizations and journals to promote the field of occupational and environmental health. Brodeur, Paul. Expendable Americans. New York: Viking Press, . ———. Outrageous Misconduct: The Asbestos Industry on Trial. New York: Pantheon Books, .

See also medicine and public health

Philip J. Landrigan

senatorial courtesy. In New Jersey, the term senatorial courtesy refers to the practice of New Jersey state senators, when exercising their constitutional responsibility to confirm gubernatorial nominations, of deferring to local senators in determining whether a specific nominee should be approved. Through this privilege senators can block any nominee who resides in their home county or legislative district. Without this sign-off, nominees are usually denied the opportunity to receive a public hearing before the State Senate Judiciary Committee and a confirmation vote of the full State Senate. In exercising courtesy senators are not required to justify their reasons. The practice has frequently been employed to prevent candidates from becoming judges and is sometimes criticized as an abuse of senatorial power. Martin, Robert. “Reinforcing New Jersey’s Bench: Power Tools for Remodeling Senatorial Courtesy and Refinishing Judicial Selection and Retention.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (fall ): –. Seiler, Margaret G. “Judicial Selection in New Jersey.’’ Seton Hall Law Review  (): –. Strippoli, Sandra E. “Senatorial Courtesy: Not in the Public Interest, Justiciable and Unconstitutional.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

Robert J. Martin

Sensations magazine. Secaucus-based Sensations magazine, founded in  by David Messineo, is a literary magazine featuring contemporary poetry, fiction, and research concerning American poetry and history. The magazine’s eleven-issue series “Rediscovering America in Poetry’’ is the first comprehensive collection of multicultural American poetry from  to . The magazine hosts poetry readings in New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut; its fifteen-year Creative Events series is the fourth-longest-running poetry reading series in New Jersey. A rare three-consecutiveyear winner in the American Literary Magazine Awards, including first place for its  Coney Island issue, Sensations has independently released twenty-six issues, all without grant funding or university affiliation. See also literature David Messineo

Sergeant, Jonathan Dickinson (b. ; d. Oct. , ). Lawyer and public official. Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant was born in

Newark and raised and educated in Princeton. Active in local committees of correspondence, Sergeant later alternated service in New Jersey’s provincial congress and in the Second Continental Congress. His resignation from the latter body in June  deprived him of the opportunity to cast votes for independence despite his known commitment to the cause. Once back in the provincial congress, he helped draft New Jersey’s first constitution. In November  Sergeant returned to the Continental Congress, where he served until September  when he resigned to become attorney general of Pennsylvania. The December  burning of his Princeton home by Hessians had precipitated his move to Philadelphia, where he remained active in partisan politics. He succumbed to yellow fever while aiding victims of the  epidemic. Hatfield, Edwin F. “Memoirs Prepared for the Centennial Celebration of the ‘The Resolution respecting Independency’: Jonathan Dickinson Sergeant.’’ Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography  (): –.

See also American Revolution

Mariam Touba

Sergeantsville.

See Delaware Township.

Seton Hall Preparatory School. This four-year, all-male, Catholic Church– affiliated private high school is located in West Orange. Founded in  under the auspices of the Catholic Diocese of Newark, the institution was originally located in Madison as part of Seton Hall College. The campus moved to South Orange in  and was chartered by the state legislature a year later. By  the secondary and collegiate curricula of Seton Hall were divided into separate units with the preparatory school formally established in . Seton Hall Prep moved to its current location by , and incorporation came two years later for the school of nearly nine hundred students. The Summit of a Century: The Centennial Story of Seton Hall University, –. South Orange: Seton Hall University, .

See also education

Alan Delozier

Seton Hall University. Seton Hall College was founded in  by James Roosevelt Bayley, the first Roman Catholic bishop of Newark. Named in honor of Bayley’s aunt and the first American-born saint, Elizabeth Ann Seton, and intended to serve as a high school, college, and seminary, Seton Hall was originally located in Madison. Its first class numbered five and grew to eleven within a month of opening, and its first president was Father (later Bishop) Bernard McQuaid. Seton Hall’s growth after World War II was prodigious, the result mainly of the GI Bill. In this period a nursing program was added to the curriculum, a law school opened, and extension campuses were established in

Shahn, Ben Paterson and Newark. A college of medicine and dentistry opened in Jersey City in  but was later transferred to the state of New Jersey. In June  the state approved the board of trustees’ request that Seton Hall College be granted university status. With the exception of the law school, which is located in Newark, all classes are now conducted on the South Orange campus. Seton Hall University has nine colleges or schools: arts and science, business, nursing, education, law, theology, graduate medical education, University College, and the School of Diplomacy and International Relations. Undergraduate and graduate enrollment totals ten thousand. The university, fully coeducational and partially residential, has dormitory space for two thousand students. Its library contains half a million volumes. A residence hall fire on January , , caused three fatalities and led to nationwide efforts to improve the safety of higher education dormitory facilities. The Summit of a Century: The Centennial Story of Seton Hall University, –. South Orange: Seton Hall University, .

See also higher education

Dermot A. Quinn

Sewell, William Joyce

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Dec. , ). U.S. senator, brigadier general,

and railroad man. Born in Castlebar, County Mayo, Ireland, William J. Sewell came to the United States in . His first marriage, which produced a daughter, ended with the death of his wife (Johnson) in . Although he had no military experience at all, at the beginning of the Civil War Sewell organized a company in Camden and quickly rose in rank to become the colonel of the Fifth

Regiment. When Gershom Mott was wounded at Chancellorsville, Sewell took command of the Second New Jersey Brigade. He, too, was wounded, and was awarded the Medal of Honor for “distinguished gallantry on the field at Chancellorsville.’’ At the close of the Civil War he married Helen L. Heyl, with whom he had two sons and two daughters. After a successful rise in the railroad industry from track laborer to president of the West Jersey and Seashore Railroad Company, Sewell entered politics as a Republican and served in the State Senate for three successive terms. He was elected to the U.S. Senate by the legislature in , and again in . Sewell died in  during his second term. Jackson, William J. New Jerseyans in the Civil War. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Civil War

Deborah A. McCarson

shad.

The American shad is the largest member of the herring family, ranging along the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Florida. Adults usually weigh from four to eight pounds. In New Jersey, the Delaware River has the largest population of shad, with that of the Raritan River increasing since the transplantation there of Delaware River American shad in the early s. Shad spend three to six years in the ocean, returning to freshwater in the spring to spawn. After hatching, the young move downstream, reaching the ocean by late autumn. Once in the ocean, shad migrate up and down the coast. At maturity, three to four years for males, four to six for females, they return to their natal river to spawn. Unlike Pacific salmon, not all shad die; many live to spawn again. The American shad fishery on the Delaware River dates back to colonial times, but it peaked around  when it had the largest commercial catch of any river on the Atlantic coast. After that date the shad population declined due to pollution near Philadelphia. With the passage of the Federal Clean Water Act of , this has abated and the American shad has begun to recover. Piehler, Glenn R. Exit Here for Fish! Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishes

Mark Boriek

U.S. Sen. William Sewell.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Shady Rest Country Club. The Shady Rest Country Club in Scotch Plains was arguably the first golf and tennis club in the nation to be owned and managed by African Americans. From  to  it occupied the site of the present municipally owned Scotch Hills Country Club. In its heyday, from the s to the s, it was an important social, business, recreational, and entertainment institution for blacks who could not elsewhere enjoy the amenities it offered. Prominent black sports figures, entertainers, and

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social activists, ranging from Althea Gibson, Ella Fitzgerald, and Cab Calloway to Count Basie and W.E.B. Du Bois, graced its tennis courts, golf course, and clubhouse. Members included professional and working-class men and women and their families, who availed themselves of facilities and activities that included a clubhouse, restaurant, bar, lockers, tennis courts, horseback riding, skeet shooting, croquet, and social gatherings. Shady Rest was the home course for the first National Colored Golf Championship, held in . The president of Shady Rest, R. C. Gordon, served as the founding president of the U.S. Colored Golf Association (USCGA). In  the USCGA became the United Golfers Association, an organization that governed black golf through America’s era of segregation. Henry Willis, Sr., assumed control of Shady Rest in . In the s Shady Rest became the property of the town of Scotch Plains. When the gentlemen’s-handshake lease arrangement between Willis and the township came to an end in , Shady Rest became the township-managed Scotch Hills Country Club.

Lawrence D. Hogan

Shahn, Ben

(b. Sept. , ; d. Mar. ,

). Artist and illustrator. Benjamin Shahn

was born in Lithuania to Jewish parents who immigrated to Brooklyn when their son was only eight years old. At the time, lithography was still a vital commercial craft as well as an art medium, and Shahn was apprenticed to learn the trade of mass reproduction at the age of fourteen. Out of the journeyman graphic traditions of the popular press his art grew, and Shahn never completely abandoned his connection to organized labor. Shahn was an inveterate storyteller, addicted to the human figure even when it went out of fashion in the s. Perhaps his bestknown works are a group of paintings detailing the politicized trial and execution of two Italian laborers (the Sacco and Vanzetti series) at a time of anti-immigrant fervor in the late s. But he produced many representational works in the era between the wars that brought a new social seriousness to American art. He won early support, like so many Depression artists, from the Works Progress Administration, part of the New Deal. Many of Shahn’s early paintings were based on his photographs: he took a job as photographer for the Farm Security Administration from  to , and he traveled across the United States taking pictures of farmers and their families. Such a photograph is Myself among the Churchgoers (), which features one of Shahn’s rare self-portraits. In the late s Shahn met a young Midwest-born artist and Marxist named Bernarda Bryson, who became his assistant on a number of projects. The two were married

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Shakespeare Club of Morristown

in . Among their collaborations was a school mural in the little instant town of Jersey Homesteads (now Roosevelt), near Hightstown. Jersey Homesteads was founded (along with some thirty-five other federally mandated municipalities) during the Depression to resettle unemployed garment workers from Manhattan, who were supposed to help manufacture parachutes at a nearby factory. In , after Shahn completed the mural (which is still there), he bought one of the prefab houses and made it his home for the rest of his life. After the war, fine art became increasingly abstract, and representational art lost much of its prestige. Shahn pursued a career as an illustrator, working for national magazines and nearly always on images with direct social impact. One of his most influential graphic series appeared in Harper’s with an article about the Lucky Dragon, a Japanese fishing boat that had wandered near an American hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll in . The fallout slowly killed its entire crew with radiation poisoning. In his later years Shahn increasingly created religious imagery for synagogues and temples around the country, though he continued to make pointed political art as well (his studio in Roosevelt was littered with caricatures of Richard Nixon’s aides, among the last paintings he completed). Chevlowe, Susan, ed. Common Man, Mythic Vision: The Paintings of Ben Shahn. New York: Jewish Museum; Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Hughes, Robert. American Visions: The Epic History of Art in America. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .

See also art; Roosevelt

Dan Bischoff

Shakespeare Club of Morristown. The Shakespeare Club of Morristown is a group of Shakespeare devotees committed to oral readings of William Shakespeare’s plays. Begun by women as a club devoted to reading classics, the group expanded to include husbands, whereupon it established itself in  as the Shakespeare Club of Morristown. The second oldest Shakespeare Club in the United States (the Shakespeare Society of Philadelphia was founded in ), its membership includes several third- and fourth-generation families. Membership is limited to fifteen families, to correspond with the maximum number of characters in the Bard’s plays. Meetings are held one evening a month, November through May, at members’ homes. The annual selection incorporates a mix of tragedies, comedies, and historical dramas, and plays are read aloud with parts assigned by the club’s secretary. By-laws stipulate serving only non-alcoholic beverages, and formal attire is required.

Fran Wood

Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey. The home of the Shakespeare

settlers until they began a gradual movement north and west in . In the late s, remnants of that tribe, now named the Delaware nation and based in Oklahoma, announced plans to reclaim former reservation land and build a casino complex, but the plan went nowhere amid intense opposition. Most land use in Shamong today is either agricultural or residential, although expensive tract homes and small “farmlets’’ are also commonplace. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Shannon, Claude Elwood (b. Apr. , The Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey’s  production of The Blue Bird, featuring Chantal Jean-Pierre.

Courtesy Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey. Photo: Jerry Delia.

Theatre of New Jersey is the state-of-the-art, -seat F. M. Kirby Shakespeare Theatre on the campus of Drew University in Madison. The company is dedicated to presenting the plays of Shakespeare and other classic dramas. Its leadership has included Paul Barry and, since , Bonnie J. Monte. Founded as the New Jersey Shakespeare Festival in , it is the eighth largest Shakespeare festival in the country and the longest-running on the East Coast. Its Main Stage, Other Stage, and touring productions reach over , theatergoers in New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. See also theater

Paul Somers

Shamong.

.-square-mile township in southwestern Burlington County, established as an independent municipality in  from parts of Medford, Southampton, and Washington townships. In , part of Shamong was given to Woodland Township, and in , another parcel went to Tabernacle Township. Small areas of land from adjacent Atlantic and Camden counties were added in  to straighten a boundary. Shamong’s dominant geographic feature is Atsion Lake along Route , fed by the Mullica River. More than a third of the township’s land area now lies within the Wharton State Forest. Indian Mills is the township’s main village, which dates back to . In , the colonial government set up one of the continent’s first Indian reservations in an area called Brotherton. Members of the original Lenape tribe were sequestered there by white

; d. Feb. , ). Mathematician, electrical engineer, and cryptographer. Considered to be one of the giants of the information age, Claude Shannon was a distant relative of Thomas Edison. Born in Gaylord, Michigan, Shannon received a bachelor’s degree from the University of Michigan in  and master’s and Ph.D. degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in . He became a research fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and joined Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill in . He was responsible for developing a way to encode information for use in telecommunications that eventually laid the foundation for the development of modern computers. The brilliance of his work was in its simplicity and in the recognition of the unity of all information regardless of its source. Shannon discovered that all information could be encoded in a binary system of ones and zeros. He determined that symbolic logic could be performed by both a series of switches and circuits and in a binary code; this discovery allowed for a machine to make decisions based on encoded language. In short, Shannon’s insight became the basis for a computing machine and the touchstone of all subsequent communication engineering. Shannon coined the term bits for this encoded information. He died in Medford, Massachusetts, in . Ritchie, David. The Computer Pioneers: The Making of the Modern Computer. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Waldrop, M. Mitchell. “Reluctant Father of the Digital Age: Claude Shannon.’’ Technology Review  (July/Aug. ): –. Weaver, W., and Claude E. Shannon. The Mathematical Theory of Communications. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also Bell Labs

Jane E. Scimeca

Shark River Hills.

See Neptune.

Shaw, Thomas

sharks.

Sharks belong to an ancient group of fishes dating back  million years. Like their close relatives, stingrays and skates, sharks differ from bony fishes in having cartilage as a skeletal structure. Their skin is composed of tiny rough scales, and their mouths have variable numbers of specialized teeth. The presence of ancient sharks in New Jersey is well documented by their abundant fossils. Sharks are common visitors to the state’s shorelines, but few people not involved with fishing ever note their presence. Of the approximately  living species of sharks, about  visit with some regularity. The most commonly sighted include the smooth and spiny dogfishes, sandbar, sand tiger, and dusky sharks. Basking sharks, the second largest fish in the world, can reach lengths of thirty feet and are regularly sighted during the summer. The large, but harmless, basking shark can cause a stir due to its habit of swimming close to the surface. Other large and sometimes aggressive sharks off coastal New Jersey include the white, mako, bull, and tiger sharks. Shark populations in state waters may be declining, as are most shark populations worldwide. Slow reproductive rates among sharks make them particularly vulnerable to overfishing. New Jersey has the dubious distinction of being the location of a dramatic series of five shark attacks in the summer of . These attacks captured national headlines and much later became the inspiration for Peter Benchley’s Jaws. The first attack killed a man at Beach Haven on July  and was followed by another fatal attack at Sea Girt on July . The attacks sent a surge of panic along the coast, including a wave of indiscriminant shark killings by hook, spear, gun, and even dynamite. The attacks culminated with an astonishing triple attack in the brackish waters of Matawan Creek on July . A shark grabbed and killed a twelve-year-old boy swimming in the creek and then turned and fatally wounded a would-be adult rescuer. Soon afterward, another boy was bitten and seriously injured in the leg as he climbed from the water in response to the news of the upstream attacks. The identity of the shark was never conclusively proven. Many sharks were killed in subsequent days, including a probable great white in Raritan Bay near Matawan Creek. This .foot white shark was reported to have human remains in its stomach. Brackish creeks, however, are not a typical environment for great whites and are more suited to their aggressive relative the bull shark. Both sharks are sound candidates for the attacks. It is even possible that two different sharks were responsible and that the timing was a bizarre coincidence. An odd echo of the incidents occurred in  when a bather was again attacked in Sea Girt and another attacked nine days later in Ocean City. Capuzzo, Michael. Close to Shore: The Terrifying Shark Attacks of . New York: Crown, .

Fernicola, Richard G., M.D. Twelve Days of Terror: A Definitive Investigation of the  New Jersey Shark Attacks. New York: Lyons, .

See also fishes; Jersey Shore

Scott Stepanski

Shaw, Joshua

(b. c. ; d. Sept. , ).

Painter and inventor. On October , , Joshua Shaw arrived in Philadelphia aboard the ship Electra entrusted with a painting and a letter of introduction from the artist Benjamin West. Little is known about Shaw’s life in his native England. Born in Lincolnshire, he lost his father when he was seven. Shaw worked as a farmer, a glazier, a mail carrier, and finally a sign painter. In Bath he worked as an artist, sold a painting in Manchester, and moved to London to expand his art career. There he developed a friendship with West, the president of London’s Royal Academy, and agreed to deliver West’s gift, Christ’s Healing the Sick, and install it in the Philadelphia Hospital. Once in America, Shaw began sketching East Coast landscapes and, with the assistance of engraver John Hill, in  he published Picturesque Views of American Scenery. Working out of Philadelphia, his new home, he traveled extensively throughout the eastern United States. In  he published a travel guide called U.S. Directory for the Use of Travellers and Merchants, which listed taverns and boardinghouses and included his own drawings. Shaw planned subsequent editions, hoping to encourage young artists to submit drawings and stimulate interest in the arts. No further editions appeared. Feeling somewhat discouraged by the new land’s lack of patronage for the arts, Shaw returned to his other passion, inventing. In  Shaw’s percussion cap, a method for igniting firearms, was patented. He later invented six more. While working at the Franklin Arsenal in Philadelphia he developed a machine for manufacturing the percussion caps. Shaw also wrote articles about gunnery for the Journal of the Franklin Institute. In , while making a detonator, an explosion severely injured his left hand, rendering it useless for several years. Although the injury was serious, it appears that it did not prevent him from painting. In  he visited England to learn about new and improved gunlocks. Shaw also completed a group of sketches later published in T. T. Bury’s Views on the Liverpool and Manchester Railroad. When it was published, Shaw was credited as the first artist to sketch this new wonder of the nineteenth century, the railroad. Upon returning to the United States, Shaw considered teaching. In  he and Portuguese portrait painter Manuel DeFranca opened the School of Painting and Design in Philadelphia. It appears not to have been successful, and by  Shaw’s health was failing. In  Shaw left Philadelphia and moved to Church Street in Bordentown. He had never received money for his percussion

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cap inventions. After a long court battle, Shaw was awarded $, by the House Committee on Patents in . The following year Shaw bought a house on Farnsworth Avenue in Bordentown, where he lived until his death at the age of eighty-three. He was survived by a son and several daughters. In his lifetime he had painted more than  landscapes. His resting place remains a mystery. Although a lot in the local cemetery was registered in his name, Shaw and his wife are recorded as interred in Woodlands Cemetery in Philadelphia. Nygren, E. J. View and Visions: American Landscape before . Washington, DC: Corcoran Gallery of Art, . Shaw, Joshua. Picturesque Views of American Scenery. Philadelphia: Carey and Sons, .

See also art

Patrice M. Kane

Shaw, Thomas

(b. ; d. ). Silversmith and factory manager. Thomas Shaw was the leading maker of electroplated silver in Newark during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Born in England, about  he was apprenticed to R. and H. Elkington of Birmingham, England, the leading manufacturer of electroplated ware in England, and a successful exporter of its technology to American silver companies. By the late s, through the influence of Elkington’s process, electroplating had become an established industry in America. Shaw married Sarah Burch, by whom he had seven children. After her death he married her sister, Eliza. The family came to America in , right after the Civil War. Shaw settled first in Providence, Rhode Island, and worked for the Gorham Manufacturing Company, where he helped them establish an

Silver-plated coffeepot, designed by Thomas Shaw and chased by his son at Tiffany’s Newark electroplating factory, c. . H.  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Miss Sarah Shaw Foster, 1974. Photo: Armen, Jan. 1977.

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Sheckley, Robert

electroplating department. He left Gorham in  and established his own firm, Thomas Shaw and Company, in Providence. Here he first produced electroplated wares for Tiffany and Company. Charles Lewis Tiffany, founder of Tiffany’s, was the treasurer of Shaw’s firm, and probably financed the new enterprise. In  C. C. Adams resigned from Gorham and joined Shaw to form Adams and Shaw. In  Thomas Shaw moved the Adams and Shaw Company to Newark, to a factory on the corner of Park and Mulberry streets in the heart of the city’s burgeoning jewelrymaking district. Like many Newark jewelry and silver firms, Adams and Shaw kept an office in New York City. Adams, who lived in Brooklyn, probably managed the office, while Shaw oversaw the factory in Newark. Shaw lived first in Orange and then in Newark during the years that he ran the factory. Although the firm made silver and electroplate for the trade, its chief client was Tiffany and Company. It appears that in  Tiffany purchased the business outright, and Shaw continued as superintendent of the Newark factory until . All of Tiffany and Company’s early electroplate was produced by Thomas Shaw, either at his own shop under contract or as supervisor of Tiffany’s Newark factory. Tiffany opened its enormous new Forest Hill factory in Newark in , and at that time Shaw, age fifty-five, seems to have retired to his country house in Pompton Plains. When Shaw moved to Pompton Plains, he set up his own electroplating factory, which he operated for a few years. Thomas Shaw’s son Frank, trained as a skilled chaser, was have to followed in his father’s footsteps, but died in  of tuberculosis. His other son, Walter, was also a silversmith, and did chasing for Tiffany and Company. He also predeceased his father. Shaw remained in Pompton Plains for the rest of his life, as a prominent real estate developer. Carpenter, Charles H., Jr. Tiffany Silver. New York: Dodd, Mead, 

See also decorative arts

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Sheckley, Robert

(b. July , ). Sci-

ence fiction writer. Sheckley was born in New York City, but his family moved to Maplewood in , where he lived until graduating from Columbia High School in . Since then he has lived elsewhere in the United States and abroad, and New Jersey has been given brief, mostly satiric mentions in his fiction (see, for example, “Tripout’’ [] in Can You Feel Anything When I Do This?, a collection of short stories). Sheckley has been married five times and has four children. He is best known—and highly regarded—for science fiction novels and short stories that avoid ad´s and hard technology to focus venture cliche on social satire and witty depictions of the absurdities of modern life. Sheckley, Robert. The Collected Short Fiction of Robert Sheckley. Eugene, OR: Pulphouse Publishing, .

———. Dimension of Miracles. New York: Dell, . Stephenson, Gregory. Comic Inferno: The Satirical World of Robert Sheckley. San Bernadino, CA: Borgo Press, .

See also fiction

Kevin P. Mulcahy

Shellpile.

A neighborhood in Commercial Township, Cumberland County, Shellpile began harvesting oysters in the s. By , railroads were shipping them to distant markets and Bivalve, Shellpile, and Port Norris prospered. Beginning in , shucking houses were built and African Americans from the Chesapeake Bay region were hired to shuck the oysters. In , the oyster industry collapsed, due to the parasite MSX (multinucleated sphere unknown). Harvests fell from , bushels in  to , bushels in . Although the oysters slowly developed a slight resistance to MSX, another disease, Dermo, arrived in . The causes of both of these diseases are still under debate. The industry never fully recovered and many oystermen are unemployed.

Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration of the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Commercial Township

Linda J. Barth

sheriff. After the king, the sheriff is the oldest dignitary in the English-speaking world. The title is derived from the Anglo-Saxon: shire for “county’’ and reeve for “administrative official.’’ In New Jersey the sheriff is the county’s agent of the courts, a law enforcement official, and a jail manager (in some counties). If the office is no longer the “citadel of power in New Jersey,’’ as Woodrow Wilson declared in , it has been a special one. Popular distrust of the only county officer chosen by the entire electorate of the county limited the sheriff’s terms in office. In  the state’s first constitution said nothing about the sheriff’s functions (codified by the legislature in the s), but limited him to three one-year terms with a three-year lapse before he could be elected again. An  amendment to the  constitution extended the term to three years. Not until the third constitution () was the sheriff permitted a three-year term without any restriction on immediate reelection. Referenda for a five-year term, like those of other constitutional officers (prosecutor, county clerk, surrogate), were defeated in , , and . Although by  only two states allowed a sheriff to participate in jury selection, in New Jersey that duty was assigned solely to the sheriff. The legal revision of  had continued his common-law power in choosing grand jurors and gave him extraordinary authority in picking the petit and grand jury arrays and in drawing panels. In this way he could prevent the indictment and conviction of his friends, as well as stop the enforcement of laws

regulating popular activities (for example, liquor consumption and gambling). In , however, the court of errors and appeals ruled that the sheriff’s duties were “largely parliamentary—that is, of legislative origin, and always subject to change.’’ Shortly thereafter the sheriff had to share juryselection power with a person of a different political party who was appointed by the chancellor (in ); by the governor (in ); and by a supreme court justice (in ). When the governor was required to name both jury commissioners (), he was allowed to appoint the sheriff as one of them. In  the legislature assigned the choice of the jury commissioners to the supreme court, but no sheriff was ever so selected. Choosing eligible jurors was transferred in  to the county’s assignment judge. Erosion of the sheriff’s lucrative control of the county jail began in , when legislation transferred such authority in Essex and Hudson to the freeholders and allowed other freeholder boards to vote for assuming like authority. Subsequent legislation of this kind and the Optional County Charter Law () have resulted in only ten of the twenty-one sheriffs presently in charge of county jails. The sheriff’s office became increasingly profitable in a way that the legislature had not contemplated when it authorized his schedule of fees in . Unregulated contracts with his freeholder boards for supplying both food and nonfood services became customary. Finally, a  statute provided the Essex and Hudson sheriffs with $, annual salaries (greater than the governor’s); the following year, sheriffs in the other nineteen counties were given salaries according to population figures. Over time, the sheriff’s law enforcement authority has been considerably diminished by the legislature and the judiciary. A  statute led to the development of county police forces, and a  law established the state police. Finally, in  a state supreme court opinion held that the county prosecutor had “dominant position and responsibility’’ in this field. Effross, Harris I. Juries, Jails, and Justice: The Sheriff’s Office in New Jersey since the Seventeenth Century. Metuchen: Upland Press in association with the Newark Public Library, .

Harris I. Effross

Shiloh.

.-square-mile borough in Cumberland County. Formed in  from Hopewell and Stow Creek townships, Shiloh was founded in the late seventeenth century by Seventh Day Baptists, who observe Saturday as their sabbath. A group of worshipers from Swansea, Massachusetts, fleeing religious persecution from Puritan rule, purchased land in what was once known as Cohansey Corners. In , the Seventh Day Baptist Church of Shiloh was organized. The borough takes its name from a  event that occurred when the original Baptist meeting house was being moved. The movers

shipbuilding reached the center of town just before sunset on the sixth day and were told by their minister that “in Biblical times the Ark of God rested on the Sabbath day at Shiloh’’ and the church could not be moved any farther that day. Today,  percent of the land is in residential use and  percent is farmed. Shiloh is the smallest municipality in Cumberland County. The  population of  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

shingle mining.

The mining of shingles was quite distinct from ordinary shingle production, that is, cutting shingles from freshly felled trees. Mined shingles were cut from cedar logs that had long lain under the waters that flow through the Pine Barrens, especially near Dennisville in Cape May County. A chemical reaction between the woody substance of the submerged trees and chemicals in the local water made mined shingles much more durable, and much more expensive, than fresh-cut shingles. “Mining’’ was done by boat in local swamps. The mining tool was an iron rod. Workers would probe the waters until they hit a log. The log was then split into shingles. A typical worker might make six hundred shingles in a day. The shingles from Dennisville were considered some of the best in the area. Millville, in Cumberland County, was originally known as Shingle Landing because of the volume of cedar shingles made in the surrounding woods and shipped to Philadelphia and nearby ports. Modern machinery and the invention of asphalt shingles led to the end of the shingle mining business in the late s.

Moonsammy, Rita Zorn, David Steven Cohen, and Lorraine E. Williams, eds. Pinelands Folklife. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Donald M. Scarry

Shinn, Everett ).

(b. Nov. , ; d. May ,

Painter and illustrator. Everett Shinn was born in Woodstown, to Isaiah Conklin and Josephine Ransley Shinn. Shinn attended the Bacon Academy in Woodstown. He developed his ability to draw early in life; his childhood notebooks are filled with sketches. In , he left Woodstown for Philadelphia, where he studied mechanical drawing at the Spring Garden Institute and worked at Thackeray Gas Fixture Works. In the fall of , while enrolled in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, he studied under Thomas P. Anschutz

and began working nights as an illustrator for the Philadelphia Press. In , Shinn moved to New York City to work for the New York World. Shinn’s work as an illustrator influenced his later artistic style, which maintained a sense of immediacy seen in his illustrations. Lower-class subjects intrigued Shinn, an interest he shared with a group of artists now known as the Ashcan school, many of whom exhibited as “The Eight’’ at MacBeth Galleries in . This group included several artists Shinn had known in Philadelphia. Shinn brought a sense of theatricality to his images of New York, which depict the city as a spectacle of modern life. He also painted theatrical subjects and wrote and produced plays with his artist friends in New York. He married four times and had two daughters with his second wife, Corinne Baldwin. Shinn painted mural decorations in a rococo revival style, collaborating in several cases with architect Stanford White. His most ambitious mural, for the Trenton City Hall, was commissioned in . In this mural, Shinn abandoned the rococo revival style; instead, he turned to a realistic depiction of Trenton’s two great industries: the Roebling steel mills and a large Trenton pottery works. Deshazo, Edith. Everett Shinn, –: A Figure in His Time. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, . Gerdts, William H. Paintings and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art

Ashley L. Atkins

Ship Bottom.

.-square-mile borough on Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Ship Bottom is named for a shipwreck on its beach in  where the lone survivor, a young woman, was removed unharmed from the overturned hull in the surf. A local unit of the U.S. Life-Saving Service established there in . Ship Bottom joined three other small, adjoining resort communities to break away from the control of Long Beach Township in , and it became the independent borough of Ship Bottom–Beach Arlington. The name was shortened to Ship Bottom in . Ship Bottom is the first community that visitors see after crossing the bridge across the bay and, as such, has long been known as the “Gateway to the Island.’’ The railroad entered at this point in  as did the first automobile bridge in . Ship Bottom has a thriving commercial district along Bay Avenue, the main concourse, but it is entirely residential on all its side streets from ocean to bay. In , its population of , residents was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. The summer population ranges between , and ,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

John Bailey Lloyd

shipbuilding.

New Jersey’s shipyards have always reflected the character, dominant industries, and resources of their geographic

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locations. Large, heavily mechanized shipyards devoted to steel shipbuilding predominated near New York and Philadelphia. Smaller yards building wooden vessels, yachts, and fishing craft were found along the Delaware Bay, Cape May peninsula, and Atlantic shoreline. New Jersey’s first recorded shipwright was Miles Forster of Perth Amboy, who built the city’s first ship in ; however, earlier vessels had been built throughout the colony. In the s New Jersey shipwrights mostly constructed sloops and schooners. Between  and  almost  percent of their ships were sloops and  percent were schooners. These ships were about  tons on average. No large vessels were constructed in that period. From  to ,  percent of ships built in New Jersey were sloops and  percent were schooners. Other two-masted types— brigs, brigatines, and snows—accounted for about  percent. Only . percent of all vessels built in that period were three-masted, square-rigged ships. The average tonnage of all New Jersey–built vessels was .. A typical sloop built in  cost around £ for the hull and £ for the sails and rigging. Many New Jersey colonial ships were constructed on tight budgets and lasted only a few years. Shipbuilding was a small percentage of the state’s s economy. In , transportation equipment was fifth among the state’s industries. Within this category ships ranked behind horse-drawn vehicles and locomotives. New Jersey built . percent of all American ships in  and provided just six warships for the Civil War, and only three of these were ironclads. There were, however, a number of important shipbuilding centers. Belleville launched many steamboats starting in  when Fitch and Stevens built the experimental Pollaca for Chancellor Robert Livingston. Due in no small measure to the presence of the Stevens family, Hoboken not only had shipyards, but also metal fabricators of boilers and engines for New York City’s East River shipyards. Elizabeth, too, was home to both shipyards and ship-engine builders. Between  and  Keyport yards launched over sixty steamboats, steam yachts, and tugboats ranging from under  tons to  tons. Little Egg Harbor had six shipyards. Other yards were located at Tuckerton and Alloway. Wooden cargo-carrying coastal schooners, or coasters, were built in locations such as Dennis Creek in Cape May. Maurice River shipyards launched several large coasters, the last being the four-masted Dorothy Bell in . Specialized shallow-draft schooners for the Delaware Bay shellfishery came from yards on the Maurice and Cohansey rivers. Mays Landing, twenty miles from the ocean, produced over a hundred ships between  and . Builders in Phillipsburg and Washington supplied boats for the Morris Canal. Before , boats on the Delaware and Raritan Canal were built in Pennsylvania. Later boats were built at Camden, Trenton, and New Brunswick.

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Shippen, John M.

New Jersey is credited with many advances in marine technology. John Stevens used the world’s first screw propeller on his  steamboat Little Juliana. He followed this success in  with the Phoenix, a steam ferry whose New York-to-Philadelphia voyage was the first ocean trip by any steamboat. Machinery from New Jersey helped power the Savannah, the first ship to cross the Atlantic partially under steam power. In  Joseph Francis of Toms River developed corrugated iron lifeboats and then used the same technology to produce a special lifesaving craft designed to take survivors off coastal shipwrecks. Simon Lake of Pleasantville built the submarine Argonaut in . John Holland of Paterson created a series of submarines culminating with the U.S. Navy’s first successful submarine, the Holland (or Hull #), built at Lewis Nixon’s yard in Elizabeth. In  Henry G. Morse, the first president of New York Shipbuilding of Camden, introduced important shipbuilding innovations such as prefabricated subassemblies, roofed construction slips, and the use of full-size patterns when shaping steel. The twentieth century was the high point of New Jersey shipbuilding. In  New York Ship launched its first vessel, the tanker J. M. Guffey. Already well established by the First World War, New York Ship received contracts for thirty destroyers in  and launched sixteen transports of the state class. Todd Shipyards Corporation was started in June  from the consolidation of smaller firms with construction and repair facilities in Hoboken. In , Federal Shipyards was established in Kearny along the Hackensack River. Newark was the site of the Submarine Boat Company, established in . Despite the name, this yard produced  conventional freighters between  and . In peacetime, these yards turned to civilian merchant ship construction and navy contracts helped keep them going during the Depression. By , New Jersey shipyards built an incredible . percent of all American ships. In the Second World War, New York Ship employed , workers. It produced  capital ships, including -foot long Alaska-class battle cruisers. The yard launched  landing craft for both infantry and tanks. Federal employed , workers, produced  percent of the country’s destroyers, and was launching a new ship every four-and-ahalf working days. Todd’s Hoboken yard repaired more than , ships. Not all wartime construction was of large ships: Electric Boat Company of Bayonne produced mahogany PT boats. At the end of the war, New Jersey’s big shipyards went into decline. New York Ship cut back to , workers by  and would continue producing merchant ships only until . Today the -acre property is Camden’s Broadway Street Terminal. Able to accommodate -foot-long ships, Todd’s Hoboken yards did vessel repair work until

closing in . Federal held on with naval repairs until  and the property is now an industrial park. As of , only two shipyards remained in northern New Jersey, the Union Dry Dock Company in Hoboken and the Perth Amboy Dry Dock Company. Although Union has built some recent barges, neither is constructing powered craft and both concentrate on vessel repairs. Both are also expected to close within a few years. The National Marine Manufacturers Association lists nine firms in , most in the southern part of the state, producing yachts and other small craft. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, in  no New Jersey shipbuilder was constructing oceangoing ships. The Kvaerner Philadelphia Shipyard, founded in , draws one-third of its -person labor force from New Jersey. In  it had two steel cargo ships under construction. Two legacies remain from the era of the big shipyards—a tremendous sense of pride for contributing so much to the country’s defense and, sadly, asbestos exposure among former workers.

Kevin Olsen

As a teenager John Shippen worked on the crews that helped build one of America’s first premier golf clubs, the Shinnecock Hills Club. Under the tutelage of the club’s head pro, the famous Scots player Willie Dunn, Shippen learned the game while working as a groundskeeper and caddie and giving lessons to club members. In  club members entered Shippen in the professional division of the U.S. Open championship being held at Shinnecock Hills. Because other professional golfers living in America at the time and competing in professional tournaments were from either Scotland or England, John Shippen became both the first American-born and the first African American golf professional in the United States. When the other professionals learned that a black man was going to compete, they threatened to boycott the championship. United States Golf Association president Theodore Havermayer issued an ultimatum: “We play the Open with you or without you.’’ Shippen worked at Shinnecock and other New York area clubs for many years and gave private lessons to some of the wealthiest men of the era, including J. P. Morgan and Henry Clay Frick. From  until  he was the head professional at Shady Rest Country Club in Scotch Plains, the nation’s first private country club for African Americans.

(b. Dec. , ;

McDaniel, Pete. Uneven Lies: The Heroic Story of African Americans in Golf. Greenwich, CT: American Golfer, .

Levitt, James H. For Want of Trade: Shipping and the New Jersey Ports, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Rolfs, Donald H. Under Sail: The Dredgeboats of Delaware Bay. Millville: Wheaton Historical Association, . Reussille, Leon. Steam Vessels Built in Old Monmouth, –. Brick: Farley Printing Services, .

Shippen, John M. d. May , ).

Professional golfer. John Shippen was born in Maryland, and moved with his family to Long Island where his father, a Presbyterian minister, served as a preacher to the Shinnecock Indians, an Algonquin tribe that had lived in the island for centuries.

See also golf; Shady Rest Country Club

Lawrence D. Hogan

shipwrecks.

Coastal and international trade has plied the waters off New Jersey for over three hundred years. The coastline

The wreck of the Dora Baker brought many sightseers to the beach in Long Branch, .

From Harper’s Weekly, Aug. 24, 1867, after a sketch by Charles Parsons. Courtesy Gary Gentile.

shipwrecks

Cecilia M. Dunlap 1931

Mary Ellen 1846

SELECTED SHIPWRECKS

Relief Ship # 505 1960

The Register 1846

Northern #8 Plymouth 1924

Pioneer 1846 Arkansas 1846 New Era 1854

Antares 1846

Morro Castle 1934

Amity 1824

Lotty New Jersey Alabama 1846

Choapa 1944

Mohawk 1935

AT L A N T I C OCEAN

Ionnes P. Goulandris 1942

Pinta 1963

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Arundo 1942 Stolt Dagali 1964

U-869 1945

John Minturn 1846 Tolten 1942 R.P. Resor 1942

Texas Tower #4 1961

Count Perasto 1839 N

Area of Detail

Powhattan 1854 0

HMS Zebra 1778

10 0 miles

60 miles © Rutgers, The State University

has seen the passing of thousands of vessels since the establishment of the seaports of New York and Philadelphia. Sailing vessels, tankers, cruisers, destroyers, liners, freighters, pilot boats, barges, and tugboats all have their representatives lying on the bottom off the New Jersey coast. They met their fates through collisions, storms, fires, boiler explosions, strandings, mechanical failures, structural fatigue, and enemy action. The problems caused by weather and war have been compounded by the nature of the coastline. The major ports of New York, Elizabeth, and Newark all lie inside a protected area guarded by Sandy Hook, New Jersey, and Rockaway Point at the western end of Long Island, New York. The gap between these two points of land is just five nautical miles. Within that space is the half-mile-wide Ambrose Channel, through which all major shipping must pass to access the harbor area. This narrow passage has historically increased

the possibility of accident, particularly in fog or heavy storms. Add to this mix human fallibility and the result has been frequent collisions and strandings in the shallow waters just outside the Ambrose Channel. One of the earliest shipwrecks to occur in these waters was the vessel carrying the immigrant Penelope Stout, which, according to tradition, wrecked at Sandy Hook during a storm in . The Revolutionary War saw a number of sinkings due to naval combat. “Whaleboat Warfare’’ took its toll on British naval forces from New Jersey to Connecticut, especially in Sandy Hook Bay. Patriot whalers raided British vessels, scuttling many of them and taking others as war prizes. British forces attempted to recapture these vessels well up the Delaware and Mullica rivers. In the course of the fighting, both sides burned and sank vessels to keep them out of enemy hands. In addition, storms continued to exact a toll on shipping. In January  fourteen British ships

that departed from Sandy Hook disappeared in a storm and were lost. Tricky navigation caught the HMS Zebra in ; after harassing rebel militia in South Jersey, it stranded on a sandbar opposite the Mullica River. During the first half of the nineteenth century, the New Jersey shore, especially the stretch from Sandy Hook to Barnegat Inlet, was the most notorious shoreline for shipwrecks between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras. In one day, during what has been named the “Minturn Storm’’ of , nine vessels struck the shore. Wrecked were the Mary Ellen at Sandy Hook, the Register at Long Branch, the Pioneer and Arkansas off Deal, the Lotty and New Jersey near the Shark River, the Alabama near Manasquan Inlet, the Antares between Ocean Grove and Bradley Beach, and the John Minturn off Mantaloking. Helplessly observing one such disaster moved William Newell, a physician, to act. On August , , he watched the brig Count

740

Shockley, William Bradford

Perasto wreck off Long Beach Island. Thirteen members of the crew drowned. Newell, later a United States representative, convinced Congress to establish a life-saving service to protect lives and property during nearshore maritime disasters. At first this was a volunteer service, but in  it became a professional federal service, and in  was included in what became the U.S. Coast Guard. The coastline of New Jersey has also seen its share of sinkings directly related to naval activities in both world wars because they brought the destructive power of the U-boat to Atlantic waters. During World War I, June , , came to be known as Black Sunday. At that time the United States assumed U-boats were too small to cross the ocean and therefore did not pose much of a threat. As a result Americans were unprepared when U, under the command of Captain von Nostitz, appeared. The U-boat quickly managed to sink schooners Isabel B. Wiley, Jacob M. Haskell, and Edward H. Cole; freighters Winneconne and Texel; tanker Herbert L. Pratt; and passenger liner Carolina, all off the coast of the state. Between the wars, merchant vessels collided in fog and storms, and from mistakes in navigation. The barges Plymouth and Northern No.  foundered during a gale in January  while off Long Branch. The barge Cecilia M. Dunlap had almost reached the safety of the port New York when it went down off Sea Bright during bad weather in September . Better known is the incident in  when the Morro Castle burned and came ashore at Asbury Park. Its sister ship, Mohawk, sank after being rammed by the tanker Tullahoma off Mantoloking the following year. During World War II many merchant vessels went to watery graves off New Jersey. They were sunk by U-boats that could, at least early in the war, clearly see them outlined against the lights of shore towns refusing to impose a blackout for fear of losing tourists. Included in the toll were merchant vessels such as the Arundo, Choapa, Tolten, and Ionnes P. Goulandris. When blackouts made it harder for German captains to see, vessels zigzagging to avoid submarines collided with one another in fog or due to human error. After the war, ships continued to collide or be stranded along the treacherous shore. In , for example, the Pinta was rammed and sank off Asbury Park by the City of Perth— a minute after sundown on a calm, clear evening. The next year the Stolt Dagali was run down and cut in two off Mantoloking by the liner Shalom. The stern of the Stolt sank in  feet of water while the bow remained afloat. Before the invention of electronic navigational aids, vessels’ crews used charts, a sextant, and a chronometer to calculate their location. This method, along with lighthouses, buoys, and landmarks, was heavily depended on but useless in fog or a heavy storm. After World War II, sophisticated electronic

navigation equipment became commercially available even to sport fishermen and pleasure boaters. Despite these aids, disasters at sea still occur. Misinterpreted readings or signals, or a lapse of judgment, as well as storms, continue to send vessels and their crews to the bottom. Berg, Daniel. Wreck Valley II: A Record of Shipwrecks off Long Island’s South Shore and New Jersey. East Rockaway, NY: Aqua Explorers, . Berman, Bruce D. Encyclopedia of American Shipwrecks. Boston: Mariners Press, . Gentile, Gary. Shipwrecks of New Jersey: A Popular Dive Guide. Norwalk, CT: Sea Sports Publications, . Methot, June. Up and Down the Beach. Navesink: Whip Publishers, .

See also Life-Saving Service

Dan Lieb

Shockley, William Bradford (b. Feb. , ; d. Aug. , ). Physicist. William Shockley worked at Bell Telephone Laboratories from  to , except for the war years, and again, as a consultant, from  to , initially in New York City and then in Murray Hill. In  he became the leader of a group that explored the use of semiconductors in electronics. The effort culminated in the invention of the transistor, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in physics in . His later life was marred by controversy engendered by his espousal of the view that genetic differences between the races lead to differences in intellectual and social achievements. Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also transistor

Peter Lindenfeld

shoemaking.

New Jersey’s shoemaking industry traces its roots back to eighteenthcentury Newark, where shoemakers, including Gerret Sickles, Thomas Drake, and Moses Combs, turned out boots and shoes for markets that extended well beyond the immediate region. Though individual cobblers produced shoes for neighborhood markets in cities like Paterson, it was Newark in the nineteenth century that gained a national reputation for the quality of its manufactured footwear. By , approximately one-third of Newark’s total workforce was engaged in shoe production; much of this work took place as outsourced jobs within homes. In , the city’s eighteen shoemaking factories employed over one thousand workers, and by , the city was turning out $, worth of shoes a year. Newark’s shoemakers, like those in New England, were hobbled by the Panic of , as demand for their product contracted sharply. Yet the city’s manufacturers remained skilled producers and leading suppliers to the national market, a process made easier by the development of a sophisticated and reliable system of canals and railroads. Also home to

many leather tanneries, Newark nurtured innovators like Seth Boyden, who in  developed a patent leather–making process that helped propel the region into one of the nation’s leading leather-making centers. By the outbreak of the Civil War in , over  tanneries were operating within the city’s borders, helping to stimulate production in allied industries such as shoemaking. Founded in , Newark’s James A. Bannister Company, located on Washington Street along the Morris Canal, earned international recognition in judged competitions at the Vienna Exposition of  and the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in . Other notable mid-century manufacturers included Johnston and Murphy, founded in  by William Dudley, and the A. Lenz Company, which employed over  cordwainers (shoemakers). By the s, sixteen Newark shoe manufacturers were producing $. million in shoes and boots. By the post–Civil War period, tanning and leather production had become the city’s leading industry, employing over , and producing $ million in sales. At the turn of the twentieth century,  Newarkers were still employed in shoemaking, and an additional , worked in allied industries. Newton, historically the state’s other major shoemaking center, was home to the H. W. Merriam Shoe Company, which had relocated from New York after the Civil War. Merriam manufactured ladies’ shoes in the late nineteenth century and employed between  and  by the s. The Sussex Shoe Company, established circa , was also located in Newton, and in  employed  workers who turned out , pairs daily. The Merriam and Sussex firms were joined in  by Newton’s third and smallest factory, the Newton Shoe Company, which produced almost  pairs a day at the turn of the twentieth century. A decline in immigration, coupled with the draw of cheaper southern labor, led to Newark’s decline as a shoemaking capital during the twentieth century, a fate sealed by Johnston and Murphy’s  decision to relocate its operations to Nashville, Tennessee. Similarly, Merriam, Newton’s major producer, had moved to Baltimore in . The Jefferson Shoe Company, which decided against relocating, failed during the Great Depression of the s. Cunningham, John. Newark. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, . Newton Up to Date: History, Growth, and Development of the Town. Reprint ed. Washington: Genealogical Researchers, .

See also leather industry

Charles F. Cummings

shopping centers and malls.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, shopping centers and malls consist of three or more “architecturally unified commercial establishments built on a site that is planned,

Shorter, Wayne developed, owned, and managed as an operating unit.’’ Shopping centers and malls are a twentieth-century, post–World War II phenomenon. Before the Second World War, historic downtown areas dominated retail sales. During the s, shopping patterns changed and shopping centers and malls, outside the central urban core, attracted former “Main Street’’ customers. This transition resulted from rapid suburbanization and economic decentralization—both accompanied by accelerated population growth (the baby boom) and the construction of a network of interstate highways (the Federal Highway Act of ). By the late s, super-regional shopping centers had captured the retail sales market and become primary destinations for urban and suburban shoppers. These sprawling shopping centers, which accommodated large numbers of people, were anchored by indoor shopping malls and accessible from superhighways. In the year , New Jersey shopping centers totaled ,, occupied  million square feet of space, with reported retail sales of $. billion. Initially, in the postwar years, outdoor shopping centers appeared in New Jersey near or adjacent to new suburban residential development. These centers (such as Levittown Shopping Plaza at Willingboro in Burlington County) consisted of a variety of stores, usually including a supermarket, a hardware store, a movie theater, a local eatery, and ample parking for the private auto transportation that was essential to suburban life. In the s, the concept of the shopping center and its customers evolved to become more sophisticated and interactive. When the Cherry Hill Mall, located in Camden County in southern New Jersey, opened to the public on October , , it represented architect Victor Gruen’s concept of a totally integrated shopping center that functioned as both an economic and a community center. Built on a fifteen-acre site by the Rouse Company of Baltimore, it was the first enclosed mall in the East. Its climate-controlled pedestrian walkways, child-friendly atmosphere, refreshing fountains, and exotic plants successfully ´s, ilcombined with a cinema, sidewalk cafe luminated parking lots, and a meeting hall and kitchen available for the use of township groups without charge. Cherry Hill Mall became the prototype for large township malls in New Jersey. Adjacent to the mall, high-rise office buildings and corporate business complexes quickly sprang up. Thereafter, regional shopping malls became centrally located commercial centers in suburbia. Tax revenues from mall property and retail sales appreciably enlarged the host township’s financial base and helped defray the increasing cost of suburban services. Woodbridge Center, in Middlesex County, was the largest enclosed shopping mall in New Jersey when it opened in . It provided $,

in tax revenue to local government during its first year of operation. By , Bergen and Middlesex counties, combined, contained  million square feet of shopping centers, including  million square feet at the Garden State Plaza in Paramus. In , community-oriented mall management continued to host local events—bridal seminars, blood drives, family fun nights, and Broadway ticket giveaways. The state’s twentynine enclosed malls offer options ranging from valet parking at the Mall at Short Hills in Essex County to Value City bargain prices in Atlantic County at the Shore Mall in Egg Harbor. Cammarota, Ann Marie T. Pavements in the Garden: The Suburbanization of Southern New Jersey, Adjacent to the City of Philadelphia,  to the Present. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Garreau, Joel. Edge City: Life on the New Frontier. New York: Doubleday, . Hughes, James W., and George Sternlieb. Retailing and Regional Malls. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, Rutgers University, .

See also suburbanization

Ann Marie T. Cammarota

ShopRite.

See Wakefern Food Corpora-

tion.

Shore.

See Jersey Shore.

shorebirds.

Shorebirds are small to medium-sized, short-legged, long-billed wading birds that frequent tidal mudflats, salt marshes, and beaches. Some twenty species regularly migrate through New Jersey in the spring and fall, and five species breed along the coasts (piping plover, Charadrius melodus; American oystercatcher, Haematopus palliatus; willet, Cataptrophorus semipalmatus) or in a variety of terrestrial habitats, both coastal and inland (killdeer, Charadrius vociferus; spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularia). About one hundred pairs of the federally endangered piping plover breed on New Jersey’s beaches, where they are threatened by human disturbance, habitat loss, oil spills, off-road vehicles, and predators (cats, dogs, foxes, gulls). Since most pairs nest solitarily, it is difficult to protect their nests, eggs, and chicks from human disturbance and predators. Some pairs nest in least tern (Sterna antillarum) colonies, deriving protection from the early warning and mobbing of the terns. With vigilant protection and management, the state’s population is gradually increasing. Oystercatchers and willets nest on salt marsh islands around the coast. They increased greatly during the last half of the twentieth century. Spotted sandpipers nest around ponds, and killdeers are common breeders in short grass fields and even in parking lots. In late May and early June, Delaware Bay hosts the largest concentration of migrating shorebirds in the continental United

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States—over one hundred thousand birds move through in a three-week period. They are attracted to the bay because of the abundant supply of horseshoe crab eggs. Unlike coastal areas to the north (the New York–New Jersey Harbor) and to the south (Chesapeake Bay), the peak of the horseshoe crab breeding season coincides with the peak shorebird migration. The shorebirds remain for two to three weeks, feeding on horseshoe crab eggs during low tide and on invertebrates on the salt marshes during high tide. During this migratory stopover they nearly double their weight, building up enough fat to make the more than ,-mile journey to their arctic and subarctic breeding grounds. These migrants are under intense pressure, because if they do not put on enough fat in this limited time period, they will be unprepared to breed when they arrive at their breeding grounds. Over  percent of the North American population of red knot (Calidris canutus) moves through Delaware Bay, creating a bottleneck of vulnerability. The shorebird migrants on Delaware Bay are threatened by declining populations of horseshoe crabs (due to overharvesting), human disturbance (largely controlled), habitat loss due to human activities and sea-level rise, and oil spills. The migrating shorebirds attract thousands of tourists each spring, and Cape May County derives substantial economic benefits from the spectacle. Educational programs try to keep the tourists from disturbing the migrants. See also birds

Joanna Burger

Shorter, Wayne

(b. Aug. , ). Musician, composer, and bandleader. Wayne Shorter attended Newark Arts High School for painting and sculpting; he did not begin to study music until he was sixteen. At New York University he majored in music education. From  to  he played with the U.S. Army Band in Washington, D.C. In Newark he heard numerous artists at the Grand Auditorium (now Masonic Hall) and the Sugar Hill Club. He socialized and practiced with John Coltrane and worked with Horace Silver’s group and Maynard Ferguson’s band, then with Art Blakey’s Jazz Messengers from  to . When he joined Miles Davis in , he became the idea man of the legendary s quintet. A chief architect of s jazz and s fusion, Wayne Shorter is a significant composer and improviser on the tenor and soprano saxophones. From  to , Shorter and Joe Zawinul co-led Weather Report, which fused jazz, rock, classical, and electronic elements. He toured in the s with Herbie Hancock’s VSOP Quintet, which revisited the s jazz repertoire. Since , he has led his own bands and made recordings for albums and films. Shorter won the Downbeat poll on soprano sax for seventeen years consecutively and has won three Grammies.

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Short Hills

Rowland, Mark, and Tony Scherman, eds. The Jazz Musician. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

See also jazz

Roger H. Wesby

Short Hills.

See Millburn.

Short Hills Park.

Situated within the Township of Millburn, Short Hills Park is one of the nation’s preeminent planned communities—listed on the New Jersey as well as the National Register of Historical Places. The Park was designed and developed beginning in  by Stewart Hartshorn (– ), who made his fortune after securing a patent for his invention of the spring roller shade in . His initial move to New Jersey occurred in , when, in precarious health, he began to search for a healthy country environment. At first he settled his family in Springfield, but three years later built a home in Short Hills. Acquiring extensive land, he planned to establish an “ideal community.’’ Hartshorn’s plan included the most up-todate advances in underground sewer technology, roads, surface drainage gutters, and waterworks. In , he commissioned architect Stanford White to design a community building (the Short Hills Casino—destroyed by fire in ). He also established a post office, built a public stable, and created the village of Short Hills at the edge of the Park, which included a railroad station. He saw the community as his private enclave, in which he could choose residents who shared his various philosophies on nature and a healthy lifestyle. He allowed no saloons or factories and decreed that homes be built from architect-designed plans that he had the right to review. Residences in the Park were not separated by fences in order to preserve the parklike appearance of the area. Homes in Short Hills Park were designed by some of the noted architects of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including Hugh Lamb, Charles Alonzo Rich, Arthur Nash, M. Hugh Baillie Scott, Wilson Eyre, Lewis Colt Albro, Harrie T. Lindeberg, and James Brown Lord. Styles ranged from Stick style, English Arts and Crafts, as well as Colonial, Greek, and Tudor revivals. Many of the original homes survive into the twenty-first century. Millburn–Short Hills Historical Society. Sticks, Shingles and Stones: The History and Architecture of Stewart Hartshorn’s Ideal Community at Short Hills, New Jersey, –. Millburn: Millburn–Short Hills Historical Society, . Public Art in New Jersey during the American Renaissance. Wayne: Museums Council of New Jersey, .

See also designed communities

Barbara J. Mitnick

Shreve, Israel

(b. Dec. , ; d. Dec. ,

). Soldier. Israel Shreve was born in Mount

Pleasant, Burlington County. Although raised as a Quaker, he served as lieutenant colonel

and colonel of the Second Regiment of the New Jersey Continental Line from  to . Shreve accompanied the second invasion of Canada, was wounded at Brandywine, and commanded the stockade that supplied Sullivan’s expedition. His extensive service in New Jersey included the Battles of Monmouth and Springfield and skirmishes all over the state. Weighing about  pounds, Shreve cut an unusual figure for a soldier. Despite his steady service, Gen. George Washington expressed disappointment in his performance as a commander, and Shreve’s inability to subdue the mutiny in the New Jersey Line at Pompton in January  hastened his resignation. After the war he moved to Washington’s lands in western Pennsylvania where he died on the same day as his former commander-inchief. Among his eleven children was Henry Miller Shreve, for whom the city of Shreveport, Louisiana, is named. Thompson, William Y. Israel Shreve: Revolutionary War Officer. Ruston, LA: McGinty Trust Fund Publications, .

See also American Revolution

Mariam Touba

Shrewsbury Borough.

.-squaremile township in Monmouth County. Part of the Monmouth Patent created in , Shrewsbury incorporated on December , . On October , , Monmouth was subdivided and a portion of Shrewsbury separated and became what is known today as Shrewsbury Township. The southwest portion of the original village split on March , , to form Stafford Township in Ocean County. Shrewsbury was further diminished when parts were annexed to Freehold Township and Upper Freehold in , Atlantic Township in , Ocean Township in , Eatontown in , Howell in , Rumson in , Red Bank in , Fair Haven in , and Little Silver in . Shrewsbury was organized as a borough in . One of Shrewsbury Borough’s most famous structures is the Allen House, located at the intersection known as the Four Corners. Built in , it was a tavern operated by Josiah Halstead during the American Revolution, the residence of Dr. and Mrs. Edmund W. Allen and their descendants from  to , an antique shop, and a tearoom. In , Monmouth County Historical Society restored it to its appearance as a  tavern. The population of Shrewsbury Borough was , in ;  percent was white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Shrewsbury. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . ———. Shrewsbury. Vol. . Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Kraybill, Richard L. The Story of Shrewsbury. Red Bank: Commercial Press, .

Barbara Pepe

Shrewsbury Township.

.-squaremile township in Monmouth County. Shrewsbury Township was part of the original village of Shrewsbury, which was created by the Monmouth Patent of April , . In , a small section in the western part of the original village of Shrewsbury broke away and incorporated as a township. During World War II, Shrewsbury Township was the site of federal housing used by the U.S. Army. On July , , Tinton Falls and Wayside split from Shrewsbury Township. The new section fought to use the name of Shrewsbury, but lost. Instead, the small area that remained from the original village was awarded the right to retain the name. Today, Shrewsbury Township is a tiny community that consists of approximately two to three blocks of apartments and condominiums. It is situated south and west of Shrewsbury Borough and is bordered by Shrewsbury Avenue, Tinton Falls, and a small portion of Eatontown. The population of Shrewsbury Township was , in :  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Gabrielan, Randall. Shrewsbury. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . ———. Shrewsbury. Vol. . Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Kraybill, Richard L. The Story of Shrewsbury. Red Bank: Commercial Press, .

Barbara Pepe

Sierra Club. Established in San Francisco in  to protect natural areas, the New Jersey chapter of the Sierra Club was formed in  and soon had , members, an outings schedule, and a quarterly journal, The Jersey Sierran. The state chapter (like the national) promotes grassroots activism on public policy issues, such as solid waste, mass transit, farmland preservation, environmental education, and clean water. In the s it campaigned for the Eastern Wilderness Act, New Jersey’s Natural Areas System Act, the state’s Natural Lands Trust, Brigantine Wilderness Area, and the Pinelands Preserve. The club championed the  New Jersey law giving citizens the right to sue polluters on the basis of (and prior to) environmental damage. Also in the ls, the chapter lobbied against the Tocks Island Dam and the Toms River Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike and supported state passage of the Coastal Facilities Review Act and the $ million Green Acres Bond Issue. The chapter joined national campaigns on issues such as nuclear power, the Concorde Supersonic Transport Aircraft, and Toxic Substances Control, vital to New Jersey. In the ls the chapter lobbied to expand the Brigantine Wilderness Area and Great Swamp Wilderness. The New Jersey chapter, with , members in ten regional groups as of , continues to function within the national, member-supported

silversmithing club, engaging in lobbying, support for legislative candidates, and judicial activism. Cohen, Michael P. The History of the Sierra Club, – . San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, . Turner, Tom. Sierra Club: One Hundred Years of Protecting Nature. New York: Harry N. Abrams, .

Susan R. Schrepfer

Sigmund Eisner Company.

The Sigmund Eisner Company, manufacturers of U.S. Army uniforms, was founded by a Czech immigrant in the mid-s. Eisner settled in Red Bank, where he met his wife, Bertha Wise, and raised his four sons. Starting in the needle trade, the couple soon expanded their cottage industry. Awarded government contracts during the Spanish-American War, the Eisner Company became the primary outfitters of uniforms in the United States with five factories working during World Wars I and II. Between the wars the Eisner Company manufactured Boy Scout uniforms and clothing for police departments and fire companies. Sigmund Eisner died in , but his sons continued to run the company until the early s.

Joan Garb

silk industry.

Although silk thread and textiles were produced in several New Jersey locations, Paterson was the center of the silk industry in the state. Christopher Colt, a Connecticut industrialist, installed the first silk mill during the late s in Paterson’s Old Gun Mill, using old equipment brought from his Connecticut mill. The venture soon failed. John Ryle, a silk worker from England, purchased the machinery and started producing silk thread in . By , Ryle’s operation employed over five hundred employees, manufacturing silk thread, embroidery yarn, and ribbon. By , there were six silk mills in operation and secondary processing industries began to develop. Over six hundred people— mostly women, children, and unskilled men— worked in silk-dyeing plants. Paterson’s silk industry thrived for several reasons: the water-based power supplied by the Passaic River, a steady supply of skilled immigrant craftspeople from England and France (and, later, from Poland and Italy), and proximity to the market in New York. The success of the enterprise was also aided by high protective tariffs imposed on imported silk finished goods. Improvements in technology, available capital, increased demand, and explosive immigration fueled the expansion of the industry. By ,  companies in Paterson, employing , workers, processed two-thirds of all the silk in the country. In , there were , workers, producing over $ million in goods, earning Paterson the titles “Silk City’’ and “the Lyons of America’’ after the French silk industry center. As the industry grew and technology improved, the ratio of skilled to unskilled workers declined. In Europe, loom operators and

ribbon makers were considered to be highly skilled artisans. There, they owned their own tools and were leaders in their communities. In New Jersey, by contrast, these skilled immigrants suffered reduced status and loss of independence. High-speed power looms replaced the looms that were run by skilled craftsmen. The silk industry became mostly a workplace for women and children. The fine and delicate work lent itself to their small hands. The men found work in the local metal industries and at the Paterson-based Rogers Locomotive Works. Long hours, dangerous and unhealthy working conditions, and low wages were the rule in Paterson’s silk factories. Only the smallest children escaped work. The manufacturers, seeking to reduce costs and maximize profits, lowered the wages of the workers while increasing their workload. These wage cuts, along with horrible working conditions, led to a series of strikes and the involvement of labor unions, such as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), also known as “Wobblies.’’ Manufacturers began to open annexes in northeast Pennsylvania and in the South where lower wages were tolerated and the workers were less likely to strike. Although the Paterson silk industry continued to grow until the Great Depression in the s, it began to lose national market share to other states. As the big manufacturers moved out, smaller family shops, sometimes known as “cockroach’’ shops, replaced them. These usually had fewer than thirty looms and employed mostly women and children. Other factors contributing to the decline of the silk industry in Paterson were labor unrest (most notably the general strike of ), the lowered demand for silk during the Depression, and the failure to incorporate new and competing fibers, such as rayon, into production. Scranton, Phillip. Silk City: Studies on the Paterson Silk Industry, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

See also industry

Paterson

silk

strike;

name partner Herbert L. Zuckerman have retired. The firm presently occupies more than four floors in the Legal Center in Newark. Having gained a national client base, it also has offices in New York, San Francisco, and Atlantic City. Over  attorneys provide experience and expertise in a broad range of corporate disciplines including, but not limited to, complex litigation and corporate transactional matters, securities, tax, product liability, real estate, gaming/casinos, venture capital, bankruptcy, corporate immigration, employment and labor, and health care.

Michael B. Tischman

Silva, Francis A. (b. Oct. , ; d. Mar. , ). Painter. Francis A. Silva was born in New York City, the son of Francis John Silva, a barber, who had emigrated from Madeira. The son began as a sign and carriage painter before his Civil War service in the Union Army, where he rose to captain in the Ninth New York Volunteer Infantry. In  Silva returned to New York and began his career as an artist, concentrating on marine subjects. He married Margaret A. Watts in Keyport in , and they had at least one child. Silva was a leading figure in the luminist movement in American art, which stressed the use of light and atmosphere to achieve poetic images. He was known for his serene marine paintings depicting the coast from the New Jersey shore and Chesapeake Bay to New England, such as Barnegat Bay () and Seabright from Galilee (). He was elected to the American Watercolor Society in . In  Silva moved to Long Branch, although he maintained his studio in New York. For the last six years of his life he painted mainly New Jersey scenes. He died of pneumonia in New York City. Baur, John I. H. “Francis A. Silva: Beyond Luminism.’’ Antiques  (Nov. ): –.

See also art

textile

Robert Egan

Sills, Cummis, Radin, Tischman, Epstein, and Gross. This law firm was founded in  in Newark under the name Sills, Beck, Cummis, Radin, and Tischman, when Arthur J. Sills, former attorney general of New Jersey for eight years under Gov. Richard J. Hughes, and David Beck joined an existing seven-lawyer general practice headed by Clive S. Cummis and two younger partners, Steven S. Radin and Michael B. Tischman. Growth came quickly and in large spurts—so quickly that one year later, the firm moved from its original offices in a three-story brownstone to a new eighteen-story office building. Barry M. Epstein joined the firm in  and Steven E. Gross joined the firm in . Arthur Sills died in ; David Beck and subsequent

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Jan Kelsey

silversmithing.

Until the late s, a few individuals (the shop of Isaac Pearson of Burlington dates to circa ) practiced the art of the silversmith in New Jersey; New York and Philadelphia silversmiths usually supplied what was needed until then. After the Revolution, with increased prosperity and population, more silversmiths began to work within the state’s borders. A number of the earliest involved in the trade were Nathaniel Coleman (Burlington), Aaron Lane (Elizabeth), Teunis Denise Dubois (Freehold), John Dikerson (Morristown), John and Peter Lupp (New Brunswick), David Lyell (Perth Amboy), Smith Burnett and Benjamin Cleveland (Newark), and John Fitch (Trenton). Most engaged in the allied trades of jeweler and clock and watchmaker, as well as that of silversmith, to earn their living. The

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Silzer, George Sebastian

overwhelming proportion of their production, common at the time, was the fabrication of spoons. The first large-scale manufacturing operation for silverware developed in Newark with the partnership of Taylor and Baldwin (John Taylor and Isaac Baldwin) in . About , silversmiths in the New York area began wholesaling their wares and making pieces to order for retail jewelers. Taylor and Baldwin, besides selling on its own account, was involved in this type of business and, perhaps, was specifically formed to engage in it. The firm also entered into the large-scale production of jewelry and is credited with establishing the basis for one of the great and profitable industries of Newark. In , John Taylor retired to enter the banking business full time. Baldwin established a new firm, known as Baldwin and Company, consisting of himself, his sons Horace and Wickliffe, and another individual by the name of C. E. Chevalier. The timing of this new enterprise could not have been better since, in the same year, a tariff was put into place raising the import duties on silverware from  percent ad valorum to  percent ad valorum. This protection, along with the general increase in prosperity after the paralyzing five-year depression emanating from the Panic of , resulted in a dynamic and expanding market for domestically produced silver goods. Baldwin and Company produced fashionable and stylistically distinctive goods. In , the firm was succeeded by Thomas G. Brown. In an  advertisement for Brown, part of the text reads: “Successor to Baldwin & Co., Established .’’ The dating of the firm to the year  cannot be verified, since establishments often dated themselves from the beginning of an earlier partnership. Brown continued the production of high-quality silverware, although the firm, in most instances, listed itself as a jewelry manufacturer. Another mid-nineteenth-century New Jersey silversmith of note was Henry C. Priest of Newark (fl. –). Many examples of his spoons are still found in the marketplace today. Some other examples of nineteenthcentury New Jersey retailer names often seen stamped on the back of silverware are Henry Evans, Richard Smith, and Gaven Spence. Three notable firms in existence shortly before the twentieth century and continuing beyond were Unger Brothers, Lebkuecher and Company, and the Mauser Manufacturing Company, all of Newark. Unger was established in , the partnership consisting of five brothers. When three of the brothers died in  (George, Frederick, and William), the firm was carried forward by the two survivors (Eugene and Herman). To many, the name Unger Brothers is synonymous with American art nouveau, not only because of the firm’s flatware offerings, but also because of its seemingly endless varieties of silver novelties, toiletries, and small hollowware in the style.

Sixteen of its art nouveau flatware patterns were design-patented in only two years,  and . Overall, the patterns are highly figural. Much of Unger Brothers’ silverware is distinctive and has a devoted collector following. The firm was working as jewelers/silversmiths from its inception in  until . Although the business survived until , it produced only airplane parts in the last five years of their existence. Lebkuecher and Company was founded toward the very end of the s and was succeeded by other firms after . The founders were Arthur E. and Francis A. Lebkeucher, along with Charles C. Wientge. It is assumed that they are related to Francis Lebkeucher, a Newark gold-chain manufacturer, although the history of the company is not well known. The firm produced some extraordinary items of great quality. A line of silver bowls and vases, with Chinese-influenced designs, was one of the firm’s distinctive product lines. The Elder Company succeeded Lebkuecher and Company in , followed by the Elder-Hickok Company in , becoming the HickokMatthews Company in . The successor firms produced some remarkable Art Deco designs for silverware and clock cases and did a substantial number of custom orders as well as production work. It is also known that they produced items in solid K gold, including large trays. The Mauser Manufacturing Company produced a wide range of stylish hollowware, flatware, and novelties. It had a vast production and items of its manufacture are still commonly found in the antiques marketplace today. A good deal of its output consisted of attractive floral designs. The firm shut down, however, in February  for lack of orders. Frank Mauser, the founder, died tragically less than two months later. Although the silverware industry in the United States is a mere shadow of what it was a century ago, New Jersey still prominently hosts the trade. Tiffany and Company formerly had its extensive silver-manufacturing works in Newark, and still maintains a shop of twenty-two skilled silversmiths handcrafting and manufacturing production and specialorder pieces in Parsippany. The firm also has an active apprenticeship program to train silversmiths of the future. Much of the Tiffany and Company archive remains intact, and is a great source of knowledge about the firm, as well as offering a rich and impressive history of the craft in America. The Garden State also has reason to boast of native son Ubaldo Vitali, a renowned silversmith and the fourth of his line to follow the trade. He is acknowledged by most to be one of the leading contemporary craftsmen. Of outstanding design and execution, his creations have found homes all over the world. Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter

and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, . Rainwater, Dorothy, and Judy Redfield. Encyclopedia of American Silver Manufacturers. th ed. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, . Williams, Carl M. Silversmiths of New Jersey, – . Philadelphia: George S. MacManus, .

See also decorative arts; jewelry industry; metalworking

D. Albert Soeffing

Silzer, George Sebastian

(b. Apr. ,

; d. Oct. , ). Lawyer and governor. Af-

ter graduation from grammar and high school in his native New Brunswick, where his father owned and operated the Bull’s Head Tavern, George S. Silzer read law. Admitted to the bar in , he opened an office in New Brunswick and began to build a successful practice. Already interested in a political career, Silzer had won election to the local board of aldermen in , serving there until . He chaired the Middlesex County Democratic Committee for ten years and won election to the State Senate in  and . The “New Idea’’ progressive movement among Republicans surfaced during Silzer’s years in the legislature. He stood in the forefront of the comparable reform movement in his own Democratic party. Gov. Woodrow Wilson named him prosecutor of the pleas for Middlesex County in ; he served there until , when Gov. James F. Fielder named him a judge of the circuit court, which office he held until nominated for governor in . In a campaign dominated by the Prohibition issue, Silzer won because he was the “wettest’’ candidate and because the Hague machine in Hudson County turned out a big vote for him. Throughout his term Silzer faced a legislature dominated by Republicans. He proposed several social and economic reform measures but gained little legislative support. He was more successful in getting action on transportation issues. As his term neared completion so did a vehicular bridge spanning the Delaware River between Camden and Philadelphia and the Holland Tunnel, which provided a connection between Jersey City and Manhattan. Silzer revamped the state road commission so that it consisted of engineers and other experts competent to address the question of a state road network. Silzer also proposed bridges to connect Staten Island to New Jersey and a Camden Port Authority to function on the Delaware as did the Port of New York Authority along the Hudson. His administration laid the physical infrastructure for much of the state’s post–World War II development. After Silzer left office, he returned to the practice of law, this time in Newark, and also became active in banking circles, serving on the boards of several New Jersey and New York banks, including the Broad and Market National Bank of Newark and the Interstate Trust Company. In  he became chairman of the

Siscoe, Isaac Port of New York Authority and there he supervised the process of planning the George Washington Bridge; in September  Silzer presided at the groundbreaking ceremonies. When his term as chairman ended in , New Jersey’s governor, A. Harry Moore, refused to renominate him, in spite of the strong recommendation of New York governor Alfred E. Smith. Afterward Silzer’s law practice and his banking activities kept him busy. He was one of the attorneys defending Dutch Schultz in an income tax evasion case in , and for several years he was a member of the state board of bar examiners. On October , , as he was walking from his office in Newark to the Pennsylvania Station to catch the train for his home in Metuchen, he was felled by a heart attack and died in the street. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Joseph Francis Mahoney

Sinatra, Frank

(b. Dec. , ; d. May

, ).

Singer and actor. Hoboken native Francis Albert Sinatra was the son of Dolly and Martin Sinatra. Also known as Ol’ Blue Eyes, the Chairman of the Board, and The Voice, Sinatra was one of the most important figures in American popular music. He used his formidable vocal technique to create an intimate bond with his listeners, whether he was singing about true love, carefree pleasures, or late-night ruminations. Unlike singers before him, he put a personal, stylish spin on all his material, “interpreting’’ songs rather than just

singing them. Despite his celebrity, he kept pushing himself artistically, and left behind a daunting body of work. Sinatra married Nancy Barbato in . The couple had three children, two of whom (Frank Sinatra, Jr. and Nancy Sinatra) became performers themselves. He married Ava Gardner in , Mia Farrow in , and Barbara Marx in . He was a controversial figure who associated with gangsters, flaunted his extramarital affairs, and was prone to angry outbursts, but he was also idolized by several generations of pop-music fans. Sinatra started out singing with a local group, the Hoboken Four, and other New Jersey musicians. A  radio broadcast of a show at the Rustic Cabin in Englewood Cliffs led to his first big break, when he was hired to sing with the Harry James Orchestra. He sang with trombonist Tommy Dorsey’s big band from  to , learning valuable breath-control skills from the masterly horn player. He went solo in , and, the leading teen idol of his time, he attracted hordes of screaming, swooning bobby-soxers to his concerts. An uncharacteristic dry spell in the late s and early s ended in , when he landed the role of Private Maggio in the film From Here to Eternity. Sinatra’s portrayal earned him an Oscar in  and led to high-profile roles in movies like Guys and Dolls, High Society, The Manchurian Candidate, and The Man with the Golden Arm. He also resurrected himself musically, recording infectious swing tunes and world-weary “saloon songs’’ with increasingly sophisticated musical arrangements. In the s, he created his own record label, Reprise, and made more artistically challenging theme albums, including collaborations with jazz greats Count Basie and Duke Ellington and the Brazilian singer, songwriter, and guitarist Antonio Carlos Jobim. He also joined with Sammy Davis, Jr., Dean Martin, and other celebrities in the “Rat Pack,’’ a hard-partying social group whose antics were immortalized in movies like Ocean’s Eleven and Robin and the Seven Hoods. Sinatra retired in , but he returned in  with the album Ol’Blue Eyes Is Back, which sold more than a million copies. He added two more signature songs to his repertoire— “My Way’’ and “New York, New York’’—but his concerts of the s and s were often disappointing. His voice retained just a hint of its former glory, and he often had trouble remembering lyrics. His Duets albums of  and , featuring collaborations with Barbara Streisand, Bono, Aretha Franklin, and others, sold well but received mixed reviews. He retired in  and died from a heart attack in Los Angeles in . Friedwald, Will. Sinatra! The Song Is You: A Singer’s Art. New York: Da Capo Press, .

Frank Sinatra at the Garden State Arts Center Gala, Holmdel, .

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Granata, Charles L. Sessions with Sinatra: Frank Sinatra and the Art of Recording. Chicago: A Cappella Books, .

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Petkov, Steven, and Leonard Mustazza, eds. The Frank Sinatra Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, . Taraborrelli, J. Randy. Sinatra: A Complete Life. Secaucus: Carol Publishing, .

See also pop music

Jay Lustig

Singer Sewing Machine Company. In  inventor and manufacturer Isaac Merritt Singer established I. M. Singer and Company in New York City to make and sell sewing machines. At the outbreak of the Civil War, yearly sales amounted to , units; in  the company became international by opening a plant in Scotland; and by  annual unit sales had reached ,,. Singer’s was not the first sewing machine, but it was the best, and efficiency in business practices discouraged competitors. In  the Singer company opened a foundry in Elizabeth, on land near the western terminus of the Central Railroad bridge across Newark Bay; by this time, the firm’s founder had retired from active business management. Sewing machines for every purpose were assembled in Elizabeth. The Singer complex included several buildings, each devoted to a specific aspect of sewing machine production, including metal casting, japanning, and cabinetry. Eventually there were five miles of railroad track on the eighty-four-acre site and shipping docks dotted its one thousand-foot waterfront. The Singer company had a positive impact on Elizabeth’s economy, employing at its height nearly ten thousand individuals and causing the city’s population to grow by several thousand people. The plant closed in . Brandon, Ruth. A Capitalist Romance: Singer and the Sewing Machine. Philadelphia: Lippincott, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. History of Union County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

E. Richard McKinstry

Siscoe, Isaac (fl. s–s).

Loyalist spy. Isaac Siscoe was from a family of free African Americans who were landholders in Bergen County. During the American Revolution, he was a member of a vast network of spies and informants, which operated in and around New York City. Siscoe provided the British with valuable intelligence on Patriot activities in Bergen County, and his reports contributed to British military operations in that area. Under Gen. Sir Henry Clinton, Siscoe became a key operative within the British intelligence system. One of his most important assignments came in early  when he and other British agents were sent from New York City to gather information on the mutiny of the New Jersey Line at Pompton. Leiby, Adrian C. The Revolutionary War in the Hackensack Valley: The Jersey Dutch and the Neutral Ground. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

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Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth Healy, Kathleen, RSM. Frances Warde: American Founder of the Sisters of Mercy. New York: Seabury Press, . ———, ed. Sisters of Mercy: Spirituality in America, –. New York: Paulist Press, . O’Hara, Marie La Salle. The First Fifty Years. Plainfield: Sisters of Mercy of New Jersey, .

See also religious communities of women; Roman Catholic Church

Elizabeth A. Milliken

Six Flags Great Adventure.

Singer Manufacturing Company advertising brochure, c. .

Courtesy New-York Historical Society. Landauer Collection, negative number 54567.

Pingeon, Frances D. Blacks in the Revolutionary Era. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Phillip Papas

Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth. This congregation of Roman Catholic women religious was founded in , when the first bishop of Newark, James Roosevelt Bayley, asked Mary Xavier Mehegan of the New York Sisters of Charity to take charge of the community in New Jersey. Originally located at Saint Mary’s, Newark, they moved to Madison in . In , the sisters built their present home in Convent Station, Morristown, where in , they established the College of Saint Elizabeth, the first four-year women’s college in New Jersey. Today the community has expanded its traditional mission of education to include working with the poor and promoting social justice. The Sisters of Charity currently sponsor one college, five academies, five hospitals, and three residences, as well as working in parishes, schools, and hospitals throughout the state. McEniry, Blanche Marie. Woman of Decision: The Life of Mother Mary Xavier Mehegan. New York: McMullen Books, . Sharkey, Mary Agnes. The New Jersey Sisters of Charity.  vols. New York: Longmans, Green, . Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth. Archives. Motherhouse, Convent Station.

See also religious communities of women; Roman Catholic Church

Fernanda Perrone

Sisters of Mercy.

Catherine McAuley founded the Sisters of Mercy in Dublin, Ireland, in . The original mission of the order was to serve the needs of abused and homeless women and children. The Sisters of Mercy were a new form of female religious order dedicated to active service rather than seclusion in the cloister; the Sisters of Mercy were referred to as “walking nuns’’ because they went out among the poor. The first American community was founded in Pittsburgh in  by Frances Warde. The New Jersey community takes as its founding the  arrival in Bordentown of Mother Warde and several sisters from Pittsburgh. (A previous group of sisters from the Manchester, New Hampshire, convent maintained a community in Jersey City from  to .) The Sisters of Mercy have made a major educational contribution, teaching more than half a million state residents since . Their endeavors have expanded to include health work, parish ministries, and spiritual counseling. Now based in Watchung, their institutes include Georgian Court College, Lakewood; Mount Saint Mary Academy, Watchung; and Mercy Center, Asbury Park, as well as seven high schools and seventeen elementary schools. Sisters from the Regional Community of New Jersey also work in medicine, law, social work, and nursing. In  the Sisters of Mercy of New Jersey joined many other Sisters of Mercy throughout the United States to form the Institute of the Sisters of Mercy of the Americas. Darcy, Catherine C. The Institute of the Sisters of Mercy in the Americas. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, .

Located in Jackson, Six Flags Great Adventure is one of thirty-seven regional theme parks operated throughout the United States, Europe, and Latin America by Six Flags, Inc. The facility in New Jersey, which was started in , contains three separate areas: the Six Flags Great Adventure Theme Park, the Wild Safari Animal Park, and Hurricane Harbor, which was added in . The permanent staff numbers about two hundred, and the approximately forty-two hundred employees added for the summer months makes the park the largest seasonal employer in New Jersey. The Six Flags Great Adventure Theme Park, the first area, encompassing  acres, contains more than one hundred amusement park type rides, midway attractions, and games. Its thirteen roller coaster tracks range from mild rides for children to “ultimate thrills’’ for adults. In addition, concerts, shows, musical festivals, and special events are presented throughout the season. The Six Flags Wild Safari Animal Park, at  acres, is the largest drive-through safari in the world outside of Africa. It is filled with more than twelve hundred animals and birds of fifty-eight species, such as elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, bears, swans, giraffes, llamas, and antelope, gathered from around the world. Visitors may drive their own vehicles (except for soft-top convertibles) along

Mother Catherine McAuley, founder of the Sisters of Mercy.

Courtesy Seton Hall University Archives and Special Collections, West Orange.

Skinner, Cortlandt the park’s . mile trail where the animals roam freely, or else they may ride in an airconditioned tour bus. Hurricane Harbor water park, the newest area, one of the world’s largest such facilities, at forty-five acres, features twenty-five rides and attractions including several water slides, a wave pool, and a “lazy river’’ where visitors can swim, float, and ride inner tubes through waterfalls and mini-rapids. The overall theme is of a remote, tropical island, as it would appear moments after being hit by a hurricane.

Vincent M. Altamuro

Six-Mile Run Reservoir.

This ,acre park, located in southern Somerset County, is associated with the Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park. Despite its name, Six-Mile Run Reservoir is not a reservoir. Originally purchased in the s for a reservoir that was never needed, much of the land is under lease to farmers. The state acquired the land by eminent domain, but the law authorizing the purchases also allowed recreation. Much of the area is open for hiking, biking, and horseback riding. The site, which features wetlands, forests, farmlands, and old fields, is also rich in cultural and historic significance. Many of its old farm structures, however, have crumbled from disuse, and those that remain are in danger of a similar fate. See also state parks

Fred J. Aun

Skene, John

(b. date unknown; d. c.

). Colonial politician. A merchant from

Aberdeen, Scotland, John Skene was among the many Quakers fined and imprisoned in England during the s for religious activities. He sailed for America in , settling in Burlington, then capital of Quakerdominated West Jersey, where he established a farm named Peachfield. First elected to the West Jersey assembly and then appointed to the council, from  to  he served as deputy governor of the colony under proprietors Edward Byllynge and later Dr. Daniel Coxe. When New Jersey temporarily became part of the Dominion of New England in , he remained a justice on the Burlington court. Pomfret, John E. The Province of West New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

skiing. Even before the modern ski boom in the s, New Jersey had its share of skiing enthusiasts. Though ski experts consider the state well within the “banana belt,’’ or warm zone, it has had more than half a dozen ski areas of varying sizes and types. Several factors, however, including the uncertainty of optimal ski weather, have reduced this number to four. Although vertical drop at even the largest New Jersey resort is dwarfed by that of the

downhill runs of New England and the West, it compares favorably with that of nearby Pocono areas. Most of the state’s ski centers cater to beginning and intermediate skiers, but places such as Mountain Creek at Vernon boast several advanced “black diamond’’ trails. Most areas feature a variety of ski terrain, including both trails and open slopes, and all have ski schools, equipment rentals, first-aid ski patrols, and warming lodges. The three downhill resorts allow snowboarding. Once thriving but now defunct ski areas include Ski Mountain and Holly Mountain in South Jersey, Craigmeur farther north, and Belle Mountain near Lambertville. Belle, run by the Mercer County Parks Commission, was in operation for thirty years; Craigmeur lasted sixty. The four flourishing ski areas are all located in the Highlands of the state, well above the climactic line that runs eastward across New Jersey from Trenton. Winter temperatures are generally milder south of this line, cooler north of it. The added elevation of the rolling ranges of northwestern New Jersey also brings lower temperatures. Conditions are often favorable for skiing and the all-important task of snowmaking. Mountain Creek, successor to Great Gorge, is the largest New Jersey ski venue, with an impressive vertical drop of , feet, four mountain peaks, forty-seven trails, and two snowboarding halfpipes. Mountain Creek gets skiers to the summit in four quad lifts, which carry four passengers each, and an eightpassenger open-air gondola. It has snowmaking on all its trails and is well lighted for night skiing. Mountain Creek, perhaps more than any other New Jersey resort, suggests the ambience of a New England ski area. Ski High Point is an anomaly among New Jersey ski resorts in that it specializes in Nordic, or cross-country, skiing rather than Alpine-style downhill. With over nine miles of groomed trails running through High Point State Park, this area enjoys the highest and snowiest elevations of any in the state. It also a warming hut and snowmaking. Ski Campgaw, near Mahwah, offers eight trails serviced by five lifts. It has snowmaking, night skiing, snowboarding, and complete rentals. Ski Hidden Valley, with a vertical of  feet, features a triple chairlift as well as two other lifts, extensive snowmaking, a rustic lodge, and ski and snowboard programs for preschool and older children. See also sports

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was educated at Columbia and Harvard universities. In  he began his career as an archaeologist with the American Museum of Natural History in New York. While there he compiled New Jersey’s first formal archaeological survey, published as Bulletin  of the Geological Survey of New Jersey in . Max Schrabisch assisted him in this endeavor. He also wrote extensively on the archaeology of New York City. In  he joined the staff of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. From  to  he was curator of anthropology at the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee. He became an expert on the Sauk, Dakota, Potawatomi, Iowa, Cree, and Ojibway tribes. In  he returned to New York City and the Museum of the American Indian. His impressive career was cut short by an automobile accident in North Dakota in . Veit, Richard F. Digging New Jersey’s Past: Historical Archaeology in the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Indians; archaeology

Richard F. Veit

Skinner, Cortlandt

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Attorney general and Loyalist

military commander. Cortlandt Skinner was the son of the Rev. William Skinner, rector of Saint Peter’s Church in Perth Amboy, and Elizabeth Van Cortlandt. The father, who changed his name from MacGregor, came to America as a refugee from the Stuart rebellion in Scotland. Cortlandt Skinner married Elizabeth Kearney. Before the American Revolution Skinner was one of the most respected persons in New Jersey. He was an eminent lawyer and skilled orator. From  to  he served as the colony’s attorney general. From  to  he was a member of the assembly and was twice elected speaker. From  to April  he was vice president of the board of proprietors for the Eastern District of New Jersey.

Edward Brown

Skillman.

See Montgomery.

Skinner, Alanson Buck

(b. Sept. ,

; d. Aug. , ). Archaeologist and ethnol-

ogist. Alanson Buck Skinner, born in Buffalo, New York, was the son of Rachel Amelia Sumner Skinner and Frank Woodward Skinner. He

Cortlandt Skinner.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

748

Skinner, Stephen

In August  Skinner was offered the command of the New Jersey militia. He refused and found himself increasingly harassed because he opposed the revolutionary movement. He went over to the British and helped raise the New Jersey Volunteers, a Loyalist fighting outfit. Skinner was appointed a colonel in the New Jersey Volunteers and on September , , a brigadier general. Unlike some other Loyalist military units, “Skinner’s Greens,’’ as the Volunteers were often called, were fully integrated into the British military organization. At least , men, mostly from New Jersey, at one time or another were members of the New Jersey Volunteers. Skinner’s troops made frequent raids into New Jersey, and more than half of the brigade fought in the southern campaigns after . Skinner had his headquarters on Staten Island. He presided over an efficient spy network in New Jersey and attempted to have the governor of New Jersey kidnapped. Skinner and his family settled in Bristol, England, after the war. He received a pension of half pay for his military service and substantial compensation for loss of his estate and income as a public official in New Jersey. Gerlach, Larry R. Prologue to Independence: New Jersey in the Coming of the American Revolution. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Jones, E. Alfred. The Loyalists of New Jersey. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, . Stryker, William S. The New Jersey Volunteers. Trenton: Narr, Day, and Narr, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Harry M. Ward

Skinner, Stephen

(b. c. ; d. ).

Colonial official and Loyalist. Stephen Skinner was born in Perth Amboy, the son of the Rev. William Skinner and Elizabeth Van Cortlandt. On October , , Skinner married Catherine Johnston, with whom he had ten children. He served as the treasurer of East New Jersey from  to . In , he was the focus of a dispute between Gov. William Franklin and the assembly over the mysterious disappearance of a large sum of money from the public treasury. The dispute lingered until , when Skinner resigned. He then served as a member of both the council (–) and the provincial congress (April ). In July , he was arrested by Patriot forces and ordered by the provincial congress to remain in Trenton. Skinner was sent as a prisoner to Morristown and eventually paroled. During the Revolution, Skinner acted as a guide for the British and served as a major in a corps of Loyalist volunteers whom he helped recruit. His brother was Brig. Gen. Cortlandt Skinner of the New Jersey Volunteers, a Loyalist military unit. Following a brief stay in England, Skinner settled with his family in Nova Scotia, Canada. Gerlach, Larry R. Prologue to Independence: New Jersey in the Coming of the American Revolution. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Jones, E. Alfred. The Loyalists of New Jersey. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, . Palmer, Gregory. Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press . Ryan, Dennis P. New Jersey’s Loyalists. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Phillip Papas

Skunk Hollow.

Early in the nineteenth century, on the western slope of the Palisades in the northeast corner of Bergen County, some newly freed slaves were able to acquire rough farmland. The community was started by a slave named Jack, given the surname “Earnest’’ because of his desire to own land. Jack gained his freedom in  and purchased more than five acres on the Old Farm Road. As time passed, more former slaves moved into the community. When Jack died, William Thompson purchased his land and later built a small Methodist Episcopal Church. By  the community had reached its peak population of about seventy-five persons. Many worked in nearby Nyack, New York, but the introduction of modern machinery into shoe factories there and the lack of opportunity for other local work led to the demise of the community soon after the beginning of the twentieth century. Descendants remain in Rockland County, New York, and Closter. Saint Charles African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Zion Church in Sparkill, New York, and the Centennial AME Zion Church in Closter are considered the successors of the church at Skunk Hollow.

Geismar, Joan. The Archaeology of Social Disintegration in Skunk Hollow: A Nineteenth-Century Rural Black Community. New York: Academic Press, . McMahon, Reginald. Jack Was Earnest. River Edge: Bergen County Historical Society, .

See also African Americans

John Spring

Skylands Botanical Garden.

New Jersey’s official botanical garden, located in Ringwood, comprises  acres and , varieties of plants. The grounds are arranged in formal and informal gardens, woods, and meadows. Francis Lynde Stetson, a prominent New York lawyer, was the original owner of Skylands. He began acquiring the property in . Stetson built a Queen Anne Victorian mansion on the property and hired Samuel Parsons, Jr., who worked under Frederick Law Olmsted, to lay out the grounds. A working farm with thirty outbuildings and a nine-hole golf course were established on the property. A formal rose garden, an orchard, and twentythousand evergreens were planted on the site. In  the property was acquired by Clarence McKenzie Lewis, an investment banker. McKenzie was an amateur horticulturist and a trustee of the New York Botanical Garden.

He was able to express his interest in plants at Skylands. He collected native and exotic plants from Afghanistan to the New Jersey Pine Barrens, as well as plants he discovered on nearby roadsides. The firm of Vitale and Geiffert designed the formal gardens. McKenzie tore down the original Victorian mansion and built his own in the Jacobean style. Lewis sold the property in , and it was not bought by the state until , when the grounds were already in disrepair. The Skylands Association, a volunteer group, has been responsible for much of the restoration. Skylands became the official botanical garden of New Jersey in . Of the formal gardens, the Winter Garden can be seen from the house and contains a variety of evergreens. The formal Terrace Gardens are arranged in a straight line, starting at the back of the house. The series starts with the Octagonal Garden, which includes a pool and bronze fountain. The Magnolia Walk is a -foot-long, -foot-wide connector to the Azalea Garden, which features a water channel. The Summer Garden provides color, while the last garden in this series, the Peony Garden, is a swath of grass bordered by tree peonies. An outstanding feature of this space is the exedra, a semicircular stone bench that creates a twenty-five-foot-wide curve. The original purpose of this structure was to serve as a container for the family ashes, but this was never done. Beyond this string of formal gardens lies the lilac collection, a total of sixty varieties. At this point, the estate is divided by Maple Avenue. On the other side of the road, there is a garden of annuals, with a Greek stone wellhead. The Crab Apple Vista is the transition point for the grounds, separating the formal gardens from the informal gardens, which include the Rhododendron Garden, Heather Garden, Bog Garden, Wildflower Garden, and Swan Pond. Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Ellen Hostetter

slavery. African slaves were conceivably present on New Jersey soil as early as the s. It is likely that slave labor was used to construct and maintain Fort Nassau (in presentday Gloucester City, Camden County), a Dutch military post established around  and occupied intermittently until . More substantial documentation can be offered for the presence of black slaves by  in the Dutch settlement of Pavonia (in or near presentday Jersey City), which was part of the Dutch colony of New Netherland. Certainly it was the Dutch who, after the English seized New Netherland in , introduced African slaves into New Jersey in significant numbers. They were encouraged by the colony’s  Concessions and Agreement, which offered settlers additional land for every slave imported

Slovaks before . Eventually, it was the English who imported most of the colony’s slaves. They were acquired mainly from the West Indies, especially Jamaica and Barbados, until the mid-eighteenth century, when most arrived directly from Africa. New Jersey slaves came from the western, central, and eastern parts of Africa via the transatlantic slave trade. Throughout the eighteenth century New Jersey slaves, who numbered about , in , , in , and , in , constituted roughly  percent of the overall population, although in northern New Jersey, where most slaves lived, several counties had much higher percentages. Among the northern colonies, only New York had a higher number and proportion of slaves. Although used for a variety of jobs, most bondspersons in New Jersey worked on small farms that averaged about three slaves and produced grains and raised livestock. Work conditions were generally less harsh than those on large plantations of the South. Still, many slaves absconded and engaged in other forms of protest. Indeed, New Jersey was one of the few northern colonies where true slave conspiracies occurred, perhaps the most significant being the one discovered in Somerville in . Subsequent slave plots surfaced in  in Hackensack, in  in Perth Amboy, and in  in Elizabethtown. New Jersey’s slave population peaked in  at ,, of whom only  lived in South Jersey, a fact attributable to the large presence there of Quakers, America’s first organized abolitionists. Quaker opposition to slavery, strengthened by the egalitarian ideals associated with the American Revolution, led in  to a law that prohibited the importation of slaves into New Jersey, facilitated slave manumissions, and made owners punishable for the mistreatment of their slaves. This legislation helped to create a climate favorable to the passage in  of An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, which made New Jersey the last northern state to manumit its slaves. The  act provided for the emancipation of all children born of slaves after July , , but only after they served an apprenticeship to their mother’s owner—females after twenty-one years of age and males after twenty-five. The passage of An Act to Abolish Slavery freed all black children born after its passage in , but made the state’s few remaining slaves, all elderly, “apprentices for life,’’ another form of bondage. They numbered eighteen in , making New Jersey the last northern state to have slaves. The ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in  ended the long history of black bondage in New Jersey. Cooley, Henry Scofield. A Study of Slavery in New Jersey. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Pingeon, Frances D. “Slavery in New Jersey on the Eve of the Revolution.’’ In New Jersey in the American Revolution: Political and Social Conflict, ed.

William C. Wright. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also abolition; African Americans

Giles R. Wright

Slee, Noah H.

(b. ; d. June , ).

Businessman and birth control advocate. In , Noah H. Slee, the president of the Threein-One Oil Company, and Margaret Sanger, a birth control activist, were married. Although the Sanger name is more famous, her efforts would not have been possible without Slee’s generous donations both to the American Birth Control League and to doctors hired to make speeches before county medical societies all over the United States. Born in South Africa, Slee made his fortune and his first marriage in the United States. After a divorce, Slee served as Sunday school superintendent at his Episcopal church. He was known as the “Good Executive,’’ who was neither a liberal nor an intellectual. Though Slee was strictly a businessman, Sanger felt his qualities suited her liberalism perfectly, saying, “He is a spiritual radical and revolutionist in common sense.’’ Slee is also known as an early manufacturer of contraceptive jelly, which he produced at a plant in Rahway. Douglas, Emily Taft. Margaret Sanger: Pioneer of the Future. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, . Kennedy, David M. Birth Control in America. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also birth control

Kathleen Rockland

Sloan, Samuel

(b. Mar. , ; d. July

, ). Architect. Born in Chester County,

Pennsylvania, Samuel Sloan, like many of his peers, trained as a carpenter. By  he was established as an architect in Philadelphia. He gained a national reputation through the publication of pattern books and the design of mental hospitals. In New Jersey in the s, he was responsible for extensive additions to the State House, most of which were destroyed in an  fire, and Greystone State Hospital in Morris Plains (–). Other New Jersey buildings included the West Jersey Academy, Bridgeton (, demolished) and the Camden County Courthouse (, demolished). He also laid out the town of Riverton in Burlington County along the Delaware River, where he designed several villas. In his later years, Sloan received extensive commissions for mental hospitals and other buildings in the South. He moved to North Carolina a year before his death. Cooledge, Harold N., Jr. Samuel Sloan: Architect of Philadelphia, –. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, . Tatman, Sandra, and Roger W. Moss, Jr. Biographical Dictionary of Philadelphia Architects, –. Boston: G. K. Hall, .

See also architecture

Constance M. Greiff

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Slovaks. The Slovaks, a predominately Catholic and Lutheran Slavic ethnic group, began to settle in New Jersey in the late nineteenth century. They were only one of many Slavic groups who came to the United States during this period to escape economic and political unrest in their homelands. Although the majority of Slovak immigrants settled in the Midwest, a substantial number took up residence in New Jersey, their point of entry being Ellis Island. Many found work in the barrel factories of Bayonne and in the silk and textile factories of Garfield, Paterson, and Passaic. Waterhouse Mills in Passaic was the first and largest employer of Slovaks in that area. The working conditions at several of these mills were grim and led to strikes in the s and s. Slovaks also settled in Perth Amboy, Rockaway, Guttenberg, Newark, Elizabeth, Boonton, Jersey City, and Hibernia. Almost immediately, the Slovak immigrants began to form cultural and religious organizations. Fraternal unions included the Benefit Society of Saint Stephen (), the First Cooper’s Beneficial Society (), and the Slovak Catholic Sokol (). The last was unusual in that it was primarily a social institution that promoted physical fitness. Founded in Passaic, this organization also provided Slovaks and other eastern Europeans a means of obtaining insurance and other financial assistance. The Passaic branch still exists and serves as a fraternal organization and a life insurance provider. Two other organizations that serve the needs of Slovaks are the New Jersey Slovak Heritage Foundation and the Slovak League of America. By the early s, the Slovaks had also established their own newspapers, churches, and parochial schools. Among the Catholic churches in New Jersey that have Slovak roots are Saint Mary’s Roman Catholic Church in Passaic, the Slovak National Catholic Cathedral in Passaic, and Holy Family Parish in Linden. Slovak emigration to the United States largely stopped after . The descendants of these immigrants assimilated into society through intermarriage with other central European ethnic groups. But after World War II, a new generation of Slovaks, many of them political refugees, began to arrive in the United States. Unlike their predecessors, who had been mainly farmers and laborers from rural areas of Slovakia, these new immigrants were largely professionals, and many found work in the New York–New Jersey area. In the s, Slovaks in the United States took a new interest in their cultural heritage. Slovak cultural influences remain in evidence in multicultural cities like Passaic, and in the cultural and religious traditions of New Jerseyans of Slovak descent. Their largest ethnic affiliation is through their houses of worship and their cultural traditions, such as foods like paska (an Easter bread), folk traditions, and dancing.

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Sluyter, Peter

Krajsa, Joseph C., et al., comps. Slovaks in America: A Bicentennial Study. Middletown, PA: Slovak League of America, .

See also ethnicity

Marta Mestrovic Deyrup

Sluyter, Peter

(b. ; d. ). Religious leader and travel writer. In , Peter Sluyter and Jasper Danckaerts were sent from Holland to seek a location for a Labadist Pietist settlement in the American colonies. Their travels, recorded in a journal, described their horseback journey through western New Jersey and include interesting comments on what are now Passaic County, the Delaware River, and Trenton. Despite its caustic tone toward other Christians, this work presents a fascinating picture of colonial New Jersey. In , the two missionaries founded a Labadist colony in Maryland, which Sluyter administered until his death.

Danckaerts, Jasper, and Peter Sluyter. Journal of a Voyage to New York, –. Translated and edited by Henry C. Murphy. Brooklyn: Long Island Historical Society, .

See also travel accounts

Barry Moreno

Smith, Alfred P. (b. July , ; d. Nov. , ). Editor, publisher, and printer. Alfred P. Smith was born in Saddle River, where his father, Peter Smith, worked as a day laborer and owned a small farm. In , Smith bought a printing press and started a printing business in his home. In , he began to publish A. P. Smith’s Paper, soon renamed The Landscape: A Country Newspaper. The Landscape, a monthly publication, was among the earliest known newspapers in New Jersey published by an African American. According to Smith, The Landscape was “intended as a letter to our friends on matters of interest.’’ Although Smith referred to The Landscape as “our colored supplement,’’ his

readership was largely white. The paper chronicled Saddle River’s local news, and Smith also included political commentary. A staunch Republican, Smith lamented the return of Democratic rule in the post–Civil War South and chastised southern leaders for Jim Crow laws, disfranchisement, and lynching. Smith cast the labor movement, anarchists, socialists, Populists, and “yellow journalists’’ as institutions and individuals who wrongly pitted class against class and heightened class tensions. The Landscape continued publication until July . See also newspapers

Monica R. Gisolfi

Smith, Hezekiah Bradley

(b. July ,

; d. Nov. , ).

Businessman, inventor, and politician. Originally a tradesman, Hezekiah Smith became an affluent industrialist, an inventor with more than twenty patents, a U.S. congressman, and a New Jersey state senator. In , he purchased the Burlington County town of Shreveville for $, and renamed it Smithville. Smithville was the home of his firm, the H. B. Smith Machine Company, a large producer of machine tools and bicycles. Smithville was also a progressive workers’ community whose character was shaped by Smith and his friend and partner, Agnes Gilkerson. When Hezekiah Smith died, he left his estranged wife, Eveline, and a son, Captain Elton A. Smith. The company failed during the Great Depression, and the site is now Smithville County Park. Obituary. New York Times, Nov. , .

See also bicycling; Eastampton

Elaine L. Schwartz

Smith, James, Jr. (b. June , ; d. Apr. , ). Manufacturer, U.S. senator, and politician. During the Progressive Era, James Smith was an influential member of the State

Designed by Arthur Hotchkiss, the Bicycle Railway connected Smithville to Mount Holly, carrying thousands of riders between  and .

Courtesy Burlington County Division of Parks, Historic Smithville Park.

Democratic Committee. In  the Newark native led the state’s Democratic bosses in promoting the gubernatorial candidacy of Woodrow Wilson. When Wilson took office in  he carried with him a Democratic legislature, and Smith expected to be reelected to the U.S. Senate, where he had served from  to . Wilson, however, supported the candidacy of James Martine, a progressive Democrat who recently had won a nonbinding preferential primary. This political struggle, which cost Smith the leadership of the State Democratic Committee, was seen by both the Smith forces and many regular Democrats as a betrayal by Wilson. Progressives of both parties, however, saw the incident as Wilson’s bold defiance of machine politicians. The so-called Martine affair helped propel Wilson to the presidency. After this dispute Smith withdrew from politics and returned to running his Newark factory. Kerney, James. The Political Education of Woodrow Wilson. New York: Century, . Sackett, William E. Modern Battles of Trenton. Vol. . Trenton: J. L. Murphy, .

Martin Paulsson

Smith, John Bernhard (b. November , ; d. Mar. , ). Mosquito control expert.

Though trained as a lawyer, J. B. Smith was fascinated by insects. He abandoned his law practice in  and established a career in entomology despite having no previous formal scientific training. Smith served as state entomologist at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station from  until his death in . He solved numerous entomological problems, but he is remembered mainly for his system to eliminate the mosquito nuisance through salt marsh drainage. Smith’s unique combination of scientific and legal expertise allowed

The caption reads: “State Entomologist Dr. John B. Smith has been requested by the Government to go to the Isthmus [of Panama] and use his system for the extermination of the mosquito pest,’’ c. .

Courtesy Rutgers University Department of Entomology, New Brunswick.

Smith, Samuel him to write laws that mandated mosquito control in the state. Smith’s laws exist to this day and form the cornerstone for modern-day mosquito control. Hansens, E. J., and H. B. Weiss. Entomology in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Malis, A. American Entomologists. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also mosquitoes

Wayne J. Crans

Smith, Kevin (b. Aug. , ).

Filmmaker. Kevin Smith’s first feature film, Clerks (), was shot after closing time at the convenience store where he worked in Leonardo. After winning prizes at the Cannes and Sundance film festivals, this low-budget, black-and-white, cheerfully vulgar independent film was picked up for distribution by Miramax. Since then, writer/director Smith and his production company, View Askew (based in Red Bank), have released Mallrats (), Chasing Amy (), Dogma (), Jersey Girl (), and Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back (). This last film’s title characters, played by Smith’s boyhood buddy Jason Mewes and Smith himself, have appeared as minor characters in all of Smith’s other films. New Jersey’s suburban convenience stores, malls, highways, and amusement arcades are also perennial settings in Smith’s films; in the controversial Dogma, God relaxes by playing SkeeBall on the boardwalk in Asbury Park. Besides films, Smith’s other major interest is comic books. The main characters in Chasing Amy are comic book writer/artists; Smith himself has written for the Batman and Spider-Man series, among others, and he owns a comic book store, Jay and Silent Bob’s Secret Stash, in Red Bank. See also motion picture industry

Marilyn Campbell

Smith, Norman J.

(b. ; d. Dec.

, ). Agricultural innovator. Recognized

for introducing drip irrigation to the United States and pioneering the adoption of plastic mulch for vegetable production, Norman J. Smith worked as Cumberland County agricultural agent for Rutgers Cooperative Extension from  to . He was a founding member of the American Society for Plasticulture. This technology increases vegetable yields by warming the soil for earlier crops, reducing weed pressure, and conserving water by delivering it directly to the roots. His introduction of plasticulture to the desert farms of both the Middle and the Far East earned him international distinction.

Richard W. VanVranken

Smith, Oberlin

(b. Mar. , ; d. July ,

). Inventor and businessman. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and educated at Polytechnic College, Philadelphia, Oberlin Smith founded a machine shop in Bridgeton in ,

followed by the Ferracute Machine Company in . Ferracute manufactured and nationally distributed industrial canning machinery and large stamping presses. Smith was awarded more than seventy patents for mechanical inventions, and in  he was the first person to suggest the concept of magnetic recording. He served as the president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in  and as the New Jersey commissioner to the Pan-American Exposition in . He was an active supporter of abolition and woman suffrage as well as a pioneer in progressive worker compensation plans at Ferracute. Smith died in Bridgeton. Cox, Arthur J., and Thomas Malim. Ferracute: The History of an American Enterprise. Bridgeton: Cowan Printing, . Daniel, Eric D., C. Denis Mee, and Mark Clark. Magnetic Recording: The First One Hundred Years. New York: IEEE Press, .

Mark H. Clark

Smith, Patti

(b. Dec. , ). Musician and poet. A Chicago native, Patti Smith was raised in Woodbury and first came to prominence the early s at New York City poetry readings. She invited New Brunswick guitarist and writer Lenny Kaye to augment her readings with improvised music. In  they recorded “Piss Factory,’’ a single that laid out the foundations of what would characterize her subsequent work: the melding of unpolished rock with poetic lyricism heavily influenced by nineteenth-century French romantic writers. In , with a full band backing her, Smith recorded the influential album Horses, which placed her at the forefront of the developing New York City punk rock scene. She achieved her highest commercial success in  with the hit “Because the Night’’ (cowritten with Freehold native Bruce Springsteen). Smith retired from active music making in . After her husband’s death in , she reemerged in performance and recordings and has released three albums since . She has also written numerous books of poetry.

Smith, Patti. Patti Smith Complete. New York: Doubleday, .

See also pop music

Bruce Hanson

Smith, Robert ).

(b. Jan. , ; d. Feb. ,

Architect-builder. Most likely Robert Smith was born in Dalkeith, Scotland. By  he had immigrated to Philadelphia, where he became one of the city’s most prominent architect-builders. He designed what remain among Philadelphia’s landmark buildings: the steeple of Christ Church (–), Saint Peter’s Church (), and Carpenters’ Hall (–), where the First Continental Congress met in . In , Smith was called upon to prepare a plan and lay out the ground for Nassau Hall for the College of New Jersey (now Princeton

751

University), which was moving to Princeton from its second home in Newark. He also designed a house for the president of the college. Now called Maclean House and somewhat altered, it nevertheless remains the best surviving example of Smith’s residential work. Smith lived in Princeton for some period during the time these buildings were under construction (–), probably building one or two houses in the town. He also designed Christ Church, Shrewsbury (), possibly Saint Peter’s Church, Freehold (), and the original section of the First Presbyterian Church of Lawrenceville (). In July , in anticipation of war with England, the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety considered measures for the defense of Philadelphia. Smith proposed a system of “machines’’ to be sunk in the Delaware River. Known as chevaux-de-frise, these were huge wooden boxes filled with stone and equipped with barbed log spikes pointed at an angle downriver. Chained together across the channel, they were intended to rip the bottoms of wooden ships. Smith died after working on a barracks and sinking chevaux-de-frise at Billingsport in Gloucester County as part of the river defenses. ANB. Peterson, Charles E., Constance M. Greiff, and Maria M. Thompson. Robert Smith: Architect, Builder, Patriot, –. Philadelphia: Athenaeum of Philadelphia, .

See also architecture

Constance M. Greiff

Smith, Samuel

(b. Dec. , ; d. July ,

). Politician and historian. Samuel Smith

was born in Burlington, the son of Richard Smith, a wealthy Quaker merchant and politician descended from one of the founders of proprietary West Jersey. Following in his father’s footsteps, Samuel was a member of the assembly, appointed to the council, and served as treasurer of West Jersey. Smith accumulated what was probably the largest library in New Jersey at the time, and used it and other sources to write his History of New Jersey (). Published at the time of the Stamp Act protests, the History reflected contemporary critical attitudes toward English policy. The book, described as dry and dull by some, and scrupulously accurate by others, nevertheless successfully preserved numerous documents that would otherwise have been lost to the historians who followed. It is regarded as the first history of New Jersey. ANB. Prince, Carl E. “Samuel Smith’s History of NovaCaesaria.’’ In The Colonial Legacy: Some EighteenthCentury Commentators, vol. , ed. Lawrence H. Leder. New York: Harper and Row, . Smith, John Jay. “Sketch of the Author.’’ In The History of the Colony of Nova-Caesaria; or, New Jersey by Samuel Smith. Trenton: William S. Sharp, .

See also historiography

Maxine N. Lurie

752

Smith, Theobald

Smythe, Frederick

Theobald Smith.

Courtesy National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.

Smith, Theobald

(b. July , ; d. Dec.

, ).

Pathologist and research institute administrator. Born in Albany, New York, to German immigrants Philip and Theresia Kexel Schmidt, Theobald Smith attended public schools (Albany Free Academy, ), Cornell University (Ph.D., ), and Albany Medical College (M.D., ). He married Lilian Hilyer Egleston on May , . They had two daughters and a son. Smith was chief of the Division of Pathology, U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry (–); a professor of comparative pathology at Harvard University (–); and the director of the Antitoxin and Vaccine Laboratory, Massachusetts State Board of Health (–). As director of the Department of Animal Pathology of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, located near Princeton (–), Smith organized, developed, and supervised a world-renowned research center that advanced New Jersey’s reputation for such work. He authored or coauthored more than two hundred papers, books, and lectures and was acclaimed for findings in such diverse areas as Texas cattle fever, diphtheria, and tuberculosis. Smith was honored with degrees, medals, and memberships from a number of distinguished U.S. and foreign academic and professional organizations. The Theobald Smith Memorial Laboratory at the Albany Medical College and the Theobald Smith Microbiological Society of New Jersey are perpetual tributes to him. Smith died of heart disease at New York Hospital. See also Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research

Frank F. Katz

Smithville.

See Eastampton.

(b. c. ; d. ).

Jurist and Loyalist. A native of England, Frederick Smythe served as the chief justice of New Jersey from  to , while concurrently a member of the council ( to ). In , he served on a commission assigned to investigate the burning of the schooner Gaspee by a group of Rhode Island Whigs (June ), and two years later he failed in an attempt to indict a group of Cumberland County citizens for the destruction of a cargo of British East India Company tea in the town of Greenwich on December , . He moved to New York in ; in , Smythe was appointed to assist the peace commission led by Frederick Howard, the earl of Carlisle. He remained in New York until just before the British evacuation of that city in November . Following the Revolution, Smythe lived in Philadelphia where he married Margaret Oswald (March , ) and was employed as a business agent by British merchants from Norwich and Yarmouth. Jones, E. Alfred. The Loyalists of New Jersey. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, . Palmer, Gregory. Biographical Sketches of Loyalists of the American Revolution. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Ryan, Dennis P. New Jersey Loyalists. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also chief justice; Loyalists

Phillip Papas

Snow’s Clam Cannery. In , Fred Snow founded the F. H. Snow’s Canning Company in Pine Point, Maine. Its leading product was Snow’s Clam Chowder, which was based on an old family recipe. The company was sold to Borden, Inc., in . Snow’s continued to operate in Maine until Borden moved it to Cape May, in . Cape May is the leading fishing port in New Jersey, and one of the largest on the East Coast; New Jersey itself is the leading supplier of surf clams and quahogs in the world. Borden also acquired the seafood firm of Doxsee and merged it with Snow’s Seafood Corporation. The combined firm of Snow’s/Doxsee was acquired by Castleberry’s Food Company in . The combined company, now named Castleberry/Snow’s Brands, Inc., consists of three major subsidiaries, each with strong regional products: Castleberry’s, Snow’s/Doxsee, and Bunker Hill Foods. Snow’s/Doxsee today has a ,-square-foot plant in Cape May, where the company manufactures clam chowder, corn chowder, canned clams, clam juice, and seafood sauces. Its products are distributed under the brand names Snow’s, Doxsee, and Ocean Harvest. Besides manufacturing, Snow’s/Doxsee also owns a fleet of five clamming vessels. See also clams; fishing David A. Norris

soccer. Early versions of soccer, transported from Britain, appeared in college intramural

contests in the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century. On November , , Princeton University came to Rutgers University to play a football game according to customs established at Rutgers. Although this event is widely regarded as the first game of American football, the rules described a game that was much closer to soccer. Rutgers won, six to four, setting up a soccer rivalry and inspiring interest in the game among other colleges. In  Rutgers, Princeton, Columbia, and Yale universities created the American Intercollegiate Football Association. This was a soccer organization, but Harvard University played a game closer to British rugby, and its version of football prevailed at the university level. Soccer, formalized in  through rules set by the Football Association in Britain, had become a major sport in countries around the world by the s. In the United States, however, it was confined to recent European immigrants on the East Coast. British immigrants formed a soccer group, the American Football Association (AFA), in Newark in . The AFA organized an international match, the United States against Canada, on November , , at Clark Field in East Newark, then part of Kearny. Kearny became a center of American soccer, thanks to the Clark Thread Company’s attraction of Scottish immigrants to its mills. The AFA’s first champion team, sponsored by Clark, was the ONT, for Our New Thread. The United States Football Association, a national governing body for soccer, was formed in . It was affiliated with the world governing body, Federation Internationale de Football Associations (FIFA). As violence disgraced American football early in the twentieth century, soccer returned to the universities, and Princeton became a major power in the sport during the s. The American Soccer League (ASL), formed in , was a semipro league that maintained America’s tradition of soccer as an ethnic, East Coast game. Teams like the Elizabeth Sport Club, the Newark Sport Club, and the Hoboken Football Club often played at Farcher’s Grove in Union, one of the oldest lighted soccer fields in America. The ASL’s dominant team was the Kearny Scots, who won five consecutive championships from  through . With other top amateur teams, the Kearny Scots went on to play in the New Jersey Champions League. After World War II, collegiate soccer increased in popularity, but professional soccer continued to falter, possibly due to its identity as a working-class, immigrant pastime. Since the s soccer has built a following among elementary and high school players, and as a participant sport for women. The North American Soccer League (NASL), a professional league of seventeen franchises, was formed in . In  the New York Cosmos of that league signed the Brazilian soc´ (Edson Arantes do Nascimento), cer star Pele and he attracted fans from all strata of society

soil to games in Giants Stadium in the Meadowlands. Although the NASL went bankrupt in , the United States had proved its interest in soccer to FIFA, and it was awarded the honor of hosting the  World Cup, which was contested in various locations, including the Meadowlands. A new United States professional soccer league, Major League Soccer, began its first season in  with Tab Ramos of Kearny, the son of a soccer-playing Uruguayan father, as midfielder for the New York/New Jersey MetroStars. New Jersey also has several minor league soccer teams, including the New Jersey Stallions, the North Jersey Imperials, the South Jersey Barrons, and the Central Jersey Riptides. See also sports

Pamela Cooper

Social Gospel. The Social Gospel was the basis of a reform movement among the Protestant churches that informed and inspired many social reforms during the Progressive Era. Their “Social Creed’’ denounced all forms of economic exploitation and became, in the words of a Methodist historian, “the conscience statement of American Protestantism on social issues.’’In New Jersey, as elsewhere in the country, the reaction of the Protestant congregations was mixed. In  the New Jersey Methodist Conference embraced the Social Creed, and scores of young seminary-trained clergy preached against child labor, slum conditions, and other forms of social injustice. The Camden Methodist Missionary Society founded Goodwill Industries to provide work for the physically handicapped. Methodists and Presbyterians set up centers for migrant workers in Burlington and Cumberland counties, and urban congregations in New Jersey supported the Salvation Army. The theology of the Social Gospel was associated with modernism, however, and Protestant leaders in the state tended to emphasize salvation over social service. During the Progressive Era the worldly energies of the church were much more absorbed by the temperance movement than by other types of social reform. Jamison, Wallace N. Religion in New Jersey: A Brief History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Steelman, Robert B. What God Has Wrought: A History of the Southern New Jersey Conference of the United Methodist Church. Rutland, VT: Academy Books, .

See also religion

Marty Paulsson

Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures. In , based on the ideas of Alexander Hamilton and Tench Coxe, a group of investors formed the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures. Known as the SUM, its purpose was to be America’s “national manufactory,’’ engaged in producing many different products through “laborsaving mills and machines’’ in New York, New

Jersey, or Pennsylvania. Over $, was quickly raised for stock and on November , , New Jersey granted the SUM a charter. Thirteen directors were chosen, including the SUM’s first governor, William Duer, a notorious speculator whose activities helped plunge the fledgling nation into a financial panic by March . At least $, in SUM capital disappeared and Duer was jailed. Nevertheless, Hamilton and the directors met at the Great Falls in Paterson on July , , and resolved to locate there. Purchasing over seven hundred acres, they began digging a raceway, under the direction of Pierre L’Enfant, who envisioned a magnificent city named Paterson, complete with a Roman aqueduct. In February , Peter Colt, a more practical businessman, replaced L’Enfant, whose plans had proved extravagant. Colt succeeded in producing cotton cloth in the Bull Mill, powered by oxen, since L’Enfant’s plan for tapping the river was unworkable. By January , the first raceway was completed and in June the cotton mill opened, but financial problems doomed the project. Colt left in  and the SUM existed for the next decade, leasing land and water power to a few mill operators, but never again manufacturing anything. In  a second raceway was cut, and as early as  Colt’s son Roswell began buying up shares of the society, soon controlling it. In , he became governor of the SUM, a position held by Colt family members until . Roswell Colt built the SUM into the dominant institution in Paterson, controlling vast real estate holdings and leasing mill power along the river, which it had successfully harnessed with completion of a third raceway in . In , control of Passaic River water rights led to purchase of the SUM by a syndicate of New York investors, led by John R. Bartlett; the syndicate focused on supplying water to growing cities including Newark, Jersey City, and even New York. Paterson’s own Garret Hobart brokered the sale and helped gain control of the entire Passaic River watershed. The SUM was now one of many companies controlled by what in  became the New Jersey General Security Company. These companies built the water supply systems of Newark and Jersey City, and later evolved into the Passaic Valley Water Commission and North Jersey District Water Supply Commission. In , the SUM began siphoning off some of this water to power a hydroelectric plant at the base of the Great Falls. By this time, the state had begun to assert control over its water and the huge water monopolies began to dissolve. By , the SUM was one of only two companies left and had begun to lose money. In  the Security Company dissolved and the remaining assets of the SUM were sold to the city of Paterson. Davis, Joseph Stancliffe. Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations.  vols. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, .

753

Herz, Robert. “The S.U.M.: The History of a Corporation.’’ Master’s thesis, New School for Social Research, . Nelson, William, and Charles A. Shriner. History of Paterson and Its Environs.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

See also Paterson; water

Mark Bishop Newell

Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery. See New Jersey Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery.

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. Chartered in , the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), or Venerable Society, was founded by Thomas Bray following his  investigation of religious conditions in the American colonies. He conceived the SPG to address the woeful lack of both clergy and books. Bray’s system of lending libraries was an essential aspect of a missionary strategy aimed at evangelizing African slaves and Native Americans as well as providing churches and schools for expatriate English Anglicans in America. Burlington and Woodbridge had the largest SPG parochial libraries in New Jersey, but the first SPG-supported clergyman in the state was Samuel Seabury, Jr., rector of Christ Church, New Brunswick (–). Seabury’s enthusiastic parishioners voted him an annual stipend of forty pounds to supplement the SPG’s fifty pounds. Their confidence proved well placed, for following American independence Seabury was to become the first bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States. Burr, Nelson R. The Anglican Church in New Jersey. Philadelphia: Church Historical Society, . Dewey, Margaret. The Messengers: A Concise History of the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. London: Mowbrays, . Laugher, Charles T. Thomas Bray’s Grand Design: Libraries of the Church of England in America, – . Chicago: American Library Association, .

See also religion

Joan E. Fleming

soil.

The term soil traditionally has had somewhat different connotations for engineers, soil scientists, ecologists, farmers, and gardeners. Soil is considered to be the uppermost portion of the Earth’s crust. A vertical cut through the soil will show various layers (or horizons) with their own properties, which collectively make up the soil profile. A soil profile includes the topsoil, subsoil, and the underlying parent material. Soil results from the interactions of at least five factors: parent material, relief, biotic elements, climate, and time. Features of a soil profile include the number of horizons, their color, texture, structure, composition, thickness, and geologic material, among others. The soil pattern in New Jersey is varied, a condition resulting from many kinds of

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Somerdale

Major Soils of New Jersey

Soil Series

Physiographic Province

1. Wallpack (a.k.a. Wooster)

Appalachian Valley

2. Swartswood

Appalachian Valley

3. Nassau

Appalachian Valley

4. Squires (a.k.a. Wassaic)

Appalachian Valley

5. Rockaway

Highlands

6. Wethersfield

Piedmont Plain

7. Holyoke

Piedmont Plain

8. Annandale (a.k.a. Edneyville)

Highlands

9. Washington

Highlands

Soil Characteristics Deep, well-drained loam and stony loam soils formed on sandstone glacial drift, calcareous in places Deep, well-drained sandy loam and stony sandy loam soils formed on very acid glacial drift Moderately deep, well-drained loam and stony loam soils formed on slaty glacial drift Deep, well-drained loam soils formed on calcareous glacial drift Deep, well-drained sandy loam and stony loam soils formed on gneissic glacial drift, shallow in places, very acid. Deep, well-drained loam soils formed on red shale glacial drift, sandy in places Deep, well-drained silt loam and stony loam soils formed on basalt and diabase glacial drift Deep, well-drained loam and stony loam soils formed on gneissic materials, including old glacial drift, shallow in places, acid. Deep, well-drained loam and silt loam soils formed on limestone, including old glacial drift Whippany is a poorly drained silty soil formed on lake deposits. See also undifferentiated Wethersfield soil description. Deep, well-drained loamy soils formed on red shale, including old

10. Whippany-Wethersfield

Piedmont Plain

11. Norton

Piedmont Plain

12. Penn

Piedmont Plain

13. Montalto (a.k.a. Neshaminy)

Piedmont Plain

14. Dunellen 15. Sassafras

Piedmont Plain Coastal Plain

16. Freehold-Collington

Coastal Plain

17. Downer

Coastal Plain

Deep, well-drained loamy sand and sandy loam soils formed on greensand undifferentiated Deep, well-drained loamy sand and sandy loam soils formed on marine

18. Aura

Coastal Plain

sands, very acid Deep, well-drained silt loam to sandy loam soils with a prominent

19. Greenwich (a.k.a. Sassafras)

Coastal Plain

20. Sassafras (a.k.a. Hammonton)

Coastal Plain

Deep, moderately well-drained loamy sand to sandy loam soils formed on sands

21. Lakewood

Coastal Plain

22. Berryland-Manahawkin

Coastal Plain

Deep, excessively drained sandy soils formed on loose sands, very acid. A major soil of the Pine Barrens. Deep, very poorly drained, coarse sandy soils, very acid undifferentiated

23. Tidal Marsh

Coastal Plain and Piedmont Plain

geologic materials and other factors. Over seventy geologic formations have been recognized within the state. Further, the sweep of land north of a line extending from Perth Amboy to Morristown and Belvidere has been glaciated; pockets of old till are also found south of this line. Glacial activities have had a dominant influence on producing many kinds of soil. In the mountainous terrain of northern New Jersey, the soil may be only a few inches thick, but in the rolling flat sectors it may be five or more feet deep. Many sectors of the state have soils with poor drainage, including muck and peat deposits. The Inner Coastal Plain of New Jersey has some of the most desirable agricultural soils in America. On the

glacial drift. Well-drained loam and silt loam soils formed on red shale and sandstone, shallow in places Deep, well-drained silt loam and stony silt loam formed on basalt and diabase Deep, well-drained sandy loam soils formed on glacial outwash Deep, well-drained sandy loam and loam soils formed on complex glacio-fluvial-marine deposits, acid

gravel component, acid Deep, well-drained silt loam to fine sandy loam soils formed on glacio-fluvial silts and sands

Deep, saline marsh

other hand, the Pine Barrens sector has strikingly poor sandy soils. Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. A Geography of New Jersey: The City in the Garden. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Tedrow, John C. F. Soils of New Jersey. Malabar, FL: R. E. Krieger, .

See also glaciation; major soils map, color section; physiography; Pine Barrens

John C. F. Tedrow

Somerdale.

.-square-mile borough in the heart of Camden County. A farming community when part of Clementon Township, before its incorporation as a separate community in , the borough was created

following an intense fight over the township’s failure to undertake certain road and school improvements. Somerdale’s urbanization began after World War I and was spurred by the automobile and the ensuing development of a highway infrastructure. It is bisected by the busy White Horse Pike, a major north-south corridor in the county. Somerdale still offers affordable housing. Although the borough has a small tax base (the manufacturing sector has only a few small companies), high senior citizen ratio, and large number of older homes, its attraction may rely on its proximity to the Echelon Mall, Voorhees; PATCO High-Speed Line to Philadelphia; and a modern hospital facility. Somerdale is home to the American

Somerset County importer Bimota Motorcycle Company of Italy and the borough’s convenient location has also resulted in the recent opening within its borders of a new bank branch and national department store. The year  population, representing a  percent loss since the previous census, was ,, of which  percent was white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

SOMERSET COUNTY

Somerville

Hornor, Edith, ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Gail Greenberg

Somerset County. .-square-mile county comprised of twenty-one municipalities located in the heartland of New Jersey. The county seat is Somerville. The Raritan River flows east across this county’s narrow waist separating hilly uplands in the north from red shale plains in the south. Because the interior of East Jersey had not yet been surveyed, Somerset was set off from Middlesex County in  with indefinite boundaries running “northwest into the hills’’ and southwest “to the uttermost line of the province.’’ It was an attempt by Scotsmen, who made up a majority of the East Jersey Board of Proprietors, to ensure that a goodly portion of this most desirable territory would be available for settlement by their countrymen. Anticipated Scots migration did not materialize, however, and boundaries as drawn proved impractical. New lines were set up in , , and, again, in  before Somerset took on a form resembling what it is today. Plains in the south were settled largely by Dutch relocating from New Amsterdam and the hills predominately by English speakers advancing inland from Woodbridge, Piscataway, and Elizabethtown. Numerous Huguenots, Scots-Irish, and Palatine Germans also settled here, in addition to Irish indentured servants and, especially among the Dutch, African slaves. The  census found Somerset exceeded only by Bergen County, the other heavily Dutch county, in the number of slaves: , out of a total county population of ,, almost  percent. Redrawing of Somerset County boundaries was completed with the removal of territories that included portions of New Brunswick () and Princeton (). Both towns had grown up straddling the main road from New York to Philadelphia that formed Somerset’s southeast boundary. With the exception of New Brunswick and Princeton, Somerset was essentially a scattering of rural villages until towns began to evolve in the nineteenth century under the stimulus of the railroads. The Delaware and Raritan Canal, opened in , spurred the development of Rocky Hill, Griggstown, East Millstone, and South Bound Brook, but the waterway had

0

15

county seat

miles

far less impact than the railroad completed to Somerville in  and extended to Easton in . Coal brought from Pennsylvania by the Central Railroad of New Jersey gave rise to industry, notably woolen mills in Raritan, Somerville, and Bound Brook. Commuters from New York City spurred residential development in North Plainfield, Bound Brook, and Somerville well into the twentieth century. Other railroads fanning out from New York fostered very different kinds of growth in northern and southern Somerset County. The Delaware and Bound Brook Railroad (later the Reading Railroad), built across the southern part of the county following passage of the General Railroad Act of , quickly eclipsed a rival, the Mercer and Somerset Railroad, but towns expected to grow up along its route did not materialize. Instead, the access it gave to urban markets proved an important stimulus to the dairy farming for which Somerset County became noted. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad was opened to Bernardsville in  and continued to Gladstone in . It became primarily a commuter line, stimulating home building in Lyons, Basking Ridge, and Bernardsville and, far more importantly, it drew wealthy New Yorkers with a mind to build grand country estates to the picturesque Somerset Hills. The “Mountain Colony’’ as it was known, with golf courses, polo grounds, hunt clubs, and race meets became a fabled summer playground of the super rich.

755

Somerset is still the wealthiest county in New Jersey and ranks sixth in the nation for personal income. Industrial development continued along the coal-carrying railroads, the Central Railroad of New Jersey and its rival the Lehigh, into the twentieth century. A modern factory built on the Millstone River in  by the H.W. Johns-Manville Company became the largest asbestos plant in the world. The jobs created by the plant attracted thousands of Eastern European immigrants and an entire new town, Manville, grew up around it. At the same time across the Raritan River the manufacture of dye-stuffs, begun during World War I by Calco Chemical Co., was taken over by American Cyanamid Co. and expanded into a giant chemical complex. These two plants became Somerset County’s largest employers, each with thousands of workers. During World War II both operated around the clock as did numerous smaller factories and two huge military supply depots; one on the Lehigh at South Somerville, the other on the Reading at Belle Mead. The resulting influx of war workers sent the county population soaring and created acute housing shortages that helped fuel a postwar boom in new suburbs around older towns. The  census counted , people, almost double the  count of ,. Highways had by then supplanted railroads as agents of change, and Somerset, in the heart of the state, became crisscrossed by major new arteries. A north-south “Million Dollar Highway’’(later Route /) connecting Morristown to Trenton through the Somerset Hills was begun in . A three-lane “scenic highway’’ (Route ) from Raritan all the way to Hillside was completed by  and extended west to Clinton in . Route  from Somerville to Flemington was opened in . These highways made Somerset a prime location for corporate campuses. The first to arrive was Ortho Pharmaceutical in  followed by Mack Motors in , and Ethicon and RCA in . Large-scale highway commercialism also got an early start: Somerset Shopping Center, New Jersey’s first, opened on the Somerville traffic circle in . Suburban sprawl continued to spread westward across Somerset County through the twentieth century, its advance accelerated by decades of national prosperity and two federal interstates: I- opened in , and I- in . An ever widening swath of development in the New York–Philadelphia corridor and court-ordered re-zoning, which allowed higher housing densities, further accelerated the transition. As farms gave way to housing, commercial and business interests competed for sites convenient to intersections and interchanges. One parcel bounded by I-, Route /, and Route  became the most coveted property in the northeast. Thirty-seven developers

756

Somerset Patriots

vied for the chance to exploit the potential of this “Golden Triangle’’ in the s. The prize went to Hahn and Co. and Bridgewater Commons, a regional shopping mall with  stores catering to upscale buyers, opened in . After thirteen years spent in obtaining approvals and construction the mall was an overnight success. Bridgewater Commons also fulfilled expectations that it would be a catalyst for further growth. High-rise office buildings, a major hotel, and an expansion of the mall added up to , cars a day on nearby highways. The surrounding towns, Bridgewater, Somerville, and Raritan, decided in  to form a Regional Center Partnership. The Regional Center Partnership encompasses  square miles in the heart of Somerset County containing , residents and , jobs, and seeks to deal with traffic congestion and forestall a hodgepodge of further growth. A booming national economy spurred growth in the rest of Somerset County as well. It is a midpoint in the East Coast megalopolis with one-fourth of the United States population within a -mile radius and therefore a magnet for both business and industry. The largest employers in the s were AT&T, Chubb, Johnson & Johnson, Aventis, Metlife, and Pharmacia. By century’s end the county’s population had again doubled, reaching , in . Seventy-nine percent of these residents were white,  percent were black, and  percent were Asian. The median household income according to the  census was $,. Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Schleicher, William A., and Susan J. Winter. In the Somerset Hills: The Landed Gentry. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Jessie Havens

Somerset

McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also historic sites

Evelyn Stryker Lewis

Patriots.

The Somerset Patriots is a professional baseball team in the independent Atlantic League of Professional Baseball Clubs, which is not affiliated with the major leagues. The team spent its inaugural season on the road and began playing in the ,-seat Somerset Ballpark in . The ballpark, located on Route  in Bridgewater and owned by Somerset County, was renamed Commerce Bank Ballpark in . Schedules in the Atlantic League vary from year to year, but the Patriots’ season lasts from April to September. See also baseball

Rudy Larini

Somers

Mansion. This peculiarlooking house, whose roof resembles an overturned ship’s hull, was constructed by shipbuilder Richard Somers in , which makes it the oldest surviving house in Atlantic County. Somers’s father established the first ferry service across Great Egg Harbor Bay in . Richard’s grandson, Master Commandant Richard Somers, was born at Somers Point in , and became a U.S. naval hero. In , during the United States’ war with Tripoli, Somers was killed in a fiery blast as he sailed his explosive-laden fireship into the Turkish fleet. Today, the site is home to the Atlantic County Historical Society and is administered by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Boucher, Jack E. Absegami Yesteryear. Absecon: Atlantic County Historical Society, .

Somers Point.

.-square-mile city in Atlantic County, about five miles west of Atlantic City. Somers Point is the oldest settlement in Atlantic County. Known as the Somers Plantation, it was founded in  by seven men, four of whom were English, two Dutch, and one Swedish. From  until , Somers Point was a stagecoach stop and the port of entry for Great Egg Harbor. During the Revolution, American privateers brought much of the loot they took from British ships to this port. In , the county’s first post office was opened here. Around  Richard Somers, one of the areas early settlers, built the Somers Mansion, a three-story dwelling said to be the oldest standing house in the county. Somers’s grandson, also Richard, commanded the Intrepid when it fought at Tripoli in  during the Barbary Wars. The Somers family lived in the house until , when it was taken by the state and turned into a museum. Somers Point is a mostly residential community. The population is growing rapidly and since  has nearly doubled. Many of the residents work in the casinos in nearby Atlantic City. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . McMahon, William. South Jersey Towns. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Shaw, H. Leslie., ed. Municipal Reference Guide: New Jersey—Southern Edition. Shrewsbury: National Resource Directories, .

Jerome E. Klein

Somerville.

Somers Mansion.

Courtesy Atlantic County Historical Society, Somers Point.

.-square-mile borough and county seat of Somerset County. Around Tunison’s Tavern (built , now the site of the Somerset Hotel) on the Old York Road developed a village that in , while still part of Bridgewater Township, was named the county seat. On April , , it achieved borough status. The Old Dutch Parsonage, built , housed theological classes that were the forerunner of Rutgers College and the New Brunswick Theological Seminary. A second state historic site nearby, the Wallace House, was Gen. George Washington’s headquarters during the Middlebrook encampment (– ). The Beaux-Arts style courthouse (where the famous Hall-Mills case was tried in ) has dominated the downtown area since .

sound recording Main Street is home to retail stores, banks, antique shops, and restaurants. The community is a mix of single-family and multifamily dwellings, townhouses, mid- and highrise apartments, and senior housing. Late nineteenth-century Victorian, Greek revival, Gothic, and Second Empire style homes reflect the tastes of fashionable New Yorkers who sought country homes an hour by railroad from the city. The Somerville Iron Works, founded , at one time employed , but the town was never heavily industrialized. The population in  of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, . Whiston, Jean L., and G. Wallace Conover. Somerville in Picture and Story. Somerville: Fiftieth Anniversary Committee, .

Alan A. Siegel

Sonmans, Peter

(b. ; d. Mar. ,

). Proprietor and colonial politician. Peter

Sonmans was born in Holland, the son of Arendt Sonmans and Agnieta van Rijsoort, Dutch Quakers who invested in both the West and East Jersey proprietorships. Peter lived in East Jersey after , and again after , where he was a controversial figure involved in the bitter political fights during the governorships of Lord Cornbury and Robert Hunter. Sonmans quarreled with relatives over ownership of five one-quarter proprietary shares and with other East Jersey proprietors over control of the group’s affairs. A member of the council, he was accused of misbehavior by the assembly in  and later, after his return to the colony in the s, of illegally collecting quitrents. Although it is difficult to evaluate the truth of the charges, it is clear that he contributed to the confusion over land ownership in the eastern division of the colony through his handling of both his own and the proprietors’ business. Bonomi, Patricia. The Lord Cornbury Scandal: The Politics of Reputation in British America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Lustig, Mary Lou. Robert Hunter, –: New York’s Augustan Statesman. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, . Sheridan, Eugene R. Lewis Morris, –: A Study in Early American Politics. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Sorge, Friedrich Adolf

(b. Nov. , ;

d. Oct. , ). Labor leader. Acclaimed as

the “Father of Socialism in America,’’ Friedrich

Sorge was born in Bethau bei Torgau, Saxony, Germany, the son of the Rev. Georg Sorge and Hedwig Lange. After taking a hand in the failed pro-democracy uprisings in Germany of –, Sorge immigrated to the United States in . There he became a music teacher, married, and settled in Hoboken. In , he converted to socialism and was soon the leading interpreter of Marxism in the United States. At the behest of Karl Marx he formed Section  of the First International in Hoboken () and was general secretary of the worldwide First International from  to . Sorge helped establish the Workingmen’s Party (), led a silk workers strike in Paterson, and organized the International Labor Union of Hoboken in . After he retired from politics, Friedrich Engels visited Sorge in Hoboken in . From  to , Sorge contributed articles on American socialist history to Die Neue Zeit, a Marxist periodical in Germany. In his last years, the “German of Hoboken’’ continued teaching the music of Beethoven and Wagner and advising workers on their problems. ANB. Foner, Philip S.“Introduction.’’ In Labor Movement in the United States: A History of the American Working Class from Colonial Times to , by Friedrich Adolf Sorge. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

See also labor movement

Barry Moreno

sound recording. New Jersey–based inventors and entrepreneurs played important roles in the development of the sound recording industry. Thomas Edison invented the first talking machine in  at his Menlo Park laboratory. In  Oberlin Smith, a mechanical engineer from Bridgeton, recorded sound magnetically on steel wire. In  Camden machinist Eldridge R. Johnson organized the Victor Talking Machine Company to produce disk machines and records. Although several smaller producers operated in the state, including the Piknik Portable Phonograph Company in Lakewood and Eclipse Phonograph of Newark, Edison and Johnson’s companies became the leading talking-machine producers in the early twentieth century. Edison discovered the principle of sound recording in July  while conducting telephone-related research. After several months of experiments, he designed a machine that recorded sound on tinfoil sheets wrapped around a brass cylinder. The introduction of the tinfoil phonograph in December  created a sensation, making Edison an international celebrity and earning him the nickname “the Wizard of Menlo Park.’’ Edison predicted several uses for the phonograph, including speech education and talking books for the blind, but the machine could not perform any of these functions. Operating the deceptively simple device required a high level of dexterity and

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patience. The fragile tinfoil recording was not particularly loud and could not be stored for any length of time. In January  Edison sold the marketing rights to a group of investors, who subsequently organized the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company. While Edison attempted to improve the phonograph in early , the Phonograph Company made plans to market the machine. In the absence of a practical device, the company capitalized on the invention by hiring James Redpath, the organizer of the Redpath Lyceum Bureau in Boston, to establish a phonograph exhibition business. Redpath’s demonstrations were briefly profitable, but public interest in the phonograph faded quickly. By the fall of  Edison had abandoned the phonograph and had begun developing an incandescent electric lighting system. Edison returned to the phonograph in , shortly before moving into his West Orange laboratory. Prompted by the efforts of Alexander Graham Bell’s laboratory to develop a rival talking machine, the graphophone, Edison redesigned the phonograph for use as an office dictating machine. In  Edison sold his rights to the improved phonograph to the North American Phonograph Company, which had earlier obtained the graphophone rights. The North American Company organized subsidiaries to lease battery-powered dictating machines, but failed to create a large market because of several technical and commercial problems. While the North American Company promoted the phonograph as a dictating machine, sound recording technology succeeded unexpectedly as an entertainment source. During the early s several North American Company subsidiaries outfitted phonographs with coin-slot attachments and placed them in saloons, arcades, and other public places. These machines, which played short songs and comedy sketches, were highly profitable. The financial success of these coin-operated machines forced Edison to shift the phonograph’s focus from business to entertainment applications. By  he had regained control of the North American Company, forced it into bankruptcy, and created the National Phonograph Company, which marketed a line of inexpensive, spring-driven cylinder machines and prerecorded cylinders for domestic entertainment use. Edison’s sales grew rapidly. By  the National Company had sold over , machines and nearly . million records. In  Eldridge Johnson began manufacturing spring motors for Emile Berliner’s gramophone in his Camden shop. Johnson produced gramophones for Berliner, developed several improvements for the machine, and designed an improved recording process. After a series of complex lawsuits, Johnson gained control of Berliner’s patent and, in October , organized the Victor Company to

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Sourland Mountains

produce his own disk machines and records. Johnson continued working on the gramophone, designing an improved tone arm in  and unveiling in  one of his most popular models, the Victrola, a hornless talking machine enclosed in an attractive wood cabinet. Johnson promoted sales by an aggressive advertising campaign and a record catalog featuring such celebrities as the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso. The Banker’s Panic of  abruptly ended the impressive growth enjoyed by the National and Victor companies. Edison suffered a  percent drop in sales and Victor’s sales declined by almost  percent. Both companies recovered, but Victor grew back at a much faster rate, and surpassed Edison’s sales in . Edison did not reach his pre- level until , when the value of Victor’s sales was over three times as high as Edison’s. From  to , Victor marketed over . million talking machines and  million recordings. To compete with the longer playing Victor disk, Edison introduced a four-minute cylinder record, the Amberol, in . In  Edison began designing his own disk record, the Diamond Disc and, in , unveiled the Blue Amberol, a celluloid cylinder record that produced a higher quality sound than earlier wax records. These products helped the National Company’s successor, Thomas A. Edison, Inc. (organized in ) revive lagging sales. By World War I Edison’s West Orange plant employed thousands of workers. A brief but deep recession in , followed by competition from radio, which offered consumers free broadcast entertainment, threatened talking machine and record sales in the early s. Victor, along with several other phonograph producers, responded by obtaining licenses to manufacture combination radio-phonographs. By  Victor had introduced records produced with a new electrical recording process and had developed the “Orthophonic Victrola,’’ which featured an improved acoustic horn. An ailing Eldridge Johnson sold his interest in the Victor Company and retired in . In March  the Radio Corporation of America purchased Victor, and a portion of the company’s huge Camden plant was converted to radio production. Thomas A. Edison Inc. continued to lose market share throughout the s. By the late s, Edison controlled only  percent of the U.S. record market. Edison resisted pressure to enter the radio business until , when his company secured a license from the Splitdorf Corporation of Newark to produce combination radio-phonographs. Although Edison’s son Theodore conducted experiments on electrical recording, these efforts came too late to save the business, and in the fall of  Thomas A. Edison, Inc., stopped producing entertainment phonographs and records. The Edison company continued to manufacture office dictating machines in West Orange through the s. In 

Thomas A. Edison Inc. merged with the McGraw Electric Company and became McGrawEdison. During the early s, the company shut down its West Orange operation and moved to Texas. Despite declining sales, during the early s the Victor Company, now called RCA Victor, continued to produce phonographs and records at its Camden plant. In  RCA Victor sold approximately  million disks. From the s through the s, RCA Victor was part of an international corporation that diversified into such products as car radios, television sets, communications satellites, and military-related electronics equipment. In the late s RCA Victor developed several new audio products, including an unbreakable vinylite  rpm record, a long-playing  / rpm record, and a phonograph that played all three standard record speeds— /, , and  rpm. In  the company discontinued record production at Camden, shifted record pressing to other plants in the United States, and converted the Camden facility to the manufacture of television sets and other products. Declining sales and increased international competition in the early s forced RCA to close its audio equipment business in . In  RCA merged with General Electric. Shortly after the merger, General Electric sold the RCA record catalog to a West German entertainment firm, Bertelsmann, AG. Gelatt, Roland. The Fabulous Phonograph, –. New York: Macmillan, . Millard, Andre. America on Record: A History of Recorded Sound. New York: Cambridge University Press, . Morton, David. Off the Record: The Technology and Culture of Sound Recording in America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Read, Oliver, and Walter L. Welch. From Tinfoil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph. Indianapolis: Howard W. Sams, .

See also Radio Corporation of America; Victor Talking Machine Company

Leonard DeGraaf

Sourland Mountains. An elongated upland in portions of Hunterdon, Somerset, and Mercer counties in west-central New Jersey that extends in a northeasterly direction from the Delaware River near Lambertville to Neshanic in the Raritan River Basin. The approximate length and width is sixteen miles by one mile, respectively. The Sourlands are located southeast of the Hunterdon Plateau in the Piedmont Physiographic Province, one of the four major landform regions of the state. The Sourland Mountains are underlain by diabase, an igneous intrusive rock of Jurassic age ( to  million years ago). This diabase sill is much more resistant than the surrounding shales, thereby resulting in ridges that reach a maximum height of  feet south of Neshanic and average about  feet over many other areas. These summit surfaces

are considered to be part of the Schooley Peneplain, an eroded ancient land surface in New Jersey. The Hopewell Fault is located along the southeastern side of the Sourlands and is associated with Hopewell Valley. Due to the limited fractures and low storage capacity within the diabase, well yields in the Sourlands rank among the lowest in the state. Many wells drilled in the Sourlands are barely capable of supplying enough water for a typical residence. Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; geology; physiography

Robert M. Hordon

South Amboy.

.-square-mile city in eastern Middlesex County, mostly on high ground overlooking Raritan Bay. Chartered in , the township was originally eighteen miles wide and sixteen miles long. Its size made it hard to govern, and in  Monroe Township seceded, followed by Madison Township (now Old Bridge) in  and Sayreville in . South Amboy was incorporated as a city in . Early industries were clay mining, potteries (including terra cotta), fishing, and farming. After the railroads came, there was little land left for industrial use. Railroads were an integral part of South Amboy history from the s to the s. In , the Camden and Amboy Railroad replaced the stagecoaches to Camden. The Pennsylvania Railroad leased the Camden and Amboy Railroad in , and built shops, yards, and coal dumpers. The Raritan River Rail Road was an industrial railroad for eastern Middlesex County to New Brunswick. These extensive railroad facilities were gone by . On May , , munitions and dynamite being loaded onto a waiting ship exploded, destroying the waterfront and damaging businesses and homes all over the city. Thirty-one people were killed. The cause of the explosion was never discovered. Today the city is predominantly residential with well-kept single-family homes. The population in  of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

William G. Marshall

Southampton. .-square-mile township in Burlington County. Centrally located in the county and bisected by Routes  and , Southampton was originally called Coaxen Township. It separated from Northampton Township in March , but was renamed Southampton just thirty days later. Southampton is geographically divided between farmland and Pine Barrens forests. Central village was originally known as Weepink until Quakers migrated into the area in the early s and briefly called it Quakertown.

South Brunswick The village was renamed Vincentown around  after landowner Vincent Leeds. Another community, Red Lion, was established around , named after a local tavern. Today, it is the site of the Red Lion Circle at Routes  and . Another community, Ewansville, consists of tightly grouped, low-lying dwellings along the Rancocas Creek along the township’s northern boundary. The major retirement community of LeisureTowne, the township’s biggest housing area, dates back to the early s. Individual residential homes have gradually been erected throughout the twentieth century, radiating away from Vincentown and toward Medford, but most open land outside the Pine Barrens is still agricultural. Commercial strips exist along Routes  and . The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Southard, Samuel Lewis ; d. June , ).

(b. June ,

Governor, U.S. senator, cabinet officer, and lawyer. Samuel Lewis Southard was born in Basking Ridge, the son of Henry Southard, a farmer, and Sarah Lewis Southard. During Southard’s youth his father became active in Jeffersonian-Republican politics, and served for nearly two decades in the House of Representatives. Samuel was prepared for college by the Rev. Robert Finley, a noted Presbyterian clergyman. Following graduation from the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in , Southard spent several years as a tutor in the Fredericksburg household of a Virginia congressman. Southard was admitted to the bar in Fredericksburg in  and married a Virginia woman, Rebecca Harrow, in . Nevertheless, he concluded that his fortune lay not in Virginia but closer to his “early acquaintance and college companions,’’ as he put it in a letter to a Princeton classmate. For several years Southard practiced law in New Jersey, while spending his free time on politics. A relentless office seeker, he served successively in the state assembly, on the New Jersey supreme court, as a U.S. senator, and, from  to , as navy secretary under Presidents James Monroe and John Quincy Adams. During his years in Adams’s Cabinet, Southard embraced a more entrepreneurial version of the Jeffersonian creed, and he espoused federal efforts to encourage commerce and economic development. National divisions on the wisdom of such a course were reinforced during the presidential campaigns of  and , during both of which Southard was intensely engaged as an opponent of Andrew Jackson. With Jackson’s triumph in , Southard returned to New Jersey as state attorney general. In

 he was elected governor, but served only briefly, as the legislature soon elected him to the U.S. Senate. Serving in the Senate for nine years (–), Southard earned a reputation as an articulate exponent of the Whig position and a consummate politician. During the s Southard was the acknowledged leader of the nascent Whig party in New Jersey. He spent hours coordinating Whig operations each election cycle; each fall saw him undertake an exhaustive speaking schedule. He was especially active in the presidential campaign of . When Whig candidate William Henry Harrison was elected, Southard expected to return to the cabinet. This was not to be. His consolation prize was elevation to the position of president pro tempore of the Senate. Outside politics Southard was active in the affairs of the College of New Jersey and the Princeton Theological Seminary, both of which he served as a trustee. He was a member of a half-dozen associations, ranging from the Seamen’s Aid Society, to temperance, Bible, and colonization organizations at the local, state, and national levels. He frequently spoke to gatherings of these organizations and delivered his share of Fourth of July addresses to New Jersey audiences. Southard’s financial needs led him to make a series of investments that failed to accomplish his goals. His finances were further unhinged by an unfortunate liaison with the Morris Canal and Banking Company and a steady stream of bills relating to his wife’s medical and psychological problems. By  Southard’s health had broken. The main impact of his final illness and death in Virginia was to open a path for ambitious younger politicians like future vice presidential candidate William L. Dayton and future House Speaker William Pennington. Birkner, Michael J. Samuel L. Southard: Jeffersonian Whig. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Michael J. Birkner

South Belmar.

.-square-mile borough located in the south coast of Monmouth County adjacent to Lake Como, after which the area was originally named in the s. South Belmar was created on May , , by a referendum in which  voters favored separation from Wall Township and  were opposed. South Belmar consists of bungalows and seaside cottages reflecting past summer vacation times. In the late s several small cottage developments were created to entice families to buy into this new community. Of architectural interest is Hollycraft, a  rustic Adirondack-style bed-and-breakfast located on a rise overlooking Lake Como. Ironically,

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South Belmar does not have a beachfront. A narrow strip of Belmar Borough land separates South Belmar from the Atlantic Ocean. The borough has a total of , housing units of which , or . percent, are available for seasonal use. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income for  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bell, Wayne T., Jr. Know the Shore: South Belmar. Neptune: Asbury Park Press, . ———. Natural Resource Inventory, Borough of South Belmar. South Belmar: Environmental Commission, .

Wayne T. Bell, Jr.

South Bound Brook.

.-square-mile borough in Somerset County. Formed within Franklin Township, South Bound Brook became Bloomington on March , , but reverted to its present name and became a borough on April , . Bought from the Lenape in , the area was divided into narrow plantations, each with frontage on the Raritan River. During the Revolution Baron von Steuben spent the winter of – at the Staats plantation, where he entertained Generals Washington, Lee, and Knox. The sleepy Dutch hamlet came alive in the nineteenth century with the opening in  of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. Many of the Irish laborers who built the canal settled here. In the early to mid-twentieth century residents worked in the factories across the river in Bound Brook or at the Ruberoid Company (later GAF) in the heart of downtown. The Hendrick Fisher House, built , is now the site of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church’s museum and cemetery on Main Street, where an imposing chapel and monument honor the “heroes of the Ukrainian nation.’’ A residential community of single-family homes, South Bound Brook’s population in  of , residents was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, . Swan, H. Kels. Borough of South Bound Brook: A History. South Bound Brook: South Bound Brook Tricentenary Committee, .

Alan A. Siegel

South Brunswick. -square-mile township in Middlesex County. Incorporated as South Brunswick Township in , it then included Cranbury and Plainsboro townships, which were broken off in  and , respectively. Located in the southwest corner of

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South Hackensack

Middlesex County between Route  and Cranbury Road, Dutch and English settlers established the villages of Kingston, Cross Roads (Dayton), and Deans along popular eighteenth-century travel routes. Agriculture predominated until the mid-s, abetted by rich soils and transportation advantages from the Delaware and Raritan Canal at Kingston and the Straight Turnpike (now U.S. Route ). Railroad lines from three directions led to the creation of Monmouth Junction about . Current development and land use change began with the Kendall Park housing development about . Today, immigrants from around the world are contributing to South Brunswick’s ethnic and religious diversity. Residential areas predominate in the western half of the township with farms and office-research facilities, particularly warehousing by New Jersey Turnpike Exit A predominating in the eastern half. Population in  was ,. This represented a  percent increase in population since . The township in  was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . South Brunswick Public Library Local History Collection.

Ceil Leedom

South Hackensack.

.-square-mile township in Bergen County. South Hackensack Township is the surviving remnant of Lodi Township, which it officially replaced in . The original township encompassed all of southern Bergen County from the Passaic to the Hackensack River when it was created in , but almost immediately began diminishing. From  on, parts of Lodi Township broke away into new municipalities, leaving three unconnected parcels that became South Hackensack—the main area south of Hackensack, the Garfield Park section sandwiched between Lodi and Wood-Ridge, and a small wedge between Moonachie and Carlstadt. South Hackensack is known for its former flamboyant mayor, Sebastian Ruta, who was mayor for twenty-five years and almost single-handedly pulled the township out of bankruptcy during the s. Truck farms covered much of South Hackensack’s acreage until the s. Afterward, new housing and many industries filled in the vacant land near Teterboro Airport and the Hackensack River, providing taxes for the town and jobs and homes for its residents. Its population increased from , in  to a peak of , in . In , the population of , was  percent white, primarily of Italian and Czech ancestry;  percent Asian; and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Ruta, Sebastian. Deception and Corruption Destroys Honest Belief in Government. South Hackensack: S. Ruta, . South Hackensack Celebrates America’s Bicentennial, –: Sesquicentennial, –. South Hackensack: South Hackensack Township Committee, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

South Harrison. .-square-mile township in Gloucester County. Swedes arrived during the seventeenth century and set up small farming communities. The Europeans who followed were also attracted to land that was situated close to Raccoon Creek and Olman’s Creek, good water sources for farming. The township was taken from Harrison and given its present name in honor of the tenth president of the United States, William Henry Harrison, in . Today, South Harrison remains primarily a small rural farming area with a population spread out on dairy farms and on rolling acres of apple and peach orchards. Its location not far from Philadelphia and Atlantic City makes South Harrison a popular destination for sightseers who come in the spring to see the peach blossoms that blanket the area. Farms and single-family homes are predominant. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . “A Historic Weekend in Gloucester County.’’ Eagle Scout Service Project by William S. Entrekin, . Gloucester County Historical Society Library. Mickle, Isaac. Reminiscences of Old Gloucester; or, Incidents in the History of the Counties of Gloucester, Atlantic, and Camden. Philadelphia: Towsend Ward, . Simpson, Hazel B., ed. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, . Stewart, Frank H., ed. Notes on Old Gloucester County, New Jersey. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

South Orange. .-square-mile village in Essex County. The first European settlers were part of the same group of Puritans who left Connecticut to settle Newark in . By  the area of the village extended from the East Branch of the Rahway River to the top of South Mountain. South Orange was part of Newark until , when Orange Township was created. In  the Village of South Orange was incorporated, in  the Township of Maplewood separated from South Orange, and in  the Township of South Orange Village was created. The most influential settler in the village was New York Attorney John Gorham Vose, who purchased a home on Scotland Road in  and encouraged the development of the

distinguished residences of the Montrose section. Only fifteen miles from New York City, transportation connections were an important factor in transforming South Orange from a farming community into a residential commuter suburb. By  the Morris and Essex Railroad began operating a horse-drawn car between the village and Orange—this is now the Morris and Essex line of New Jersey Transit. In  Seton Hall College, since  Seton Hall University, moved from Madison to South Orange. In  the population numbered , and was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Pierson, David. History of the Oranges to . Vols. –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Village of South Orange, –. South Orange: League of Women Voters, . Wickes, Stephen. History of the Oranges, –. Newark: Ward and Tichenor for the New England Society of Orange, .

Elizabeth A. Milliken

South Plainfield.

.-square-mile borough in northern Middlesex County. Sampton, the scene of skirmishing between British and American forces during the American Revolution, and Brooklyn, were early villages, in addition to Towtown and New Brooklyn, the site of its first post office in . The community’s name was changed to South Plainfield a decade later. Incorporated in , the borough was formerly part of Piscataway Township. The Lehigh Valley Railroad once exerted a major influence on the town, employing Irish immigrants who eventually settled there. Harris Structural Steel established a fabricating facility in the borough in , played a major role in World War II activities, and helped to change the farm-based economy into an industrial one. Hadley Field was the scene of the first transatlantic mail flight in  and Bendix Aviation tested many of its experimental planes there. Nike battery NY-, an active installation until , was erected next to the field in . Hadley Field now lies under Route  and a shopping center. The radio industry also played an important role in the community’s development; the Cornell-Dublier Company manufactured condensers for that device and employed many residents. Today, South Plainfield is home to manufacturers of chemicals, electrical machinery, structural steel, and toys. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Clayton, W. Woodford, ed. History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Sparta Wall, John P., and Harold E. Pickersgill, eds. History of Middlesex County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

South River. .-square-mile borough in Middlesex County. Settled in , it was originally known as South River Landing, then Willettstown (in honor of the founder), Washington (in honor of George Washington), and finally adopted the current name in . South River separated from East Brunswick Township when it was incorporated as a borough in . Lying on the south bank of the South River, a tributary of the Raritan River, it once served as a stage and boat station for a major transportation line, and an important transportation and shipping link between New York and Philadelphia. Sand and clay mining were among the earliest industries, and from these developed brick, tile, and pottery manufacturing. Textile and clothing manufacture also played a significant role in the development of the municipality. Present-day South River is a largely residential, suburban community. The population is diverse, coming from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, with the largest concentrations being Polish, Italian, German, Irish, and Portuguese. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Barber, Charlotte Dow. A Homespun Heritage. East Brunswick: Sentinel Publishing, . Commemorative Book: In Celebration of South River’s th Anniversary, –. South River: South River Historical and Preservation Society, . Schack, Paul. History of South River, Commemorating the th Anniversary. South River: South River Woman’s Club, .

Stephanie Bartz

South Toms River.

.-square-mile borough in Ocean County. South Toms River was formally part of greater Toms River, the county seat, until , when it became part of Berkeley Township in Ocean County. Then in , South Toms River was incorporated as a borough. South Toms River was an early industrial area. In , the first sawmill was erected on the Toms River and more sawmills followed. Mill owner William Giberson built row houses for his workers. A gristmill, iron foundry, and a talcum powder mill were added to the factory town. A Mormon church was built in  and had  members. Many left in the  exodus to Salt Lake City, and the church closed in . In , a resident, Simon Lake, invented the first oceangoing submarine, the Argonaut Junior. In the s, Albert Greim built Birdsville, a Moorish-style building out of poured concrete. There he operated a workshop for the manufacture of rustic birdhouses

and an Episcopal wedding chapel. After World War II, poultry farming and feed businesses dominated a rural landscape, which soon gave way to suburbia. The population in  was . Forty years later () the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . King, William A. Downtown Toms River, Way Back When. Toms River: Ocean County Historical Society, . Ocean County Historical Society. Along the Toms River. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Patricia Johnson

Space Farms Zoo and Museum. Space Farms Zoo houses over five hundred animals of more than one hundred different species, including the world’s largest private collection of North American wildlife. Residents range from New Jersey natives such as bobcats, foxes, and deer to rarer breeds such as jaguars, llamas, and yaks. The museum complex’s eleven buildings contain a diversified collection of Americana, including old cars, carriages, sleighs, toys, a miniature circus, a country store, and an antique hand-operated merry-go-round. The -acre site devotes more than one hundred acres to the zoo and museum. The remainder is used to produce the  tons of grain and  tons of hay needed to feed the animals each year. Space Farms had its origins in . To supplement his income, Ralph Space worked for the New Jersey State Game Department trapping farm animal predators. Rather than kill the animals, Space built small enclosures around his garage—and the zoo was born. Elizabeth Space opened a country store and, during the Depression, farmers “paid’’ with their family heirlooms, intending to reclaim them. Soon, people were coming to see both the animals and the antiques. Presently run by the third generation of Spaces, the complex is located in Sussex County.

Roberta Chopp Rothschild

Spanish-American War. During the Spanish-American War, New Jersey furnished four regiments of volunteer infantry to the U.S. Army and two battalions of its Naval Reserve to the U.S. Navy. In addition, New Jerseyans served in the regular army and in the Volunteer Signal Corps. The largest component of New Jersey’s contingent comprised the First, Second, Third, and Fourth New Jersey Regiments of U.S. Volunteers. About two-thirds of New Jersey’s approximately forty-four hundred National Guard officers and men joined these infantry regiments. They were reinforced by additional recruits who joined directly from civilian life.

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Mustered into federal service in the state camp at Sea Girt, the four regiments trained and did garrison duty in the United States. New Jersey men also served in a company of the U.S. Volunteer Signal Corps that was raised in the state. Although none of the New Jersey volunteer regiments saw combat, men from New Jersey fought in Cuba in regular army units, and three of them received the Medal of Honor: Sergeant Alexander M. Quinn of the Thirteenth U.S. Infantry, born in Passaic, and two African Americans from Paterson, Privates William H. Tompkins and George H. Wanton of the Tenth U.S. Cavalry. Members of New Jersey’s two Naval Reserve battalions served on three navy ships: the monitor USS Montauk and the auxiliary vessels USS Badger and USS Resolute. The Montauk was stationed at Portland, Maine, throughout the war. The other two vessels took part in the blockade of Cuba and in operations against Santiago de Cuba and Manzanillo. On the home front, civilian groups, including many women, were active in caring for sick soldiers brought back to Sea Girt. They also raised money to assist the families of National Guardsmen who suffered economic hardship during the war. A History of the Second Regiment, N.G.N.J. Edited by Harry L. Harris and John T. Hilton. Paterson: Call, . United States. Department of the Army, Public Information Division. The Medal of Honor of the United States Army. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, .

Graham A. Cosmas

Sparta. .-square-mile township in Sussex County. Sparta was set off from portions of Hardyston, Frankford, Newton, and Byram townships in . Located partly in the Highlands and partly in the Wallkill Valley, both agriculture and mineral industries historically played important roles in the township. A number of iron forges operated in Sparta. In the s, Thomas Edison established a massive iron ore extraction plant on Sparta Mountain, which was a technological success but a financial failure. In , the Wallkill River was impounded to create Lake Mohawk, an early and important lake community in Sussex County. Its central shopping district, White Deer Plaza, is architecturally noteworthy and listed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places. In the later part of the twentieth century, highway access to Routes  and Interstate  have made Sparta a desirable and affluent bedroom suburb, and many large homes have been built. The  population was ,; the residents were  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

762

special education

Snell, James P., ed. The History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

special education.

Title A, Chapter , is the current New Jersey administrative code for special education, superceding the state’s first comprehensive special education law, Title , Chapter  (). Prior to  some students with special needs attended public school, but there was no consistency in how or where those services were provided. The current code is the state’s version of the federal special education law, the Individuals with Disabilities Act of  (IDEA), and was adopted in June . The code details who is entitled to receive special education services, program options, and procedures associated with the provision of services. Children between the ages of three and twenty-one are entitled to receive a free and appropriate public education and related services. These services are to be provided in the least-restrictive environment, existing on a continuum from full inclusion in a public school to an approved private school, without cost to the parent. “Related services’’ are items such as transportation, speech and audiology services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy, recreation, and school nursing services. Thirteen disability categories are cited in the code. In order to be considered eligible for special education and related services, a student must have one or more of the disabilities, which must adversely affect his or her educational performance. The categories are: ) auditorily impaired; ) autistic; ) cognitively impaired; ) communication impaired; ) emotionally disturbed; ) multiply disabled; ) orthopedically impaired; ) other health impaired; ) preschool handicapped; ) social maladjustment; ) specific learning disability; ) traumatic brain injury; and ) visually impaired. The code specifies that children can not be considered eligible for services if their learning problem is due to a lack of instruction in reading or math or to limited English proficiency. When a child is evaluated for eligibility, a child study team composed of a school psychologist, a learning disability teacher consultant, and a school social worker gather data from multiple settings using a wide array of assessment tools. Disability specialists, like a speech therapist, can provide additional information for the evaluation. When all the data have been collected, a meeting is called between the child study team, the parents, and the child (if appropriate). The results of the evaluation are discussed amongst the participants and a decision is made regarding eligibility for services and the classification category that will be used. The code mandates that each child considered eligible for special education must have an Individualized Education Program (IEP).

The program consists of long-term goals and short-term objectives. Statements about how much time students will spend in specialized settings and general education settings on a daily basis are also included in the IEP. In addition, when a child is fourteen years old or older, the IEP must have goals and objectives for transition from school to the community. See also education

Grace May

Speedwell.

See Historic Speedwell.

Spencer, Lilly Martin ; d. May , ).

(b. Nov. ,

Painter. A renowned mid-nineteenth-century genre painter, Lilly Martin Spencer (christened Angelique Marie Martin) was born in Exeter, England. She was the eldest daughter of Gilles and Angelique Perrine LePetit Martin, French language teachers from Brittany. In , the family immigrated to New York City. In , after Gilles accepted a teaching position at the Marietta Collegiate Institute and the Western Teacher’s Seminary, the family moved to Marietta, Ohio. Adherents of progressive causes, including woman suffrage, the Martins encouraged the talents of their children. Lilly, largely selftaught, was influenced by two local artists, Sala Bosworth and Charles Sullivan, both of whom had studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. In , Sullivan arranged for Spencer’s first exhibition in the rectory of Saint Luke’s Episcopal Church, which attracted the attention of the Cincinnati philanthropist Nicholas Longworth. Although

Longworth offered to send her East to study, Spencer declined in favor of moving to Cincinnati with her father, where she met the artist James Beard and took lessons from John Insco Williams. After a Cincinnati exhibition of her work, Longworth offered to underwrite a trip to Paris, but Spencer again declined owing to Longworth’s requirement that she spend seven years copying European works. She remained in Cincinnati for the next eight years, maintaining a studio in the Western Art Union Building. On August , , Lilly married Benjamin Rush Spencer, an English tailor, who soon gave up his own occupation to prepare canvases and frames for his wife. After concluding that New York City would offer better educational opportunities and patronage, the Spencers, along with their first son, Benjamin Martin, made the move in . In the same year, Lilly exhibited her first work at the National Academy of Design (The Water Spirit, unlocated) and sold two paintings to the American Art-Union. In , she was made an honorary member of the National Academy and soon produced some of her finest genre paintings, including The Young Husband: First Marketing (, private collection). She also expanded her repertoire to other subject matter, including the allegorical and the literary. In , after the birth of several children (they reportedly had thirteen; seven lived to adulthood), the Spencers moved to  High Street in Newark, where Lilly established a studio. In partial payment of rent to the owner, Marcus L. Ward, Spencer painted the life-sized

Lilly Martin Spencer, War Spirit at Home, . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1944 Wallace M. Scudder Bequest Fund.

sports portrait, Four Children of Marcus Ward (c. – , Newark Museum). During the Civil War, she also expanded her subject matter to include historical genre, as in War Spirit at Home (, Newark Museum), which includes some of her own children. Her Newark period, which lasted until , when she moved to Highland, New York, appears to have been her most prolific. Throughout her career, Lilly Martin Spencer exhibited widely at venues including the National Academy of Design, the Boston Athenaeum, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and the Brooklyn Art Association. In the early twenty-first century, her works are found in numerous public and private collections. Bolton-Smith, Robin, and William H. Truettner. Lilly Martin Spencer: The Joys of Sentiment. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, . Tufts, Eleanor, ed. American Women Artists, – . Washington, DC: National Museum of Women in the Arts, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Barbara J. Mitnick

Spong, John Shelby

(b. June , ).

Bishop, author, lecturer, and theologian. John Shelby Spong was born and attended public schools in Charlotte, North Carolina. He received an A.B. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill () and an M.Div. from Virginia Theological Seminary (). Spong was rector of parishes in Durham () and Tarboro, North Carolina (), and Lynchburg () and Richmond (), Virginia, before becoming bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Newark (–). From this pulpit, Spong entered into a lively dialogue with conservative Christians on controversial matters of faith, modernity, and social justice. Spong has not shied away from sophisticated attempts to define essential Christian values for the American public. As a writer, he has renewed exploration of Scripture as a source of reflection on divinity as revealed in historical and cultural contexts. He has challenged prescientific Catholic doctrines (for example, the virgin birth, the resurrection of the body) that undermine the Church’s credibility as a voice of conscience in the modern world. Spong drew on the lessons of an earlier involvement in civil rights advocacy when, as bishop of Newark, he skillfully exploited modern media outlets to reach “Christians in exile’’ and to promote civil and ecclesiastical rights for women, gays, and lesbians. Among his eighteen books are Born of a Woman (), Why Christianity Must Change or Die (), and Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism (). Spong, John Shelby. Here I Stand. San Francisco: Harper, .

See also Episcopal Church

Mark J. Duffy

sports. From archery and auto racing to volleyball and Greco-Roman wrestling— and everything in between—New Jersey offers

a variety of scholastic, collegiate, professional, semiprofessional, and recreational sports. Spectators can choose professional basketball (the Nets), ice hockey (the Devils), soccer (the New York/New Jersey MetroStars), or lacrosse (the Pride in Montclair). And, although no professional football team bears the state’s name, the New York Giants and New York Jets play at the Meadowlands. The state also lacks a major league baseball team but boasts eight minor league teams: the Atlantic City Surf, the Camden Riversharks, the Lakewood Blue Claws, the Newark Bears, the New Jersey Cardinals (Augusta), the New Jersey Jackals (Little Falls), the Somerset Patriots (Bridgewater), and the Trenton Thunder. There are two New Jersey teams in the East Coast Hockey League, the Atlantic City Boardwalk Bullies and the Trenton Titans. For minor league soccer, there are the New Jersey Stallions, the North Jersey Imperials, the Central Jersey Riptides, and the South Jersey Barrons. Spectators with more exotic tastes can watch the New Jersey Sharks, a professional rugby team that plays in Philadelphia, or the Gladiators, who play arena football in East Rutherford. Individual New Jerseyans have made it into various national Halls of Fame; others are enshrined in the state Hall of Fame. Some stars have achieved international fame. New Jersey sent the former NBA star Bill Bradley, who played with the New York Knicks, to the United States Senate. Olympian Carl Lewis hails from Willingboro, and baseball great Yogi Berra, master of the malapropism, sponsors an annual golf tournament from his current hometown of Montclair. Roosevelt Grier, a professional football great who became a minister, attended high school in Roselle. Other pro football players from the Garden State include Deron Cherry of Palmyra, who attended Rutgers University, and Franco Harris, born at Fort Dix and a graduate of Rancocas Valley Regional High School in Mount Holly. Legendary gridiron coach Vince Lombardi taught and coached football, basketball, and baseball in Englewood from  to . As of , two New Jerseyans were running pro leagues: NFL Commissioner Paul J. Tagliabue, who was born in Jersey City and attended high school in Union City; and NBA Commissioner David J. Stern, a graduate of Rutgers University. In baseball, the state helped break the professional color barrier when Jackie Robinson became the first black minor leaguer at Jersey City’s Roosevelt Stadium in , the season before he broke the major league barrier. Larry Doby, the first African American player in the American League, began his professional career with the Newark Eagles, who won the Negro League championship in . He entered the major leagues four months after Robinson did. Another color barrier–breaking athlete with ties to the state was Althea Gibson, the first black tennis player to win at Forest Hills and Wimbledon. Following a stellar tennis career

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and a successful stint in the Ladies Professional Golf Tournament, she became manager at the East Orange Department of Recreation. Paul Robeson, though better known as an actor, was an outstanding athlete who lettered in football, baseball, and track at Rutgers. He was born in Princeton, the son of a former slave. Marvelous Marvin Hagler, a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame, was born in Newark. Another pugilist, so proud of his roots that he included the state in his name, was Jersey Joe Walcott. Walcott came from Merchantville and served as Camden County sheriff under his given name, Arnold Cream. There are several tracks in the state catering to a variety of auto racing interests, including Atco Raceway, Old Bridge Township Raceway Park, Bridgeport Speedway, and East Windsor Speedway. New Jersey short-track auto racing produced Indianapolis  veteran Wally Dallenbach of New Brunswick, whose son, Wally Jr., was a top star in the Sports Car Club of America’s (SCCA) Trans-Am series and raced in the Winston Cup Series run by NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) before becoming a NASCAR analyst for NBC. New Jersey has had several sports firsts beyond the breaking of the baseball color barrier. Princeton University was the site of the first collegiate cross-country national championship, and early high school championships were held in Newark. According to the Sports Hall of Fame of New Jersey, the first baseball game ever played under modern rules was held on June , , at Elysian Fields in Hoboken, and in  Rutgers and Princeton played the nation’s first intercollegiate football game. In  the Babe Ruth Baseball League was founded in Hamilton Township. Rutgers hired the first full-time women’s basketball coach—Theresa Grentz—in . Grentz is in the Women’s Basketball Hall of Fame, along with the later Rutgers coach C. Vivian Stringer and two stars of the New Jersey Gems of the Women’s Basketball League, Carol Blazejowski, a graduate of Montclair State College, and Ann Meyers Drysdale. For millions of New Jerseyans, however, a sporting day is one spent fishing the state’s streams and rivers or the Atlantic Ocean. Hunting is important to many sportsmen and women, and there are five groups that practice the ancient patrician sport of fox hunting. Organized youth leagues and camps for soccer, football, baseball, and basketball prepare many youngsters for scholastic and collegiate careers. The New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association, which governs scholastic sports, holds championships each year in thirty-one categories. Girls compete for titles in basketball, bowling, cross country, fencing, field hockey, golf, gymnastics, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming, tennis, outdoor and winter track, and volleyball. For boys, champions are crowned in baseball, basketball, bowling, cross country, fencing, football, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer,

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swimming, tennis, outdoor and indoor track, volleyball, and wrestling. The state’s colleges and universities also offer a multitude of sports. Princeton leads the way with eighteen for women and twenty for men. Collegiate women’s opportunities range from the standard sports (basketball, track and field, volleyball, and field hockey) to the unusual (crew, fencing, squash, and water polo). Men’s sports include football, baseball, basketball, and golf. In recent decades, interest in women’s sports has increased, with soccer and basketball, perhaps, the most popular. Women have also ventured into rarer activities. Several colleges sponsor women’s rugby teams, and the state has had at least two professional women’s teams besides the Gems: the New Jersey Nemesis (baseball) and the South Jersey Demons (ice hockey). The New Jersey Women’s Sports Association guides opportunities for women and girls of all ages and levels of fitness. State teams won Little League World Series Championships in , , , and , and the Special Olympics program offers a wide array of opportunities for youngsters with special needs. Atlantic City casinos sponsor championship boxing, and surfers can catch a wave along miles of shoreline. For those not competing in high school or college, golf courses abound for men and women who just want to stay in shape or have fun. Skiing and snowboarding are also popular pastimes.

Cavanagh, Helen, with Dorothy Ward. In the Beginning . . . Spotswood: Some Early History. Spotswood: Spotswood Bicentennial Committee, [].

Spotswood Seventy-fifth Anniversary: “A Celebration of Spotswood,’’ –. Spotswood: Borough of Spotswood, [].

Clayton, W. Woodford, History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Many of Their Pioneers and Prominent Men. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Mary Faith Chmiel

sprawl. Sprawl (also urban or suburban sprawl) is a pattern of development in

SPRAWL

Dona M. Amici

Spotswood. .-square-mile borough in Middlesex County. First settled by Europeans in , when James Johnstone or Johnston, late of Spotteswoode, Scotland, named a Central Jersey parcel of land, at the convergence of the Matchaponix and Manalapan creeks, after his former home. In , when Monroe Township split from South Amboy, Spotswood went along; in , when East Brunswick broke from Monroe, Spotswood followed. In , Spotswood, a village of , was incorporated as a borough, with a mayor and borough council for governance. Spotswood first attracted Europeans with its farming opportunities. As the surrounding areas developed, Spotswood became a business center, serving as a stop on a stagecoach run between New York and Philadelphia. By the mid-eighteenth century, the town, taking advantage of the water supply, was well known for various mills, including gristmills and sawmills. In the early twentieth century, Spotswood became a faddish vacation spot when it caught the interest of publisher Bernarr Macfadden. Today Spotswood, home to two paper industry facilities and a modest business district, is comprised mainly of residential, single-family housing. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Developed land

N

0

10 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

Springfield (Union County) which new housing and commercial buildings leapfrog into the countryside in a lowdensity, scattered fashion. Sprawl has been characterized as haphazard in design, wasteful of resources, and inefficient in the utilization of land. Opponents of sprawl are often concerned about impacts to the environment, damage to wildlife habitat, loss of prime farmland, and degradation of watersheds. Research has demonstrated that sprawl generates traffic, economically weakens older towns and cities, segregates communities by socio-economic status, and significantly extends commuting distances. Others have pointed out some positive aspects of sprawl, in that it reflects consumer choice for housing, the democratic autonomy of municipalities, and is often less congested than some cities. New Jersey, the most densely populated state in the United States, is particularly challenged by urban sprawl because of its relatively small size and its location between New York and Philadelphia. In spite of a modest . percent population growth during the s, New Jersey developed land at the rate of , acres per year, or the equivalent of forty-one football fields’ worth of new development growth every day. At the same time, New Jersey annually lost , acres of farmland, , acres of forest, , acres of wetlands, and added , acres of impervious surface per year. At this rate of growth, in only a few generations New Jersey will be the first state to reach build-out, a condition in which all nonprotected land will have been consumed for development. In order to address the problems of sprawl in New Jersey, the state is implementing many policies and initiatives at the state, regional, and local levels. These policies, often labeled “smart growth,’’ include the creation of the State Development and Redevelopment Plan, open space preservation, urban revitalization, and the promotion of communitybased design principles that attempt to mitigate the undesirable consequences of sprawl. Burchell, Robert. The Costs and Benefits of Alternate Growth Patterns: The Impact Assessment of the New Jersey State Plan. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, . Hasse, J., and R. G. Lathrop. Measuring Urban Growth in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Grant F. Walton Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis, Rutgers University, .

See also land use; suburbanization

John Hasse

Spring, Rebecca Buffum

(b. June ,

; d. Feb. , ). Social reformer, abolitionist, and educator. Member of a prominent Quaker family of ardent abolitionists, Rebecca Buffum Spring was born in Providence, Rhode Island, the daughter of Arnold Buffum and Rebecca Gould Buffam. Her concern for the condition of factory workers was awakened

during her girlhood in industrial Fall River, Massachusetts, where she taught at factory schools for mill children, efforts she continued in Uxbridge, Massachusetts, and Philadelphia, where the family moved in . There she married a wealthy dry goods merchant, Marcus Spring, on October , . The couple had three children: Edward, Jeanie, and Herbert. Theirs was a loving, companionate marriage, united by a common interest in social reform. Friends with many leading intellectuals of the antebellum period, they were influenced by the associationist views of the Rev. William Henry Channing; their friendship with Horace Greeley spurred the interest in communitarianism. They were involved with two such experimental utopian communities in New Jersey: the North American Phalanx in Red Bank (–) and the Raritan Bay Union in Perth Amboy (–). Chief stockholders of the North American Phalanx, the Springs withdrew to form their own community because of their dissatisfaction with the first group’s lack of religiosity. In contrast to the Phalanx, the Raritan Bay Union came to be well known for the rich quality of its cultural and intellectual life and for the progressive school, Eagleswood, founded on the premises. The Springs hosted a famous series of Sunday evening lectures, which brought notables such as Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Bronson Alcott to the community. Spring served as hostess at the Sunday evening colloquia and taught in the school. Abolition also remained one of her key concerns. She established a station of the Underground Railroad at Eagleswood, petitioned for the release of insurrectionist John Brown, and visited him in prison in . Fulfilling a promise made to Brown, she arranged to have the bodies of two of his raiders buried at Eagleswood, and she and Marcus gave financial support to Brown’s widow and children. During the Civil War, the Springs supported a school for slave children in Norfolk, Virginia, and financed a soup kitchen to aid the increasing number of fugitives and refugees traveling north in the wake of the Emancipation Proclamation. During the Civil War, Eagleswood was converted into a military academy, a move that Spring believed necessary to serve the cause of freedom. Following the dissolution of the Raritan Bay Union, she was instrumental in establishing an artists’ colony on the estate, which during its existence from  to  became home to such celebrated figures as William Page, George Inness, Louis Comfort Tiffany, and James Steele MacKaye. After her husband’s death in , Spring moved to California, where she became a charter member of the Friday Morning Club and was later chosen honorary first vice president of the National Federation of Women’s Clubs. With its focus on cultural enrichment,

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the women’s club movement suited Spring’s temperament. Although a personal friend of leading suffragists, she appears not to have been intensively involved in the suffrage campaign. As such, her career is illustrative of the tensions that beset nineteenth-century American feminism. An excellent exemplar of what scholars have termed the “cult of true womanhood,’’ Spring was anxious to have women shape and influence American society by using cultural stereotypes of feminine virtue to exert special influence on social welfare (as opposed to political) movements. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Eagleswood School; Raritan Bay Union

Marie Marmo Mullaney

Springfield (Burlington County). .-square-mile township. Springfield was first established in  and then reformed in . In , part of its land was released to form North Hanover Township. It was incorporated as a New Jersey municipality in . The name is possibly rooted in the many natural springs that bubble up from the land and crisscross the township, leaving deep gouges in many acres of farmland. The early central village called Slabtown was the site of the Battle of Petticoat Bridge in December , fought as diversion to cover the movements of Gen. George Washington’s troops against the Hessians and British in Trenton. Slabtown was later renamed Jacksonville following the presidency of Andrew Jackson. Other principal villages, which still exist largely as farming crossroads, are Juliustown, named after early settler Julius Ewan, and Jobstown, named in late s after early landowner and saloon keeper Job Lippincott. A key incident of local history occurred in  when tobacco magnate Pierre Lorillard established a major stock farm outside Jobstown, which was one of the largest and most famous breeding farms of thoroughbred racehorses in the world at that time. It produced numerous Triple Crown contenders and still exists today as the Helis Stock Farm, although focus is now on prime livestock. Korean herb and root farmers are some of the still-agrarian township’s newest arrivals. The  population of , was  percent white. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Springfield (Union County).

.square-mile township. A densely wooded area settled in , Springfield became a town

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of farms, lumbering, and mills powered by the Rahway River. An Indian trail developed into the Morris and Essex Turnpike from Elizabethtown westward. In  Gen. George Washington maintained headquarters in Springfield, which on June , , was the site of a battle resulting in the final withdrawal of the British from New Jersey. Only four buildings were left unburned after the retreat. A traditional tale about the Battle of Springfield concerns the Rev. James Caldwell. According to this story, when the American troops ran low on the paper wadding needed to fire their muskets, the Reverend Caldwell gathered up hymnbooks (known as Watts Hymnals, after the English author Isaac Watts) from a nearby church and tore out pages to give to the soldiers as wadding, shouting as he did so, “Give them Watts, boys.’’ The township established in  included all of modern Millburn and parts of Maplewood, Livingston, South Orange, New Providence, and Summit. By  there were twelve paper mills, a distillery, five shops, seven merchants, three taverns, two churches, and a population of ,. By  the population had increased to ,. With the  formation of Union County, the boundaries conformed to almost the present area, a last portion going to Summit in . Now suburban with scattered industrial areas, Springfield is home to the renowned Baltusrol Golf Club, site of ten U.S. Opens. The  census population was , ( percent white). The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fleming, Thomas. The Battle of Springfield. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . ———. The Forgotten Victory: The Battle for New Jersey—. New York: Reader’s Digest Press, .

Margaret S. Bandrowski

Spring Lake.

.-square-mile borough on Monmouth County’s southern Atlantic Ocean shore. Spring Lake was formed in  from Wall Township, essentially from the Spring Lake Beach Improvement Company’s  development. Spring Lake annexed the older (), but short-lived borough of North Spring Lake in . Philadelphians largely developed Spring Lake, investing in its land and erecting the substantial hotels and summer homes for which the town quickly became famed. Leading Philadelphia architects designed many buildings, chiefly in the Shingle and Queen Anne styles. A number of Spring Lake’s early structures were moved there from the  Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. Spring Lake’s opulence was characterized by two great oceanfront hotels, the New Monmouth and the Essex and Sussex. They opened in  and , operating until  and , respectively. The former was demolished, while the latter has been converted to adult condominiums. The Warren, a third large hotel, was

demolished in . Bed and breakfast establishments later comprised a modest hospitality industry. The rising value of land threatened the borough’s historic and architectural patrimony at the end of the twentieth century, while a preservation movement countered an inclination to replace landmark-worthy structures with new construction. The Spring Lake population of , in  was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Colrick, Patricia Florio. Spring Lake. Dover, NH: Arcadia, . Wrege, Charles D. Spring Lake, An Early History. Spring Lake: Bicentennial History Committee, .

Randall Gabrielan

Spring Lake Heights.

.-square-mile borough about a mile west of Monmouth County’s southern Atlantic Ocean coast. It was settled in the first half of the nineteenth century along the main road paralleling the shore, which became State Highway . Development was also spurred by the  arrival of the New York and Long Branch Railroad, also known as the North Jersey Coast Line. Its Como station, abandoned c. , was in the Heights’ northeast section. Residents of the Fourth District of Wall Township, the Sea Plain, Como, and Villa Park areas, organized the Spring Lake Heights Improvement Association in , a civic body formed for the purpose of seeking municipal separation. The group was successful in , and borrowed the borough’s name from the enormously successful Spring Lake borough to the east. The new municipality then had a blue collar/service character. About a fifth of its land is occupied by a club with substantial membership outside the borough, the Spring Lake Golf club, originally organized in . The Homestead Golf and Country Club, a second course designed by the famed Robert Trent Jones, is no longer extant. Small business establishments concentrated on Highway  constitute most commercial activity in the residential borough. In  Spring Lake Heights population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Erbe, Elaine. Spring Lake Golf Club, An Informal History. Spring Lake Heights: Privately printed, . McLaughlin, Eileen. “Borough of Spring Lake Heights, A History.’’ In Spring Lake Heights Celebrates Its Sixieth Anniversary, –. Spring Lake Heights: N.p., .

Randall Gabrielan

Springsteen, (b. Sept. , ).

Bruce

Frederick

Musician and songwriter. While many popular rock, hip-hop, pop,

Bruce Springsteen, Asbury Park, .

Photo: John C. Cavanaugh.

and jazz musicians come from New Jersey, none so strongly identifies with the Garden State as Bruce Springsteen does. Born in Long Branch to Douglas Springsteen and Adele Zirilli, Bruce grew up in the Texas section of Freehold. When his parents moved to California, Bruce chose to remain in New Jersey, living temporarily in Carl “Tinker’’ West’s Challenger East surfboard factory in Neptune. West managed Springsteen’s rock bands Earth, Child, and Steel Mill. Springsteen honed his skills as a musician at the Upstage Club in Asbury Park, where he jammed with other Shore notables including Southside Johnny Lyon of the Asbury Jukes and Steven Van Zandt. Springsteen came of age as a singer-songwriter heavily influenced by the developing Shore music scene. Asbury Park, isolated from the major music centers of New York and Philadelphia, created its own style, drawn primarily from soul music and rhythm and blues. Bruce traded influences and guitar technique with a group of local musicians, a number of whom eventually joined Bruce’s early bands. He took the name of the band he is most associated with, the E Street Band, from a street in Belmar. In no other New Jersey–born musician’s songs does the state figure so centrally as in Springsteen’s lyrics. References to the state abound, from his early preoccupation with the Asbury Park Shore scene to more penetrating songs about the downside of working-class life. New Jersey forms the backdrop for his songs and often assumes the role of a character itself. His lyrics feature places in New Jersey that played prominent parts in his youth, from the Aurora Ferris wheel in Asbury Park’s Palace Amusements, the boardwalk scene, Highway  in his most famous song, “Born to Run,’’ to Linden.

Standard Oil Company of New Jersey In working-class Freehold, a town not given to forgiving difference, Bruce was by all accounts a loner. His relationship with his father, who was frequently unable to find work in the area, was troubled, as the elder Springsteen vented his bitterness on Bruce. Many of Springsteen’s lyrics, most notably “Adam Raised a Cain,’’ focus on alienation from his father. Bruce was keenly aware of the frustrations of working-class people because of his constant exposure to their plight. The people affected by the closure of a Ford plant in Mahwah and the departure from Freehold of the rug mill that was the town’s largest employer became his subjects, treated with dignity, compassion, and empathy. The topics of his songs move from the specific and limited—for example, those about the boardwalk summer scene—to the more general and universal in scope, dealing with the human experience that Springsteen captures in songs about work, relationships, and dreams that go sour. Alterman, Eric. It Ain’t No Sin to Be Glad You’re Alive: The Promise of Bruce Springsteen. Boston: Little, Brown, . Bruce Springsteen: The Rolling Stone Files—The Ultimate Compendium of Interviews, Articles, Facts and Opinions. New York: Hyperion, . Cullen, Jim. Born in the U.S.A.: Bruce Springsteen and the American Tradition. New York: HarperCollins, . Marsh, Dave. Glory Days: Bruce Springsteen in the s. New York: Pantheon, . Springsteen, Bruce. Songs. New York: Avon, .

See also pop music

Joseph V. Hamburger

. square miles and an additional . square miles of water in Barnegat Bay. Its first European resident, in , was an Englishborn surveyor, Jarvis Pharo, some of whose work involved William Penn’s holdings in West Jersey. Pharo settled in  near Little Egg Harbor Bay at a place that became known as West Creek. The township derives its name from England’s Staffordshire, the birthplace of many of the early settlers. When they arrived the area was thickly forested and passage was made via Indian trails and along streams. Many of the English drawn to the area, largely between  and , were Quakers. Boat building and shipping were major enterprises in the eighteenth century. Stafford experienced great growth in the s and especially in the s as implementation of the Pinelands Master Plan affected lot sizes for residential development. Clusters of new homes have arisen; the Ocean Acres development accounts for more than half of Stafford’s population. The township’s traditional center is Manahawkin. Among other large residential sections are Beach Haven West and Fawn Lakes. Route  takes traffic across Barnegat Bay to island points. The  census reported a population of , ( percent white), up from , in . Median family income for  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L., ed. New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Miller, Pauline S. Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making. Toms River: Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Edward A. Jardim

Springtown.

An all-black settlement in Greenwich Township, Cumberland County, Springtown was established around , when Quakers began selling small tracts of land to slaves whom they had manumitted or who had escaped from bondage farther south. The community peaked around the s, when it had at least eighty heads of household, three churches, and a school. The school closed in . Notwithstanding its small size, the historical significance of Springtown is huge. For example, the celebrated Still family’s patriarch and matriarch initially came to Springtown from the Maryland Eastern Shore. Springtown itself was a stop on the Underground Railroad. Finally, Samuel Ringgold Ward (–), a native of Maryland’s Eastern Shore who became a noted abolitionist, orator, and Underground Railroad operative, lived with his parents in Springtown between  and . Wright, Giles R. Afro-Americans in New Jersey: A Short History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also African Americans

Giles R. Wright

Stafford.

Township in southern Ocean County, incorporated . Stafford covers

Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. Organized in , Standard Oil Company of New Jersey became, through a number of corporate reorganizations and growth, part of one of the world’s leading producers and marketers of petroleum products. This multinational corporation had only part of its operation in New Jersey and maintained its corporate headquarters in Manhattan until , when it moved to Texas. Although the words “New Jersey’’ figured prominently in the company’s name from  until , it was a national company beginning in  and an international firm after . The Standard Oil Company was established by John D. Rockefeller and his associates in Cleveland, Ohio, in , and over the next decade its leaders sought to bring order and stability to a chaotic industry. Standard Oil had a presence in New Jersey as early as , when it leased (and later bought) from the Erie Railroad the use of docks in Weehawken. In  Standard Oil bought a refinery in Bayonne and in  acquired the Eagle Works at Communipaw. By  the Bayonne refinery had grown to include twelve stills for refining crude oil as well as a barrel factory and paraffin works. The refineries, docks, and storage facilities became important to the company’s kerosene-

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exporting business, as well as to its sales in New England and the mid-Atlantic states. In  Rockefeller and his associates reorganized their operations with the creation of the Standard Oil Trust and the formation of separate Standard Oil companies in different states. The Standard Oil Company of New Jersey was formally incorporated on August , , with Henry Flagler as president and $ million in capital. Standard Oil of New Jersey acquired the local holding of Standard Oil of Ohio and began operations. The New Jersey company had twelve shareholders, nine of whom were also trustees of the Standard Oil Trust, and this interlocking directorate allowed for the coordination of the various parts of what critics soon characterized as the Standard Oil octopus. Between  and  Standard Oil Company of New Jersey was primarily engaged in the production of kerosene for export, but it assumed a greater role within the complex of Standard Oil companies after a court in Ohio ruled in  that the Standard Oil Trust was operating in violation of state law. Forced to reorganize the business again, Rockefeller and his associates turned to their New Jersey company to take advantage of that state’s more favorable incorporation laws. The resulting firm had a vastly expanded operation. The company’s name was changed to the Standard Oil Company but always included “New Jersey’’ in parentheses to differentiate it from the other state-based Standard Oil companies. Its charter was broadened to allow the new company to engage in all aspects of the oil business, and its capitalization was increased to $ million. The greater resources allowed it to purchase four companies, adding two additional facilities in New Jersey and extending its operations outside the state. It also became a holding company with stock in twenty companies. Jersey Standard’s role as a holding company was grew enormously in , when it was reorganized yet again and its capital increased to $ million. Nineteen additional large companies, some with operations in other countries, were added to Jersey Standard’s holdings, and its workforce totaled , people. By the early years of the twentieth century, Standard Oil (New Jersey) faced increasing criticism for its business practices and for the monopoly it had built up within the oil industry. Muckraking journalists like Henry Demarest Lloyd and Ida Tarbell attacked the company, while politicians in various states launched investigations into its practices. Several states and, in , the federal government brought suit against the company. Finally, in , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil (New Jersey) was in violation of the antitrust law and ordered its dissolution. The dissolution of the corporation produced thirty-four new companies, and Standard Oil (New Jersey) emerged as the largest. In , its refinery in Bayonne, considered to be the largest in the world, processed ,

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barrels of crude oil a day, most of it for the production of kerosene; the more modern Bayway refinery in Linden handled nearly , barrels of crude a day; and the Eagle Works, devoted to the production of lubricants, processed , barrels of crude a day. By  the Bayway refinery’s production was increasingly devoted to the new market for gasoline. Jersey Standard emerged from the dissolution in  as a refiner without a sure supply of crude oil, and after World War I it sought to end its dependence on other oil producers. In  it purchased half the shares of Humble Oil and Refining Company in Texas; it also turned to foreign sources of oil, acquiring interests in Latin America, the Far East, and the Middle East in the s. The pursuit of oil supplies led to the development of refineries elsewhere, and after  the refinery in Bayonne ceased to be the company’s largest. Another reorganization in  led to a revival of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey name as an affiliate of Standard Oil (New Jersey). The new company took over the plants and marketing operations of the holding company and was renamed the Esso Standard Oil Company in . The name “Esso’’ had been registered as a trademark by Jersey Standard in  and was introduced as a gasoline brand in  as the different Standard Oils sought more distinctive names. In , the Esso Standard Oil Company, with , employees and $ billion in assets, was merged into the new Houston-based Humble Company in an effort to consolidate the domestic operations of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey). In  its name was changed to Exxon and in  it merged with another Standard Oil offshoot to form ExxonMobil Corporation. Gibb, George Sweet, and Evelyn H. Knowlton. The Resurgent Years, –: History of Standard Oil Company (New Jersey). New York: Harper and Brothers, . Larson, Henrietta M., Evelyn H. Knowlton, and Charles S. Popple. New Horizons, –: History of Standard Oil Company (New Jersey). New York: Harper & Row, . Wall, Bennett H. Growth in a Changing Environment: A History of Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) –  and Exxon Corporation –. New York: McGraw-Hill, .

See also energy industry; oil refineries

Kenneth Rose

Stanger Glass.

The New-Jersey Glass Manufactory was built as a bottle manufactory in  by Solomon Stanger and several relatives in what is now Glassboro. The Stangers were glassblowers, not experienced businesspeople, and by  the glasshouse was under new ownership. In , Frederick Stanger started the Union Glass Factory in Port Elizabeth and in , Lewis Stanger and others formed Rink, Stanger, and Company to manufacture bottles and window glass. The latter company built the Harmony Glass Works in Glassboro, which was in operation until .

In , Lewis Stanger started the Temperance Glass House in Lewisville. Stanger craftsmen worked at many glasshouses in New Jersey and elsewhere throughout the nineteenth century.

promote tourism. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income () was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

McKearin, Helen, and Kenneth M. Wilson. American Bottles and Flasks and Their Ancestry. New York: Crown, .

Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Palmer, Arlene. Glass in Early America: Selections from the Winterthur Collection. New York: W. W. Norton, .

Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

See also glassmaking

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr. Jane Shadel Spillman

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady Stangl Pottery Company.

Stangel Pottery Company descended from the Fulper Pottery Company of Flemington. John Martin Stangl became Fulper’s president in  and bought the old Anchor Pottery in Trenton in  to make dinnerware of red earthenware. Stangl bought the company in  and changed the name to Stangl Pottery Company in . Much of the dinnerware was decorated using the sgraffito technique, in which the contrasting top layer of white slip is carved through to show the red pottery beneath, creating a lively naive style of ware that appealed to buyers for more than forty years. A solidcolor line called Colonial was introduced in  to take advantage of the growing market for ware colored in the California style. In , Stangl introduced a line of bird figurines designed by Auguste Jacob. During the war years, when European figurines were not available in the U.S., the market for Stangl’s birds increased greatly. Kiddie Ware, or Kiddie Sets, produced beginning in , featured motifs from children’s nursery rhymes such as Mother Goose, Humpty-Dumpty, and the like. Stangl died in , and the pottery continued to be operated by his estate until its assets were purchased by Wheaton Industries of Millville. Manufacturing continued until . See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

(b. Nov.

, ; d. Oct. , ).

Woman suffragist and writer. Elizabeth Cady Stanton was born in Johnstown, New York, the daughter of Margaret Livingston and Daniel Cady, a distinguished lawyer. She attended the Johnstown Academy and Emma Willard’s Troy Female Seminary. An informal education in the law began at home, where her father trained many young lawyers. The household of her cousin Gerrit Smith, a radical abolitionist, provided her an alternative to the conservatism of her parents and, in , an introduction to the antislavery orator Henry Brewster Stanton, whom she married in . Elizabeth Stanton bore seven children between  and . Through her husband, Stanton met the leading women of the antislavery movement and learned from them the new language of equal rights for women. Stanton came to public attention in , when she initiated a call for a women’s rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York. From that meeting, women issued the demand that their sacred right to the elective franchise be recognized, thereby launching a political movement in New York and across the North to expand women’s rights and gain suffrage. Until her death, Stanton

Ellen Paul Denker

Stanhope. .-square-mile borough at the southern tip of Sussex County, set off from Byram Township in . Located on Lake Musconetcong and the Musconetcong River, the borough was settled in the s. Availability of iron ore, timber, limestone, and waterpower led it to be an important iron manufacturing center, with iron production spanning the period –. The first U.S. anthracite iron furnace built outside Pennsylvania was located in Stanhope in . The borough was also an important port on the Morris Canal (built ), which aided its industrial activities. Mills, two forges, a nail factory, stores, and taverns also operated. The Singer Manufacturing Company operated a foundry here from  to . One of the first U.S. plants to produce mineral wool for insulation was built in Stanhope in ; much rebuilt, it remains in operation. Today the borough is primarily residential and retail, using its historic associations to

Anna Elizabeth Klumpke, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Gift of the National American Woman Suffrage Association through Mrs. Harriet Stanton Blatch, 1924.

state bird made that movement her occupation, and her name was inseparable from the cause she espoused. Stanton moved often in the early years of her marriage, spending time in Johnstown and Albany, joining her husband in Boston, and settling in Seneca Falls from  to . After years in Brooklyn and New York City, she moved to Tenafly, New Jersey, in . “I have my beautiful hills and trees to look at now,’’ she wrote to Gerrit Smith, “my sunrises and sunsets, and I enjoy them greatly.’’ Her schedule of lecturing eight months of each year until , and thereafter her travels to Europe to visit children and grandchildren, limited the time she spent in Tenafly. However, in Tenafly she and Susan B. Anthony wrote the first two volumes of the History of Woman Suffrage, published in  and . Stanton also climbed aboard a wagon taking Republican voters to the Tenafly polls in  and tried to cast her ballot in the same office where she annually paid her taxes. She sold the house in  to move into an apartment in New York City. Stanton was excluded from New Jersey’s suffrage movement by the split that divided suffragists between the American and National Woman Suffrage Associations, between Boston and Lucy Stone, on the one hand, and New York and Susan B. Anthony on the other. While Stone lived in New Jersey, she organized the state society in opposition to Stanton. But Stanton’s leadership of the national association, her career as a popular and well-paid lecturer, and her writing gave her a voice in the state and influence with its reformers. In addition to a third volume of the History of Woman Suffrage, Stanton published the Woman’s Bible (, ); her autobiography, Eighty Years and More (); and scores of articles for leading papers and journals of the day. She died in New York City. DuBois, Ellen Carol, ed. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony: Correspondence, Writings, Speeches. Rev. ed. Boston: Northeastern University Press, . Gordon, Ann D., ed. Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.  vols. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, –. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. Eighty Years and More: Reminiscences, –. . Reprint. Boston: Northeastern University Press, .

See also woman suffrage

Ann D. Gordon

Star-Ledger. The largest-circulation newspaper in New Jersey, the modern Star-Ledger was first published under its present title on November , . The newspaper, however, traces its lineage back to , when the Centinel of Freedom was published in Newark by printer Daniel Dodge. The Centinel, which was renamed the Sentinel in , was published as a Republican alternative to the Federalist Newark Gazette. The Sentinel supported Thomas Jefferson in the country’s first contested presidential election, and when he lost,

it continued to support his party and serve as an alternative voice to the Gazette. In the s the Sentinel was acquired by William Burnet Kinney, who also ran the Newark Daily Advertiser. The Sentinel continued as the weekly edition of the Advertiser until it folded in . The four-page Daily Advertiser was the only profitable newspaper in the state, selling about six thousand copies a day, until its preeminence was challenged with the appearance of the Newark Evening News in . In  Kinney sold the Daily Advertiser and Sentinel to the Essex County Democratic boss, James Smith, Jr., who used the Daily Advertiser to bolster his own political career. In  he produced a morning edition of the newspaper, the Morning Star and Advertiser, and then changed the name of the Advertiser in  to the Evening Star and Newark Advertiser. In  the morning paper was sold to newspaper publisher Paul Block. He changed the name to the Newark Eagle. The following year, he bought the Evening Star, merged it with his Eagle, and published it as the Newark Star-Eagle. The penultimate transaction occurred in , when newspaper publisher Samuel I. Newhouse, then owner of the Staten Island Advance, decided to set up shop in New Jersey. He purchased a controlling interest in the Newark Ledger for $, and spent the next few years trying to make it profitable enough to compete with the powerhouse in New Jersey printing, the Evening News. The newspaper’s final metamorphosis occurred when Block sold the Star-Eagle to Newhouse four years later, who renamed the merged newspapers the Newark Star-Ledger. Initially, the Newark Star-Ledger was unable to challenge the circulation superiority of its afternoon competitor. When the News folded in , the Newark Star-Ledger seized the opportunity to become the largest-circulation newspaper in the state. The newspaper was led for many years by editor Mort Pye, who took over in . He removed the name “Newark’’ from the title and extended the newspaper’s coverage into New Jersey’s suburbs. The newspaper that had once been a daily that attracted readers interested in its comics and horse-racing results grew to be the fourteenth-largest newspaper in the country. The Star-Ledger today serves as a dominant newspaper of the Newhouse chain, Advance Publications. See also newspapers

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

starling.

Sturnus vulgaris is associated with urban and altered environments, and tends to avoid natural habitats. The species is very adaptable and eats a variety of foods— invertebrates, fruits and berries, grain, and maybe even a discarded hamburger. Shiny black with white specks and a yellow bill in breeding season, the starling has a short tail and triangular wings. Starlings are good mimics and make a variety of sounds.

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First brought to Pennsylvania in , these European birds did not thrive until eighty birds were released in Central Park in  by the American Acclimatization Society, whose chair wanted to introduce all birds mentioned by Shakespeare. By  they had spread inland to Plainfield and by  to Burlington, Vincentown, and Cape May. Now starlings are distributed from mid-Mexico to mid-Canada. Aggressive birds, they tend to displace native birds and take over their nest holes for breeding. In large numbers they are considered pests by farmers and urban dwellers alike, and are one of the very few birds not protected by federal law. Craig, Adrian, and Christopher Feare. Starlings and Mynas. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also birds

Roger Lederer

State Archives. The state archival repository and research center in Trenton is one of the oldest state institutions, with precursors going back more than three centuries. During the colonial era, the royal provincial secretary served as keeper of New Jersey’s permanent official records; after independence in , the secretary of state performed this function. In , developing historical consciousness induced the legislature to create the Public Record Office. Renamed the Bureau of Archives and History, the office became part of the State Library in . Finally, in an executive reorganization in , Gov. Thomas H. Kean elevated the bureau to full division status as the Division of Archives and Records Management, and placed it under the secretary of state. The archives’ holdings in  included more than , cubic feet of records spanning more than three centuries of New Jersey history. The archives is only one of five components of the Division of Archives and Records Management, the others being records management, micrographics and imaging, records storage, and administrative services. See also archives Karl J. Niederer

state bird. New Jersey’s official state bird, since June , , is the American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis). It was adopted because it is common throughout the state, it is attractive, and it has a joyful song. Through much of the year the males have bright yellow plumage, and because of their frequent songs they are often called “wild canaries.’’ The goldfinch is found in open country such as abandoned farmlands with hedgerows. Its breeding season, late July into late September, is later than that of any of New Jersey’s other bird species. Courtship flights attract the female, and she will build a nest of woven fibers lined with thistledown. She alone incubates the four to five eggs, while fed by her mate. In winter,

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goldfinch flocks frequent bird feeders that offer thistle seed.

tradition made official by the state legislature in .

Walsh, Joan,Vince Elia, Rich Kane, and Thomas Halliwell. Birds of New Jersey. Bernardsville: New Jersey Audubon Society, .

Nikisha Young

Charles F. Leck

state bug.

As mascot for the most densely populated state in the union, what creature could be more appropriate than that most social of insects, the honeybee? Although entomologically not a bug, Apis mellifera is designated the official state bug by Chapter  of the  Laws of New Jersey. Starting in September , as part of a class project twentyfour second-graders from Trenton’s Sunnybrae School lobbied for a state insect. Dressed in yellow honeybee outfits, they were on hand to witness a bemused Gov. Brendan Byrne sign the bill, which had been unanimously approved by both the state assembly and senate.

David Lurie

State Charities Aid Association. The State Charities Aid Association (SCAA) was begun in Morristown in  by a group of Episcopalians interested in improving conditions in the local almshouse. Because of their success, the movement to improve living conditions for the poor spread to other places in New Jersey. The SCAA was funded by the state in  and became its quasi-official inspection agency. It espoused a somewhat liberal approach to solving social problems. Partly due to its influence, the state moved beyond focusing on custodial care to emphasizing rehabilitation. Separate institutions were established to serve specific problem populations, rather than continuing to group all poor people into one large custodial setting. The SCAA was abolished in  after the state legislature established the Department of Welfare. Leiby, James. Charity and Corrections in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. A History of Social Welfare in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, .

Sunday Di Palma

State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs. See New Jersey State Federation of Colored Women’s Clubs.

State Federation of Women’s Clubs. See New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs.

state flag.

The New Jersey state flag consists of the state arms on a Jersey blue and buff background—the colors of the Netherlands. The colors were originally assigned to the uniforms of the New Jersey regiments by Gen. George Washington during the Revolutionary War in honor of the area’s original Dutch settlers. In , each regiment was directed to carry a state flag in the colors of their uniforms. The New Jersey flag has incorporated a blue and buff background ever since, a

Worthington State Forest: , acres: Warren County

Radhames Camilo and Mark McGarrity

state flower.

The state flower of New Jersey, the common violet (Viola sororia), was originally designated as such by a resolution of the legislature in . The force of the resolution dwindled with the start of the  legislative session, however, leaving the status of the violet uncertain for the next fifty years. It was not until , at the urging of New Jersey garden clubs, that the legislature adopted a bill that made the flower one of New Jersey’s official state symbols.

Jill Walsh

state

forests. The preservation of forested land in New Jersey began in  when the state geologist asked Gifford Pinchot—later to become the founder of the U.S. Forest Service—and partner Harry Graves to survey the forests in the southern part of the state. The pair completed the survey, and recommended that New Jersey establish a forest service. In  the state took the first step by passing the Forest Park Reservation Commission Act to acquire and manage state forest lands. In , a ,-acre plot, in what is now Bass River State Forest, was set aside and a fire warden appointed. A year later, the first state forester was named. Today, in addition to managing a system of state-owned wooded areas comprised of eleven sites and over , acres, the state Forest Service also operates a conservation education center, a tree seedling nursery, an urban and community forestry program, and agencies that fight tree diseases and advise private landowners about tree care. Abram S. Hewitt State Forest: , acres, West Milford Township Bass River State Forest: , acres, Barnegat Township, Little Egg Harbor Township, New Gretna, Washington Township (Burlington County), Woodland Township Belleplain State Forest: , acres, Cape May, Upper Township Brendan T. Byrne State Forest: , acres, Clementon Borough, Pemberton Township, Woodland Township Jenny Jump State Forest: , acres, Hope Township Norvin Green State Forest: , acres, Ringwood Borough, West Milford Township Penn State Forest: , acres, Bass River Township, Washington Township (Burlington County), Woodland Township Ramapo Mountain State Forest: , acres, Oakland Borough Stokes State Forest: , acres, Frankford Township, Hampton Township, Montague Township, Sandyston Township, Walpack Township, Wantage Township Wharton State Forest: , acres, Atlantic County, Burlington County, Camden County

State Geological Survey. Founded in , New Jersey’s State Geological Survey is one of the oldest in the United States. In  the governor appointed Henry Darwin Rogers as the state geologist. His task was to provide a geological and mineralogical survey of the state. His final -page report, published in , featured a colored geologic map and geologic cross sections. It also dealt with the mineral deposits of the state. Rogers was followed in office by William Kitchell, George Cook, John Smock, and Henry Kummel. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, the Survey conducted studies of the state’s iron, copper, and zinc deposits; marl and clay deposits; and the water wells on the Coastal Plain. New Jersey became the first state to publish a topographic map. Subsequent cooperation with the U.S. Coast Survey and the U.S. Geological Survey resulted in complete topographic map coverage of the entire state, another “first’’ in the nation. The glacial origin of the drift deposits was recognized and the terminal moraine was traced eastward to Long Island, New York, and westward into Pennsylvania. The Survey became a permanent part of the state government after . In  the Survey, and the “State Mineral Cabinet’’ or museum, moved to Trenton, separating the Survey from its original location at Rutgers. The twentieth century saw an expansion in Survey personnel, equipment, and responsibilities under Kummel and also under Meredith Johnson. Later, under Kemble Widmer, there was some retrenchment, but all the topographic maps were revised, and a Land Oriented Reference Data System (LORDS), consisting of a databank of environmental information, was introduced. Widmer’s successor, Acting State Geologist Frank Markewicz, discovered three major ilmenite deposits in New Jersey. He also studied reservoir sites and discovered new groundwater supplies for the state. Haig Kasabach became state geologist in , and Survey personnel tripled to about fifty when increased funding made possible an expansion in the groundwater program. All groundwater pollution investigations were now concentrated within the Survey office, resulting in an increase to about eighty-five personnel, working in new quarters and served by modern laboratories. Kasabach retired in  and was succeeded by Karl W. Muessig. The Survey entered the twenty-first century as part of the Division of Science, Research, and Technology of the Department of Environmental Protection. Today its official mission “is to map, research, interpret, and provide scientific information regarding the State’s geology and groundwater resources.’’ It does this in order to support “the regulatory

State Museum

STATE FORESTS ABRAM S. HEWITT

STOKES WORTHINGTON

RAMAPO MOUNTAIN NORVIN GREEN

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unconsolidated deposits; seismic activity, earthquakes, and other hazards; coastal erosion; and so on. Burgeoning environmental stresses and the need to protect against natural and human-derived hazards indicate that the services provided by the Survey will grow in importance in the future. Sidar, Jean Wilson. George Hammell Cook: A Life in Agriculture and Geology. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also geology

Irving G. Grossman

JENNY JUMP

state government.

See government.

State House. See New Jersey State House. State Industrial School for Girls. See Training School for Girls.

State Library. The primary library for the state government also serves state residents and students of Thomas Edison State College, with which it has been affiliated since . Established in , the library maintains collections in law, Jerseyana, state and federal documents, reference works, and general fiction and nonfiction. The State Library also administers grant programs for libraries and funds the New Jersey Library Network. In  the State Library added the Library for the Blind and Handicapped. Talking books, Braille, a radio reading service, and collections for the hearing impaired provide library services to residents who have difficulty using print media.

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BRENDAN T. BYRNE

Beckerman, Edwin, ed. A History of New Jersey Libraries, –. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, .

PENN

Betty Steckman

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and planning functions of DEP and other governmental agencies and provides the business community and public with the information necessary to address environmental concerns and make economic decisions.’’ The resulting products include, but are not

restricted to, published geologic maps and sections; maps showing aquifers, depths to groundwater, delineations of contaminated groundwater; distribution maps of radon, arsenic, and other chemicals in earth materials and groundwater; distribution of bedrock and

State Museum.

One of the oldest state museums in the nation, the New Jersey State Museum in Trenton was the first of its kind with an educational mission. Impressed with the state’s exhibits at the  World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Gov. George T. Werts recommended that the state preserve this installation in Trenton. The legislature complied by passing the Museum Law in . Since then the museum has grown to encompass four diverse subject bureaus— archaeology/ethnology, cultural history, fine arts, and natural history—focusing primarily on the scientific, cultural, and artistic heritage of New Jersey. The collections feature the definitive prehistoric and historic archaeological collection for New Jersey; a comparative New Jersey and worldwide ethnographic collection; decorative arts, including furniture, needlework, ceramics, glass, and metals principally from New Jersey; nineteenth- to twenty-first-century American art, highlighting New Jersey artists when appropriate; and fossils, ores, minerals, birds, and marine mollusks of New Jersey. These resources are presented to audiences statewide through various exhibitions, educational programs,

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and services. The museum moved into its present complex of buildings on West State Street, in Trenton, in . The facility includes a four-story main building, a planetarium, an auditorium, and an adjunct gallery in the Department of State Building. The museum is a division of the Department of State. See also museums

James Turk

State of New Jersey v. Post. New Jersey v. Post was an  Court of Errors and Appeals case holding that Article  of the  New Jersey constitution, which provided that “all men are by nature free and independent,’’ did not outlaw slavery in New Jersey. Because slavery had existed for two centuries in New Jersey, the court of errors and appeals, per Justice Nevius, stated that the court had “no power to enact a law, nor to set aside a law, even to remedy what we consider a great private or public wrong or to remove a great public evil; that power belongs to another department of the government.’’Justice Nevius noted that the “free and independent’’ clause in the  constitution was an “abstract proposition’’ that did not diminish the property rights of slaveholders, and that if the framers of the  constitution had wanted to abolish slavery in New Jersey they would have said so in clear language. In a separate opinion, Justice Randolph agreed, declaring that other states had similar “free and independent’’ provisions in their constitutions but sanctioned slavery. Moreover, Justice Randolph believed that ending slavery would improperly abrogate legislation that required masters to support their aged and infirm slaves. Ernst, Daniel R. “Legal Positivism, Abolitionist Litigation, and the New Jersey Slave Case of .’’ Law and History Review  (): . Wolinetz, Gary K. “New Jersey Slavery and the Law.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (summer ): –.

See also slavery

Gary K. Wolinetz

State of New Jersey v. Ramseur. In New Jersey v. Ramseur, the New Jersey Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of the  law that reenacted capital punishment. This law was promulgated in the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court’s  Gregg v. Georgia decision, which established guidelines for capital punishment statutes, and Ramseur was the first case that tested the New Jersey law. The new state law had a number of features that aimed at ensuring its constitutionality: it narrowed the list of death-penalty-eligible crimes, split the guilt and sentencing decisions into two separate proceedings, and required that aggravating factors in a crime outweigh mitigating factors. The court upheld this statute, rejecting arguments that it violated the state constitution’s ban on cruel and unusual punishment. Relying heavily on the U.S. Supreme Court’s analysis of this ban under the

federal Constitution, the court argued that New Jersey’s law did not offend community standards of decency, since throughout history New Jerseyans had accepted this form of punishment. By employing a federal standard and refusing to consider an independent approach, the Ramseur decision eschewed the development of more protective state standards. While the court decision upheld the state capital punishment statute, it vacated the death penalty verdict for Thomas Ramseur, who was ultimately sentenced to thirty years’ imprisonment without parole. Bienen, Leigh B. “Criminal Law: The Proportionality Review of Capital Cases by State High Courts after Gregg: Only the ‘Appearance of Justice’?’’ Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology  (fall ): – . Folster, Karen L. “High Court Studies: The New Jersey Supreme Court in the s: Independence Is Only Skin Deep.’’ Albany Law Review  (): –.

See also criminal code

Suzanne U. Samuels

State of New Jersey v. Rosecliff Realty Co. This case was decided by the Superior Court of New Jersey, Appellate Division, created only one year earlier by the  New Jersey constitution. It concerned a question of whether the New Jersey civil rights statute (the precursor to the current Law Against Discrimination), which barred discrimination in “any places of public accommodation, resort or amusement,’’ applied to swimming pools. The plaintiff in the case, Melba Valle, alleged that she had been denied admission to a swimming pool and bathhouse at the Palisades Amusement Park on the basis of her race and color. The court interpreted the key provision concerning the coverage of the Civil Rights Act broadly, rather than restrictively, so as to cover swimming pools. The defendant had argued, based on a long statutory definition of “public accommodation, resort or amusement,’’ that the law only covered bathhouses at the Shore. The court, relying on the word “includes’’ in the definition, rejected this narrow reading of the antidiscrimination law. See also discrimination

Robert F. Williams

state parks. There are thirty-two public areas in New Jersey designated as state parks and managed by the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry. The division defines a state park as “a relatively spacious area of open space encompassing outstanding scenic or wilderness character.’’ These areas tend to feature historical, archeological, ecological, and similar characteristics, and the state attempts to balance the preservation of those natural conditions with the need to provide public recreation. In  the state counted about  million annual visits to state parks. By , visitation had grown to well beyond  million per

year. New Jersey’s state parks, encompassing a total of , acres, vary widely in size. High Point State Park, in Sussex County, covers , acres, while Barnegat Lighthouse State Park, in Ocean County, is only  acres. There is also a huge diversity in their landscapes, ranging from mountainous woodland areas such as the ,-acre Allamuchy Mountain State Park in Sussex, Morris, and Warren counties, to the sprawling Pine Barrens landscape of Ocean County’s Double Trouble State Park, to the seashore beauty of Island Beach State Park. The oldest is Swartswood State Park in Sussex County, a ,-acre park that surrounds and includes the placid Swartswood Lake. Nearby is one of the newest parks in the system, Kittatinny Valley State Park, a mostly linear park made up of the former Aeroflex Airport and forty-seven miles of abandoned railroad beds. Another popular linear park is the Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park. Headquartered in Somerset, this park follows about seventy miles of the former canal system. Along the route are many nineteenthcentury bridges, bridge-tender houses, locks, cobblestone spillways, and arched culverts. About thirty miles of the main canal and twenty-two miles of the feeder canal remain in existence, making the park a favorite destination for transportation history buffs. Hopatcong State Park is a -acre tract in Morris County that provides boating and swimming access to Lake Hopatcong, the largest lake in the state, while Liberty State Park, in Jersey City, sits on the Hudson River and offers views and ferry access to the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island. Washington Rock State Park, atop First Watchung Mountain in Somerset County, is a -acre parcel purchased in  to commemorate George Washington’s use of a lookout rock there in . From this towering vantage point, Washington kept track of the British Army under Gen. William Howe as it crossed the land below. Washington’s bird’s-eye view allowed him to order his troops to circle behind Howe’s and thwart their retreat. Rosenfeld, Lucy D., and Marina Harrison. A Guide to Green New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Special Places: Scenic, Historic, and Cultural Treasures in the Garden State. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also county parks; nature centers; recreation areas

Fred J. Aun New Jersey State Parks Allaire State Park: , acres, Howell Township, Wall Township Allamuchy Mountain State Park: , acres, Allamuchy Township Barnegat Lighthouse State Park:  acres, Barnegat Light Bull’s Island Recreation Area:  acres, Stockton Borough

State Police

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WAWAYANDA

HIGH POINT

LONG POND IRONWORKS SWARTSWOOD

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HOPATCONG

STEPHENS

LIBERTY

HACKLEBARNEY

VOORHEES SPRUCE RUN RECREATION AREA

WASHINGTON ROCK

ROUND VALLEY RECREATION AREA DELAWARE & RARITAN CANAL

BULL'S ISLAND RECREATION AREA

SIX MILE RUN RESERVOIR SITE

CHEESEQUAKE WASHINGTON CROSSING PRINCETON BATTLEFIELD

MONMOUTH BATTLEFIELD ALLAIRE

DOUBLE TROUBLE RANCOCAS

High Point State Park: , acres, Sussex Hopatcong State Park:  acres, Landing Island Beach State Park: , acres, Seaside Park Kittatinny Valley State Park: , acres, Sussex County, Warren County Liberty State Park: , acres, Jersey City Long Pond Ironworks State Park: , acres, West Milford Township Monmouth Battlefield State Park: , acres, Manalapan Township Parvin State Park: , acres, Pittsgrove Township Princeton Battlefield State Park:  acres, Princeton Rancocas State Park: , acres, Rancocas Ringwood State Park: , acres, Ringwood Borough Round Valley Recreation Area: , acres, Lebanon Township Six-Mile Run Reservoir Site: , acres, Franklin Township (Somerset County) Spruce Run Recreation Area: , acres, Clinton (Hunterdon County) Stephens State Park:  acres, Hackettstown Swartswood State Park: , acres, Swartswood Voorhees State Park:  acres, Glen Gardner Borough Washington Crossing State Park: , acres, Titusville Washington Rock State Park:  acres, Green Brook Township Wawayanda State Park: , acres, Vernon Township, West Milford Township

Radhames Camilo

ISLAND BEACH

State Police.

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Cape May Point State Park:  acres, Cape May Point Cheesequake State Park: , acres, Matawan Corson’s Inlet State Park:  acres, Ocean Township Delaware and Raritan Canal State Park: , acres, Burlington County, Hunterdon

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County, Mercer County, Middlesex County, Somerset County Double Trouble State Park: , acres, Bayville Farny State Park: , acres, Rockaway Township Fort Mott State Park:  acres, Pennsville Hacklebarney State Park:  acres, Long Valley

At the beginning of the twentieth century, there was no state police force in New Jersey. Cities had their own local police agencies, and rural protection depended on elected county sheriffs. It was not until March , , when Senate Bill  was passed into law over Gov. Edward I. Edwards’s veto, that the New Jersey State Police was established. On July , , the governor appointed H. Norman Schwarzkopf, a graduate of West Point Military Academy and a veteran of World War I, as the first superintendent of the State Police. During the s the State Police evolved from a rural police force to an investigative agency. The detective bureau and the state bureau of identification became invaluable tools in criminal investigation. The development of a statewide teletype system allowed for instant communications between the State Police and local law enforcement agencies in New Jersey and in other states. The first major investigation for the State Police was of the kidnapping and murder of Charles A. Lindbergh, Jr. on March , . The Lindbergh kidnapping case received international attention. The investigation lasted two and a half years and resulted in the arrest, conviction, and execution of Bruno Richard Hauptmann in . During World War II,

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State Police Museum and Learning Center Hopkinson, signer of the Declaration of Independence and creator of the first U.S. flag. The seal is a small disk with a shield at the center supported by two female figures, one holding a cornucopia and the other holding a staff. A knight’s helmet and horse’s head top the shield, while a banner decorates the bottom. The top arc of the disk bears the words “The Great Seal of the State of New Jersey.’’ The shield bears three plows, symbolizing the importance of agriculture to New Jersey. The figure on the right, Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture, represents the fertility of the land, while the figure on the left holding the staff and Phrygian cap represents liberty. The knight’s helmet is a traditional Old World symbol of state sovereignty. The horse’s head is a reminder of strength, speed, and utility in both war and commerce. Below the shield is a banner with the motto “Liberty and Prosperity’’ and the year of independence,  (originally expressed in roman numerals, but changed in  to arabic numerals).

On December , , the State Police began patrolling New Jersey. Motorcycle troopers are seen here in front of the State House.

The Great Seal of the State of New Jersey: Descriptive and Historical Explanation. Trenton: New Jersey State Archives, .

See also illustration, color section

Courtesy New Jersey State Police Museum, Trenton.

Nikisha Young

State Senate. the State Police took on new responsibilities, including planning civil defense, investigating subversive groups, and providing security for military convoys, bridges, and installations important to the war effort. After the war, criminal activity increased; in  the State Police established the narcotics squad to combat the growing drug problem. In November , the State Police began patrolling the newly opened New Jersey Turnpike and in  the Garden State Parkway. The State Police became the first agency in New Jersey to use radar as a method of speed-limit enforcement and was also the first to use the Drunkometer and Breathalyzer in an effort to identify drunk drivers. In the s, the State Police were called in to assist the National Guard in quelling the civil unrest in Newark, Plainfield, and (later) Asbury Park and Trenton. They also had the responsibility of providing protection for the  Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City. During the s, the State Police continued to pioneer efforts in the areas of criminal investigation, intelligence, and scientific analysis of evidence. It was during this decade (in ) that women were allowed to join the force. The s and s saw the State Police continue to diversify and expand its areas of responsibility. The war on drugs expanded to include not only interdiction but also education with the establishment of Project DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education). Complaints of racial profiling— targeting individuals for investigation based on their race—led to reform efforts in the State Police, including the signing of a  consent

decree between the state and the U.S. Department of Justice. Coakley, Leo J. Jersey Troopers: A Fifty-Year History of the New Jersey State Police. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stark, John. Troopers: Behind the Badge. West Trenton: New Jersey State Police Memorial Association, .

Mark W. Falzini

State Police Museum and Learning Center. See New Jersey State Police Museum and Learning Center.

State Repertory Opera. Founded in , in South Orange, by soprano and voice pedagogue Dita Delman, the State Repertory Opera’s first production consisted of scenes from operas presented at the South Orange Junior High School. The company, which produces one opera a year, moved to Montclair High School, then Bergen County Technical School Theater in Hackensack in the s, and usually hires New Jersey-based singers. Over the years, the State Repertory Opera has alternately programmed mainstream Italian operas with specialty productions such as Goyescas () by Enrique Granados, Carlisle Floyd’s Susannah (), or Jules Massenet’s Tha¨ıs (). See also opera Willa Conrad

state seal.

There is some dispute about who officially designed the state seal, adopted in . Most sources credit Pierre Eugene du Simitiere, the designer of the United States seal, while some claim it as the work of Francis

New Jersey has always had a bicameral legislature. Nomenclature under its  constitution closely followed colonial practice, with the new houses designated the General Assembly and Legislative Council. Colonial councilors had been appointed by the Crown. In  the council became an elected body; one member was elected annually from each of the state’s thirteen counties. The governor presided over its meetings, but voted only to break a tie. The council was functionally diverse. In addition to law-making responsibilities, it advised the governor and sat with him as New Jersey’s court of last resort. In joint meetings with the assembly it chose the governor and major civil and military officials. The council’s fiscal powers were inferior to those of the assembly. Constitutional revision in  moved the state in the direction of the  federal model. The council became the senate; representation continued to be one per county, with terms increased to three years. Following separation-of-powers doctrine, it lost its role as a court. Advisory responsibilities became the familiar advise and consent to major gubernatorial appointments. (The governor’s appointing power was expanded substantially, although some offices continued to be filled by joint meeting.) The senate’s role in fiscal affairs was strengthened; it became the body to try impeachment cases; senate and assembly proposed constitutional amendments to the electorate. The senate president became acting governor if the incumbent were to be removed from office, resign, or die. New Jersey created its last county (Union) in ; thereafter the senate’s size remained

State Theatre at twenty-one. As the state urbanized, the senate became the champion of its rural counties. (Membership in the assembly, fixed at sixty in , was reapportioned decennially among the counties on a population basis, gradually enhancing the power of such growth areas as Hudson and Essex counties.) Rural control was accentuated by caucus rule. Public sessions of the senate became routine formalities; party caucuses, dominated by the smaller counties, made the important decisions. Proposals to overhaul the  constitution failed because of fears that rural control of the senate would end. The legislature approved a constitutional convention in  only after the convention was forbidden to tamper with the system of representation. The  constitution did, however, alter terms of office. Assembly members were now to serve for two years; senators for four. The new constitution greatly increased the governor’s appointing power. This enlarged the advise-and-consent role of the senate, as well as the significance of senatorial courtesy, a tradition that the body would not approve a prospective appointee unacceptable to the home-county senator. In  the U.S. Supreme Court declared that both houses of a state bicameral legislature must be population based. A special state constitutional convention met in  to address this issue. It increased the size of the senate to forty, of the assembly to eighty, with representation based on counties or, in less populated areas, multicounty districts. The state supreme court rejected the approach. In  the current system passed judicial muster. New Jersey now has forty legislative districts, of approximately equal population, with district lines redrawn after each federal census. Two members of the assembly are chosen, in odd years, from each district. The senator elected after each census serves for two years; subsequent terms are four years. Although counties are no longer directly represented in the senate, county political parties still tend to dominate the nomination process. Their impact on public policy has, however, been weakened. Senators now can build their own power bases on a variety of interest groups and financial supporters. One thing has changed but slightly: the senate’s personnel pattern. Traditionally the body was dominated by white males, mostly lawyers and businessmen. This is still true, despite modest inroads by women and minorities.

state symbols. New Jersey has granted official designation to an assortment of items, including flora and fauna, a type of dance, and a particular sailing ship. Although some may regard this as a frivolous activity on the part of the governor and legislature, it does provide recognition to aspects of the state’s environment. A list of these symbols, in order of adoption, follows. flower—purple violet (Viola sororia). Prolific and native to region. Adopted by Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. , April , . Clarified by General Assembly Bill A. Approved by Gov. William T. Cahill, February ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). bird—Eastern or American goldfinch (Carduelis tristis). Small, energetic, and vivid. Approved by Gov. Harold Hoffman, June ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). tree—red oak (Quercus borealis maxima). Strong, dignified, enduring, and useful. Introduced February , . Adopted by Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. . Approved by proclamation by Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll, June , . memorial tree—dogwood (Cornus florida). Marked by ethereal growth habit. Blooms around Memorial Day. Adopted by Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. , March , . insect—honeybee (Apis mellifera). Essential to agriculture. Approved by Gov. Brendan T. Byrne, June ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). animal—horse (Equus caballus). Useful in work and recreation; bred extensively in state.

Approved by Gov. Brendan T. Byrne, August ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). folk dance—square dance. Common and quintessentially American. Adopted by Joint Resolution No. , January , . dinosaur—hadrosaur (Hadrosaurus foulkii). Discovered in New Jersey in . Approved by Gov. James J. Florio, June ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). fish—brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Found statewide and an indicator of healthy waterways. Approved by Gov. James J. Florio, January ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). shell—knobbed whelk (Busycon carica [gmelin]). Cast up in profusion along New Jersey’s shoreline. Approved by Gov. Christine Todd Whitman, April ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ). tall ship—schooner A. J. Meerwald. Token of state’s maritime history. Approved by Gov. Christine Todd Whitman, April ,  (New Jersey Statutes :A-; Public Laws , chap. ).

Philip A. Hayden

State Theatre. The State Theatre is a renovated  vaudeville and silent film palace that is today one of the main concert venues in New Jersey. Located in New Brunswick, the Thomas W. Lamb–designed hall was called “Walter Reade’s State Theatre.’’ It next became part of the B. F. Keith theater chain and its successor RKO. With the decline in movie

Rosenthal, Alan. “The Legislature.’’ In The Political State of New Jersey, ed. Gerald Pomper. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Salmore, Barbara G., and Stephen A. Salmore. New Jersey Politics and Government: Suburban Politics Comes of Age. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, . Wright, William, ed. The Development of the New Jersey Legislature from Colonial Times to the Present. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also General Assembly; government

Richard J. Connors

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State Theatre, New Brunswick, .

Courtesy State Theatre. Photo: Marc Fleming.

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state tree

attendance RKO sold the building to a concern that converted the State Theatre into an adult-movie house. But in , the theater was purchased by the New Brunswick Development Corporation (DevCo) as part of the New Brunswick revitalization project. In , the New Brunswick Cultural Center acquired the State Theatre. It reopened on April , . In , while hosting over one hundred productions, the theater again became an independent agency. See also theater

Paul Somers

state tree. On June , , Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll and the state legislature designated the red oak (Quercus borealis maxima) as the official state tree of New Jersey. Driscoll declared the red oak representative of the Garden State because of its beautiful and dignified structure, strength, and long life. Often referred to as “the mighty oak’’ for its strong, deep root system, the red oak is one of the largest trees in the eastern states, standing up to one hundred feet tall. Known for its striking red fall foliage, the red oak is beneficial to both humans and animals. It is used commercially as a source of wood, and its fruit, the acorn, serves as a source of food for wildlife.

Rachel Hatzipetros

Stauber, Leslie Alfred

(b. June , ;

d. Mar. , ). Zoologist. Leslie Alfred Stauber

was a renowned biologist, specializing in invertebrate zoology and parasitology. A Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Rutgers University, from which he also received a master’s degree, Stauber received a Ph.D. from the University of Chicago in . He served as assistant biologist at the Oyster Research Laboratory at Port Norris, New Jersey, and later worked in malaria research at the Squibb Institute for Medical Research. In  he came back to Rutgers University, where he taught parasitology and other courses at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. His research on protozoan parasitic diseases, especially malaria and leishmaniasis, was widely published and well received. Stauber was chairman of the Department of Zoology and president of both the American Society of Parasitologists () and the New York Society of Tropical Medicine. Known for his generosity and his gentle and compassionate nature as well as his scientific expertise, Stauber was the mentor for twenty-three Ph.D. and sixteen master’s students. He was the author or coauthor of eightyone research papers and abstracts. Stauber’s wife, Mabel, was a biology teacher at Piscataway High School; the couple had three children.

Robert Herman

Steadman, Charles ).

(b. ; d. Aug. ,

Architect-builder. Nothing is known of Charles Steadman’s early life, except that he was born in Massachusetts and arrived

in Princeton by . Beginning as a carpenter, he established himself as the town’s leading architect-builder. His style incorporated Federal and Greek Revival elements. Among his surviving works are several houses on Alexander, Stockton, and Mercer streets. A house he built at  Library Place was once the residence of Woodrow Wilson. He also was responsible for Miller Chapel at the Princeton Theological Seminary (). The proportions of Steadman’s buildings are pleasing, and he was adept at utilizing motifs from pattern books. Nevertheless, the facade of his most outstanding building, the Nassau Street Presbyterian Church (), came from the drawing board of Philadelphia architect Thomas U. Walter. Steadman worked in Princeton until , but then moved to Yonkers, New York, where he died. Greiff, Constance M., Mary W. Gibbons, and Elizabeth G. C. Menzies. Princeton Architecture: A Pictorial History of Town and Campus. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Hageman, John F. History of Princeton and Its Institutions.  vols. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, .

See also architecture

Constance M. Greiff

steamboats. When Robert Fulton orchestrated a voyage up the Hudson River from New York to Albany in  with a vessel called Claremont, he inaugurated both technically sound and economically sustainable steam navigation. Fulton established a business relationship with Robert R. Livingston, a Hudson Valley landowner who had earlier obtained a franchise that prohibited anyone but Livingston, and his associates, from operating steamboats in New York waters. (This state-sanctioned monopoly would eventually be judged unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Gibbons v. Ogden decision of .) By the end of , there were six steam-powered vessels in service that enjoyed monopoly protection: Claremont and three others were operating up and down the Hudson; Jersey was engaged in trans-Hudson ferry service; and a vessel called Raritan was operating on the Raritan River. A man whose own waterborne plans were thwarted by the Fulton-Livingston combine was John Stevens of Hoboken. Stevens’s first steamboat—little more than an experimental launch—was the Juliana. In  Juliana steamed across the Hudson between New York and Hoboken but was not regarded as terribly successful. Stevens’s second steamboat was the -built Phoenix. Intended for transHudson service, it was barred from New York because of the Fulton-Livingston monopoly so Stevens sent it south to the Delaware River, where it would operate between Philadelphia and Trenton. In traveling down the New Jersey coast to its new home port, Phoenix became the first steam-powered vessel to navigate in open ocean waters. The steamboat market where the monopoly proved most restrictive involved sailings between New York City and ports

along the Raritan River. Thomas Gibbons, a former mayor of Savannah, Georgia, who owned a summer home near Elizabethport, and Aaron Ogden, a Revolutionary War hero from the Battle of Yorktown, entered the newly emerging steamboat business. Ogden held a franchise from the monopoly, and he ran a steamboat from New York City to Elizabethport. Here he connected with Gibbons’s Bellona, a vessel not requiring monopoly authorization since it served only New Jersey ports. Gibbons and Ogden had a parting of the ways, and in  Gibbons decided he would eliminate the Elizabethport connection and sail Bellona all the way through to New York City in competition with Ogden’s steamboat, Atlanta, but more importantly in defiance of the Fulton-Livingston monopoly. Ogden sued his former friend Gibbons in New York, and the litigation eventually led to a finding for Gibbons by the U.S. Supreme Court. The Fulton-Livingston monopoly was illegal, and New York ports were open to all steamboats. The steamboat era in New Jersey would be brief. By the time the court issued its finding in Gibbons v. Ogden, railroads were reaching maturity and steamboats were starting to surrender their role as providers of basic transportation. They evolved, instead, into leisureoriented excursion boats whose clientele consisted largely of families wishing a summer day’s outing at places like Riverview Park in southern New Jersey, or Long Branch and Asbury Park along the North Jersey coast. Eventually, though, even excursion boats faded from the scene and the day of the steamboat was gone forever. Morrison, John H. History of American Steam Navigation. Rev. ed. New York: Stephen Daye, .

See also boats; transportation

Brian J. Cudahy

Steel Pier.

Atlantic City’s foremost legend opened July , . Erected by the Steel Pier Company, a Virginia Avenue business formed for the sole purpose of constructing the most widely advertised amusement pier in the world, the steel-based structure cost $, to build. Wide as a highway and stretching , feet into the ocean, the pier was lengthened several times, ultimately measuring , feet. The pier boasted three theaters, dancing and music pavilions, and a ballroom at its ocean end. Quickly establishing itself as a place to be seen, it attracted well-dressed patrons who returned frequently to enjoy the most popular entertainers of the day, from vaudeville acts and singers to the renowned bands of Guy Lombardo, Benny Goodman, and John Philip Sousa. Its permanent attractions included a diving horse (who, with a bareback rider, plunged fifty feet into a saltwater tank) and a diving bell (an iron capsule that descended to the ocean floor). In , the pier was sold to Frank P. Gravatt for $ million. He added three more theaters

Sterling Hill Mining Museum and, in , sold it to former acrobat and entrepreneur George Hamid for $. million. By the mid-s, casinos had eclipsed the pier as a live-entertainment venue. Today it is leased to an amusement park. Butler, Frank M. The Book of the Boardwalk and the A.C. Story. Atlantic City: Atlantic City Association, .

See also boardwalks

Fran Wood

Steffens, ( Joseph) Lincoln (b. Apr. , ; d. Aug. , ).

Journalist and political reformer. Lincoln Steffens, born into a privileged California family, found his calling as a muckraking journalist and passionate opponent of political corruption. His  article in McClure’s magazine, “New Jersey: A Traitor State’’—republished in The Struggle for Self-Government ()—revealed the railroads’ control of New Jersey politics and the state’s eagerness to offer a tax haven to other big trusts. Two other articles—republished in Upbuilders ()—provided hagiographical accounts of Mark Fagan, reform mayor of Jersey City, and Everett Colby, state senator from Essex County, two men who fought the corrupting influence of big business. Kaplan, Justin. Lincoln Steffens: A Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, . Palermo, Patrick F. Lincoln Steffens. Boston: Twayne, . Steffens, Joseph Lincoln. The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens. New York: Harcourt, Brace, .

See also Progressive Era

Kevin P. Mulcahy

Stein, Clarence Samuel

(b. June ,

; d. Feb. , ).

Architect and community planner. Born in Rochester, New York, Clarence Samuel Stein was the third child of Leo Samuel and Rose Rosenblatt Stein. The Steins moved to New York City in , where Clarence would live most of his life. A tireless promoter of the “garden cities’’ movement, Stein is a major figure in twentiethcentury community planning and design. A charter member of the Regional Planning Association of America and an active participant in the American Institute of Architects, Stein was responsible, along with Henry Wright, for two of the twentieth century’s most influential communities—Sunnyside Gardens, in Queens, and Radburn, a part of Fair Lawn, New Jersey.

sored by his brother Dr. Antonio Stella, who encouraged him to study medicine and pharmacology. Finding painting more to his liking, Joseph gave up his medical studies and by  was enrolled in the Art Students League. He traveled often, lived in Europe, and spent time with major artists like Modigliani, Marcel Duchamp, Francis Picabia, and the futurist Severini. Stella’s work was eclectic, both in theme and execution; he was comfortable with classical pencil drawings, portraits, landscapes, religious themes, highly detailed fantastical paintings, and tropical flowers, as well as the modern abstractions and geometric forms of the futurists. His most notable work, The Voice of the City of New York Interpreted, is in the collection of the Newark Museum and hangs in its main gallery. Painted between  and , it is composed of five huge panels (. by  inches and . by  inches) and depicts the Great White Way, Brooklyn Bridge, the port, and skyscrapers. The style is architectural, with vertical lines dominating. Stella likened the piece to the five movements of a symphony; with its “vast resonances’’ it was “mathematically precise,’’ abstract as well as realistic, “highly spiritual’’ while evoking “crude materialism.’’ The Newark Museum, which has eight additional Stella works in its collection, had oneman shows for him in  and . He had major one-man shows in New York, Paris, Rome, and Naples, and his work is in the permanent collection of the Whitney Museum, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Yale University Art Gallery. Baur, John I. Joseph Stella. New York: Praeger, . Jaffe, Irma B. Joseph Stella’s Symbolism. San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

Stelton Community. The old village of Stelton, which overlaps Piscataway and Edison townships in Middlesex County, was named after the Stelle family, prominent nineteenthcentury farmers. In the early twentieth century, the area became home to two experimental communities: the Fellowship Farm Cooperative Association, and the Ferrer Colony. Fellowship Farm was founded in  by a group of New Yorkers eager to “get back to the land.’’ They purchased shares in the former Letson farm on New Market Road in Piscataway Township and set up cooperative institutions. The Ferrer Colony, on the other side of New Market Road, was founded in  by a largely anarchist group from New York looking for a new location for the progressive Modern School. In , the area occupied by the two communities was renamed North Stelton to distinguish it from Stelton, which was in Raritan, or Edison, Township. Today Stelton is a business and residential area with a large African American community. Avrich, Paul. The Modern School Movement. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Meuly, Walter C. History of Piscataway Township, –. Piscataway: Piscataway Bicentennial Commission, . Wall, John, and Harold E. Pickersgill, eds. History of Middlesex County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

See also utopian communities

Fernanda Helen Perrone

Sterling Hill Mining Museum. Founded in  by Richard and Robert Hauck, and opened to the public in August , the mission of this Ogdenburg museum is mining preservation, scientific research, and earth science education. It is located in an area known as the Franklin-Sterling Hill Mining District, which is known for its rich zinc ore deposits, the diversity and number of its

Parsons, Kermit Carlyle, ed. The Writings of Clarence S. Stein: Architect of the Planned Community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Stein, Clarence. Toward New Towns for America. Liverpool, U.K.: University Press of Liverpool, .

See also Radburn

Carlos Macedo Rodrigues

Stella, Joseph ).

(b. June , ; d. Nov. ,

Painter. Born in Muro Lucano, Italy, Frank Stella came to America in , spon-

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Sterling Hill Mining Museum.

Courtesy Sterling Hill Mining Museum, Ogdensburg. Photo: Robert Hauck.

Stetson, John Batterson

778

minerals, and their complex geologic nature. The museum is on the site of the Sterling Mine, a former New Jersey Zinc Company mine that ceased operations in . At that time it was the last operating underground mine in New Jersey. The mine is open for guided underground tours from April to November and for limited hours at other times. Numerous collections of mining artifacts, mining equipment, and indigenous and worldwide nonfluorescent and fluorescent minerals are on display to the public in the museum. Archival material and other collections and facilities are accessible to qualified researchers and educators. See also minerals; zinc

Steve Misiur

Stetson, John Batterson

Stetson, Stephen

(b. Mar. ; d. Feb. ,

).

Hat manufacturer. Born in Norwich, Connecticut, Stephen Stetson learned the hatmaking trade in his native state. He married Susan Batterson on February , ; they had eleven children. Around  Stetson and his family relocated to Orange, New Jersey, where he and several of his sons set up a successful hat-making operation. Stetson’s seventh child, John B. Stetson, rejoined the family business after a sojourn out West and set up a factory in Philadelphia, which became the birthplace of the famous Stetson hat. Stephen Stetson died in Philadelphia.

Whittemore, Henry. Founders and Builders of the Oranges. Newark: L. J. Hardham, .

See also hat manufacturing

Edward L. Lach, Jr. (b. May ,

; d. Feb. , ). Hat manufacturer. The creator of the Stetson hat, John Stetson, was born in Orange, New Jersey. After working in the family hat business, Stetson developed tuberculosis and visited the West for his health. In , he went into business in Philadelphia and soon designed a new hat for use in the wide-open spaces. Stetson’s widebrimmed felt hats protected wearers from rain or sun, could hold water for man or horse, and seemingly lasted a lifetime. Cowboys, Texas Rangers, and showman William F. “Buffalo Bill’’ Cody made the Stetson hat a symbol of the American West. By , his firm sold two million hats a year. ANB. Snyder, Jeffrey B. Stetson Hats and the John B. Stetson Co. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, .

See also hat manufacturing

David A. Norris

Stevens, Edwin A.

(b. July , ;

d. Aug. , ).

Railroad executive and shipbuilder. Edwin A. Stevens was born in Hoboken, the son of Col. John Stevens. He was educated by tutors. In , the New Jersey legislature granted Stevens, as treasurer and general manager, and his brother Robert L. Stevens, as president, a charter for the Camden and Amboy Railroad, a company that obtained a monopoly from the state of New Jersey for all railroad services between New York harbor and Philadelphia. Edwin’s management made it the first successful railroad in America, and its holding company, the Joint Companies, had provided $. million to the state of New Jersey for government operations by . Stevens was an early proponent of an ironclad navy and obtained a grant in  for the construction of the Stevens Battery, an ironclad which was never completed but had features later used for John Ericsson’s Monitor. During the Civil War, Stevens designed and built the Naugatuck, a small ironclad, which joined the attack on the Merrimack. Twice married, to Mary Picton and then to Martha Bayard Dod, he had nine children and an estate at Castle Point in Hoboken. In his will, he left $ million and a city block in Hoboken below the family’s estate to endow the Stevens Institute of Technology. ANB. Clark, Geoffrey W. History of Stevens Institute of Technology: A Record of Broad-Based Curricula and Technogenesis. Jersey City: Jensen/Daniels, .

See also railroads

Geoffrey W. Clark

Stevens, John

Lon Megargee, Last Drop from His Stetson, c. s. Oil on canvas.

Courtesy John B. Stetson Company.

(b. ; d. Mar. , ).

Lawyer, engineer, and inventor. Born in New York City, John Stevens was the son of the “Honorable’’ John Stevens and Elizabeth Alexander. His father was a ship owner, merchant, East Jersey proprietor, and politician. The son was raised in Perth Amboy, educated first by tutors and then at Kenersley near Woodbridge, after which he attended King’s College (now Columbia University). He

Col. John Stevens III.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

graduated in , studied law, and became an attorney in . Rather than practicing law, he assisted his father with land and political business in New Jersey until the Revolution. During the war, Stevens, a colonel in the Continental Army, served as a loan commissioner and briefly as surveyor-general for the East Jersey proprietors. In  he married Rachel Coxe of Bloomsbury, New Jersey. Two years later he purchased a large tract of forfeited lands in Hoboken and then spent most of his time building a home and developing the property, including extensive gardens. In  Stevens became involved in politics. He participated in the debate over ratification of the Constitution by writing a series of essays under the name “Americanus,’’ which appeared in the New York newspapers along with the better-known Federalist Papers, in which he urged ratification of the Constitution using many of the same arguments as “Publius.’’ He was also the author of a pamphlet, Observations on Government (), which refuted John Adams’s book Defence of the Constitutions and expanded upon the ideas included in his essays. He contemplated running for the first Congress, but he withdrew when he realized that his father-in-law had a similar idea. After , politicial ambitions put aside, Stevens turned his attention to improving transportation in order to make the “extended republic’’ created by the new Constitution feasible. Spurred by his own need to commute between Hoboken and New York City, where he began work for the Manhattan company developing a water system, he bought a ferry. He experimented with applying steam engines to boats; at first he worked in cooperation but ultimately in competition with his brotherin-law Robert R. Livingston (who entered a partnership with Robert Fulton). With the aid of his sons, Stevens constructed steamboats

Stieglitz, Alfred and steam ferries that they tried to operate on the Hudson (where they ran into the FultonLivingston monopoly), then the Delaware, and other American waters. He later drew designs for proposed bridges across and then a tunnel under the Hudson. Stevens, also looking to improve land transportation, became president of the Bergen Turnpike Company in . By  he was interested in applying steam to “rail-ways’’ and wrote a pamphlet “. . . to Prove the Superior Advantages of Rail-ways and Steam-carriages over Canal Navigation,’’ in an effort to obtain support from investors and the federal government. By  he had proceeded on his own and built an experimental track in Hoboken on which he ran the first American steam railroad, at what was then seen as the excessive speed of six miles per hour. Stevens and his sons, who continued to push for transportation development, were instrumental in chartering the Camden and Amboy Railway by New Jersey in . Three of Stevens’s sons continued his interest in transportation by working to improve steamboats, railroads, racing yachts, and metal ships; one provided the funds to start the Stevens Institute of Technology to educate future engineers. Col. John Stevens and his family made significant contributions to developments during the “transportation revolution’’ in New Jersey and elsewhere.

was born in Hoboken, the son of Col. John Stevens and Rachel Cox, and was educated by tutors. He assisted in the design and construction of the Phoenix, the first steamboat to sail on the ocean, in , and the Juliana, the world’s first steam ferry, running from Hoboken to New York in . He designed more than twenty steamboats and is credited with inventing the first concave waterlines (), the first supporting iron rods for projecting guard beams (), the first skeleton walking beams for ferries, the spring-pile ferry slip, the placement of boilers on guards outside the paddlewheels (all ), the hog frame for stiffening ferryboats longitudinally (), and spring-steel bearings for paddlewheel shafts (). As a railroad engineer he invented the design of the modern T rail, the hook-headed spike, and the cowcatcher (all ). He was president of the Camden and Amboy Railroad, the first successful American passenger railroad, which held monopoly rights in New Jersey’s transportation corridor between New York and Philadelphia. Its holding company, the Joint Companies, a major source of funding for state government, had supplied $. million to the state of New Jersey by . Stevens died in Hoboken. ANB. Jensen, Oliver. The American Heritage History of Railroads in America. New York: American Heritage, .

overview of all major fields of engineering, exemplifying the institution’s tradition of broadbased engineering education and continuing goal of educating “captains of industry.’’ The college had training programs for navy officers in both world wars, and its Davidson Laboratories tested models of United States Navy ships (including the first prototypes of nuclear submarines) and missiles during World War II and the subsequent Cold War. Stevens is a small, private university divided into three schools—engineering, management, and science and liberal arts—all offering degree programs to twelve hundred undergraduates and twelve hundred graduate students from across the United States and the world. It is a school known for its emphasis on additional liberal arts content for engineering and science students, its honor system, dating to , and its funded research creating “Technogenesis’’ on campus. Technogenesis, trademarked by Stevens Institute, is a distinctive educational process for the conception, design, and marketplace realization of new technologies. Clark, Geoffrey W. History of Stevens Institute of Technology: A Record of Broad-Based Curricula and Technogenesis. Jersey City: Jensen/Daniels, . ———. “ Years of Technogensis at Stevens.’’ Stevens Indicator  (): –.

See also higher education

Geoffrey W. Clark

Geoffrey W. Clark

ANB.

Stickley, Gustav. See Craftsman Farms.

DAB. Turnbull, Archibald D. John Stevens: An American Record. New York: Century, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Stevens, John Cox

779

(b. Sept. , ;

d. June , ).

Yachtsman. The son of Col. John Stevens, John Cox Stevens was born in New York City and graduated from Columbia College in . He sponsored the first organized baseball game, played on June , , in the Stevens family’s Elysian Fields in Hoboken. A founder of the New York Yacht Club in , Stevens built its first clubhouse in Hoboken, a building preserved at the Mystic Seaport Museum in Connecticut. After a Stevens-led syndicate built the yacht America, in  Stevens won a race around the Isle of Wight, and the silver cup awarded him became the international challenge trophy the America’s Cup.

Stevens Institute of Technology.

Stieglitz, Alfred

Founded in  as the first American college to specialize in mechanical engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology was endowed with $ million and a city block in Hoboken by Edwin A. Stevens. By buying property from Stevens’s heirs, the school established a twenty-five-acre campus on Castle Point overlooking the Hudson River. By the s its bachelor of engineering degree offered an

, ).

ANB. Dizikes, John. Sportsmen and Gamesmen. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . Parkinson, John, Jr. History of the New York Yacht Club. Ed. Robert W. Carrick. New York: The Club, .

Geoffrey W. Clark

Stevens, Robert Livingston

(b. Jan. , ; d. July

Photographer. Alfred Stieglitz was born in Hoboken to wealthy German Jewish parents and was educated in New York. At nineteen, while continuing his schooling in Berlin, he began experimenting with photography. As the editor of influential magazines Camera Notes and Camera Work, founder of the Photo-Secession group of pictorialist photographers, gallery operator, and agent for

(b. Oct.

, ; d. Apr. , ). Engineer, inventor, and

Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, c. .

railroad executive. Robert Livingston Stevens

Courtesy Pike Archives.

780

Still, Charity Sidney

Photograph of Alfred Stieglitz, with bow and arrow, and his father, .

Courtesy Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven. important American painters (including his second wife, Georgia O’Keeffe), Stieglitz became one of the most influential figures in art and photography in the early twentieth century. His  photograph The Pool—Deal was taken on a vacation at the Jersey Shore. Although he spent most of his life in New York City, Stieglitz did not forget his New Jersey origins. His most famous statement succinctly summarizes his life: “I was born in Hoboken. I am an American. Photography is my passion. The search for Truth my obsession.’’

under even more severe conditions. When Charity planned her second escape, she understood that the danger would be intensified, so she left her two sons behind, believing they would be safe until her husband could return to “steal’’ them. Following the course of the Underground Railroad, Charity Still brought her two daughters safely into the Pine Barrens. One of the two sons left behind, Peter Still, was ultimately able to buy his way out of slavery and make his way north. In  he encountered another black man in the Philadelphia office of an abolitionist group. The two men struck up a conversation, and entirely by chance they discovered that they were brothers. The other man was William Still, who had been born to Charity after her escape to freedom. The story of this amazing coincidence was widely reported in northern newspapers. Charity Still had eighteen children, including William, an abolitionist, philanthropist, and millionaire called by some the “Father of the Underground Railroad’’; Dr. James Still, a herbalist and philosopher known as the “Black Doctor of the Pines’’; and Peter Still, called by northern newspapers the “Man Who Bought Himself.’’ Among her grandchildren was Caroline Still Anderson, one of Philadelphia’s first black women physicians. The descendants of Charity and Levin Still continue to meet annually at a celebrated family reunion in Lawnside. Pickard, Kate E. (as told by Peter Still). The Kidnapped and the Ransomed. . Reprint. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, . Still, William. The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, etc. . Reprint. Chicago: Johnson Publishers, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Lawnside; slavery

Frank, Waldo, Lewis Mumford, Dorothy Norman, Paul Rosenfeld, and Harold Rugg, eds. America and Alfred Stieglitz. New York: Literary Guild, . Greenough, Sarah, and Juan Hamilton. Alfred Stieglitz: Photographs and Writings. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art/Callaway Editions, . Lowe, Sue Davidson. Stieglitz: A Memoir/Biography. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, . Whelan, Richard. Alfred Stieglitz: A Biography. New York: Little, Brown, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Still, Charity Sidney

(b. ; d. ).

Runaway slave. In , after New Jersey passed a gradual manumission act, Charity Still and her husband, Levin Still, enslaved on a Chesapeake Bay plantation, vowed to make their way to South Jersey, where Levin’s family, according to oral tradition, had settled in Lawnside. Levin purchased his freedom and went on ahead, but Charity and their four children had to run away. The family’s reunion was short-lived, as the angry slavemaster captured the runaways and returned them all to slavery,

Gloria T. Still

Still, James

(b. Apr. , ; d. Mar. , ).

Herbalist, “Black Doctor of the Pines,’’ and autobiographer. One of eighteen children of former slaves Levin and Charity Still, James was the brother of antislavery activists Peter and William Still. Still’s first wife, Angelina, and their child, Beulah, died of tuberculosis; with his second wife, Henrietta Thomas, he had eight children. His oldest son, James Thomas Still, became the second African American to receive a medical degree from Harvard University (). Still’s privately printed autobiography—a unique document in the history of medicine, New Jersey, and African Americans—recounts his gradual rise to prosperity as a medical practitioner and major landowner in Medford. Barred by poverty and racial prejudice from schooling and formal medical training, Still began studying books on medical botany in his early thirties. Much like contemporary eclectic and botanic physicians, Still rejected the toxic

James Still, c. .

From Early Recollections and Life of Dr. James Still by James Still. Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark. mercury-based therapies favored by “regular’’ medicine. Still’s success at using plant remedies attracted black and white patients from South Jersey and Philadelphia and made him a serious competitor to local white physicians, who caricatured him in the Transactions of the Medical Society of New Jersey () as “an Ethiopian enjoying a large and lucrative practice, guided, as he affirms, solely by inspiration.’’ Still is buried in Jacob’s Chapel Cemetery, Mount Laurel. Still, James. Early Recollections and Life of Dr. James Still. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Karen Reeds

Still, William

(b. Nov. , ; d. July ,

). Abolitionist, writer, and conductor on

the Underground Railroad. William Still was the youngest of the eighteen children of Levin and Charity Still, both of whom came to New Jersey from the Eastern Shore of Maryland. His father came first as a free black who had purchased his freedom. He settled in Springtown, where Still’s mother joined him with their four children after escaping from slavery. Captured and returned to bondage, she escaped a second time and, with her two daughters, settled in Burlington County with her husband; the two sons she left behind were ultimately sold in a southern slave market. From early boyhood on, Still worked on farms, initially one belonging to his family; he had little formal education. In , he moved to Philadelphia where, several years later, he began working as a clerk for the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery. When Philadelphia abolitionists organized a vigilance committee to aid the numerous runaway slaves reaching the city after the  Fugitive Slave Act’s passage, they named Still its chairman. In this position he established ties to other important abolitionists such as Harriet Tubman, Frederick Douglass, and John Brown. By the mid s

Stockton, Betsey Gordon, Kate, and Wayne T. McCabe. A Penny a View: An Album of Postcard Views, Stillwater, New Jersey. Newton: Historic Preservation Alternatives, . Hornor, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

Cynthia Hammell

Stockton, Annis Boudinot

(b. July ,

; d. Feb. , ). Poet. When poems pub-

William Still.

From The Underground Railroad by William Still, 1872. Still had become a leader of Philadelphia’s black community. He spearheaded efforts in  to desegregate the city’s public transit system, opened a stove store during the Civil War, and later established a very successful coal business. His  classic The Underground Railroad is largely an account of the fugitive slaves he aided in his work with the vigilance committee. Still, William. The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, etc. . Reprint. Chicago: Johnson Publishers, .

See also Underground Railroad

Giles R. Wright

Stillwater. .-square-mile township in Sussex County. Formed from Hardwick Township, Stillwater was incorporated in . The township contains many historic buildings and farms, as well as a restored gristmill. Lime kilns also operated in the past. Local legend has it that Hessian soldiers from the Revolutionary War are buried in Stillwater, but there is no evidence to support such a claim. Before the s, when the South Mountain Railroad went bankrupt, there was railroad construction in the area, but it was never completed. Today the township hosts antique shops and other small businesses. Route  runs by Stillwater, but the township remains largely rural. The town has a large state park on Swartswood Lake, which includes about , acres. Visitors can swim, boat, and picnic in the lake area. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

lished in newspapers in the s, s, and s were marked with the byline “By a Lady of New Jersey,’’ readers assumed the author was Annis Boudinot Stockton. Stockton was a leading poet of her generation, well known among local circles in the Middle Atlantic area as a spokesperson on both women’s issues (their intelligence and wit, their strength in support of family concerns, and their value to the federal government) and the leadership qualities of George Washington. These two key areas, what might today be called feminism and politics, provide the themes that dominate Stockton’s best writing. Annis Boudinot was the eldest daughter of Catherine Williams and Elias Boudinot. Her family descended from French Huguenots who had originally settled in the Caribbean. Her father owned and worked a small Caribbean plantation, but the plantation life and the climate of the Caribbean suited Elias Boudinot less well than mercantile endeavors, so he moved the family first to Darby, Pennsylvania, and then to New Brunswick, New Jersey, where he set up a copper mine. In the middle s, Boudinot moved his family to Princeton, where Annis was afforded opportunities for education and socialization that would bring her lasting recognition. Although she was courted by Princeton tutor Benjamin Young Prime, Annis Boudinot became attached to Richard Stockton in the middle s, and she married him during the fall or winter of –. Together, the Stocktons became social leaders in Princeton, and their home, Morven, became a center for the activities of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) and then for the new government, when it was forced to remove from nearby Philadelphia to Princeton during the Revolution. Of her education Stockton had little to say, but her poems reveal that she was well read in the poets of her day, including Alexander Pope, James Beattie, James Thomson, and John Milton. Her interests took her into legal affairs (her poems mention William Blackstone and Edward Coke), history (she admired Catherine Sawbridge Macaulay), and scientific and natural philosophy (the poems mention John Locke and Isaac Newton). Recognized for her published and impromptu verse on women’s concerns and for poems celebrating domestic life, Stockton’s greatest poetic contributions appeared during the American Revolution and its aftermath. Some of her poems honor military leaders such as Peter Schuyler

781

and Joseph Warren and celebrate military accomplishments, like the defeat of Cornwallis. These were circulated widely, and they also reached print. Stockton’s poems to George Washington were regularly placed into print by her brother Elias Boudinot (then president of Congress) and by Washington’s friends and staff. These poems celebrate Washington’s military prowess, his grace in adversity, and his courage in the face of potential defeat. Her poem “Addressed to General Washington, in the year , after the battles of Trenton and Princeton’’ (published in the Columbian Magazine in January ) invokes a tone of mythic prophecy still common in military tributes today. ANB.

See also poetry

Carla J. Mulford

Stockton, Betsey (b. ; d. Oct. , ). Missionary and educator. Given as a slave by Robert Stockton to his daughter, Elizabeth Stockton Green, Betsey Stockton served as domestic nurse, cook, and seamstress in the Green household and was taught to read by the Greens’ son, James. Freed by the Greens in , she became a Presbyterian missionary to the Sandwich Islands (now Hawaii) in  and started the first English school for common people there. When she returned to the Princeton area in , she helped found the Witherspoon Street Church in Princeton. As an able, respected friend of both black and white, she was influential in initiating public education for black children in Princeton. She taught for ten years in Princeton’s black public school, District School No. .

Betsey Stockton, c. .

Courtesy Hawaiian Mission Children’s Society Library, Honolulu.

782

Stockton, Richard

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also slavery

Constance Killian Escher

Stockton, Richard (b. Oct. , ; d. Feb. , ). Lawyer, judge, landholder, and signer

of the Declaration of Independence. Richard Stockton was the son of John Stockton and Abigail Phillips. John was a farmer, a presiding judge of the court of common pleas of Somerset County, and owner of Morven, one of the largest houses in colonial New Jersey. Richard attended Nottingham Academy in Maryland and graduated in the first class from the College of New Jersey (Princeton), studying law with David Ogden. In  he was admitted to the bar. He married Annis Boudinot, a prominent poet. As a leading lawyer in Somerset County, Stockton became active in protesting against British activities in the s and s. In  Gov. William Franklin appointed him a member of the provincial council, where he defended the rights of the colonists. In June , Stockton went to the Continental Congress as a delegate from New Jersey and signed the Declaration of Independence. That August, he lost by one vote to Robert Livingston in the first election by the legislature of New Jersey for governor. Instead, he was elected chief justice of the supreme court but declined the position to remain in Congress. Appointed to the position of colonel with the New Jersey Line, Stockton served on a board to ensure that reinforcements got to Gen. George Washington, who had been forced to retreat from New York City across New Jersey to Pennsylvania. When the British reached Princeton, Stockton fled with his family to Monmouth County. He was captured and treated severely while held in Perth Amboy

Richard Stockton.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

and then in New York City, where he was kept in irons and without food. Stockton was released from jail after agreeing to take an oath not to take up arms again. He returned to Morven, which had been badly damaged by the British. Stockton died there of cancer on February , . Bill, Alfred Hoyt, with Walter E. Edge and George Tatum. A House Called Morven: Its Role in American History, –. Rev. ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Greiff, Constance N. Morven, a Documentary History. Trenton: Heritage Studies, . Stockton, Thomas Coates. The Stockton Family of New Jersey and Other Stocktons. Washington, DC: Caravan Press, .

See also American Revolution

Herbert B. Ershkowitz

Stockton, Robert Field

(b. Aug. ,

; d. Oct. , ). Naval officer, politician,

and business leader. Robert Field Stockton was the son of Richard Stockton and Mary Field Stockton, and the grandson of Richard Stockton, signer of the Declaration of Independence. Robert grew up in his family home, Morven, in Princeton. His father was a lawyer, political leader, and landowner. Having entered the College of New Jersey at thirteen, he left without finishing in order to become a midshipman. During the War of , he fought under Commodore John Rodgers and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant for gallantry in the defense of Baltimore. After the War of , Stockton fought against Algerian pirates and also played a prominent role in founding Liberia as a refuge for slaves from the United States. Working with the American Colonization Society, Stockton secured the land needed for the experiment from a local ruler. In  while on duty in the southern part of the United States, Stockton met and married Harriet Maria Potter, the daughter of a wealthy merchant from Charleston, South Carolina. During a leave at his home in Princeton, Stockton became involved in presidential politics, at first supporting John Quincy Adams in  and then switching to Andrew Jackson for president in  after President John Quincy Adams had refused to appoint his father to a vacant federal district court position. For many years, even while continuing to serve in the navy, Stockton played a behind-the-scenes role in Democratic politics in the state. In , with the help of his father-in-law, Stockton purchased a controlling interest in the Delaware and Raritan Canal, which had received a charter from the state. When the enterprise ran into financial difficulty, Stockton reached an agreement with John Stevens, who was attempting to build the Camden and Amboy Railroad, and joined the two companies together into the Joint Companies, which gave them a monopoly on transportation crossing the state from Philadelphia to New York City. Stockton became chairman

of the canal company, which for many years stirred up considerable opposition. Known as the twin monopolies, the company was one of the first corporations in New Jersey to lobby and buy off legislators. Promoted to the rank of captain, Stockton spent a brief tour in England where he met John Ericsson, a Swedish engineer, who designed a screw-propeller ship for him. On February , , Stockton invited four hundred guests including the president to view the new ship, the SS Princeton, when a gun exploded, killing two cabinet members, a servant, and two sailors and severely injuring Stockton. A court of inquiry, however, exonerated him from all blame. During the Mexican War, Commodore Stockton aboard the SS Congress in command of the Pacific fleet captured Monterey, California, with the aid of Charles Fremont, the commander of a land military force. With reinforcements from Gen. Stephen Kearny, on September , , Stockton declared California to be a territory of the United States and organized a civilian and military government for the province. President James Polk had appointed Kearny governor of the territory, but Stockton had appointed Fremont and refused to accept the change. As a consequence both men were ordered to return east. Although Stockton arrived in Washington to a cool reception, he was given a hero’s welcome in New Jersey and Philadelphia and had a new city in California named for him. In  Stockton resigned from the navy to run for the U.S. Senate. He was elected as a Democrat and took his seat on December , . In his brief stay in the Senate, Stockton played an important role in ending flogging aboard naval vessels, reorganizing the Navy Department, and the commissioning of a new SS Princeton to replace the older ship, which had been scrapped after the war. Stockton resigned in  from the Senate to be replaced by his brother-in-law, John R. Thomson. After retiring from the Senate, Stockton resumed his position as president of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, and won a renewal of the company’s charter and built the West Jersey Railroad. As the major parties were breaking up, Stockton, who had presidential ambitions, joined the American party, a nativist organization, but returned to the Democratic party in . He attended the Peace Conference the following year, and took a conservative position on slavery. Married to a southern woman, Stockton supported the Union during the war but opposed Lincoln’s policies. In his last years, he thus remained, as he had always been, a very controversial figure. Bill, Alfred Hoyt, with Walter E. Edge and George Tatum. A House Called Morven: Its Role in American History, –. Rev. ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Ershkowitz, Herbert. The Origins of the Whig and Democratic Parties: New Jersey Politics, –.

Stokes, Edwin Harris Washington, DC: University Press of America, . Stockton, Thomas Coates. The Stockton Family of New Jersey and Other Stocktons. Washington, DC: Caravan Press, .

Herbert B. Ershkowitz

Stockton.

.-square-mile borough in Hunterdon County. Once part of Delaware Township, in  the community was incorporated as a borough. In  the first commercial ferry on the Delaware River operated from Stockton, but ferry service ended when the Centre Bridge was opened in . The Delaware and Raritan Canal Feeder skirted the town and the Belvidere-Delaware Railroad arrived in the early s. Today both the canal and the railroad are popular recreational trails. Constructed about  as a private residence, the Stockton Inn was expanded in the s and has operated as a hotel and restaurant since . The inn was immortalized in the Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart song, “There’s a Small Hotel.’’ In the nineteenth century, Stockton had stone quarries, with its products shipped via the Delaware and Raritan Canal Feeder and the Delaware River. In , John Prall purchased the Prallsville Mills, operating a gristmill, linseed oil mill, and sawmill. In the Brookville section, the foundry of Hiram Deats produced stoves, kettles, school desks, and the famous Deats plow, invented by Hiram’s father, John, in . Today Stockton is primarily a residential community. In  the population of  was  percent white. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . The First  Years of Hunterdon. Flemington: Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Naylor, Iris H. Stockton, New Jersey: Three Hundred Years of History. Stockton: Stockton Centennial Committee, .

Linda J. Barth

Stockton College Marine Science and Environmental Field Station. This teaching and research field station, owned and operated by the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, is situated on the Nacote Creek in Port Republic amid eight acres of undisturbed land. The field station provides marine science, environmental science, and biology students with an invaluable natural laboratory. It contains several laboratories and four research vessels. Acquired in  from a former Stockton professor, the field station was opened in  after being overhauled with the assistance of a National Science Foundation grant. The Stockton Coastal Research Center is also headquartered on the premises.

Jason Rimmer

Stockton sandstone. This reddish and brown colored sandstone, which derives its name from the town of Stockton on the Delaware River in Hunterdon County, was widely used in buildings. Stockton had several quarries and was a major supplier of the sandstone. The stone was considered both beautiful and durable. Nassau Hall, for example, a historic building at Princeton University, was built in  from Stockton sandstone. Sandstone is formed by the consolidation and compaction of sand, which is held together by natural cement—commonly silica, iron oxide, or calcium carbonate. Sandstone, along with shale, are common rocks of the Newark Basin, which occupies the Piedmont Region in New Jersey. These Triassic deposits are –  million years old. Buildings built from Stockton sandstone are deteriorating because acid rain dissolves the natural cement. As a result, the sandstone disintegrates. See also geology

Harbans Singh

Stokes, Edward Caspar ; d. Nov. , ).

(b. Dec. ,

Assemblyman, state senator, and governor. Edward C. Stokes attended public schools in Millville and later the Friends School in Providence, Rhode Island. He graduated second in his class from Brown University in . A banker and a railroad ex´ ge ´ of ecutive, Stokes entered politics as a prote Sen. William Sewell, the powerful Republican boss of Camden County. In the legislature Stokes gained a reputation as a conservative and a staunch partisan who would nevertheless compromise when it seemed reasonable to do so. As an assemblyman, Stokes introduced the law that required employers to pay wages in cash instead of credits at the company store. Later in the senate he fought the infamous racetrack gambling bills and served as president of that body in the  session. In  Gov. Foster M. Voorhees appointed him clerk of the court of chancery, where he served until he became governor in . Stokes received the Republican nomination for governor in September , at the flowering of the “New Idea’’ movement and in the midst of a bitter struggle for the equal taxation of railroad property in the state’s municipalities. In February the progressive Republican mayor of Jersey City, Mark Fagan, sent Gov. Franklin Murphy an open letter that charged the party as “subservient to corporate greed and injustice.’’ The Democrats nominated Charles C. Black, a member of the state tax board and an advocate of equal taxation. Attacked as the “accredited representative of the Pennsylvania Railroad,’’ Stokes at the head of the state ticket seemed to defy the progressive wing of his party. He nonetheless won a substantial victory that November and took office as a Republican-dominated legislature sat to consider the report of a tax commission

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appointed the previous year by Governor Murphy. The tax law that Stokes signed in  was a compromise measure: it increased the railroads’ tax liability substantially, but it did not tax their primary assets as the reformers wanted. Yet the law went considerably further toward equal taxation than either Stokes or the Republican legislators would have gone without the prodding of Mark Fagan, George Record, and the other New Idea Republicans. Stokes’s role in these early progressive struggles typified the posture of the state Republican leadership. In  Essex County Assemblyman Everett Celby delivered an eloquent plea to the legislature to limit utility franchises to twenty-five years, a direct threat to the powerfully connected Public Service Corporation. Stokes, like his predecessor Murphy, in the face of widespread public support for the bill, appointed a commission that recommended a compromise measure, which the legislature passed in . By signing the measure Stokes could credit his administration with equal taxation and franchise reform, both significant progressive achievements. In reality, Stokes was more of a conservative guardian at the gates of reform whose influence tended to check the efforts of the New Idea movement. Stokes also signed the Bishops Law providing stiffer penalties for the Sunday sale of liquor, a direct primary law, and strongly supported a civil service commission. But his greatest legacy lay in his creation of water and forest commissions to oversee the state’s natural resources. By the time he left office the state had purchased more than , acres of woodland, and today Stokes State Forest is named in his honor. Noble, Ransom. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, – : Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Stokes, Edward C., Records. New Jersey State Library, Bureau of Archives and History, Trenton.

See also governor; Progressive Era

Martin Paulsson

Stokes, Edwin Harris d. Feb. , ).

(b. June , ;

Real estate developer and photographer. Edwin Harris Stokes left his native Moorestown in  and made a fortune in real estate while a leading daguerreotypist in Trenton in the s, primarily at  East State Street (–). Toward the end of the decade, he also produced ambrotypes, including one, now at the Chester County (Pennsylvania) Historical Society, of young Alfred B. Jones (–). Although this ambrotype does not suggest any stylistic innovations, the focus, lighting, and pose are comparable to the best produced in this decade. Although Stokes continued making photographs, including lantern slides (still in

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a family collection), for personal use, he retired from commercial photography when he married Permelia S. Wood (daughter of former Trenton mayor Joseph Wood) in ; he acquired Woodlawn, the oldest house in Trenton, from his father-in-law in . Edwin and Permelia had six children. Stokes became a financier, director of the Mechanics National Bank and the Trenton Savings Fund Society, a school trustee, and an active member of the New Jersey Historical Society. His large private library (disposition unknown) was described as the “delight of enthusiastic book-lovers.’’ Stokes, according to a biographer, was “beloved by all who knew him.’’ Stokes’s home, Woodlawn (first called Kingsbury and later Bloomsbury), was built in  by William Trent, who founded the city, and is now the Trent House museum. Edward A. Stokes, a lawyer and poet, donated the mansion to the city in . Moss, George H., Jr. Double Exposure Two. Sea Bright: Ploughshare Press, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

Stoll, Norman Rudolph

(b. Dec. ,

; d. Dec. , ). Parasitologist and epi-

demiologist. Norman R. Stoll received a Ph.D. degree from Johns Hopkins University in . As a specialist in parasitical diseases, Stoll conducted epidemiological studies on human hookworm infections in Puerto Rico, China, Panama, and West Africa. Stoll developed a quantitative method, which bears his name, to count worm eggs in the feces; this procedure has been adopted worldwide. In his  paper “This Wormy World’’—probably the most quoted work in human parasitology— Stoll brought to light the tremendous problem of worms in humans. In  he became a member of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in Princeton. Here Stoll described “self-cure and protection,’’ the first demonstration that mammalian hosts (sheep) might develop immunity against gastrointestinal nematodes. Stoll remained in Princeton until , except during World War II, when he served as lieutenant commander in the U.S. Navy. He was the author or coauthor of more than  research papers and monographs. As chairman of the editorial committee of the Journal of Parasitology (–), he was famous for his dictum “saying more in fewer words.’’ In  he served as president of the American Society of Parasitologists. In  he moved to New York to conduct research at Rockefeller University, and worked there until his death.

Stone, Lucy

(b. Aug. , ; d. Oct. ,

).

Abolitionist, women’s rights activist, and lecturer. Born to a large farming family in Brookfield, Massachusetts, Lucy Stone bristled against the repressive atmosphere of her patriarchal home. Passionate about pursuing her education, she was attracted to both feminist and abolitionist causes prior to her arrival at Oberlin College in . There she sharpened her rhetorical skills and, upon graduation, became a celebrated lecturer with the American Anti-Slavery Society, frequently drawing audiences of thousands and enduring both scorn and ridicule for her courageous public activism. In , she participated in the first national Women’s Rights Convention in Worcester, Massachusetts. In , the fiercely independent Stone married fellow abolitionist Henry Blackwell. Their wedding drew press attention because of Stone’s unorthodox refusal to promise wifely obedience, her insistence on retaining her birth name, and the couple’s coauthored condemnation of contemporary marriage laws. Stone’s role in New Jersey history began in April  with her purchase of a small cottage on Hurlbut Street in Orange, a move occasioned by Blackwell’s acceptance of a position with the New York publishing firm of Augustus Moore. The couple’s daughter, future suffragist Alice Stone Blackwell, was born in the house on September , . The site became famous as the scene of Stone’s nationally publicized protest against “taxation without representation,’’ a colorful incident in the emerging women’s rights movement. In January , Stone returned her unpaid tax bill to city officials because “women suffer taxation and yet have no representation.’’ The city responded by seizing several of her household goods, including her daughter’s cradle, and selling them at public auction to raise the requisite funds.

Hays, Elinor Rice. Morning Star: A Biography of Lucy Stone, –. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, . Kerr, Andrea Moore. Lucy Stone: Speaking Out for Equality. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wheeler, Leslie, ed. Loving Warriors: Selected Letters of Lucy Stone and Henry B. Blackwell, –. New York: Dial Press, .

Marie Marmo Mullaney

Stone, Witmer (b. Sept. , ; d. May ,

Stoll, Norman R. “This Wormy World.’’ Journal of Parasitology  (): –.

Raffaele A. Roncalli

Blackwell, Alice Stone. Lucy Stone: Pioneer of Woman’s Rights. Boston: Little, Brown, .

See also woman suffrage

Ferguson, Malcolm S. “Norman Rudolph Stoll: Scientist, Teacher, Friend. An Appreciation.’’ Experimental Parasitology  (): –.

See also Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research

Stone lived in New Jersey from  until , moving from Orange to West Bloomfield (now Montclair) and finally to the Roseville section of Newark. Politically inactive for much of the period owing to the demands of raising her young daughter and a failed pregnancy, she resumed her involvement immediately following the Civil War. These were critical years for the suffrage campaign, as longtime feminist leaders like Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony struggled over tactical, strategic, and policy issues. Stone achieved prominence as the leader of the American Woman Suffrage Association and an outspoken opponent of the StantonAnthony wing of the movement. Prior to moving to Boston in , she laid the groundwork for state suffrage activity: she petitioned the state legislature for woman suffrage and reform of married women’s property rights; participated in the founding convention of the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association and served as the group’s first president; published a pamphlet entitled “Reasons Why the Women of New Jersey Should Vote’’; and attempted (unsuccessfully) to exercise the franchise by showing up at the Roseville (Newark) polls. Stone remained active in the suffrage movement for the next twenty years. Historians believe one of her most important contributions was financing and publishing one of the most influential and long-lived women’s rights publications in U.S. history, the Woman’s Journal.

Lucy Stone, c. –.

Courtesy Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division.

). Naturalist. Witmer Stone, one of New Jersey’s early conservationists, earned a reputation as one of the most preeminent ornithologists, botanists, and all-around naturalists of the Delaware Valley region. He was a founder of Delaware Valley Ornithological Club (), vice president (–) and president (–) of American Ornithologists’ Union, and author of Bird Studies at Old Cape May: An Ornithology of Coastal New Jersey (), a classic regional ornithological text that is still in print. He also wrote The Plants of Southern New Jersey with Especial Reference to the Flora of the Pine Barrens (), Birds of New Jersey: Their Nests and Eggs (), Mammals of New Jersey (), and Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey ().

Stratton, Charles C. Stone, Witmer. Bird Studies at Old Cape May: An Ornithology of Coastal New Jersey. . Reprint. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, .

See also bird-watching

Patricia Taylor Sutton

Stone Harbor. .-square-mile borough in Cape May County. Stone Harbor is a summer resort community occupying the lower third of an island known as Seven Mile Beach Island. A year-round population of approximately one thousand swells to more than , in the summer months. Stone Harbor’s development began when the South Jersey Realty Company acquired the land in the late s. In April  it became incorporated as a borough with a mayorcouncil form of government. Pristine beaches of fine-grained white sand attracted investors who desired a quiet vacation place away from the city pressures. The Risley Brothers, owners of the South Jersey Realty Company, carefully laid out the land in a geometric pattern with streets running east and west and avenues north and south. Ocean bathing and boating in the bay added to the value of the land as the community continued to grow. Primarily zoned for single-family residences, there is a limited commercial area with a few small motels, select retail establishments, and some multiple-housing units. The Wetlands Institute occupies , acres of protected salt marsh. Recreation is family oriented and includes a motion picture multiplex, playgrounds, tennis courts, basketball courts, and football and baseball fields, with beaches as the main attraction. What once was strictly a community of summer cottages with few amenities, Stone Harbor is now filled with second homes constructed for year-round occupancy and visited by owners almost every weekend. The  census figures showed a population of , that was  percent white. The median household income was $, (). For complete census figures, see chart, . Cole, T. Mark, and Cheryl Glasgow. Stone Harbor. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . History of Stone Harbor, New Jersey. Stone Harbor: Historical Book Committee, .

stagecoach line to Philadelphia. The famous Ware chair, a rush-seated ladder-back chair much coveted today by collectors, was first made here, circa , by Maskell Ware. Historically, the sandy loam of the soil encouraged the production of fruit and vegetables, and marl beds along the Stow Creek produced fertilizer. Even today, more than half the land is used for farming, while close to  percent is residential, with the rest of the land vacant.In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

north branch of the Big Timber Creek are also found here. Ephraim Tomlinson III, whose nearby milling business was responsible for the community of Laurel Springs, built a large brick mansion on Laurel Road in ; it became a maternity hospital after World War I and later was the home of the Stratford Military Academy. Significant growth occurred after  by the opening of the PATCO High-Speed Line connecting the suburbs to Philadelphia. The year  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Horner, Louise L., ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, .

———, and Philip English Mackey. Camden County, New Jersey, –: A Narrative History. Camden: Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

Gail Greenberg

Sayvtez, Margaret. An Environmental History of the Stratford Area. Stratford: Borough of Stratford, .

Stratemeyer, Edward L.

(b. Oct. ,

; d. May , ).

Author and businessman. Born in Elizabeth to German immigrants Henry Stratemeyer and Anna Siegel, Edward Stratemeyer wrote constantly as a boy. Following a public school education, he worked in his father’s tobacco store while writing juvenile fiction. He married Magdalene Van Camp on March , . Stratemeyer incorporated as the Stratemeyer Syndicate in . In his lifetime, he used more than one hundred pen names and created the twentieth century’s most popular series in children’s fiction, including the Bobbsey Twins, the Hardy Boys, and Nancy Drew. After his death his children, Harriet and Edna, took over the Stratemeyer Syndicate. Billman, Carol. The Secret of the Stratemeyer Syndicate. New York: Ungar, . Dyer, Carolyn Stewart, and Nancy Tillman Romalov. Rediscovering Nancy Drew. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, . Johnson, Deidre A. Edward Stratemeyer and the Stratemeyer Syndicate. New York: Twayne, .

See also Dixon, Franklin; literature

Joanne L. Yeck

Robert Jack Fitzpatrick

Stratford. .-square-mile borough in cen-

.-square-mile township in Cumberland County, lying along the Salem County border. Stow Creek was one of the six original townships that formed Cumberland County, when the county was divided from Salem County in . The boundaries of Stow Creek were altered four more times and the spelling changed from “Stoe’’ to “Stow’’ before the township’s present configuration was achieved in . Jericho, a hamlet on the southeast side of Stow Creek, was named for gristmills and sawmills established at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Another hamlet, Roadstown, was originally a stop on a s

tral Camden County. In  the newly formed Rural Land Development Company sold building lots in a development they named Stratford in honor of Stratford-on-Avon, England. In  Stratford got its own post office and, in , incorporated as a separate entity from Clementon Township. The development of the Philadelphia and Atlantic City Railroad brought many visitors who found the community attractive; eventually, twenty trains stopped daily. The village was the site of the old White Horse Hotel, a former stage stop that gave its name to the White Horse Pike, which crosses it. In addition, two other major arteries, Warwick and Laurel roads, run through the borough. Signey Run, Quaker Run, and the

Stow Creek.

785

Gail Greenberg

Stratton, Charles C.

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Mar. , ). Farmer, soldier, and governor.

Charles C. Stratton, who was born in Swedesboro, Gloucester County, was the son of James Stratton and Mary Creighton. His father was a judge and a physician who served at the Battle of Princeton as an assistant surgeon, and his mother, a native of Haddonfield, participated as a nurse in the Revolution. The son received a common school education, attending the academy that was the forerunner of the Swedesboro public school. He attended Queens College (later Rutgers University) and graduated in . He spent the next seven years in agriculture. Stratton served in the General Assembly in  and  and from  to . Between  and , he was a Gloucester County freeholder. He was elected as a Whig to Congress in  and was reelected once. On March , , the inhabitants of his county named Stratton one of their two delegates to the state constitutional convention. He became an active member of the important committee on the legislative department and demonstrated his strong faith in democracy by opposing the suggestion that paupers be excluded from voting. Stratton protested governmental ownership of internal improvements with equal ardor. On September , , the Whig state convention nominated Stratton to run for governor in the first direct gubernatorial election, which he won by a large majority; he took office on January , . Immediately, Stratton assumed the responsibility for guiding the state’s transition under the new constitution and reminded the legislature that “the circumstances under which we are assembled . . . mark the commencement of a new era in the political history of the State.’’The fundamental law of , he continued, required the State

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Senate and General Assembly to enact laws carrying out its principles and to modify existing statutes that conflicted with its provisions. Stratton suggested, therefore, that the time to condense the laws of the state had arrived, noting that the last revision had taken place twenty-five years earlier. During the legislative session of the next year, an ad hoc commission reported about  revised laws, which the state published in . Stratton was also influential in both aiding the establishment of the first state mental hospital and attempting to strengthen the state militia. In , he appointed three commissioners to contract for the erection of a hospital and to superintend its construction. Stratton had to fight for adequate funding to complete the project. After receiving a requisition for Mexican War troops from President James K. Polk the next year, he addressed “the defective and prostrate condition of the militia system of the state,’’ which had failed to raise the necessary one regiment of volunteers. The governor appealed to the legislature to adopt “some simple mode of ascertaining the number of militia’’so that New Jersey could receive its proper share of arms and equipment from the federal government. On January , , Stratton left office to devote his last years to farming in Swedesboro. He married Sarah Taggart of Philadelphia on February , . The couple had no children. Because of ill health, Stratton lived in Europe from  to , when he returned home to Swedesboro where he died. Lender, Mark Edward. One State in Arms: A Short Military History of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Birkner, Michael J., eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Frederick M. Herrmann

Streep, Meryl

(b. June , ). Actor. Meryl Streep, considered one of the finest and most versatile actors of her generation, was born in Summit and grew up in Bernardsville. After graduating from Bernards High school, she attended Vassar College and Yale Drama School, where she acted in many student productions. She began her career on the New York stage, notably at Joseph Papp’s Public Theater, and took memorable supporting parts in films such as Julia (), The Deer Hunter (), and Kramer versus Kramer (), her first Academy Award win. Streep has been nominated for Oscars a record thirteen times, and won the best actress award in  for Sophie’s Choice. Other acclaimed roles were in Holocaust (TV miniseries, ), Silkwood (), A Cry in the Dark (), The Bridges of Madison County (), Adaptation (), and The Hours (). She and her husband, artist Don Gummer, have four children.

Marilyn Campbell

and Wildlife has successfully introduced them into several New Jersey lakes. Ranked as a number-one sport fish, stripers are actively sought by sportsmen and women for their excellent food value. New Jersey does not have a commercial season, a management decision to help stripers return to their optimum population potential. Conservationists have played a key role in reestablishing populations to sustainable surplus levels, reversing a decline brought on by a general change in habitat and water quality. Stripers are an excellent indicator of the quality of the aquatic environment. They reproduce and grow well in the state, and they will eat anything smaller than they are. Piehler, Glen R. Exit Here for Fish! Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishes; fishing, saltwater

Roger R. Locandro

Stuart, Gilbert Col. Ruth Cheney Streeter, first director of the U.S. Marine Corps Women’s Reserves.

Courtesy Local History Department, Joint Free Public Library of Morristown and Morris Township.

Streeter, Ruth Cheney

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Military officer and commu-

nity leader. Born in Brookline, Massachusetts, Ruth Cheney Streeter attended boarding school in France and then graduated from Bryn Mawr College in . She married Thomas W. Streeter, a lawyer and investment banker; in  they moved to Morristown where they raised four children. Streeter obtained a commercial pilot’s license in  but was rejected as too old to fly military transport planes; instead, she obtained an appointment to head the U.S. Marine Corps Women’s Reserves. She retired after the war with the rank of full colonel and resumed her role as a community leader in Morristown. She was an elected member of the New Jersey  Constitutional Convention. She worked for historic preservation, including the development of the Patriot’s Path and Historic Speedwell, and headed Morristown’s Civil Defense Program from  until . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

(b. Dec. , ; d. July ,

). Painter. Considered the nation’s finest

early portrait painter, particularly of America’s founding fathers, Gilbert Stuart was born in North Kingstown, Rhode Island. In , he was apprenticed to Scotsman Cosmo Alexander, who took Stuart to Edinburgh, where he found himself stranded after Alexander’s  death. After working in his own studio in Newport, Rhode Island, for a couple of years, Stuart traveled to London in  to study with Benjamin West. In , he married Charlotte Coates of Reading, Berkshire, and seven years later, reportedly to evade creditors, the Stuart family returned to the United States. In his Germantown, Pennsylvania, studio, Gilbert Stuart began to paint important Americans, including George Washington, who sat for the artist in . By December , in need of commissions, Stuart settled his family in Bordentown, New Jersey, and set up a studio in Washington, D.C. During visits to New Jersey, he secured some portrait commissions; among them is a portrait of Anne Pennington (c. , Philadelphia Society for the Preservation of Landmarks). Soon, however, the family moved again, this time to Boston, where Stuart remained for the rest of his life. McLanathan, Richard. Gilbert Stuart. Harry N. Abrams, .

New York:

See also art; illustration, color section

Marian H. Mundy-Hooper Barbara J. Mitnick

striped bass. Mirone saxitilis, deemed the king of saltwater fish, is a member of the perch family and a successful, historic part of New Jersey’s fisheries in coastal areas, estuaries, and rivers leading to the ocean. Stripers are easily adapted to freshwater and can be found in the upper reaches of the Delaware and Hudson rivers, and the Division of Fish

Stuyvesant, Peter (b. c. ; d. Feb. ). Director general of New Netherland. During his stabilizing seventeen-year tenure, Peter Stuyvesant—often under pressure from the community—invigorated New Netherland after the mismanagement of his predecessors by granting charters to both English and Dutch

suburbanization towns, establishing local courts, and (reluctantly) tolerating religions other than the Reformed faith. He encouraged schooling, regulated taverns and rowdyism, enforced laws regarding marriage, breach of promise, paternity, adultery, fornication, and prostitution; and thus he fostered family formation. He calmed boundary disputes with New England, neutralized Swedish outposts on the Delaware, reduced conflict with the Indians through negotiation rather than retaliation, and opened the land west of the Hudson in present-day New Jersey to settlement. Despite his accomplishments, he is often maligned for his authoritarian nature, which caused friction with the colonists. ANB. Gehring, Charles T., trans. and ed. New Netherland Documents. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing, . ———. Peter Stuyvesant: Correspondence, –. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also New Netherland

Firth Haring Fabend

Subaru of America.

Founded in  by entrepreneurs Harvey Lamm and Malcolm Bricklin, Subaru of America was established as the U.S. distribution firm for cars built by Fuji Heavy Industries of Japan. A parts and distribution warehouse opened in Pennsauken in the early s; that then became the company’s headquarters. By , Subaru was the sixth-largest Japanese brand in the U.S. market. Repeated years of record sales led to construction of new corporate headquarters in Cherry Hill, in . In , the firm opened a jointly built assembly plant in Lafayette, Indiana, with Isuzu. Fuji acquired Subaru of America in . The firm now builds and sells more than one hundred thousand cars annually in the United States, and sells more all-wheel-drive passenger cars than all other manufacturers combined.

Jim Donnelly

suburbanization.

What began in the nineteenth century as a quality-of-life movement continues into the twenty-first as the quest for the American Dream. Suburbanization has made New Jersey the most densely populated state, with well over one-third of its land developed. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, most people lived and worked in the same neighborhood, and depended upon their immediate and extended family network to help out in their businesses. They resided as close as possible to the city center. The area beyond the city, what we now refer to as the “suburbs,’’ hosted industries that typically made poor neighbors, such as tanneries or slaughterhouses. Such land was also used for farming and grazing. As the horse and carriage gave way to advances in transportation, railroads and streetcars made it

possible for successful merchants and industrialists to build stately single-family detached homes along tree-lined streets. Communities such as Merchantville (Camden County) and Montclair (Essex County) began as places to spend weekends and summers, and then evolved into year-round domiciles, far away from the congestion, noise, crime, disease, and smells of the city. City dwellers looked for cleaner air and a safer place to live. Similar issues drive home buyers today. The first suburbs spread out from city centers, forming fingers of residential enclaves hugging newly laid transportation lines, while the balance of the countryside remained in agrarian use, or as undeveloped land. Shortly after the turn of the twentieth century, the automobile made suburbs accessible to a larger population. Since , but especially after World War II, the “Garden State’’ has been transformed into wide swaths of suburban single-family housing tracts. To service such growth, arterial and limited-access roadways such as Route I-, the Garden State Parkway, and the New Jersey Turnpike were built. Furthermore, suburban zoning regulations segregated residential and commercial uses, while keeping densities relatively low. This has created widespread dependence upon the automobile. Combined with increasing family (and often dual) incomes, low mortgage rates, and the affordability and availability of inexpensive new housing, the growth of the suburbs increased dramatically. In addition to its influence on housing, the car also affected the low-density design and development of commercial and industrial building types. Traditionally, suburbanites did business in the city. However, newly acquired automobiles required vast areas of parking, often not readily available in the city. Thus, new stores and commercial services began to take new forms: the suburban strip shopping center and the shopping mall were created to provide shopping and service opportunities along with expanses of easy parking. Large retail shopping malls like the Cherry Hill Mall in Camden County (the first indoor, climate-controlled mall along the East Coast) developed. Simultaneously, as jobs became decentralized, new industrial parks and office centers were built in suburban locations. While the suburbs initially developed along transportation corridors, the new freedom afforded by the automobile encouraged development of the land in between these original suburbs, roadways such as U.S. Route  (Princeton corridor), I- (Somerset County), and U.S. Route  (Camden and Burlington counties through to Middlesex County). The most rapid rate of suburbanization immediately followed World War II. Picturesque mass-produced homes marketed the American Dream. These new suburbanites knew the hardship of the Great Depression and the sacrifices made in order to win the

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war. Upon returning from military service, veterans were entitled to subsidized housing loans under the GI Bill of Rights. As they married and started families, the shortage of affordable housing in cities became apparent. Few young home buyers wanted to “reward’’ themselves by living in attached row homes in industrialized cities such as Trenton, Camden, or Jersey City. In turn, they moved to communities built just for them like Livingston (Essex County), Levittown (now called Willingboro; Burlington County), Hamilton Township (Mercer County), and Wayne (Passaic County). Newly developed low-density suburbs were growing and expanding into adjacent open space and farmland at a rate one thousand times greater than the growth in adjacent cities. Suburbanization is often blamed for the decline of New Jersey’s cities and their older inner-ring suburbs. Mobility, subsidized financing, and the desire for something new made out-migration from the city easier and cheaper, permitting the abandonment of older urban centers in favor of new suburban communities. Major populations in urban areas such as Camden, Trenton, Perth Amboy, and Paterson moved to nearby suburban communities like Cherry Hill, Hamilton, Woodbridge, Edison, and Wayne. The cities responded with efforts to create parking lots and to “suburbanize’’ buildings’ distinctive architectural details. This often destroyed much of the urban historical fabric, the characteristics that made the city center a unique place. Job loss in the cities soon followed, further eroding the urban tax base and robbing neighborhoods of economic vitality. Declining educational systems and housing stock, industrial job loss, and an antiquated infrastructure created an exodus out of the city. Droves of city dwellers relocated to the “burbs’’ to live in a house surrounded by open space, while enjoying better schools and local government services. Part of both the New York and Philadelphia metropolises, New Jersey is home to some of America’s pioneer suburban communities, including Riverton (Burlington County) in the s, Radburn in Fair Lawn (Bergen County) in the s, and Levittown (now Willingboro, in Burlington County) in the s. What began as a quest for improved quality of life has severely impacted the statewide environment. The suburbanization of New Jersey and its increased development have resulted in higher levels of pollution, greater traffic congestion, and a continuing loss of natural resources. Baxandall, Rosalyn, and Elizabeth Ewen. Picture Window: How the Suburbs Happened. New York: Basic Books, . Bebout, John Elber. Where Cities Meet: The Urbanization of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

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suffrage

Duany, Andres, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, .

See also railroad suburbs; sprawl

Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also glaciation; Kittatinny Region

Paul G. Stridick Robert M. Hordon

suffrage.

Superfund Law. New Jersey, though one of the nation’s smallest states, enjoys the dubious distinction of having more Superfund hazardous waste sites () than any other state. California ranks second, with  sites. New Jersey has suffered from its proximity to

See voting; woman suffrage.

Summit. .-square-mile city in Union County. During the Revolutionary War, this community on the Passaic River occupied a key spot between the British advancing from New York and Gen. George Washington’s headquarters in Morristown. The town got its name in the s, when the first train traveled over the Second Watchung Mountain to what was called “the summit of the short hills.’’ After the Civil War, the then-township became a resort for those fleeing the heat, dirt, and dust of New York in the warmer months. Summit, incorporated as a city in the spring of , boasted three large hotels, two “fresh air sanitariums,’’silk mills, and the U.S. headquarters of the Ciba-Geigy Pharmaceutical Corporation. Due to its proximity to Manhattan, Summit became a popular year-round residence for many of these summer visitors. Today, single-family homes representing diverse architectural styles stand on tree-lined residential streets. The modern downtown features shops, banks, businesses, restaurants, an original  diner, a renovated  municipal building, and a movie theater. In , the population of , was approximately  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

SUPERFUND HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES

Meola, Patricia E. Summit, New Jersey: Wish You Were Here. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Olcott, Edward S. Twentieth-Century Summit: – . Summit: Howell and Williams, . Raftis, Edmund B. Summit, New Jersey: From Poverty Hill to Hill City. Seattle: Great Swamp Press, .

Patricia E. Meola

Sunfish Pond.

Glaciers that covered the northern third of New Jersey and other areas to the north during the Ice Age scoured out rock basins in the mountains by erosion. Lakes formed in these basins, such as Sunfish Pond and Lake Marcia on Kittatinny Mountain and Lakes Mohonk and Minnewaska in New York. Sunfish Pond is located in Warren County about four miles from the Delaware Water Gap, at an elevation of , feet. The surface area is forty-one acres. This part of Kittatinny Mountain is in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. The Appalachian Trail passes along the shores of the pond. American Geographical Society. New York Walk Book. th ed. Garden City, NY: Doubleday/Natural History Press, .

N

0 Source: NJDEP 2000

20 miles @Rutgers, The State University

supreme court former manufacturing centers in New York and Pennsylvania, which historically used New Jersey as a dumping ground for industrial wastes. New Jersey has also been home to petrochemical, chemical, and pharmaceutical manufacturing firms whose waste streams, at least prior to the enactment of modern environmental laws, contained many toxic and carcinogenic elements. During the last half of the twentieth century, New Jersey became the nation’s most densely populated state, largely because of those very industries, which attracted workers with well-paying jobs. These industries also generated unwanted byproducts—hazardous wastes and pollution— which remained even after plants closed down or moved out of state. Because of this legacy of environmental degradation, New Jersey became one of the first states to enact a comprehensive antipollution statute. In , the New Jersey legislature amended the state’s Spill Compensation and Control Act (originally concerned only with oil spills) to address all discharges of hazardous substances. The federal Superfund Law was enacted one year later. The Superfund statute, formally known as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), was signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on December , . One of the principal architects of the law was a New Jersey congressman, and later governor, James Florio. His interest stemmed, in part, from the existence of the Lipari landfill in Mantua Township, then the nation’s highest-ranked Superfund site. The Superfund Law addresses the most severely polluted sites throughout the nation, which are ranked according to the level at which they pose “an imminent and substantial danger to the public health, welfare or the environment because of an actual or threatened release of a hazardous substance.’’ While both the federal and state Superfund programs are funded primarily by a tax on polluting industries (chemical companies and, in New Jersey, the petroleum industry), additional money comes from large, complex, and lengthy lawsuits filed to recover the costs of cleaning up Superfund sites. A typical New Jersey Superfund site consists of a landfill, manufacturing facility, or commercial establishment at which hazardous chemicals have spilled, leaked, or were dumped. Landfills are among the most common, and most costly, Superfund sites in New Jersey. The standard remedial measure used at a landfill is the installation of an impermeable clay cap that prevents rainwater from infiltrating the debris beneath it, thus stopping or reducing the escape of liquid contaminants (leachate) into surface or groundwater. Because landfills generally cover many acres, these caps can be inordinately expensive. At Combe Fill North in Mount Olive Township, Morris County, the cap alone cost $ million. Even after installation, there are yearly

maintenance costs of hundreds of thousands of dollars. Also, when past releases of contaminants have rendered a local potable-water source unusable, remediation must include connecting local households to a municipal water supply and filtering out dissolved contaminants. Fortunately for New Jersey, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) pays  percent of these cleanup costs for sites on its National Priorities List (NPL) of seriously contaminated sites. An example of an industrial establishment remedied under the Superfund Law is the South Jersey Clothing Company and Garden State Cleaners, two adjacent sites located in Buena, Atlantic County. South Jersey Clothing manufactured military uniforms, which were treated with trichloroethylene (TCE) prior to shipment. Toxic wastes from this process were routinely discharged behind the factory. Garden State Cleaners, like all dry cleaners in the s and s, used TCE in its business. (Today, use of TCE by the dry cleaning industry is outlawed in New Jersey.) Discharges from this shop were concentrated beneath a steam discharge pipe. In December , the EPA completed construction of a groundwater remediation system capable of treating  gallons per minute, one of the largest such systems in the state. At South Jersey Clothing, a soil vapor extraction system is in operation that volatilizes solvents (mainly TCE) in the soil around the plant. The cost to install these systems, and to remove soil from the Garden State site, was approximately $ million. The Caldwell Trucking Superfund site exemplifies the third category of contaminated facilities: a commercial enterprise whose business practices resulted in the discharge of gasoline, motor oil, and other hazardous substances. The eleven-acre site in Fairfield Township, Essex County, lies less than one mile from the Passaic River, a major source of potable water. The chief contaminant at the Caldwell site was TCE. The remedy chosen for this site by the EPA featured a procedure to stabilize and redeposit , cubic yards of contaminated soils, and to dispose of a smaller amount of heavily polluted soil. Additionally, the cleanup required that local potable-water wells be sealed, and that a local tributary of the Passaic River be treated, at a total cost of over $ million. New Jersey currently has  sites on the NPL;  sites have been cleaned up and deleted since . New Jersey is leading the nation in the number of contaminated sites that have been completely remediated. One success story is the Chemical Control site in Elizabeth, where tens of thousands of drums of highly toxic chemicals caught fire on the tenth anniversary of Earth Day, April , , spewing toxins into the air and turning the Elizabeth River red. Chemical Control’s corporate officers were prosecuted, convicted, and jailed. The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection spent six months removing the

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chemical wastes and, in cooperation with the EPA and many of the parties responsible for the contamination, conducted long-term remediation of the soil and waters adjacent to the site. This cleanup was completed in , with the EPA continuing to monitor its effectiveness. Neafsey, Edward M., and Edward R. Bonanno. “Criminal Environmental Enforcement: The New Jersey Experience.’’ National Environmental Enforcement Journal  (): –.

See also hazardous waste; pollution

Edward Devine and Edward M. Neafsey

superior court.

Until , the New Jersey judicial system consisted of a hodgepodge of separate courts: the court of errors and appeals, supreme court, court of chancery, court of common pleas, circuit courts, and orphans court, to name the most prominent. The state’s  constitution eliminated these courts, creating a streamlined judicial system composed of a supreme court, a superior court, and “other courts of limited jurisdiction.’’ The superior court has three main divisions: law, chancery, and appellate. The law division is subdivided into criminal and civil parts, the chancery division into family and general equity parts. The appellate division hears appeals from the other divisions of the superior court, as well as from lower courts and state agencies. Bello, Carla Vivian, and Arthur T. Vanderbilt II. Jersey Justice: Three Hundred Years of the New Jersey Judiciary. Newark: Institute for Continuing Legal Education, . Dreier, William, and Jane F. Castner. Guidebook to Chancery Procedure in New Jersey. Newark: New Jersey Institute for Continuing Legal Education, . Williams, Robert F. The New Jersey Constitution: A Reference Guide. Updated ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also law

Martin L. Haines

supreme court. In its  constitution, New Jersey replaced the unwieldy sixteenmember court of errors and appeals with a seven-member supreme court modeled on the U.S. Supreme Court. Under the strong leadership of Chief Justice Arthur Vanderbilt and his successors, this new judicial body has emerged as one of the nation’s leading courts. The supreme court’s chief justice and six associate justices are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the senate. Prior to appointment, most justices have had careers in politics, and recent justices have been drawn primarily from the executive branch of state government. Once appointed, justices serve a term of seven years and, if reappointed and confirmed by the senate, remain on the bench until mandatory retirement at age seventy. Both the mode of selection and the justices’ long terms of office promote judicial independence. So, too, does the state’s tradition of bipartisan appointment, under which governors seek to maintain parity

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Surf City

between Democrats and Republicans, even if that means appointing justices from outside the governor’s political party. The New Jersey Supreme Court has broad discretion in choosing what cases it will hear, and it has used that discretion to target issues of statewide importance. Among its most significant rulings are those dealing with school finance. In Robinson v. Cahill (), the court held that the state had not met its obligation under the New Jersey constitution to provide a “thorough and efficient system of education’’ for all children. Over the next quarter century, the legislature’s efforts to meet this obligation and constitutional challenges to those efforts kept the issue before the court. This litigation transformed the state’s system of funding public education and indirectly prompted the adoption of a state income tax to underwrite increases. The New Jersey Supreme Court has also sought to alleviate the racial and class segregation promoted by suburbanization. In the famous Mount Laurel cases, the court outlawed the use of restrictive zoning requirements to prevent the construction of low- or moderateincome housing in communities. This judicial intervention, like the court’s rulings on school finance, put the issue on the legislature’s agenda and led to the enactment of the Fair Housing Act of . Other prominent rulings have addressed controversies over individual rights. A few examples reveal the breadth of the court’s concerns. It has recognized the right of terminally ill patients to refuse nourishment and hydration and to disconnect life-support systems (the “right to die’’). It has upheld Megan’s Law, under which residents are warned of sex offenders living in their communities. It has struck down surrogate motherhood contracts as inconsistent with state policy on adoption and parental rights. It has held that if the state provides funding for childbirth, it must also pay for medically necessary abortions. And it has upheld the discrimination claim of a gay scoutmaster against the Boy Scouts. Bello, Carla Vivian, and Arthur T. Vanderbilt II. Jersey Justice: Three Hundred Years of the New Jersey Judiciary. Newark: Institute for Continuing Legal Education, . Tarr, G. Alan, and Mary Cornelia Aldis Porter. State Supreme Courts in State and Nation. New Haven: Yale University Press, . Wefing, John B. “The New Jersey Supreme Court, –: Fifty Years of Independence and Activism.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

See also chief justice of the supreme court

G. Alan Tarr

Surf City.

.-square-mile borough on Long Beach Island in Ocean County. Originally called Great Swamp, Surf City was settled as early as  by whalers from Long Island and New England. All through the eighteenth century they were able to make a living hunting, from small boats, the schools of Greenland

or “right whales’’ in the spring and fall migrations. Slain whales would be towed to the beach, cut up, and rendered into valuable oil. After a railroad bridge was built to the island in  the community developed as a resort, becoming an independent borough in  with the name Long Beach City. Repeated confusion, however, with the Monmouth County resort of Long Branch caused the U.S. Post Office to order a name change, and the borough became Surf City in  at the same time that Long Beach was forced to become Long Beach Island. The resort expands greatly in summer and there is extensive commercial development along the main north-south boulevard, but all the side streets in the rest of the community are solidly residential. Surf City’s  year-round population was ,. It was  percent white. The median household income in  was $,. The summer population reaches , to ,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lloyd, John Bailey. Eighteen Miles of History on Long Beach Island. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; The SandPaper, . ———. Six Miles at Sea: A Pictorial History of Long Beach Island, New Jersey. Harvey Cedars: Down the Shore Publishing; The SandPaper, .

John Bailey Lloyd

Sussex.

-square-mile borough in the Wallkill Valley in Sussex County. Native Americans of the Shawnee and Minsi tribes once inhabited the area. In the eighteenth century, the borough was home to gristmills, clover mills, and plaster mills. Prior to , it was called Deckertown after Peter Decker, who was among the region’s earliest European settlers. By the s, Deckertown boasted Presbyterian and Baptist churches, an academy, four stores, five mills, several artisans’shops, and a population of approximately . The completion of the New Jersey Midland Railroad in  brought the greatest growth to the area, and allowed the region’s dairy farmers to ship their products to New York. For a brief time, starting in , Deckertown was also home to the Vaughn Private Sanitarium, nicknamed the “gold cure.’’ The sanitarium was founded by Dr. Frank Vaughn, and it closed when he died in . Around , the borough’s Seely School was converted into the Linn Memorial Hospital. Sussex still has a local hospital. The addition of a new park and a dam project at Clove Lake are part of a spate of late twentiethcentury borough improvements. The  population of Sussex Borough was ,, where  percent of the population was white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Horner, Louise L. ed. The New Jersey Municipal Data Book. Palo Alto, CA: Information Publications, . Squire Stickney’s  History of Sussex, New Jersey: Augmented Edition. Baltimore: Gateway Press, .

Sussex Borough Tercentenary Committee. Deckertown- Sussex Tercentenary Record: A History of the Borough of Sussex, New Jersey. Newton: New Jersey Herald, .

Cynthia Hammell

Sussex County. New Jersey’s last colonial county, containing twenty-four municipalities and . square miles of scenic topography, is famed for its agricultural and mineral wealth. Isolated settlement on the Minisink flats began about . As part of the last purchase from the Indians in West Jersey, extensive proprietary tracts were surveyed in . Gov. Jonathan Belcher set aside the sparsely settled upper part of Morris County, northwest of the Musconetcong River, on June , , and named it for Sussex, England, home of Prime Minister Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle. In , frontier forts were built for defense. Colonization quickened after the Treaty of Easton resolved native land claims in . In , Sussex Courthouse was built in Newton at the hub of a spokewise network of roads. The New York boundary was demarcated in . During the Revolution, the Great Valley offered a protected line of communication and a reservoir of supplies. Warren County separated in . The Kittatinny Valley undulates between shale ridges and limestone valleys trenched by streams. Along its central axis, the Great Slate Mountain separates the Paulins Kill, Wallkill, and Pequest. Orchards shade its brow; cornfields and pastures checker its slopes. Sweet grasses grown on bottomland make Sussex dairy products prized in city markets.

SUSSEX COUNTY

Newton

0

15 miles

county seat

Swedes Kettle ponds dot outwash plains formed by glacial meltwaters. With drift-plugged outlets, drowned valleys make Hopatcong, Culvers, and Swartswood lakes. Impeded waters also flood the Wallkill Drowned Lands, Paulins Kill Meadows, and Great Meadows. Gouged mountaintop basins cup Lakes Marcia and Wawayanda. Natural pondage, amplified by stream impoundment, provide abundant waterpower. Facilitated by railroads, lakeside summer resorts developed after . By , commercial ice harvests supplied city merchants and meatpackers. Automobiles further popularized vacation spots after World War I. The Blue Mountains, broken only at Culvers Gap, reach , feet at High Point, New Jersey’s highest elevation. Over the mountain, the Flatbrook and Minisink valleys were highly cultivated and furnished with mills. Clove River drains the Wantage foothills, driving mills at Colesville, Wantage, Clove, and Sussex (Deckertown). Wending Frankford Plains, Papakating Creek energized gristmills at Woodbourne, Plumsock, Coursenville, and Papakating. Four dams harnessed Culver Brook to two sawmills and three gristmills near Branchville. The turnpike follows the cross clove connecting Woodruffs Gap in Sparta and Culvers Gap. At Tuttles Corner the road forks, one leading to Owego through Layton, Hainesville, Brick House, and the Milford toll bridge (first built in ). Another leads to Carbondale via Dingmans Ferry. The Paulins Kill’s upper branches unite at Lafayette, creating valuable waterpower. Entering its valley at Augusta and crossing the moraine, the stream worked carding machines at Pleasant Mills and Balesville. About , Casper Shaver constructed a log gristmill at Stillwater. Pequest Creek drains a flat, limestone dale. Farmers patronized mills at Springdale, Andover, Huntsburg, and Tranquility. Huntsville marks the Forks of the Pequest. The proximity of minerals, forests, and waterpower spawned ironworks along the Wallkill Range, extending from Pochuck Mountain south into Hardyston, Sparta, and Byram. Highland ores were smelted at Andover in  and at Sharpsborough, between Franklin and Hamburg, in . Garret Rapalje erected Brooklyn Forge at Lake Hopatcong’s outlet in . Exhausting their wood supply, charcoal-iron plantations were superseded by bloomeries along the Wallkill, Lubbers Run, and Beaver Run. Stanhope boasted a gristmill and three forges. In , the Morris Canal raised the level of Lake Hopatcong as principal feeder to an inland navigation system for transporting ore and coal. New Jersey’s first anthracite blast furnace was built at Stanhope in . Sparta anchor-works supplied the Union navy. The Andover Iron Mine yielded , tons of ore between  and . In , Cooper and Hewitt connected it to the Morris Canal at Waterloo by a mule tramway. That was superseded in  by the Sussex Railroad and extended to Newton.

Zinc ore was found in  at Sterling Hill, Ogdensburg, near the site of Elias Ogden’s forge. Franklinite proved difficult to smelt until a method was found in  to extract iron and zinc paint by a single process. By , railroads carried Sussex ores to distant foundries. Below Franklin Furnace, the Wallkill motivated Hamburg’s forge, grist and paper mills. Pochuck Mountain overlooks McAfee and the White Rock Lime and Cement quarries. Vernon Valley nestles between Wawayanda and Pochuck Mountains, where the Newburgh road branches towards Stockholm and Newton. Hamburg Mountain runs from Vernon southwest to Vulcan Head, near Morris Lake, and to Glen Road in Sparta. Briar Ridge, Hickory Hill, and Pimple Hill lie northwest of the Wallkill, while Sparta Mountain widens into a rocky plateau in Byram. Lubbers Run draws from Cranberry Lake, Bear Pond, and Wrights Pond, lifting bloomery hammers before joining the Musconetcong near Lockwood. In , Andover Forge was built below Waterloo Lake. Smith Brothers operated grist-, saw-, and plaster mills here at a lock and inclined plane of the Morris Canal. In , the Erie Canal cut transportation costs between the Hudson River the Great Lakes in half. To compete, local farmers turned to pork and dairy. Butter grew as a staple after ; farmers made the “big trip’’ to market each November. Wayside hamlets accommodated teamsters and drovers. When the Erie Railroad reached Goshen in , farmers went increasingly to milk production. The change accelerated as transcontinental rails cheaply hauled livestock and cereal products from large mechanized Midwestern farms to seaboard markets. During the Civil War, inflation drove up the value of farmland, but the Long Depression (–) brought depreciation, winnowing outmoded rural industries. The Merriam Shoe Company introduced the modern factory system to Newton in , inaugurating an age of enterprise. Peaches became a commercial crop about . By , Sussex accounted for more than a quarter of the state’s milk production. It still led dairy production in , with  farms averaging  acres each. The population only surpassed the number of dairy cattle in . Completion of Interstate  in  and dualization of Routes  and  attracted commuters. Suburbanization ultimately overwhelmed Sussex’s rural character as the population reached , by . Ninety-six percent of this population was white. In , the median household income in Sussex County was $,. Johnston, Andrea R. Living on the Farm. Newton: Sussex County Agricultural Society and the Printing Center, . Schæffer, Rev. Casper. Memoirs and Reminiscences Together with Sketches of the Early History of Sussex County, New Jersey. Hackensack: Privately printed, .

791

Snell, James P., comp. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Webb, Edward A. Sussex County, New Jersey, Historical Directory. . Reprint. Bowie, MD: Heritage Books, .

Kevin W. Wright

Sussex County Community College. Located on a -acre campus in Newton, Sussex County Community College (SCCC) was founded in  and became a comprehensive community college in . SCCC received its first ten-year accreditation from the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools in June . For the – academic year, , students were registered in credit-bearing courses. The college offers degree/transfer and certificate programs in addition to career, technical, and customized training for individuals and local businesses. Working with regional businesses in workforce development, employee-skill upgrading, and resource-sharing initiatives, the college also promotes lifelong learning through its Corporate and Community Education Division. The college offers thirty-seven associate degree and eleven professional certificate programs. It also maintains its own television station, SCCC/ETV Channel , providing educational and cultural enrichment for local residents. See also higher education

Linda Nieman

Sutphen, Samuel (b. Jan. , ; d. May , ).

Revolutionary War soldier. Born into slavery in Bridgewater Township, Somerset County, Samuel Sutphen became the principal farmer on his master’s estate. He married Catherine Arey, a free mulatto from Readington. At the outbreak of the Revolution, Casper Berger of Readington offered to purchase him from his owner and set him free at the war’s end if Samuel agreed to serve in his place. Samuel saw action in the Battles of Long Island, Two Bridges, Van Nest’s Mill, Princeton, Monmouth, and the Sullivan Campaign, during which he received two bullet wounds. At war’s end, Berger refused him his promised freedom and sold him instead. For twenty more years, Samuel remained a slave, serving three masters until being permitted to buy his own freedom about , when he took the surname Sutphen from his last master. In , he bought a seven-acre farmstead in Liberty Corner. The state of New Jersey granted him a veteran’s pension in , when he was eighty-nine.

Gerlach, Larry R., ed. New Jersey in the American Revolution, –: A Documentary History. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; slavery

Susan J. Winter

Swedes. The first permanent European settlers in New Jersey arrived in  aboard two

792

Swedesboro

ships, the Kalmar Nyckel and the Fogel Grip, to start a Swedish colony. They settled in the Delaware Valley on lands that later became part of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New Jersey. The colony, part of an effort to participate in the colonization of America and to increase Sweden’s prestige and wealth, was an economic failure that lasted a brief seventeen years. Yet it left a Swedish (and Finnish) presence in the state. After the Dutch took over New Sweden in  and the English replaced the Dutch in , approximately four hundred Swedes remained in the region. By the end of the eighteenth century, most descendants had adopted the language and culture of their English neighbors. They inhabited a strip of land that crossed southern New Jersey, making their living primarily as farmers and lumbermen. In  there were approximately five hundred Swedes in New Jersey, a number that increased in the following years as the United States attracted new immigrants from all across Europe. Although most late-nineteenth-century Swedish immigrants moved to the farmlands of the Midwest and Plains, a number took up residence in the industrial cities of New Jersey and other states. In  there were an estimated , Swedes in the state. Worldwide depression and World War II limited emigration in the period that followed, but Swedes began to arrive again, although in relatively small numbers, in the late twentieth century. A number of prominent residents of New Jersey have had a Swedish background, including John Ericsson, the engineer who designed the U.S.S. Monitor; Charles A. Lindbergh, the famous transatlantic pilot who built a home in Hopewell; and astronaut Buzz Aldrin. In addition to seventeenth-century farmers and nineteenth-century industrialists, New Jersey has been home to several Swedish institutions. Upsala College, founded in New York City, moved to Kenilworth in  and then to East Orange in . It remained there until the s, when increasing financial difficulties and declining enrollments led to its closing. The Vasa Order of America, a Swedish American cultural organization, also long maintained a presence in the state. Vasa Park, located on farmland bought by the organization in Budd Lake in , became a community first of summer cabins and later of year-round houses primarily for Swedish American residents. New Jersey Swedes have left a legacy represented in place names like Swedesboro, in log cabin construction, and in Swedish Lutheran churches. It is an ethnic group whose numbers have been small, but whose presence has been constant for more than  years. Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, . Hoffecker, Carol E., ed. New Sweden in America. Newark: University of Delaware Press, .

Leiby, Adrian C. The Early Dutch and Swedish Settlers of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also ethnicity

Maxine N. Lurie

Swedesboro.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County, the smallest municipality in the county in land area. Settlers from Sweden and Finland settled along the Raccoon Creek in the s, and the British arrived later in the seventeenth century. The town was first known as Raccoon but changed its name to Swedesboro in  in tribute to the first European settlers. Originally part of Woolwich, the borough was incorporated on April , . Swedesboro is an agricultural center. About  percent of the borough is still farmland today. The Swedesboro Auction, which opened in , was known for its sale of asparagus and other crops. Today, the auction sells locally grown tomatoes and cantaloupes each summer. Del Monte opened canning facilities in . Old Swedes Church dates from the s, and on the church grounds is a Swedish-design log cabin dating to the early eighteenth century. Charles Stratton, the first governor of New Jersey directly elected by the voters, was a native of Swedesboro. The Swedish influence is still remembered. King Carl Gustaf XVI of Sweden came to the borough in  during the U.S. bicentennial. In , the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. Median household income was $, in . For complete census figures, see chart, .

Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McMahon, William H. South Jersey Towns: History and Legend. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Simpson, Hazel B. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Tom Wilk

swimming, competitive. Besides the millions who enjoy recreational swimming in New Jersey’s fresh, salt, and chlorinated waters, the state has a large population of competitive swimmers. There are about sixty thousand children racing on summer club teams. About sixty USA Swimming clubs conduct organized training and competition for swimmers from the novice to the Olympic level. Over six thousand youngsters participate in these clubs, led by certified and safety-trained coaches. On some of the teams, training and competition continue all the way through masters competition, in which adult swimmers of all ages participate. The Jersey Shore plays host to many lifeguard and open-water competitions. Both national and international competitions have long been held in Atlantic City, including the long-distance Around the Island swim.

Eight college and university programs within New Jersey attract young men and women from all over the country. Rutgers, the State University, has a rich heritage of success in Division I. Since the late s, The Scarlet Knights have returned to that level of excellence with achievements at the NCAA Championships. The pinnacle of competitive swimming is the Olympic Games. Over the years, many Olympians have come from New Jersey. Sue Pitt Anderson represented the United States in both  and , and Ron Karnaugh, Tom Wilkens, and Scott Goldblatt did so in . Goldblatt, who won a silver medal, trained with coach Jim Wood at the Berkeley Aquatic Club in Berkeley Heights. See also sports

Chuck Warner

Switlik Parachute Company. Founded in Trenton as a canvas-leather specialty ´ Stanley company in  by Polish emigre Switlik, the Switlik Parachute Company ultimately became the largest manufacturer of parachutes in the United States. Stanley Switlik, who died in  and was inducted posthumously into Teterboro Airport’s Aviation Hall of Fame in , introduced several innovations in parachute design, including the use of nylon instead of silk for parachutes and the compact chute for use in the close quarters of the ball turrets of B-s during World War II. He established the first parachute school in America and, with Amelia Earhart’s husband, George Palmer Putnam, designed and built the first U.S. jump-training tower on the Switlik farm in Ocean County. Amelia Earhart made the first public jump from the -foot tower on June , . Switlik outfitted the expeditions of Earhart, Wiley Post, and Admiral Richard Byrd. During World War II the Switlik company supplied U.S. paratroopers, manufacturing nearly a quarter of a million parachutes. In later years, the company developed and produced safety equipment for high-altitude flights and the space program. Beginning in , the Switlik family was involved in a protracted legal dispute with the Six Flags corporation over the development of the Great Adventure amusement park in Jackson. Stanley Switlik, an ardent conservationist who donated thousands of acres to the state for New Jersey wildlife preservation, sold  acres to Six Flags, thinking the land would be used solely for a drive-through wild animal park. When he discovered that the land he had sold Six Flags was intended for amusement park use, he and his family tried to block construction of the park, ultimately losing millions of dollars in court judgments. The company still manufactures rubber rafts and other lifesaving equipment in its facility in Hamilton Township, adjacent to the city of Trenton.

W. James Franklin

T Tabernacle.

.-square-mile township in Burlington County, largely located within the Pine Barrens. State records indicate that a house of worship may have been built in the s near the township’s central village, but no proof of this has ever been established. The name Tabernacle first shows up on  county maps. The township was established as an independent entity in , from parts of neighboring Shamong, Southampton, and Woodland townships. “Indian Ann’’ Roberts, allegedly the last of the Lenape Indians to remain in New Jersey after the tribe began its long trek westward to Oklahoma, is buried in Tabernacle cemetery. A local landmark is the quaint Nixon’s General Store in central Tabernacle, which dates back generations. Since the s, the township has been involved in a gradual transition from farmland to residential housing, much of the latter consisting of small tracts of costly homes. Tabernacle is on the cusp of a development wave; expansion of a Route  commercial strip is likely as work begins on Seneca High School, to accommodate growth in the Lenape Regional High School District. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bisbee, Henry H. Sign Posts. Willingboro: Alexia Press, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Tammany

(fl. c. ).

Lenape leader. Tammany (also spelled Tamanend, Tamanen, Tamnen), an elder of the Nashamminy Creek band of Lenape, born in New Jersey, was one of the best known of these original inhabitants of the lower Delaware Valley. However, we do not even know his birth or death dates, and most of what is said about him derives from legends. Tammany participated in some of the earliest sales of large tracts of land to William Penn. Penn was interested in purchasing all Lenape land holdings rather than making small purchases, as was common before his arrival in the New World. Tammany was the older of two vendors who sold their rights to a large tract of land held by the Neshamminy band to William Penn on June , . Six of their kin also sold their rights to this same tract on the same day, but why separate deeds were drawn up and

why Tammany also received a supplementary payment remains unknown. Tammany, like many of his kin, had abandoned the land long before  in order to become active in the fur trade in western Pennsylvania. Drawing its name from the respected chief, the Tammany Society was founded in  as a patriotic and charitable organization. In , the group’s headquarters was established in Tammany Hall, and thereafter the name of the association and its location were synonymous. Kent, Donald H., ed. Early American Indian Documents: Treaties and Laws, –. Vol. , Pennsylvania and Delaware Treaties, –. Washington, DC: University Publications of America, . Wallace, Paul A. W. “Tamanend.’’ In Indians in Pennsylvania. Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, .

See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Targum.

The Rutgers University student newspaper Targum is the second-oldest college newspaper in the United States. It appeared first as an annual in  and as a monthly newspaper in . Publication became bimonthly in  and weekly in . In  the Targum began publishing twice weekly and increased to four times a week in . The paper has published on its present five-day-a-week schedule since . The name is from the Aramaic paraphrases of the Hebrew scriptures known as targums, meaning “interpretations.’’ Formerly financially and legally bound to Rutgers, students overwhelmingly approved independence for the paper in , and the Targum Publishing Company was formally incorporated on July , . See also Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey

Thomas J. Frusciano

Tatamy, Moses Tunda

(fl. mid-th

cent.). Lenape translator and guide. The Mun-

see known to the English as Moses Tunda Tatamy (Tashawaylennahan), born in New Jersey, became an important translator and guide along the Pennsylvania frontier in the early eighteenth century. He may have taken up residence near modern Stockertown, Pennsylvania, in the Forks of Delaware as early as . In  he had a patent issued for a tract of  acres near Stockertown. A new patent was issued to Tatamy and “his heirs and assigns’’ in , possibly for a different tract of land. He was the first native-born individual to make a formal purchase of land in the region. After the Six Nations advised their native dependants to vacate the Forks, Tatamy and a few others petitioned the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania for the right to remain on lands they had purchased. Tatamy’s heirs later inherited the property, and his widow is listed in the first census of the United States.

Kraft, Herbert C., ed. A Delaware Indian Symposium. Harrisburg: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, .

See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Tatham, John

(b. date unknown; d. July

). Colonial politician. A wealthy English

Anglican, John Tatham bought land in Burlington in , where he then built a large house. Elected by the resident proprietors to the West Jersey Council circa , by  he was its president. By the end of the s he had become part of an anti-Quaker faction that fought with Samuel Jennings and others they saw as inciting “the people to rebellion.’’ Tatham joined in publishing a vitriolic pamphlet called The Case Put and Decided (). He was removed from office later that year when Andrew Hamilton returned as governor. He died shortly afterward, but the disagreements in West Jersey continued into the next century. Pomfret, John E. The Province of West New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Woodward, Evan, and John Hageman. History of Burlington and Mercer Counties. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Tavistock. A .-square-mile borough in Camden County. Formerly a part of Haddonfield, in  Tavistock became a separate borough. Located here is the Tavistock Country Club, which was established in . The club expanded in  and bought part of the John Gill farm. Because Haddonfield had blue laws preventing the use of golf caddies on Sundays, New Jersey state senator Joseph Walworth introduced a bill that incorporated Tavistock as a borough. All of the municipal services are provided by Haddonfield borough. According to the  census, the population of  was  percent white and  percent black. The  median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Rauschenberger, Douglas B., and Katherine Mansfield Tassini. Lost Haddonfield. Haddonfield: Historical Society of Haddonfield, . This Is Haddonfield. Haddonfield: Historical Society of Haddonfield, .

Joseph Haro

tax court. The Tax Court of New Jersey, a court of limited jurisdiction within the New Jersey judiciary, was established in . Its predecessor, the Division of Tax Appeals, was an administrative agency within the Department of the Treasury. The court hears appeals from local property tax assessments, assessments by the director of the New Jersey Division of Taxation, appeals of other taxes imposed by a state or local government or authority, and other tax-related matters. Appeals from determinations of the tax court are heard by the appellate division of the 793

794

taxes

superior court and then the supreme court of New Jersey. The court is authorized to have twelve judges who sit, without a jury, in Trenton, Newark, and other locations. Judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the State Senate for initial terms of seven years and, on reappointment, until age seventy. Judges of the tax court are statutorily required to have special qualifications, knowledge, and experience in matters of taxation. Almost one thousand opinions of the court are published in New Jersey Tax Court Reports, which as of the year  comprised almost nineteen volumes. The court is one of only three judicial tax courts in the United States and is considered one of the best forums for resolving complex state tax questions. See also law

Joseph C. Small

taxes. The principal taxes in New Jersey are the property, income, corporate income, sales, and inheritance taxes. While property taxes have existed since the seventeenth century, income and sales taxes are a late twentiethcentury invention, instituted to pay for the expanded services provided by state and local governments. Property taxes are assessed at the municipal level at a rate fixed by the county boards of taxation. They include the local tax for services (such as police and fire protection), the school tax, and the municipality’s share of the cost of county government. There are exemptions for property devoted to religious, educational, hospital, or charitable uses, the state of New Jersey, the Garden State Parkway, the New Jersey Turnpike, and county and local governments or their agencies. Limited exemptions are also granted to buildings constructed or renovated as part of urban renewal projects authorized by the municipal governing body. Partial exemptions, known as farmland assessments, are available for at least five acres devoted to agricultural or horticultural use. Income is taxable in New Jersey at a top rate of . percent. Each taxpayer is allowed a personal exemption and an additional exemption for a spouse who does not file separately. Exemptions are also provided for those over sixty-five, the blind or disabled, and dependents, including those under age of twentytwo attending an accredited institution of higher learning on a full-time basis. Deductions are allowed for medical expenses and for property taxes on the taxpayer’s residence. In addition, a taxpayer may exclude retirement benefits, property acquired by gift or inheritance, workers’ compensation payments, and damages for personal injuries or sickness. Corporations, both domestic and foreign, are subject to New Jersey corporation business tax. For a corporation that maintains a regular place of business outside New Jersey the portion of its income taxable is determined by an allocation factor, which considers its property,

sales, and payroll both within and outside New Jersey. The tax rate on corporate net income is  percent. There is a  percent sales tax on the retail sales of tangible personal property and services. While prepared food and drink sold in restaurants and taverns are taxable, unprepared food and meals especially prepared for homebound elderly and disabled persons, airlines, and school cafeterias are not taxed. Although the sales tax is imposed upon the purchaser, the law requires the seller to collect the tax at the time of the sale. There are numerous exemptions including sales of prescriptions, clothing and footwear, newspapers and magazines, certain utilities, and school textbooks. A transfer inheritance tax is imposed upon all property, both real and personal, of a New Jersey decedent, but property owned by husband and wife as tenants by the entirety is not subject to the inheritance tax upon the death of one of the owners. Transfers to a spouse, children, or parents are not subject to the inheritance tax. Transfers to other relatives are taxable at rates from  percent to  percent depending on amount. The law allows deductions for the decedent’s debts, funeral expense and the expense of last illness, administration expenses, and real property taxes. Finally, in addition to the transfer inheritance tax, New Jersey imposes an estate tax. The Appraisal of Real Estate. th ed. Chicago: Appraisal Institute, . Crabtree, David E. State and Local Taxation. St. Paul: West Group, . Hellerstein, Jerome R., and Walter Hellerstein. State Taxation.  ed. Boston: Warren, Gorham, and Lamont, .

David E. Crabtree

Teaneck.

.-square-mile township, incorporated , lying between the Hackensack River and the Overpeck Creek in southcentral Bergen County. The name Teaneck is believed to be from the Lenape word meaning “place of villages.’’ Later, the name identified a high ridge of land that roughly divides the township from north to south. European settlement began in  along an American Indian trail paralleling the Hackensack River, called New Hackensack or East Hackensack. Settlements also grew along another American Indian trail (now Teaneck Road) on the eastern side of the so-called Teaneck Ridge. The Revolutionary War site known as New Bridge Landing lies in the northwestern part of the township. In , William Walter Phelps moved from Manhattan to Teaneck. He later became a U.S. congressman, ambassador, and judge. His Teaneck property, called Englewood Farm, encompassed more than five thousand acres. Residential development began in earnest after the breakup of the Phelps estate in . The U.S. Army used Teaneck as an example of the model American town government in its post–World War II reconstruction

efforts in Japan and elsewhere. Today, it is the most populous municipality in the county. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hall, Frank, ed. The Teaneck One Hundred Year Book, –. Teaneck: Teaneck Centennial Committee, . Hewitt, Mark Alan. A Guide to the Historic Landmarks of Teaneck, New Jersey. Teaneck: Teaneck Historic Preservation Commission, . Taylor, Mildred. The History of Teaneck. Teaneck: Teaneck Bicentennial Committee, .

Robert D. Griffin

Teedyuscung

(b. c. ; d. Apr. , ).

Lenape translator and intermediary. Teedyuscung, also known as “Gideon’’ and “Honest John,’’ was born into the Toms River band of Lenape. Around  Teedyuscung’s entire band moved to the Forks of Delaware in Pennsylvania, the only Lenape band to emigrate west from New Jersey. These Lenape colonizers provided the Pennsylvania colonial government with an opportunity to “buy’’ the Forks region, although the participating “vendors’’ held no native claim to the land. As he grew up, Teedyuscung mastered the art of diplomacy and became a culture broker, or intermediary, for the English colonial government during the difficult years of the French and Indian War. He often claimed to represent several of the groups of native peoples whom the Six Nations Iroquois had settled in the buffer region along the New York– Pennsylvania border. Teedyuscung sometimes even claimed to represent the Six Nations as well. He died in , in a cabin that had been built for him by the Pennsylvania colonial government, near the end of the war that provided him with unusual opportunities. Wallace, Anthony F. C. King of the Delawares: Teedyuscung, –. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Telcordia Technologies.

Telcordia, a telecommunications technology company and a wholly owned subsidiary of Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), is a world leader in telecommunications research, engineering, consulting, and training. Telcordia’s heritage can be traced directly to the divestiture of AT&T in . In that year, AT&T’s nationwide Bell telephone network was divided into seven independent regional Bell operating companies, commonly known as the “Baby Bells.’’ At the same time, AT&T’s original central services organization was transformed into a separate company under the name Bell Communications Research, or Bellcore. Bellcore’s mission was to provide

temperature research, engineering, and administrative services for the newly created Baby Bells. Bellcore opened a new corporate headquarters in suburban Livingston in . The company was acquired in  by San Diego–based Science Applications International Corporation. Two years later, Bellcore was renamed Telcordia Technologies. Telcordia is one of the world’s largest providers of telecommunications engineering and consulting services. It is a major participant in the ongoing development of advanced next-generation networks and is also the world’s largest provider of telecommunications training services. Telcordia’s headquarters is located in Morristown. The company has offices throughout the United States and in Canada, Central and South America, and Europe.

Donald E. Bender

telegraph.

Painter Samuel F. B. Morse conceived the electric telegraph in  and worked on the invention at his studio at the University of the City of New York (now New York University) until , when he became associated with his former student Alfred Vail. The son of Stephen Vail, founder of the Speedwell Iron Works near Morristown, Alfred, who worked on the telegraph at his father’s ironworks, provided the mechanical skill necessary to improve Morse’s crude instruments and turn them into devices suitable for commercial use. It was at the ironworks that the first public demonstration of the new system took place on January , , before a crowd of several hundred people. Subsequent experimentation and development of the system then took place in New York, where Morse’s university colleague, Leonard Gale, a chemistry professor, helped to design batteries and electromagnets. Demonstrations of the system in New York and at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia attracted the attention of Congress, which had begun considering the adoption of semaphore telegraphs in . However, only after extensive lobbying by Morse and his associates did Congress vote in  to fund an experimental line between Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland. The line was completed and put into operation on May , . Morse and his associates formed the Magnetic Telegraph Company after Congress decided not to adopt the telegraph, and they began extending this line to New York. The section from Philadelphia to Newark opened in January , with messages being sent from Newark to Jersey City by rail and then to New York by ferry. The line was soon extended to Fort Lee in the hope that a cable could be laid under the Hudson River, but this attempt failed. For a time a boat took the messages across the river where they were telegraphed south to New York City from the home of naturalist John James Audubon. A short time

later, the company ran a line from Newark to Jersey City and again sent messages to New York by ferry. Although several efforts were made to lay telegraph lines across the Hudson, none permanently succeeded until , when a cable was laid from the Stevens estate in Hoboken. The New Jersey Magnetic Telegraph Company, using the printing telegraph devised by Royal E. House, established a competing north-south line in , which initially crossed the Hudson River over large masts extended from both shores. While New Jersey was essential for north-south lines between Philadelphia and New York City, lines going west from New York branched off from those extending north of the city and either missed New Jersey entirely or only crossed a small corner of the state. Although primarily important as a crossing for north-south telegraph lines, New Jersey briefly played a significant role in the telegraph industry during the s through the efforts of inventor Thomas Edison. At a series of shops in Newark he devised important improvements in telegraphy, most notably his Universal stock ticker and the quadruplex telegraph, which enabled four messages to be sent simultaneously over one wire. It was his success as a telegraph inventor that enabled Edison to build his famous laboratory at Menlo Park. Israel, Paul. From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Reid, James D. The Telegraph in America. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Thompson, Robert Luther. Wiring a Continent: The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also Historic Speedwell

Paul Israel

television stations.

In traditional, over-the-air broadcasting, the American television industry has depended heavily on national networking, that is, centralized distribution of programming by such networks as ABC, CBS, NBC, and Fox to affiliated stations. New Jersey, however, is almost entirely devoid of national network affiliates. The state’s geographical position between New York and Philadelphia has much to do with this; New Jersey television viewers are served by network-affiliated stations in those cities, whose coverage areas are essentially contiguous. Exceptions include NBC affiliate WMGM (Atlantic City) and WWOR/UPN- (Secaucus). The latter is the flagship station of the recently created UPN network. However—and indicative of New Jersey’s marginal status in the world of network television—UPN’s own database of affiliates lists the Secaucus station under New York, and lists no affiliated or owned stations in New Jersey.

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American television is not strictly limited to the national network model, and New Jersey has seen much more activity in other areas of television production and distribution. These areas include cable television and various forms of noncommercial television, including educational, public, and public access television. New Jersey is served by approximately forty cable systems, each providing cable service to one or more contiguous municipalities. The majority of these cable systems are owned by the multisystem operators (MSOs) Cablevision and Comcast. Like other cable systems around the country, many of New Jersey’s cable systems include public access channels, which provide an outlet for programming produced by members of the public, as well as civic and educational organizations. (Public access channels owe their existence to an FCC mandate that the cable industry give something back to the municipalities whose property it crosses with wires.) For example, TV, Princeton Community Television, transmits live town council meetings, high school plays, religious programming, a film review panel, discussions with Princeton University faculty, chess programs, locally produced comedy shows, and many other programs not available on commercial and/or national television. Public television, another form of noncommercial television, is also well represented in New Jersey, by the NJN (New Jersey Network). (Public television stations, unless they are public access stations, are generally not cable-only, and are owned and operated on a more traditional basis, though under noncommercial broadcasting licenses.) NJN is a member of the Public Broadcasting System (PBS), a national distribution agency—sometimes called a “quasi-network’’—for public television programming. NJN broadcasts on four over-the-air channels and is carried on all New Jersey cable systems.

David A. Black

temperature. Due to New Jersey’s middle-latitude location along the East Coast of North America, temperatures vary markedly on a number of timescales. The midday sun ranges from approximately  degrees to  degrees above the horizon between the winter and summer equinoxes, in part explaining the seasonal temperature changes. Intraseasonal to hourly swings in the thermal regime result from wind shifts. Northerly winds bring in cold (or cool, depending on the season) air from polar regions, southerly breezes push warm air up from the south, and easterlies bring in cool, but not cold, air regardless of the season. Depending on the origin of the air mass, westerlies can introduce air that is hot to cold into the state. Despite New Jersey’s relatively small geographic extent, a spring heat wave can result

Tenafly

796

Gilbert graduated from Yale College in , was ordained by the Philadelphia Presbytery, and appointed to the New Brunswick Presbyterian Church. It was here that he met Dutch Reformed minister Theodore Frelinghuysen, who influenced Tennent’s commitment to the personal piety and active evangelical faith associated with the colony-wide revival known as the First Great Awakening. Tennent became a leader of the pro-revival “New Side’’ faction of the Presbyterian Church and traveled throughout the colonies propagating the Awakening.

AVERAGE TEMPERATURE 26

70 72

N

28 74 30

January ( oF )

Coalter, Milton J. Gilbert Tennent, Son of Thunder. New York: Greenwood, .

July ( oF )

Landsman, Ned C. Scotland and Its First American Colony, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

74

See also Presbyterians

John Fea

32

Tennent.

76

Wilbur, Marvin C., and Virginia T. Mosley, eds. A Pictorial History of Tenafly, –. Tenafly: Mayor and Council of the Borough of Tenafly, .

tennis. Tennis started in New Jersey when private clubs began opening in the late s. Early clubs included the Orange Lawn Tennis Club, the Oritani Tennis Club in Hackensack, the Englewood Field Club, and Saint George’s Cricket Club in Hoboken. Others were in Newark, Jersey City, Montclair, Plainfield, Short Hills, and Seabright. By  Branch Brook Park offered public tennis courts and George Jay Gould had built a private court in Lakewood. At the turn of the century, many New Jersey players became United States champions. Juliette Atkinson of Rahway won the singles title in , , and  and the doubles title seven times. In  she lost to Ridgewood’s Elisabeth (Bessie) Moore, who was the first to win four national singles titles. Bessie lost in  to Helen Homans, who, along with the women’s doubles champions, Annie Coe and Ethel Platt, came from the Englewood Field Club. Englewood, according to the New York Times in , had more “expert players than any other club in America.’’ William Larned, from Summit, tied for the most U.S. men’s singles titles (seven) starting in . Fred Alexander of Seabright excelled in doubles, beginning at Princeton in  and winning his last nationals in . Later champions included Bayonne’s Dick Savitt, who won major titles in . Today, New Jersey still has many private tennis clubs, as well as an extensive network of public courts. See also sports

David R. Wall

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

34 0

20 miles © Rutgers, The State University

in midafternoon temperatures ranging from the mid-s inland to the mid-s on the seabreeze-cooled barrier islands. Conversely, a winter coastal storm can raise the coastal temperature to ◦ F, while Sussex County shivers in the s. Statewide, January is the coldest month, with an average temperature of .◦ F, and July the warmest at .◦ F (averages are calculated using – data from approximately thirty-five National Weather Service observing stations). The coldest month on record was February , at .◦ F, and the hottest was July , at .◦ F (records extend back to ). The coldest daily minimum temperature on record is -◦ F, observed in River Vale (Bergen County) on January , , and the hottest daily maximum temperature is ◦ F at Runyon (Middlesex County) on July , . Ludlum, David. The New Jersey Weather Book. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also plant hardiness zones; weather

David Robinson

Tenafly.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County, five miles north of Manhattan. Jacobus Van Cortlandt obtained lands here in . He was followed by Dutch and French Huguenot settlers. Part of the Roelof Westervelt House is dated from . A  will mentioned “Tienefly’’ (Dutch dialect, possibly meaning “ten marshes’’). Farming days ended with the coming of the Northern Railroad of

See Manalapan.

New Jersey in . Service ended in the s, but the town won a preservation award for work on the stone railroad station’s exterior. The house occupied from  to  by suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton is a national landmark. In , Tenafly became a borough apart from Palisades Township (which in turn had been formed from Hackensack Township in ). During World War I, a section of Tenafly was part of Camp Merritt. Bandleader Glenn Miller lived in the borough from  until his death in . Roosevelt Common and a horticultural park are the gifts of philanthropic citizens, and near Tenafly’s portion of the Palisades cliffs are a nature center and preserved forests. Today the town is a residential suburb. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Serrao, John. The Wild Palisades of the Hudson. Westwood: Lind Publications, .

Tennent, Gilbert

(b. Feb. , ; d. July

, ). Clergyman and revivalist preacher.

Gilbert Tennent was born in Armagh, Ireland, and immigrated to America in . He was the son of William Tennent, the patriarch of a famous family of colonial Presbyterians.

Terhune, Albert Payson ; d. Feb. , ).

(b. Dec. ,

Writer. Albert Payson Terhune’s famous collie-dog stories are set on the Terhune family estate, Sunnybank, along Lake Pompton in Wayne Township, New Jersey. “Bert’’ was the youngest child of Edward

Teterboro Payson Terhune, a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church, and Virginia Hawes Terhune (Marion Harland), a successful author of cookbooks and popular novels. Bert Terhune graduated from Columbia University in . He traveled to the Mideast with his mother and published his first book, Syria from the Saddle, at the age of twentythree. For the next twenty-one years, he worked as a journalist on the New York World and as a freelance fiction writer. He first married Lorraine Bryson, who died four days after the birth of their only child, Lorraine Virginia Terhune (). In  Terhune married Anice Stockton, and their forty-year marriage was the model for the Master and Mistress of Sunnybank. “Lad’’ first appeared in Redbook magazine in  as the collie hero of Terhune’s short story “His Mate’’; its success prompted twenty-eight sequels, allowing the Terhunes to live at Sunnybank with the collies Terhune fictionalized in Lad, A Dog; Bruce; Buff; A Collie; Wolf; Treve; The Ways of a Dog; and The Book of Sunnybank. Anice Terhune died in ; Sunnybank-Terhune Memorial Park and the collie graves remain on nine acres along Lad’s “fire-blue’’ lake, administered by Wayne County Department of Parks and open from dawn to dusk year round. Terhune memorabilia are at the Van Riper–Hopper Historic House in Wayne, New Jersey. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Litvag, Irving. The Master of Sunnybank: A Biography of Albert Payson Terhune. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also literature

Sarah Elbert

Terhune, Mary Virginia Hawes (b. Dec. , ; d. June , ). Writer. Known

to her readers as “Marion Harland,’’ Mary Virginia Hawes won her first prize from the Southern Era for the best serial novel on a temperance theme when she was twenty-three. It was republished to great success in , the same year she married a Presbyterian minister who was called to the First Reformed Dutch Church in Newark, New Jersey. Their three children would become writers, most notably Albert Payson, who made famous the family’s beloved summer home in Pompton, Sunnybank. Terhune was an extraordinarily prolific writer. Her many novels and three volumes of short stories (most set in the antebellum South) gratified the taste in her day for romance, sentiment, and piety. It is for her practical nonfiction, however, that she is remembered today. Common Sense in the Household () was an immediate best-seller and was translated into French, Spanish, German, and Arabic, despite the fact that, by her own account, the housekeeping side of her marriage was a disaster when she was a bride. Many more books on homemaking followed, plus

numerous articles, syndicated columns, and lectures. In Eve’s Daughters, Terhune set forth her opinions about the role of women in society, clearly predicated upon her own. Women should find their highest fulfillment as wives and mothers, although these roles should not preclude practical command of a profession and experience in money management. She also wrote on travel, biography, and history. The Story of Mary Washington () created interest in a monument to the first president’s mother. Elected the first woman member of the Virginia Historical Society, she wrote the “Story of Virginia’’ for a book of state histories and was active in the Daughters of the American Revolution and several other historical associations. DAB. Terhune, Mary Virginia Hawes. Marion Harland’s Autobiography. New York: Harper and Brothers, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Daryl Boylan and Ann Pason

terra cotta.

Used as a building material, terra cotta (also known as architectural terra cotta) was a ceramic product commonly made in the form of hollow blocks and used in place of stone in architecture. It could be glazed in a full spectrum of colors and sculpted or molded into a variety of shapes. The material is fireproof. Together with steel-frame architecture, terra cotta cladding facilitated the construction of the first true skyscrapers. The phrase terra cotta derives from the Italian for “baked or cooked earth.’’ Clays useful for manufacturing terra cotta are concentrated in a wide band running across the central portion of New Jersey. Some of the best deposits are located in Woodbridge, Perth Amboy, and South Amboy. In , Diedrich Winnter of Newark tried unsuccessfully to make terra cotta. Later, manufacturers in Mercer, Burlington, and Camden counties succeeded in producing small quantities of the material. The industry, however, remained quite small until the s when Alfred Hall, owner of a brickworks and pottery in Perth Amboy, hired skilled English terra cotta manufacturer James Taylor to help establish a factory. Hall’s Perth Amboy Terra Cotta Company contributed terra cotta to such notable structures as the first Madison Square Garden and Philadelphia’s Reading Terminal— now the Reading Terminal Market. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Perth Amboy Terra Cotta Company spawned a half-dozen other terra cotta–producing firms and Middlesex County became the national center of the architectural terra cotta industry. Other noteworthy firms included the Standard Terra Cotta Company (–) and New Jersey Terra Cotta Company (–), both of Perth Amboy;

797

the Excelsior Terra Cotta Company in Rocky Hill (–); and the South Amboy Terra Cotta Company (–). The industry thrived in the early twentieth century and two Perth Amboy–based companies, Atlantic Terra Cotta (–) and Federal/Federal Seaboard Terra Cotta (– ), came to dominate the market. Many workers in the industry were new immigrants. English, Danes, Italians, Hungarians, and, in later years, Puerto Rican immigrants all contributed to the industry’s growth. The industry’s primary product was ceramic block for architecture; however, statuary, grave markers, hitching posts, and even curbing was also produced. Some of the more famous buildings ornamented with New Jersey terra cotta are the Woolworth (– ) and McGraw-Hill (–) buildings in New York City, the Philadelphia Museum of Art (), and Asbury Park’s Convention Hall (). During the Great Depression, the market for lavish terra cotta ornamentation, once so popular on skyscrapers and cinemas, dried up. There was little call for terra cotta during the Second World War. After the war, architects and engineers began to demand more modern building materials, including cinder block, concrete, and stainless steel. In , Federal Seaboard Terra Cotta of Perth Amboy, New Jersey’s last producer, closed. Although the industry is no more, colorful architectural terra cotta still enlivens the skylines of New Jersey’s cities. Perth Amboy contains a particularly rich collection of terra cotta building fac ¸ ades and grave markers, unique reminders of a once-proud industry. Geer, Walter. The Story of Terra Cotta. New York: Tobias A. Wright, . Tunick, Susan. Terra Cotta Skyline. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, .

See also ceramics industry

Richard F. Veit

Teterboro. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Teterboro began as a land development company formed by Walter Teter in . Its original territory of  acres was taken from Little Ferry, Hasbrouck Heights, and South Hackensack (the former Lodi Township). Teterboro reached its present size in , when it took another  acres from Hasbrouck Heights. During World War I, the development’s cleared acres supplied vegetables for the Salvation Army’s soup kitchens in Jersey City. After the war, the Witteman-Lewis Aircraft Company used the flat fields for its airplanes. In  the Bendix Aviation Corporation took it over and renamed the borough Bendix, until the original name was restored in . Today the borough’s most important feature is Teterboro Airport. Owned by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey since the late s, it is one of the busiest private aircraft

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Teterboro Airport

airfields in the country. The Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey and the Aeronautical Educational Center are also located at the field. In terms of population, Teterboro is the smallest municipality in New Jersey. In  the population of  was  percent white and  percent multiracial. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. Bergen County Panorama. Hackensack: Bergen County Board of Chosen Freeholders, .

Evelyn Gonzalez

Teterboro Airport.

Teterboro Airport is located on over  acres in the Bergen County boroughs of Teterboro and Moonachie. Attracted by the expanse of level meadowlands, Wittemann-Lewis Aircraft Company bought land from Walter Teter and opened the largest aircraft assembly plant in the country there in . Soon, other aeronautical companies followed, including that of famous aircraft designer Anthony Fokker, the “Flying Dutchman,’’ in . During the s and s, with record-breaking flights commonplace, Teterboro’s prominence in aviation history was well established, drawing famous aviators such as Charles Lindbergh, Amelia Earhart, and Floyd Bennett. Union City native Frederick L. Wehran bought the airport in . After World War II (the U.S. Army Air Force had control during the war years), Wehran developed Teterboro into one of the world’s busiest, privately owned air freight terminals. The Port of New York Authority purchased Teterboro in  and, as the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, has leased

North view of New Germantown (now Tewksbury Township). From a woodcut c. .

Courtesy S. C. Van Doren. operations to outside companies since . In , Teterboro became the first generalaviation airport in the country to gain safety certification under Federal Aviation Administration regulations. Teterboro Airport is the second largest in the state and designated a reliever for airports in the metropolitan area. In , with over  corporate and private aircraft based there, annual aircraft movements reached ,. Reilly, H. V. Pat. From the Balloon to the Moon: A Chronology of New Jersey’s Amazing Aviation History. d ed. Oradell: H.V. Publishers, . ———. A Pictorial History of Teterboro Airport: New Jersey’s Aviation Heritage. d ed. Teterboro: Aviation Hall of Fame of New Jersey, .

See also airports; transportation

Doris Licameli

Teterboro Airport, c. .

Courtesy Archives of the Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey, Teterboro.

Tewksbury. .-square-mile township in the northeast corner of Hunterdon County. The earliest English settlers arrived around  and dubbed the region Smithfield after Ralph Smith, the most important landowner in the area. In  a number of Germans, who fled Europe two years earlier because of religious persecution, settled in Smithfield after arriving via the Old York Road from Philadelphia. By , when the Germans had surpassed the original English settlers and their descendants as the town’s largest ethnic group, the town was renamed New Germantown. The land was devoted almost entirely to farm production and orchards; in addition, lime kilns dotted the landscape. Tewksbury Township was organized on March , , when the first town meeting took place. It was annexed to Somerset County in , but returned to Hunterdon County in . The oldest Lutheran church in New Jersey, founded in , can be found in Oldwick, formerly part of New Germantown. AntiGerman sentiment in World War I forced another name change, to Oldwick. The hamlets of Pottersville, Mountainville, Cokesbury, and Fairmount, in Tewksbury, as well as Oldwick, all are listed on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. The community still retains much of its agricultural character. The township is made up predominately of farmland and single-family homes while the remaining areas are small village business zones and a research/office center at the Interstate  Exit  interchange. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey—A History of Somerset, Morris, Hunterdon, Warren, and Sussex Counties. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Shaun C. Van Doren

textile industry

Pelgram and Meyer, cut satin,  (det.). Silk, satin weave, w.  in., l.  in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Pelgram and Meyer Co., 1916, 19.264. Photo: Sarah Wells, July 1991.

textile industry. The mechanization of textile production in the northeastern United States in the early nineteenth century propelled the development of an industrial economy in the nation. Compared to New England, New York, and Pennsylvania, New Jersey played a substantial but secondary role in this national process. However, textile-mill production (cottons, woolens and worsteds, silks, cellulose and synthetic fibers, and hats) and the apparel industry long remained the most important source of employment in the manufacturing sector of the New Jersey economy. Since World War II, the position of both textile production and apparel manufacturing in the state’s economy has declined sharply. Today, unlike in the nineteenth century, overall manufacturing accounts for only a small fraction of total New Jersey employment (about  percent in the year ), and textile production and apparel manufacturing account for only about  percent of all manufacturing employment in the state. The textile industry has always been both unstable and competitive. Because of import duties and the uncertainties of agricultural production, the supplies of raw materials are never secure, and the apparel market, which absorbs most finished textiles, is driven by changes in taste and fashion—which adds even more uncertainty to the industry. With few scale economies (despite mechanization), textile firms are relatively small (compared, in particular, to iron and steel, petroleum, and automobiles). Further, labor makes up a larger percentage of costs in textile production

than in most other industries. This has meant greater pressure from employers to replace workers with machines, to substitute less skilled for skilled workers, and to push workers to greater productivity, more shifts, and longer hours. In response to these pressures, unionization and strikes have played a major role in the industry. In the long run, management has dealt with unionization, strikes, and labor costs by moving from older production regions, such as New Jersey, to areas with

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cheaper labor, such as the South and the third world. In the eighteenth century, most clothing was manufactured from wool or flax (linens). Most households had spinning wheels, and most communities had weavers as well as stores that sold imported cloth. In the halfcentury after John Hargreaves’s invention in  of the spinning jenny, English artisans created machines, driven by water power, that mechanized the basic processes used to manufacture textiles. Starting in the s, much of this English technology was transferred to the new United States. The first mills, most located in New England, used water power to mechanize spinning. By the second decade of the nineteenth century, manufacturers had built fully integrated factories with water-powered spinning jennies and looms. In New Jersey, the process of adopting English technology got off to a slower start than in New England. In , the Society for Establishing Useful Manufactures attempted to establish a manufacturing village in Paterson, but by , the project had failed. Presumably, the Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts, during the Jefferson administration, and the War of —all of which blocked the importation of English textiles—encouraged nascent manufacturing concerns in New Jersey, as they did elsewhere. The  U.S. manufacturing census listed approximately twelve hundred men, women, and children as employed in cotton, wool, or flax establishments in New Jersey, the great majority of them in Essex County (then the location of Paterson) and Burlington County. The Essex listing noted “nine manufacturing establishments of cotton fabrics,’’ that collectively utilized fifty-four water-powered looms and , spindles, and employed  men,  women, and  children. By  almost four thousand people

Numbers Employed in and Value Added to Manufacturing in the New Jersey Textile Industry, 1990–1992

Year

Production Workers

Mill Workers as Percentage of Mill and Apparel Workers

Workers in Textiles as Percentage of All Manufacturing Workers

Value Added in Textiles as Percentage of Value Added in All Manufacturing

1909

90,000

79

28

20

1929 1939 1947

96,000 121,500 122,400

65 59 46

22 28 20

14 14 14

1958 1967

96,700 89,800

30 27

17 15

8 7

1977 1982 1992

72,000 57,100 37,900

27 25 25

15 13 13

6 5 5

N: Value added refers to the value of the product less the cost of producing it. The textile industry includes textile mills and the apparel trades. These are standard industrial classifications 22 (textile mill products) and 23 (apparel) in the United States Censuses of Manufacturing, from which all figures are taken. (The census is published irregularly and selected years are given to illustrate trends.) Industries included in these categories changed somewhat over time, as did the definition of value added.

800

theater

were working in New Jersey textile mills or making felt hats. The growth of the textile industry in New Jersey, however, lagged well behind neighboring Pennsylvania, as well as most of the New England states and New York. The years from  to  were the highwater mark for the New Jersey textile industry. Even during this period, however, it was largely concentrated in a few cities—Camden, Passaic, and Paterson. By , Camden had become the seventh-largest woolen/worsted manufacturing city in the United States (a spillover from Philadelphia, which led the nation), but thereafter production stagnated. Passaic had emerged as a major textile center late, in the s, and by the early twentieth century was the fourth-largest producer of woolens and worsteds in the United States, with more than half its workforce engaged in textile manufacturing. But the real success story was Paterson, widely known as “Silk City.’’ Silk manufacturing began in Paterson in the s. An English artisan, John Ryle, helped establish the first silk works. In the s a steam-powered mill was erected, and in the s power looms replaced hand-loom weavers in most plants. Much of the mill work was done by women and children. By the s, there were approximately , men, women, and children working in New Jersey silk mills (mostly in Paterson); by the s, silk’s predominance was even clearer. In each city, the growth of textile manufacturing paralleled the arrival of ever more immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. Some were skilled cloth workers but most came from agricultural regions and took low-paid positions in the mills. While ethnic tensions sometimes undermined the drive for collective action, both Passaic and Paterson were sites of sustained unionization efforts and repeated textile strikes. The most famous were the Paterson silk strike of , supported by the International Workers of the World (the Wobblies), and the Passaic strike of , led by communist organizer Albert Weisbord. Even at the moment of its greatest success, in the early twentieth century, the textile industry faced problems—marketplace competition, unstable demand, and labor unrest. From the s on, Pennsylvania and New York attracted a good portion of the new capital in the silk industry, and the development of cellulose and synthetic fibers eventually crippled silk production. Just as seriously, the phenomenal growth of textile manufacturing in the South, because of lower wages, made that region the most productive textilemanufacturing area by the s. Technological change also hurt the Northeast textile industry. Ring-spinning, introduced in the early nineteenth century, was perfected in the s, and the Northup automatic bobbin changer, introduced in , fully automated weaving. Southern mills began with the new technology, while northern mills coddled their older machines. In New Jersey, employment

grew slightly after World War I, but this was mostly because of the apparel business, not because of textile production, and, over time, the two industries together claimed an increasingly smaller percentage of employment and output. The post–World War II collapse in the U.S. textile industry was especially notable: at a time when the American economy was booming, wool manufacturing collapsed and cotton manufacturing stagnated. It reflected decreasing textile exports and increasing imports, as America became a sales and service economy, and low-wage areas worldwide attracted textile manufacturers. In the early twenty-first century, there were  companies engaged in the manufacture of textiles in New Jersey; together they employed slightly more than , people. There were  companies in the apparel trade, and these employed approximately twenty thousand people. Of the state’s  most important manufacturing employers, only eight are textile or apparel companies. Heading the list is Liz Claiborne, in North Bergen, and Maidenform, of Bayonne—survivors of a much more prosperous age for textile and apparel industries in the state. Goldberg, David J. A Tale of Three Cities: Labor Organization and Protest in Paterson, Passaic, and Lawrence, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Golin, Steve. The Fragile Bridge: Paterson Silk Strike, . Philadelphia: Temple University Press, . Scranton, Philip B., ed. Silk City: Studies on the Paterson Silk Industry, –. Newark: New Jersey Historical Society, .

Paul Clemens

theater. New Jersey has played a prominent role in the pageant of American theater since colonial times. Its geographical location has elevated its artistic position, as it has often been a fertile testing ground for New York– bound productions or a convenient temporary

The Rivoli Theater in Paterson was built in .

Courtesy Paterson Museum.

stage for itinerant theater companies en route to or from Philadelphia. In its own right, New Jersey has contributed to the literature of drama, the development of regional and “little’’ theaters, and has become a recognized leader in musical theater and the production of Shakespeare in the United States. The origin of New Jersey theater can be traced to the mid-eighteenth century, when traveling acting companies criss-crossed the state, usually presenting lighter fare but often mounting respected productions of the classics. A British-based theater troop of some renown, calling itself the “American Company of Comedians,’’ presented a highly successful series of Shakespeare plays in Perth Amboy in . The eighteenth-century American playwright William Dunlap, also from Perth Amboy, was an important figure in the development of American theater. His works were performed nationally throughout the latter part of the eighteenth century, and his History of the American Theater, published in , is considered the first authoritative study of the development of American drama. In the early nineteenth century, traveling acting troops began facing competition from newly established resident theater companies in Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Camden. Following the national tastes, spoken drama on New Jersey stages was gradually supplanted by musical fare, minstrel shows, and a wealth of popular romantic (though highly forgettable) operas and operettas. To accommodate this trend, a number of music halls and opera houses were built throughout the state in the mid-nineteenth century, such as the Concert Hall in Newark and Greer’s Hall in New Brunswick. After the Civil War, patriotic and sentimental melodramas established a foothold, bringing such noted Victorian-era thespians as Emma Waller and Joseph Jefferson to stages in Newark, Trenton, and Hoboken. Such thrillingly obvious but popular melodramatic works as The Poor of New York were performed in repertory with popular ethnic pieces like The Irish Emigrant. The dramatization of Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, in all of its emotionally manipulative splendor, thrilled audiences in New Brunswick, Bordentown, and Burlington. New theater companies continued to spring up throughout the state, with permanent troops taking residence in Morristown and Passaic, performing the works of such respected New Jersey playwrights as William Gillette and Augustus Thomas. In the s, burlesque and broadly comic vaudeville-type revues became popular. These shows, which were replayed several times nightly in music halls in such places as Freehold, Asbury Park, Bridgeton, and Jersey City, generally featured scantily clad chorus girls, popular music, and coarse physical comedy. The dawn of the twentieth century saw the state’s vibrant theater splinter into several

theater architecture discrete, highly successful avenues of performance. The most important development during this period was the rise of the Atlantic City musical theater scene. Already popular as a seaside resort town, and accessible by rail from Philadelphia, Atlantic City became the summer-tryout spot for major Broadway-bound musical extravaganzas. The overwhelming success of the premier of Ziegfeld’s first Follies in Atlantic City in  led to a surge of interest by Broadway producers in mounting productions there (three theaters were built in Atlantic City in the year after the Follies debuted). New York theater icons such as David Belasco routinely mounted productions in Atlantic City, with other New York producers booking spots in Asbury Park and Long Branch as well. Another development of extreme importance, and directly related to the development of movies, was the rise of “little theaters’’ in New Jersey. As radio, movies, and vaudeville moved into center stage in popular culture during the s, fewer and fewer theaters presented “serious’’ drama. Those that did were generally smaller, often subscriber-run or associated with an academic institution. Led by the Theatre Intime at Princeton University, the state’s colleges increased the number of theater courses and workshops available and elevated the quality of dramatic training. “Little theaters’’ in Newark and New Brunswick presented sophisticated, thoughtful works by Eugene O’Neill, Lillian Hellman, and Clifford Odets. Derailed by the Depression, many commercial theaters for both movies and plays closed down, though the local theater scene soon received an infusion of life from the New Deal’s Federal Theater Project. There were five counties in New Jersey that established Project-funded theater companies: Essex, Bergen, Hudson, Camden, and Monmouth. These companies traveled throughout the state, performing classic or experimental works for little or no admission charge. Though short-lived—and mired in controversies regarding the “political’’ nature of some of the Project-sponsored plays—the experiment continued to build on the foundation of the “little theater’’ and helped spawn the development of first-class regional theaters still in operation today. Since the end of the Second World War, New Jersey has been home to some of the most widely respected theater companies in the nation, and far too many regional theater companies to list. Some notables include the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, founded in  and incorporated in  as a professional performing arts center. Playing to more than two hundred thousand patrons a year, it presents a mix of classics (Thornton Wilder’s Our Town had its premier there in ), concerts, and world-class musical theater and ballet. The Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn was established in  (with the

active support of Eleanor Roosevelt) and became the “official state theater’’ in . Its stage has seen the talents of Helen Hayes, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Jerome Hines, and a countless number of A-list performers. The Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey, a permanent company in residence at Drew University in Madison, offers a mix of public performance and professional training programs, and has become one of the most respected repertory Shakespeare companies in the United States. Other critically acclaimed troops include the New Jersey Repertory Company of Long Branch, African Globe Theater Works of Newark, and Montclair’s Luna Stage. Murrin, Mary R., and Hildreth York. The Arts and Entertainment in New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Newberry, Lida, ed. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. Revised ed. New York: Hastings House, .

James F. Broderick Professional Theaters in New Jersey African Globe Theatre Works, Newark Bickford Theatre, Morris Museum Cape May Stage, Cape May Celtic Theatre Company, Seton Hall University Centenary Stage Company, Centenary College Crossroads Theatre, New Brunswick Dreamcatcher Repertory Theatre, Bloomfield College East Lynne Theatre Company, Cape May Forum Theatre Company, Metuchen Foundation Theatre, Burlington County College George Street Playhouse, New Brunswick Growing Stage Theatre, Netcong Luna Stage Company, Montclair McCarter Theatre, Princeton New Jersey Repertory Company, Long Branch Palistage, Tenafly Paper Mill Playhouse, Millburn Passage Theatre Company, Trenton Playwrights Theatre of New Jersey, Madison Pushcart Players, Verona Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey, Madison Surflight Theatre, Beach Haven TheatreFest, Upper Montclair Theatre Project, Union County College Tri-State Actors Theater, Hamburg  Miles West Theatre Company, Montclair Two River Theatre Company, Manasquan What Exit? Theatre Company, Maplewood Women’s Theater Company, Madison S: New Jersey Theatre Alliance,  [brochure].

Maxine N. Lurie

theater architecture.

From tent theaters to town halls, and from basement blackbox theaters to multimillion-dollar arts complexes, New Jersey has boasted a wide range of venues throughout its theatrical history. Many of these theater buildings have disappeared through conversion or demolition,

801

others have been renovated to their former splendor, and, more recently, new ones have been constructed utilizing the most innovative, up-to-date technology. The history of theater architecture in New Jersey illustrates several significant patterns in nineteenth-century American theater history. Although situated between the theatrical centers of Philadelphia and New York, the strong puritanical bent of most residents prohibited the erection of a building designed specifically for professional theatrical performance until , when Concert Hall was opened in Newark. Prior to this date, traveling companies of performers used spaces built for other purposes, such as Trenton’s City Hall (erected in ) as well as Newark’s Library Hall and Military Hall. By , however, transportation had improved significantly, allowing greater numbers of professional actors to move out of the theatrical centers along the East Coast and onto “the road,’’ including New Jersey. If cities and towns wanted entertainment, theater buildings were needed to accommodate these performances. During the latter half of the nineteenth century, there was a slow but discernible rise in the building of theater spaces in New Jersey, which were homes to local stock companies and touring stars. The history of almost every town of any size in New Jersey includes a theater building or opera house where people could see comedies and dramas performed by professional actors. One of the most significant theater buildings in New Jersey is Newark’s Concert Hall. In addition to being the first theater built expressly for entertainment purposes, it was also the first public hall in Newark to be lighted by gas. At first the stage and auditorium were on the second floor, but as its importance rose as a theatrical enterprise, it was eventually enlarged and the auditorium placed at street level. As did most theaters in the major cities, Concert Hall underwent various name alterations as the management changed, eventually becoming Waldman’s Opera House. Trenton’s  Taylor Opera House, like many other venues at the time, was given the name opera house rather than theater. Although it was originally conceived as having a twelve-foot-wide stage appropriate only for lectures and concerts, architect Henry E. Finch designed a thirty-two-foot-wide stage, telling the directors that he had misunderstood their orders. Built at a cost of $,, the plush and gilt structure was praised for its modern construction, spacious auditorium, and ample stage equipment. For a generation it was home to the finest in dramatic performances available within the country. Within twenty years the population of Trenton had grown to the point that Taylor Opera House had to be enlarged by raising the roof to accommodate a second gallery. It was eventually remodeled again to become Keith’s Capitol Theatre.

802

Thom, James Crawford

While the road was still a vital part of American theater, New Jersey became important as a try-out center. Broadway’s leading producers looked to Atlantic City, and the city responded by building theaters for their use. The Apollo Theatre on New York Avenue became the top legitimate theater in the city. Originally the Academy of Music, it was erected to house an equestrian show but remodeled into a theater in . After two major fires, it was rebuilt of brick in  as a preBroadway house, but by  it was converted into a movie theater. The Empire Theatre, built in  on Atlantic Avenue, may have the distinction of being the first air-conditioned theater in the country. The cooling system was fed by a central plant with underground pipes carrying a refrigerant; however, the Atlantic City Cooling Company could not entice enough customers and soon went out of business. Like the other major theater centers in New Jersey, Atlantic City began to reflect the changes in entertainment that emerged at the turn of the century. Vaudeville and burlesque were replacing dramas as popular theatrical fare; this necessitated the building of more theaters or the conversion of existing theaters to these types of performance. The Steel Pier and the Million Dollar Pier had several performance spaces for a variety of entertainment choices. In addition to several Newark theaters that changed their programming to vaudeville and burlesque, Symphony Hall (originally known as Salaam Temple or the Mosque when built in ) became a showcase for vaudeville. Highly ornate, the architecture reflected an eclectic mix of styles including Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and art nouveau, as well as seating for , and a seventy-foot stage. Jersey City could boast of two impressive theater buildings whose history reflected the changing theatrical scene: the Stanley Theatre and the Majestic Theatre. The Majestic Theatre, opened in , had a neoclassical style exterior, while the interior had three levels of seating totaling ,. The stage had a proscenium thirty-five feet high by thirty-six feet wide and was forty-one feet deep; there were eight dressing rooms stage left. Although built to stage drama and musical comedy, the fare changed to vaudeville, burlesque, and eventually to movies. The theater was closed in . The Stanley Theatre was built in  and noted for the architectural trend in theaters of devoting immense areas to public spaces by employing broad staircases and largescale, richly decorated foyers. Both the men’s smoking room and the performers’ dressing rooms used mosaic tile in pictorial patterns, and the dressing rooms boasted the latest amenities. The most unique feature of the theater was the auditorium; the interior sides were built to resemble the fac¸ades of buildings, while behind them and extending across the ceiling was a vaulted arch giving a sky

effect, based on the cyclorama, that provided unique opportunities for lighting effects. (This theater has been renovated and currently is home to a Jehovah’s Witness center.) In the s and s live theater could not compete with a new and highly successful form of entertainment: film. Consequently, the fate of many theaters in New Jersey was conversion to movie houses or other nontheatrical purposes. By the s, however, the converted theaters and movie palaces of the earlier era were themselves being supplanted by the suburban multiplex movie theaters, and many architectural gems were once again becoming homes to live theater. Spearheaded by the man for whom the theater was named, the John Harms Center for the Arts in Englewood opened in  in the newly renovated Plaza, a  art deco vaudeville and movie house. New Brunswick’s State Theatre, originally built as a vaudeville theater in , was reclaimed in  from its decline into an adult-film venue by the New Brunswick Cultural Center. As urban renewal programs were designed and undertaken in the s and s, large civic arts centers were created throughout the state as sites for bringing cultural programming to large segments of New Jersey’s population. Among those arts centers were the PNC Bank Arts Center (formerly the Garden State Arts Center) in Holmdel and Camden’s South Jersey Performing Arts Center currently housed in the city’s Tweeter Center. The crown jewel in the state’s art centers, however, is indisputably Newark’s New Jersey Performing Arts Center, which opened in fall . NJPAC boasts two state-of-the-art performance spaces (the -seat Victoria Theatre and the ,-seat Prudential Hall), which justify its claim to be “the last great performing arts center to open in the twentieth century.’’ Davis, Ed. Atlantic City Diary: A Century of Memories, –. McKee City: Atlantic Sunrise Publishing Company with the Siracusa Real Estate and Insurance Company, . Federal Writers’ Project. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. . Reprint. St. Clair Shores, MI: Scholarly Press, . Moore, Lester L. Outside Broadway: A History of the Professional Theater in Newark, New Jersey. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, .

See also architecture

Jane T. Peterson

Thom, James Crawford

(b. Mar. ,

; d. Feb. , ). Painter. James Crawford

Thom was born in New York City, the son of the sculptor James Thom. He studied at the National Academy in . In  he `re went to France to study with Corot and Fre in Ecouen. From  to  he worked in England, often exhibiting at the Royal Academy. His landscapes showed the influence of the second-generation Hudson River school painters. His genre paintings, such as Feeding the Ducks and Circus Scene, often depicted children. From  on he lived in Old

Bridge, New Jersey. He died of pneumonia in Atlantic Highlands. Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Who Was Who in American Art, –: Four Hundred Years of Artists in America. Madison, CT: Sound View Press, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Thomas, J. Parnell d. Nov. , ).

(b. Jan. , ;

Businessman and member of Congress. John Parnell Thomas was born in Jersey City, the son of police commissioner John Parnell Feeney and Georgianna Thomas. After his father’s death in , Thomas and his family moved to Allendale, Bergen County. He graduated from Allendale High School and studied at the University of Pennsylvania and New York University Law School. Service overseas in the U.S. Army followed; he attained the rank of captain before leaving the military in . After the war he assumed his mother’s birth name. Thomas married Amelia Wilson Stiles in ; the couple had two sons. Thomas joined the Wall Street firm of Paine Webber as a bond salesman, became manager of its bond operations, and remained with the firm until . He was elected mayor of Allendale (–) and state assemblyman (–), and was very active in the Bergen County Republican organization. In  he was elected to a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey’s Seventh Congressional District. From the outset Thomas was a harsh and vocal opponent of “New Dealism,’’ which he linked with Nazism, fascism, and communism as ideological enemies of freedom. He was also outspoken in his pro-business, anti-labor political stance. He was a firm believer in the Republican theme that there should be less politics in business but more business in politics, and claimed that there were close ties between leaders of the U.S. labor movement and the Communist party. In  Thomas was appointed to the House Committee to Investigate Un-American Activities, headed by Democrat Martin Dies of Texas. Thomas was especially critical of New Deal programs that subsidized purported “leftwing’’ writers and actors. His conservative approach did him little damage among his constituents: he was reelected to the House of Representatives six times. As senior Republican on the renamed House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), Thomas became its chair when the GOP secured control of the House after the  elections. (Joining him on the committee at this time was future president Richard M. Nixon.) Thomas saw HUAC’s mission as rooting out communism from American society “through exposure, education and prosecution.’’ He used his position to launch an aggressive campaign against alleged communist influence in the American labor movement and in the movie industry.

369th Infantry Regiment Committee hearings received national attention and led to congressional contempt citations (and ultimately prison terms) against the “Hollywood Ten,’’ a group of producers, directors, and writers. The chair’s heavy-handed style earned him the enmity of the liberal media, as well as criticism from the Truman administration. In  HUAC conducted its famous investigation into the activities of Alger Hiss, a high-level State Department officer accused of being a communist subversive. Columnist Drew Pearson launched a counterattack that same year, examining and publicizing the congressman’s payroll practices. Pearson’s newspaper articles spurred a federal investigation of Thomas which, in spite of the latter’s reelection, resulted in his indictment in November  on payroll-padding charges. During the trial in December , Thomas pleaded no contest, resigned from Congress in January , was fined, and served a short term in federal prison. In , Thomas made an unsuccessful attempt to regain his House seat. He then retired to Florida, where he died in . Carr, Robert K. The House Committee on Un-American Activities, –. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . DAB.

Richard J. Connors

Thomas A. Edison Memorial Tower. Located in Menlo Park (Edison Township), a -foot memorial tower marks the site where Thomas Edison conducted experiments that resulted in the invention of the

electric light. A temporary monument, little more than a steel-beam tower crowned with a large working light bulb, was constructed in . In , the permanent tower was completed. This art deco tower is, like its predecessor, topped by a large model of a light bulb, measuring fourteen feet high and nine feet in diameter. The tower was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in . Next to the tower is the Menlo Park Museum, which exhibits various inventions of Thomas A. Edison.

Mark McGarrity

Thomas Edison State College.

Established in , Thomas Edison State College increased higher education opportunities in New Jersey for adults returning to college. It began as an educational experiment within the state Department of Education, progressed to become a separate institutional entity, earning accreditation in , and eventually gained full autonomy as a state college in . During the s, raising public awareness of Thomas Edison State College was a top priority. In the s, the explosion in computer technology helped the college to grow by increasing its on-line course options. To facilitate adult learning, the college offers several paths to gaining college credit toward a degree. For example, previously earned college credits and credits by examination are accepted. In addition, the college offers a portfolio assessment program that evaluates experiential learning for college credit. The core of the college’s mission is to create new ways to bring college level-learning and degree programs to adults for whom the traditional college setting might not be suitable. The college is headquartered in Trenton and serves students around the state.

Collins, Gerri. Thomas Edison State College: A “New Tradition’’ in Higher Education, the First Twenty-five Years, –. Trenton: Thomas Edison State College, .

See also higher education

Tracy L. Smith

Thomas

Postcard depicting the Thomas A. Edison Memorial Tower in Menlo Park.

From Greetings from New Jersey: A Postcard Tour of the Garden State by Helen-Chantal Pike. Courtesy Helen-Chantal Pike.

J.

Lipton

Company.

Thomas J. Lipton, an Irish immigrant, created the Lipton brand of tea in . Seeking new products for the three hundred food stores he had established in the United States, Lipton initiated the idea of selling tea in packets, at first by the pound, half pound, and quarter pound and, later, in submersible, single-portion packets. In , shares of the Thomas J. Lipton Company, a food and tea business, were sold to the public. In , the company established its headquarters and a tea packaging plant in Hoboken. Unilever, a multinational corporation based in London and the Netherlands, purchased the Thomas J. Lipton Company in . Today, producing tea and other food products, Lipton is a part of the Unilever Bestfoods subsidiary of Unilever.

803

Unilever Bestfoods is headquartered in Englewood Cliffs, and employs approximately , people. Fucini, Joseph J., and Suzy Fucini. Entrepreneurs: The Men and Women Behind Famous Brand Names and How They Made It. Boston: G. K. Hall, .

Elaine L. Schwartz

“thorough and efficient’’ clause. This state education requirement dates to , when the following sentence was added to the New Jersey constitution: “The Legislature shall provide for the maintenance and support of a thorough and efficient system of free public schools for the instruction of all the children in the State between the ages of five and eighteen years.’’ This provision is now incorporated in article  of the  constitution. The meaning of the thorough and efficient clause has been the subject of litigation in the New Jersey court system since . The initial construction of this clause was based primarily on equality. Over the next century the court’s interpretation did not require the legislature to provide the same means of instruction for every child in the state. The proposition adopted by the New Jersey Supreme Court was that the constitution required a certain level of education that all students must attain. This became the only equality required by the constitution. The culmination of a century of confrontation was the passage of an education act in  that defined thorough and efficient education on a statewide basis. This definition consists of ten separate indicators to be utilized by the commissioner of education in evaluating core-curriculum content standards for local districts. They must be reviewed by the state board of education every five years. The act provides that “the standards shall insure that all children are provided the educational opportunity needed to equip them for the role of citizen and labor market competitor in the contemporary setting.’’ The act also requires the executive branch to issue a report on the cost and to set efficiency standards. These standards and the per-pupil costs associated with them were developed by the legislature in response to the Abbott v. Burke decisions (–). The method of funding a thorough and efficient education, particularly in poor urban districts, remains an extremely volatile issue. See also Abbott v. Burke; education; Robinson v. Cahill

Peter F. Bariso, Jr.

369th Infantry Regiment.

Black men from New Jersey fought bravely during World War I as members of Harlem’s th Regiment. Despite open hostility from white soldiers and the indifference of army officials, the black troops of the th consistently performed with ingenuity, courage, and grit. Trenton’s Needham Roberts and Newark’s

804

Tice, George A.

William Layton, recipients of France’s Croix de Guerre, exemplified the spirit of this celebrated corp. Because of their fortitude and savvy, the men of the th were the first Allied troops to reach the Rhine. New Jersey’s African Americans were part of a group decorated by the French and acclaimed as the “Hell Fighters’’ by the Germans. Barbeau, Arthur E., and Henri Florette. The Unknown Soldiers: Black American Troops in World War I. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, . Scott, Emmett J. Scott’s Official History of the American Negro in the World War. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, .

See also World War I

George White, Jr.

Tice, George A.

(b. Oct. , ).

Photographer. A descendant of Peter Tyson (Monmouth County landowner, ), George Tice is renowned for his urban landscapes of New Jersey. He is also a master printer

(as workshop teacher, he helped revive the platinum and palladium print processes). Tice has printed numerous portfolios of both his own work and other photographic masters. His twelve books include Paterson (Grand Prix du Festival d’Arles, ). A Guggenheim, National Endowment for the Arts, and Bradford (England) fellow, Tice has exhibited widely; his works are in the collections of the New Jersey State Museum, Museum of Modern `que Nationale, Art (New York), and Bibliothe Paris. Tice, George. Paterson. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Photographs, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Urban Landscapes: A New Jersey Portrait. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. Urban Romantic: The Photographs of George Tice. Boston: David Godine, .

See also photography

Gary D. Saretzky

ticks. Ticks are not insects but Arachnids, a group that includes spiders and mites. Ticks are external parasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles. New Jersey species have a three-host life history linked to the three growth stages: larva, nymph, and adult. Eggs hatch into six-legged larvae, or “seed ticks,’’ which must find a vertebrate to obtain blood. Potential hosts release carbon dioxide and heat that stimulates “questing’’ behavior. Questing ticks crawl up low-lying vegetation, where they perch with their front legs extended to attach to passing hosts. The larval tick embeds its barbed mouthparts and begins feeding. Several days later the larva drops off engorged with blood, and soon molts to the eight-legged nymph. The nymph in turn finds and reattaches to a fresh host, engorges, and drops off to molt to the adult stage. After obtaining a blood meal from a third host, the adult female drops off to lay her eggs. The life cycle takes about two years to complete. Until the s, ticks in the Northeast tended to be regarded as merely annoying; today they outrank even mosquitoes as disseminators of disease. Ticks in New Jersey transmit Lyme disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, ehrlichiosis, and babesiosis. Nearly twentyfive hundred cases of Lyme disease alone were reported in the state in . Three ticks are responsible here: the black-legged or deer tick, the American dog or wood tick, and the lone star tick (easily identified by a conspicuous white spot). The greatest risk of bites is in May and June when populations peak and the nymphs are most active. Avoid tick habitat (e.g., tall grass, dense underbrush), wear light-colored clothing so ticks can be easily seen, and use repellants to reduce risk. Attached ticks should be immediately removed by grasping them as close to the skin as possible with tweezers. See also Lyme disease Randy Gaugler

George Tice, Car for Sale, Paterson, New Jersey, April, . Gelatin silver print,  ×  in.

Courtesy George Tice, Ariel Meyerowitz Gallery, New York.

tidelands. Tidelands, also known as riparian lands, are lands currently or formerly covered at high tide by a natural waterway. They may include land that has been filled in. New Jersey has , miles of shoreline, so these landholdings are extensive. Ownership of tidal lands was resolved by two early court decisions, one in  in New Jersey, Arnold v. Mundy, and one in the U.S. Supreme Court in , Martin v. Waddell. Both courts held that the state, and not the New Jersey Board of Proprietors, succeeded to the king’s title to New Jersey’s tidal lands after the American Revolution. New Jersey regulates waterways and the land adjacent to them under a variety of laws. The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) applies rules promulgated under these laws to determine what may or may not be built along the shoreline. In

tilefish accordance with the Tidelands Act of , the state must give permission to use riparian lands unless these lands have already been sold into private ownership. For example, expansion of existing waterfront businesses or establishment of new businesses may require acquisition of a tidelands conveyance from the state. A tidelands conveyance takes the form of a tidelands grant, license, or lease. Owners of land adjacent to tidelands have the right to be the first to request to use those areas. This provision is known as riparian rights. In all cases, if a tidelands conveyance is issued to an individual, the individual receiving the conveyance is assessed a fee for the approved use of state-owned lands. A tidelands grant is a deed from the state selling its tidelands. Tidelands grants are generally only issued for lands already filled in and no longer flowed by the tides. Tidelands licenses are short-term revocable rental agreements to use tidelands, generally for structures such as docks, mooring piles, and other temporary structures, as well as for dredging projects. Licenses have a specific term, usually seven years. Tidelands leases are long-term rental agreements to use tidelands, generally issued to marinas or homes over the water. The term of a tidelands lease is generally twenty years or longer. New Jersey is under no obligation to sell or rent its tidelands. The New Jersey Tidelands Resource Council must find that any sale or rental is in the public interest, and then make a determination as to the cost. The council consists of twelve members appointed by the governor. All of the decisions of the council must be approved by the commissioner of the Department of Environmental Protection. Tidelands grants must be approved and signed by the attorney general and the governor. The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection must be contacted to determine if a particular property is affected by a tidelands claim of ownership or if it already has a tidelands grant, lease, or license. Information necessary for the DEP to make a determination includes the legal name of the property owner or owners, the tax lot and block numbers of the property, and a copy of a property survey. Tidelands maps are also available for review at municipal and county clerk’s offices. These maps can be used to determine if a property is affected by a tidelands claim; however, these maps will not allow you to determine if the state has issued a tidelands conveyance for the property.

governor with the approval of the senate, and within the Department of Environmental Protection, the Tidelands Resource Council oversees the sale or lease of land that is or once was naturally tidal flowed, which is now considered public trust land. First established in  as the Board of Riparian Commissioners, it has been successively known as the Board of Commerce and Navigation (), the Planning and Development Council (), the Resource Development Council (), the Natural Resource Council (), and, since , the Tidelands Resource Council. In  and in –, the council published a total of , aerial photographic maps depicting the state’s tidelands title claims. The council has since processed hundreds of applications to clear these “clouds’’ on title. Owners of marinas, docks, or piers on tidal waterways in New Jersey must have deeds or leases from the council. The money collected, often over $ million a year, is for the benefit of the Fund for the Support of Free Public Schools. See also public trust doctrine

William E. Andersen and Jo Ann Cubberley

Tiffany and Company.

Tiffany and Company is a New York City jewelry and silver retailer with silver manufacturing divisions in Newark and Parsippany. The name Tiffany and Company is so indelibly associated with New York City that not many people know that it has a significant Newark connection. Founded in  by Charles L. Tiffany and John B. Young as Tiffany and Young, it adopted the Tiffany and Company name in . At that time, it offered sterling silver and silver-plated items made in New York workshops by independent silversmiths. In , soon after purchasing the silver shop of Edward C. Moore, Charles Tiffany went into partnership with Thomas Shaw, who specialized in electroplating. Initially, this

venture functioned independently of Tiffany and Company itself. Somewhat later C. C. Adams joined this company, and it was renamed Adams, Shaw, and Company. In , the business moved to the corner of Park Street and Mulberry in Newark. When Adams left in , the name became Thomas Shaw Silversmiths. By , the company had become part of Tiffany and Company. In , the electroplate works moved to a new facility in the Forest Hills section of Newark, followed later by the silver shop and the stationery department. Production of electroplated wares ceased in . In the late s and early s the Newark shop produced a line of silver and gold bracelets of modern design intended to compete in the New York City market. The silverware division relocated to Parsippany in . Carpenter, Charles, and Mary Grace. Tiffany Silver. New York: Dodd, Mead, . Purtell, Joseph. The Tiffany Touch. New York: Random House, . Venable, Charles L. Silver in America, –: A Century of Splendor. Dallas: Dallas Museum of Art, .

See also decorative arts; jewelry industry; silversmithing

Janet Zapata

tilefish.

Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps is a relatively abundant benthic species inhabiting the outer continental shelf from Nova Scotia to South America. Preferring cool water, tilefish are most frequently found at depths between  and  fathoms occupying submarine canyons, including the Hudson Canyon, located off New Jersey. They burrow in sedimentary substrate, building mounds that provide habitat for other fish, and consume crustaceans and invertebrates. A reasonably slow-growing and long-lived species, they mature at five to seven years of age and may reach weights of about fifty pounds, although they

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. New Jersey’s Tidelands: Frequently Asked Questions and Answers. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Tidelands Management, .

See also coast

John A. Tiedemann

Tidelands Resource Council.

A twelve-member board appointed by the

805

Tiffany and Company’s factory on a  postcard.

Courtesy New Jersey Historical Society, Newark.

806

Tillotson, Mary E.

are usually marketed at four to eight pounds. A predorsal adipose flap is characteristic of the species and is larger in males. Piehler, Glen R. Exit Here for Fish! Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishes; fishing, saltwater

Sue Bennett Canale

Tillotson, Mary E.

(b. ; d. date un-

known). Dress reformer. Mary Tillotson, who

lived in Vineland, was a crusading advocate of reformed dress—a short dress and trousers (bloomers) instead of the long skirts, heavy petticoats, and tightly laced corsets worn by fashionable nineteenth-century ladies. In many articles and pamphlets, she counseled women to resist fashion as part of their “rising candidacy for self hood.’’ Her reform crusade flourished before the Civil War, but was less popular in the conservative climate of the Reconstruction Era, and when she left the tolerant community of Vineland to speak to women, she was often harassed and ridiculed. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Amy Kesselman

Timbuctoo. Famed as a stop along the Underground Railroad, this historic African American enclave in Westampton Township dates to around  and has also been known as Bucto and Bucktown. In the famous “Battle of Pine Swamp’’ of December , a party of slave catchers, led by a U.S. marshal, was driven off by armed residents. David Parker, an early leader of Timbuctoo, helped found Mount Olive African Methodist Episcopal Church in , which still stands. See also African Americans; Underground Railroad Jim Donnelly

Times, The. This daily newspaper was established in Trenton in  by Lawrence S. Mott. Begun as a four-page journal on October , , the newspaper was originally called the Trenton Times. The name of the city was removed from the newspaper’s masthead in  in recognition of its outreach to the surrounding suburbs. The Trenton Times originally was published from the printing office of Edward Fitzgeorge. Three years after the newspaper began, Mott left and Fitzgeorge assumed all responsibility for the newspaper. The paper survived despite a series of subsequent owners and a bankruptcy. James Kerney, Sr., acquired the newspaper in  and became something of a power broker in New Jersey. He initially opposed and then supported the candidacy of Princeton University president Woodrow Wilson for governor of New Jersey. The two eventually became friends and remained so while Wilson was president of the United

States. The newspaper purchased a Sunday paper in  and consolidated several smaller newspapers within it. When Kerney died in , he passed the leadership of the newspaper to his son James Kerney, Jr. The newspaper remained in the family until , when the Washington Post Company purchased the Times for $ million. It then sold the newspaper in  to Allbritton Communications, which in turn sold the newspaper to the Newhouse newspaper chain in . The newspaper was long regarded as one of New Jersey’s elite papers, considered a wellwritten, well-edited afternoon journal. The Trenton Times was the circulation leader in the Mercer County area for many years. When editorial workers went on strike against the Trenton Times in , they established the Trentonian. A flashy tabloid morning newspaper, the Trentonian slowly began to erode readership loyalty in Mercer County. Nationally, most midsize cities with competing dailies witnessed the demise of all but one newspaper after the s. Trenton bucked that trend, making it one of the few cities of its size in the United States still to have competing newspapers. The struggle for circulation between the two newspapers, which continued into the twenty-first century, was carefully tracked by media watchers and dubbed the Great Trenton Newspaper War by writers David Sachsman and Warren Sloat. The flashy Trentonian surpassed the Trenton Times in circulation in . Faced with the national trend of declining circulations for afternoon newspapers, the Times switched to morning editions and added two zoned editions to reach out to potential suburban readership. At the end of the twentieth century, the Times’s daily circulation hovered at ,, according to the Audit Bureau of Circulation, while the Sunday edition sold ,. Sachsman, David, and Warren Sloat. The Press and the Suburbs: The Daily Newspapers of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Center for Urban Policy Research, .

See also newspapers

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb

Tinton Falls.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. Europeans first settled Tinton Falls in the late seventeenth century. The community developed around a waterfall on Pine Brook, the largest on New Jersey’s Coastal Plain. Various industries took advantage of the waterpower the falls provided, including a gristmill and New Jersey’s first ironworks, established circa . The ironworks, which eventually formed the nucleus of wealthy Quaker Col. Lewis Morris’s extensive plantation, employed both enslaved African and free white workers. The slaves formed Monmouth County’s first African American community. Morris’s estate was known as Tinton Manor (from which the borough got its name). His nephew, also named Lewis Morris, inherited Tinton Manor and

served as governor of New Jersey from  to . During the nineteenth century, a sawmill and a cider mill were built beside the falls. A mineral spring located nearby was popular with travelers. In  the community split off from Shrewsbury Township and was incorporated as New Shrewsbury borough. The borough was renamed Tinton Falls in . Today, the community is largely residential. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Tinton Falls. Dover: Arcadia, . Know Your Town: New Shrewsbury. New Shrewsbury: League of Women Voters, .

Richard F. Veit

Tishcohan.

See Lappawinso and Tishco-

han.

Titusville.

See Hopewell Township (Mer-

cer County).

Tocks Island Dam.

Unlike many U.S. rivers, the Delaware River remained largely free of dams into the twentieth century. This was because of a  treaty between Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The treaty, protective of lumber rafting, contained an antidam provision. By the mid-s, however, the river and its tributaries were the focus of water supply studies by New York City, Philadelphia, and New Jersey. These studies led to  and  proposals for a three-state water compact. The failure of these compacts to be adopted resulted in the Delaware River Case in the U.S. Supreme Court. In , the Court granted New York City the right to build reservoirs to divert water from the Delaware River basin to the Hudson. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, New York City, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and others conducted new water supply studies between  and . Many of these studies proposed a large reservoir on the Delaware River, upstream from the Delaware Water Gap. Lack of agreement, however, led to an amended Supreme Court decree in  that granted New York City additional water. The decree also eliminated many various obstacles to a dam. A record flood in August  brought the federal government into the picture and Congress subsequently authorized the Tocks Island Dam Project in . Project purposes included water supply, flood control, hydropower, and recreation. Meanwhile, in  the Delaware River Basin Commission (DRBC), the long-sought-after interstate water agency, had been created to assist the corps. The Tocks Island reservoir project was to be located on the Delaware River six miles

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upstream from the Delaware Water Gap. The project was to be the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ eighth largest dam project and its largest project east of the Mississippi River. The Tocks proposal included a national recreation area (Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area) and a large pumpedstorage electrical generating station owned by power interests (Yards Creek Pumped Storage Project). The recreation area associated with the forty-mile-long reservoir was to be the busiest unit in the National Parks System. At first, Tocks Island Dam was largely unopposed. Local objections arose when the recreation area was authorized in , and later over the pumped storage project’s proposed destruction of Sunfish Pond in New Jersey’s Worthington State Forest. The dam project was held up due to geological problems and Vietnam War–related funding problems. These delays rendered the dam subject to the National Environmental Policy Act of . From  to  a number of environmental organizations fought the construction of Tocks Island Dam. This fierce opposition eventually eroded political support for the dam. In  DRBC, the project’s local sponsor, voted against dam construction—thus stopping it. Further impediment to the construction of the dam resulted in , when the river in the reservoir area was added to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. The dam project

itself was officially de-authorized by Congress in . Albert, Richard C. Damming the Delaware: The Rise and Fall of Tocks Island Dam. University Park: Penn State University Press, .

Richard C. Albert

Today’s Sunbeam.

This daily newspaper, which serves Salem County, was created in  through a consolidation of five weeklies. They included the Salem Sunbeam, founded in  and directed for the entire second half of the nineteenth century by Robert Gwynne, and the even more venerable Salem Standard and Jerseyman, started in . Today’s Sunbeam is one of a group of four dailies and forty weeklies that was acquired in  by Advance Publications from MediaNews Group, a Denverbased media chain that had held ownership since . Advance is the parent company of the Star-Ledger, the state’s largest newspaper. Today’s Sunbeam’s circulation of about , daily and Sunday is the smallest in the state after that of its sister paper, the Bridgeton News, in Cumberland County. See also newspapers

Edward A. Jardim

tomato. Although the stories about Robert Gibbon Johnson eating the first tomato in  on the courthouse steps of Salem are

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apocryphal, tomatoes were introduced into New Jersey at about this time. By the s tomatoes were grown extensively around large urban areas across the Delaware River from Philadelphia and across the Hudson River from New York. While New Jersey farmers continued to make profits selling fresh tomatoes in urban areas, the most phenomenal growth in demand was caused by the rise of the tomato canning industry. Harrison W. Crosby of Jamesburg is credited as the first to can tomatoes commercially in . During the Civil War, Union Army contracts stimulated the canning industry in New Jersey. After the war, tomato cultivation rapidly expanded in southern New Jersey to meet the needs for both the market and the canning industry. In  Joseph Campbell launched what would eventually become the Campbell Soup Company. Seven years later Campbell sold out to Arthur Dorrance. Dorrance’s nephew, John T. Dorrance, developed the formula to make condensed tomato soup, which became an important part of the company’s operation in about . As tomatoes became more important to the Campbell Soup Company, it established an agricultural research center in Cinnaminson. Its major creation was the “J.T.D.’’ tomato, whose name honored John T. Dorrance. It was popular for canning purposes because it ripened from the inside out. The major negative characteristic of the J.T.D. was that it was not particularly disease resistant. A new variety was developed by Campbell’s plant pathologists, who worked in cooperation with the New Jersey Agriculture Experiment Station at Rutgers University. Since its inception in , the New Jersey Agriculture Experiment Station worked continuously to improve tomato culture. Lyman G. Schermerhorn began a systematic investigation of tomatoes during the s. Building on the cross initially made by Campbell’s research staff, Schermerhorn developed a new tomato variety that was both disease resistant and good for canning. He called his new variety the Rutgers tomato, which was officially introduced in . Within a year, nine thousand acres of Rutgers tomatoes were planted, mainly for canning purposes. Subsequently, it was widely disseminated throughout the United States and the world. From  to  over one million pounds of certified Rutgers tomato seeds had been distributed. By , the Rutgers tomato represented  percent of all commercially grown tomatoes in the United States and was widely cultivated in other countries. Within two years, however, the Rutgers tomato was superseded in California by varieties that could be mechanically harvested. Although the Rutgers tomato remained an important variety in New Jersey, its days were numbered as California researchers assumed the leadership in the development of new varieties.

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Toms River

During the s, the tomato canning industry declined and all but disappeared in New Jersey. Today, tomatoes are again grown mainly for delivery to farmers’ markets in urban areas. Smith, Andrew F. Souper Tomatoes: The Story of America’s Favorite Food. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture, and Cookery. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, .

See also agriculture

Andrew F. Smith

Toms River.

See Dover Township.

Totowa.

-square-mile borough on the Passaic River, in southwestern Passaic County. Totowa was set off from portions of Wayne and Manchester townships in . In the early nineteenth century its landscape was predominantly agricultural. With the industrial growth of nearby Paterson, Totowa became a suburban residential area. Its bucolic environs also led to the construction of hotels and amusement parks. The post–World War II period saw a substantial housing boom. Routes  and  pass through the borough, which today is densely developed both residentially and commercially. Totowa is also home to several large cemeteries, including Laurel Grove Cemetery. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Clayton, W. Woodford, and William Nelson. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . History and Highlights of the Borough of Totowa, – . Totowa: Totowa Seventy-fifth Anniversary Committee, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

tourism.

Tourism is estimated to be the second leading industry by value for the state, following pharmaceuticals. In  employment in the industry was estimated at , people, total wages at $. billion. The industry generated $. billion in state tax revenue. Nearly  million trips were taken, including  million overnight visits. Overall, tourism was estimated to have generated over $ billion in income, making the industry a driving force in New Jersey’s economy. Although it may seem counterintuitive that the most urban and one of the most industrial states ranks high in tourism, New Jersey has important tourist assets. The state is within a day’s drive of anywhere in the megalopolis as well as more distant population centers. It has excellent transportation accessibility, including a major international airport in Newark. With a diversity of landscapes ranging from the ridges and valleys of the northwest to the wide beaches of the Jersey Shore, New Jersey has long attracted vacationers.

The back of the postcard reads: “Dear Lou: This is a very familiar scene on the boardwalk every evening. If you and Fred were here, no doubt you would be trying it too, because many indulge in this comfort who are not invalids by any means.’’ Asbury Park, .

Courtesy Pike Archives.

Today, tourists are drawn to attractions ranging from historic sites to ski trails and from cultural centers to casinos. Day-trippers also contribute significantly to tourism revenues. New Jersey tourism dates back to the end of the eighteenth century, when a hotel in Long Branch provided bathing houses on the beach. In the early years of the nineteenth century steamships brought tourists from New York to Long Branch and from Philadelphia to Cape May. Since then, much of the shoreline between these two resorts has been developed for vacationing, thanks in part to access from highways and the coastal railroad. Late in the twentieth century, however, cheap air travel contributed to the decline of most Shore resorts as tourists flew to distant Caribbean destinations. Inland, in the nineteenth century, railroads brought visitors to Greenwood and Cranberry Lakes and to Lake Hopatcong, where resorts developed. The scenic Delaware Water Gap was a popular destination a century before it was designated as a National Recreation Area in the s. Today, tourism in New Jersey is dominated by casino gambling in Atlantic City. Over eleven million people, or thirty percent of the overnight leisure visitors to the state, took casino trips in , representing approximately seventeen percent of the national overnight casino market. While Nevada has a higher share of overnight visitors, New Jersey, which has a greater share of day-trippers, relies less on air travel and is thus more resilient when the economy slows or concern rises over air travel security. Convention travel and the Miss America pageant also contribute to the city’s economy. The -mile-long New Jersey Shore generates nearly a quarter of the state’s tourism revenue. Beach replenishment, funded through

local, state, and federal programs, is consistent but controversial. Beach access fees charged by municipalities to cover maintenance costs are also regularly challenged in court. Recently, several New Jersey cities have constructed facilities with the hope of attracting more visitors. The New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, Liberty Science Center in Jersey City, and the State Aquarium in Camden have had varying success, but each has generated some economic redevelopment in its vicinity. In more rural areas of the state, farm tourism (including sheep shearing and hayrides) has enabled some farmers to survive financially. Skiing, golf holidays, Revolutionary War trails, and ecotourism also attract visitors to New Jersey.

Briavel Holcomb

Tourne Park. Tourne Park encompasses . acres of recreational open space in northern Morris County. The park opened in  after the Morris County Park Commission purchased an initial  acres from various sources in . Named for a Dutch word meaning “lookout’’ or “mountain,’’ the area provides picnicking areas and hiking trails. A ballfield, day-camp area, and wildflower trail were added by . In the mid-s the park survived a reservoir development proposal that would have flooded southern portions. The park represents the last undeveloped land of the Great Boonton Tract that colonial attorney general David Ogden bought in . David J. Vecchioli

Toys “R’’ Us. This firm, which sells toys and children’s products, was formed by Charles Lazarus in  as a baby furniture

transistor store in Washington, D.C. In , Lazarus originated the name Toys “R’’ Us and the concept of the discount toy supermarket when he opened a ,-square-foot toy store. Moving its home to New Jersey after it was acquired by retail conglomerate Interstate Stores in , Toys “R’’ Us, with Lazarus as its head, continued to grow. When Interstate Stores underwent bankruptcy reorganization in , Charles Lazarus became its CEO and the firm was renamed Toys “R’’ Us. Toys “R’’ Us has also opened Kids “R’’ Us discount children’s clothing stores and Babies “R’’ Us stores. With a  percent market share in , the firm experienced its peak year. During the s, its competition intensified when other superstores such as Wal-Mart began to carry toys. Today, as a leading retailer of children’s products, through its stores, catalogs, and the Internet, Toys “R’’ Us sells children’s toys, apparel, and baby needs throughout the United States and approximately twenty-five countries. Headquartered in Paramus, Toys “R’’ Us is one of the top twenty-five employers in New Jersey.

Elaine L. Schwartz

track and field. Scottish immigrants brought track and field to New Jersey, introducing their traditional events at the Caledonian Games, held in Newark in . Princeton University’s first track meet, held on June , , under the supervision of Caledonian Games champion George Goldie, included events such as the hammer throw, shot put, pole vault, and high and long jumps as well as running races. Princeton won the first track meet of the Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletes of America (precursor of the NCAA) in . A group of Princeton men went to the  Olympics in Athens and brought back six track-and-field medals; Robert Garrett won four of them, including gold in both shot put and discus. In a state with a significant Scottish heritage, track and field’s popularity quickly spread. New Jersey sport clubs contributed great athletes such as John Borican of Bridgeton, who ran for the Shore Athletic Club and dominated distances from the half-mile to the thousand meters from  to . Carl Lewis, sprinter and long jumper, grew up in Willingboro, where his parents taught high school and organized the Willingboro Track Club. Lewis won a record four gold medals in track and field at the  Los Angeles Olympics, and six more medals, five of them gold, in the Olympic Games of –. Redmond, Gerald. The Caledonian Games in Nineteenth-Century America. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, .

See also cross country; sports

Pamela Cooper

traffic circles. The test of a real New Jerseyan is how he or she negotiates that peculiar

New Jersey motoring challenge known as the traffic circle. Hated and reviled—generally by those who easily get flustered behind the wheel—traffic circles are combination carousel, bumper cars, and demolition derby. “Crash Corner’’ is the name locals give the traffic circle on Routes  and  under the Pulaski Skyway in Jersey City. The traffic circle, like the diner, was not born in New Jersey, but the Garden State boasts more circles—and diners—than any other. The first circle was the Airport Circle, at Route  in Pennsauken. At one time, there were a hundred circles in New Jersey: the Route  circle in Little Falls, the Green Street circle in Woodbridge, the Laurelton Circle in Brick, and the Routes  and  circle in North Brunswick were among the best known. One by one, though, the circles disappeared—signalized, straightened out, and turned into a shadow of their former merry-go-round selves. The state Department of Transportation decided that circles, which functioned well enough in the s and s, had, by the s, started to outlive their usefulness. Contrary to popular belief, there is no law in New Jersey regarding the right of way in circles, although the state has installed yield signs for incoming traffic at many of them. Even as New Jersey phases out its circles, other states and nations are embracing them. Roundabouts, smaller and more controlled versions of circles, are being built in California, Oregon, and Europe. In New Jersey, though, the traffic circle is going the way of the five-and-dime store and neighborhood movie theater. Federal Writers’ Project of the Works Progress Administration for the State of New Jersey. The WPA Guide to s New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Genovese, Peter. “Those Frights of Way Are on DOT Hit List.’’ Star-Ledger, July , .

See also highways

Peter Genovese

Training School for Girls. The Training School for Girls opened in Trenton on April , , as the State Industrial School for Girls, a reform school for girls between the ages of seven and sixteen. It was believed that exposure to poverty and poor parenting allowed these girls to turn wayward, and, as an alternative to jail, the training school educated the girls in home economics and provided basic school instruction and religious and moral training. Harriet F. Perry, the first matron, was assisted by six female managers. Seventeen girls were admitted the first year, and enrollment continued to grow well into the twentieth century. The trustees had rented Pine Grove, a house on the bank of the Delaware River within the Trenton city limits, to serve as the first school facility. An eighty-acre farm in Ewing Township was purchased in late , and construction of the new facility was completed

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in April . It opened immediately, with accommodations for forty girls. On March , , the institution’s name was changed to the State Home for Girls. The training school closed on November , , because of declining enrollment resulting from a greater emphasis on juvenile rights and the use of noncorrectional facilities for troubled adolescents. The campus now serves as the central offices of the state Department of Corrections. Frankel, Emil. Juvenile Delinquents in New Jersey State Institutions: A Statistical Review of Current Trends. Trenton: The Bureau of Social Research, .

See also prisons

Stacey C. Peeples

transistor.

The transistor is the preeminent symbol and core device of the modern information and communication age. It had its birth and early development in New Jersey, almost entirely at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill. It is today the principal device for the amplification of signals, and for their control and switching in computers and communications equipment. Earlier these functions were performed to a large extent by vacuum tubes, which depend on the release of electrons from hot filaments into empty space, requiring substantial bulk and energy. In contrast, transistor action takes place in solid materials and can be miniaturized, so it needs only extremely small amounts of space and energy. Transistor action consists of the modification and control of the electrical conduction properties of semiconducting materials (primarily silicon). This is done partly by the controlled addition of minute amounts of other elements, and partly by the manipulation (through applied voltages) of the electrons whose motion constitutes an electric current. Amplification by a transistor was first demonstrated in  by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, who worked at Bell Laboratories in a department headed by William Shockley. For this invention these three shared the Nobel Prize for physics in . The Bell Laboratories were set up to give technical support to the telephone system, but the mandate for research was interpreted broadly to include long-range projects whose practical value could often not be foreseen. This was made possible by the financial stability assured by the structure of the Bell system as a regulated monopoly, with the result that its laboratories were widely regarded as the leading institution for research in the physics of solid-state materials. The invention of the transistor, and its enormous impact, served to validate the policy of supporting pure research. The first transistors were large, clumsy, and difficult to reproduce reliably, but the same team that had made the original invention soon developed a second type that lent itself much better to mass production. In 

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transportation

the first transistor radio was made, and ten years after the initial invention the number of transistors manufactured per year reached  million. A third type (the field-effect transistor) was developed, again at Bell Labs, in . It is the simplest to manufacture, and made possible the miniaturization that led to the microchip that is at the heart of the modern computer. The subsequent advances in manufacture took place largely elsewhere, and the Bell Laboratories lost their leading position as innovators in the transistor field. By  the size of the typical transistor was less than a ten-thousandth of an inch and it cost less than a hundredth of a cent. Today a computer chip may contain tens of millions of transistors, and worldwide yearly sales of semiconductor devices amount to about $ billion. Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age. New York: W. W. Norton, .

Peter Lindenfeld

transportation. New Jersey’s location between the Hudson and Delaware Rivers— and between colonial America’s two greatest cities, New York and Philadelphia—has made transportation networks imperative throughout recorded history, from the first Native American trails to modern superhighways, railroads, airports, and seaports. Today, automobile traffic and highway widening are among the state’s worst problems.

Small sailing ships brought the first settlers and for many years provided major access to several southern New Jersey areas, where the fronts of houses still face streams. About ten colonial harbors were ports of entry. Small boats carried New Jersey farm products to New York and Philadelphia markets and brought back imported goods. Crude trails created by the Lenape ranged mostly in an east-west pattern toward the Atlantic Ocean. There the Lenape gathered shellfish for winter food. Shells were made into wampum. Some early colonial roads, particularly those to Morris County’s iron mines, were widened Lenape trails. Horses carried iron ore to the forges and furnaces; curved iron bars fit a horse’s back for the journey to markets. New Jersey’s earliest constructed passageway, the Old Mine Road, said to be the first improved long-distance road in North America, reputedly was built in the s to link a Dutchoperated copper mine in the Kittatinny Mountains near the Delaware Water Gap with Esopus (now Kingston), New York. The road, much widened, still exists. In , New Jersey adopted legislation requiring the “making and settling of highways, passages, landings, bridges, and ferries . . . fit and apt for traveling.’’ The expense was to be met by county taxes and by the labor of property owners. Roads were little more than rockstrewn dusty paths in summer and treacherous quagmires during spring rains. Travel was best in winter, when horse-drawn sleighs rode easily on frozen roads.

Clay Street Bridge, Newark, June , .

Courtesy North Jersey Electric Railway Historical Society, Rahway. Ira Deutsch Collection, Negative 533.

Before , ferries at Paulus Hook (Jersey City) and Cooper’s Ferry (Camden) provided the first earnest efforts to speed transportation across New Jersey. At about the same time, a ferry crossed the Raritan River at the Landing, about one mile west of today’s downtown New Brunswick. Until  a Philadelphia-to-New-York journey included a long ferry ride from Philadelphia to Burlington or Bordentown, a strenuous stagecoach ride to South Amboy, and a ferry trip to New York via the Arthur Kill. The trip took the better part of three days, with two overnight stops at taverns. Completion in  of a road across the Jersey Meadows from Elizabethtown to Paulus Hook shortened the trip. Routes were built in all directions, connecting main roads with plantations, farms, villages, and emerging towns. Wheaton J. Lane, foremost authority on New Jersey colonial travel, summed up the state’s role in his From Indian Trail to Iron Horse: “New Jersey enjoyed a greater amount of intercolonial travel than any other part of America.’’ In , Joseph Borden Jr. claimed his “stage boats’’ and “stage wagons’’ could link Philadelphia and New York in “ to  hours.’’ A year later he boasted that he could speed across the same route in twenty-four hours. A rival retorted that Borden’s boat was “frequently three tides upon the waters.’’ Long wooden bridges completed across the Hackensack, Passaic, and Raritan rivers in  eased travel. The Hackensack span ( feet) and the Passaic bridge ( feet) were impressive, but the largest was the Raritan River crossing ( feet) at New Brunswick. The new bridges cut three ferry waits from the cross-state trip. Turnpikes brought improvement in , although the state lagged far behind the nation in creating pay-as-you-go highways. New England had forty-eight turnpikes before New Jersey issued its first charter in , for the Morris Turnpike from Elizabethtown to Morristown. Turnpike builders could condemn property, take over existing highways, and charge tolls. Travelers had free passage on the way to work or church and could “shun the pikes’’ by taking a parallel road. The state legislature granted fifty-one franchises between  and , but only about half of the turnpikes were built. Charters called for solid roadbeds topped with crushed stone. Thomas Gordon noted in his  Gazetteer of the State of New Jersey: “We do not recollect to have seen, in any direction, five continuous miles of roads paved with stone.’’About five hundred miles of turnpike were built; some became twentiethcentury rights-of-way. The War of  cast badly built roads into sharp focus when heavily laden Conestoga wagons loaded with war material bogged down. More than any other American, John Stevens of Hoboken led New Jersey—and the nation—out of the quagmire. Stevens had been enamored of steam since he saw the steamboat that a Connecticut gunmaker, John

trap rock Fitch, launched in . Despite nearly three thousand accident-free miles of travel between Philadelphia and Trenton, Fitch went bankrupt in  and moved to Kentucky, where he committed suicide in . Stevens secured a patent for an improved engine and built a steamboat, the Juliana, in his Soho Works in Belleville in . It operated successfully in Hudson River ferry service, carrying as many as , passengers daily. Powerful New York interests secured a monopoly on Hudson River ferry service that drove the Juliana from the river in . Previously, in , the monopoly had forced Stevens to take his steamboat Phoenix to Philadelphia. It was the first steamboat to sail on the ocean waters. Stevens stepped into controversy regarding the virtues of canals versus railroads. He boldly proposed that steam railways, not muledrawn canalboats, were the answer. He wrote the first prorailroad pamphlet in , made the nation’s first railroad survey across New Jersey in , and a year later secured the first U.S. railroad charter. Eleven years later he built America’s first steam locomotive and ran it on a circular track on his Hoboken estate. Investors shied away; their interest had returned to canals. George P. Macculloch, a Morristown schoolteacher, conceived the Morris Canal in  while on a fishing trip to Lake Hopatcong. He envisioned a canal descending eastward to the tidewater at Jersey City and westward to Phillipsburg on the Delaware River. In  supporters quickly oversubscribed a $ million stock issue to build the Morris Canal. The canal rose and fell , feet in  miles from Newark to Phillipsburg, conquering New Jersey’s rugged western Highlands with an ingenious system of locks and inclined planes on which a canalboat was “cradled’’ and lifted from lock to lock. Importing coal for furnaces and hauling finished iron products eastward to markets, the canal spurred economic recovery in the depressed iron region. Far more traditional was the Delaware and Raritan Canal, chartered on February , , and completed in . The waterway had only fourteen locks between Bordentown, Trenton, and New Brunswick. It became a prime coal hauler, its tonnage often exceeding that of the Erie Canal, and it collected tolls until . The pendulum swung back to railroads after the early canal fever. John Stevens’s sons, Robert and Edwin, received New Jersey’s first railroad charter in  on the same day as the chartering of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. The two would compete in the same New Jersey corridor; as an omen, Camden and Amboy stock sold out within ten minutes; canal financing took a year. The first Camden and Amboy train, drawn by horses, ran from Bordentown to South Amboy in the spring of . The railroad’s storied locomotive, the John Bull, made its first run in September of the same year. In , though trains sped toward

Jersey City via an interchange at New Brunswick with the New Jersey Railroad, a journey from Philadelphia to New York then took seven hours. Railroads quickly spread across the state outward to suburban villages and on to Pennsylvania’s coalfields. Southern New Jersey railroading began in  when the Camden and Atlantic rolled from Camden to a “bathing village’’ called Atlantic City. Soon after, the West Jersey Railroad cut through the Pine Barrens to Cape May. By , New Jersey had twentytwo railroads operating on  miles of track. By  the state had the nation’s most intense system of interlinked railroads. Street railways, introduced in the s with horsedrawn cars, spread from town to town, bringing the first mass movement to suburbs immediately adjacent to New Jersey cities. Most lines were electrified in the s and were called trolleys after the cords that connected car motors to overhead electric lines. Trolley cars began to disappear in the s and by the end of World War II were almost completely gone. The major exception is the Newark Subway, which still operates. Railroads were crippled and trolleys were doomed by rubber tires and gasoline engines. The rubber-tired “safety bicycle’’introduced in the s enabled hundreds of thousands of cyclists to ride to work and spend weekends in bicycle-centered recreation. Bikers pressured the state legislature into spending $, to improve roads—the first state-sponsored road rebuilding program in the nation. This led directly to the founding of a State Highway Commission in , establishing the State Highway Department in , and the start of a major highway building program the same year. The Port of New York Authority (now the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey), the bistate agency established in  to facilitate transportation in the New York Harbor area, shifted emphasis from trains to automobiles, seaports, and airports. During the s it fostered a massive program of bridge building, topped by completion of the ,-footlong George Washington Bridge in . The Holland Tunnel, built with interstate funds and opened in , soon after became the property of the Port Authority. The Benjamin Franklin Bridge, finished in , encouraged development of southern New Jersey. Still, as the United States entered World War II, the railroads were strong. A continuing slow loss of passengers to motor vehicles and freight to over-the-road haulers picked up speed in the s. By the middle of the s, every major railroad in the state was bankrupt. Federal management—Conrail for freight, Amtrak for passengers—took over the lines. Huge old railroad facilities, in the Hackensack Meadowlands east of Newark, along the Hudson River, and within Camden, quickly became vacant properties. The former Central Railroad of New Jersey property in Jersey City became Liberty State Park.

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The state’s major port is really two facilities—Port Newark and Elizabethport— both under the jurisdiction of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Newark tax funds opened the first docks in . The authority gained control in , and in  it began construction of the thirty-seven piers in the Elizabethport facility, which is one of the world’s major shippers of container cargoes. Authority negotiations to obtain Port Newark, including control of Newark Airport, started in  with city backing. By the middle s Newark was the seventh busiest airport in the world. It now ranks close to the top in passengers handled in the New York–Newark area, and several major cargo lines fly in and out of the facility. More than seventy other smaller airports serve portions of the state. Although rapid transit lines have been built to join Newark with New York (PATH) and Camden County with Philadelphia (PATCO), railroads are only in the first stage of revival. Completion of a midtown New York line in the early s to serve the onetime Lackawanna Railroad territory has gained enthusiastic rider response. Today, highways are supreme. The mile-long Garden State Parkway, joined to the New York Thruway in , stretches within the state from Bergen County to Cape May. The New Jersey Turnpike, the first of the state’s toll roads, was finished in  across the state, from the George Washington Bridge to Salem County opposite Wilmington, Delaware. Extensions in  joined the New Jersey Turnpike to Hudson County and the Pennsylvania Turnpike. Even more firmly encouraging automobile traffic are the Interstate highways (Routes , , , , , and others), started in the s. In some cases they took more than twenty years to complete. The Interstates, the Parkway, and the Turnpike all quickly became overcrowded. Frequent widenings have served mainly to encourage increasing traffic to western and northern New Jersey. Today, every major highway is frequently stalled by excessive traffic, despite efforts to improve conditions by the use of E-Zpass, a system whereby automobiles do not have to come to a full stop to pay the toll, on toll roads. The congestion results from New Jersey’s dense population and its traditional role as a transportation corridor. Condit, Carl W. The Port of New York. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, . Cunningham, John T. Railroads in New Jersey. Andover: Afton Publishing, . Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse: Travel and Transportation in New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

John T. Cunningham

Transportation, Department of. See Department of Transportation.

trap rock. The trap rock is any of the dark, fine-grained igneous rocks such as basalt or

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diabase. Basalt is formed when magma erupts or flows over the surface and then cools. When magma spreads between two layers of rock below the surface and cools, it is called diabase. In New Jersey the trap rock is found in the Piedmont region or Newark Basin and is identified with the physiographic features of the Watchung, Cushetunk, and Sourland mountains and the Hudson Palisades. Trap rock gets its name from the Swedish word trappa, meaning “stairs’’ or “steps.’’ The stair-step appearance of igneous rocks is created by the abrupt termination of successive lava flows. Igneous rocks, because of their hardness, are used in construction as crushed stones or trap rock. Igneous rocks are favored for quarrying because these rocks develop vertical fractures upon cooling, therefore dislodging the stones is easier. Kelland, Frank S., and Marylin C. Kelland. New Jersey: Garden or Suburb?: A Geography of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendell/Hunt, .

See also geology

Harbans Singh

Traubel, Horace L.

(b. Dec. , ;

d. Sept. , ). Journalist and biographer. Born in Camden to Maurice Henry Traubel, a German immigrant, and Katherine Grunder, Horace L. Traubel left school at age twelve to work first as a newsboy and later as apprentice in a print shop. In , when Walt Whitman came to live in Camden, he befriended Traubel, eventually naming him one of his literary executors. Traubel pursued a career in poetry and journalism, both espousing his socialist views. He married Anne Montgomerie of Philadelphia in ; they had two children. Traubel is best known for editing Whitman’s writings and for recording Whitman’s conversations, With Walt Whitman in Camden, collected in three volumes (, , ). Folsom, Ed. Foreword to With Walt Whitman in Camden, by Horace Traubel, edited by Jeanne Chapman and Robert MacIsaac. Oregon House, CA: W. L. Bentley Rare Books, .

See also literature

Shirley J. Horner

travel accounts. Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano, who sailed up the Atlantic coast in , described what is believed to be the New Jersey shore in a letter to his employer, King Francis I of France. Seventeenth-century Dutch, English, and Swedish explorers and settlers, among ¨m them Robert Juet (), Peter Lindestro (–), Jasper Danckaerts (–), and Robert Morden (), recorded their vivid impressions of New Jersey’s geography, climate, and indigenous peoples. Nearly all praised the land for its fertility and regarded the natives as “gentle, tractable, and docible’’ (Thomas Yong, ) and “very loving’’ toward new settlers (John Crips, ). From  to the Revolutionary War, visitors such as

Peter Kalm (–), a Swede, and French`vecoeur (– man Michel-Guillaume Cre ) continued to detail natural phenomena and living conditions in New Jersey. Most accounts now included candid commentary regarding the character and lifestyle of the state’s European inhabitants. Clergymen like George Keith (), Samuel Bownas (), and Henry Muhlenberg (–) were especially concerned with religious orthodoxy and New Jerseyans’ sometimes slack practice of Christianity. Others made more general observations, variously describing Jerseyans as “good-natured, hospitable, and of a more liberal turn’’ (Andrew Burnaby, – ) or as “impertinent, every-Way troublesome Scoundrell[s]’’ (Philip Vickers Fithian, –). During the Revolutionary War, the people of New Jersey were generally depicted as among the most anti-British and Patriotic of colonials by friends (Captain Thomas Rodney, ; Massachusetts private Joseph Plumb Martin, ; Franc ¸ ois Jean, Marquis de Chastellux, ). An increasing number of foreign and domestic visitors passed through New Jersey in the following decades. Many, like Venezuelan patriot Francisco de Miranda (–), admired the happy disposition of the people and the general level of equality, while others, including Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte (), English travel writer Charles Joseph Latrobe (– ), and Swedish novelist Fredrika Bremer (), praised New Jerseyans for their honesty, industry, and sobriety. At least a few observers, however, noted their low level of culture (Santo Domingan musician Puech, s; actor and theatrical manager Sol Smith, ; American composer and pianist Louis Moreau Gottschalk, s). Although the state’s agriculture, natural features, town life, and recreation figure more prominently in travel literature from the mid-nineteenth century on (New Jersey resident Guy S. La Tourette, s; travel writer Joel Cook, , ; British officer Hector MacQuarrie, ), impressions of its people also proliferate. In The American Scene, novelist Henry James () was struck by the Jersey Shore’s brash nouveau riche, whose ostentatious villas were characterized by “extreme expensiveness.’’ Decades later, English journalist James Morris (– ) was more charitable: the altruistic civic life of the people of Cranbury, at least, defied “powerful influences in modern Americanism.’’ The inhabitants of the Pine Barrens, pejoratively called “Pine rats’’ in eighteenthand nineteenth-century accounts, were much maligned by Elizabeth S. Kite () but later vindicated by John McPhee (), Mary T. Hufford (), and John E. Pearce (). Coad, Oral S. New Jersey in Travelers’ Accounts, – : A Descriptive Bibliography. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . Newberry, Lida, ed. New Jersey: A Guide to Its Present and Past. Rev. ed. New York: Hastings House, .

Studley, Miriam V. Historic New Jersey through Visitors’ Eyes. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also proprietary tracts

˜a J. Fernando Pen

Treat, Mary Lua Adelia Davis (b. Sept. , ; d. Apr. , ). Entomologist, botanist, and early supporter of the theory of evolution. Living in an agricultural community in Vineland, Mary Treat authored eighty-one scientific and popular works, one of which, Injurious Insects of the Farm and Field (), was reprinted five times. Her most notable research concerned the anatomy and behavior of harvester ants. She also studied carnivorous plants in the Pine Barrens, important research that she shared with Charles Darwin, with whom she exchanged letters and discoveries. During the winters of –, Treat took boat trips on the St. Johns River in Florida, where she discovered a new species of amaryllis, named in her honor. Smith, Nancy. “Mary Treat.’’ New Jersey Audubon  (winter ): –. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

Lorraine Caruso and Terry Kohn

Treaty at Crosswicks.

Following a brief preliminary meeting at Crosswicks in January , commissioners from the provincial government of New Jersey met there on February – with representatives of the Native Americans still resident in the southern part of the colony. The Minisink and Pompton (Esopus) in the north met separately to discuss their claims. The natives invited to Crosswicks confirmed their titles to lands still held and relinquished all tracts previously sold. Most important for reconstructing Indian history in New Jersey is the listing of the individual natives by name, with the specific “band’’ or group that each represented. The names associated with the six groups noted in  differ from previous listings, reflecting mobility among the bands. Teedyuscung, whose band sold its lands and moved to Pennsylvania around , returned to make land claims at this treaty and to sign the final agreement. See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Treaty of Easton.

At the outbreak of major hostilities by the French and their Indian allies against the British in , the many native groups living in Pennsylvania and the Ohio territory were courted by both sides in the conflict. The Six Nations Iroquois supported the British, but many of their native allies living along the frontier often played both sides. On July –, , the colonists convened this treaty session at Easton, Pennsylvania, to gain information about the French and to cement relationships with

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these natives. Captain Newcastle of the Six Nations was the ranking native participant. Teedyuscung, a Lenape from southern New Jersey then living in northern Pennsylvania, used these events to claim to represent ten native nations as “King of the Delawares.’’ Although he represented only one band of his people, the meeting ended with gifts being given to him and his kin in an attempt to ensure their cooperation. Governor Francis Bernard of New Jersey and other officials agreed to attend a later treaty, also at Easton. This subsequent meeting, held in September , reconfirmed the terms of  and did not alter any of the previous land claims. See also American Indians

Marshall J. Becker

Trent House. William Trent, a Scots-born Philadelphia merchant, built his brick mansion between  and , and established the settlement of “Trent’s Town’’ around it. Over the next two hundred years, the house had several owners, including three governors of New Jersey, and was known at various times as Kingsbury Hall, Bloomsbury Court, and Woodlawn. A frame addition was added about . In  the city of Trenton acquired the house as a museum, restoring and furnishing it in the Georgian style. A major renovation of Trent House, completed in , added a visitors’ center in the carriage house. Trenton Historical Society. A History of Trenton, –.  vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . William Trent House. Trenton: Trent House Association, .

See also historic sites

Jon Blackwell

Trenton.

.-square-mile city in Mercer County; county seat; state capital of New Jersey. The site of present-day Trenton, at the navigable head of the Delaware River, was inhabited by the Sanhican tribe of the Lenape Indian nation as early as . In  a Quaker from England, Mahlon Stacy, established the first European settlement at “ye Falles of ye Delawarr’’ along the Assunpink Creek. This plantation was purchased in  by William Trent, a wealthy Philadelphia merchant, who subdivided it for smaller landowners. Trenton (“Trent’s Town’’) became a point where lumber and farm goods were floated downriver to be transferred to river sloops. The town benefited from its location about halfway between New York and Philadelphia, and from the decision in  to place the Hunterdon County Courthouse there. In  a ferry linked Trenton to Philadelphia, and by the s stagecoaches were running to New Brunswick, Perth Amboy, and New York. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, Trenton had about one hundred houses and several churches. It was one of three

The “Trenton Makes’’ bridge, which spans the Delaware River connecting Trenton and Morrisville, Pennsylvania.

Photo: Anne Demarais.

places, along with Philadelphia and Easton, Pennsylvania, where the Declaration of Independence was first read publicly, on July , . One of the war’s turning points took place in Trenton on December , : George Washington’s Continental Army crossed the ice-choked Delaware thirteen miles upriver, then routed the Hessian occupation forces of Col. Johann Rall in a surprise attack. A second battle was fought in Trenton seven days later. After American independence was won, Trenton hosted the Continental Congress for two months in , and funds were approved to establish the town as the U.S. capital. Although that never happened, the federal government again moved to Trenton briefly in  because of a yellow fever epidemic in the then-capital city of Philadelphia. More permanently, Trenton was designated capital of New Jersey in . The Statehouse—often cited as the second-oldest state capitol building in the United States, after Annapolis, Maryland—was erected in . However, most of the building, including its golden dome, dates from after an  fire. Trenton was incorporated as a city in . It was established as the seat of newly created Mercer County in . Trenton’s advantageous position on the Delaware brought several advances in transportation. In  inventor John Fitch inaugurated a steamboat line between Trenton and Philadelphia. The s saw completion of the Delaware and Raritan Canal and the Camden and Amboy Railroad, both linking Trenton to New York. A waterway known as the Water Power, now Sanhican Creek, gave rise to largescale industry. In , Peter Cooper established his Trenton Iron Company (which manufactured the wrought-iron beams holding up

the U.S. Capitol dome); the following year, John A. Roebling opened a mill to build wire rope for his suspension bridges. By the mid-nineteenth century Trenton was surging in population and growing in physical size, annexing the boroughs of South Trenton in , Lamberton in , and Chambersburg in . The city was a mustering point for most of New Jersey’s Union regiments during the Civil War, and manufactured rifles, ammunition, and Trenton Oyster Crackers as provisions for the troops. The Roebling family built the Brooklyn Bridge (–) and became Trenton’s most prominent captains of industry. The city also led the nation in pottery. It produced both sanitary ware and fine china, most famously the Lenox brand. Other notable industries in the city were rubber, cigars, watches, linoleum, and automobiles (the sporty – Mercer, named after Mercer County). The city’s productive energy inspired a slogan, “Trenton Makes, the World Takes,’’ which since  has adorned a bridge across the Delaware in large electric letters. Factory work helped draw an increasing foreign population, as immigrants from Italy, Hungary, Poland, and elsewhere began changing Trenton’s ethnic makeup between  and . Most lived around the Roebling plant in Chambersburg and South Trenton, or the rubber plants of North Trenton. Beginning in the s, a wave of African Americans from the South also arrived. Trenton’s economy weathered the Great Depression of the s, as the city managed to undertake a massive dredging project to accommodate oceangoing vessels at the Port of Trenton. World War II brought a surge in

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employment as the Trenton area produced Switlik parachutes, Roebling steel radio antennas and airplane wires, Delaval turbines, and the Grumman Avenger fighter plane. The city’s population peaked in  at ,. However, wartime growth could not arrest long-term urban decline. By the s homeowners were deserting the city’s aged rowhouses for the suburbs of Hamilton, Ewing, Princeton, and the new town of Levittown, Pennsylvania. Institutions, including many state offices, Trenton State College, and Rider College, followed the population beyond the city limits while the poor and unskilled remained behind. A  study by University of Pennsylvania urban planners warned that the city faced worsening slums, a diminishing tax base, and a “deserted’’ downtown. The predictions came true amid rising racial tensions. In , riots sparked by the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., killed one man, devastated the business district, and hastened “white flight.’’ Large manufacturers shut down or moved elsewhere, with the Roebling plant closing in . A wave of state building projects added sleek office towers to the downtown skyline, but failed to stem complaints of decay in many neighborhoods. The city has recently turned to tourism and entertainment to revitalize itself. A park for the minor-league baseball team Trenton Thunder was built in , and an arena was opened on the site of historic steel mills in . The largely residential city still has pockets of light industry, but state government dominates the economy. Trenton in the  census had a population of ,, making it the fifth-largest city and ninth-largest municipality in New

wounded, and nearly nine hundred captured. About five hundred managed to escape. The Americans reported none killed and only a few wounded. Washington recrossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania, but finding Trenton abandoned by the British later in the week, he crossed to New Jersey once again. On January , , Washington, having drawn most of British general Cornwallis’s army down from Princeton to Trenton, reengaged the British. The two armies fought until dark in what has been called the second Battle of Trenton. During the night Washington’s forces slipped away over back roads, and on the following morning (January ) fell on the British rear guard at the Battle of Princeton. In a campaign that lasted ten days, Washington’s victory helped revive the spirits of the Continental Army and the American people at a critical time in the war.

Jersey. For the first time, Trenton’s neighbor, Hamilton, surpassed it in population. Also for the first time, blacks formed the majority at  percent, with whites making up  percent, and Hispanics (Hispanics may be of any race)  percent. The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cumbler, John T. A Social History of Economic Decline: Business, Politics, and Work in Trenton. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Quigley, Mary Alice, and David E. Collier. A Capitol Place: The Story of Trenton. Trenton: Trenton Historical Society, Windsor Publications, .

Jon Blackwell

Trenton, Battles of.

The autumn of  was filled with setbacks for George Washington and the Continental Army. Driven out of New York City by the British, they had retreated across New Jersey to take refuge in Pennsylvania. Washington decided to counterattack by striking an exposed outpost in Trenton manned by a Hessian brigade of some , men under Col. Johann Gottlieb Rall. He successfully crossed his army of , men over the Delaware by : .. on December . He then divided his force into two wings, which marched through a sleet storm and reached Trenton from different sides of the town at almost exactly : .. The Hessians who fell out to meet the invaders were swept with deadly canister fire from the American artillery. Rall tried to rally his men, but he and his second-in-command were both mortally wounded. The rest of the Hessians, believing they were outnumbered, surrendered. They had lost some twenty-two killed, eighty-four

Dwyer, William M. The Day Is Ours ! An Inside View of the Battles of Trenton and Princeton, November – January . New York: Viking Press, . Lefkowitz, Arthur S. The Long Retreat: The Calamitous American Defense of New Jersey, . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stryker, William S. The Battles of Trenton and Princeton. . Reprint. Trenton: Old Barracks Association, .

See also American Revolution

Richard Patterson

Trenton gravel implements. First noted by pioneering archaeologist Charles Conrad Abbott in the s, these stone tools found in river gravels in and around Trenton became the focal point of a scientific controversy regarding the earliest human settlement of the New World. Based on superficial

BATTLES OF TRENTON

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Continental troops crossed the river and divided into two wings to march on Trenton. December 26, 1776

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A week later, Washington moved his army back into Trenton, drawing a British army down from Princeton. On January 2, 1777, the two armies battled until dark. During the night, the Americans slipped away over back roads toward Princeton. © Rutgers, The State University

Trenton Psychiatric Hospital similarities between his finds and artifacts unearthed in Europe, Abbott argued that human habitation in New Jersey dated to the Pleistocene era. Supported by Frederick Ward Putnam of Harvard University’s Peabody Museum, Abbott and his assistant, Ernest Volk, recovered large numbers of stone tools from sites in the Delaware Valley. Abbott published his discoveries in The Stone Age in New Jersey () and Primitive Industry (). William Henry Holmes, an archaeologist with the Smithsonian Institution, subsequently showed that Abbott’s “Trenton gravel implements’’ were in fact the byproducts of the manufacture of stone tools, not necessarily the tools themselves, and that they were much younger than Abbott had believed. Nonetheless, Abbott’s discoveries helped to kindle a debate about the earliest human presence in the Americas that continues to this day. See also American Indians

Richard F. Veit

Trentonian. This daily newspaper was founded in Trenton in  as a weekly paper by local businessman Sam Jacobs with $, in war bonds. At the time, the Trenton Times held a monopoly position as the only daily newspaper in the city. In , however, the International Typographic Union (ITU) went on strike against the Times, which responded by locking out the union printers. The ITU then bought the Trentonian from Jacobs and published it as a tabloid-size strike paper in direct competition with the Times. At its start, the Trentonian featured a liberal editorial page, promotional stunts, and bold, irreverent front-page headlines. From  to  the paper printed a humor column by Ernie Kovacs, who later went on to fame as a television comedian. In its early years, the Trentonian lost money and seemed fated for the same oblivion as most strike papers, but in  the paper was bought by Edmund Goodrich, a New York– based newspaper executive. Goodrich gave the paper a more respectable image and cultivated advertisers; by the early s the business was showing a profit for the first time. In  Goodrich sold the paper to Capital City Publishing, headed by Ralph Ingersoll. The paper grew in circulation to , by  and relocated in  to a larger printing plant a block away from the rival Times. F. Gilman Spencer, who served as editor from  to , brought a more inquisitive style of journalism to the Trentonian, along with breezy, lively news writing. In  he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for editorial writing for his campaign to call attention to corruption in state government. At the time, it was only the third Pulitzer Prize given to a New Jersey paper. The same year, the Washington Post Company’s acquisition of the Trenton Times plunged the Trentonian into heated competition. Under the new publisher, Edward L.

Hoffman, and Emil Slaboda, who succeeded Spencer as editor, the Trentonian launched a Sunday edition and played up its homegrown style. Washington Post owner Katharine Graham sold the Times in , calling the newspaper war “my Vietnam.’’ The Trentonian briefly surpassed the Times in circulation in  (, to ,), but then lost ground; its tabloid format was less suited to display advertising than the Times, and it failed to attract new readers in the growing suburbs. The Trentonian underwent a radical overhaul with the  arrival of publisher H. L. “Sandy’’ Schwartz III, who brought to it an irreverent, British-style tabloid journalism. The new Trentonian featured stories that emphasized sex and violence; a more stridently conservative editorial viewpoint; swimsuit models on page six; and sensational headlines (“Head Had AIDS’’ ran above a  story on a murder and decapitation). The new motto for the paper was “Love it. Hate it. Read it.’’ Readers responded, and circulation soared to a peak of , in . However, the Journal Register Company, which had owned the Trentonian since , reduced staff and raised the paper’s price from twenty-five to thirty-five cents. By  the Trentonian was in relative decline, with a circulation of just , compared to the Times’s circulation of ,. See also newspapers

Jon Blackwell

Trenton Iron Company. The Trenton Iron Company, incorporated by industrialist Peter Cooper around , once occupied over twenty acres of land along the Delaware River and was an integral part of one of the nation’s largest iron and steel manufacturing centers. The enterprise, which manufactured iron and wire rods, rope, and cables for bridges, elevators, and trolleys, contributed to several famous tramways, including one that traversed Chilkoot Pass in the Klondike. The company is also credited with rolling the first true I-beams manufactured in the United States. In the early twentieth century, the facility was absorbed by the American Steel and Wire Company, a division of U.S. Steel, and in  the plant closed. Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial History of a State. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, . Nevins, Allan. Abram S. Hewitt, with Some Account of Peter Cooper. New York: Harper and Brothers, . Shaw, Edmund. Peter Cooper and the Wrought Iron Beam. New York: Cooper Union School for Art and Architecture, .

See also iron industry

Diane Jones Sliney

Trenton Marsh/HamiltonTrenton Marsh. The Trenton Marsh/ Hamilton-Trenton Marsh is a ,-acre

815

tidal freshwater wetland between Trenton, Hamilton, and Bordentown. Part of the Abbot Farm National Landmark, it is a Lenape archeological site dating to between , ... and , ... In colonial times the marsh was used for agriculture; clay, sand, and gravel were mined for ceramics, bricks, and construction. During the Revolutionary War supply boats, now at the bottom of Crosswicks Creek, were scuttled to keep them from the British. The Delaware and Raritan Canal and Camden and Amboy Railroad, both of which pass through the marsh, were constructed in the s. Today the marsh, a valuable natural resource, provides important wetland functions and is home for more than one thousand plant and animal species. See also wetlands

Mary Allessio Leck

Trenton Psychiatric Hospital.

In the early s, the legislature resisted physician pressure for a state asylum for “pauper lunatics.’’ Dorothea Dix, a noted social reformer and Civil War nurse, traveled around the state to document the horrible conditions facing the mentally ill. Her report touched off heated debates in the state legislature and inevitably persuaded legislators to fund the New Jersey State Lunatic Asylum, which opened in . When Dix returned to New Jersey, following years of work in prison reform, education for the blind, and suitable care for the mentally ill, she spent her final years as a guest of the hospital. Superintendent Horace Buttolph believed that “moral’’ treatment in a well-run and properly planned asylum could cure both private and charity patients. An influx of patients from county poorhouses, asylums, and prisons quickly overwhelmed the institution. Many were chronically ill, requiring long-term asylum care. Despite periodic expansions, overcrowding and insufficient appropriations were constant problems. The name was changed to the New Jersey State Hospital at Trenton in . Henry Cotton, superintendent at the Trenton hospital from  until , abolished physical restraints, modernized record keeping, and improved staffing. He advocated active treatment of the insane, eagerly embracing innovations in therapy. Cotton ascribed to the controversal theory that focal infections in various areas such as the mouth, the throat, and the intestines were responsible for much chronic illness. He would later be severely criticized for undertaking dangerous operations, including abdominal surgery with high mortality rates, in an effort to “detoxify’’ the patients and improve their mental symptoms. In the mids, the hospital housed over four thousand patients. The renamed Trenton Psychiatric Hospital () now has about four hundred in-patients, mainly from central New Jersey. Current challenges include care of mentally ill substance abusers and individualized

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multidisciplinary patient care in the least restrictive setting attainable. Grob, Gerald N. The Mad among Us: A History of the Care of America’s Mentally Ill. New York: Free Press, . Herrmann, Frederick M. Dorothea L. Dix and the Politics of Institutional Reform. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, . Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also mental hospitals

Sandra Moss

Trenton Six. On January , , seventythree-year-old William Horner was robbed of $ and bludgeoned to death at his Trenton store. The police arrested six black men (Collis English, McKinley Forrest, Ralph Cooper, John McKenzie, James Thorpe, and Horace Wilson) and obtained their confessions to the killing. Despite discrepancies in witness accounts, all six were found guilty and sentenced to death in the electric chair. The legal arm of the U.S. Communist party, the Civil Rights Congress, launched an appeal and publicized the case in a pamphlet called “Lynching, Northern Style.’’ Widespread civil rights protests resulted. In  the New Jersey Supreme Court overturned the verdicts, citing jury error. In a  retrial, the Trenton Six were represented by charismatic labor attorney George Pellettieri and lawyers from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The defense argued that the confessions were false and made under duress. In a compromise verdict, the jurors acquitted four of the six; they found English and Cooper guilty, but recommended leniency. English died in prison in ; Cooper was paroled in . See also Civil Rights Congress Jon Blackwell

Trenton State Prison.

New Jersey’s first prison, modeled after the Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia, was built in . The three-story stone building was converted to a state arsenal in , a function it served for nearly a century until it became the administrator’s residence for the current prison. Problems created by confining adult males, women, and young offenders in one building (the “congregate’’ system) caused the New Jersey legislature in  to authorize construction of a new prison on an adjacent plot of land. Designed by John Haviland to accommodate the “Pennsylvania system’’ (solitary confinement), the new prison was the first public building in the United States built in the Egyptian Revival style. The first cellblock, opened in , still houses inmates. By , six more housing units (wings), a twenty-foot stone wall, and a death house had been added to the seventeen-acre complex in the South Ward of Trenton. Bruno Richard Hauptmann, convicted kidnapper of the Lindbergh baby,

was the most notorious of the  inmates to die in the prison’s electric chair from  through . In – a seven-story brick structure was built directly in front of and attached to the  prison, doubling the capacity. Now designated the New Jersey State Prison, the maximum-security facility houses approximately , inmates and employs  security staff and  civilian workers. Barnes, Henry Elmer. A History of the Penal, Reformatory and Correctional Institutions of the State of New Jersey. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Report of the Prison Inquiry Commission to Governor Walter Edge and the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey. Vols.  and . Trenton, . Wolf, Gary. The New Jersey State Penitentiary at Trenton: A Report Prepared for the Division of Building and Construction, New Jersey Department of the Treasury. Princeton: Heritage Studies, .

found in New Jersey, but only brook trout, Salvalinus fontinalis, a species of char, is indigenous and considered a keystone species. State water quality standards are classified according to the reproduction, presence, or absence of trout. Rainbows, browns, and lake trout are introduced species. Steelheads and even Atlantic salmon may be found on rare occasion in our saltwater estuaries. The state hatchery at Oxford distributes over , trout annually. Trout Unlimited, a nonprofit organization, plays an important role in maintaining and improving trout habitat. Piehler, Glen R. Exit Here for Fish! Enjoying and Conserving New Jersey’s Recreational Fisheries. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also fishes; fishing, freshwater

See also prisons

Roger R. Locandro W. James Franklin

Trenton Thunder.

Trenton’s minor league team plays in the Double-A Eastern League as an affiliate of the New York Yankees. The team plays a -game schedule from April to September, including  home games at the ,-seat Waterfront Park on Route  in Trenton. The Thunder began play in the Eastern League as a Detroit Tiger affiliate in , became a Boston farm team two seasons later, and entered the Yankee system for the  season. The team is owned by Garden State Baseball, LP. See also baseball

Rudy Larini

Trenton Times.

See Times, The.

Trenton War Memorial.

A performing arts and civic center in Trenton, the Trenton War Memorial was built between  and  as a tribute to veterans. Architect Louis Kaplan designed the building in a restrained Italian Renaissance Revival style with Art Deco influences. A porticoed “Memorial Court’’ leads toward a ,-seat theater, ballroom, lounge, and other public spaces. A. Harry Moore was sworn in as governor at the War Memorial dedication on January , . Since then, every succeeding governor’s inauguration, with one exception in , has also taken place there. The War Memorial is home to the Trenton Symphony Orchestra and has hosted concerts by Ignace Paderewski, Paul Robeson, Frank Sinatra, Duke Ellington, Bruce Springsteen, and other famed performers. The state of New Jersey, which owns the landmark, completed a five-year restoration in .

Jon Blackwell

trout. Trout are premium, delectable, cold-water, freshwater fish belonging to the Salmonidae family. Four species of trout are

Troy Meadows.

A large freshwater marsh in East Hanover and Parsippany– Troy Hills townships in southeastern Morris County, Troy Meadows was once occupied by an extinct glacial lake (Glacial Lake Passaic), and is now drained by Troy Brook and the Whippany River in the Passaic basin. Hay was obtained from the marsh from the late s until about . The area is approximately , acres,  acres of which were acquired through the Green Acres program. It is now designated as one of the forty-two Natural Areas in the state by the Department of Environmental Protection. Most of the area has wetland vegetation, including  species of vascular plants.

Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography; meadows; wetlands

Robert M. Hordon

truck farming.

Truck farming is an old practice of raising fresh vegetables, known as “truck,’’ for market. Truck farming arose in many parts of the country near large communities, allowing farmers relative ease in bringing their produce to consumers. In New Jersey, truck farming began near the large metropolitan areas of Philadelphia and New York. In southern New Jersey, Charles Landis purchased forty-eight square miles (, acres) of land in , and an additional , acres in . This land was sold mostly to Italian immigrants who initially grew grapes, but gradually shifted to vegetable and small fruit production. In s East Vineland (Little Italy), the primary crops were sweet potatoes, pickles, peppers, blackberries, and strawberries. In South Vineland the primary crops were lettuce, carrots, beets, parsley, and cabbage. Farmers hauled their produce to local train freight stations in Vineland, Bridgeton, Rosenhayn, Norma, Hammonton, and Egg Harbor

Tuckerton Railroad City for shipping to commission houses in Philadelphia and New York. Vegetables were packed in barrels, burlap bags, and hampers, according to the shipping needs of the particular vegetable. By the s, motorized trucks rather than horse-drawn conveyances became the preferred way of transporting produce. Some buyers purchased trucks to go to several farms to collect produce, allowing farmers to spend their time managing their crops. Removed from marketing, farmers were concerned about prices and distribution of their crops. Often they were not sure that it was profitable to continue shipping produce. Looking for an alternative form of marketing, farmers established cooperative vegetable auctions where buyers could review produce the farmers brought to the auction and the farmers would know immediately the price being offered by the buyers. The Hammonton Fruit Growers Union opened the first produce auction in the United States in . The Landisville Produce Cooperative, the oldest continuously operating co-op, opened in , followed by the Cedarville Co-operative () and the Vineland Cooperative Produce Auction Markets (). Other auctions opened in Swedesboro and Hightstown. Currently the Vineland Auction is the most active auction, selling $ to $ million worth of produce annually. In central and northern New Jersey, vegetable farming developed into market gardening, differing from truck farming only in that the produce is taken only a short distance to consumers. Much fresh produce is sold at markets located on the farm itself, or at small community tailgate markets, especially in the northern two-thirds of the state. Most of the state’s vegetable acreage is marketed as fresh produce. The remainder is grown for the processing market where the vegetables are prepared for inclusion in packaged foods. Although some farmers may raise both fresh market and processing crops, only farmers who sell fresh produce directly to consumers or to buyers representing retail markets are truck farmers. Improvements in vegetable varieties, production practices, food preservation technology, and transportation has allowed farmers to be located farther from their markets than ever before. Today, New Jersey truck farmers raise and sell nearly one hundred types of vegetables that stock retail markets throughout the eastern United States and Canada. The total value of truck farming in the Garden State is approximately $ million annually.

True American. This Trenton daily newspaper, founded in  by Matthias Day and Jacob Mann, advocated Jeffersonian principles and was supported by patronage from the Democratic-Republican party. It was bought out by a rival and closed in  but revived in . Under the ownership and editorship of David Naar beginning in , the True American was among the most influential Democratic papers in New Jersey. Joseph Naar succeeded his father as editor and raised circulation to its peak of six thousand by the s. Competition from the Trenton Times led the True American to fold in . See also newspapers

Jon Blackwell

Tubman, Harriet Ross

(b. c. ;

d. Mar. , ).

Abolitionist, Underground Railroad conductor, and Civil War spy. Born Araminta, a slave, in Dorchester County, Maryland, to Benjamin and Harriet Greene Ross, Harriet Tubman was renamed Harriet at puberty. In , she married John Tubman, a free black. The marriage ended five years later, after Harriet escaped to freedom. In the following years she led over three hundred slaves to freedom and earned the title “Black Moses.’’ From  until , Tubman spent summers working in Cape May hotels, earning money to underwrite her antislavery activities. In  she joined the Union Army as a nurse, spy, and military strategist. In , Tubman married Nelson Davis. They purchased a house in Auburn, New York, as a home for indigent Negroes. Harriet Tubman died there in . Bradford, Sarah. Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman/ Harriet Tubman, the Moses of Her People. . Reprint. Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, .

See also agriculture

Joseph Ingerson-Mahar

Sterling, Dorothy. Freedom Train: The Story of Harriet Tubman. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, .

See also Underground Railroad

LaVerne McCain Gill

Tuckerton. .-square-mile borough in Ocean County. Originally one of the principal villages of Burlington County’s Little Egg Harbor Township, Tuckerton was first settled by Europeans in  and grew up around the lumbering and maritime trades. A Quaker meeting was established there in , and the village soon became a bustling seaport community. The village has been known by various names over the years, including Andrew Mills, Fishtown, and Clamtown until, in March , it officially became Tuckerton in honor of prominent resident Ebenezer Tucker. Tuckerton long benefited from excellent transportation routes by land and sea, and in  President George Washington designated Tuckerton the Third Port of Entry of the United States. Economic changes in the early s reduced Tuckerton’s importance as a trading center. However, the introduction of stage service in  and rail service in  helped turn Tuckerton into a popular resort destination. In  Little Egg Harbor was ceded to Ocean County. Tuckerton officially incorporated as a borough in March . Today, Tuckerton is a mixed residential/seasonal community that celebrates its bayshore heritage and traditions with its many historic structures and cultural institutions, such as the Barnegat Bay Decoy and Baymen’s Museum and Tuckerton Seaport. Its library, established in , is the oldest in Ocean County. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Blackman, Leah. History of Little Egg Harbor Township. . Reprint. Trenton: Great John Mathis Foundation, . ———. Old Times and Other Writings. Tuckerton: Tuckerton Historical Society, .

Scott D. Peters

Tuckerton Railroad.

New Jersey Agricultural Annual Report and Agricultural Statistics. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Agriculture, . Watts, Ralph L., and Gilbert S. Watts. The Vegetable Growing Business. New York: Orange Judd Publishing, .

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Harriet Tubman shortly before her death, .

Courtesy Photograph and Prints Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

Construction of this route began as the Manchester and Barnegat Bay Railway in  but it was soon renamed the Tuckerton Railroad. At Whitings it connected with the New Jersey Southern (Jersey Central) and the Pemberton and New York (Pennsylvania Railroad) and extended twenty-nine miles southward to Tuckerton on Little Egg Harbor. Completed in , the Tuckerton had a sixty-four-year existence hauling seafood, cranberries, sea grass, salt hay, mail, and passengers. From  to  an extension provided rail service from Manahawken, over the bay, to Long Beach Island. The Tuckerton was abandoned in  due to highway competition.

Brinckman, John. The Tuckerton Railroad. Edison: by the author, .

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Tuckerton Seaport building houses a museum that features the history of the town. Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Ellen Hostetter

turkey.

Little Egg Harbor Lighthouse as it was washed off Tucker’s Island, October , .

Courtesy Tuckerton Seaport Museum.

Cunningham, John T. Railroads in New Jersey: The Formative Years. Andover: Afton Publishing, .

Prior to New Jersey’s settlement by Europeans, the wild turkey occurred in high densities throughout the state. Clearing of forests for agriculture and unregulated subsistence hunting resulted in the extirpation of wild turkeys from New Jersey by the mid-s. With the abandonment of submarginal farmland and its subsequent regeneration back into mature forest, turkey habitat again became available. In  the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife obtained twentythree birds from Vermont and New York that were released in northwestern New Jersey. As bird numbers increased, turkeys were captured using rocket nets and relocated throughout the state. Approximately , turkeys are found in most regions of New Jersey today.

Turkey.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife.

Boyle, William J. A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

improvement. Until , New Jersey lagged behind its neighbors, who chartered and built dozens of turnpikes. Morris Turnpike, New Jersey’s first, connected the upper Delaware River (Newton) with Newark Bay (Elizabeth). Between  and  fifty-one turnpike corporations were chartered; about half that number were built. They radiated out from the state’s cities through the central and northern regions. The state acted as a facilitator by granting each company a charter, usually with

See also birds

Leonard J. Wolgast

See also railroads; transportation

Robert E. Mohowski

Tuckerton Seaport.

Located along Tuckerton Creek in Tuckerton, the seaport is a project of the Barnegat Bay Decoy and Baymen’s Museum. Many re-created historical structures preserve and interpret the maritime history of the Jersey Shore and the unique contributions of its baymen. Opened in , the museum features replicas of the Tucker’s Island Lighthouse, Perrine Boat Works, Heinrich Boat Works, Ship Bottom Lifesaving Station, and the Tuckerton Yacht Club. The last houses the Coastal Environmental Education Center, created in conjunction with the Rutgers University Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences and the Richard Stockton College of New Jersey. See also museums

Linda J. Barth

turnpikes.

The nineteenth century was New Jersey’s first turnpike era. Poor road conditions made travel difficult. Maintenance was a local responsibility. Turnpikes, as state-chartered, stockholder-owned corporations, charged for use—an incentive for

PRINCIPAL TURNPIKES built by 1829 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Tunis-Ellicks Parlor Garden.

Reminiscent of parlor gardens of the s, this garden is located in New Vernon. It features  varieties of herbs, shrubs, and perennials, as well as old-fashioned roses and flowers for fragrance and household use. George Mitchell was the original owner of the TunisEllicks House, which dates back to . In  the property was sold to Silas D. Tunis. Finally, in , concerned citizens restored the house and gardens. Today it is owned by the Tunis-Ellicks Historical Society and maintained by the New Vernon Garden Club. Located on the site is an example of an East New Jersey farmhouse. The second floor of this

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Bergen Bordentown & South Amboy Deckertown & Newton Essex & Middlesex Franklin Georgetown & Franklin Morris New Jersey Newark Newark & Morris Newark & Mount Pleasant Newark & Pompton Parsippany & Rockaway Paterson & Hamburg Pochuck Princeton & Kingston Branch Ringwood & Long Pond Springfield & Newark Trenton & New Brunswick Union Washington 0 10 Woodbridge miles

3 15

Newton

14 17

20

5

7 13

Paterson

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9

10 8

18

Newark

4 22

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New Brunswick 6

South Amboy 19

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Trenton Bordentown © Rutgers, The State University

Twin Lights such generous terms as route monopolies and high capitalization, user fees and penalties for nonpayment. Successful companies attracted investment, often from New York or Philadelphia as well as New Jersey. Most turnpikes piggybacked on existing roads, usually adopting macadam or telford techniques for surface improvement, with the center of the road higher than the sides to help runoff and with gravel layers to facilitate drainage. Turnpikes were especially important for commercial traffic— for example, stagecoaches and farmers’ moving crops or livestock. Although they carried a great deal of traffic, few turnpikes were profitable. Between  and  the turnpikes lost traffic and prestige to the new canals and railroads; only five new roads were chartered. A new surfacing technique—wooden planks—revived interest. Between  and  plank toll roads, more oriented to shortdistance travel, were constructed, mainly in underserved South Jersey. After , however, the turnpikes awaited the automobile age to reemerge as the major transportation medium. In New Jersey today, the word turnpike is synonymous with the New Jersey Turnpike. Gov. Alfred Driscoll made the road a priority in , and in  the New Jersey Turnpike Authority was established. Constructed with bonds and supported by tolls, the road opened in . Like the earlier turnpikes, it effectively links New Jersey internally and with neighboring states. More than earlier ones, it keeps changing to incorporate new technologies and to meet increased demand. Now spanning fourteen lanes at its widest, carrying hundreds of thousands of vehicles daily, and employing hundreds, the New Jersey Turnpike dwarfs its predecessors. Dunbar, Seymour. A History of Travel in America. . Reprint. New York: Tudor Publishing Company, . Lane, Wheaton J. From Indian Trail to Iron Horse: Travel and Transportation in New Jersey, –. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also highways; New Jersey Turnpike; transportation

Deborah Epstein Popper

Turtle Back Zoo. Located in West Orange, Turtle Back Zoo, founded in  to be a seasonal children’s zoo but now full-time for all age groups, is a facility of the Essex County parks system. The zoo has areas for picnicking and relaxation, a restaurant, and a train traveling through woodlands. The facility seeks to educate visitors about the species it exhibits and about conservation. The Zoological Society of New Jersey raises funds to support it. Among the many species featured at Turtle Back Zoo include cougars, penguins, eagles, bison, snakes, and turtles. Frank F. Katz

turtles. All turtles are reptiles. Reptiles can be distinguished from amphibians by the fact that reptiles breathe with lungs throughout

819

Bog turtles.

Courtesy New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Fish and Wildlife.

their lives (they have no gill-breathing larval stage), they have external scales, and they produce eggs with hard or leathery shells. Turtles comprise the order of reptiles known as Testudinata or Chelonia. They differ from all other reptiles by having a shell composed of ribs and other bony elements that are covered on the outside with large scales called scutes. They are unique among vertebrates in that their hips and shoulders are inside their rib cage. There are approximately  to  living species of turtles in the world but the exact number continues to change as taxonomists conduct additional studies. Of these, fifteen species are native to New Jersey, being either resident within the state’s borders or occurring on a regular or sporadic basis in the estuaries and offshore waters of the Atlantic Ocean. In addition, there are two or three species that have been introduced into New Jersey and have established breeding populations. New Jersey’s turtles occupy a wide variety of habitats. There are five species of sea turtles that are confined to saltwater and its environs. Others inhabit lakes, rivers, marshes, wet meadows, and fields. Some, like the snapping turtle, occur in a wide range of habitats, while others, like the bog turtle, have very exacting environmental requirements and cannot survive unless these requirements are satisfied. The diamondback terrapin lives only in the brackish waters along the coast, where freshwater flowing off of the land mixes with seawater. Many of New Jersey’s turtle species are threatened by habitat destruction. Thousands are also killed on the roads each year by automobiles. The bog turtle and the wood turtle,

in particular, are threatened by collecting for the pet trade, even though this is illegal. Ernst, Carl H., Jeffrey E. Lovich, and Roger W. Barbour. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also reptiles

Donald N. Riemer

Twining v. New Jersey.

This  U.S. Supreme Court case involved two men convicted of bank fraud who refused to testify during their trial. The issue that went to the U.S. Supreme Court was whether the Fifth Amendment protection against “self-incrimination’’ applied to the states. By a vote of  to  the Court decided that it did not, a decision based on the argument that the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government. Justice John Marshall Harlan dissented. In the midtwentieth century the Court, step by step, has used the Fourteenth Amendment to “incorporate,’’ that is, apply, most of the Bill of Rights to the states. In Malloy v. Hogan (), the Court, in an opinion written by Justice William Brennan of New Jersey, overruled Twining and maintained that state courts must recognize Fifth Amendment protections. Hall, Kermit, ed. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

Twin Lights.

The nineteenth-century lighthouse in Highlands, Monmouth County, was once a place of scientific innovation and is now a state historic site. The first Twin Lights consisted of a pair of identical frame structures built in , their dual luminaries in

820

Tye [Titus] site. The light, no longer a navigational aid, is lit for exhibition purposes. Bachand, Robert G. Northeast Lights: Lighthouses, and Lightships, Rhode Island to Cape May, New Jersey. Norwalk, CT: Sea Sports Publications, . Holland, F. Ross. America’s Lighthouses: An Illustrated History. . Reprint. New York: Dover, .

See also lighthouses

Randall Gabrielan

Twin Lights.

Courtesy Highwing Aerial Photography. the hills designed to distinguish them from the nearby shorefront Sandy Hook Lighthouse and lightship. The originals were replaced in  by the present brownstone towers, one rectangular, the other octagonal, so they are technically no longer “twins.’’ The structures, with a keeper’s dwelling and storage area connecting them, were designed by Joseph Lederle. The first Fresnel lenses used in the United States were installed at the original Twin Lights in . This French innovation employed a series of prisms that provided an enormous expansion of the light source. A

later Fresnel lens, a nine-foot-wide bivalve illuminated by a carbon-arc light, installed in the south tower in , cast a beam visible for twenty-two miles. Twin Lights was electrified in , and it was the first major seacoast lighthouse to have its own generating plant. The Twin Lights grounds were the site of the first successful demonstration in  of the wireless telegraph by inventor Guglielmo Marconi. Early radar devices were also tested here. The lighthouse was decommissioned in . The state of New Jersey acquired the property in  and maintains it as a historic

Tye [Titus] (b. ; d. Sept. , ). Loyalist military leader. In  Tye, a slave, escaped from his Quaker master, John Corlies, who farmed near Shrewsbury. Tye fled to Virginia, where for a time he served in Gov. Lord Dunmore’s “Ethiopian’’ regiment. Returning northward, Tye next appears in service with the British army at the Battle of Monmouth in June . From summer  to September  “Colonel’’ Tye (his rank was honorary, not commissioned) led a band of black and white irregulars on raids against Patriot estates, primarily in Monmouth County, and had several hotly contested encounters with Patriot militia. Tye and his “motley band’’ took their loot and prisoners to “Refugeetown’’ at Sandy Hook. In a raid at Toms River on September , , Tye was wounded in the wrist, which led to lockjaw and his death a few days later. Contemporaries credited Tye with superior military skills. Hodges, Graham R. African-Americans in Monmouth County during the Age of the American Revolution. Lincroft: Monmouth County Park System, . Ryan, Dennis P. New Jersey’s Loyalists. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also American Revolution; Loyalists

Harry M. Ward

U U-boats. Unbeknownst to many New Jersey residents, German U-boats (Unterseebooten) frequently visited the Jersey Shore during both world wars. Although the entire Eastern Seaboard of the United States was fair game to U-boat commanders, the waters off New Jersey, outside the Port of New York, presented particularly tempting opportunities to sink merchant and military vessels alike. The intention was to wreak havoc on the maritime industry supplying the war effort and to demoralize the American public. During World War I, Capt. von Nostitz, in command of the U-, conducted a raid off the New Jersey coast completely unopposed. With the use of torpedoes and hand-placed explosives, the U- sank the Isabel B. Wiley, the Jacob M. Haskell, the Edward H. Cole, the Winneconne, the Texel, the Herbert L. Pratt, and the passenger liner USS Carolina. The San Saba and Chaparra were sunk with mines laid by Capt. Droscher in command of the U-, and he used his deck gun to sink the Dorothy B. Barrett. During World War II, although many merchant vessels attempted to protect themselves with armament manned by military personnel, U-boats sent numbers of them to watery graves off New Jersey. To combat these losses, merchant vessels traveled in convoys and employed a zigzag steering tactic to throw off the aim of U-boat commanders. Zigzagging at random intervals made it difficult for a torpedo to find its mark, but the tactic had its drawbacks. Many zigzagging vessels sank outside the Port of New York after ramming and sinking one another because of fog or human error. Merchant vessels torpedoed off New Jersey during World War II include the Arundo (by U-), the Bidevind (by U-), the Cayru (by U-), the Gulftrade (by U-), the Lemuel Borrows and the Tolten (by U-), the Persephone (by U-), the Rio Tercero (by U-), the R. P. Resor (by U-), and the Varanger (by U-). Directed from Germany by Adm. Karl ¨ nitz, U-boat commanders sank merchant Do ¨ nitz comvessels with devastating results. Do municated with his U-boat commanders via a secret code transmitted by radio. When the British captured U- on May , , they acquired the top-secret decoding machine that all U-boats carried, along with code books, charts, and mechanical rotor settings. Using the device, the British were able to determine where and when U-boats were about to attack. Although the British shared this information with the United States, the U.S. Navy

did not begin to employ this intelligence until the middle of the war. Once full defensive capabilities were brought to bear against the marauding U-boats, however, the fortunes of merchant vessels quickly changed. From the second half of World War II until its conclusion in May , German submarines were almost entirely unsuccessful off New Jersey. The “grey wolves of the Atlantic’’ found themselves no longer the hunters but the hunted. In  New Jersey scuba divers discovered the wreck of an unidentified U-boat approximately sixty miles off the New Jersey coast. After years of work, shipwreck researcher and explorer John Chatterton located an artifact bearing the name of U-, positively identifying the wreck. Berman, Bruce D. Encyclopedia of American Shipwrecks. Boston: Mariners Press, . Gentile, Gary. Shipwrecks of New Jersey. Norwalk, CT: Sea Sports Publications, .

See also shipwrecks; World War II

Dan Lieb

Ukrainians. Ukrainians began to arrive in New Jersey at the end of the nineteenth century, and migration increased significantly after World War II. According to the U.S. Census of , there were , Ukrainians living in New Jersey. By , however, their numbers had declined to ,. In the years when their numbers were growing, the Ukrainians established a variety of organizations, frequently near their churches, be they Catholic, Orthodox, or of other denominations. Religion continues to play an important unifying role, although not to the extent it did in years past. A majority of Ukrainians, some , families, are Catholics of the Byzantine rite and worship in twenty-one parishes. Two parishes, Saint John the Baptist in Newark and Saint Nicholas in Passaic, support parochial grammar schools. The Ukrainian Orthodox Church has twelve parishes with a following of , families, headed by the Archbishop of Saint Andrew’s Church in South Bound Brook. The Ukrainian Evangelical Assemblies of God Church in Union serves some  families, and a Ukrainian Evangelical Baptist Church operates in Livingston. Historically, the most important secular organization for Ukrainians in New Jersey, as well as in the United States, has been the Ukrainian National Association (UNA). Founded originally as an insurance company in  in Pennsylvania, it moved shortly thereafter to Jersey City and became the center of Ukrainian organized activities, supporting a great variety of community projects and publishing scholarly works. The UNA continues to publish the country’s first Ukrainian-language newspaper, Svoboda, which still serves as an important source of information about community life. In  the UNA also began publishing the English-language Ukrainian Weekly, and somewhat later it founded Veselka, a

magazine for children. In  the UNA moved its offices to Parsippany. Another central organization is the Ukrainian Congress Committee of America (UCCA). Founded in , it established branches throughout the United States. In New Jersey, thirteen branches engage in various social, cultural, political, humanitarian, and educational activities. One of its most important activities is the sponsorship of Saturday school programs, known as School of Ukrainian Studies, where students learn about their heritage by studying Ukrainian language, literature, history, and customs. An organization founded in , the UkrainianAmerican Coordinating Council, pursues objectives similar to those of the UCCA. The Ukrainian National Women’s League of America (UNWLA) has eleven chapters in New Jersey. Its activities include numerous humanitarian and social projects, with special emphasis on women’s and children’s issues. The chapters are also active members of the Women’s Organization under the auspices of the United Nations. Among the notable achievements of the UNWLA was the founding and continued sponsorship of the Ukrainian Museum in New York City. Two other national humanitarian organizations were established in New Jersey in  as the Soviet Union was collapsing. The Children of Chernobyl Relief Fund focuses on shipments of medical supplies to Ukraine, and the Coordinating Committee to Aid Ukraine sponsors educational programs for teachers and the military. Two financial institutions provide a variety of services to the Ukrainian community. The Self-reliance Federal Credit Union based in Clifton has branches in Passaic, Elizabeth, and Whippany, while the Self-reliance Federal Credit Union of Newark has a branch office in Parsippany. Other Ukrainian community and professional organizations in New Jersey include medical, business, engineering, and law associations, as well as youth and sport groups. Ukrainians have not only settled and grown as a community in New Jersey; they have also become fully integrated throughout the communities they live in, both socially and professionally. They serve in numerous professional capacities in private business and the public sector while remaining involved in the activities of their respective communities. Cunningham, Barbara, ed. The New Jersey Ethnic Experience. Union City: William H. Wise, .

See also ethnicity

Taras Hunczak

“Uncle’’ Floyd. See Vivino, “Uncle’’ Floyd Underground Railroad.

Between  and , the Underground Railroad, a secret network of persons and places, helped southern runaway slaves find freedom in the 821

822

Unger Brothers

UNDERGROUND RAILROAD NEWFOUNDLAND STOCKHOLM

CHARLOTTEBURG

BOONTON TOWNSHIP

POMPTON

ROCKAWAY

BOONTON JERSEY CITY

DOVER

HOBOKEN

NEWARK

PHILLIPSBURG WATCHUNG

CLARK

ELIZABETH

WARREN GLEN POHATCONG

MOUNT BETHEL

RAHWAY

SOMMERVILLE NEW BRUNSWICK

METUCHEN PERTH AMBOY

HOPEWELL

EDISON

LAMBERTVILLE

PRINCETON

PENNINGTON

CRANBURY

HAMILTON

ALLENTOWN

TRENTON

IMLAYSTOWN

BURLINGTON CITY

BORDENTOWN

MOORESTOWN

MOUNT HOLLY

CHERRY HILL

MOUNT LAUREL

CAMDEN

MEDFORD

HADDONFIELD

EVESHAM

WOODBURY WOOLWICH

SOUTH AMBOY

MICKLETON

TOMS RIVER

LAWNSIDE

MULLICA HILL SWEDESBORO WOODSTOWN MANNINGTON

SALEM GREENWICH PORT ELIZABETH PORT NORRIS

N

MAURICETOWN

0

Underground Railroad communities

20 miles

CAPE MAY CITY © Encyclopedia of N.J.

northern states and Canada. It is not clear how the Underground Railroad got its name; the term came into the language around , after the appearance of trains in America. In some areas the Underground Railroad was well organized; in others, it seems to have been loosely structured. The slaves helped by the Underground Railroad were only a small fraction of those who ran away in protest against their bondage; the great majority of runaways remained in the

South. Although some estimates of the number of fugitive slaves using the Underground Railroad have exceeded ,, more recent scholarship suggests that , to , were probably involved. They came principally from the Upper South, especially the states of Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. Most were males between the ages of fifteen and thirty who traveled alone at night. The Underground Railroad had two main corridors. The western corridor conveyed

runaways from Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee, and Kentucky straight north to Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio. The eastern corridor, of which New Jersey was an integral part, transported fugitives from the Atlantic coastline states (Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware). Texas slaves were inclined to flee to Mexico, and some Florida slaves also went south into the Bahamas and the Caribbean. The two most celebrated and significant persons associated with the Underground Railroad had New Jersey connections. Harriet Tubman, the famed “conductor’’ who escaped in  from the Maryland Eastern Shore, spent her summers between  and  working in hotels in Cape May. In all probability, she traversed New Jersey while guiding some of her charges from Maryland to Canada. William Still, a New Jersey native (Shamong, Burlington County), assisted runaways as a “station master’’ in Philadelphia and in  published a history of his activities. Atlantic and Bergen were probably the only New Jersey counties that had no Underground Railroad activity. Fugitive slaves generally entered the state from Delaware and Pennsylvania and passed into New York. Most of the major routes in New Jersey have been identified. They involved a number of communities, ranging as far south as Greenwich Township (Springtown) in Cumberland County, as far north as Stockholm in Sussex County, as far west as Phillipsburg in Warren County, and as far east as Jersey City in Hudson County. Some sites have also been identified. Perhaps the most significant is the Peter Mott House, located in Lawnside, a historic all-black town. It is probably the only house still extant in New Jersey that was owned by an African American and operated as a stop on the Underground Railroad. A small number of fugitive slaves settled in the state, especially in some of southern New Jersey’s all-black communities, where they were able to blend in with the general population and could rely on protection against those seeking to apprehend them. Blockson, Charles L. Hippocrene Guide to the Underground Railroad. New York: Hippocrene Books, . Gara, Larry. The Liberty Line: The Legend of the Underground Railroad. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, . Siebert, Wilbur H. The Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom. New York: Macmillan, . Still, William. The Underground Railroad: A Record of Facts, Authentic Narratives, Letters, &c. . Reprint. Chicago: Johnson Publishing, .

See also African Americans; slavery

Giles R. Wright

Unger Brothers.

Newark jewelry manufacturers and silversmiths from  to , Unger Brothers gained a reputation as one of the top firms in the city. The Ungerer family emigrated from their native Germany to Newark in , and there they shortened their

Union County

Unger Brothers, Silver three-piece coffee set, .

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of the Vivienne and Stanley H. Katz Fund, 1998, 98.48.5A-C.

name to Unger. From  to , the five Unger brothers played various roles in the family jewelry business, which took the name Unger and Keen in  and Unger and Company in . After the tragic deaths of three of the brothers in , the two remaining brothers, Herman and Eugene Unger, reorganized the company under the name Unger Brothers. Their establishments were at three locations in Newark, in addition to a New York office. They also maintained a factory on Halsey Street, which housed a retail outlet. Initially producing only gold jewelry, in the s Unger Brothers began to devote more of its production to silverware, encompassing hollowware, flatware, novelties, silver jewelry, and cut glass. Philomen Olin Dickinson, brother-in-law of Eugene Unger, was the chief designer for the company, eventually becoming a partner. It was under his direction that the company began making the fanciful art nouveau designs for which the firm is most noted today. By , Unger Brothers was making simpler, rectilinear designs and, by , it had ceased production of jewelry, offering instead a line of toilet articles. The business was sold in . Dietz, Ulysses Grant, Jenna Weissman Joselit, Kevin J. Smead, and Janet Zapata. The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry. Newark: Newark Museum, .

See also decorative arts; silversmithing

Janet Zapata

Union.

.-square-mile city in Hudson County. The area that is now Union was originally made up of the towns of Union Hill and West Hoboken. Like most, if not all, of the other municipalities in Hudson County, the area was originally inhabited by the Lenape Indians before the Dutch settlers began to arrive in the mid-s. By the mid-s, the area was occupied by German Americans. Originally known as North Hoboken, in  the town was incorporated as Union Hill. West Hoboken became a town in its own right in , when it broke away from North Bergen. In  it was incorporated as a city, as the

result of a union of the towns of West Hoboken and Union Hill, hence its name—Union. Nationally known as the home of the U.S. embroidery industry, Union is the hub of the textile industry, with dozens of garment and lace manufacturers located throughout the city. Lace made by some of Union’s manufacturers is used on garments sold around the world, and has been compared to other fine European-style lacemaking. In the early years of its existence, the city’s residents were Dutch, German, Italian, and Irish immigrants who either came to the city directly from Western Europe, or chose to leave nearby New York City for a relatively suburban setting. During World War II, the city’s Simon Silk Mills was taken over by the Callite Company, which provided defense industry employment to many of the city’s residents. After World War II, Union saw many changes. Returning veterans who married and started families found it more convenient to relocate to Bergen County. The consequence of this was a significant drop in the city’s population. This drop, however, was short-lived and soon a great influx of Puerto Rican citizens and later a large migration of Cuban refugees helped form the Union of today. Union’s Hispanic immigration began in the s, with a trickle of Puerto Ricans. During the s, Union’s proximity to New York City made it a popular destination for Cuban refugees fleeing the communist dictatorship in their native land. At that time, Union had an abundance of reasonably priced homes and businesses. It attracted other newcomers, such as middle-class New York City residents seeking to escape the more expensive rents and faster pace of life. Currently, many citizens refer to Union as “Havana on the Hudson.’’ Union is the most densely populated city in the United States, and has approximately , residents per square mile. In , the population of , was  percent white. Eighty-two percent of the total population was Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Robinson, Walter Francis. Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, . Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Winfield, Charles Hardenburg. History of the County of Hudson, New Jersey, from Its Earliest Settlement to the Present Time. . Reprint. Teaneck: Bergen Historic Books, .

Daniel R. Campbell

Union Beach. .-square-mile borough along the Raritan Bay in Monmouth County. In  Richard Hartshorne purchased the area from the Indians. Farming and brick making from local clays were the major occupations until the mid-nineteenth century. The Florence and Keyport Company built a pier in

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 and offered , building sites for sale. By  the railroad was extended eastward from Keyport, and the trolley line followed in . During the s, families were building both year-round homes and summer bungalows. People were attracted to the area by the safe Raritan Bay beaches located not many miles away from their employment in northern New Jersey. At a special election on April , , the residents voted to incorporate the new borough, separating from Raritan (now Hazlet) Township. The area was slow to recover from the Great Depression. Much progress has been made in the last thirty years. The Union Beach Beachfront Redevelopment Project, dedicated on October , , restored the beach area, as well as revitalizing the entire Front Street neighborhood. The site of the  Lorillard Brick Works is now occupied by IFF (International Flavors and Fragrances). The ninetyacre Natco Lake area and the old claypits are now a wildlife area. The Army Corps of Engineers has proposed a shore protection and flood control project for the borough. Today the community is predominantly residential, with single-family homes. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Burket, William H. Union Beach. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

William H. Burket

Union County.

The youngest of New Jersey’s twenty-one counties, Union County contains the state’s oldest English-speaking city, Elizabeth, which was settled in . Union was established in  as a result of a longstanding rivalry between Elizabethtown and neighboring Newark over the site of the Essex County Courthouse. The county covers . square miles, and ranges in elevation from sea level to  feet, in Berkeley Heights. It is divided into twenty-one municipalities. All of Union County was part of Elizabethtown until , when Westfield and Springfield were formed. The Morris Turnpike from Morristown to Elizabethtown was built in , with its spur from Springfield to Newark. Four more municipalities were established before : Rahway, Union, New Providence, and Plainfield. Construction of the Central Railroad of New Jersey in  and the Pennsylvania Railroad in  caused municipalities to form. They included Linden, Fanwood, Scotch Plains, Clark, Summit, Roselle, Cranford, New Providence Township (Berkeley Heights), and Mountainside. Five additional railroads followed after the Civil War. Communities organized after  were Roselle Park, Garwood, Kenilworth, Hillside, and the smallest municipality, Winfield, built by the federal government for war industry workers in .

Union County

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UNION COUNTY

Elizabeth

0

15

county seat

miles

Many of the early settlers were secondgeneration Americans who came from Long Island and New England. They were followed by Scottish immigrants who established Scot’s (Scotch) Plains. There were Dutch, French Huguenot, Irish, and German settlers before the Revolutionary War. In the nineteenth century more Europeans arrived. The two world wars caused blacks to move north to work in the war industries. Since , Cubans, other Hispanics, Asians, and blacks from Africa and the Caribbean Islands have immigrated to Union County. Elizabethtown became the first capital of New Jersey when Gov. Philip Carteret called the first General Assembly there in . The Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, an Elizabethtown Congregational pastor, joined the Presbytery of Philadelphia in . The Westfield, Springfield, and New Providence churches also became Presbyterian. Dickinson helped to start the College of New Jersey, later Princeton University, in . Several Revolutionary War leaders were from Elizabethtown: Gov. William Livingston; Col. Elias Dayton, who was at war’s end the highest ranking officer in the New Jersey Third Continental Brigade; Jonathan Dayton, the youngest signer of the U.S. Constitution; and Elias Boudinot, president of the Continental Congress. There were also Abraham Clark, signer of the Declaration of Independence; Shepard Kollock, editor of the New Jersey Journal, who moved the tiny newspaper to Elizabethtown in ; and the Rev. James Caldwell, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church. Caldwell’s wife, Hannah Ogden

Caldwell, was murdered after the Battle of Connecticut Farms; her murder is depicted on the county seal. During the war a number of skirmishes occurred in Elizabethtown. Union County has long been a center for industry. Clay from the Elizabeth River was used to make pottery and bricks. There were tanneries, as well as paper mills, gristmills, and lumber mills. Carriages, and accessories for them, were made. Hats, clothing, and shoes were manufactured. Early craftsmen made furniture, silverware, and clocks. The Singer Company, maker of sewing machines, moved to Elizabeth in , and was its chief industry for nearly ninety years. Toys, automobiles and their parts and accessories, airplanes and parts, vacuum cleaners, cereals, cheese, dairy products, chemicals, fertilizers, mattresses, cameras, fishing reels, vitamins, health and personal products, trolleys, diners, trucks, plastics, phonographs, and oils were among the articles manufactured. In the twentieth century there were also metal fabricators and oil refineries. Ships were built along the Arthur Kill in Elizabeth. The Crescent Shipyard, Elizabeth, where the first submarine for the U.S. Navy, the John Holland, was built in , was the most famous. The yard also produced  monitors and ships for the Japanese and Russian navies. In  the Newark-Elizabeth port became the largest container port in the world. In  the General Motors Corporation erected a factory in Linden to make airplanes for the United States, and an airport was built. After the war, the Linden plant was retooled to assemble automobiles. A shopping mall was erected on a portion of the former airport in . Union County has three pharmaceutical firms: Schering-Plough, Merck, and Novardis, a Swiss concern. Schering-Plough has facilities in both Union and Kenilworth. Merck has facilities in Rahway. Both companies are expanding their operations in Union County. Novardis purchased Ciba-Geigy Pharmaceutical Company in Summit, and has indicated that it may close the plant. Public officials have urged the company to continue its use of the Summit facility. Bristol Meyers Company moved to Hillside in , and became the chief industry in the town. In  Bristol Meyers transferred its production out of the county, and later merged with Squibb to become Bristol Meyers–Squibb. Since colonial times the county has been in the crossroads of New Jersey. Six major highways slash their way through it, carrying people and trucks. The county includes part of both Newark Liberty International Airport (Terminal A) and Newark/Elizabeth Seaport, which has been leased and operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey since . A monorail to connect the airport with Elizabeth and Newark is under construction. Union County has been at the forefront of education in New Jersey. In  it was the

first county to combine several school districts to form a Regional District High School that would serve six communities without high schools: Springfield, Kenilworth, Berkeley Heights, Mountainside, Garwood, and Clark. The first school was Jonathan Dayton Regional High School, in Springfield. As the district grew, three more schools were built: David Brearley Regional High School in Kenilworth, Governor Livingston Regional High School in Berkeley Heights, and Arthur L. Johnson Regional High School in Clark. The Brearley School in Kenilworth was closed in  because of low enrollment, and a referendum was passed, breaking up the district. In  the school reopened as Kenilworth’s school for grades seven through twelve. Union County College, the first junior college in New Jersey, was organized in . Its Main Campus is in Cranford, with branches in Plainfield, Scotch Plains, and Elizabeth. Newark State College moved to the Hamilton Fish Kean Estate in Union Township in . Its name was changed to Kean College, in recognition of the Kean family. It became a university in . There are five hospitals in the county: Rahway Hospital in Rahway, Trinitas Hospital in Elizabeth, Overlook Hospital in Summit, Muhlenburg Hospital in Plainfield, and Union Memorial Hospital, now a part of Saint Barnabas Hospital in Union Township. There are twenty-six county parks encompassing ,. acres, which represent . percent of the total land and provide people with passive and active recreational facilities. There are three county-owned golf courses, two pools, two lakes with rowboats for hire, horseback riding, and a Deserted Village. There are numerous musical, drama, and arts groups. The Union County Division of Cultural and Heritage Affairs sponsors many arts programs, as well as the Four Centuries in a Weekend program, when twenty-two historic sites are open for visitation. Union County has a mixture of light industry, business, and mostly single-family residences. Most heavy industry has moved or closed. When World War II ended, there was a shortage of housing for the returning servicemen. The new highways took people out of the cities to new housing developments. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The  median family income was $,. Aquilina, Charles, Richard T. Koles, and Jean-Rae Turner. Elizabethtown and Union County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk/Virginia Beach: Donning, . Clayton, W. Woodford. History of Union and Middlesex Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: . Reprint. Teaneck: Bergen Historic Books, . Honeyman, A. Van Doran. History of Union County.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Jean-Rae Turner

U.S. Army Communications-Electronics Museum

Union County College.

Born in the depths of the Great Depression, with initial funding of $, made available from a Federal Emergency Relief Administration appropriation, Union County College is the offspring on the national level of Franklin D. Roosevelt and his relief czar Harry Hopkins. At the state and local levels it is the legacy of John Colt, New Jersey director of the Emergency Relief Administration, and the college’s founder, Arthur C. Johnson, Union County superintendent of schools. Classes began on October , , at the Abraham Clark High School in Roselle. Union County College is by far New Jersey’s oldest community college, and one of the oldest in the United States. The availability of GI Bill educational funds for World War II veterans had a major impact on the college’s growth, as did Kenneth C. MacKay, its president from  to . In September  Union Junior College, as it was then known, occupied a forty-eight-acre main campus in Cranford. Today, in addition to that campus, the college maintains a satellite facility in Scotch Plains and major campuses in Union County’s two largest cities, Plainfield and Elizabeth. When New Jersey adopted a comprehensive community college system in the s, Union Junior College contracted with the county and state to fulfill that role. With the merger in  of the college and the Union County Technical Institute in Scotch Plains, a comprehensive public community college, Union County College, was created. Raichle, Donald. New Jersey’s Union College: A History, –. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Smith, Roy W. The Remaking of a College: Union County College, –. Cranford: Union County College, .

See also higher education

Lawrence D. Hogan

Union Township (Hunterdon County). .-square-mile township. Union, one of the smaller townships in Hunterdon, was formed from Bethlehem Township on February , . In , , and again in , portions of the land were set off to Clinton Town, which then became a separate political entity. The township derived its name from the  Union Furnace, on land that is now under the waters of the Spruce Run Reservoir. Revolutionary history indicates that the first company of Minutemen in Hunterdon County was raised and trained at Bonnell’s Tavern, in the township. Abraham Bonnell, the tavernkeeper, also served the Patriot cause. His descendants still own the old tavern. Sarah Case was the first licensed female doctor in New Jersey. Her practice was widespread and successful, and today her stone house is a private residence. Union is a rural township, with farms predominating. Most new housing is in the form of single-family homes on large lots, with

some more clustered housing found in the old post-office villages of Pattenburg, Norton, Perryville, and Van Syckles. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Herdan, Andrew C., ed. Rural Recollections: A Narrative and Pictorial History of Union Township. Hunterdon County: Union Township Historical Society, . Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Union Township (Union County). .-square-mile township; the Elizabeth and Rahway rivers form its natural boundaries. Puritan farmers from Connecticut settled in the area that became Union in , and built what became the Connecticut Farms Presbyterian Church. The scene of a  battle during the American Revolution, the church was burned by the British, but was rebuilt after the war. Union’s long history and connection to the American Revolution is symbolized by Liberty Hall; now a museum, it was originally the home of New Jersey’s Revolutionary War governor, William Livingston. Union Township was formed in , the fourth municipality to break away from Elizabethtown. Agriculture continued to be significant for the community until the s, when two residential subdivisions, Larchmont and Townley, were built. Travel was assisted first by the Lehigh Valley Railroad, which served the town from  to , and then by Route . After World War II, the construction of the Garden State Parkway and Route  increased access to the township and region, which greatly expanded the population. Today commuter train service is being restored by New Jersey Transit, which is building a station on the old railroad line. In addition to serving as a residential community, Union has some light industry, although the largest employers are ScheringPlough Corporation and Kean University. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Johnson, David Alan, comp. Union. Bath [England]; Augusta, ME: Alan Sutton; dist. Dover, NH: Berwick Books, .

Jean-Rae Turner

Unitarian Universalist Church. Unitarian Universalism originated in two Protestant movements: Unitarianism (named for the doctrine of God as unity rather than trinity) and Universalism (named for the doctrine of the final salvation of all souls). This liberal, creedless religion is characterized by individual freedom, congregational polity, and a commitment to social justice.

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The Englishman John Murray first preached Universalism in the American colonies in  at Good-Luck Point, Barnegat Bay. Efforts to establish Universalism in New Jersey had little success until a church was started in Newark in . By , there were seven churches in the state. Unitarianism came to New Jersey from New England, where it predated by a century the founding of the American Unitarian Association in . Early churches were in Feltville (), Jersey City (), and Vineland (). The majority of existing Unitarian Universalist congregations originated in two periods of Unitarian organizing, from  to  and in the s and s. In the first period churches were established in older cities and suburbs, such as Plainfield, Orange, Ridgewood, Montclair, Summit, and Trenton. In the second, they were organized in developing postwar suburbs, including East Brunswick, Middletown, Cherry Hill, and Princeton. Congregations continue to be formed in newer suburbs. Unitarian Universalism, although a relatively small religious movement, is growing. In  there were , members in twenty-three congregations throughout New Jersey. Miller, Russell E. The Larger Hope: The First Century of the Universalist Church in America, – . Boston: Unitarian Universalist Association, . Robinson, David. The Unitarians and the Universalists. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, . Wright, Conrad, ed. A Stream of Light: A Sesquicentennial History American Unitarianism. Boston: Unitarian Universalist Association, .

See also religion

Anthony P. Johnson

U.S. Army Electronics

CommunicationsMuseum. Artifacts

and photographs in the museum at Fort Monmouth tell the story of the army post’s pioneering work, since , in electroniccommunications technology. It was at Fort Monmouth that the first radio-equipped meteorological balloon rose into the upper reaches of the atmosphere in . Other contributions have been the development of aircraft detection radars in , and the bouncing of a radar pulse off the Moon in , proving the feasibility of space communication and marking the dawn of the space age. Among the museum artifacts is a model of the first solar-powered communications satellite, used by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to broadcast a Christmas message to the world in . Memorabilia in the museum illustrate a now-vanished and little-known aspect of the army facility, the training of thousands of message-carrying homing pigeons for service in World Wars I and II and the Korean War. On display is a pigeon, G. I. Joe, whose exploits in World War II earned him a British medal for

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U.S. Coast Guard

gallantry and a citation from the Congress of the United States. See also Fort Monmouth

William M. Gordon

U.S. Coast Guard.

The nation’s oldest continuous seagoing force (founded in ) is responsible for protecting life and property at sea and for enforcing maritime laws. A branch of the armed services, the Coast Guard operates in peacetime as part of the Department of Transportation; in wartime as part of the U.S. Navy. The service of today has its roots in five separate predecessor agencies— the Revenue Cutter Service, the Lighthouse Service, the Steamboat Inspection Service, the Bureau of Navigation, and the Life-Saving Service. These agencies started out independent but over time were moved around among various government bureaus and given new names. Eventually, in the early twentieth century, they were finally all linked together under the umbrella term Coast Guard. The process of consolidation was started on January , , when the Life-Saving Service and the Revenue Cutter Service combined to form the Coast Guard. Since New Jersey has a coastline of  miles in length—some of it particularly dangerous— a significant portion of the history of the Coast Guard has New Jersey connections. When the passenger ship Mexico ran aground there in , taking  lives, it clearly showed the need for organized search and rescue. New Jersey Congressman William Newell later sponsored a bill to construct a series of huts along the coast to shelter shipwreck survivors as well

as to provide some equipment to be used by volunteers. His efforts led to the creation of the Life-Saving Service. One of the most colorful chapters in the history of Coast Guard law enforcement in New Jersey was the “War on Rum’’ during Prohibition ( to ). The rumrunners used highly maneuverable speedboats, and the Coast Guard was hard-pressed to catch them. At present there are three major Coast Guard installations in New Jersey. At Bayonne there is an aids-to-navigation team responsible for installing and maintaining beacons, buoys, and fog signals. Bayonne is home to a -foot coastal buoy tender, two -foot patrol craft, and two -foot icebreaking tugs, also used for search and rescue, law enforcement, marine environmental protection, and support for aids-to-navigation activities. At Sandy Hook there are two -foot cutters— fast, sturdy, highly maneuverable, and capable of operating in heavy seas. In Cape May, there is a training center where about five thousand recruits per year learn discipline and seamanship in an eight-week program. Notably, Cape May is home to two -foot mediumendurance cutters. Both spend much time at sea for offshore law enforcement. Cape May is also home to three patrol boats. In addition to these three major installations, there is an air station with five helicopters at Atlantic City as well as a number of small Coast Guard stations up and down the Jersey Shore. Johnson, Robert Erwin. Guardians of the Sea: History of the United States Coast Guard,  to the Present. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, . Krietemeyer, George E. Coast Guardsman’s Manual. th ed. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, . Noble, Dennis L. Lifeboat Sailors: Inside the Coast Guard’s Small Boat Stations. Washington, DC: Brassey’s, . Pearcy, Arthur. A History of U.S. Coast Guard Aviation. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, .

Angus Kress Gillespie

United States Equestrian Team. The United States Equestrian Team (USET) was organized in . Its headquarters is located on Pottersville Road west of U.S.  in Bedminster. The USET has principal responsibility for selecting, training, and fielding teams and individuals to represent the United States in the Olympic and Pan American Games, the World Championships, and other major international equestrian events in the sports of dressage, driving, endurance riding, eventing, reining, and show jumping. The USET has won forty-four Olympic medals, including nine golds, since . It has won sixty medals in Pan American Games competition, including thirty golds, from  to . The team sponsors the Festival of Champions in late June. Coast Guard fireboat pouring water on a burning barge on the Hackensack River, Jersey City, .

Photo: Steve Andrascik. Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

Jaffer, Nancy, ed. Riding for America: The United States Equestrian Team. New York: Doubleday, .

See also horse

John Fritz

United States Golf Association Museum. Since , this museum has been the caretaker of the history of golf in the United States. It is located at the United States Golf Association (USGA) headquarters in Far Hills. The archive, with thirty thousand objects, has grown into the finest public collection of golf memorabilia, equipment, and artwork in the world. The museum’s displays contain thousands of interesting and historic artifacts. Some featured exhibitions include antique golf equipment, clubs of USGA champions, a replica clubmaker’s studio, and a Golf House Theater. Perhaps the most popular item on display is the famous “Moon Club,’’ used on the lunar surface by Alan Shepard on the Apollo XIV mission. The museum also celebrates the lives and accomplishments of individuals who shaped the game. Special rooms are dedicated to Bobby Jones, Francis Ouimet, and Ben Hogan, each displaying personal artifacts and equipment. See also golf

Andrew C. Mutch

USS Akron. In , contracts were signed with the Goodyear-Zeppelin Corporation for a scouting airship capable of launching and retrieving airplanes. In the s, the naval problem was to find enemy forces. The lighterthan-air “carrier’’ was an at-sea instrument of very long-range reconnaissance. Commissioned in October  at Naval Air Station Lakehurst, USS Akron (ZRS-) was then the world’s largest aircraft. The first commanding officer was Lt. Comdr. Charles E. Rosendahl. Unfortunately, the Akron logged only two strategic exercises before she foundered off Sea Girt on the night of April –, , in severe storm conditions. Seventy-three men were lost with her. The crash helped undermine political support for large dirigibles—the beginning of the end for the rigid airship in the United States. Althoff, William F. Sky Ships: A History of the Airship in the United States Navy. New York: Orion Books, . Smith, Richard K. The Airships Akron and Macon: Flying Aircraft Carriers of the United States Navy. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, .

See also airships

William Althoff

Unity Concerts of New Jersey.

For decades the preeminent presenting series in northern New Jersey, Unity Institute, as it was known, was established by the Unitarian Church of Montclair in . Its first season included performances by legendary violinist Fritz Kreisler, cellist Pablo Casals, and pianist Sergei Rachmaninoff. Top soloists, including Metropolitan Opera singers in recital, instrumentalists, chamber groups, and international orchestras performed in Montclair school auditoriums. In , Unity Concerts

University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey

The navy airship USS Akron in front of a mooring mast at Lakehurst Naval Station, Lakehurst, .

U.S. Navy photo via Navy Lakehurst Historical Society. separated from the church and became an independently run, nonprofit group. In the late s, with audiences siphoned off by several new presenters in the state, the Unity Series became more education-oriented and jazz friendly while continuing a more modest classical performing series. See also classical music

Willa Conrad

Universal Negro Improvement Association. The largest worldwide mass movement of persons of African descent, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was founded in  in Jamaica by the Jamaican black nationalist Marcus Mosiah Garvey. He brought the UNIA to the United States in . By , the organization was incorporated in New York and had established its official organ, the Negro World, a weekly newspaper, and the Black Star Line, a steamship company for facilitating travel and commercial ties between Africa and its diaspora. At its peak, the UNIA had many thousands of members and sympathizers in more than fifty countries in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Under the theme “African Redemption,’’ the UNIA emphasized racial pride and unity, self-reliance, and Africa’s development through the repatriation of some descendants. Garvey’s arrest in  for mail fraud helped to precipitate the UNIA’s decline. In , on questionable evidence, Garvey was convicted and sentenced to a maximum five years in jail and a $, fine. President Calvin Coolidge commuted his sentence in , and Garvey

was deported immediately to Jamaica. In  he relocated to London, where he died in . New Jersey was a major center of UNIA activity, with chapters in Asbury Park, Atlantic City, Bayonne, Burlington City, Camden, Cliffwood, East Orange, Egg Harbor, Elizabeth, Glassboro, Hackensack, Jersey City, Kenilworth, Milmay, Montclair, Newark, Perth Amboy, Pleasantville, Rahway, Roselle, Scotch Plains, Trenton, Vauxhall, Westwood, Whitesboro, Wildwood, Woodbine, and Woodbridge. Cronon, Edmund David. Black Moses: The Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, . Hill, Robert A., ed. The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers. Vols. –. Berkeley: University of California Press, –. Martin, Tony. Race First: The Ideological and Organizational Struggles of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, .

Giles R. Wright

University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. The University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ) was established by the Medical and Dental Education Act, signed into law on June , . The legislation created the College of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (CMDNJ). Stanley S. Bergen Jr., M.D., was appointed its first president the following year. In  the name of the institution was changed to the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. Today UMDNJ consists of eight schools— New Jersey Dental School, New Jersey Medical

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School, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, School of Osteopathic Medicine, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, School of Nursing, School of Public Health, and School of Health Related Professions. These schools operate around the state on campuses in Camden, Newark, New Brunswick– Piscataway, Stratford, and Scotch Plains. UMDNJ also houses a host of centers, institutes, and other units, including University Hospital, University Behavioral Healthcare, the Cancer Institute of New Jersey, the Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, the Center for Applied Genomics, the Child Health Institute of New Jersey, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, National Tuberculosis Center, University Headache Center, and Violence Institute of New Jersey. UMDNJ has major affiliation agreements with Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital, Cooper Hospital–University Medical Center, and Kennedy Hospitals–University Medical Center, which act as core teaching hospitals. In sum, UMDNJ is the largest freestanding health science university in the nation, with , alumni, , currently enrolled students, and , full- and part-time faculty. This is a remarkable accomplishment for a state where medical education in general, and publicly supported medical education in particular, was late in starting. In  voters defeated a state referendum authorizing publicly funded medical and dental education. With the failure of that measure, Seton Hall University and the Archdiocese of Newark established a College of Medicine and Dentistry, the first in the state. But the lack of public funding made it impossible for Seton Hall to maintain the program, and in  the state assumed control of the college, renaming it New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry (NJCMD) and renaming its constituent units the New Jersey Medical School and the New Jersey Dental School. The NJCMD administration decided to move the medical school from Jersey City to Newark. Residents in Newark’s Central Ward feared that the new campus would take away homes and businesses, and this concern contributed to the Newark riot of . Following the riot, a series of meetings held between local residents, community organizations, and state officials resulted in the formulation of the Newark Agreements. The agreements outlined the state’s responsibility to provide primary health care to Newark residents and to offer significant educational and employment benefits to the local community. For use as a clinical teaching facility for the relocated medical school, Martland Hospital, formerly Newark City Hospital, was purchased from the city and renamed University Hospital, becoming part of the Central Ward campus. The New Jersey Dental School followed the medical school in its journey from Jersey City to Newark, arriving in . The school is noted for its pioneering work in bringing a

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Upper Deerfield

dental care network, believed to be the first of its kind in the nation, to low-income individuals throughout the state. The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences was relocated to the campus in , and in  a School of Allied Health Professions, later named the School of Health Related Professions, was established in Newark. The school offers certificate programs and bachelor of science degrees. While all of this was happening in Newark, parallel events were taking place in the New Brunswick–Piscataway area, where another of the original components of UMDNJ was located—the Robert Wood Johnson Medical School (RWJMS). RWJMS originated in  when it opened its doors as Rutgers Medical School, a two-year institution within Rutgers University that awarded the master of medical science degree. Students who completed two years of study at the RMS had to complete their clinical training at four-year medical schools. In  Rutgers Medical School was removed from the control of Rutgers and became part of the new CMDNJ. Rutgers Medical School became a fouryear, M.D.-granting institution in , and in  changed its name in honor of the health care pioneer Robert Wood Johnson III. Middlesex General Hospital, which was the core teaching hospital for the medical school, followed suit, becoming Robert Wood Johnson University Hospital. By the mid-s, medical education was readily available to students in north and central Jersey through NJMS and RWJMS and their affiliates, but development was slower in southern New Jersey. In  the state legislature authorized the establishment of a medical school in the region—the School of Osteopathic Medicine (SOM). But it was not until seventeen years later that the SOM was brought together into a single location at a campus in Stratford. The University of Medicine and Dentistry opened its seventh school, the School of Nursing, in . The school operates in Newark and Stratford, and has joint programs with several New Jersey colleges. The School of Public Health, the eighth and newest school, was approved by the UMDNJ board of trustees in . Bergen, Stanley J., Jr. “Medical Education of New Jersey: The Development of UMDNJ.’’ Journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey  (): –. Densky-Wolff, Lois R. The First Quarter Century: UMDNJ, –. Newark: University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, .

See also higher education; medicine and public health

Lois R. Densky-Wolff

Upper Deerfield.

A .-square-mile township in northern Cumberland County, set off from Deerfield Township in . Locales within the township include Husted, Orchard Center, Seeley, Deerfield, Woodruff,

and Seabrook. Deerfield, referred to by locals as Deerfield Street, was settled in the early eighteenth century by residents of Fairfield Township. Woodruff, once a railroad station, was named for John S. Woodruff, its first postmaster. Orchard Center, a grain storage site in the s, was formerly the site of a series of warehouses used to store the products of peach and apple orchards, as well as seasonal housing for migrant agricultural laborers. The township is notable for the Seabrook Educational and Cultural Center, housed in the Upper Deerfield Municipal Building, a museum dedicated to preserving the cultural history of the region. The center recounts the history of the Seabrook Farms Company, and the internment of hundreds of Japanese Americans in western states between  and . Artifacts, photos, and oral histories focus on the settlement and community life of Seabrook (especially at its height in the s and s), its diverse ethnic groups, and important cultural institutions. Into the late twentieth century, the township remained largely rural, characterized by forests, swamps, and farmland. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Palmer, Alan F. This Place Called Home: An Illustrated History of the Township of Upper Deerfield in the County of Cumberland, State of New Jersey. Upper Deerfield: Township Committee, .

Gail Greenberg

Upper

Freehold. .-square-mile township in westernmost Monmouth County, organized circa  from Freehold Township. The township is located only a few miles from the Delaware River at Bordentown, which made the area appealing to Pennsylvanians. It is obscure, however, to most of the rest of the county. The township remained rural and sparsely settled to the end of the twentieth century. Small villages dot agrarian areas. These villages include Imlaystown, built around Saltars Mill in the s, now a National Register Historic District, and one that has changed little in more than three-quarters of a century. A second village is Walnford, the seat of the former vast estate of Philadelphian Richard Waln. The operating mill and house are now the historic center of the Monmouth County Park System’s Crosswicks Creek Park, which interprets mill life around . A third village, Cream Ridge, named for the range of hills across the center of the township, developed a dairy industry in the s. Other communities include Hornerstown, Ellisdale, and Arneystown, the latter on the former provincial dividing line between East and West Jersey provinces, and on the Burlington County border. Upper Freehold is near a four-county confluence also embracing Ocean and Mercer counties. A demand to develop challenges the township at the start of the twenty-first

century, although active participation in farmland preservation is helping retain its rural character. The  Upper Freehold population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gabrielan, Randall. Allentown and Upper Freehold Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, . Upper Freehold Township: A Survey of the Life, Resources, and Government of a New Jersey Rural Township, with a Program for Improvement. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Agriculture, .

Randall Gabrielan

Upper

Pittsgrove. -square-mile township lying along the Gloucester County border in southeast Salem County. Upper Pittsgrove was initially formed in  from Pittsgrove Township. In  parts were annexed to Elmer Borough and Pittsgrove Township, and the following year additional land also went to Pittsgrove. In  a final boundary adjustment was made, by annexing territory back from Pittsgrove. Settlements within the township include New Freedom, Shirley, Swing’s Corners, Whig Lane, Slabtown, and Daretown. It is the location of the Old Pittsgrove Presbyterian Church, established in ; of Fox’s Mill, the last water-powered mill in Salem County; and the present-day meeting place of area Boy Scouts. Pole Tavern marks the location of the first regularly equipped military barracks organized for defense in New Jersey. Many of the early eighteenth-century homes are of Dutch and Swedish architectural styles. Today the towns are largely residential, with about  percent of land used for farming. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Myers, William Starr, ed. The Story of New Jersey. Vol. . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gail Greenberg

Upper Saddle River.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County, bordering New York State to the north. Upper Saddle River was formed from land taken from Orvil and Ho-Ho-Kus townships, and incorporated as a borough in . Upper Saddle River is named for the river that runs through the community, with various explanations for the origin of the river’s name. It was most likely named by the seventeenth-century explorers Capt. Matthew Nicoll and Richard Stillwell for Saddle Burn in Argyleshire. The first European settlers were Dutch and French Huguenots. A farming community until the turn of the twentieth century, its primary crops were apples and strawberries. The borough was also a popular vacation and summer home for wealthy New Yorkers. The population declined in the early

urbanization part of the century, until a post–World War II increase. One of the most affluent communities in the nation, Upper Saddle River is zoned for single-family residences on one-acre plots. Much of its commercial area is limited to Route , which runs through the borough. One of the few stores in Upper Saddle River, Elmer’s Country Store, serves as a central meeting place. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

forty-five-acre campus in East Orange. Founded as a liberal arts college, Upsala offered more than twenty academic programs. Enrollment peaked at about two thousand during the s and dwindled to  by the s. Mounting financial debts brought on by increased operating costs and decreased endowment levels, combined with low enrollment perpetuated by competition from other local colleges and universities, contributed to Upsala’s official closure on May , .

Beaudet, Charlotte. Early Days of Upper Saddle River. Upper Saddle River: Upper Saddle River Library, .

Lawson, Evald Benjamin. Pages from the Early History of Upsala College. East Orange: Upsala College, n.d.

Yeomans, William N. The Lore of Upper Saddle River, From Prehistoric Times to the Present . . . Prepared in Honor of the Upper Saddle River Centennial, , by the Upper Saddle River Historical Society. Upper Saddle River: Upper Saddle River Historical Society, .

Susan Chore

Upper Township. -square-mile township in Cape May County. In  the upper precinct of Cape May County, formed in , became Upper Township, a collection of distinct communities scattered over the inland, northern portion of the county. Descendants of whalers settled the area, and dominated business and political decisions for generations. The Leamings, Townsends, and other Quaker families were among the founders of the Society of Friends who built the Friends Meeting House in . It is still used for First Day services, and is a historic site in Seaville. Shipbuilding and sawmills along the Tuckahoe River were important industries. During the Revolutionary War bog iron was mined in Tuckahoe, and in the s Marshallville had a thriving glass factory. Today, many of the oldest homes in the county are located on the stretch of Route  in Upper Township. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara St. Clair

Upsala College. Now defunct, this church-affiliated four-year college was located in East Orange. It was founded in  under the auspices of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and named after Uppsala University in Sweden. The original campus was located in Brooklyn, New York, where sixteen students attended the first day of class on October , . A year later the operation moved to Manhattan, where it remained until , when the institute was incorporated and transferred to New Orange (present-day Kenilworth). By  Upsala enrolled three hundred students on its recently acquired

Calman, Alvin. Upsala College: The Early Years. New York: Vantage Press, .

See also higher education

Alan Delozier

urbanization.

Urbanization in New Jersey is a result of geography, industrialization, and changing transportation systems. These factors made New Jersey the most urban state in the nation, in the year , with a population density of ,. persons per square mile. Ten years earlier, in , the state had the nation’s second highest proportion of urban population with . percent, or ,, of the state’s ,, people. New Jersey’s largest cities are small, and its smaller municipalities are many. The largest city, Newark, had only , inhabitants in , after declining from a peak of , in . A history of state legislative apportionment by county, rather than by township, along with permissive incorporation laws, have resulted in  independent municipalities. Such multiplicity stymied the annexation efforts of New Jersey’s growing urban centers and kept them geographically small. This combination of urban concentration, urban sprawl, small cities, and multiple municipalities has created a thickly settled area that stretches northward from Gloucester and Atlantic counties to the New Jersey–New York border, and eastward from the Delaware River to the shores of the Hudson River and the Atlantic Ocean. Geography made New Jersey the shortest and easiest land route between New York City and Philadelphia, and inextricably linked the Garden State to the economies, peoples, and transportation networks of these cities. From the beginning, New Jersey became the place for whatever did not fit in either city, or whatever moved to and from each of them. Colonial towns were located on navigable waterways to facilitate commerce in farm and mining products. By the s, as ferries, canals, steamboats, and railroads lessened the time and cost of travel, some towns became commuter suburbs linked by ferry and passenger trains to Philadelphia and New York City. Other towns began manufacturing goods for the growing markets of New York and Philadelphia and eventually the rest of the nation. Waterpower, steam, and railroads spurred development of

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new mills, factories, and transport facilities along the Passaic, Raritan, Delaware, and Hudson rivers. These resources attracted nativeborn and immigrant workers, transforming villages into factory towns, and towns into cities. By the s, urban and industrial concentration had spread down from Paterson on the Passaic to the Amboys on the Raritan, and outward from both Trenton and Camden on the Delaware, creating a combination of core cities and surrounding suburbs across the rivers from New York City and Philadelphia. In , the “Big Six’’ cities of Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, Trenton, Camden, and Elizabeth had a total population of ,, or . percent of the state’s ,, people. Ten years later, New Jersey had an urban population of ,,, or . percent of its ,, residents, and was well on its way to becoming the most urban state. After , the automobile spurred urbanization in the Garden State, even though its larger cities declined. A ring of independent municipalities kept New Jersey cities within their borders, forcing their excess population and jobs out to the surrounding towns, and creating new automobile suburbs away from the railroads. World War I military production and the radio, automobile, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries of the s fueled city economies until the Depression of the s. World War II defense contracts revived the older cities for a while, but their decline continued after the war as manufacturing languished and urban dwellers left for newer housing, more space, and often employment in the suburbs. The housing vacated by former residents became homes for the next migrants to northern cities—blacks from the American South, the Caribbean, and Africa and Hispanics from the Caribbean and Latin America. By the s, Newark, Elizabeth, Jersey City, Paterson, Camden, Trenton, and others had fewer jobs and higher tax rates than their suburbs, continuing the exodus of upwardly mobile white residents. By , the total population of the “Big Six’’ cities decreased to ,—a mere . percent of the state’s ,, residents. By the late twentieth century, computer technology and the shift from industrial manufacturing to a service and managerial economy had lessened the need for urban centers. No longer vital to the state’s economy, Camden, Paterson, and even Trenton and Newark became keepers of the poor. Sprawl continued beyond the urban core as more cars, highways, and river crossings to New York City and Philadelphia fostered another round of suburban growth. From  on, the New Jersey Turnpike, the Garden State Parkway, and other federal and state highways opened up Bergen, Passaic, Union, Morris, Middlesex, Monmouth, Ocean, Mercer, and Camden counties to new homes, shopping malls, businesses, and traffic snarls, and

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Urner, Charles A.

intensified the urban density in Essex and Hudson counties. More immigration—this time including people from Russia, Asia, and the Middle East—and the economic prosperity of the s filled in the older suburbs, increased the population in the older cities of Paterson, Passaic, Elizabeth, Hoboken, and Jersey City, and also revitalized Jersey City and Elizabeth. Development spread into Somerset, Hunterdon, parts of Burlington and Gloucester, and later Warren and Sussex counties. This created a continuous sprawl of bedroom and corporate communities across New Jersey, often with no clear distinction between urban and suburban. By the twenty-first century, urbanization in New Jersey had brought about a multicentered, ethnically diverse urban region, which encompassed the whole state. Karcher, Alan J. New Jersey’s Multiple Municipal Madness. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Schwartz, Joel, and Daniel Prosser, eds. Cities of the Garden State: Essays in the Urban and Suburban History of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, . Stansfield, Charles A., Jr. A Geography of New Jersey: The City in the Garden. d ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

was a member of the American Ornithologists Union from  and founded what is now called the Urner Ornithological Club in . He died of a heart attack in . See also bird-watching

William J. Boyle, Jr.

utopian communities.

New Jersey’s favorable climate, soil, and proximity to New York and Philadelphia have made it an ideal location for various ideology-based communities. The earliest of these were the Fourierist North American Phalanx () and Raritan Bay Union () in Monmouth County. Smithville, the Burlington County

UTOPIAN COMMUNITIES

ENGLEWOOD BERKELEY HEIGHTS

PERTH AMBOY

SOUTH STELTON RED BANK ROOSEVELT

Evelyn Gonzalez

OCEAN GROVE

PHILA. d. June , ).

NYC

PISCATAWAY

See also sprawl; suburbanization

Urner, Charles A.

RADBURN

(b. March , ;

Naturalist and amateur ornithologist. Charles Urner’s early passion was “The Medders,’’ the great salt marsh lying between Newark and Elizabeth, an area that was rich in birds, mammals, and estuarine plants. A businessman by profession, Urner became the leader of a small band of active, enthusiastic bird-watchers who explored and documented bird-life in the highlands and marshes of northern New Jersey. He

BROTMANVILLE VINELAND

NORMA

SMITHVILLE

Brandes, Joseph. Immigrants to Freedom: Jewish Communities in Rural New Jersey since . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, .

N

Guarneri, Carl J. The Utopian Alternative: Fourierism in Nineteenth-Century America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, .

CARMEL ROSENHAYN WOODBINE

manufacturing town, was designed by its founder to be a model community, as was Vineland in Cumberland County, which was begun in  as a business investment. In  Ocean Grove in Monmouth County was established as a Methodist resort. By the late nineteenth century, mass immigration, the pressures of industrialization, and the importation of radical ideas from Europe brought forth new types of communities. In  Eastern European Jewish immigrants, inspired by the Am Olam back-to-the-land movement and supported by private philanthropy, settled Alliance, three miles from Vineland, in Cumberland County. It was soon joined by the nearby communities of Brotmanville, Norma, Carmel, and Rosenhayn, and by Woodbine in Cape May County. In the early twentieth century, cooperative socialists founded Fellowship Farm in Piscataway, Middlesex County. Across the road, anarchists flocked to the Modern School and Ferrer Colony in North Stelton. The writer Upton Sinclair’s Helicon Home Colony (– ) in Englewood was based on feminist and cooperative ideals. Free Acres, a singletax colony, was established in Berkeley Heights in . Other experiments in the twentieth century included Radburn in Bergen County, the first planned community for the automobile age (), and Roosevelt in western Monmouth County, created during the New Deal ().

0

20 miles

@Rutgers, The State University

Stellhorn, Paul A., ed. Planned and Utopian Experiments: Four New Jersey Towns. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Fernanda Helen Perrone

V Vail, Alfred

(b. Sept. , ; d. Jan. ,

).

Inventor. Alfred Vail was born in Morristown, the son of Judge Stephen Vail and Bertha Young. As Samuel F. B. Morse’s assistant between  and , Vail was important to the development of telegraphy. He greatly improved Morse’s instruments, working on them at the Speedwell complex in Morristown. Vail also headed the construction of the first telegraph line in May . While some believe that Vail invented “Morse’’ code, he never claimed it, publicly or privately, as his invention. Poor health forced him into semiretirement in . He married Jane Elizabeth Cummings in ; she died in . He then married Amanda Eno in . They had three sons: Stephen, James Cummings, and George Rochester. Vail died in Morristown. Harlow, Alvin. Old Wires and New Waves: The History of the Telegraph, Telephone, and Wireless. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Israel, Paul. From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, –. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Vail, J. Cummings. Early History of the ElectroMagnetic Telegraph from Letters and Journals of Alfred Vail. New York: Hine Brothers, .

See also Historic Speedwell; telegraph

David Hochfelder

as the Passaic Park Trust Company in . In  it adopted the name Valley National Bank and in  Valley National Bancorp was formed. Since , Valley National has acquired Mayflower Financial Corporation, Peoples Bancorp, Rock Financial Corporation, Lakeland First Financial Group, Midland Bancorporation, Wayne Bancorp, Ramapo Financial Corporation, and Merchants New York Bancorp. As of June , , Valley National had  branches in New Jersey, with over $ billion in deposits. See also banking

Ann Kessler

valleys. Valleys are low-lying land surrounded by higher ground, usually located between ranges of hills, and often containing a stream. They generally result from stream erosion, but may also be developed by faulting in the earth’s crust. Valleys offer natural routes for transportation. Old Mine Road in the Minisink Valley in northwestern New Jersey and New York was built by early Dutch settlers as a means of moving copper from Kittatinny Mountain to markets in the Hudson, and the Millstone Valley in central New Jersey served as the route for the Delaware and Raritan Canal in the early nineteenth century. Strahler Alan H., and Arthur N. Strahler. Physical Geography. New York: Wiley, . Wacker, Peter O. The Musconetcong Valley of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also geography

Robert M. Hordon

Valley Hospital. In , residents of Ridgewood in northeast Bergen County began planning for a hospital to serve the Ramapo Valley area. The Ridgewood Hospital was incorporated at that time, but the charter was forfeited in  for nonpayment of state taxes. In , the Ridgewood Hospital Association was incorporated; the name was changed to the Valley Hospital in . Despite a series of daunting setbacks and challenges, the Valley Hospital was finally opened in . While the original construction was under way, the women’s auxiliary was able to raise sufficient funds to add and equip an extra floor. In , the hospital became affiliated with the Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in New York City. Currently, the Valley Hospital has expanded into a -bed facility offering a range of services, including a Community Hospital Comprehensive Cancer Program, a Center for Childbirth, and state-of-the-art cardiologic diagnostic and surgical services. See also hospitals and hospital systems Sandra Moss

Valley National Bancorp. Valley National Bankcorp has grown since its founding

Valli, Frankie

(b. May , ). Singer. Francis Stephen Castelluccio was born in Newark on May , . As Frankie Valli, he forged a successful career in rock and roll with the Four Seasons. Raised in Newark’s North Ward, he attended public schools, worked as a maintenance man for the Housing Authority, and sang nights at The Silhouette, a local club. After performing for over a decade, Valli and company scored four number-one hits from  to . They were one of two American groups (with the Beach Boys) to survive the “British Invasion’’ of the early s. Their success has been attributed to the strong falsetto and three-octave range of Valli, the group’s tight doo-wop harmonies, the songwriting skill of pianist Bob Gaudio, and excellent production. Their recording career spans five decades; the Four Seasons is the only group to have at least one hit in so many consecutive decades. Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in . With sales over  million records worldwide, they are the most successful white doo-wop group in rock and roll history.

Gribin, Anthony J., and Matthew M. Schiff. The Complete Book of Doo-Wop. Iola, WI: Krause Publications, . McKeen, William, ed. Rock and Roll Is Here to Stay: An Anthology. New York: W. W. Norton, . Stambler, Irwin, ed. The Encyclopedia of Pop, Rock, and Soul. New York: St. Martin’s Press, . Ward, Ed, Geoffrey Stokes, and Ken Tucker. Rock of Ages: The Rolling Stone History of Rock and Roll. New York: Rolling Stone Press (Summit Books), .

See also pop music

Roger H. Wesby

Vanderbilt, Arthur T.

(b. July , ;

d. June , ).

Lawyer and chief justice of the state supreme court. Arthur T. Vanderbilt was the older of two sons of Lewis Vanderbilt, a Western Union telegraph operator in Newark, and Alice Leach Vanderbilt. He graduated from high school in , spent a year working on a railroad surveying crew to earn money for college, and began his studies at Wesleyan University in Connecticut in . He worked his way through college with a series of part-time jobs, but was able to become student body president, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in  with a B.A. and M.A. He completed Columbia University School of Law in , working his way through by teaching high school classes in Newark every night. Upon graduation from Columbia, Vanderbilt married his high school sweetheart, Florence Althen. They had five children: three daughters and twin sons. For the next three decades he simultaneously pursued three careers. He opened a practice of law in Newark and became a prominent trial and appellate attorney, representing insurance companies, corporations, and banks, as well as handling pro bono a number of landmark civil liberties cases including State v. Butterworth () and Thomas v. Casey (). He was regarded as a “lawyer’s lawyer’’—an attorney to whom other lawyers would refer their most difficult cases. During his career he argued more cases in the New Jersey state and federal courts than any other lawyer. During this same period, he taught at New York University School of Law two nights each week, becoming a full professor in , and teaching during those three decades almost every course in the curriculum. In , he became dean, and spearheaded a drive to make NYU one of the top ten law schools in the nation, a drive that resulted in hiring prominent faculty members, establishing scholarships to attract the best students, developing an extensive publication program, founding a number of institutes, and starting a building campaign. The new building for the Law School was later named Arthur T. Vanderbilt Hall. He developed at the school the concept of a law center, an institution where scholars, judges, lawyers, and business and labor leaders could collaborate on the systematic and continuous revision and modernization of the law. Also during the same period, from  to , he became actively involved in 831

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Republican politics, putting together an insurgent slate of candidates (the “Clean Government’’ party) that took control of the government of Essex County, the state’s most populous county, and held power for over three decades. During these years, Vanderbilt served as county counsel and as the political leader of the New Jersey Republican party. Vanderbilt was appointed chairman of the New Jersey Judicial Council in , and began a seventeen-year movement to modernize the state’s antiquated courts and state government. He carried his campaign to improve the administration of justice to the nation’s courts as president of the American Bar Association (–), and served on federal committees that resulted in the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, the Administrative Procedure Act, and the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. After several failed efforts, the citizens of New Jersey adopted a new state constitution on November , . Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll appointed Vanderbilt chief justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court in . As administrative head of the courts, he worked to streamline the administration of justice, and the New Jersey court system became a model for other states and nations intent on improving their judicial systems. For his work, he was awarded thirty-one honorary degrees and the Gold Medal of the American Bar Association. Dean Roscoe Pound declared him “entitled to a high place among those who have raised our institutions of justice to their highest possibilities,’’ and legal historian Bernard Schwartz ranked him as one of the ten greatest judges in American history.

obtained from the Motor Vehicle Services Special Plate Unit for a one-time fee of $ (which went down from $ in January ), plus the regular registration fee. A minimum of three and maximum of seven characters (letters or numbers) are allowed, as long as no combination is considered offensive. Specialinterest plates, such as Discover N.J. History, Conquer Cancer, and Wildlife Preservation, are also available.

Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg and Irmari Nacht

d. date unknown). Woman suffrage advocate and state legislator. In , when the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association reorganized as the New Jersey League of Women Voters, Jennie Carolyn Van Ness directed the league’s sixth region in Essex County, and helped draw up a state program of legislative issues for study. She was one of the first women elected to the state assembly. In the  legislature, Van Ness, a Republican, served on the standing committees for Education and Unfinished Business, and on the joint committees for the Industrial School for Girls, the School for Feeble-Minded Children, and the State Library. She was defeated in her next run for the legislature because of her strong stand in favor of Prohibition enforcement. Gordon, Felice. After Winning: The Legacy of the New Jersey Suffragists, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also woman suffrage

Gloria S. Dittman and Susan B. Welsh

Vanderbilt, Arthur T. II. Changing Law: A Biography of Arthur T. Vanderbilt. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Van Ness, Marjorie Schuyler (b. July

Arthur T. Vanderbilt II

vanity plates.

New Jersey offers its residents the opportunity to express their creativity on their license plates. Some amusing or interesting plates seen on New Jersey roads include EATDUST, NO COOK, SUSHI, SMILE, and B GRFL. Personalized plates may be

Jackson, Charles S. The Van Riper Hopper House Museum of Wayne, New Jersey. Wayne: Wayne Township Historical Commission, . Lenik, Edward J. The Archaeology of Wayne. Wayne: Wayne Township Historical Commission, .

See also museums

Kevin Olsen

Van Ness, Jennie Carolyn (b. c. ;

Gerhart, Eugene C. Arthur T. Vanderbilt: The Compleat Counselor. Albany, NY: Q Corporation, .

See also chief justice

porch and dormers are nineteenth-century additions. A frame addition is believed to have housed slaves and is now the curator’s apartment. It became the Van Riper–Hopper House after Andrew Hopper married Uriah’s great-granddaughter Mary Van Riper in .

, ; d. Jan. , ). Public official and agricultural activist. Appointed by Gov. William Cahill in , Marjorie Schuyler Van Ness was the first woman member of the New Jersey Board of Agriculture. The recipient of many awards for her promotion of local agricultural efforts, she also founded and served as president of the American Saddlebred Horse Association of New Jersey and president of the New Jersey Horse Council. She was married to banker Eugene Van Ness, had three children, and lived in Annandale, where she raised horses and cattle on her seventeen-acre farm. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Margaret M. Sumner

Van Saun Park. This -acre Bergen County park, located in Paramus, has among its many attractions the Van Saun Park Zoo and a miniature railroad. The zoo features seventy-five kinds of animals, including fifteen species of reptiles. The unique habitat of the Hackensack Meadowlands has been re-created in a ,-square-foot free-flight aviary, the largest of its style in the Northeast. The miniature train, a replica of an  locomotive, pulls canopied coaches in a loop around the zoo and past a fully stocked s farmyard scene. The park’s Washington Spring was a water source for the Continental Army during an encampment in September . Linda J. Barth

Van Twiller, Wouter

(b. c. ; d. Aug.

).

Director general of New Netherland. Wouter Van Twiller was the nephew of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, an important patroon on the Hudson River, and a director of the Dutch West India Company. Van Twiller’s short administration as director general of New Netherland (–) was marked by the loss of Dutch control over two trading posts in Connecticut at today’s Hartford and Saybrook to the English, but he did succeed in preventing English settlement along the Delaware River and in maintaining cordial relations with the Indians. His recommendation that the company focus on cattle raising and agriculture, rather than trade, was unacceptable to his profit-minded superiors, who recalled him. ANB. O’Callaghan, E. B., and Berthold Fernow, eds. Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York. Albany, NY: Weed, Parsons, .

See also New Netherland

Firth Haring Fabend

Vaughan, Sarah Lois

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Apr. , ). Jazz singer and pianist. Born in

Van

Vanity license plates make driving on New Jersey roads an interesting experience.

Photo copyright Irmari Nacht.

Riper–Hopper

Museum.

Opened to the public in , the Van Riper– Hopper House on Berdan Avenue is Wayne Township’s museum and the home of its historical commission. Uriah Van Riper completed the first portion of the house before marrying Mary (Polly) Berdan in . The walls are fieldstone with interior plaster. The

Newark, Sarah Vaughan grew up with music at home, at church, at school, and at Newark’s clubs and theaters where she heard the great jazz musicians of the era. Singer Billy Eckstine discovered her in  at Harlem’s Apollo Theater amateur night. Bandleader Earl “Fatha’’ Hines soon hired her, and in  she began barnstorming small towns and big city clubs.

Ventnor City Dubbed “Sassy’’ and “The Divine One,’’ Vaughan sang at the Garden State Arts Center, the Hollywood Bowl, the Newport Jazz Festival, and the Brussels World’s Fair, and starred in PBS’s “American Pop—The Great American Singers,’’ CBS’s “Sass and Brass,’’ and, with the New Jersey Symphony, performed in PBS’s “Rhapsody and Song—A Tribute to George Gershwin.’’ Her first million-sale record was “Broken Hearted Melody’’ (). Her many hits, including “The Lord’s Prayer,’’ “Tenderly,’’ “Send in the Clowns,’’ and “My Funny Valentine,’’ display her innovative jazz style. Vaughan married and divorced trumpeter George Treadwell, football player Clyde B. Atkins (with whom she adopted daughter Deborah), and trumpeter Waymon Reed. Reputedly, she also married restaurateur Marshall Fisher. Vaughan died of lung cancer in Hidden Hills, California. Her funeral was held at Newark’s Mount Zion Baptist Church, and she was buried in Glendale Cemetery, Bloomfield. ANB. Gourse, Leslie. Sassy: The Life of Sarah Vaughan. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, .

See also jazz

Doris B. Armstrong

vegetation.

New Jersey has much botanical diversity in a relatively small area. About , species of vascular plants were present in the state when the first Europeans arrived. Although at least thirty-two of these are now extinct in New Jersey, about eight hundred species of plants have been introduced into the state from other parts of the globe and are now more or less naturalized in it, resulting in a total flora of about , species. By comparison, West Virginia, three times the area of New Jersey, has about , species of plants; and New York, six times the area, has about , species. Of the  plant families represented in New Jersey, the largest are the aster family ( species), the grasses ( species), and the sedges ( species). Kneiskern’s beaked rush, found only in the Pinelands, is New Jersey’s only truly endemic plant species; bog asphodel, though now found only in New Jersey, once grew also in Delaware and the Carolinas. Both of these species are globally rare, though they occur in fairly large populations in New Jersey. Several other rare plants, which can still be found growing outside New Jersey, have their largest populations within it; examples are swamp pink, Pine Barrens boneset, Long’s woolgrass, and New Jersey rush. A few other plant species, including sand myrtle, spring beauty, and Pickering’s morning glory, have varieties or forms that are found only in New Jersey. New Jersey’s floristic diversity reflects the habitat diversity of the state and its location in the mid-Atlantic region. Northern New Jersey, particularly the Highlands and the Ridge and

Valley physiographic regions, is ecologically linked to New England and the Appalachians. Southern New Jersey’s Outer Coastal Plain is part of the coastal plain of eastern North America, which stretches south to Florida. Thus, although the majority of New Jersey’s plants are species that are widespread in eastern North America, the state has strong elements of both northern and southern floras. Over a hundred southern coastal plain species reach or approach the northern limit of their ranges in southern New Jersey. Some of these are Pinelands specialties, such as Pine Barrens gentian, orange milkwort, and Pine Barrens sandwort. Others, such as loblolly pine, pale hickory, and basket oak, are more typical of the forests that fringe Delaware Bay. But many are widespread, including willow oak, sweet bay magnolia, and persimmon. Northern New Jersey has several hundred plants of northern affinity that reach the southeastern limit of their ranges there, although many of them can be found farther south at higher elevations in the Appalachian Mountains. Again, some are plants of restricted habitats, such as the black spruce, painted trillium, and bead lily, which are found in the cold bogs and bog forests formed in our northern counties by the glaciers of the last ice age. But many other essentially northern plants are widespread, including such species as sugar maple, eastern hemlock, and black birch that are major components of extensive plant communities. Plants of many specialized habitats add to the state’s flora. About forty species of plants, among them sea lavender, sea pink, and marsh elder, are found in New Jersey only in the salt marshes that fringe the Atlantic coast and Delaware Bay. Other plants, such as American beach grass, seaside spurge, sea rocket, beach heather, and beach pea, grow only on coastal dunes. Broad-leaved and narrow-leaved cattails, blue flag, pickerelweed, and many other species grow in the swamps and freshwater marshes that occur throughout the state. About fifty species of New Jersey’s plants are submerged aquatics, such as water milfoil and twenty-five species of pondweeds. Plants such as Parker’s pipewort, river bulrush, and wild rice can be found in the freshwater tidal marshes that occur along some of New Jersey’s larger rivers, especially the Delaware and its tributaries. Another interesting assemblage of plants, which includes Kalm’s lobelia, fringed gentian, grass of Parnassus, and a number of rare sedges and grasses, can be found around limestone fens and sinkhole ponds in northwestern New Jersey. Rock outcrops in the same region support ferns such as wall-rue spleenwort and purple cliffbrake that grow only on calcareous rocks. Probably the most familiar plants of New Jersey are the roadside species such as daisy, dandelion, red clover, and chicory. Most are

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nonnative. These have sometimes been intentionally introduced by highway departments and other government agencies, or have escaped from cultivation, but most came in unintentionally as impurities in crop seeds or as seeds mixed in bulk cargoes or as ship ballast. The majority of these plants are of European or Asian origin. Most of them are relatively benign, occupying disturbed habitats that offer little suitable habitat for our native woodland species and disappearing as a successional area grows up to forest. About a dozen species, however, including Japanese honeysuckle, Morrow honeysuckle, yam-leaved clematis, stiltgrass, the Eurasian strain of common reed, Oriental bittersweet, purple loosestrife, Japanese barberry, porcelainberry, garlic mustard, and Norway maple, are able to invade native plant communities and displace native plants. The preservation of New Jersey’s botanical diversity is important. Of our , possibly extant native plants, about  are threatened, rare, or otherwise worthy of monitoring on a statewide level by the New Jersey Heritage Program. This includes about ninety “historical’’ species that are perhaps present but for which no extant populations are known. It also includes  species that are considered endangered, which in most cases means that they have fewer than five populations, and in some cases only one small population, in the state. Most of New Jersey’s  threatened or endangered plants are species at the edges of their natural ranges and have healthy populations outside the state, but forty-two are globally rare, among them small whorled pogonia, American chaffseed, and Boykin’s lobelia. The precise environmental requirements of these plants are sometimes very poorly understood. At a minimum, these species require preservation and protection of significant areas of suitable habitat and the reestablishment or continuance of natural cycles of fire and flooding where applicable, though active management such as mowing or removal of invasive, nonnative species may become necessary. Collins, Beryl R., and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Gleason, H., and A. Cronquist. Manual of the Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. d ed. New York: New York Botanical Garden, . Stone, Witmer. The Plants of Southern New Jersey. . Reprint, Boston: Quarterman Publications, .

Karl Anderson

Ventnor City.

.-square-mile city on Absecon Island, adjacent to Atlantic City in Atlantic County. First populated in the s, Ventnor City incorporated in  from Egg Harbor Township. The residential seaside resort is named for Ventnor, a similar resort on England’s Isle of Wight. Recreation facilities center on its beach, with its adjacent boardwalk that extends Atlantic City’s famous

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Boardwalk by . miles, but is without commercial establishments. Fishing, boating, tennis, and other sports are all available. The portion of the city that contains an inland waterway has been compared to Venice. The city’s  Tudor-style municipal building is on the National Register of Historic Places, as is a collection of houses of architectural significance near the beach. The  permanent population of ,, which can double or triple in the summer, was  percent white,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Smith, Sarah Thompson. A History of Ventnor City, New Jersey. Ventnor City: N.p., .

James H. Mason

Verizon.

Verizon, a telecommunications company, is one of the world’s leading providers of communications services and is the nation’s largest provider of wireline and wireless communications. Verizon’s origins can be traced back more than a century to the early telephone companies that provided the foundations on which the world’s largest corporation, the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), was constructed. AT&T operated until  as a government-regulated telecommunications monopoly. Its nationwide Bell System of regional telephone companies was highly regarded. Following more than a dozen years of antitrust litigation by the federal government, AT&T’s operations were divided into smaller, independent companies in the divestiture of . Its Bell telephone network was divided into seven independent regional Bell operating companies, commonly known as “Baby Bells.’’ One of the newly independent companies, Philadelphia-based Bell Atlantic (which covered New Jersey), was a direct forerunner of today’s Verizon Communications. Bell Atlantic acquired New York City–based NYNEX in  and moved its headquarters to New York. In  Bell Atlantic acquired yet another major telecommunications company, the GTE Corporation, and Verizon Communications was established. Verizon Communications has more than , employees and annual revenues of over $ billion. The company is the nation’s largest provider of local telephone services. It serves sixty-seven of the top one-hundred domestic markets with wireline services and has over nine million long-distance customers. Verizon has operations in over forty countries worldwide. Within the Garden State, the company operates facilities at several locations, including Bernardsville, Chester, Morris Plains, and Newark. Verizon Wireless was formed during  as a joint venture combining the wireless operations of Verizon and Vodafone. With over thirty million customers, Verizon Wireless is

the nation’s leading provider of wireless communications services. Another Verizon company, Verizon Information Services, is the world’s largest publisher of print and online directories. See also AT&T

Donald E. Bender

Vernon.

-square-mile township in northeastern Sussex County. Vernon was set off from Hardyston Township in . Located on the western edge of the Highlands, the Vernon Valley bisects the township north-south, with Pochuck Mountain and the Wallkill River to the west. Arable land in the valleys attracted European settlers by the s, while iron ore in the mountains brought mining by the time of the Revolution. Iron mining had ceased by , but farming remained the town’s primary endeavor through the s. During the s and s, the town developed summer cabin resorts such as Lake Wallkill and Highland Lakes. Construction of a consolidated school in , along with better highway access, led to the town becoming a bedroom suburb starting in the s. The ski-resort industry came to Vernon in , and tourism and open-space recreation remain important industries. Some  percent of the town is open space, including Wawayanda State Park, the Pequannock Watershed, the Wallkill River National Wildlife Refuge, and the Appalachian Trail. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dupont, Ronald J., Jr. Vernon Two Hundred: A Bicentennial History of the Township of Vernon, New Jersey, –. McAfee: Friends of the Dorothy E. Henry Library, . Snell, James P. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Verona. .-square-mile township in Essex County. Verona and Cedar Grove seceded from Caldwell Township in  and created Verona Township. In  the residents voted to establish Verona as an incorporated borough; in  it again became a township. Its location between the First and Second Watchung Mountains provided a healthful climate that led to the creation of the Essex County Sanatorium. An important early business was the American Bronze Powder Company, begun in , the first and only such factory in the Western Hemisphere until . The powder was used in wallpaper, ink, finishes, labels, and other products. Annin and Company, the oldest and largest flagmakers in the United States, moved to Verona in . Annin is the largest industry in town, and Celentano Brothers, producer and distributor of frozen Italian foods, is the second largest. Late in the nineteenth century, Capt. Hiram

Cook decided to develop his lakefront property as a “Picnic and Pleasure Grounds,’’ building a boathouse, bathhouse, and small pavilion. Called Eden Wild, his portion of the property was sold to the Verona Lake and Park Association in . Essex County purchased the land in the s and hired the Olmsted brothers to develop what is now Verona Park. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Landsberger, Kurt, ed. Between the First and Second Mountains: Verona, New Jersey. Verona: Kurt Landsberger in cooperation with the Verona Historical Society, . Williams, Robert L. Old Verona. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Linda J. Barth

Verrazzano, Giovanni da

(b. c. ;

d. ).

Explorer. Giovanni da Verrazzano was born of Tuscan merchant nobility in either Lyons, France, or, more likely, Castello Verazzano, about thirty miles south of Florence. He was educated in Florence, and was a keen student of mathematics. After seafaring experience in the eastern Mediterranean and perhaps a voyage to Newfoundland, he was placed in command of a fleet supplied by King Francis I of France and a syndicate of Florentine merchants in Lyons. Clearly his goal was to find a northern passage to the Pacific Ocean and Asia. His letter to the king, dated July , , outlines his voyage, which began in Dieppe in late . Verrazzano reached the North American coast at Cape Fear, North Carolina, about March , , coasted south to somewhere north of Charleston, and then north to perhaps Cape Fogo in modern Canada, from which he returned to France. He touched the New Jersey coast first at Barnegat, and hugged the shoreline up to New York Bay, naming many of the coastline’s features for prominent people and places in France. New Jersey itself he declared to be “Lorraine,’’ for the powerful Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, and capes and rivers received the monikers of royal family members and military leaders. None of the names stuck, and none can even be correlated to specific places today. Verrazzano also explored New York Bay in mid-April, including the Upper Bay, but none of the rivers. After coasting along what became New England, he reached Dieppe on July , . He led two other voyages, in  and . On the first he successfully returned with Brazilian logwood (a dyestuff). He died—said to have been eaten by cannibals on Guadaloupe Island—on the second voyage. Lipinsky de Orlov, Lino S. Giovanni da Verrazzano, the Discoverer of New York Bay, : A Graphic Documentation of the Discoveries of the Great Florentine Explorer and Humanist. New York: Museum of the City of New York, . Masini, Giancarlo, and Iacopo Gori. How Florence Invented America: Vespucci, Verrazzano, and Mazzei

Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial and Vietnam Era Educational Center and Their Contribution to the Conception of the New World. Chula Vista, CA: Marin Publishing, . Morison, Samuel Eliot. The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages. New York: Oxford University Press, . Wroth, Lawrence C. The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

Joseph P. Byrne

Victor Talking Machine Company. Founded in Camden in  by Eldridge Reeves Johnson, the Victor Talking Machine Company grew to be the world’s largest manufacturer of phonographs and records. Johnson was a machinist who began improving Emile Berliner’s gramophone sound reproduction system in . The handwound disc record then “sounded very much like a partially educated parrot with a sore throat and a cold in the head.’’ Five years later, after considerable technical success with spring-wound motors and cleaner recording techniques, Johnson incorporated Victor to rationalize a disc record industry fractured by patent and commercial disputes. Together with partner Leon Douglass and other friends in the privately held company, Johnson increased the popular appeal of the disc system so much that it surpassed Thomas Edison’s cylinder phonograph in sales by . Johnson based his strategy for success on a blend of advertising, celebrity performers, continuous improvements to his products, and vertical integration of the company. By the early s, Johnson and Victor established the disc record as the leading medium for sound reproduction, driving not only Edison’s cylinder but the music box and other home music players to commercial extinction. Victor led the phonograph industry to a growth rate in the first two decades of the century surpassed only by that of the automobile. The company was known around the world for its trademark of “His Master’s Voice,’’ the image of a terrier named Nipper listening to a record on a Victor phonograph. It sold exclusive recordings of the leading operatic performers, most notably Enrico Caruso, on its $ to $ “Red Seal’’ discs, and jazz and popular performers on its -cent blacklabeled records. Middle- and upper-class consumers bought the stylish and warm-sounding enclosed-horn “Victrola’’ phonographs for $ to $ on installment plans. Ten thousand Camden workers turned African mahogany, brass, shellac, and other raw materials into hand-carved cabinets, precision playback machinery, and shiny black discs. Some ten thousand dealers around the United States sold the players and records alongside sheet music and musical instruments. The twenty years of “hard pounding’’ that this success required took its toll on Johnson. He, like Douglass, suffered from nervous exhaustion but, unlike his partner, Johnson stayed with his company. In the early s, however, Victor suffered from Johnson’s

periodic incapacity and his resistance to electronic innovation. The basic patents for disc recording and reproduction began to expire as consumer interest in broadcast radio exploded. The novelty and appeal of free programming outweighed the poor quality of sound reception in radio, but it was not until the spring of  that Victor’s management negotiated contracts with AT&T and RCA for electronic sound recording and radio technology. The dramatic improvement of “Orthophonic’’ sound saved the company that fall, enabling Johnson to sell it in  to two Wall Street banks. As Victor set new sales records in , RCA negotiated its purchase for $ million and turned the company into its manufacturing division. In the words of RCA president David Sarnoff, after nearly thirty years, . million phonographs, and  million records, “the little dog changed its master.’’ Baumbach, Robert W. Look for the Dog: The Victor Talking Machine Companion. th ed. Woodland Hills, CA: Stationery X-Press, . Gelatt, Roland. The Fabulous Phonograph: From Edison to Stereo. d rev. ed. New York: Macmillan, .

See also sound recording

Alexander B. Magoun

Victory Gardens. .-square-mile borough in Morris County. The newest and smallest municipality in Morris County, Victory Gardens was originally a planned unit housing project, built in  to house workers employed at Picatinny Arsenal and other nearby defense-related industries during World War II. The project, initiated approximately two weeks after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, was completed in six months. The municipality of Randolph agreed to provide services to the community in exchange

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for government subsidies. Unfortunately, not everyone accepted the new community. The residents of Victory Gardens were mostly Democrats living in a Republican stronghold. Many older citizens viewed them as a political threat. The end of government subsidies after the war caused further resentment among many of Randolph’s longtime residents. On September , , Randolph officials held a public referendum to determine the future of Victory Gardens. Residents voted  to  in favor of making Victory Gardens independent. Only  of Victory Garden’s  voters voted for secession. Randolph then successfully petitioned the state legislature to expel Victory Gardens. After unsuccessfully attempting to join with neighboring Dover, Victory Gardens incorporated as a separate borough in . Today, despite a history of financial difficulties, Victory Gardens continues to exist as a residential suburb. In  Victory Gardens’ total population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Historic Sites Survey: Victory Gardens. Morristown: Morris County Heritage Commission, .

David Mitros

Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial and Vietnam Era Educational Center. The New Jersey Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial, in Holmdel, is an open-air structure made up of  polished black granite panels—one for each day of the year. Engraved on each of these panels are the names of the , New Jerseyans killed or reported

This sculpture by Thomas Jay Warren, at the New Jersey Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial in Holmdel, pays tribute to those who served in the Vietnam War.

Courtesy New Jersey Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial Foundation, Inc.

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Vietnam War

missing on that date. Hien Nguyen, who fled war-torn South Vietnam in , designed the memorial. At the center a red oak, the official state tree, shades a grouping of three bronze statues sculpted by artist Thomas Jay Warren. The oversize statues represent the men who died, those who came home, and the women who served beside them. The memorial was dedicated on May , , and is operated by the New Jersey Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial Foundation. Located adjacent to the memorial is the Vietnam Era Educational Center. Dedicated in , it is the first educational center in the country devoted solely to gaining an understanding of the violent conflict in Southeast Asia and the political strife in America. The center provides appropriate materials and exhibits to help visitors understand the significance of the memorial, the reality of the conflict, and the social, political, and cultural complexities of the war years. Both the memorial and the educational center are operated by the New Jersey Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial Foundation.

Katherine Jones

Vietnam War. To prevent Vietnam from falling to the communists after World War II, the United States provided aid to France as it attempted to reclaim its former colony. New Jersey’s connection to developments in Vietnam began when the Maryknoll Seminary in Lakewood hosted Ngo Dinh Diem from early  until May . Diem lectured on Vietnam at universities and met with influential people, including Francis Cardinal Spellman and Senators John F. Kennedy and Mike Mansfield. With backing from the United States, Ngo Dinh Diem served as president of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) from  to . Diem was opposed by the National Liberation Front (NLF), which supported guerrillas known as the Vietcong and received assistance from the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). From  through , the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam grew from several hundred to more than fifteen thousand. On August , , Congress voted to permit President Lyndon B. Johnson “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression’’ in Vietnam. Johnson ordered sustained bombing of North Vietnam starting March , , while U.S. ground troops in South Vietnam searched out and destroyed communist forces. Of approximately , New Jerseyans killed in action in Vietnam, four were posthumously awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. Marine Staff Sergeant Peter S. Connor of South Orange was mortally wounded on a search-and-destroy operation on February , . Special Forces Master Sergeant Charles Hosking of Ramsey was mortally wounded during the capture of a Vietcong sniper on

March , . Marine Lance Corporal Jedh Colby Barker of Park Ridge threw himself on an enemy grenade on September , , to save others on a reconnaissance operation. Chaplain Charles J. Watters of Jersey City was killed after retrieving men under enemy fire at the battle for Dak To on November , . On January , , the North Vietnamese launched the Tet Offensive, attacking urban centers in South Vietnam. On February , , Special Forces Staff Sergeant Fred Zabitosky of Trenton rescued the pilot of a helicopter that had crashed in flames. Army Captain Jack Jacobs, who entered the service at Trenton, evacuated fourteen others under heavy fire on March , . Both Zabitosky and Jacobs were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. The unpopularity of the Vietnam War among draft-age young people, and increasingly among the general public, was reflected in events in New Jersey. At an April  teach-in (an antiwar gathering that included lectures and seminars), historian Eugene Genovese of Rutgers University asserted that he would welcome a Vietcong victory. Conservative politicians wanted Genovese removed from his position. New Jersey governor Richard Hughes defended Genovese’s academic freedom, and New Jersey voters reelected Hughes that November. As part of a nationwide student protest, Princeton students took over the Woodrow Wilson School for Public and International Affairs on April , . Soon after, a group of Quakers and Vietnam veterans tried to prevent the munitions ship USS Nitro from sailing from Leonardo. They paddled out into Sandy Hook Bay in canoes and rowboats, forming a “People’s Blockade’’ that was thwarted by the Coast Guard. The last Americans were evacuated from Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City) as the city fell to the communists on April , . Years later, Americans recognized the contribution of those who fought in Vietnam. The New Jersey Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial in Holmdel was dedicated on May , .

soon drew international attention. Primarily an agricultural town, Vineland stood out from similar, small farming towns because of its planned nature. A series of migrations revitalized the town and region. Wide dissemination of advertisements drew in a population of , to , by the end of the s. After  Italians arrived in numbers, to be followed in the next decade by Jewish agricultural colonists from the Russian Empire. In the twentieth century, Puerto Rican farmworkers arrived after , eventually moving into the town center. Vineland prospered moderately across the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. Agriculture was complemented by local industry, especially glass manufacturing. Following World War II, Vineland was one of the great poultry centers in the country. Local innovations (Welch’s Grape Juice ) and the ability to attract outside institutions (Vineland Training School— formerly the New Jersey Home for the Education and Care of Feebleminded Children—and State Institution for Feebleminded Women, s) highlight local history. During the Great Depression, George Daynor built his idiosyncratic “Palace Depression’’ out of junk and car parts. On July , , the borough of Vineland and Landis Township combined to become the largest-area city in New Jersey. A decline set in after its centennial in , with the sudden collapse and extinction of the poultry and egg industry, a continuing closing-down of glass production, and competition from shopping centers and malls. The city did continue as an agricultural center. In  its population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income in  was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Crowell, Joan. Fort Dix Stockade: Our Prison Camp Next Door. New York: Links, .

Owen, Hugh. Acres of Diamonds: A Young Person’s History of Vineland. Vineland: New Jersey National Bank, .

Herring, George C. America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, –. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, . Wells, Tom. The War Within: America’s Battle over Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press, .

Pamela Cooper

Vincentown.

See Southampton.

Vineland. .-square-mile city in Cumberland County, with the largest area in the state. Founded on August , , by Charles K. Landis as a center for his new fifty-square-mile agricultural tract on the edge of the Pine Barrens, both the borough and the Vineland Tract (Landis Township), as planned settlements,

Cushing, Thomas, and Charles E. Sheppard. History of the Counties of Gloucester, Salem, and Cumberland, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Their Prominent Citizens. . Reprint. Woodbury: Gloucester County Historical Society, .

Robert L. Schuyler

Vineland Developmental Center. In  the State Charities Aid Association prompted the state legislature to open the New Jersey State Institution for Feebleminded Women in Vineland. A major concern at the time was the belief that “feeblemindedness’’ and associated “pauperism’’ were hereditary. Residents participated in educational, industrial, craft, and agricultural activities. By  facilities included a hospital, eugenic and psychological laboratories, and a separate building for tubercular residents. Today the renamed Vineland Developmental Center is one of seven residential centers managed by the

volleyball New Jersey Department of Human Services, Division of Developmental Disabilities. Located on  acres, the residential facility provides vocational, health care, psychological, social, and recreational services to approximately  residents with mental retardation and other developmental disabilities. The center also operates community group homes and supervised apartments. Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Sandra Moss

Vineland Training School. The Rev. Stephen Olin Garrison, aided by a local philanthropist, founded the New Jersey Home for the Education and Care of Feebleminded Children in Vineland in . The privately supported institution also received state aid for indigent children. Garrison’s goal was a self-sustaining farm colony built on the cottage plan. In  the renamed Training School for FeebleMinded Girls and Boys (by , it was renamed the Training School at Vineland) hired psychologist Henry Goddard, who started an influential research program on mental retardation, clinical psychological testing, and child development. The school also provided training programs for mental health professionals. By the s, hereditary theories of mental illness were replaced by newer psychological theories. Author Pearl Buck was a strong supporter of the training school, where her daughter was a resident. Since , the school has been managed by the Pennsylvaniabased Elwyn human services organization. The Vineland Training School continues to offer training and educational programs for clients on the original Vineland campus, and currently operates forty-five residential sites serving  clients in Cumberland County. Leiby, James. Charity and Correction in New Jersey: A History of State Welfare Institutions. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Smith, J. David. Minds Made Feeble: The Myth and Legacy of the Kallikaks. Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation, .

See also education

Sandra Moss

violets.

Violets are members of the Violaceae or violet family. More than thirty species occur in New Jersey. Common names include sweet violet, wood violet, and heart’s ease pansy. The dog’s-tooth-violet is not a violet but a member of the lily family. Most violets bloom in the spring, although some bloom as late as July. Many hybridize with other species, making identification difficult if not impossible. Habitat preferences vary from deep, rich soils in cool, moist areas to dry, sandy soils in open areas. Flower color varies from purple and blue to white and yellow. A few are edible and are occasionally consumed by humans and several are considered weeds.

Hough, Mary Y. New Jersey Wild Plants. Harmony: Harmony Press, .

See also vegetation

Janet Riemer

Virtua Health.

The West Jersey Health System joined with Memorial Health Alliance in  to form Virtua Health, the largest health-care provider in southern New Jersey. Virtua Health employs about seven thousand people and has over sixteen hundred physicians on its staff. Four hospitals comprise Virtua Health: Virtua Memorial Hospital Burlington County (Mount Holly) and three Virtua West Jersey Hospitals (in Berlin, Marlton, and Voorhees). Its outpatient center in Camden provides comprehensive primary care and emergency services. In addition, Virtua serves the area with two long-term comprehensive care centers, two outpatient surgery centers, and a home-health-care agency.

Cowen, David L. Medicine and Health in New Jersey: A History. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also hospitals and hospital systems

Bruce R. Cowen

Vivino, “Uncle’’ Floyd (b. Oct. , ). Entertainer. Growing up in Bergen County, Floyd Vivino began his career as a child pianist and later worked as a carnival barker and burlesque comedian. In  his Uncle Floyd Show first aired on UA Columbia Cable of Bergen County as a daily, afternoon children’s program, then moved to UHF station WBTB–TV of West Orange (Channel ). The show’s hallmarks were low-budget, topical jokes about New Jersey life and a loose, knockabout style. Dressed in a loud sports jacket and porkpie hat, Uncle Floyd conversed with his hand puppet Oogie and satirized popular television shows. He also hosted rock acts such as the Ramones and David Johansen. From  to , The Uncle Floyd Show was in national syndication, with Vivino claiming to know more than three thousand of his nationwide viewers by name. His show moved to cable television and is currently airing on Cablevision of Northern New Jersey. Vivino also performs regularly in clubs and takes small roles in such movies as Good Morning, Vietnam. In  he set the Guinness world record for continuous piano playing at twenty-four straight hours.

Jon Blackwell

Vogt, Grace J.

(b. Sept. , ; d. July ,

). Newspaper reporter. The daughter and granddaughter of journalists, Grace J. Vogt attended Miss Dana’s School in Morristown and studied at the Art Students League in New York. She began her career in journalism as a reporter for the Morristown True Democratic Banner, where her father was editor. In  she was hired by the Newark Evening News as a correspondent for society news in Morristown.

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The newspaper’s all-male Morristown bureau refused to give Vogt her own desk, so she did all her writing from home, where she continued to work for the next sixty-five years. With doggedness and a wide circle of sources, Vogt overcame discrimination against women in the news business and proved to be a productive journalist. Her primary topics were social events and “women’s news,’’ but her expertise grew to include local and state politics and local history. During the s she devoted much of her reporting to the woman suffrage movement. Vogt was often asked to put her writing skill to work on historical preservation projects. As a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution, she helped save the Schuyler-Hamilton House from demolition in  and she wrote its official history. She was a charter member of the Woman’s Club of Morristown, designed the gardens at its clubhouse, and was instrumental in placing the building on the National Register of Historic Places. Vogt retired from the Newark News in  but remained active in community affairs into her nineties. She lived at the same house in Morristown for the first  years of her life, and died in a nursing home at age . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Jon Blackwell

Volk, Ernest

(b. ; d. Sept. , ). Archaeologist. Ernest Volk, a native of Germany, immigrated to the United States and settled in Chambersburg, today part of Trenton. A lifelong bachelor, Volk was a musician, tavern keeper, and Chambersburg borough clerk before finding a second career late in life as ´ ge ´ of Charles Conrad an archaeologist. A prote Abbott, Volk spent nearly twenty years excavating sites in and around Trenton in an ultimately fruitless search for evidence of very early human occupation of the Delaware Valley. Volk’s work was directed by Frederick Ward Putnam and sponsored by the Peabody Museum of Harvard University, the World’s Columbian Exposition, and the American Museum of Natural History. The results of his efforts were published in  as The Archaeology of the Delaware Valley. In  he was fatally injured in an automobile accident.

Veit, Richard F. Digging New Jersey: Historical Archaeology in the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Volk, Ernest. The Archaeology of the Delaware Valley. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, vol. . Cambridge: Harvard University, .

See also archaeology

Richard F. Veit

volleyball. William G. Morgan, a physical education director with the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), invented volleyball in  as an undemanding indoor

838

von Neumann, John

sport for sedentary workers. The YMCA organization spread the new sport throughout the world. In  the U.S. men’s volleyball team won the gold at the Olympic Games, and the U.S. women won the silver, greatly increasing American interest in the sport, especially among women athletes. At both the high school and college levels, New Jersey has more than twice as many women’s teams as men’s teams. Jersey City State College, Princeton University, Ramapo College, Rutgers University, and Stevens Institute of Technology field both men’s and women’s teams. Postcollegiate leagues in the state are members of the Garden Empire Volleyball Association (GEVA), which is the regional division of USA Volleyball, the national governing body of volleyball. This organization sanctions both indoor and outdoor tournaments. The Jersey Shore Volleyball Association (JSVBA), a GEVA member, was created in  to bring organized beach volleyball to the Jersey Shore; within fifteen years the JSVBA had corporate sponsorship for its professional and amateur events as well as television coverage of tournaments. See also sports

degree in mathematics, von Neumann accepted an invitation to come to Princeton University as a visiting professor. He taught there until , when he accepted an appointment at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. During World War II, he played a major role among the Los Alamos group of scientists who developed the atomic bomb. With Princeton economist Oskar Morgenstern he invented game theory, a set of mathematical principles that would establish the ground rules for economic and military strategy for most of the century. He is best known for his development of the speediest, most accurate, and most useful early computer, which made the essential calculations that enabled the United States to build and test its first full model of the hydrogen bomb. Later, he developed another computer for the U.S. Navy that allowed the agency to do twenty-four-hour weather predictions in a matter of minutes. Leitch, Alexander. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Ritchie, David. The Computer Pioneers. New York: Simon and Schuster, .

Kitta MacPherson

Pamela Cooper

Voorhees, Foster McGowan (b. Nov. von Neumann, John d. Feb. , ).

(b. Dec. , ;

Mathematician and computer pioneer. Born in Budapest, Hungary, the son of a well-to-do banker, John von Neumann showed an early proclivity for mathematics. By the age of thirteen, his talent was recognized by his teachers at the Lutheran High School of Budapest. In , having earned several degrees, including an advanced

, ; d. June , ). Lawyer and governor. Foster McGowan Voorhees was born in Clinton, the son of Nathaniel W. Voorhees, a nonpracticing attorney, cashier of the Clinton Bank, and a delegate to the  Republican convention. Educated in the local public schools, the son graduated from Rutgers College in  and taught for a year at Rutgers Grammar School. Then he studied

John von Neumann, Princeton, .

Courtesy Archives of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton. Photo: Alan Richards.

law in Elizabeth with William J. Magie, Union County Republican senator, and Joseph Cross, who later occupied that office. Voorhees was admitted to the bar in . Voorhees began his political career on Elizabeth’s board of education in . He served in the assembly from  to . There he played a major role in framing the Werts Liquor License Law, which increased the cost of liquor licenses and added a quarter of a million dollars annually to the state economy. He was active in the defeat of a Democratic bill to tax railroads at the same rate as other property; and perfected the Werts Ballot Reform Law, providing secrecy on official ballots. Elected to the State Senate in the fall of , Voorhees became the Republican leader in the  “Rump Senate’’that split on the credentials of Sen. James Bradley. When Democratic governor George T. Werts nominated Voorhees to be a circuit court judge, he declined in order to remain in the senate during the dispute (eventually decided in favor of the G.O.P. by the state supreme court). In  he chaired a special senate investigating committee that exposed State House frauds, resulting in the election of John W. Griggs, the first Republican governor in twenty-seven years, and in Voorhees losing the nomination for himself. In  he declined the position of clerk in chancery and was reelected to the senate, continuing as majority leader and then in  as senate president. A complication arose when Griggs was appointed attorney general of the United States, with Voorhees in line to assume gubernatorial duties. The legislature created the office of acting governor, the first such designation in New Jersey. Griggs signed the law on January , , and resigned one week later. Because the state constitution prohibited a governor from succeeding himself, Voorhees resigned as governor in September, and in November he won fifteen of twenty-one counties. As governor, Voorhees was notably successful in improving social conditions: aid to children, reform of criminals, and protection of public health and the environment. In his final official gubernatorial message () he advocated amending the federal Constitution to elect U.S. senators by popular vote instead of by a state legislature. In , two years before such an amendment was ratified, New Jersey’s legislature became the first in the East to acquiesce in the choice of a primary election. In  Voorhees became president of the ailing Bakers’ Life Insurance Company of New York City. In , only months before the New York Insurance Department prohibited the company from further business, factional strife and reorganization caused Voorhees’s resignation and return to his Elizabeth law practice. Together with the company’s former secretary, he was indicted for perjury by a special grand jury in  on charges that he had signed a false statement that dividends worth

voting $, were not due the stockholders. Pleading not guilty, Voorhees told the press that “it is simply a case of my signing certified reports without careful inspection.’’ The indictment was dismissed in . His High Bridge farm, to which he retired for the last two years of his life, is now Voorhees State Park.

Voter Turnout, Selected Primary Elections, 1971–2001 (Percentage of Eligible Voters)

Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

1977 1979 1981 1983

See also governor

Harris I. Effross

Voorhees.

.-square-mile township in Camden County. Voorhees is named for Gov. Foster McGowan Voorhees, who acceded to the township’s desire for separation from Waterford Township in . It was once a milling and farming community, with neighborhoods organized along major roadways. With the exception of Gibbsboro, which seceded in , Ashland, Glendale, Kirkwood, Kresson, and Osage are viable areas today. Growth began with the arrival of the Camden and Atlantic Railroad in . The population grew most rapidly in the decade between  and  because of new housing developments. It surged with the opening of the PATCO High-Speed Line in , which provided suburbia with speedy access to Philadelphia. The following year, builder James Rouse developed Echelon Urban Center, which now contains some  stores and almost , housing units. Other developments followed, and Voorhees became a shopping and residential mecca. The township is home to several major health-care and professional facilities; the diversity of its population is reflected in more than twenty religious organizations. Its affluence may be seen in its upscale housing and shopping developments. Voorhees is one of three county communities where immigrants from southeast Asia and India have caused the biggest population growth. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

voting.

In colonial New Jersey, the franchise was generally limited to free white males who were property owners, reflecting the society’s values and prejudices. The new state’s  constitution gave the vote to “all inhabitants’’ of full age who met a property and residence requirement. This broad language created opportunities for some women and blacks to vote, but the loophole was closed by statute in . The  constitution removed

Election Year

Governor, State Senate, and General Assembly

1971 1973 1975

State Senate and General Assembly

839

General Assembly

16 24 14 28 13 29 17

1987 1989 1991 1995

11 21 13 10

1997 1999 2001

14 6 14

S: New Jersey Department of Law and Public Safety, Division of Elections. N: To participate in a closed New Jersey primary, the voter must be a registered Democrat or Republican, or opt for one of these parties on election day. Registered Independents are ineligible. Comparatively few voters formally register as Independents.

the property requirement. Legal discrimination against black voters was eliminated in  by the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and against women by the Nineteenth Amendment in . (Starting in , there had been limited participation by some women in school elections.) There was little effective regulation of the voting process in eighteenth- or nineteenthcentury New Jersey. Since elections ultimately determined political control, the legislature frequently tinkered with the subject for partisan reasons, though such laws were typically ignored or bypassed. Voter registration was haphazard and often corrupt; polling places included bars and taverns; ballots were

privately printed by political parties or candidates; voters were bullied; ballot boxes were stuffed and their contents miscounted. The Progressive Era brought a sustained effort at reform. It began with the Werts Ballot Reform Act of  and peaked with the Corrupt Practices Act and the Geran Act of , two laws that tried to overhaul the whole system. Results of these moves included closed primaries for major party nominations, a uniform secret ballot, standard registration procedures, and improved supervision of registration, voting, and vote tabulations. Heavy reliance was placed on the checks and balances of bipartisan election boards to protect the integrity of the voting process. Although

Voter Turnout, Selected General Elections, 1972–2001 (Percentage of Registered Voters) Election Year 1972

President; U.S. Senate; Congress

61 57 60

1979 1981

1995 1996 1997 1999 2000 2001

General Assembly

83

1973 1975 1977

1984 1988 1989

Governor, State Senate, and General Assembly

48 64 79 77 60 38 72 56 31 70 49

S: New Jersey Department of Law and Public Safety, Division of Elections. N: The New Jersey constitution of 1947 provided that elections for legislators and the governor be held in odd-numbered years. It was hoped that this would encourage voters to concentrate on state issues and candidates.

840

Vries, David Pietersz de de vier deelen des wereldts-ronde . . . Alkmaar (). In Narratives of New Netherland, –, ed. J. Franklin Jameson. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, .

See also New Netherland

Hendrik Edelman

Vroom, Peter D.

(b. Dec. , ; d. Nov.

, ). Governor, lawyer, and ambassador.

Woodrow Wilson voting, Princeton, .

Courtesy Historical Society of Princeton.

corruption did not cease, these measures provided the foundation for a reasonably honest, efficient elections system. Elections today are governed by Title  of the New Jersey statutes. The Department of Law and Public Safety and its Division of Elections exercise overall jurisdiction. Operating responsibility lies with bipartisan county election boards (supplemented, in some counties, by superintendents of elections) and similar boards that they appoint in each election district. Party and candidate challengers are allowed at each polling place, helping to ensure that only eligible voters participate. Legislatures have also made voter convenience a major goal, especially in recent years. Registration can now be accomplished by mail. Registered voters receive a sample ballot in advance of each election. It includes information on polling places, voting hours, offices to be filled, the names of candidates, and so on. Voting machines are now used in all counties. Election districts should contain no more than , voters. In urban and many suburban areas, therefore, polling places are within walking distance of a voter’s residence. Under specified circumstances, people can vote by mail. The hours polls must remain open have been lengthened. Despite these changes, voter turnout is uneven. Presidential and gubernatorial elections attract many voters; primaries and school elections often bring out but a handful. The Progressive Era’s direct-democracy devices—recall, initiative, referendum—are widely available at the local level. A  constitutional amendment made every local and state elected official subject to recall after one year in office. The initiative is not available at the state level. Statewide referenda are

limited to approving constitutional amendments and, in limited cases, state bond issues. Nonpartisan elections are conducted in local and regional school districts, in fire districts, and to choose members of the governing body in some municipalities. Lehne, Richard, and Alan Rosenthal. Politics in New Jersey. New Brunswick: Eagleton Institute, . McCormick, Richard. The History of Voting in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also presidential elections; woman suffrage

Richard J. Connors

Vries, David Pietersz de

(b. c. ;

d. ).

Explorer and landowner. David Pietersz. de Vries, a Dutch sea captain, made many voyages, including one to the East Indies in –. In  he acquired a patroonship on the Delaware River, including Swanendael, which Vries visited in –; he was the first of the New Netherland patroons to do so. The settlement did not last. A year later, in , returning to New Amsterdam from Dutch Guyana, where a new settlement was started, Vries acquired the patroonship of Staten Island in New York Bay and Vriesendael (River Edge, New Jersey). In  he returned to his property and during the next few years he tried to establish and sustain an agricultural colony there. Continuous hostility from the Indian population, however, destroyed the Staten Island settlement in  and Vriesendael in . Shortly afterward Vries returned to Holland. Vries, David Pietersz. de. Korte Historiael, ende journaels aenteyckeninge, van verscheyden voyagiens in

Peter D. Vroom was the son of Col. Peter D. Vroom and Elsie (Bogert) Vroom. His father was an officer in the Revolutionary War who led a company at the Battle of Germantown, and later he was active as a politician in Somerset County, serving as sheriff, justice of the peace, and a member for many years of the New Jersey legislature. The son grew up on a farm in Hillsborough and was educated at Somerville Academy and Columbia College, graduating in . After reading law, he was admitted to the bar in  and practiced law in Somerville. He married Ann Dumont, a daughter of Colonel Dumont, and when she died, Maria Matilda Wall, the daughter of Sen. Garret D. Wall. Like his father, Peter Vroom started in politics as a Federalist, at a time when that party was dying. In , along with a number of other Federalists in New Jersey, Vroom supported Andrew Jackson for president, helping to create the Democratic party. He was elected to the New Jersey General Assembly as a leader of the new party in , , and . With the Democrats in control of the joint meeting of the legislature in , Garret D. Wall was elected governor. When Wall declined the legislature’s appointment, Vroom was chosen in his stead, replacing Isaac H. Williamson. Vroom was reelected in  and , was defeated by Samuel L. Southard in , and won elections in , , and . Because of poor health, he declined election in , and was replaced by Philemon Dickerson. As governor Vroom played an important role in restoring the office’s prestige, which under his predecessors had become largely a judicial position. Vroom gave an annual address to the legislature in which he made proposals for future action. Subsequently, he met with the Democratic caucus in that body to push for his agenda. In his six years in office, Vroom promoted a number of major reforms in the state. He tried to abolish imprisonment for debt and secured a partial victory. He also urged the building of a new state prison, which was completed during his last year in office. One of Vroom’s most important accomplishments was to get the legislature to distribute money from the school fund to local school districts. The  law was the initial move toward the creation of a state-supported school system. Vroom’s most controversial act as governor was to push for the creation of a canal company and a railroad company to cross central New Jersey, linking New York City with Philadelphia. After the legislature in 

Vroom, Peter D. granted charters to the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company and to the Camden and Amboy Railroad, Vroom supported the merger of the companies into the Joint Companies and still later agreed to support a monopoly by the companies over all traffic across the state. These measures were aimed at raising the capital needed to build the canal. One consequence of the legislation was that the state secured shares in the Joint Companies and a regular yearly dividend, which helped pay for the completion of the prison and support of public schools. After leaving office, Vroom retired to private practice, but was elected to Congress in  in a disputed election called the “Broad Seal War.’’ Vroom served one term and returned to the practice of the law, moving his office to Trenton. In  Vroom served as a

delegate to the  Constitutional Convention. He held the chairmanship of the committee on the legislature and also played a leading role in developing the parts of the new constitution dealing with the judiciary. After the adoption of the new constitution, Vroom helped to revise the statutes of New Jersey to conform to the organic law. In  President Franklin Pierce appointed Vroom to serve as ambassador to Prussia. In  Vroom supported the Democratic ticket of John Breckinridge. Following the secession of South Carolina, he was one of the nine delegates appointed to represent New Jersey to a conference called by Virginia to prevent civil war, but when war broke out, he remained loyal to the Union. He was a critic of President Abraham Lincoln, particularly on the issues of the Emancipation Proclamation

841

and the suspension of habeas corpus. In his later years, Vroom continued to practice the law and participate in Democratic party politics. Ershkowitz, Herbert B. The Origins of the Whig and Democratic Parties: New Jersey Politics, –. Washington, DC: University Press of America, . Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Levine, Peter D. The Behavior of State Legislative Parties in the Jacksonian Era: New Jersey, –. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also Broad Seal War; governor

Herbert B. Ershkowitz

W

comprising forty-three members owning  ShopRites in New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, which employ more than fifty thousand people.

Jim Donnelly

Waksman, Selman Abraham

(b.

July , ; d. Aug. , ). Microbiologist. Born

Wachovia Bank. Wachovia Bank, formerly First Union Bank, entered New Jersey in  with its acquisition of the largest bank in the state at the time, First Fidelity Bancorporation. The purchase of CoreStates Financial Corporation, a Philadelphia bank, followed in . CoreStates, in its own expansion into New Jersey, had previously acquired First People’s Financial Corporation, New Jersey National Corporation (in ), Inter Community Bancorporation, and Constellation Bancorporation. In June  Wachovia (First Union) was the second-largest bank in New Jersey with almost $ billion in deposits and a market share of  percent. First Union Corporation and Wachovia Corporation, two of the largest bank holding companies in the country, completed their merger in September . The merged bank, called Wachovia, is the largest bank (in deposits) on the East Coast, with , branches in eleven states from Florida to Connecticut and the District of Columbia. Headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina, it is the fourthlargest bank holding company in the United States with $ billion in assets as of fall . First Union was founded in  as the Union National Bank of Charlotte. Wachovia was chartered as the Bank of Salem in  and adopted the Wachovia name in . Wachovia, the name the Moravian colonists of North Carolina chose for their land tract, is the English translation of the German “Der Wachau,’’ a valley along the Danube River, which the area resembled. See also banking

to Jacob Waksman and Fradia London in the small Ukrainian town of Priluka, Selman A. Waksman encountered prejudice and limited educational opportunity due to his Jewish heritage. Barred from the government-controlled secondary schools, Waksman learned from private tutors and attended evening school. He earned a matriculation diploma by competitive examination from the Fifth Gymnasium in Odessa in , and left for the United States that same year to seek higher education. Upon his arrival in America, Waksman lived on a farm in Metuchen owned by his cousin. In  he won a state scholarship to attend Rutgers College. After earning his bachelor of science degree from the College of Agriculture in , he became a research assistant to Jacob Lipman at the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and courted Bertha Deborah Mitnik, the sister of a friend from Priluka. A year later Waksman married Mitnik, received his master’s degree from Rutgers, and became a naturalized citizen. Waksman left New Jersey only briefly to pursue a doctorate in biochemistry at the University of California at Berkeley. In , he returned to New Brunswick and began a career-long affiliation with Rutgers and the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. As a member of the department of soil chemistry and bacteriology he investigated a wide range of topics including microbial enzymes, soil fertility and composition, the formation

Waksman, Selman. My Life with the Microbes. New York: Simon and Schuster, . ———. Papers, –. Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries; Collections of the Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

Ann Kessler

Wakefern Food Corporation.

An Elizabeth-based grocery and food cooperative incorporating independent operators of ShopRite supermarkets, Wakefern Food Corporation was founded on December , , by seven independent grocers who had experimented with group purchases from Del Monte Foods as a means to compete with emerging supermarket chains. The name Wakefern was assembled from the first initials of each founding member. The cooperative initially advertised under its own name, but in  decided to market its lower prices under the ShopRite name. The chain of independently owned markets numbered fifty by  and seventy by . Supermarkets General broke away from the cooperative in the late s and now operates as Pathmark. Today, Wakefern is the nation’s largest retailer-owned cooperative,

842

and decomposition of peat and humus, and the nutrition and physiology of microbes. His favorite organisms to study were the actinomycetes. Research on these organisms catapulted Waksman into the scientific spotlight in the early s, when he and a number of his graduate students isolated antibiotics from actinomycetes. The most famous of these, streptomycin, proved effective in the treatment of the devastating disease tuberculosis. He received the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine in  for this accomplishment. Both Rutgers University and the field of microbiology benefited from the success and generosity of Selman Waksman. Waksman used proceeds from his patent royalties to endow scholarships for immigrants and their children to attend Rutgers. He also established the Foundation for Microbiology to fund microbiological research. His most visible contribution to the university was the establishment in  of an Institute of Microbiology. Waksman served as director of the institute, which now bears his name, until his retirement in . When Selman Waksman died in  of a cerebral hemorrhage, he left behind his wife, his only son, Byron, and a significant scientific legacy. His expertise in actinomycetes helped make the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station an influential center of American soil science in the first half of the twentieth century. As a consultant to a number of firms in New Jersey, including Takamine Laboratories of Clifton, Jacques Wolfre and Company of Passaic, and Merck and Company of Rahway, he contributed to industrial growth in the state. Finally, his successful isolation of streptomycin revolutionized the treatment of tuberculosis and secured an important place for him and for New Jersey in the history of antibiotics.

Woodruff, H. Boyd, ed. Scientific Contributions of Selman A. Waksman: Selected Articles Published in Honor of His th Birthday, July , . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also medicine and public health; Waksman Institute

Jill E. Cooper

Selman Waksman.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Waksman Institute. Originally known as the Institute of Microbiology of Rutgers University, the Waksman Institute was dedicated in  and is located on the Busch Campus, in Piscataway. Its founder and first director was  Nobel laureate Selman Abraham Waksman. The original Georgian colonial building was paid for by royalties received by Rutgers University from the sales of streptomycin, an antibiotic discovered in

Wall, Garret Dorset Dr. Waksman’s laboratory in . It was the wish of Dr. Waksman that the institute devote “its efforts to the study . . . of the microbes.’’ With time, and changes in personnel, molecular biology has become the main focus of study at the institute. Currently, the institute has a membership of sixteen resident faculty, five nonresident faculty, and three faculty with emeritus status. Furthermore, the institute accommodates thirty-nine postdoctoral researchers, seventeen technical assistants, and thirty-one graduate students. Its total resident personnel is currently , including six undergraduate students conducting research. It operates with a yearly budget of over $ million. The facilities include a reading room with twenty thousand volumes, a computing laboratory, a confocal microscopy suite, a crystallography unit, a computer-controlled fermentation facility, plant growth chambers, and greenhouses and experimental plots. Research is conducted in the fields of microbial molecular genetics, developmental molecular genetics, plant molecular genetics, and computational biology. See also medical and dental education; Rutgers, the State University

Hubert A. Lechevalier

Walam

Olum. Few documents in American Indian history have elicited as much excitement, speculation, and controversy as the Walam Olum, or “Painted Record.’’ A creation myth from the dawn of time, the oldest native North American history, an epic comparable to the Iliad or the Bible, a North American Dead Sea scroll—all are descriptions that have been used by writers, historians, and anthropologists. Supposedly of Lenape (Delaware) Indian origins and obtained in  by the naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, the Walam Olum is allegedly a series of ancient pictographic tablets with an accompanying text transcribed from the Lenape language. By , Rafinesque claimed to have translated the document. It relates the story of Lenape origins in Asia, the crossing of the Bering Strait into America, the conquest of the Mound Builders, the fracture of the Lenape into the numerous tribes of the Algonquian-language family, and the Lenape settlement in what is now New Jersey and surrounding environs. Some historians have always been skeptical of the Walam Olum, but throughout much of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many leading scholars endorsed its authenticity. In  conclusive evidence demonstrated that the epic is indeed a hoax and that Rafinesque, the alleged discoverer, was actually the indisputable forger. The Lenape text was constructed from various published word lists, the pictographs were grafted from Egyptian, Chinese, Mayan, and Ojibwa sources, and the saga itself supported Rafinesque’s own theories of Amerindian migrations. In

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concocting the epic, Rafinesque hoped to win the Prix Volney essay contest held in Paris in  and thereby secure the respect and prestige that had long eluded him. See also Lenape

Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk: Donning, .

David M. Oestreicher

Linda J. Barth

Walcott, “Jersey Joe’’

(b. Jan. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Boxer. Born Arnold Raymond

Cream in Merchantville, Jersey Joe Walcott began his professional boxing career in . His ring name was adopted from Joe Walcott, a boxer in his father’s native Barbados, and he added “Jersey’’ out of pride in his home state. Walcott posted a lifetime record of  wins,  losses, and  tie, with  knockouts. He lost a record six heavyweight title fights. In two title bouts against heavyweight legend Joe Louis, Walcott knocked down the former world champion three times. He was the second oldest man to win a world heavyweight championship. He earned that distinction by knocking out Ezzard Charles in the seventh round on July , , at Forbes Field in Pittsburgh. Walcott, who was thirty-seven years old at the time, lost the title a year later when Rocky Marciano knocked him out on September , . After retiring from the ring, Walcott became a boxing referee and then New Jersey’s boxing commissioner. He also served a term as Camden County sheriff. Walcott was elected to boxing’s national Ring Hall of Fame in  and was inducted into the Sports Hall of Fame of New Jersey in .

Rudy Larini

Waldwick.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Waldwick has long been associated with transportation, since the Franklin Turnpike, the main north-south road, was originally a Lenape trail along the foothills of the Ramapo Mountains. In the s a railroad line was built from Jersey City to Suffern, passing through Waldwick, which was at that time a hamlet called New Prospect. A station, designed in the Stick style by A. Mordecai, was built in  and the depot was named Waldwick. The railroad brought jobs to the local population and allowed the residents to work in distant towns like Paterson. Soon trades and industries grew along the tracks, and the small hamlet of New Prospect, with  residents, became the borough of Waldwick. By  its population had grown to ,. The historic depot is no longer active, having been replaced by a modern station on the Bergen County Line of New Jersey Transit. Today, almost  percent of this residential community is composed of single-family homes. Waldwick offers its residents a wide range of outdoor activities in four borough parks, with water sports available on White’s Pond and the Ho-Ho-Kus Brook. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median

household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Walker-Gordon

Dairy

Farm.

Starting with only forty acres of land in Plainsboro, Middlesex County, and thirty-five cows in , Walker-Gordon grew to be the largest certified milk dairy in the world. At its zenith the farm encompassed , acres and milked , cows per day. The Rotolactor, a circular automatic milking machine, was invented and installed at the dairy in . Walker-Gordon was owned by the Borden Company from  to . Elsie, the famous Borden trademark cow, was housed at the farm during her – New York World’s Fair appearances. She was injured in a truck accident in late  and died shortly thereafter. Her grave has been preserved by the Walker Gordon Farm housing development. The dairy closed in . Tindall, Edward E., M.S., D.V.M., and Stanton Cameron Clark. Walker-Gordon: One of a Kind. Stockton: Covered Bridge Press, .

See also agriculture; Elsie the Cow

William Hart

Wall, Garret Dorset

(b. Mar. , ; d.

Nov. , ). Lawyer, militia officer, politi-

cian, and U.S. senator. Garret Wall, the son of James Wall, was born in the township of Middleton, Monmouth County. His father, an officer in the New Jersey militia, had fought at the Battle of Monmouth. After his father’s death, Wall went to live with his uncle. He was sent to a classical school in Woodbridge and studied law in the offices of Gen. Jonathan Rhea, whose daughter he married. Wall received a license to practice law in  and at the same time entered politics as a Federalist. From  to  he served as clerk of the supreme court. Wall’s service in the War of  as a major in the Phoenix Company of the New Jersey militia led to later appointment as quartermaster general of the militia. In , he was elected to the assembly from Hunterdon County on a nonpartisan ticket and served several terms in the legislature. During the presidential race in , Wall became one of the earliest supporters of Andrew Jackson and became the primary organizer of the new Democratic party. In , when the Democrats gained control of the legislature, they elected Wall governor, but he refused the position, which went instead to his friend Peter D. Vroom. Wall was appointed by Andrew Jackson as federal attorney for New Jersey, a post in which he remained until he was elected to the U.S. Senate in . In the Senate, Wall was a strong supporter of Jackson’s and later Martin Van Buren’s economic policies; consequently he was an enemy

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Wall providing easy access to other areas of the state, Wall is largely a residential community of single-family homes. Horse farms provide links to its past, with light industry and office buildings on major corridors, including Routes , , and . In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Napoliton, Richard. Wall Township. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, .

Joseph G. Bilby

Wallace, Charles Frederick Garrett Wall.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

of the Second National Bank. Wall also opposed a bankruptcy bill that passed Congress and played a role in its repeal at the next session. His positions often led him into conflict with his fellow senator from New Jersey, Samuel L. Southard. Although Wall had some difficulty with his party’s strong prosouthern and proslavery policies, he remained a loyal supporter of the two presidents. After his failure to win reelection in , he returned to his legal practice in Burlington County, and he also served on the court of errors and appeals. Elmer, Lucius Q. C. The Constitution and Government of the Province and State of New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of the Governors from  to . Newark: Martin R. Dennis, . Ershkowitz, Herbert. The Origins of the Whig and Democratic Parties: New Jersey Politics, –. Washington, DC: University Press of America, . Fee, Walter. The Transition from Aristocracy to Democracy in New Jersey, –. Somerville: Somerset Press, .

(b. July

, ; d. June , ). Inventor and manufacturer. Charles F. Wallace was born in Kansas City, Missouri, the son of Charles Stewart and Nellie Galehouse. He attended the University of Michigan. On August , , he married Florence Murray; the couple lived in Westfield and produced three children. Although at his death he held the patents to some eighty inventions, he is best remembered for his chlorinator. In the early twentieth century, typhoid fever, spread through polluted drinking water, claimed thirty thousand lives a year. In , Wallace came up with the chlorinator, a device that purified water. He and his partner, Martin F. Tiernan, convinced authorities in Jersey City that for $ the chlorinator could clean up its municipal water supply. Within a few years, nearly half the world’s drinking water was being purified with Wallace’s invention. The company Wallace and Tiernan, of Belleville, Essex County, survives today as a manufacturer of products that cleanse water. Among Wallace’s many other inventions were weather instruments, radio beacon signals, and systems for cooling and dispensing beer. He was inducted into the New Jersey Inventors’ Hall of Fame in  and is buried in Westfield’s Fairview Cemetery.

Herbert Ershkowitz ANB.

Wall.

.-square-mile township in Monmouth County. Wall Township was incorporated on March , , from land that was formerly part of Howell Township, and, until , Shrewsbury Township. The township was named for a local politician, Garret D. Wall. Bordered by Howell on the west and the Shark and Manasquan rivers north and south, Wall extended eastward to the ocean, but its seashore communities subsequently seceded. Although Wall was primarily agricultural, bog iron ore was smelted at James Allaire’s Howell Furnace through the s. This early industrial village has been restored as a historic site within Allaire State Park. A tract on Shark River Inlet, once used by Guglielmo Marconi for transatlantic radio transmissions, was later the site of Ku Klux Klan headquarters and then an army installation known as Camp Evans. It became a township park in . With roads

DAB.

See also water

Dona M. Amici

Wallace House. This Georgian-style mansion was built in  by John Wallace, an emigrant from England who had become a wealthy Philadelphia merchant. Located on an estate called Hope Farm in Somerville, it was reportedly the largest house of its time in New Jersey. Wallace moved there with his wife, elderly mother-in-law, and three sons to escape the turmoil of the approaching Revolution. Ironically, the Wallace House earned its place in history during the American Revolution when it served as Gen. George Washington’s headquarters during the winter of –, while his troops were camped nearby in Middlebrook (near what is now Bound Brook). Martha Washington joined her

husband there and they socialized in the house with army officers and local Patriots. This was one of the three winter encampments of the Continental Army in the state. The house became a historic site in , and in  was acquired by the state. Today the house, furnished in the style of the eighteenth century when Wallace and his family lived there, is operated by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection as a museum. Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail for Families and History Buffs. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution; historic sites

Maxine N. Lurie

Wallington.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. In November , Wallington farmers burned the Acquackanonk Bridge spanning the Passaic River behind Gen. George Washington’s retreating army in order to force the pursuing British to seek a crossing farther upstream. Named for Walling Van Winkle, a prominent seventeenth-century landowner, the agricultural district developed into a mixed residential/industrial community whose workers were economically dependent on the textile mills of Passaic and Garfield. Wallington was originally part of Saddle River Township, then was briefly known as the Township of Bergen until it incorporated as a borough in . Early businesses included the Anderson Lumber Company and Garfield Woolen Mill. Immigration from Poland began after World War I and Wallington became a significant outpost of “Polonia,’’ a group of northeastern and midwestern urban enclaves preserving the Polish language and customs. From the floodplain along the Passaic River to the Showhank Hill at the east, neighborhoods of modest houses developed along Paterson Avenue. This was originally the New Barbadoes Toll Bridge Company Road, where the Julius Roehrs Company once operated a large nursery business. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Scott, William. History of Passaic and Its Environs. Vols.  and . New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Wyka, Dave. Historic Sites of South Bergen. South Bergen: Center for Cultural History, .

Maureen Dillon

Wallkill National Wildlife Refuge. This ,-acre wildlife refuge, established in  in Sussex County, New Jersey, and Orange County, New York, flanks the Wallkill River. The refuge contains forests, grasslands, wetlands, and shrublands brimming with wildlife. The Wallkill National Wildlife

wampum Refuge is well known for its varied bird population, as numerous migrating birds pass through the Wallkill Valley. More than seventy animal species on the Federal Threatened and Endangered Species List are found in the refuge. Although much of the refuge is offlimits to the general public, there are areas open for hiking and fishing, and canoeing on the Wallkill River is permitted.

Mark McGarrity

wallpaper industry. Large populations and a central location brought paper mills to New Jersey in the eighteenth century. Mackay and Dixey were producing “cheap paper hangings’’ in Springfield by . Three more factories were operating by : those of John P. Hardenbergh and M. A. Howell in New Brunswick, and William P. White and Company in Newark. John Waldron Company, founded in , made New Brunswick the center for wallpaper printing machines, building the first eight-color printing machine for M. A. Howell in . The number of manufacturers continued to grow. Founded in New Brunswick in , Janeway and Company claimed to be “the largest and best equipped wall-paper manufactory in the United States’’ in . New Jersey ranked fifth in U.S. paper production in , much of which was consumed by the wallpaper trade. William Campbell Wall-paper Company began production in , and in , a trade magazine considered its plant in Hackensack the finest in the country. In  New Jersey employed  workers in the wallpaper industry. Frederick Beck and Company manufactured wallpaper in Hoboken in  with a -million-roll-peryear capacity. By  many more manufacturers existed, including Hitchner and Yerkes, Camden; W. and H. Gledhill, Irvington; CoryHeller Company, Newark; Hobbs, Benton and Heath, Hoboken; Enterprise Wall-paper Company, Collingswood; Eureka Wall-paper Company, Newark; Embossed Wall Coverings Company, Salem; American Wall-paper Company, Bogota; and H. B. Wiggin’s Sons Company, Bloomfield. Currently, at least thirty-four manufacturers and printers are still in operation. Paper mills, engravers, and color labs that service the industry are also in production. Lynn, Catherine. Wallpaper in America: From the Seventeenth Century to World War I. New York: W. W. Norton, .

See also papermaking

Gregory Herringshaw

Walpack.

.-square-mile township on the Delaware River in western Sussex County. Created in the early eighteenth century, Walpack was one of the four original municipalities of Sussex County at the county’s creation in . Portions of Walpack were later set off to become Pahaquarry, Montague, and Sandyston townships. Occupying a strip

between the Delaware River and the summit of Kittatinny Ridge, Walpack saw European settlement around . Rich farmland along the river contributed to the agricultural prosperity of the town, and farming remained important through the twentieth century. Almost the entire township was acquired by the federal government in the s and early s for the Tocks Island Reservoir project (later abandoned). Most private buildings in the town were vacated and razed by the Army Corps of Engineers. Consequently, Walpack is perhaps the least densely populated municipality in the state. Most of the town is now part of Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, administered by the National Park Service. Walpack Center survived demolition and is now the home of the Walpack Historical Society. The  population of  residents was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Bertland, Dennis N., Patricia M. Valence, and Russell J. Woodling. The Minisink. Walpack: FourCounty Task Force on the Tocks Island Dam Project, . Williams, Robert, and Mary Christman. Over the Mountain: A Place Called Walpack. Walpack: Walpack Historical Society, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Walt Whitman Cultural Arts Center. The Walt Whitman Cultural Arts Center, a nonprofit, multicultural literary, performing, and visual arts center in Camden, is dedicated to continuing its namesake’s legacy for artistic excellence. Established in  by haiku poet Nick Virgilio, the center offers programs reflecting a broad spectrum of cultures to a regional audience. Programs that encourage intellectual explorations by children are especially emphasized. The center maintains youth and educational programs that range from theatrical presentations to workshops for young artists. The center is now also the site of a Delaware Valley Regional Folklife Center.

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During his years in Camden Whitman continued to edit and expand Leaves of Grass, publishing the ninth and final edition in . Major prose works published during these years include Specimen Days and Collect () and November Boughs (). Whitman died at his home on March , , and was buried at Harleigh Cemetery in a tomb of his own design. After Whitman’s death, the house was a rental property until  when the city of Camden purchased it from his heirs. In , ownership was transferred to the state of New Jersey, which now administers the site. The house collection includes original furnishings, letters, photographs, and rare books. See also historic sites; Whitman, Walt

Margaret O’Neil

wampum. The small cylindrical shell beads used as a currency by Native Americans and colonists in early America are known as wampum. Wampum, derived from an Algonquian word, was also known as sewant in Dutch and peake or peage in English. The white beads were made from the columellas of whelk shells; black beads, cut from the purple portion of hard clamshells, were twice as valuable as white ones. Wampum, which was in use before European contact and was also employed for body ornamentation, became an important medium of exchange during the colonial period, functioning as a currency. Belts strung with wampum were exchanged by Native Americans, and in some cases colonists, to indicate the conclusion of a treaty. Bergen County was a major center for the production of wampum from the eighteenth through the late nineteenth century.

Amy Rashap

Walt Whitman House.

This modest, wood-frame house at  Mickle Boulevard, Camden, was the home of poet Walt Whitman from  until his death. Built in the Greek Revival style around , it is the only house Whitman ever owned. Whitman first came to Camden in  and lived with his brother George. When George moved his family outside the city, Walt decided to stay in Camden and purchased the Mickle Street house for $,. Whitman was able to buy the house because of the unusually large royalties he earned from the seventh edition of Leaves of Grass, which was the subject of much publicity after a threatened banning of the book.

Delaware Indian family wearing wampum beads to show their status. Drawing by Per Lindestrom, c. –.

Courtesy Riksarkivet, Stockholm, Sweden.

846

Wanaque

Williams, Lorraine E., and Karen A. Flinn. Trade Wampum: New Jersey to the Plains. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum, .

See also American Indians

Richard F. Veit

Wanaque.

-square-mile borough on the Wanaque River in Passaic County. Wanaque was set off from Pompton Township in . The Wanaque Valley, rich in both fertility and minerals, was historically a center of iron mining, smelting, charcoal burning, and agriculture. The Laflin-Rand and later, DuPont, companies manufactured explosives at nearby Haskell from the late s to . Much of nineteenth-century Wanaque was effaced by construction of the Wanaque Reservoir (. miles long), built between  and , and dedicated in . It services eighty-five towns in six counties. The reservoir and surrounding land occupies most of the northern part of the borough. The ,-foot-long Raymond Dam and the headquarters of the North Jersey District Water Supply Commission are major features of Wanaque’s main street. Much of the rest of the township is occupied by older residential areas. In the s the borough saw significant residential growth. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Clayton, W. Woodford, and William Nelson. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey. . Reprint. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Wantage. .-square-mile township, the largest municipality in Sussex County. Wantage was set off from Newton (New Town) Township in . Located in the rolling Kittatinny Valley, Wantage historically supported agriculture as a primary activity, and many farms remain. Since the late nineteenth century, dairy farming has been dominant, with farmers’ markets becoming popular in recent decades. Bluestone quarries were also active during the late nineteenth century. Among the notable early settlers was the Rev. Elias Van Bunschooten, whose large home is now preserved as a museum. High Point State Park (in the western portion of the township) and the Wallkill River National Wildlife Refuge (in the eastern section) are popular public open spaces. In recent years, Wantage has managed to preserve some of its farmland through state preservation programs, but housing subdivisions have also grown rapidly. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . King, Lawrence E., ed. Our Wantage Heritage. Sussex: Wantage Township Bicentennial Committee, .

Jacob Ward, Passaic River at Belleville, c. –. Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in. unframed.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Gift of Lloyd and Edith Goodrich in memory of Madeleine Lloyd Goodrich, 1984, 84.285.

Snell, James P., ed. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Ward, Jacob Caleb

(b. Oct. , ;

d. Aug. , ).

Painter. The landscape painter Jacob Caleb Ward was born in Jersey City and raised in Bloomfield. His father was a portrait painter named Caleb Ward; the painter and daguerreotypist Charles V. Ward was his brother. Ward moved to Manhattan by , where he exhibited at both the National Academy of Design and the American Academy of the Fine Arts. Like many nineteenth-century landscapists, he traveled widely in search of new subjects, sketching the headwaters of the Mississippi River in  and making a three-year trip to South America in –. Ward moved back to Bloomfield around , where he died in . Kornhauser, Elizabeth M. American Paintings before  in the Wadsworth Atheneum. New Haven: Yale University Press, .

See also art

Kenneth John Myers

Ward, Marcus L. , ).

(b. Nov. , ; d. April

Businessman, politician, and governor. Born into a prominent Newark family, Marcus L. Ward became a successful businessman. He served as director of National State Bank and played a leading role in numerous civic organizations, including the Newark Library Association and the New Jersey Historical Society. He became active in the Republican party in the s. During the Civil War, Ward was widely admired for his efforts to help

provide for the financial and medical needs of New Jersey fighting men and their families. In , Republicans chose Ward as their candidate for governor, but he lost to Democrat Joel Parker. The setback, however, was temporary. When Ward was again nominated in  he won in a close but decisive election in which Republicans also captured the legislature. Ward owed his victory to the support he received from veterans as well as the general shift toward the Republicans in New Jersey as the war came to a close. Shortly after Ward became governor in January  a serious rift developed between President Andrew Johnson and congressional Republicans over the restoration of the former Confederate states and the treatment of black Americans in the South. The political confusion in New Jersey was exacerbated by intense factionalism in Republican ranks and rumors that a new party might emerge that combined conservative Republicans and moderate Democrats. Ward at first appeared unwilling to support either side in the dispute between Johnson and the Congress. In June, however, Ward decisively rejected Johnson’s leadership and requested a special session of the state legislature. He called for ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment and the selection of a new U.S. senator to replace John P. Stockton. Stockton, a Democrat, had been removed by Republicans in the U.S. Senate because he was not elected by a straight majority in the New Jersey legislature. Ward’s action energized New Jersey Republicans, ensured the election of a Republican senator, and helped in the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. It masterfully served both idealistic and political ends.

Warren Although Ward was a progressive Republican on the central issues of his day, he was also committed to building up the strength of the party. In , he favored caution on extending the vote to black men, even suggesting that the Fourteenth Amendment had gone far enough in the cause of racial equality. When Republicans suffered a huge defeat in the state elections of  after they endorsed black enfranchisement, Ward took steps to encourage moderation and rebuild the party’s strength. As governor he backed progressive measures, including the establishment of a reform school, mandated public education, and a statewide uniform health code. Ward also called for the creation of a nonpartisan commission to develop and tax riparian lands. Still Republican factionalism continued and the democratic capture of the legislature in  hindered Ward’s leadership. In , he was nominated for Congress and won, but he was defeated for reelection in . Ward retired from politics and concentrated on philanthropic activities, including the home for disabled soldiers he had earlier helped establish. A patrician with sound political skills, Ward served New Jersey and his community well. Gillette, William. Jersey Blue: Civil-War Politics in New Jersey, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Louis Moore

Ware, Maskell

(b. Dec. , ; d. Feb.

, ). Chair maker. Maskell Ware was the

patriarch of a six-generation dynasty of chair makers in Roadstown, New Jersey. Son of Elnathan Ware and Mercy Moore, he was apprenticed at fourteen to John Laning, a Quaker chair maker in Greenwich. Ware set up his own shop in . In , he married Hannah Simpkins of Roadstown, and soon settled there, where he built a house and with his wife raised eleven children. Ware produced turned ladder-back chairs. Made entirely of local materials, Ware chairs were characterized by distinctive ball finials, ball feet on the front legs, bold turned front stretchers, and curved, serpentine slats on backs. Watson, Sara Carlisle. The Ware Chairs of Cumberland County. Bridgeton: Eugene Printing, .

See also furniture making

Ulysses Grant Dietz

Waretown.

See Ocean Township (Ocean

County).

Warinanco Park. Established in , this -acre county park, located in Roselle, was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and is best known for its annual floral displays in

the one-acre Henry S. Chatfield Memorial Garden (named after the park’s original commissioner) and the two-acre Azalea Garden. Each spring the Chatfield Garden’s twenty-one circular beds bloom with , tulips from bulbs imported from Holland. Over , annuals are planted each June and bloom throughout the summer. The Azalea Garden boasts hundreds of plants in several dozen beds that bloom from late April through June. The park also contains facilities for tennis, soccer, baseball, track, and boating, as well as a skating rink and picnic areas.

Mary McAleer Balkun

Warne, Thomas

(b. ; d. May , ).

Proprietor of East Jersey. Born in Plymouth, Devonshire, England, son of Stephen Warne and Catherine Triplett, Thomas Warne was a merchant and shipowner. He became one of twenty-four proprietors of East Jersey in  and then sailed to Perth Amboy to settle in the colony. He served on the governor’s council and the court of common right. Warne married Mary Lord Carhart (c. ), and they had six children. Labaw, George Warne, Rev. A Genealogy of the Warne Family in America. New York: Frank Allaben Genealogical Company, . Warne, Tamara L. Thomas Warne and the Proprietary Colony of East Jersey. Oxford: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

George K. Warne

War of 1812.

Although all of New Jersey’s congressional delegates belonged to the Republican party of President James Madison, a majority of them voted against war in June . American unpreparedness, Republican party factionalism, a record of moderation on war-related issues, and concern about Madison’s leadership influenced their decision. The war became the major issue in the state elections of , and Federalists capitalized on antiwar sentiment to win a majority in the legislature, the first Federalist victory in a decade. In the January  congressional elections, antiwar Federalists won four of the six seats, reflecting the antiwar sentiment in the Garden State. Nevertheless, Aaron Ogden, elected governor by the Federalist-controlled legislature, pursued a moderate policy of cooperation with the Madison administration by providing the state militia for the defense of New York City and Philadelphia. British raids during  and the return of Clintonian Republicans to the party led to a Republican victory in the  state elections. After a British expeditionary force overran and burned Washington in August , Gov. William Pennington, a prowar Republican, called out the militia to defend New York, Philadelphia, and the Jersey coast from possible British attack. Already, British naval forces had engaged in small-scale raids along

847

the Jersey Shore. On March , , for example, the British seventy-four-gun Ramailles sent barges with armed men into Barnegat Inlet to burn the schooner Greyhound, and it attacked four coasters between Waretown and Forked River. At about the same time, British raiders seized twenty coasters in the Maurice River area of Cumberland County. During  and  British vessels cruised off the Jersey Shore, sporadically raiding from Sandy Hook to the Maurice River and capturing coasters. Worried residents from Monmouth to Salem counties helped the prowar Republicans regain and keep control of the state in –. For the people of the Jersey coast, the War of  turned from news accounts of distant battles on the Canadian frontier into the reality of hostile British warships sailing a few miles offshore. Lee, Francis Bazley. New Jersey as a Colony and as a State.  vols. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . Pasler, Rudolph J., and Margaret C. Pasler. New Jersey Federalists. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, . Prince, Carl E. New Jersey’s Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

Harvey Strum

“War of the Worlds’’ broadcast. One of the most famous events in New Jersey history never took place. On October , , the night before Halloween, Orson Welles broadcast a radio play based on H. G. Wells’s story “The War of the Worlds,’’ as part of his Mercury Theater of the Air. The script by Howard Koch replaced British place names with American, and it had the Martians landing in Grovers Mill, a small community in West Windsor. They poisoned an artillery unit in Morristown, and most of the citizens of Newark, before attacking New York. The broadcast, which accurately mimicked the sound of authentic newscasts, caused a nationwide panic. More than a million Americans believed that Martians had indeed landed in central New Jersey. The event was studied by Princeton University psychologist Hadley Cantril, whose  book, The Invasion from Mars: A Study in the Psychology of Panic, became a seminal work in the field of social psychology. Cantril found no variable that correlated strongly with who panicked that night. To a small degree, people with fundamentalist biblical views were more likely than others to believe what they heard. Cantril, Hadley. The Invasion from Mars: A Study in the Psychology of Panic. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Koch, Howard. The Panic Broadcast: Portrait of an Event. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Howard Green

Warren.

.-square-mile township in Somerset County. Straddling the First and

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Warren County

Second Watchung Mountains, bisected by Washington Valley, Warren was settled in the s by English and Scots-Irish following the Passaic River upstream from New Providence, or through what is now the Somerset Street Gap in the First Watchung Mountain. Formed March , , from Bernards and Bridgewater townships, Warren’s name honors the Revolutionary War hero Joseph Warren. Farmers eked out a hard living on the rocky soil during the township’s first two centuries, with life centered on Mount Horeb, Coontown, Smalleytown, Union Village, Warrenville, Mount Bethel, and Springdale villages. Landmark sites include the Kirch-Ford House (c. ) and the Mount Bethel Baptist Meeting House, erected  in the valley and moved to its current location atop Mount Bethel hill in . A series of building booms following World War II transformed Warren from rural to suburban; the opening of Route  in  made it one of the county’s more desirable locations. Today it is primarily single-family residential, with a mix of small to manor-size homes on large wooded lots. Commercial development is located along Mount Bethel Road and in Warrenville. The population in  of , residents was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Somerset County. Somerville: Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Van Horn, J. H. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Somerset County Historical Society, .

Alan A. Siegel

Warren County.

Warren County, with an area of .-square-miles, is located in northwestern New Jersey in what is also known as the Skylands Region. It is bounded by the Delaware River on the west, Sussex County on the north, Morris County on the east, and Hunterdon County on the south. The county is thirty-two miles long, and has an average width of thirteen miles. It ranks ninth in size among New Jersey’s twenty-one counties, and twentieth in population. The county is divided into twenty-two municipalities, and the countryside is dotted with many linear and crossroads communities. The Warren County landscape is marked with ridges, valleys, streams, and small lakes, creating one of the more scenic regions in New Jersey. It includes the Delaware Water Gap, a geological wonder where, over countless millennia, the Delaware River has worn its way through the mountains. The streams of the county flow into the Delaware River. The fertile valleys make the county an important agricultural district in the state. Although today more people are involved in industry and service jobs than in agriculture, the

WARREN COUNTY

Belvidere

0

15

county seat

miles

county retains its predominantly rural character. Concern for preserving the rural character and farmland motivated the voters of Warren County to levy a dedicated tax in  to purchase open space and preserve historic sites. The county lies in what was part of the English proprietary colony of West Jersey, and for many years was part of the unorganized region of West Jersey. When Hunterdon County was created in /, it included the area that is now Warren, Morris, and Sussex counties. During its evolution Warren County was included in both Morris County and Sussex County. Warren County was separated from Sussex by an act of the state legislature on November , . The county was named for Dr. Joseph Warren, a Revolutionary War hero who fell in the Battle of Bunker Hill. After a vote by the inhabitants, the county seat was established in Belvidere on April , . The civil divisions at the time of its organization were Greenwich, Hardwick, Independence, Knowlton, Mansfield, Oxford, and Pahaquarry townships. Presently, Warren County operates under an elected threemember Board of Chosen Freeholders. The freeholders administer all county services and function through a county administrator, who manages and supervises the day-to-day operations of the departments, boards, agencies, and commissions. The Dutch saw the region as part of their colony of New Netherland and, as evidence and legend have it, came to Pahaquarry to dig for copper in the early s. They are believed to have been the first Europeans to visit

Warren County. Remains of minor excavations are still visible. When they arrived, the region had many temporary and permanent campsites of territorial tribes of the Minisink, who relied on hunting and agriculture for their existence. During this period the Dutch constructed a road from Pahaquarry to Kingston, New York. The road was the first commercial highway built in the United States, known as the “Old Mine Road.’’ The Dutch early mining attempts were not particularly successful, and further exploration was abandoned. The county was later settled by the English after the conquest of the Dutch colony. Some early settlers came by in-migration from eastern and southeastern Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Highlands Region, which runs through Warren County, is rich in magnetite, limestone, timber, and water. These four ingredients are used in the operation of iron blast furnaces. At Oxford Furnace are the ruins of an iron-ore blast furnace that provided cannonballs for the Revolutionary War. The furnace was constructed in  and, except for a short period in the early s, was active until  when it was shut down for the last time. The need in the mid-s for workers in the iron industry and ancillary jobs forced the operators to meet immigrant ships in New York to recruit available passengers. This practice introduced people of many nationalities to the region, who worked as furnace workers, miners, colliers, lumbermen, farmers, and tradesmen. Pahaquarry Township no longer exists. The state of New Jersey owns the half of the township known as Worthington State Forest. The rest of the available land in Pahaquarry was purchased by the federal government for the construction of a dam on the Delaware River to control flooding. Congress authorized this project, known as the Tocks Island Dam, in August . The project met with heated opposition from many residents of the county, who wanted to keep the river free-flowing. After many years the project was abandoned, but the federal government still owns the land, which became the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. By the s the population of Pahaquarry had dropped to fewer than twenty people living in nine housing units, a number too low to effectively operate a municipal government. It was decided by the Pahaquarry township committee in , with the concurrence of Hardwick, to become part of Hardwick Township. Pahaquarry exists today as a place name only. The development of transportation was and is instrumental in the county’s development. The ancient Native American woodland paths became the first dirt roads. The county later was crossed by the Morris Canal, which ran from Phillipsburg to Newark. It carried anthracite coal from the Lehigh Valley, Pennsylvania, to users along the route as well as to the metropolitan terminal region, and

Washington, George brought back manufactured goods. Chartered in , the canal was completed in  and operated until . Its use declined with the improvement of land-travel methods and the coming of the railroads in the mid-s. The convenience of “door-to-door’’ road transportation forced railroading into a decline. The elaborate Interstate Highway System was greatly expanded in  when the Federal Highway Trust Fund was created and construction of roads was accelerated. Interstate Routes  and  cut through Warren County running east and west, and today connect the area with the New Jersey–New York metropolitan region. Today Warren County has a broad economic base. The once-agrarian region now has more people in industry and service related occupations than in farming, and is becoming a bedroom community for the metropolitan areas of northeast New Jersey and New York. According to the  census, Warren County’s population of , was  percent white. The median household income for the county was $,. Cultural Resource Consulting Group. Historic Structures Report, Oxford Furnace. Oxford: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, . Snell, James P. History of Sussex and Warren Counties, New Jersey. . Reprint. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, . Warne, George K., ed. A Look at Warren County. Belvidere: Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission, .

George K. Warne

Warren College.

County

Community

This two-year, public, coeducational institution of higher education is located in Washington Township. The school was founded in  after a decade of planning by county officials. Classes began during the fall of  and were conducted at local high schools before a central campus was established four years later. Warren County Community College has state approval to issue associate degrees, and the first diplomas were granted in . The Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools granted the school accreditation status in . The present site of the seventy-five-acre campus hosts an average student body of fifteen hundred per semester. See also higher education

presence on the pop charts, with BacharachDavid songs like “Walk On By,’’ “Alfie,’’ “I Say a Little Prayer,’’ “Message to Michael,’’ “I’ll Never Fall in Love Again,’’ and “Do You Know the Way to San Jose?’’ Her sophisticated phrasing and cool bearing proved perfect for the Bacharach-David songwriting style, which featured winding melodies, conversational lyrics, and orchestral arrangements. Later hits would include “Then Came You,’’a  collaboration with the Spinners, and “That’s What Friends Are For,’’ a  single also featuring Elton John, Stevie Wonder, and Gladys Knight, which benefited the American Foundation for AIDS Research. Warwick made a questionable career move in the s, filming infomercials for the Psychic Friends Network (which made predictions over the phone, for a fee), but remains a classy, almost regal presence in concerts. Gregory, Hugh. Soul Music, A–Z. London: Blandford, . Rees, Dafydd, and Luke Crampton, eds. Encyclopedia of Rock Stars. New York: DK Publishing, . Stambler, Irwin, ed. Encyclopedia of Pop, Rock, and Soul. New York: St. Martin’s Press, .

See also pop music

Jay Lustig

Washington, George

(b. Feb. , ; d.

Dec. , ). Revolutionary War general and

U.S. president. New Jersey’s role as a battlefield of the Revolutionary War was the context in which George Washington left his greatest mark on the state. From November  until December , , Washington conducted his troops in retreat from New York across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. On the night of December – he recrossed the Delaware River to victory at Trenton, and on January , , he commanded at Princeton before retiring to winter quarters at Morristown. Washington kept winter quarters at Morristown

from January to May  and from December  until June . In , Washington stayed at Jacob Arnold’s tavern on the public square; in – he occupied a mansion formerly owned by Jacob Ford. After maneuvering in New Jersey in the summer of  to avoid British attempts to draw him into a general engagement, Washington left the state in August for the campaign that was to culminate at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. He returned to New Jersey in June  as the British withdrew from Philadelphia, fighting a bloody but inconclusive battle with the British rear guard at Monmouth Court House on June . Although Monmouth was the last major engagement in New Jersey, Washington established winter quarters at Middlebrook from December  until June  (staying at John Wallace’s house, four miles from the town), and spent much of the summer and autumn of  near the Falls of the Passaic River, making his headquarters in Theunis Day’s mansion. From August to November  Washington waited for the end of the war with his wife at Margaret Berrien’s Rockingham estate at Rocky Hill, near Princeton. Washington’s last significant visit to New Jersey came on the way to his presidential inauguration in New York in April , at which time he received public praise from the ladies of Trenton, the president and faculty of Princeton College, and citizens of other towns. Washington’s wartime campaigns in New Jersey left an indelible mark on local folklore, where legends of the great man abound; for Washington himself, the New Jersey campaigns were crucial to the development of his national reputation. Abbot, W. W., et al., eds. The Papers of George Washington, Revolutionary War Series.  vols. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, – .

Alan Delozier

Warwick, Dionne

(b. Dec. , ).

Singer. Born in East Orange, Dionne Warwick sang in the choir of Newark’s New Hope Baptist Church and in the local groups the Gospelaires (also featuring her cousin Cissy Houston, mother of Whitney Houston) and the Drinkard Singers. While doing session work in New York, she met Burt Bacharach, who, with songwriting partner Hal David, would write most of her hits. From  to , she was a constant

849

Emanuel Leutze, Washington Crossing the Delaware, . Oil on canvas,  ×  in.

Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Gift of John S. Kennedy, 1897 (97.34). Photo copyright Metropolitan Museum of Art.

850

Washington, George Constant

Di Ionno, Mark. A Guide to New Jersey’s Revolutionary War Trail for Families and History Buffs. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Lundin, Leonard. Cockpit of the Revolution: The War for Independence in New Jersey. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Muir, Dorothy Troth. General Washington’s Headquarters, –. Troy, AL: Troy State University Press, .

See also American Revolution; illustration, color section

Edward G. Lengel

Washington, George Constant (b. ; d. Mar. , ). Inventor. George Constant Washington was a Belgian chemist who created the powder for making America’s first instant coffee in . His product was called G. Washington Coffee. In , Washington, then fifty-five, moved his G. Washington Coffee Refining Company operation from Brooklyn to Morris Plains and, a year later, opened a factory in the Morris County borough. In , Washington, who lived in Mendham, retired and sold his company to American Home Foods, a division of American Home Products. After his death on March , , his product survived thirteen years until a subsidiary of the Coca-Cola Company bought the site in . Soon after, G. Washington Coffee disappeared from the shelves.

meals with songs and sermons he served at missions in New York and Philadelphia. Father Divine supported her belief in racial solidarity for black businesspeople, and after Washington purchased Divine’s Hotel Brigantine on Brigantine Island, New Jersey, assuming the unpaid taxes, this hotel became the site of the first integrated beachfront in the Atlantic City area. Active in politics, Washington served as an Atlantic City committeewoman for several years and also as a delegate to the Republican national convention. In , Washington was awarded a medallion at the New York World’s Fair. She received a citation for meritorious service during World War II, as secretary and treasurer of the New Jersey Welfare Commission on the Conditions of the Urban Colored Population, and as assistant public director of the Atlantic City Welfare Association. She received many other awards from schools, organizations, and businesses nationwide. After she died, the bulk of her estate, valued at over $ million, was left to her adopted daughter. Porter, Gladys. Three Negro Pioneers in Beauty Culture. New York: Vantage Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also Apex Beauty Products Company

Bill Swayze

Barbara Polk Riley

Washington, Sara Spencer (b. June , ; d. Mar. , ). Businesswoman. In ,

Washington Association of New Jersey. Four private citizens, including for-

Sara Spencer Washington owned a one-room beauty shop in Atlantic City, and by  had created a $, business—Apex News and Hair Company in Atlantic City—with beauty colleges in twelve states, as well as in Johannesburg, South Africa, and the Caribbean Islands, graduating four thousand students a year. She has been called one of the most important business executives in the black community. Washington was a pioneer in promotional techniques; she established a public relations department that worked with African American organizations to support blackowned businesses throughout the country. More than seventy-five beauty products were manufactured in Washington’s Atlantic City Apex plant. She had her own delivery system using a fleet of company trucks and cars. Her company employed  men and women as chemists, lab technicians, office workers, sales representatives, and chauffeurs, as well as , agents. Some of her other properties included a drugstore in Atlantic City, Apex Farm, and Apex Rest, a fifteen-room recreation center primarily for her employees. Washington also published a national magazine, the Apex News, for Apex beauticians and agents. At times Washington was affiliated with Father Divine (George Baker), a flamboyant religious leader of the s and s, and was often seen at his “banquets,’’ the low-cost

mer governor Theodore Randolph, founded the Washington Association of New Jersey in March  in Morristown. There, the previous year, Randolph had purchased at auction the Ford Mansion, Washington’s headquarters during the bitter winter of – . After failing to convince the state to reimburse them and run the house as a historic site, the founders formed a company to preserve the Ford Mansion and operate it as a museum. They embarked on a vigorous acquisition program and built a large collection of colonial and Revolutionary War artifacts and documents. In  the trustees and stockholders voted to donate Washington’s headquarters and its collections to the National Park Service. On March , , President Herbert Hoover signed legislation to accept the association properties, along with Jockey Hollow and Fort Nonsense lands, and so created the first national historical park in the country. The association continues its mission to support the Morristown National Historical Park in the preservation and interpretation of this Revolutionary War site, as well as to honor the contribution of Washington and his troops to the cause of independence. It subsidizes the park’s development fund and is its official advisory body. The association sponsors educational programs, lectures, symposia, and related publications.

Lindsley, James Elliott. A Certain Splendid House: The History of the Washington Association of New Jersey. Rev. ed. Morristown: Washington Association of New Jersey, .

See also Morristown National Historical Park

Richard C. Simon

Washington Borough.

.-squaremile borough in Warren County. In  Washington was created from the most populated section in the center of Washington Township. It was named after the Washington House, a brick tavern. As a commercial and industrial complex, the borough owed its early growth to the railroads, and to the organ and piano manufacturers and their related mail-order sales. Highly promoted by Daniel F. Beatty, Joseph Cornish, and others, Washington was the selfproclaimed “organ capital of the world.’’ By the end of World War I, the music makers were out of business. In  the Pohatcong Hosiery Company began operation, employing a work force of  who made silk, then nylon, stockings. It closed its doors in  because of labor difficulties. Tung Sol Electric replaced the hosiery mill; in the decade following the s, it employed  people who produced radio and television tubes. Downtown Main Street, a shopping area for farm families, dwindled with the coming of the malls. Washington is now a residential community. The site of the s railroad station is on the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. According to the  census, the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Leedom, Helen P., ed. Washington, New Jersey, Centennial, –. Washington: Centennial Book Committee, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Washington Crossing State Park. This ,-acre state park, established in  and situated along the Delaware River in Mercer County about eight miles north of Trenton, preserves the site where George Washington and the Continental Army crossed the river from Pennsylvania en route to attacking the British at Trenton on December , . Preserved in the park is the Johnson Ferry House, an early eighteenth-century farmhouse and tavern where Washington and his officers probably spent time on the night of the river crossing. The park also features a large nature preserve and a headquarters building that displays the Swan Historical Foundation Collection, containing more than seven hundred original American Revolution military objects from the years  to . See also American Revolution

Fred J. Aun

Washington Township (Bergen County). .-square-mile township. The

Washington Township (Warren County) Lenape Indians and the Dutch were the earliest inhabitants of the area known today as Washington Township. The Dutch cultivated apple trees, and the area was known for its apple cider. In , when Washington Township broke away from the township of Harrington, its territory stretched from the Hackensack River to the Saddle River. Between  and , however, many settlements in the township became independent municipalities, until Washington was only one-tenth of its original size. Prominent among the early industries was the Kent sawmill and chair factory, in operation from  to the s. The Kents manufactured Hitchcock, Windsor, fan-back, ladder-back, and bamboo chairs, as well as steamer chairs for the Ocean Comfort Company. Beuerlein’s Home of Flowers took over the Kent property in , and raised , cut flowers annually, in fourteen greenhouses. The housing market flourished in the twentieth century as Washington became a suburban community. In  the Thruway Feeder Road, linking the Garden State Parkway with the New York State Thruway, was opened through the center of the township. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk: Donning, . The Story of the Township of Washington. Washington Township: Township of Washington History Committee, .

Linda J. Barth

Washington Township (Burlington County). .-square-mile township in the southwestern part of the county, along the border of Atlantic County, with the Mullica River serving as a natural boundary. Washington Township was first established in , from parts of Evesham and Northampton townships in Burlington County, and Little Egg Harbor Township in Atlantic County. Portions of its landmass were given up at various junctures of the s to create or realign the borders of Bass River, Shamong, and Woodland townships. It shares the distinction of simultaneously being one of Burlington County’s geographically largest and least populous townships. More than half its area consists of portions of the Penn, Green Bank, and Wharton state forests. One of southern New Jersey’s most historic locales, the village of Batsto, is within the township. This was the site of a furnace and foundry built in  that produced cannonballs and other bog-iron products for the Continental Army, and was once the target of a British naval operation. It exists today as a restored state historic site. Principal villages along the Mullica River are Green Bank and Lower Bank. The township’s leading agricultural product is cranberries, with one

of the largest bog and processing complexes along county Route  owned by the Haines family. The  population of  was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Washington Township (Gloucester County). .-square-mile township. When incorporated in , farmers made up a large majority of the population of Washington Township, and by , the township had more than two hundred farms. Some of the early settlers include the Heritage family, who began the Heritage Dairy Farm Stores, and the Bell family, who turned the township’s -year-old gristmill into General Mills. The mill was destroyed by a fire in . Though farmers dominated the population at the time of incorporation, American Indians were the first to make this area their home. The township’s oldest community, Grenloch Terrace, originated as a thriving Lenape Indian village called Tetamekon. Twenty other American Indian encampments exist within township borders, comprising twenty-one American Indian sites and burial grounds. Today, Washington Township includes the communities of Turnersville, Hurffville, Grenloch, Cross Keys, Mayfair, Bunker Hill, and Chapel Heights. Farming continues in these communities, along with retail, healthcare, professional, and corporate businesses. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Memories of Washington Township, Gloucester County, New Jersey. Washington Township: Historical Society of Washington Township, . Michael, Joan B. Historic Washington Township Manuscript: A Tour of the Township. Washington Township: Historical Society of Washington Township, .

Melissa Schiavo

Washington Township (Mercer County). .-square-mile municipality. Although first settled by European immigrants in the seventeenth century, the township was not incorporated until . It was formed from the southern part of East Windsor Township, after the Camden and Amboy railroad had spurred growth in the region. The two principal settlements are Robbinsville (formerly Newtown, before that Hungry Hill) and Windsor (originally Magrilla, and then Centerville). Farms predominated in the area until World War II; residential growth in the

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years since has been rapid. In  the Pennsylvania Railroad took over from the Camden and Amboy. It was followed by Conrail until it discontinued service in the s. Today Interstate  and the New Jersey Turnpike link the township to New York City and Philadelphia. State Routes  and  link to Trenton, Bordentown, and New Brunswick. The TrentonRobbinsville Airport is among the state’s ten largest, and is home to a pilots’ school. While half the township’s , acres is still agriculture-based, another one-fourth is residential, with predominately single-family homes. Only  percent is zoned commercial. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M., and John Hageman. History of Burlington and Mercer Counties. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

Henry Innes MacAdam

Washington Township (Morris County). .-square-mile township set off from Roxbury Township in . The South Branch of the Raritan River flows through the town, and the Musconetcong River forms its northwestern border. The ample waterpower drove many lumber and grain mills in the nineteenth century. Iron mining was also an important industry. Most notable was Schooley’s Mountain, site of one of the oldest summer resorts in the United States. A famous therapeutic mineral spring led to the construction of two large nineteenth-century resort hotels, now gone. The township includes many open spaces, including Schooley’s Mountain Park (which preserves the resort sites and spring) and Hacklebarney State Park. Agriculture has always been an important activity, and Long (formerly German) Valley includes many farms that have been entered in the state farmland preservation program. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Honeyman, A. Van Doren, ed. Northwestern New Jersey, A History. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, . History of Morris County, New Jersey. . Reprint. Morristown: Morris County Historical Society, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Washington Township (Warren County). .-square-mile rural township. Washington was separated from Mansfield Township in . (At that time the borough of the same name was still a part of the township.) Among the historically important villages of Washington Township are Changewater, Pleasant Valley, Bowerstown, Brass Castle, Port Colden, and Imlydale, which is on both the New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places. The township relied

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on its waterways for its early growth. The fast-moving Musconetcong River furnished power for industrial mills, especially the earliest county forge at Changewater. The old Morris Canal brought markets and prosperity to busy inland port villages such as Bowerstown and Port Colden. Despite the arrival of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey in the mid-nineteenth century and the construction of nearby Routes I- and I-, the villages have settled back into historic residential communities. The land remains rural, with dairy and produce farming as its main source of income. Its fertile lands have recently begun to disappear into ever-expanding pockets of residential developments, whose population commutes to jobs outside the area. The township is the home of Warren County Community College. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cummins, George Wyckoff. History of Warren County, New Jersey. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

watchmaking.

Evidence suggests that watchmaking in New Jersey dates as far back as the mid-nineteenth century. Several watchmaking businesses from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries stand out. One of the most successful was the Keystone Watch Case Company, organized in  in Philadelphia. Keystone controlled the New York Standard Watch Company in Jersey City; the Crescent Watch Case Company in Newark; and the Philadelphia Watch Case Company at Riverside. From  to , Charles and Robert Ingersoll’s Trenton Watch Company manufactured millions of watches, and exported their product to London. The company failed in , however, when the Ingersolls could no longer hold their watch price to one dollar apiece. The United States Watch Company, established in  in Marion—now Jersey City—made only twenty watches a day the year it was founded, but by , it had doubled its staff and increased production fivefold. Henry Abbott, a resident of East Orange, was another prominent watchmaker. Working in Newark, Harrison, and New York City between  and , he had more than forty patents for interchangeable watch movements, stem winding devices, color enameling of watch dials, and other production details. In , Abbott invented the calculagraph for measuring the passage of time. New Jerseyans also held important patents for watchmaking innovations. F. A Giles of Jersey City held one for a mainspring barrel; the Holley Watch Company of Jersey City had several for duplex watches; and A. Milne of Newark held one for a watch crown.

Watchmaking created an offshoot industry, the printing of watchpapers. The earliest in the country was perhaps pulled from the press of Hugh Gaine of New York City in ; sometime around  they had made their first appearance in England. Watchpapers are round pieces of paper designed to act as padding between the two cases of pocket watches or inside the back of a watch case. Typically, they are highly ornamented with decorative flourishes, portraits, and illustrations, and they always contain the name and address of a watchmaker or jeweler. For example, the watchpaper used by J. Giles of Trenton shows a cherub holding Giles’s shop sign, and instructions for regulating the speed of the watch encircle the vignette. Drost, William E. Clocks and Watches of New Jersey. Elizabeth: Engineering Publishers, .

See also clockmaking; jewelry industry

E. Richard McKinstry

Watchung. .-square-mile borough in Somerset County. First settled by Europeans in the early decades of the seventeenth century, the community takes its name from the Watchung Mountains in which it nestles. Wacht unks means “high hills’’ in the Munsee dialect. Primarily a residential town of large, singlefamily homes on heavily wooded sites, civic activity centers on Watchung Lake, an artificial body of water formerly used to harvest ice and now owned by the borough. Other town features include Wilson Memorial Church, a landmark since , and the Somerset Street Gap through the First Watchung Mountain. It was once the site of copper mines and a vast traprock quarry, and, until washed away in a  flood, picturesque Wetumpka Falls. Moldenke’s Castle was one of the borough’s most peculiar homes, a forty-two-room poured-concrete mansion on Valley Road that took thirty years to build. At the foot of the mountains lies the bustling Route  corridor, with several major shopping centers and the Mount Saint Mary Academy, opened in . Formerly known as Browestown and Washingtonville, the borough was formed from North Plainfield Township by referendum on April , . The population in  of , residents was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Havens, Jessie Lynes. Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress. Chatsworth, CA: Windsor Publications, . Somerset County. Somerville: Somerset County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Know Your Town: Watchung. Wachung: League of Women Voters, .

Alan A. Siegel

Watchung Mountains.

The Watchung Mountains consist of three curvilinear ridges in northeastern New Jersey that are

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composed of basalt, a resistant igneous extrusive rock. They resulted from early Jurassic volcanic activity in the Newark Basin rift zone about  to  million years ago. Although they are called mountains, most of the ridges have elevations of only  to  feet. However, the Watchungs stand out as prominent ridges over the less resistant shales and sandstones in the surrounding lowlands. During the Revolutionary War, Washington’s Continental Army was able to use the Watchungs as a refuge while the British occupied the lowlands. Since then they have been extensively quarried for crushed stone at a number of locations. Kelland, Frank S., and Marylin C. Kelland. New Jersey: Garden or Suburb?: A Geography of New Jersey. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also fall line; geography; geology; physiography; Schooley’s peneplain

Robert M. Hordon

Watchung Reservation. A ,-acre park operated by the Union County Department of Parks and Recreation, the reservation falls within Mountainside, Scotch Plains, Summit, and Berkeley Heights. Settled in the mid-s by miners from Cornwall, England, the land was later owned by the Wilcocks family, who ran a gristmill and a lumber mill. A small cemetery plot with four gravestones dating to the s is the only evidence of the earliest settlers. The reservation contains numerous marked and maintained hiking, nature, and bridle trails (not open to bicycles) and is home to the Trailside Nature and Science Center, which contains a visitor center, museum— reputedly the state’s first nature center—and planetarium. It is also the site of an s mill village, Feltville, which became the resort community of Glenside Park in the s and is today known as the Deserted Village, where many original buildings still stand. David Myers

water.

Although New Jersey is one of the smaller states in the nation, it has an unusually complicated network of water supply systems. Enormous differences in ground and surface water availability in conjunction with  municipalities and the highest

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population density in the United States result in a bewildering mosaic of public-private, groundwater–surface water, and source-sink mix of water supply purveyors and interconnections. New Jersey diverts an average of over one billion gallons of water per day, with surface

water accounting for  percent and groundwater for the remaining  percent. The earliest major reservoirs in the state were constructed by the cities of Newark (e.g., Oak Ridge in Passaic County during –) and Jersey City (e.g., Boonton in Morris County in ), private water purveyors such as the

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Hackensack Water Company (e.g., Woodcliff Lake in Bergen County in ), other governmental bodies such as the North Jersey District Water Supply Commission (e.g., Wanaque in Passaic County in ), and more recently by the state itself (e.g., Round Valley in Hunterdon County in  and Manasquan in Monmouth County in ). The delivery of water is handled by  community water systems using forty-five surface water intakes and more than , wells. These systems serve about  percent of the state’s population. The largest twenty of these systems serve about half the state’s population, which means that most of the remaining  systems are relatively small. A community water system is defined as a purveyor that serves at least twenty-five yearround residents or has fifteen or more service connections used by year-round residents. There are , noncommunity water systems in New Jersey that serve nonresidential customers, such as schools, office buildings, and restaurants. Almost all (. percent) of these noncommunity systems use groundwater from , wells as their source. It is estimated that there are approximately , private wells in New Jersey that serve over one million people (about  percent of the total population). The water purveyors are either municipalities (e.g., Ridgewood in Bergen County), municipal water utilities that are semiautonomous (e.g., Washington Township in Morris County), or private companies (e.g., Elizabethtown Water Company). Most of the municipalities (, or  percent) are total sinks, that is, they are totally dependent on imported water (e.g., Highland Park in Middlesex County). Another group of municipalities is partial sinks (, or  percent) that have some supplies of their own but also need imported water (e.g., South Brunswick Township in Middlesex County). Another large group of municipalities (, or  percent) are independent and have their own sources of water (e.g., Ridgewood in Bergen County). Still others (, or  percent) meet all of their needs from domestic wells and have no public water infrastructure (e.g., Mullica Township in Atlantic County). New Jersey’s per capita consumption of water, which includes residential, commercial, industrial, and public use (e.g., fire fighting), averages about  gallons per day. Per capita water use in New Jersey increased slightly from the s but has leveled off in recent years. Carlisle, Robert D. B. Water Ways: A History of the Elizabethtown Water Company. Elizabeth: Elizabethtown Water Company, . Leiby, Adrian C., in collaboration with Nancy Wichman. The Hackensack Water Company: – . River Edge: Bergen County Historical Society, .

See also water resources map, color section

Robert M. Hordon

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Waterbird Society

Waterbird Society.

Originally incorporated in New Jersey as the Colonial Waterbird Group, this international ornithological society became the Colonial Waterbird Society and in  the Waterbird Society. It is composed of persons interested in the biology, conservation, and management of aquatic birds throughout the world. It promotes scientific investigations into the ecology and behavior of waterbirds, particularly in developing nations, and emphasizes the use of sound scientific principles in their conservation. It has published a peer-reviewed scientific journal Waterbirds (formerly Colonial Waterbirds) since . See also birds, colonial; shorebirds

Michael Gochfeld

Waterford. .-square-mile township in lower Camden County. Boundaries have been altered and other municipalities formed since its original founding in , but currently Waterford is the county’s second largest municipality in area. At one time it included all the lands between the Cooper River and the Pennsauken Creek, from the Delaware River to the current Atlantic County boundary. The township originated with the Waterford Glass Works, established circa  by Jonathan Haines. In  two factories produced window glass and a third manufactured hollowware. The industry faded, and by  a fruit farm existed on the site. Atco, the largest district in the township, was laid out and development begun twelve years after the Camden and Atlantic City Railroad came through town in . Atco had its origins in the Jackson Glass Works, established by Thomas H. Richards in  and closed in . At its height, the company, named for Andrew Jackson, provided glass for the walls and dome of the Crystal Palace at the  World’s Fair in London. Waterford had its peak growth in the s, and is today largely residential and semi-rural. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Waterfront Commission of New York Harbor. Port Newark–Elizabeth and the Hudson County waterfront are included within the Port of New York, legally defined as the ,-square-mile port district lying within a twenty-five-mile radius of the Statue of Liberty. The port district was traditionally the site of extensive criminal activity, most obviously the pilferage of cargoes by longshoremen. Malachy McCourt’s memoirs recalled that a shipment of alcohol resulted in “a day of accidents involving forklifts being

drunkenly driven over the side of the pier, men falling into holds, fisticuffs, arguments, and much simple rejoicing.’’ Less obvious, but more lucrative, forms of corruption included hiring bosses’ demands for kickbacks from the workers’ wages, and labor leaders’ extortion of funds from shipping lines in exchange for preventing wildcat strikes and work slowdowns. Organized crime figures infiltrated, and eventually headed, most of the International Longshoremen’s Association (ILA) locals, using threats, violence, and murder to intimidate critics. In  a series of articles in the New York Sun (which formed the basis for Elia Kazan’s  film On the Waterfront) detailed waterfront corruption and prompted New York governor Thomas E. Dewey to create a New York Crime Commission to investigate the waterfront’s connections with organized crime. The commission’s well-publicized hearings led to the enactment of laws in New York and New Jersey in  which created the bistate Waterfront Commission of New York Harbor to monitor, license, and regulate various waterfront activities. The agency is headed by two commissioners, appointed by the governors of New York and New Jersey (with the advice and consent of their respective state senates) for three-year terms, while its day-to-day operations are run by a permanent executive director. The commission has a staff of over ninety employees, and its headquarters are located in New York City. The commission’s budget is funded by assessments on waterfront employers. The commission initially focused on reforming waterfront hiring practices and removing criminals from waterfront jobs and union offices. It set up a system of centralized hiring halls, which eliminated many arbitrary powers of the hiring bosses. Mandatory registration of longshoremen and watchmen, and an ongoing series of commission investigations, helped to identify convicted criminals and remove them from the workforce and from official union positions. The legislators creating the commission expected it to be a temporary agency, which would be abolished once it had cleaned up the waterfront. The longstanding connections between criminals and the waterfront, however, proved to be more durable than anticipated and, in , the President’s Commission on Organized Crime reported that the ILA was still “virtually a synonym for organized crime in the labor movement.’’ Criminals removed from the longshoremen’s union relocated into nonlicensed jobs (such as trucking or lighterage) on the fringes of the waterfront. Although outright extortion of shipping lines apparently decreased, some ILA leaders developed sophisticated schemes of rigging payrolls and defrauding union medical and welfare plans. In response, the commission became a permanent agency whose activities are occasionally supplemented by criminal investigations and

prosecutions initiated by other state and federal enforcement officials. Jensen, Vernon H. Strife on the Waterfront: The Port of New York Since . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, . Levy, Peter B. “The Waterfront Commission of the Port of New York: A History and Appraisal.’’ Industrial and Labor Relations Review  (July ): –.

See also organized crime

Stephen Marshall

Waterloo Village. For more than twelve thousand years, the area of Waterloo in Byram Township, Sussex County, was home to Lenape Indians and their ancestors, until eighteenthcentury European settlers pushed them westward. The discovery of iron ore led to the construction of an iron forge in  in what is now the village of Waterloo. During the Revolutionary War the forge was confiscated from its Loyalist owners by the state’s Board of War. The village’s heyday came during the canal era. The Morris Canal, opened in , ran through the small village, bringing commerce and prosperity. By the twentieth century, the canal had been dismantled, and Waterloo was quiet and sparsely populated. After World War II, Percival H. E. Leach and Louis Gualandi initiated a gradual and ongoing restoration of Waterloo. The historic village was opened to the public in  and later listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Today Waterloo operates as a tourist attraction and receives thousands of visitors each year. Its historic features include the restored canal town, a re-created Lenape Indian village, and a farm site with a restored log cabin, as well as artisans demonstrating eighteenth- and nineteenth-century trades and crafts. Waterloo’s annual calendar offers a host of special events, festivals, and concerts. Kraft, Herbert C., and John T. Kraft. The Indians of Lenapehoking. South Orange: Seton Hall University Museum, . Lee, Cindy. Waterloo and Byram Township. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

See also historic sites; Morris Canal

Alissa Grosso

Waters, Susan Catherine , ; d. July , ).

(b. May

Painter. Born in Binghamton, New York, Susan Catherine Waters was one of the six children of Lark Moore, a farmer and cooper, and his wife, Sally. After the family moved to Friendsville, Pennsylvania, Susan attended a girls’ seminary with her only sister, Amelia, where she reportedly paid their tuition by painting natural history specimens. She was largely self-taught; there appears to be no record of any formal artistic training. On June , , Susan married William Church Waters, who encouraged her talent as an itinerant portrait painter. For several

Wayne By  he had settled in Perth Amboy. His works, both oils and plumbago drawings, include portraits of William Burnet and Lewis Morris (), both colonial governors of New Jersey. Watson was also a merchant, moneylender, and real estate speculator, acquiring extensive property in Perth Amboy. In , he visited Scotland and returned with a collection of paintings that he exhibited in a gallery at his house. Watson never married. He died in Perth Amboy and is buried at Saint Peter’s Episcopal Church. Gerdts, William H., Jr. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Morgan, John Hill. “Further Notes on John Watson.’’ Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey Susan C. Waters, Mischief, c. . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy New Jersey State Museum, Trenton. Purchase, FA1978.54.

years, she painted in New York State and in Pennsylvania, but with the continuing declining health of William, the couple turned to the production of ambrotypes and daguerreotypes to make a basic living. In , the Waterses moved to Bordentown, New Jersey, but soon left for Mount Pleasant, Iowa, and subsequently for Friendsville, Pennsylvania. In , they again settled in Bordentown, where Susan established a studio on Mary Street. There she became a successful still-life and animal painter, sometimes combining the two genres, as in Mischief (c. ), a work depicting squirrels eating a nearby still life of potted plants. Her favorite animal subjects, however, were sheep, and she kept several in a pen behind her house for sketching purposes. Bordentown was known for its strong Quaker ties, and so she was able to nourish her devotion to spiritualism and religion there. In addition, she became interested in feminist issues, particularly woman suffrage. Painting, however, remained her major occupation and pastime, and she is reported to have exhibited and sold at least two works at the  Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. After William’s death in , Susan remained in Bordentown. By , in failing health, she moved to a Quaker nursing home in Trenton, where she died on July , . Heslip, Colleen Cowles. Mrs. Susan Waters: Nineteenth-Century Itinerant Painter. Farmville, VA: Longwood Fine Arts Center, .

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Watts, Robert

(b. June , ; d. Sept. ,

). Artist. Born in Burlington, Iowa, Robert

Watts was hired in  to teach engineering at Rutgers College in New Brunswick, and the following year transferred to the Art Department at Douglass College, the associated women’s school. Influenced by radical preaching of Allan Kaprow in the Rutgers Art Department and his experience sitting in on John Cage’s music composition course at the New School for Social Research in New York, Watts abandoned his conservative abstract expressionist style by the late s and began making environmental art, kinetic art, and mixed-media assemblages, which often included electrical components. His use of popular imagery anticipated the Pop art movement of . By , he produced his first art stamps; he became known as the “Father of Stamp Art.’’ Working closely with George Brecht, he played a key role in the evolution of conceptual art, and alongside Brecht, he made Event Cards and Performances and conceived the May  Yam Festival, a month-long event that took place in both New York City and New Brunswick. Like Brecht, Watts was a seminal force in molding Fluxus art (an art movement founded by George Maciunas in  and dedicated to deemphasizing art as a fine object and making it more conceptual and a function of everyday living). Buchloh, Benjamin H. D., and Judith F. Rodenbeck. Experiments in the Everyday: Allan Kaprow and Robert Watts, Events, Objects, Documents. New York: Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Art Gallery, Columbia University in the City of New York, . Marten, Joan M. Off Limits: Rutgers University and the Avant-Garde, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Watts Natural: Selected Works by Robert Watts, – : March –April , , Lafayette College Art Gallery. Easton, PA: Lafayette College Art Gallery, .

See also assemblage art; performance art

Watson, John

Joseph Jacobs

(b. July , ; d. Aug.

, ). Painter. John Watson was born in Scotland, probably near Dumfries. He began as a house painter before turning to portraiture.

Waugh, Frederick Judd ; d. Sept. , ).

(b. Sept. ,

Painter. Frederick J.

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Waugh was born in Bordentown, the son of Samuel Bell Waugh, an artist, and Mary Elizabeth Young Waugh, a miniaturist. He received his first artistic training from his father. In , he entered the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, studying with Thomas Eakins. ´mie He continued his studies at the Acade Julian in Paris in . Waugh returned to Philadelphia and began painting portraits and doing commercial work. In  he married Clara Eugenie Bunn, with whom he had two children, and returned to Europe. From  to  Waugh did illustrations of the Boer War for The Graphic in London. Waugh is most famous for his strong seascapes depicting powerful waves crashing on a rocky coast. Returning to America in , he stayed in Elizabeth, New Jersey, while working in his New York City studio on one of his most acclaimed pieces, Roaring Forties, which depicts the raging sea in the mid-Atlantic. In , he moved to Montclair, taking the studio previously owned by George Inness, Jr. He summered along the Maine coast and returned to Montclair to paint seascapes, working both from memory and sketches done on site. During World War I he worked on camouflage painting for the U.S. Navy. In , Waugh moved to Connecticut and, eventually, to Provincetown, Massachusetts, where he died. Havens, George R. Frederick J. Waugh, American Marine Painter. Orono: University of Maine Press, . Paintings by Frederick J. Waugh (–) from the Edwin A. Ulrich Collection. Trenton: New Jersey State Museum, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Wawayanda State Park.

Located in northeast Sussex County and western Passaic County along the New York State border, the Wawayanda State Park encompasses , acres surrounding -acre Lake Wawayanda. A twenty-mile-long section of the famous Appalachian Trail cuts through the mountainous territory. The park was purchased with state Green Acres funds and opened to the public in . Situated on the northern shore of Wawayanda Lake are the remains of a blast furnace used in the nineteenth-century iron-smelting town of Double Pond. Much of the area’s timber was harvested during the s by the New Jersey Zinc Company, and Wawayanda is crisscrossed by former logging roads. See also state parks

Fred J. Aun

Wayne. .-square-mile township in Passaic County, incorporated in February , and named for Gen. Anthony Wayne. Originally within Essex County, Wayne later became part of Bergen County’s Saddle River Township. When Passaic County was formed, Wayne was part of Manchester.

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weather

American Indian artifacts found within Wayne date from the last ice age to European contact. Wayne’s first European settlements were established along the Pompton River and Singac Brook during the late s and early s. The Dey Mansion served as Gen. George Washington’s headquarters in ; it is now a museum. In the s, Wayne’s now-defunct heavy industries, brickmaking and explosives manufacturing, developed near the Pompton River where the Morris Canal, Pompton Feeder Canal, Newark-Pompton Turnpike, Montclair and Greenwood Lake Railroad, and Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad all converged. Until the s and s the town was predominantly agricultural. In ,  percent of land use was residential, and  percent of total land area was parkland. There are small manufacturing, warehousing, and office clusters, but no defined downtown area. Institutions include William Paterson University, three hospitals, three colonial-era house museums, and thirteen public schools. Government is by mayor and nine-member council. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Berce, William. Under the Sign of the Eagle. Wayne: Louis J. Vorgetts, . Cacioppo, Richard. Scenic Crossroads: A History of Wayne, New Jersey. Montclair: Dream City Publishers, . Know Your Town: Wayne, New Jersey. Wayne: League of Women Voters, . Lenik, Edward J. The Archaeology of Wayne. Wayne: Wayne Township Historical Commission, .

Kevin Olsen

weather. New Jersey’s weather offers something for everyone. In a month’s time, daily record high and low temperatures may be broken, tornadoes may touch down as a severe thunderstorm passes through, and a snowstorm may blanket the region (while rare, all did occur in November ). A single twelvemonth period may bring serious drought, an inundating flood, extreme heat, numbing cold, a damaging hurricane, and a stinging snowstorm (for instance, February  to January ). In turn, a relatively cool summer, crisp, clear fall, manageable winter, and mild spring are enjoyed from time to time. New Jersey’s weather and climate potpourri is a result of its middle-latitude location. This geographic positioning results in the state being influenced by wet, dry, hot, and cold airstreams, making for four relatively well defined seasons and leading to potential clashes between cold and warmth that trigger occasional, severe conditions. Fortunately, most of the threatening weather and climate events affecting New Jersey fail to reach the extremes experienced elsewhere. This is attributable to New Jersey’s proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, which tends to warm the state in winter and generally keep

Scene from the Great Blizzard of .

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

the summer heat in check. The neighboring Atlantic also inhibits severe thunderstorms, and waters are not warm enough to sustain strong hurricanes coming from the south. The absence of major mountains also reduces the chance of some extremes. Although New Jersey is the fifth smallest state in the nation, with a land area of , square miles, it has five distinct climate regions: Northwestern, Central/Northeast, Pine Barrens, Southwest, and Coastal. The geology, distance from the Atlantic Ocean, and prevailing atmospheric flow patterns produce notable variations in the daily weather among the regions. An impressive variety of weather events may occur simultaneously. For example, a strong nor’easter (a major storm system with winds from the northeast that moves up the Atlantic coast) on December , , brought coastal flooding, excessive rainfall, high winds, and heavy snow. Sometimes a situation may arise where one portion of New Jersey takes the brunt of a particular event while the remainder of the state remains relatively unscathed. Despite regional differences, the dominant feature of the atmospheric circulation over New Jersey and much of North America is the broad, undulating flow from west to east. These “prevailing westerlies’’ shift north and south and vary in strength during the course of the year, exerting a major influence on the weather. The winter brings the strongest westerlies in their southernmost position of the year. The windiest zone is the polar jet stream; this rapidly flowing river of air serves as the boundary between cold air to the north and milder air to the south. Storms form where the cold and warm air clash, and every few days the state is threatened by an area of low atmospheric pressure. The result may be just some clouds or some light rain or snow.

However, on occasion a nor’easter or another strong low-pressure system moving through the eastern United States may bring a bout of storminess. If enough cold remains in place throughout the event, heavy snow may fall. If accompanied by enough wind, blizzard conditions may prevail for several hours. Two memorable nor’easters, best known for severe coastal flooding, occurred in March  and December . A blizzard on January –, , brought over two feet of snow to portions of the state. The winter of – had three storms with at least ten inches of snow

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over many areas of New Jersey. When the polar jet slips to our south, extremely cold arctic air may invade the region. When the arctic “door’’ remains open for several weeks, brutally cold months, such as February , may result. Brief incursions, such as the bitter cold of January , , when temperatures in northwestern New Jersey were as low as −◦ F, may bring the state to a near standstill. But winters in New Jersey are not always harsh. Should the polar jet frequently remain to the north of the state, relatively mild conditions may prevail for weeks on end and snowfall will be meager. The winters of –, –, and – are examples, leaving people to wonder where winters of the past have gone. One often has to wait only a year, however, to see bitter winter weather return; and there is no evidence that winters are becoming less snowy in New Jersey. Spring and fall are transition seasons. Winter-type weather may occur, yet summer heat and severe thunderstorms may also make an appearance. In spring, a heavy rainstorm, perhaps combined with a rapidly melting snowpack, can bring devastating floods, such as the Passaic Basin event in April . Yet spring can have extended periods of dry weather. This may lead to wildfires, particularly in the Pine Barrens, such as the conflagrations in April  and .

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A New Jersey summer without several weeks of heat and humidity is rare. When the heat is extreme or of long duration, a memorable summer may result. Such was the case in , when both July and August were the warmest such months of the twentieth century. August , , and July  and , , are the hottest days on record, with temperatures above ◦ F at every weather station in New Jersey. July , , saw temperatures over ◦ F at many stations with oppressive humidity levels, making this perhaps the most uncomfortable summer day of the past century. With the jet stream far north, the typical storms of winter are rare during the summer months. However, there often is enough cool air moving in from the north or enough heat and moisture present to trigger thunderstorms, the major source of summer precipitation. With these may come several inches of rain in an hour. When such an event persists for several hours, severe flash-flooding results. This was the case in a portion of Somerset County in August , Atlantic County in August , and Sussex and Morris counties in August . When summer thunderstorms fail to materialize in earnest and early-season tropical activity is nil, severe drought conditions may occur during the growing season. Such was the case in  and .

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June brings the start of the hurricane season to the Atlantic Basin. While most tropical storms and hurricanes do not affect New Jersey, an occasional storm passing over or near the state may bring torrential rains, damaging winds, and coastal flooding. The only major hurricane on record (winds greater than  miles per hour) to make landfall in New Jersey was in September . A hurricane that passed just off the Jersey Shore did considerable damage in September . In August , the remnants of two hurricanes, Connie and Diane, crossed New Jersey and major river flooding occurred, especially on the Delaware. September , , saw the moisture from Hurricane Floyd collide with a stationary front (a zone separating warm and cool air exhibiting little or no movement) over central and northern New Jersey. The result was over ten inches of rain at stations in six counties and record flooding in the Raritan and several other smaller northeastern river basins. The tropical season carries into the fall. In addition, an early-season nor’easter may bring copious rains and even some early snow. It is more common, however, for this transitional season to have extended periods of sunny and dry weather, as tropical influxes of moisture remain to the south and the polar jet stream with its attendant storminess has yet to shift south into the middle latitudes.

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Webbs Mill Bog

Some weather patterns may persist for a number of consecutive seasons. On occasion, a combination of reduced winter storminess, nonexistent tropical moisture, and meager thunderstorm rains may lead to a protracted dry spell or lengthier drought. This occurs once or twice each decade. The last two decades of the twentieth century saw approximately year-long precipitation deficits in –, –, –, and –. Shortly after the start of the twentyfirst century, New Jersey experienced a lengthy drought, including a six-month interval (September –February ) that was the driest such interval dating back to . Despite what appears to be frequent drought during recent decades, they were among the wettest of the century and included the wettest calendar year (: statewide average . inches, some . inches above the – average) on record. The most protracted and severe drought of the century (analyses of tree rings suggest perhaps for many centuries) occurred in the early and mid-s, and included the driest calendar year on record (: statewide . inches, . inches below the historic average). Returning to spatial variations across New Jersey, one sees notable differences from the Highlands to the Shore, and the cities to the countryside. This applies to individual weather events and to the general climate of these areas. For instance, a summer night may not cool off nearly as much in an urban area as in the countryside, as the city buildings and asphalt retain the heat of the previous day far more effectively than trees and grass. Coastal communities may have their first freeze of the fall weeks later than valley locations in northern and central New Jersey or even in the nearby Pine Barrens, where the sandy soils quickly lose the daytime heat. Most notable in the winter is the boundary between rain and snow that often sets up across New Jersey, making for a forecasting nightmare. Along this winter battleground one often finds sleet and treacherous freezing rain. The Northwestern region of New Jersey is the coldest, resulting in the shortest growing season (the interval from last spring freeze to first fall freeze) and the most snow (–  inches per year on average, depending on elevation and latitude). The highest annual precipitation (rain and melted snow) in New Jersey falls in the higher elevations of this region (approximately  inches). The Central/Northeast region lies a bit farther south and closer to the moderating influence of the Atlantic; thus it is somewhat warmer and less snowy (– inches) than the Northwest. Annual precipitation is . inches. Urban areas within this region and the Southwest zone have somewhat warmer daytime maximum temperatures and appreciably warmer nights than nearby suburban and rural areas. This is especially the case when skies are clear and the air is calm, helping to rid the

nonurban areas of heat and keeping the city and rural air masses from mixing. The Southwest region is the warmest in New Jersey, due to its low elevation, lower latitude, and distance from the Atlantic, although areas adjacent to Delaware Bay feel the moderating influence of these waters. Annual precipitation is . inches and snowfall averages – inches. The Pine Barrens region with its sandy soils experiences some of the largest day to night (diurnal) temperature fluctuations in New Jersey, with warm days and cool nights. Annual precipitation is . inches, and snowfall ranges from  inches in the northern part of the region to  inches in the south. The Coastal zone is often directly influenced by the nearby Atlantic, resulting in a moderation of both high temperatures in summer and low temperatures in winter. Overall, the region is milder than most portions of New Jersey, as in all seasons except spring and summer daily highs are among the warmest in the state, and nighttime lows tend to be warmer than elsewhere in all seasons. Precipitation averages . inches annually, not as much as northern portions of the state, due to the absence of elevated terrain (which helps to “squeeze’’ moisture from the clouds) and cooler air off the ocean (reducing the intensity of most summer thunderstorms). Snowfall is meager, ranging from  inches in the northern coastal zone to  inches in the south. In most winter storms with snow, a changeover to sleet or rain occurs at some point during the event. In recent years, two questions have been posed frequently in New Jersey and elsewhere: “Is the weather changing?’’ and “What does the next century hold weatherwise?’’ There are no easy answers to these questions; but one thing known for certain is that weather and climate changes of recent and future decades pale in comparison to the tropical warmth present when dinosaurs roamed  million years ago or when an ice sheet sat over the northern quarter of New Jersey , years ago. The s were the warmest decade of the twentieth century in New Jersey and globally. The statewide average temperature was .◦ F, some .◦ F warmer than the coolest decade of the century (–). Unfortunately, adequate temperature records have been available only since the late nineteenth century, making it unclear just how unusual the recent warmth might be. However, there is proxy evidence suggesting that recent temperatures might be as warm as any time in the past millennium. Whether this is the result of humaninduced warming (the enhanced greenhouse effect), or is part of long-term natural variability caused by variations in solar or volcanic activity, remains uncertain. There is growing evidence that human activities are contributing to the recent warming. Significant variations in precipitation have been observed over the past century. However, since the normal year-to-year and decade-to-

decade variability of precipitation is greater than temperature, it is not possible to detect a long-term trend in this precious resource. Precipitation has been greater in recent decades, with the s, s, and s being the first, second, and fourth wettest decades of the twentieth century, respectively. Of greater interest is the possibility that lately precipitation is becoming more variable from year to year or even within years. With development continuing in this densely populated state, local heat islands will likely spread and ultimately may influence statewide temperature trends. So, too, might development begin to affect regional precipitation, snowfall, and thunderstorm patterns. Even without further development, results from sophisticated numerical climate models indicate that as a result of human impacts on the global atmosphere, New Jersey’s climate will continue warming in the twenty-first century. Impacts on the state’s hydrological regime, including precipitation and drought, would likely accompany further warming. Ludlum, David. The New Jersey Weather Book. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also plant hardiness zones; temperature

David Robinson

Webbs Mill Bog. Webbs Mill Bog is an area of white cedar bogs in Lacey Township in central Ocean County, upstream of Lake Bamber. Webbs Mill Brook is a headwaters tributary to Cedar Creek, which flows into Barnegat Bay south of Toms River. This area is part of the ,-acre Greenwood Forest Wildlife Management Area that is managed by the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Webbs Mill is a good example of a Pinelands bog, with typical wetlands vegetation such as sundew, St. John’s wort, cranberries, and orchids. Other plants and animals are found here in the highly acidic Pinelands that are not found elsewhere in the state. Forman, Richard T. T., ed. Pine Barrens: Ecosystem and Landscape. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Collins, Beryl Robichaud, and Karl H. Anderson. Plant Communities of New Jersey: A Study in Landscape Diversity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also Pine Barrens; wetlands

Robert M. Hordon

Weehawken. .-square-mile township in Hudson County, originally a part of Hoboken, incorporated in . Weehawken’s name may be derived from an Algonquian Indian term for “land of maize.’’ It has been argued that Henry Hudson was the first white man to set foot in the township in , when he anchored the Half Moon in what is now Weehawken Cove. The cove played an important role in the development of transportation in the region. The ferry from Weehawken to New York was one of the earliest to cross the Hudson. Although the exact date is unknown,

Weir, Robert Walter it is certain that the ferry was operating before . Weehawken won a place in American history on July , , when the duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr, in which Hamilton was fatally wounded, took place on the township’s famous dueling grounds. During the early part of the twentieth century, Weehawken was a major railroad center. Also distinctly related to the township is the Lincoln Tunnel, which in  became a major vehicular artery that connects Weehawken to New York City. In recent years Weehawken has reestablished itself as home to a thriving New York City commuter ferry service, and is home to several new office developments that are attracting many New York City companies. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Robinson, Walter Francis. Old Bergen Township, Now Hudson County, in the American Revolution. Bayonne: Bayonne Bicentennial Committee, .

Weintraub served as acting counsel to the governor and a member of the Waterfront Commission of New York Harbor. In May , Governor Meyner appointed him to the superior court and in November  to the supreme court. One year later, Weintraub was elevated to chief justice, a position he held until his retirement in . During his distinguished judicial career he wrote many landmark decisions, including Robinson v. Cahill (), requiring the state to provide additional funding for poor urban school districts. He also issued opinions expanding product liability exposure and overturning the doctrine of governmental immunity. Although a champion of individual liberties, he strongly criticized the U.S. Supreme Court for decisions favoring criminals because they exacted too high a price “from innocent individuals who will be their next victims.’’ Mazzagetti, Dominick A. “Chief Justice Joseph Weintraub—The New Jersey Supreme Court, – .’’ Cornell Law Review  (): –.

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O’Hern, Daniel J. “Brennan and Weintraub: Two Stars to Guide Us: Some Reflections on the Roots of the Differing Judicial Philosophies of William J. Brennan Jr. and Joseph Weintraub.’’ Rutgers Law Review  (): –. Wefing, John B. “The New Jersey Supreme Court, –: Fifty Years of Independence and Activism.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

See also chief justice

Robert J. Martin

Weir, Robert Walter

(b. June , ;

d. May , ).

Painter and teacher. Robert Weir was born in New York City, the son of Robert Walter Weir, a shipping merchant, and Mary Catherine Brinckley. He began a career in business, but soon left it to become an artist. He was largely self-taught, having had only a few lessons with the heraldic painter Robert Cooke. He studied in Italy from  to . Weir became a full academician at the National Academy of Design in  and taught there in the s. Weir married Louisa Ferguson in  and had nine children. After her death in ,

Van Winkle, Daniel. History of the Municipalities of Hudson County, New Jersey, –. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing, .

Daniel R. Campbell

Weequehela

(b. c. ; d. June , ).

Lenape leader. Weequehela (variously spelled) was an important sachem, or leader, of the Lenape/Delaware in central New Jersey during the early eighteenth century. His name translates into English as “one who is tired.’’ He first appears as a minor signatory of land deeds in . Weequehela’s mark was the roman letter W. Contemporary sources called him an Indian king, and indicate that he lived an acculturated lifestyle. He owned a house, livestock, and two sawmills. In , he shot and killed his neighbor John Leonard. It is not clear if the killing was accidental or the result of a confrontation with Leonard regarding land dealings. Weequehela was tried in Perth Amboy for the killing, found guilty, and hanged. His death became a sore point between the colonists and the Delaware that persisted for decades. Nelson, William. The Indians of New Jersey. Paterson: Press Printing, .

See also Lenape

Richard F. Veit

Weintraub, Joseph

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Feb. , ). Chief justice. Joseph Weintraub

was raised in Newark, where he attended public schools, and graduated from Cornell University in  and Cornell Law School in . He then practiced law in Newark and served as a special assistant to the New Jersey attorney general. During World War II, he served in the Judge Advocate General’s Department. In , he married Rhoda Kirshner Levitt. After participating in Robert Meyner’s successful gubernatorial campaign in ,

Robert Walter Weir, The Hudson River from Hoboken, . Oil on panel,  ×  in.

Courtesy Detroit Institute of Arts. Founders Society Purchase, Activities Committee Fund. Photo copyright 1986 Detroit Institute of Arts.

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Weird N.J.

he married Susan Martha Bayard, with whom he had seven children. Two of his sons, John Ferguson Weir and Julian Alden Weir, became artists. In , Weir became the drawing instructor at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. His students included James McNeill Whistler, Robert E. Lee, and Ulysses S. Grant. Although he was one of America’s most prominent history painters, Weir was more important as a teacher. His most famous work, Embarkation of the Pilgrims at Delft, Holland, July nd,  (–), hangs in the U.S. Capitol Rotunda. In , Weir retired from West Point and moved to Hoboken, which inspired his Hudson River from Hoboken (). In , Weir moved to New York City, where he died. Gerdts, W., and J. Callow, eds. Robert Weir: Artist and Teacher of West Point. West Point: U.S. Military Academy, . Weir, Irene. Robert W. Weir, Artist. New York: House of Field-Doubleday, .

See also art

Jan Kelsey

Weird N.J.

This Bloomfield-based magazine is devoted to cataloging the weird, unusual, and bizarre legends, tales, and myths of New Jersey. Founded as an occasional newsletter in  by Mark Sceurman, who was later joined by Mark Moran as copublisher, Weird N.J. evolved into a biannual underground favorite. In the latter s corporate book retailers began to carry and promote the magazine, leading to its increased recognition and popularity among New Jerseyans. The magazine consists of accounts written by the copublishers and the magazine’s readers describing the strange people, peculiar natural features, and “haunted’’ places they have visited in the state.

Jason Rimmer

Welch, Thomas Bramwell

(b. Dec.

, ; d. Dec. , ). Businessman and dentist. Thomas Welch, the founder of the Welch Grape Juice Company and creator of Welch’s grape juice, was born in England. Before he moved to Vineland in  to practice dentistry, Dr. Welch had been a Methodist preacher and a physician. In Vineland, as an active leader of the local temperance movement, he invented a method of preserving unfermented wine. At first, local churches used his grape juice for communion but, as demand grew from churches, physicians, and restaurants, it became a national business. In , the Welch Grape Juice Company moved to Watkins, New York. Fucini, Joseph J., and Suzy Fucini. Entrepreneurs: The Men and Women Behind Famous Brand Names and How They Made It. Boston: G. K. Hall, . Peterson, Robert A. Patriots, Pirates, and Pineys: Sixty Who Shaped New Jersey. Medford: Plexus, .

Elaine L. Schwartz

welfare.

See children’s welfare

E. S. Wells Medical Company, Jersey City, used humorous trade cards to advertise their remedies, c. .

Courtesy University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Libraries, Special Collections, Newark.

Wells, Ephraim S. (b. Feb. , ; d. date unknown). Businessman and manufacturer. E. S. Wells was born in Morgantown, West Virginia, and apprenticed to a druggist. He arrived in Jersey City in  and eventually purchased two drugstores and, later, a manufacturing plant for his preparation “Rough on Rats,’’ an odorless and tasteless rat poison. Wells advertised “Rough on Rats’’ and related products extensively and was soon selling them worldwide. E. S. Wells married twice. His first wife, Isabella Lane, died a year after their marriage. His second wife was Susan S. Titus; five children were born to the union. McLean, Alexander. History of Jersey City, N.J. Jersey City: Jersey City Printing Company, .

See also pesticides

Lois R. Densky-Wolff

Wells (Evans), Viola Gertrude (b. Dec. , ; d. Dec. , ). Singer. Raised in Newark, Viola Wells began her career in a  traveling show, where her performance of two songs, “Rhapsody in Song,’’ and “Rhapsody in Rhythm’’ earned her the nickname “Miss Rhapsody,’’ which she would use professionally for the next sixty years. She also married Harold Nicolas in the same year. Wells toured clubs, theaters, taverns, dances, and one-night tent shows in New Jersey and Pennsylvania throughout the s. Her repertoire included blues, show tunes, popular songs, ballads, and gospel songs, sung in a rich, mellow alto. Wells toured the East Coast and the Midwest with the Banjo Bernie Band as a singer and dancer and the black vaudeville circuit with the Harlem Strutters. In more

than one location, Wells’s group was the first African American group ever to perform. In Kansas City she emceed and produced shows with her own group, working with the biggest names of the swing era. When she returned to Newark in , Wells worked local clubs, often played at New York’s Apollo Theater and filled New York City night spots and theaters singing with major orchestra leaders. She appeared with the Count Basie Orchestra at President Franklin Roosevelt’s Inaugural Ball in Washington, D.C., in  and toured military bases with a USO show. Touring in the States during the s, she shared top billing with Nat King Cole, Art Tatum, Benny Carter, and Coleman Hawkins. “Miss Rhapsody’’ Wells was beloved by other performers, including Ethel Waters and Pearl Bailey. She “discovered’’ Bailey and gave her her first chance to sing in public. After the death of her second husband, Melvyn Evans, Wells gave much time to her church, the New Eden Baptist Church, where she sang in the senior choir and directed the junior choir. In , at age sixty-two, Wells began a new public singing career at clubs, in concert, and in recording in New York and New Jersey. Ten years later, she began the first of seven European tours and became a featured performer at jazz and folk festivals. Wells’s singing career spanned six decades. When she was seventy-nine, after the amputation of her leg due to diabetes, she performed for over a year at a New York City club. Harris, Sheldon. Blues Who’s Who. New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also gospel music; jazz

Caroline Wheeler Jacobus and Sheldon Harris

Wenonah.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. The residential community of Wenonah got its start when the Mantua Land and Improvement Company purchased land from adjacent Deptford for $,. The acquisition was approved by the New Jersey legislature on February , . Named for the mother of the title character in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Song of Hiawatha, the borough was incorporated on March , . The community was built along the main line of the West Jersey Railroad, and touted its “fine rolling country and the best of water’’ in a railroad flyer. It was initially promoted as a summer resort for Philadelphians, but its popularity fell with the rise in the automobile in the early twentieth century, which made Atlantic beaches more accessible. Today the borough is a prosperous residential community. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Cunningham, John T. This Is New Jersey. th ed. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

West Amwell Simpson, Hazel B., Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. Camden: Sinnickson, Chew and Sons, .

Tom Wilk

Wepner, Chuck

(b. Feb. , ). Boxer. Although born in New York City, Chuck Wepner lived most of his life in Bayonne. A former marine, he fought from  to  and compiled a career record of  victories,  losses, and  no-decisions. The “Bayonne Bleeder,’’ as local sportswriters nicknamed him, worked full time as a liquor salesman throughout his boxing career. In , he won the New Jersey state heavyweight championship. Virtually unknown outside of New Jersey, Wepner earned a challenge with the world heavyweight champion, Muhammad Ali, on March , , in Cleveland, Ohio. Oddsmakers gave him no chance, but Wepner lasted fifteen rounds before losing by a technical knockout. The match inspired Sylvester Stallone to write the script for his  film Rocky. See also boxing

Jonathan Blackwell

Werblin, David Abraham “Sonny’’ (b. Mar. , ; d. Nov. , ).

Sports promoter. Born in New York City, Sonny Werblin graduated from Rutgers University in  and went on to have a stellar career as a talent agent and top executive with Music Corporation of America (MCA). In  Werblin and other investors bought the bankrupt New York Titans AFL football team, renamed it the Jets, and built it into a top-ranking team. Werblin was the first chairman of the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority, the driving force behind the construction of the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford. The Jets moved to the Meadowlands from Shea Stadium in . As an alumnus, Werblin supported the growth of athletes at Rutgers; a university recreation center is named in his honor.

David A. Norris

Werts, George Theodore

(b. Mar. ,

; d. Jan. , ). Politician, judge, and gov-

ernor. The son of Peter and Mary (Vanatta) Werts, George T. Werts studied law in Morristown and was admitted to the bar in . He married Emma Runyon on June , , and they had two daughters, Mary Evelyn and Harriet F. Stelle. Werts served in municipal government in Morristown, entered the New Jersey legislature in , and became senate president in . His primary achievement in the legislature was the Werts Ballot Reform Law, which was a major factor in helping him win the governorship. By the s many New Jersey voters and political leaders began to propose election reforms, including a secret ballot. In the  election both Democratic and Republican parties supported election law change,

and in , the legislature passed a bill, which was primarily the result of Werts’s efforts. The law did not include the secret ballot, but it improved election procedures. Election officials were appointed; registers of voters were established; and the state printed the ballots. Werts continued his interest in election processes and was an enthusiastic supporter of the open primary system in the early s. A measure that was heavily attacked by the Republicans was the Werts Liquor License Law, which effectively liberalized the sale of liquor. In  Democratic governor Leon Abbett appointed Werts to the New Jersey Supreme Court in an effort to prevent him from competing for the U.S. Senate nomination sought by Abbett. Later that year, Werts was nominated for governor. He ran for office while retaining his judicial seat, and, therefore, other than writing an acceptance message, left his campaign entirely to the Democratic party. Werts’s term as governor was relatively stormy. Werts clashed with the Democraticcontrolled legislature over racetrack gambling, but was unable to rally popular support against the bill. Another controversy developed when Catholic Church leaders tried to gain state funds to support parochial schools. This effort died in the legislature, but the conflict blended into the racetrack issue because both issues stemmed from tensions between the old and new ethnic and religious groups in New Jersey. These conflicts helped the Republicans win majorities in both houses of the New Jersey legislature in . Among the issues that then emerged was the naturalization of aliens. Werts vetoed the Storrs Naturalization Bill that prevented aliens from becoming citizens thirty days prior to a general election, but the second year the bill was introduced, his veto was overridden by the legislature. Werts did not run for another term in . The Democrats were soundly beaten at all levels, marking the end of a long period of Democratic dominance in New Jersey government. Werts seems to have been more a lawyer than a modern political leader and was, perhaps, not too sorry to return to his legal practice. He seems to have been concerned primarily with administering state government in an economical fashion and did little in the way of actively developing and pursuing a legislative program. McCormick, Richard P. The History of Voting in New Jersey: A Study of the Development of Election Machinery, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . McSeveney, Samuel T. The Politics of Depression: Political Behavior in the Northeast, –. New York: Oxford University Press, . Reynolds, John F. Testing Democracy: Electoral Behavior and Progressive Reform in New Jersey, –. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, .

See also governor

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region of southern New Jersey. Westampton was formed as an independent municipality from parts of Northampton Township in . The township was expanded in  by addition of a portion of Pemberton Township, but in  part of its acreage was released to neighboring Eastampton Township. In , when builder William Levitt announced his plans for a major suburban community in Willingboro, the historic Quaker settlement of Rancocas—with its Friends school and eighteenth-century meeting architecture—broke away from neighboring Willingboro and joined Westampton. Located within the township is the African American village of Timbuctoo, once a key stop on the Underground Railroad. The former site of Rancocas State Forest along Rancocas Creek is now a Powhatan Renape reservation, with several American Indian festivals annually. Local metal-alloying furnace-maker Inductotherm is owned by township resident Henry Rowan, whose $ million gift to the former Glassboro State College resulted in its renaming in his honor. Sunnyside Farms, owned by the Winner family, is the state’s largest surviving dairy operation. Since , major retail “power centers’’ have been built along county Route  near the New Jersey Turnpike interchange, and residential growth has sprouted. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey, With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

West Amwell.

.-square-mile township, the most southerly in Hunterdon County. On April , , West Amwell Township was created by referendum from Amwell. West Amwell is bounded on the north by Delaware Township, south by Mercer County, east by East Amwell, and west by the Delaware River. In  a portion of the township was set off as Lambertville City, the only city in Hunterdon County. With little business activity and no town center, West Amwell remains a rural agricultural community. The Old York Road, of colonial fame, traverses the township. There is one school that serves students in grades kindergarten through six. South Hunterdon Regional High School, a grades seven-to-twelve school that serves several south Hunterdon communities, is also located in West Amwell township. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Benjamin R. Beede

Westampton.

.-square-mile township in Burlington County. Quakers settled this

Snell, James P. History of Hunterdon and Somerset Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, .

862

West Caldwell

Snyder, John P. The Story of New Jersey’s Civil Boundaries, –. Trenton: Bureau of Geology and Topography, .

Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Stephanie B. Stevens

Barbara St. Clair

West Caldwell.

.-square-mile township in the northwestern part of Essex County. Separated from Caldwell Township in , West Caldwell incorporated as a borough, with Caleb Crane as its first mayor. The community has a long history as a farming and resort location, once providing dairy, produce, and respite for city dwellers from Newark, Paterson, and New York. Today it has developed commercial and industrial sections. The West Essex Industrial Park, dating from the early s, and other sites are home to more than fifteen major U.S. and international companies, including Phelps Dodge, Ricoh, Sharp, Grainger, ADP, and Toyota. The school district is shared with Caldwell Borough. More than , students are educated in four elementary schools, Grover Cleveland Middle School, and James Caldwell High School. West Caldwell is home to the West Essex Campus of Essex County College, and a unit of the county vocational schools. The township boasts a number of eighteenthand early nineteenth-century homes, relics of the earlier agricultural period. In  the mostly residential community had a population of , that was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Harrity, R., ed. Historic Homes of West Caldwell. West Caldwell: West Caldwell Bicentennial Committee, . West Caldwell, –. West Caldwell: Diamond Jubilee Committee, .

West Deptford.

.-square-mile township in Gloucester County. The Dutch West India Company sent the first European immigrants to the eastern shore of the Delaware, within the limits of this township, in the year . The settlements they made were scattered, and not until about  did a small English colony, led by Richard Wood, formerly of Lancashire, England, take permanent hold on the banks of what is now known as Woodbury Creek. The early occupants were farmers who valued the rich agricultural land nourished by tidal marshes. West Deptford officially was designated as a township in , when it split off from Deptford Township. Industries for the rural township were farming, fishing, and lumber. During the twentieth century, larger industries moved in including Coe and Richman, the largest phosphate works in the country (); the Vacuum Oil Company (); Dobb’s Drain-Tile and Brick Works (); H. A. Dehart Wagon Factory (); and Hangsterfer Laboratories (), among others. At the beginning of the twenty-first century nearly four hundred businesses were within its boundaries. The township embarked on the River Winds project, to build community centers and senior housing on the banks of the Delaware. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Shirk, Edmund G., Jr. West Deptford History. Woodbury: West Deptford Centennial Historical Committee, . ———, and C. Douglas Brown. On Eagles’ Wings: West Deptford Township Quasiquincentennial, –. West Deptford Township: Citgo Petroleum Corporation, . Stewart, Frank H., ed. Notes On Old Gloucester County, New Jersey. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Westfield. .-square-mile town in Union County. In , seventeen thousand acres of wild back country beyond the Rahway River and below First Watchung Mountain were surveyed. This tract, called the Clinker Lot Division, came to be known as the “west fields,’’ in the forest-clearing period of – . It was the genesis of what became the Westfield Ward of Elizabeth Borough (), the township of Westfield (January , ), and the town of Westfield (March , ). Westfield hosted a Patriot outpost during the American Revolution. About seventy Continental Army soldiers are buried in the Presbyterian Church cemetery. Westfield was a productive farm community until , when the railroad arrived. In  the Central Railroad of New Jersey introduced direct service to the Jersey City ferries, increasing commuter growth in communities like Westfield. By the turn of the twentieth century, agriculture meant orchards, dairies, and truck farms producing fresh produce for nearby cities. In  Sam Harris filed Westfield’s first major subdivision plan for the triangular area between the railroad, West Broad Street, and Scotch Plains Avenue. Months later, John S. Irving came over from Liberty Corner to start

Richard Cummings

West Cape May. .-square-mile borough in Cape May County. The borough was once a part of Lower Township and was referred to on early maps as Eldredge. West Cape May was incorporated in . During excavation work in  on an old farm, developers uncovered burial mounds, skeletons, artifacts, and relics that confirmed the earliest residents of the peninsula were Lenape Indians. The first European settlers in the West Cape May area were probably whalers from the bay side of the peninsula. A goldbeating business was established about  that employed eight to ten “beaters,’’ men who pounded inch or half-inch strips of gold into wafer-thin sheets. Approximately fifty local women carefully cut the thin sheets into squares, to be sold as gold leaf for edging Bible pages, printing, and other decorative arts. Settled before Cape Island and Sea Grove, West Cape May never enjoyed the same popularity with early visitors. Today the town is a quiet residential community. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Westfield High School Class of .

Courtesy Westfield Historical Society.

West Long Branch a lumber and coal business that was to endure for over a century. The pace of progress increased in the s, with utilities, a new school, two newspapers, trolley service, and stores fashioned by or for incoming New Yorkers. In , with boundaries similar to those of today, Westfield changed to a town form of government, and successfully established its character as a family community. The twentieth century saw virtually total development of its acreage. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Johnson, James P. Westfield: From Settlement to Suburb. Westfield: Westfield Bicentennial Committee, . Lipson, Stanley H. Westfield in the Golden Age of Postcards. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Ralph H. Jones

Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Inventor and entrepreneur George Westinghouse organized the Pittsburgh-based Westinghouse Electric Corporation (WEC) in . Westinghouse had created earlier companies to manufacture a new type of railroad braking system and subsequent inventions involving industrial equipment for gas utilities. The new company initially manufactured generators for electric utilities, but WEC (and major competitor General Electric Corporation) soon diversified into other types of electrical equipment and consumer appliances. WEC had a large manufacturing plant located in Newark and was one of New Jersey’s largest industrial employers during the early twentieth century. Passer, Harold C. The Electrical Manufacturers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, . Prout, Henry G. A Life of George Westinghouse. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Schatz, Ronald W. The Electrical Workers: A History of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse, – . Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also energy industry

Stephen Marshall

West Jersey.

New Jersey became two colonies in , when John, Lord Berkeley, sold his half of the proprietorship to Quakers led by John Fenwick and Edward Byllynge, a group that became the West Jersey Council of Proprietors. The government of West Jersey subsequently changed hands several times, until it was returned to the British Crown in . The West Jersey Council of Proprietors, with its claims to land, continues to exist today. Although New Jersey was once again a single royal colony after , the division between east and west continued to be important. The West Jersey Proprietors pushed, unsuccessfully, for completion of a boundary line, begun in  by John Lawrence, that would have given them more land. They wanted equal representation in the colonial council and insisted that the government

meet alternately in Burlington and Perth Amboy. During the Revolution, West Jersey Quakers adhered to pacifism, while the largely Dutch Reform and Presbyterian residents of East Jersey, being closer to the British in New York, felt the brunt of the fighting. Following the war, West Jersey politicians renewed their boundary claims and dominated the first federal election of . Throughout the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth, West Jersey retained its rural nature and distinction as the home of a large number of Quakers. Its old religious and economic ties to Philadelphia continued, but the dividing line was gradually transformed from an east-west to a northsouth one. Pomfret, John E. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . ———. The Province of West New Jersey, –: A History of the Origins of an American Colony. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also East Jersey

Maxine N. Lurie

West Jersey Concessions.

Issued in –, “The Concessions and Agreements of the Proprietors, Freeholders, and Inhabitants of the Province of West New-Jersey, In America,’’ commonly known as the West Jersey Concessions, was a system of government and basic laws for the new Quaker colony of West Jersey. The document reflected radical late seventeenth-century political and social theory in its provisions for a strong assembly, weak governor, and trial by jury, and in its prohibition against imprisonment for debt. Even though signed by settlers and proprietors, the concessions were not fully implemented. The authorship of the concessions is disputed. Most historians now give primary credit to Edward Byllynge, one of the proprietors.

Boyd, Julian P., ed. The Fundamental Laws and Constitutions of New Jersey, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Pomfret, John E. The Province of West New Jersey, –: A History of the Origins of an American Colony. Princeton : Princeton University Press, . The West Jersey Concessions and Agreements of /: A Roundtable of Historians. Trenton : New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Maxine N. Lurie

West Jersey Council of Proprietors. After John, Lord Berkeley, sold his half of New Jersey to Edward Byllynge and John Fenwick in , the colony was divided into east and west portions. The proprietorship of West Jersey was then in effect turned into a corporation consisting of one hundred shares, with dividends paid in land. The shares were quickly subdivided, resulting in numerous shareholders living in both England and the colony. To maintain control and order, the resident proprietors in  created the West Jersey Council, whose members (eleven

863

at first, then nine) were elected once a year and then met in Burlington at the surveyor general’s office. Participation required ownership of at least / of a share. Although the proprietors surrendered their claims to the government of West Jersey to the British Crown in , they retained title to the land. By , the West Jersey Council of Proprietors was the oldest corporation in the United States. Though it owns little land (small, never-surveyed parcels), the council possesses land records that are sometimes used for title searches. It continues to meet annually, even though the records of the ownership of some shares have been lost over time. Pomfret, John E. The New Jersey Proprietors and Their Lands, –. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

Maxine N. Lurie

West Jersey Society.

The West Jersey Society was formed in , when a group of forty-eight London businessmen purchased twenty of the one hundred shares of the West Jersey proprietorship from Dr. Daniel Coxe. With the purchase of the land came the right to govern—a claim contested by the Quaker party for much of the colony’s short existence. In , recognizing its inability to maintain political and social order, the society surrendered its right to govern to the British Crown. For the rest of its existence, which extended into the twentieth century, the society functioned strictly as a joint-stock company, working through local agents to reap the benefits of its land investments. Pomfret, John E. The Province of West Jersey, – : A History of the Origins of an American Colony. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

John Fea

West Long Branch.

.-square-mile borough in Monmouth County. West Long Branch was part of Eatontown Township until , when it voted to establish itself as an independent borough. It began as a crossroads community, with a stagecoach route on the north-south turnpike between the Manasquan and Shrewsbury rivers and an east-west ocean-bound corridor. The early town-and-country persona of West Long Branch began as land along its northern Long Branch border was developed into estates for wealthy individuals such as pulp publisher Norman Munro, vaudeville hoofer Bessie Clayton, circus clown Dan Rice, copper heir Murray Guggenheim,  Olympic gold-medalist Chet Bowman, and F. W. Woolworth president Hubert Parsons. In , Parsons built the only replica of Versailles in the United States. The mansion, its grounds, and neighboring estate properties comprise the private Monmouth University, which gives West Long Branch its current town-and-gown personality. Today garden nurseries, playing fields, open space, small farms, and seven different cemeteries help preserve West Long Branch’s

864

West Milford

original rural character and woodlands. In  its population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Maps, Charles H., and Robert F. Van Benthuysen. The Early History of West Long Branch, New Jersey. West Long Branch: West Long Branch Historical Society, . Pike, Helen-Chantal. West Long Branch. Dover, NH: Arcadia, .

Helen-Chantal Pike

West Milford.

.-square-mile township in western Passaic County. West Milford was set off from the western portion of Pompton Township in . Situated in the Highlands, the township was home to iron mines. Long Pond Ironworks (established in ) is now a state park. In the nineteenth century, agriculture was also important. By the late s, rail access spawned an important resort economy in the township, especially at Greenwood Lake, where ice harvesting was also a major industry. Starting in  the city of Newark began acquisition of its Pequannock Watershed, which included , acres in the township by . This resulted in the loss of numerous farms, homes, and businesses. However, the town remained an important summer resort area, and residential construction since the s has added to the population. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Otten, Inas, and Eleanor Weskerna. The Earth Shook and the Sky Was Red—A Bicentennial History of West Milford. West Milford: West Milford Bicentennial Commission, .

West New York.

.-square-mile town in northern Hudson County, located along the western shore of the Hudson River, on top of the Palisades. Although the town was not incorporated until , the name West New York first appeared on Hudson County maps of the s. Before European settlement, the area provided game and timber for the Lenape. The first European farm settlements struggled because of the density of the forests and the hard bluestone of the Palisades. In  the first embroidery firms were established, and embroidery grew to become the most important industry in northern Hudson County. Swiss, German, and Swedish immigrants soon gravitated to the region to work in this industry. Succeeding generations of twentieth-century immigrants, including Italians, Eastern Europeans, Latinos, and Asians, continually invigorated the art of embroidery, making designs and techniques reflective of their respective cultures. West New York became known as the embroidery capital of the world. Although most embroidery work is now sent overseas, West New York’s embroidery industry is still highly regarded by New York City fashion designers. West New York had a resident population in  of ,, making it one of the most densely populated municipalities in the nation. The population was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Lovero, Joan Doherty. Hudson County: The Left Bank. Sun Valley, CA: American Historical Press, .

William J. La Rosa

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Westminster Choir College.

Founded in  by John Finley Williamson, this conservatory, a four-year, private, coeducational institution of higher education, is located in Princeton. The school was originally located in Dayton, Ohio, and moved to Ithaca, New York, three years after its founding before settling at its current location in . The conservatory is dedicated to the study of music in its varied forms on both the undergraduate and graduate levels. Westminster presently serves as the professional music college of Rider University, with which it reached an affiliation agreement in . The institution hosts the Westminster Symphonic Choir and one of the largest summer musical programs in the country. Bristol, Lee Hastings. Westminster Choir College—A College of Music to Sing About. New York: Newcomen Society in North America, . Schisler, Charles Harvey. “A History of Westminster Choir College, –.’’Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, .

See also Rider University

Alan Delozier

Weston, Edward

(b. May , ; d. Aug.

, ). Electrical engineer, inventor, and in-

dustrialist. Edward Weston was born at Brynn Castle, near Wolverhampton, England, the son of Margaret Jones and Edward Weston, a carpenter and mechanic. His schoolboy interest in the physical sciences suggested a particular career path, but his parents wanted him to be a physician. Weston received his medical diploma in  but, instead of practicing medicine, he sought work in London as a scientist. Sensing few opportunities, he immigrated to New York City. During the first half of the s Weston lived and worked in New York, and beginning in , he resided in Newark. Weston established an electroplating business in  and five years later formed the Weston Dynamo Electric Machine Company, devoting his energies to manufacturing electroplating dynamos. Changing tack, Weston then tried to develop a system of arc lighting, but attained only modest success. His most noteworthy contract was to illuminate the Brooklyn Bridge. In  Weston started to make

electrical measuring instruments, and it is here that he enjoyed his greatest accomplishment and influence. In  Weston married Wilhelmina Seidel, and together they had two sons. Weston received many honors during his lifetime, including honorary degrees from Stevens Institute of Technology and Princeton University. He helped found the Newark College of Engineering, now known as the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT). ANB. DAB. Woodbury, David O. A Measure for Greatness: A Short Biography of Edward Weston. New York: McGrawHill, .

E. Richard McKinstry

West Orange. .-square-mile town in Essex County. Eighteenth-century settlers in this rugged and rocky terrain became known as the “Mountain Society.’’ The township owed its formal creation to a group of residents who seceded from Orange in  and merged with the recently created township of Fairmount. The area’s expansive vistas, mineral springs, and bucolic setting attracted wealthy nineteenth-century Newarkers and New Yorkers, and encouraged numerous development schemes. Llewellyn Park, a planned, gated residential community established by Llewellyn Haskell in the mid-s, designed by architect Alexander Davis, constituted the most noteworthy. Golf courses, amusement parks, and recreational facilities occupied a large land area during the late nineteenth century, but West Orange became perhaps most closely associated with Thomas Alva Edison. The inventor’s manufacturing plant, opened in , comprised the town’s largest industry, producing phonographs, dictating machines, alkaline batteries, and numerous other products. West Orange remained primarily residential, however, especially after automobile and bus transportation made commuting less formidable. Two significant growth spurts, from  to , and from  to , transformed the community into a fairly affluent white-collar suburb with an overwhelmingly native-born white population. Some diversification occurred after . The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Wickes, Stephen. History of the Oranges in Essex County, N.J., from  to . Bowie: Heritage Books, . Williams, Samuel Crane. Historical Sketch of the Growth and Development of the Town of West Orange, New Jersey, –. Orange: Chronicle Press, .

Peter J. Wosh

Westwood

865

The borough was incorporated in  out of Middle Township, and the first election was held, with  names on the voting list. Hann was elected mayor, and later donated land for the West Wildwood Union Church. In  a firehouse was built. Today the community is strictly residential. Children attend schools in Wildwood. In  the population of  was  percent white. The median household income was $,, according to the  census. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara St. Clair

West Windsor. -square-mile township

Exterior of Building , Thomas A. Edison’s main laboratory building in West Orange, c. –.

Courtesy U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site, West Orange.

West Paterson.

-square-mile borough on the east bank of the Passaic River, in Passaic County. West Paterson was set off from Little Falls Township, to its south, in . It lies on the opposite side of Garret Mountain from the city of Paterson, so while it shares that city’s name, it is removed from it geographically. Originally an area of farming and dairy production, in the late nineteenth century it became a bucolic suburb of nearby Paterson. In the years after World War II the borough underwent a major commercial boom, with the construction of numerous shopping centers and retail stores. Routes  and  pass through West Paterson, and good transportation has led to industrial development, including electronics, consumer products, and photographic materials. In , the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Clayton, W. Woodford, and William Nelson. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey. Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, . Golden Anniversary of West Paterson, . West Paterson: West Paterson Tercentenary Committee, .

Ronald J. Dupont, Jr.

Westville.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. First settled by the British, the borough was named after Thomas West, who built a tavern near Big Timber Creek in the s. Before the Revolution the town was also known as Buck Tavern. The borough was originally three separate villages: Westville, Newbold, and South Westville (also known as

Victoria). Westville was part of Deptford, while Newbold and South Westville were part of West Deptford. A merger of the three villages was approved by voters in April , and the borough was incorporated on May , . It is the northernmost municipality in the county, and was known as the “Gateway to South Jersey’’ because major roads and highways— such as the Great Road in colonial times and Delsea Drive in the twentieth century—began in or passed through the municipality. Washington Park, a famous amusement park in the early s where John Philip Sousa and his orchestra played, was a popular tourist attraction along the Delaware River. A fire destroyed the park in . Today the borough is primarily a residential community. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Simpson, Hazel B., ed. Under Four Flags: Old Gloucester County, –. . Reprint. Woodbury: Board of Chosen Freeholders, Gloucester County, .

Tom Wilk

West Wildwood.

.-square-mile borough in Cape May County. Surrounded by water, West Wildwood is linked to Wildwood at Maple Avenue by a two-lane bridge, the only access to and from this tiny community. In the late s Warren Hann, the grandson of the one the county’s early glass manufacturers, invested in land west of Five Mile Beach and separated by an inlet, where he intended to establish a new resort community. It was nearly fifteen years before building started, only to be slowed by World War I. By , sixty buildings, including a casino, had been completed.

at the northeastern edge of Mercer County. West Windsor is bounded on the northeast by the Millstone River, which has separated Mercer and Middlesex counties since , and on the northwest by the Delaware and Raritan Canal (completed in ), which has separated West Windsor and Princeton townships since . It is bounded on the southwest by the “Province Line’’ of , which separated the colonies of East Jersey and West Jersey, and, since , on the east and south by its present borders with East Windsor and Washington townships. Originally named New Windsor and then Windsor, West Windsor Township was officially incorporated in . The township contains the historic “hamlets’’ of Clarksville, Dutch Neck, Edinburg, Grovers Mill (of “War of the Worlds’’ fame), Penns Neck, Port Mercer, and Princeton Junction. West Windsor is home to Mercer County Community College and Mercer County Park. West Windsor began as a farming community, but has rapidly transformed into a residential suburb. The township is traversed by two major transportation arteries, providing commuters with access to New York and Philadelphia. In the  census the township’s population of , was  percent white and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Know Your Township: West Windsor. West Windsor: League of Women Voters, . MacAdam, Henry Innes. West Windsor Then and Now: Commemorating the Bicentennial of West Windsor Township (–). Princeton: Princeton Corridor Rotary Club, .

Theresa M. Liu

Westwood. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Among Westwood’s earliest industries was the Bogert Mill, on the Musquapsink Brook. Built before , it offered sanctuary to Gen. George Washington’s troops during the Revolution. In  the first train line arrived in Westwood, signaling a new era. The farming village of twenty-five homes soon became a residential community, as the railroad allowed easy commuting to

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New York City. By , seventeen trains a day came to Westwood, and in  a new station replaced the original wooden depot. Originally a part of Washington Township, Westwood voted in  to become an independent borough, in order to gain control of the school system and the taxes that supported it. Other early industries included a factory that produced the -D stereoscope viewers used to view photographs. The Canvas Theatre was just what the name implies; two other theaters followed it: the Pascack, in , and the Westwood in . Westwood is also home to America’s oldest Chevrolet dealer. Pascack Valley Hospital opened in , through the efforts of Louise Bohlin. She discovered the inadequacy of the four existing Bergen County hospitals, none of which were readily accessible to the Pascack Valley. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Asian. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

WETLANDS

Westwood: One Hundred Years of Hometown Heritage, –. Westwood: Centennial Committee, .

Linda J. Barth

wetlands. Wetlands are areas that are flooded or saturated by surface or ground water frequently enough and long enough to support vegetation that can exist under saturated soil conditions. They usually include swamps, bogs, wet meadows, and marshes. Precipitation, topography, soil permeability, rock type, and plant cover affect the wetness of an area. In all circumstances, however, the one characteristic common to wetlands is the existence of an ample supply of water. This supply varies due to annual, seasonal, and daily fluctuations; precipitation; inflow and outflow of surface water; exchange of ground water; and evaporation. Hydric soils are the second characteristic associated with wetlands. These soils are saturated for enough time during the growing season to allow anaerobic (absence of oxygen) conditions to develop, leading to the growth of hydrophytic vegetation, the third characteristic associated with wetlands. This specialized type of vegetation can grow in soils that are periodically deficient in oxygen and include nearly seven thousand vascular-type species. Wetlands have numerous values, such as improvement of water quality, flood protection, erosion control, and fish and wildlife habitat maintenance. The wetlands of New Jersey fall into two major systems: palustrine and estuarine. Palustrine wetlands, consisting mostly of red maple swamp and evergreen forests, are more than twice as abundant as estuarine wetlands, which are primarily salt and brackish marsh along the coast. In terms of the percentage of the land covered by wetlands, the three highest ranked counties are Cape May, Atlantic, and Ocean. Conversely, the three lowest

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@Rutgers, The State University

ranked counties are Hunterdon, Passaic, and Union. Development pressure represents a continuous threat to wetland preservation. In order to protect wetlands, the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection regulates

delineation procedures and wetland use. All properties in the state that are proposed for development require a determination of the presence or absence of wetlands and, if present, the boundaries of the wetlands must be delineated. Following site investigation and

Wharton State Forest verification by the state, a Letter of Interpretation may be issued for five years to the property owner that will stipulate what portions of the property can be developed. Lewis, William M. Wetlands Explained: Wetland Science, Policy, and Politics in America. New York: Oxford University Press, . Mitsch, William J., and James G. Gosselink. Wetlands. d ed. New York: John Wiley, . Rezendes, Paul, and Paulette M. Roy. Wetlands: The Web of Life. San Francisco: Sierra Club, . Tiner, Ralph W. In Search of Swampland: A Wetland Sourcebook and Field Guide. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also geography; water resources map, color section

Robert M. Hordon

Wetlands Institute.

The Wetlands Institute in Middle Township was founded as a nonprofit, educational organization in  by Herbert Mills to promote the conservation and understanding of wetlands and coastal ecosystems. There is an exhibit hall of live animals and dioramas depicting the life found within the salt marshes, and a deck overlooking six thousand acres of surrounding marsh—an attraction that draws many birdwatchers. The Institute is open to the public year-round, with more than forty thousand people visiting each year, and runs many programs designed for schoolchildren.

Teal, John, and Mildred Teal. Life and Death of the Salt Marsh. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Lucinda S. O’Connor

Weymouth. .-square-mile township in Atlantic County. Originally part of Gloucester County, Weymouth was one of the original townships of Atlantic County when it was formed in . Hamilton Township, Corbin City, Estell Manor, and Folsom were once part of Weymouth Township. Because of a shift in population in the s, Corbin City was formed from Weymouth in , and Estell Manor was formed in . Weymouth, or New Weymouth, was the Quaker name for Atlantic County in the late seventeenth century. In  an ironworks

named after the township began to flourish. In an attempt to consolidate their power, the ironworks owners formed Hamilton Township in . The works burned during the Civil War. Other iron operations in Weymouth included Aetna Furnace and Walkers Forge. Weymouth was also a center of shipbuilding, with its many waterways and abundant timber and iron supplies. Boats were built at High Banks Landing, Steelmans Landing, Gibsons Landing, Champions Landing, and Aetna. In  the Bethlehem Steel Company and the federal government purchased large tracts of Weymouth to manufacture shells for the Allied war effort in World War I. Today, there is little industry in Weymouth. The community is largely rural. Weymouth’s  population of , was  percent white. Its median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Mike Mathis

whales. Whales are more abundant in New Jersey, in kind and number, than most people believe. Humpback, finback, pilot (or black fish), and minke whales are found along the coast. Minke and pilot whales are the most common, although there have been sightings of right, sperm, and pygmy sperm whales, and even killer whales. Historically, whales were harvested in New Jersey waters by vessels sailing from Newark and Perth Amboy, and whale products were exported to Europe. Whaling stations or towers were erected along the coastline in an effort to spot whales. Roger R. Locandro

Wharton, Joseph

(b. Mar. , ;

d. Jan., ). Industrialist. Joseph Wharton

was born in Philadelphia to Quaker ministers. Apprenticed first to a farmer, he eventually chose accounting. Wharton married Anna Lovering in , and together they raised three children. His  purchase of Gap Mining Company launched Wharton’s twenty-fiveyear monopoly over U.S. nickel manufacturing. Other successful investments, including mining and refining iron ore in northern New

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Jersey, inspired his service as a lobbyist for iron and steel industries. The world’s first collegiate business school, Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, is named for him. Beginning in , Wharton accumulated  square miles of the New Jersey Pine Barrens, including the Batsto Iron Works. In  this land became New Jersey’s Wharton State Forest. ANB.

Deborah S. Greenhut

Wharton.

.-square-mile borough in Morris County. Wharton was incorporated June , , as Port Oram on the Morris Canal, a consolidation of several mining camps with housing for the blast furnace industry. The community was named for Robert Oram, the manager for the New Jersey Iron Company, who built the company store and developed workers’ housing. It was renamed Wharton in , after Joseph Wharton located his blast furnace complex here. Wharton was traditionally an industrial community, with the silk industry taking over after iron production from the mines dropped off in the s. The borough was dominated for most of the twentieth century by the firms L. E. Carpenter and Lockjoint. After a few dormant years the industrial buildings are now back in use, occupied by bottling and other businesses. A small but vital downtown commercial district remains as well. The original blue-collar population was originally predominantly Irish, especially in the vicinity of Saint Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, which was built in . It is currently more ethnically diverse, but Saint Mary’s is still a community focus. In  the population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Hanson, Kenneth R. Port Oram, an Iron Town. Wharton: Hanson Press, .

Jane R. Primerano

The back of this postcard reads: “This whale came ashore : AM, October , . Was alive about six hours on the beach when he died of exhaustion. He was  feet  inches long, weighed about  tons, and was of the sperm class. Over $, was realized from the oil and ambergris.’’

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

Wharton State Forest. Wharton State Forest is the largest tract of land in New Jersey’s state park system. With sections situated in Atlantic, Burlington, and Camden counties, Wharton covers , acres in the heart of the Pine Barrens about twenty miles northwest of Atlantic City and forty miles southeast of Philadelphia. One of its main attractions is Batsto Village, a bog iron and glassmaking center that operated between  and . The village, which consists of thirty-three historic buildings and structures (including the Batsto Mansion, gristmill, sawmill, general store, workers’ homes, and a post office) is a good example of the agricultural and commercial life of nineteenth-century New Jersey. In  Joseph Wharton, a Philadelphia industrialist,

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Wheaton Scientific Packaging

bought Batsto Village and much of the land now within the forest borders. The state purchased the property in . Many rivers and streams bisect Wharton, as do hiking trails (including a major section of the fifty-mile-long Batona Trail), and about five hundred miles of unpaved roads. The park contains numerous lakes, ponds, and fields. Bald eagles, red-tailed hawks, marsh hawks, ospreys, great blue herons, swans, screech owls, great horned owls, bluebirds, hummingbirds, purple martins, goldfinches, turkeys, beavers, river otters, foxes, and deer are only some of the wildlife the alert visitor can see. See also state forests

Fred J. Aun

Wheaton Scientific Packaging.

In , Dr. T. C. Wheaton, a pharmacist and physician, purchased a controlling interest in the Shull, Goodwin Company in Millville, renamed it T. C. Wheaton Company, and started manufacturing scientific and medical glass. By , the company was the main national supplier of handmade blown and pressed glassware. During the s, Wheaton added plastics and explored glass-to-metal seals. In May , Wheaton was acquired by Alusuisse-Lonza of Zurich, Switzerland. With Alusuisse-Lonza’s Canadian firm, Lawson Mardon Packaging, Wheaton Scientific Packaging comprises one of the world’s largest pharmaceutical packaging companies.

Cunningham, John T. Made in New Jersey: The Industrial Story of a State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also glassmaking

Deborah S. Greenhut

Wheaton Village. A cultural center dedicated to American glass and other crafts, folk life, and folk art, Wheaton Village is located on sixty acres in Millville. Since  Wheaton Village has grown to encompass three arts education centers: The Museum of American Glass, the Down Jersey Folklife Center, and the Glass Studio, an artists’ studio and working reproduction of the  T. C. Wheaton Glass Factory. The Museum of American Glass at Wheaton Village traces the history of American glass from its beginnings in  through contemporary glass sculpture. The Folklife Center preserves and passes on traditional arts and culture related to the history of contemporary residents in New Jersey’s southern eight counties. Since , the Creative Glass Center of America (CGCA), a division of the village, has annually awarded twelve fellowships to artists working in glass. Over  artists from twenty-four states and thirteen foreign countries have participated in the fellowship program, which includes twenty-four-hour access to the glass studio, housing, materials, supplies, and a stipend. CGCA public programs include slide presentations given by fellowship

artists, demonstrations for the public in the studio, and Glass Weekend (a biennial event since ), which brings together artists, collectors, galleries, and museum curators. See also glassmaking; historic sites

Erin V. Harrell

Whippany.

See Hanover.

Whiskey Rebellion.

In  the federal government, newly reorganized under the Constitution, which invested it with the power to impose taxes, provided for a levy on whiskey. For Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, the tax was a means both to strengthen the central government and to raise revenue to repay debts from the American Revolution. For farmers along the frontier, it was a burden that unfairly fell on them, making their corn more expensive to transport (corn distilled into alcohol was cheaper to haul to markets over the mountains). Protests, particularly in western Pennsylvania, exploded into violence. President George Washington asked for troops to put down the rebellion, and in May  Congress authorized the calling up of militias, including up to , men from New Jersey. Gov. Richard Howell issued a proclamation on August , , stating that New Jersey would “support the Constitution and honor the Union.’’ Troops assembled in Trenton. They marched into Pennsylvania at the end of September, led by Howell himself and other state officers who had served in the Revolution, including Generals Anthony Walton White, Joseph Bloomfield, and Frederick Frelinghuysen. A satirical newspaper essay described this “invading’’ force as being “composed of your watermelon armies from the Jersey shores’’ who “would cut a much better figure in warring with the crabs and oysters about the Capes of Delaware.’’ The dislike was returned by New Jersey troops, who appear to have had little sympathy for protesters unwilling to obey legitimate laws made by “the will of the majority.’’ Anger may have gotten the better of some: New Jersey troops were responsible for the deaths of two civilians in Carlisle and were accused of plundering. Faced with an army larger than the one Washington commanded in the Revolution, the “Whiskey Boys’’ quickly scattered or surrendered. By December , , the New Jersey militiamen had returned home. They were clearly glad to be back, confident they had succeeded in their efforts “to check rebellion and restore order, and establish the best of Constitutions.’’

White, Alma

(b. June , ; d. June ,

). Religious leader and author. Alma White

was born in Kentucky to William and Mary Ann (Harrison) Bridwell. When she moved to Montana to teach, she met her future husband, Kent White. They were married on December , , in Denver. Kent pastored several Methodist Episcopal churches in Colorado, and Alma began conducting revivals in . In  the couple began fulltime evangelistic work. Between  and , Alma reported conducting more than three thousand services. They opened their first mission in Denver in  and by  had established four more in Colorado and Wyoming. In  Alma founded a missionary home and training school in Denver to educate workers to staff her missions. She established the Pentecostal Union there in . In  she moved the headquarters to Zarephath, New Jersey. The church, which White led until her death, became known as the Pillar of Fire. White was an activist. Like many pastors in Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist Episcopal churches in New Jersey, she supported the KKK’s anti-Catholicism, but she also supported progressive causes. An advocate of women’s rights, she established Woman’s Chains magazine in  to help secure passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, introduced in Congress in . Stanley, Susie Cunningham. Feminist Pillar of Fire: The Life of Alma White. Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, . White, Alma. The Story of My Life and the Pillar of Fire.  vols. Zarephath: Pillar of Fire, –.

See also Pillar of Fire Church

Susie C. Stanley

White, Elizabeth Coleman (b. Oct. , ; d. Nov. , ). Horticulturist. Elizabeth

Slaughter, Thomas P. The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, .

Maxine N. Lurie

whistle-blower’s law.

See Conscientious Employee Protection Act.

Elizabeth Coleman White, .

Courtesy Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc., Corporate Archives, Lakeville-Middleboro, MA. Photo: Phillips Studio, Philadelphia.

White Township White, a Quaker, inherited her father’s ,acre cranberry plantation, Whitesbog, south of Hanover Furnace in the Pine Barrens. After  she worked with Frederick Coville in the propagation and cross-fertilization of wild blueberry bushes, which in  resulted in the nation’s first cultivated crop of blueberries. Tramping through the woods, “Lizzie,’’ as she was known, questioned residents about berry size, vigor, resistance to cold and disease, flavor, texture, productivity, and time of ripening in order to identify wild blueberry bushes with the most desirable traits. She was the first to use a cellophane wrapper to protect berries for marketing. In  she helped to organize the New Jersey Blueberry Cooperative Association. By  New Jersey’s blueberry industry ranked second in the United States. Blueberry bushes derived from the early work at Whitesbog were planted extensively all over the nation. White was the first woman member of the American Cranberry Association and the first woman to receive a New Jersey Department of Agriculture citation. She was interested in all plants native to the Pine Barrens, and formed Holly Haven, Inc., from which she propagated and sold many varieties of holly, Pine Barren plants, and a rare magnolia called Franklinia, which had been first discovered by John Bartram, an eighteenth-century botanist, in Georgia. Early in her adult life, White was a tireless champion of the migrant workers who year after year returned to pick the farm’s cranberries. When the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC) published a pamphlet in  critical of growers’ treatment of children and the report was nationally circulated, White wrote letters and made speeches over the four-year period of the dispute, until the NCLC printed a retraction in the Trenton Times. At the same time White wrote refuting misunderstandings about the writings of Elizabeth Kite, a researcher from the Vineland Training School, about residents of the Pine Barrens. She also urged establishment of a new training school, and later joined the board of the Work-Training School at Four Mile Colony near Lisbon. White’s horticultural interests, her work with blueberry propagation, and her garden at Suningive at Whitesbog earned her the highest medals from horticultural societies in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also blueberries

Michelle S. Byers and Sheila Cowing

White, Pearl ).

(b. Mar. , ; d. Aug. ,

Actor. Born in Missouri, Pearl White was originally a circus performer and stage actor. Beautiful and athletic, she began her film career in westerns using her equestrian abilities. The American branch of the French

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Prime, Samuel J. “Sketch of the Life and Character of William A. Whitehead.’’ New Jersey History, ser. ,  (): –.

See also historiography

Maxine N. Lurie

Whitesbog.

Silent film star Pearl White appeared in several of the many films shot in Fort Lee.

Courtesy Fort Lee Library.

´ signed her to do The Perils of company Pathe Pauline (), which dramatized the adventures of its heroine in a serial format. The term “cliffhanger’’ was coined from the Fort Lee Palisades location used for her suspenseful narrow escapes. She made nine serials for ´, many using New Jersey locations. In Pathe  she starred in feature films for Fox in Fort Lee. Her popularity quickly waned, and she retired to France in . She married Victor C. Sutherland in  and Wallace McCutcheon in . Lahue, Kalton. Continued Next Week: A History of the Moving Picture Serial. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, . Spehr, Paul. The Movies Begin: Making Movies in New Jersey, –. Newark: Newark Museum, . Weltman, Manuel, and Raymond Lee. Pearl White: The Peerless Fearless Girl. South Brunswick: A. S. Barnes, .

See also motion picture industry

Rita Ecke Altomara

Whitehead, William Adee (b. Feb. , ; d. Aug. , ). Businessman and historian. Born in Newark, the son of William Whitehead and Abby Coe, William A. Whitehead left school at age twelve. He lived and worked in Key West, Florida, for ten years, joined by Margaret Elizabeth Parker, whom he married in . After returning to New Jersey he helped found both the New Jersey Historical Society and the Newark Public Library. Self-educated, he turned to preserving the history of the state by collecting and editing its colonial records, which were then published in numerous volumes by the Historical Society. A gentleman scholar in the period before historians became professionals, Whitehead helped to preserve the early history of New Jersey.

See Pemberton Township.

Whitesboro. Located in Middle Township in Cape May County, this town was started in  by a group of African Americans living in Cape May City who were disturbed by the increase of racism at that time. They helped to organize the Colored American Equitable Industrial Association, which attracted southern businessmen interested in purchasing land for an agricultural and industrial town. Involved were George H. White, who had been an African American congressman from North Carolina, and the Rev. James W. Fishburn, a pastor at the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Cape May City. White was the largest investor in what became the George H. White Realty Company, which purchased land in what now is Whitesboro, Wildwood Junction Heights, and Wildwood Heights. The realty company sold -by-foot lots for $ with no interest and a guaranteed title. The community that developed included a number of African American Civil War veterans, along with settlers from North Carolina. The construction of the Garden State Parkway in the s forced the relocation of the Whitesboro cemetery and some of its graves. The community itself continues as a largely African American enclave. The population in  was ,. See also African Americans Shirley Green

White

Township. .-square-mile semi-rural township in Warren County. In  White was separated from Oxford Township. It was named after William White, a Revolutionary War soldier. The township forms a semicircle around the county seat of Belvidere. It includes historic hamlets Manunka Chuck, Cornish, Bridgeville, Buttzville, Hazen, Foul Rift, and the , foot-high elevation called Mount No More. Still visible are many remnants of the past: limestone quarries and kilns, wood-into-charcoal burning pits, and gravel pits—leftovers from the last glacial period. Agribusiness was the main industry well into the last century, when dairy and dirt farmers began to sell off their lands to developers who turned the acreage into bedroom communities and retirement complexes. White is home to Roche Vitamins, a division of Hoffman–La Roche, the largest manufacturer of bulk vitamins. Established in , it employed  persons in . According to the  census the population of , was  percent white. Median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

870

Whitman, Christine Todd

Antz, Tracy N. Cornish, New Jersey. Belvidere: Tracy N. Antz, . White Township History. White Township: White Township Tercentenary Committee, .

Gladys Harry Eggler

Whitman, Christine Todd

(b. Sept.

, ). Governor. Christine Todd Whitman

was born into a family of Republican party activists and leaders. She was educated at Far Hills Country Day School and Wheaton College in Massachusetts. She married John Whitman in , and the couple have two children, Katherine and Taylor. The future governor was elected to the Somerset County Board of Freeholders in , and then appointed president of the Board of Public Utilities. In , as a virtual unknown, she ran against the incumbent Democratic senator, Bill Bradley, losing by only  percent of the vote. She then went on to run for governor, campaigning on a platform of fiscal conservatism, promising to cut state taxes by  percent in two years. In an upset, she defeated the state’s sitting executive, Jim Florio. Her campaign strategist, Ed Rollins, attributed the victory to paying off black ministers to suppress the minority vote. Rollins subsequently admitted that he lied, but the damage required Whitman to defend her integrity and surprising win at the outset of her first term. On January , , at Whitman’s inauguration, the new governor kept her campaign promise, asking the state legislature for a  percent tax cut—retroactive to January . Two months later, to show her commitment to government savings, Whitman eliminated the Department of Higher Education and the Office of Public Advocate, cut funding for the New Jersey Network, privatized state-run day care centers, and gave up the gubernatorial helicopter. Whitman’s first-term achievements were significant. Among them were Megan’s Law, requiring the registration of paroled sex offenders, and a “three strikes, you’re out’’ law. She established boot camps for juvenile offenders, privatized health care for prison medical centers, and signed legislation mandating trigger locks on new handguns. Whitman approved a welfare reform bill and the Charter School Law, and she is credited with saving Sterling Forest. By the end of her second year in office, Whitman had also cut taxes by  percent—a year earlier than she had promised. A rising star within the state and the Republican party, she soon became a favorite on the fund-raising circuit and was chosen to respond to President Bill Clinton’s State of the Union Address in . But Whitman also provoked some of New Jersey’s voters. She vetoed the bill that banned partial-birth abortion. She approved tight ecological restrictions and imposed them on the chemical, pharmaceutical, and textile industries. She had difficulty reforming the state’s

high auto insurance premiums and registration procedures. When Whitman ran for a second term against Democratic mayor and state senator Jim McGreevey in , she won by only a slim  percent margin— to  percent. Local property tax increases had offset Whitman’s state cuts, with many voters believing that they were paying virtually the same taxes, but to different government entities. Two years later, in April , Whitman announced that she would run for the U.S. Senate. But within days of the announcement, she found herself embroiled in another racial scandal, forcing her to admit that the New Jersey State Police had been actively engaged in “racial profiling.’’ Although Whitman fired the superintendent of police, the fallout left her weakened politically. She dropped out of the Senate race in September, claiming that her focus needed to be on her job as governor. At the end of her tenure, she remained extremely popular in the state, having lowered taxes and unemployment and brought in a significant amount of new business to New Jersey. However, in January  she resigned as governor to accept appointment by the George W. Bush administration as director of the federal Environmental Protection Agency, a position she held until her resignation in June . McClure, Sandy. Christie Whitman for the People: A Political Biography. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, . Weissman, Art. Christine Todd Whitman: The Making of a National Political Player. New York: Carol Publishing, .

See also governor

Jo Renee Formicola

Whitman, Walt

(b. May , ; d. Mar.

, ). Poet and journalist. Walter Whitman

Walt Whitman.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

was born near Huntington, Long Island, of Dutch-English heritage. When he was a child, the family moved to Brooklyn, where he learned the printing trade. Essentially selfeducated, Whitman spent his early adulthood alternating between working as a printer, a schoolteacher, and a journalist. In  he wrote his only novel, a temperance tract called Franklin Evans. Four years later, he assumed the editorship of the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper. After losing that position, mainly because of his support of abolitionism, he traveled around the country working a series of odd jobs and publishing a few poems in journals. Nothing in his background could anticipate the originality of Leaves of Grass, which was first published in  in a privately printed edition. The twelve untitled poems, written in the then-uncommon free verse meter, were poorly received; most critics judged the book obscene and vulgar. Ralph Waldo Emerson, however, saw the volume’s originality and wrote to its author: “I greet you at the beginning of a great career.’’ Whitman the poet was part of a bohemian group that met at a basement restaurant called Pffaf’s in lower Manhattan. His early poetry, notably “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry,’’ portrays a young man intoxicated with the modern city and living among freethinkers in nineteenth-century Manhattan. The Civil War was to transform Whitman from a vagabond poet to the bard of democracy. Traveling to Washington, D.C., to care for his brother George, a wounded Union soldier, he stayed on to become a nurse, tending to hundreds of hospitalized men. During this period he published a volume called Drum Taps (), which included his most popular (and conventional) poem, “O Captain! My Captain!’’ which is still memorized by thousands of American schoolchildren. Throughout the war, Whitman continued to expand Leaves of Grass, adding new poems and revising older ones. By the late s he had become something of a literary celebrity, attracting attention in Europe and becoming the darling of an antiestablishment movement that simultaneously embraced socialism and Eastern philosophy, while questioning the unchecked urbanization and industrialization of the nation. By the s Whitman was able to survive on publishing royalties and speaker’s fees. Whitman suffered a serious stroke in early ; by the end of the year he moved in with his brother George in Camden. In  he bought a home in the city, at the unfashionable  Mickle Street. In his last years, he became known as the “Good Gray Poet’’ and achieved a level of critical acceptance and international popularity. During his nearly twenty years in Camden, he published the sixth through ninth editions of Leaves of Grass and two volumes of prose recollections. He died on March , , and is buried in the

Whittredge, Worthington

871

city’s Harleigh Cemetery in a mausoleum he designed. Although Whitman’s reputation suffered during the mid-twentieth century, his standing as one of America’s greatest poets was established by the last quarter of that century—partially through the advocacy of New Jersey–born Allen Ginsberg. Although his greatest works were written years before he came to the state, Whitman is closely identified with New Jersey as his years here coincide with his establishment as a well-loved and highly regarded celebrity. In addition, his home is maintained by the state as a historic site, there is a Delaware River crossing named in his honor, and one of the New Jersey Turnpike’s rest areas bears his name. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Garman, Bryan K. A Race of Singers: Whitman’s Working-Class Hero from Guthrie to Springsteen. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, . Maslan, Mark. Whitman Possessed: Poetry, Sexuality, and Popular Authority. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, . Myerson, Joel, ed. Whitman in His Own Time: A Biographical Chronicle of His Life, Drawn from Recollections, Memoirs, and Interviews by Friends and Associates. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, .

See also poetry; Walt Whitman House

Joel Lewis

Whittier House.

Whittier House, New Jersey’s first settlement house, was established in  on Grand Street in Jersey City’s First Ward. Cornelia Foster Bradford, its founder, named the institution after her friend, the poet John Greenleaf Whittier. Bradford was born into a distinguished Rhode Island family in . Her father was a minister who pursued various reformist activities throughout his life. A suffragist, peace advocate, and social worker, Bradford followed in his footsteps after her graduation from Houghton Seminary in Clinton, New York, and Olivet College in Michigan. The family lived in Chester, New Jersey, from  to . Bradford encountered the settlement house movement when she traveled to England. There she toured Toynbee Hall, which was established in London by a group of Oxford University graduates. Bradford later visited the first American settlement, Hull-House, and became a lifelong friend of Jane Addams. Whittier House offered a variety of social services for immigrants and the poor: a woman’s club, the city’s first free kindergarten, a playground, and a summer camp in Pomona, New York. Shortly after Bradford’s death in , Whittier House became a Boys Club. The building was destroyed by fire in . See also Bradford, Cornelia Foster

Margaret Smith Crocco

Whittredge, Worthington , ; d. Feb. , ).

(b. May

Painter. (Thomas)

Thomas Worthington Whittredge, Millburn, New Jersey, c. . Oil on canvas,  / ×  / in.

Courtesy Newark Museum. Purchase 1946 The Felix Fuld Bequest Fund, 46.160. Photo: Koenig, Oct. 1946. Worthington Whittredge was the youngest child of a farm family from the Little Miami River near Springfield, Ohio. In  he traveled to Cincinnati, where he studied house and sign painting with his brother-in-law. Two years later, after viewing the works of both native and foreign artists in local galleries and establishing himself as a portrait painter, he began to paint landscapes. Three were exhibited in the Cincinnati Academy of Fine Arts’ inaugural exhibition in . In , after traveling between Indianapolis, Charlestown (West Virginia), and New York City, where he painted several portraits, Whittredge returned to Cincinnati, where he began to specialize in the painting of natural scenery in response to his developing interest in landscape painting and the popularity of the Hudson River school. Whittredge’s work can be said to be closest in philosophy, as

well as appearance, to that of Asher B. Durand (a New Jerseyan), one of the three artists associated with the founding of the school—along with Thomas Cole and Thomas Doughty—who painted with meticulous accuracy and fidelity to nature. In search of further training, Whittredge set sail for London in . After traveling and sketching in Belgium, France, and Germany, ¨ sseldorf. On arrival at the atehe settled in Du lier of Emanuel Leutze, one of America’s most important history painters, he was immediately pressed into service to pose in a replica of George Washington’s military uniform for the figure of Washington in Leutze’s monumental work, Washington Crossing the Delaware (, ¨ sseldorf, Metropolitan Museum of Art). At Du Whittredge was drawn to the minute detail of the German landscape painter Karl Friedrich Lessing, with whom he made several sketching

872

Wick, Temperance

trips. Yet he ultimately came to reject the colorless approach and excessive drama of the “hardest German style.’’ In , after additional European sketching trips, Whittredge returned to the United States. The next year he rented space in New York’s fabled Tenth Street Studio building, where he worked in proximity to other important Hudson River school artists, including Sanford Gifford, Frederick Church, and John Kensett. In  Whittredge was elected a full academician at the National Academy of Design. In , Whittredge married Euphemia Foot of Geneva, New York, with whom he had three daughters. For several years, the family lived in New York and traveled extensively throughout the United States. In  they moved to Hillcrest, a home in Summit, designed by Calvert Vaux, a major New York landscape and building architect. There Whittredge wrote an autobiography and continued to paint picturesque landscapes, including local views such as Millburn, New Jersey (c. , Newark Museum), for the next thirty years until his death at his home in . Baur, John I. H., ed. The Autobiography of Worthington Whittredge, –. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Janson, Anthony F. Worthington Whittredge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . Mitnick, Barbara J. Worthington Whittredge: Artist of the Hudson River School. Morristown: Morris Museum, .

Mellick, Andrew D. The Story of an Old Farm; or, Life in New Jersey in the Eighteenth Century. Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company, . Mitros, David. Directory of Historic Morris County, New Jersey: A Guide to Historical Resources. Morristown: Morris County Heritage Commission and the Morris County Board of Chosen Freeholders, . Stockton, Frank R. Stories of New Jersey. . Reprint. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also American Revolution

David Myers

Wickes, Stephen

(b. Mar. , ;

d. ).

Physician, editor, and historian. Stephen Wickes, a graduate of the Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania, set up practice in Orange in . From  until his death, he edited the Transactions of the Medical Society of New Jersey; he was president of the society in . He also edited a volume of previously unpublished Transactions covering the years  to . Wickes’s editorial work strengthened and united the physicians of the state. In  Wickes, an avid medical historian, published his classic work, History of Medicine in New Jersey and of Its Medical Men, From the Settlement of the Province to A.D. . He always appeared in a frock coat, carrying the traditional gold-headed cane of the medical profession. Pennington, S. H. “Stephen Wickes M.D.’’ Transactions of the Medical Society of New Jersey (): –.

Sandra Moss

See also art

Barbara J. Mitnick

Wick, Temperance d. Apr. , ).

(b. Oct. , ;

Revolutionary War figure. Temperance (“Tempe’’) Wick was the daughter of Henry Wick, a relatively prosperous eighteenth-century farmer and landowner who cultivated wheat, corn, rye, oats, buckwheat, apples, and flax in Jockey Hollow, near Morristown. The Wick family’s house, which still stands in the Jockey Hollow section of the Morristown National Historical Park, was commandeered as the headquarters of Gen. Arthur St. Clair of George Washington’s army during the winter of –, and some ten thousand soldiers camped on the grounds. Military camp conditions were extremely harsh, and supplies were so scarce that some of the soldiers stole food, deserted, and even mutinied. According to local legend, when a group of such soldiers accosted Tempe on her horse and tried to take the animal, she fled and coaxed the horse up to the second floor of her home. The soldiers, who came to the house, never thought to look upstairs, and the animal was saved. Modern visitors to the house can supposedly still see a faint imprint of a horse’s hoof on the staircase. The legend is commonly taught to schoolchildren in New Jersey and is the subject of at least one children’s book. Most historians regard it as unproved.

Wiggins, Ulysses S.

(b. ; d. ).

Physician and civil rights activist. Born in Georgia, Ulysses S. Wiggins was a graduate of Lincoln University and, in , of the University of Michigan Medicine School. In  Wiggins moved to Camden where he became part of the medical staff at Cooper Medical Hospital, and he immediately became involved in local civic life. In  Wiggins, Marvel Dansbury, and Edward Grayson revived the Camden branch of the NAACP. Over the next twenty-five years Wiggins served as president of the branch, worked to desegregate the Camden school district, and fought against racism. In addition, he served the NAACP at the state and national levels. See also civil rights

Gary Hunter

wildlife rehabilitation.

The rehabilitation of sick, injured, and orphaned native wild animals in New Jersey is conducted and funded by trained individuals and private organizations located throughout the state. All wildlife rehabilitators must be licensed by the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife and, when dealing with federally protected birds, by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as well. When viable, all rehabilitated animals are returned to the wild. Rehabilitators do not charge for their services. There are currently

about seventy licensed wildlife rehabilitators in New Jersey who rehabilitate an average of thirty thousand wild animals of every type in a given year.

Leonard J. Soucy, Jr.

Wildwood.

.-square-mile city in Cape May County. J. Thompson Latimer and Philip Baker were largely responsible for the early settlement and development of Five Mile Beach beginning in the s, especially the communities of Holly Beach, Wildwood, and Wildwood Crest. Within a few years, cottages and hotels had been constructed around the island. By the time President Benjamin Harrison visited Wildwood in  to dedicate the Dayton Hotel, the area was quickly becoming a popular seaside resort. In  the first boardwalk was built along the ocean. It soon became an entertainment area, with rolling chairs, restaurants, and carousels. The two-mile long boardwalk continues to be synonymous with the Wildwoods. The ocean side boasts several large piers that extend hundreds of feet into the water, with one of the largest concentrations of amusement attractions in the country. During the s Wildwood hosted the biggest names in show business with singers, bands, and famous comedians appearing in dozens of nightclubs all summer. That era ended in the late s, and today visitors are attracted to the expansive beach and the attractions of the boardwalk. Two communities, the borough of Holly Beach and the borough of Wildwood, consolidated into the city of Wildwood in . According to the  census, the population of , is  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Scully, Robert R., David W. Francis, and Diane Demali Francis. Wildwood by the Sea. Fairview Park, OH: Amusement Park Books, .

Barbara St. Clair

Wildwood Crest.

.-square-mile borough in Cape May County. The area that comprises Wildwood Crest was purchased from George I of England in  by Jonathan Swain, for about $. On June , , during the Revolution, the Battle of Turtle Gut pitted the British warship Kingfisher unsuccessfully against the brigantine Nancy and the frigates Lexington and Wasp. Capt. John Barry commanded the Lexington; by  he was Commodore Barry, the father of the U.S. Navy. In , J. Thompson Latimer and Philip Baker bought the land and turned it into a profitable business venture leading to rapid development. In April  the governor of New Jersey designated the area a borough, and Phillip Baker was the first mayor. However, the Depression ended twenty years of

Wiles, Andrew development and prosperity. During World War II, blackouts were enforced, beaches were patrolled, and lookout towers were built along the shoreline. By the s, tourism had rebounded. Today multistory motels line the beachfront to support the island’s tourism industry. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery M. Cape May County, New Jersey: The Making of an American Resort Community. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Barbara St. Clair

Wilentz, David T.

(b. Dec. , ; d. July

, ). Lawyer, politician, and attorney gen-

eral. When David T. Wilentz was two years old, his parents emigrated from Latvia to Perth Amboy, where his father operated a wholesale tobacco business. Wilentz graduated from New York Law School and was admitted to the New Jersey bar in . During the s Wilentz began his longtime involvement in politics, helping Democratic candidates at the local and county levels. Working largely behind the scenes, Wilentz emerged as the undisputed county boss of Middlesex County, where the Democrats succeeded in capturing every county and legislative elective office from  until . The effective county political base that Wilentz developed enabled him to become one of a small group of Democratic leaders with the power to pick the party’s candidates for governor and Congress. Aligning with Jersey City mayor Frank Hague, the Democratic boss of Hudson County, Wilentz helped secure the election of Gov. A. Harry Moore in . In return, Governor Moore appointed Wilentz in  as attorney general, the state’s top law enforcement office. Wilentz gained national attention in  as the prosecutor of Bruno Richard Hauptmann for the kidnapping and murder of twenty-month-old Charles A. Lindbergh, Jr., son of the world-famous aviator. Although he had never previously tried a murder case, Wilentz handled the matter personally rather than leaving it to Hunterdon County officials. Wilentz succeeded in presenting a strong case of circumstantial evidence against Hauptmann, an immigrant Bronx, New York, house painter. Wilentz produced witnesses who testified that the ransom notes had been written and delivered by Hauptmann and that the homemade ladder found on the Lindbergh estate was constructed of wood from the defendant’s attic. In his five-hour summation to the jury, the sharp-tongued Wilentz referred to Hauptmann as the “filthiest and vilest snake that ever crept through the grass’’ and “Public Enemy Number One of the World.’’ Hauptmann was convicted on February , , and electrocuted a year later after failing to win an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court or a pardon from the governor.

The six-week Lindbergh trial has often been called the “trial of the century.’’ Hundreds of reporters and numerous celebrities descended upon the rural county seat of Flemington to attend the daily sessions. With his dapper suits and ever-present cigar, Wilentz became a press favorite, always prepared to offer a clever quote or to pose for a dramatic photograph. The trial itself became a major tourist attraction, and on the last day almost seven thousand people gathered in the snow outside the courthouse to hear the jury’s verdict. After serving ten years as attorney general, Wilentz left public office and established one of the state’s largest law firms, Wilentz, Goldman, and Spitzer, in Woodbridge. He remained a major political insider and was instrumental in the election of Democratic governors Robert Meyner, Richard Hughes, and Brendan Byrne. At his death Wilentz was survived by his wife, Lena, and three children. Busch, Francis X. The Trial of Bruno Hauptmann for the Murder of Charles Lindbergh, Jr., . Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, .

See also Lindbergh kidnapping case

Robert J. Martin

Wilentz, Goldman, and Spitzer. This law firm was founded in  by former New Jersey attorney general David T. Wilentz, who achieved international recognition as the successful prosecutor of Bruno Richard Hauptmann in the Lindbergh kidnapping case. A forceful leader in the legal profession and a master in the art of political negotiation, Wilentz held a long tenure as a trusted advisor to ordinary people and business leaders alike. The firm’s current staff and alumni include notable corporate executives and judges—for example, former chief justice Robert N. Wilentz of the New Jersey Supreme Court and former associate justice Alan Handler. In addition to its Woodbridge headquarters, the firm has branch offices in Eatontown, New York City, and Philadelphia and consists of  attorneys, including  partners.

Marc Handelman

Wilentz, Robert Nathan ; d. July , ).

(b. Feb. ,

Lawyer and chief justice. Robert N. Wilentz was the son of David T. Wilentz and Lena Goldman. He was born and grew up in Perth Amboy. He began college at Princeton, but left to serve in the navy, and graduated from Harvard in . That year he married Jacqueline Malino, with whom he had three children. Wilentz studied law at Columbia University, was admitted to the New Jersey bar in , and became a member of his father’s firm in Perth Amboy. Wilentz served on the Committee on Revision of the Law of Evidence (–), served two terms in the state assembly (– ), was a member of the New Jersey State Tax Policy Committee (–), and was

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one of the associate editors of the New Jersey Law Journal (–). In  Gov. Brendan T. Byrne appointed Wilentz to be chief justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court. During his initial seven-year term, the court furthered its reputation for judicial activism in several controversial decisions. The “Mount Laurel II’’ decision (), put teeth into the original Mount Laurel doctrine by devising the “builder’s remedy.’’ In Kelly v. Gwinnell (), the court held that a social host could be liable for the results of drunk driving by a guest. The homicide case of State v. Kelly () recognized the “battered woman’s syndrome’’ as relevant to the question of self-defense. In Abbott v. Burke (), the court continued its struggle with the legislature over school finance reform. As the administrative head of the judiciary system, Wilentz initiated many significant changes in the organization and procedures of the courts. Under his leadership the length of time that criminal cases took to come to trial was cut by more than half, the attorney disciplinary system was made stricter, and separate county courts for family cases and small claims were made parts of the superior court. Wilentz was outspoken in defense of judicial independence. In  he denounced the threat by state senator Gerald Cardinale to use “senatorial courtesy’’ to block the reappointment of Appellate Division Judge Sylvia Pressler. In , when his wife began to undergo chemotherapy for cancer, Wilentz began staying most nights in their New York City apartment to be near her. The issue of his state of residency was raised in opposition to his reappointment in , which was confirmed in the senate by the narrowest possible margin. Among significant decisions authored by Wilentz during the remainder of his tenure were In re Baby M (), invalidating a contract that would have ended a surrogate mother’s parental rights; Abbott v. Burke (“Abbott II,’’ ); and New Jersey Coalition against War in the Middle East v. J.M.B. Realty Co. (), requiring shopping centers to allow public issue leafleting. In  Wilentz refused Warner Bros. permission to use the Essex County Courthouse to film the riot scene of Bonfire of the Vanities, because he believed the site should not be used for the portrayal of blacks behaving lawlessly. The federal district court held that Wilentz had unconstitutionally suppressed speech, but that holding was vacated on appeal because of the county’s lack of standing to sue on the question. The filmmakers eventually used the Bronx County Courthouse, the actual setting in the book.

Paul Axel-Lute

Wiles, Andrew

(b. Apr. , ). Mathematician. Born in Cambridge, England, to a prominent academic family, Andrew Wiles

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came across a math problem at age ten that set him on his life course. He earned an undergraduate degree in math from Oxford University and a doctoral degree in math from Cambridge University. He joined the Princeton University faculty in  and established himself as a leading number theorist. In , working in secret and mostly in the attic of his Princeton home, he began trying to solve the problem that had first intrigued him as a child. Known as Fermat’s Last Theorem, the proof for a theorem Pierre de Fermat scribbled into a book margin in  was considered one of the most elusive in mathematics. Eight years later, he perfected the proof with the aid of Richard Taylor, a Harvard University mathematician. “It was like entering a dark mansion,’’ Wiles said in a speech at Princeton in . “You fumble around in a completely dark room for a couple of years. You bump into furniture looking for the light switch. When you find it, you move to the next room.’’ He is married to Nada Canaan Wiles. The couple has three children. Aczel, Amir D. Fermat’s Last Theorem: Unlocking the Secret of an Ancient Mathematical Problem. New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, . Singh, Simon. Fermat’s Enigma: The Epic Quest to Solve the World’s Greatest Mathematical Problem. New York: Walker, .

Kitta MacPherson

Will, John M. August

(b. ; d. Jan.

, ). Artist and teacher. August Will was

born in Weimar, Germany, and immigrated to the United States in . He settled in Jersey City and opened a drawing school in New York City, where he taught the Alexander Dupuis method of drawing. He also had a studio in New York and exhibited throughout his life, in addition to illustrating for Harper’s and other publications. Will painted and drew many local views of Jersey City and the surrounding area, noting changes in the urban environment. After his death, the Jersey City Museum purchased a large collection of his works. Sanford, Cynthia Holthusen, and Eileen Marie McMahon. August Will: Scenes of Old Jersey City. Jersey City: Jersey City Library Museum, .

See also art

Kenneth French

Willets Manufacturing Company. Willets Manufacturing Company of Trenton was founded by the Willet brothers, three china and glass merchants from New York City. In , they purchased the old Excelsior Pottery, which had been established by William Young and his sons, among the first industrial potters to settle in Trenton in the s. Shortly after Willets bought the Youngs’ pottery, the four existing kilns were expanded to thirteen large ware kilns, and several smaller decorating kilns were added by the early s. The pottery employed about three hundred workers at this time. Like Ott and Brewer, the Willets pottery made

William L. Hutcheson Memorial Forest. One of the few remaining primeval woods in the eastern United States, this forest has a rare history of undisturbed natural development spanning three centuries. In  a Dutchman, Mynheer Cornelius VanLiew, acquired the land and felled trees in much of the surrounding area, leaving a wide stretch of oaks and hickories standing. More than  years later, in , with the woods apparently destined for a sawmill, the Citizens Committee for the Preservation of Mettler’s Woods, together with the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, was responsible for saving the sixty-five-acre primeval woods and the surrounding two hundred acres of fields and younger woods. Since  Rutgers University has continued to protect this Franklin Township forest in its natural state as a research forest. It is one of the most studied forests in the world.

Edmund Stiles

Cupid jug designed by Walter Scott Lenox and modeled by William Bromley, Sr., for Willets Manufacturing Company, Trenton, . Belleek china, h.  in.

Courtesy Lenox Brands Archives, Lawrenceville.

common white tableware and sanitary wares, or wash sets, that were highly decorated with transfer prints, gold stamping, and some hand painting. In , the company sought to expand its product line when it hired Walter Scott Lenox away from Ott and Brewer and charged him with developing a finely made artware line similar to the one he had created for his former employer. This line, called Art Porcelaine, was introduced in . By , however, a general downturn in the economy gave the company pause to reconsider the support of an expensive artware studio within its larger factory operation. Willets ceased artware production and Lenox left the company to establish the Ceramic Art Company (Lenox China). Bankruptcy for the Willetts quickly followed, although they recovered from it within the year and reinstated the art line shortly thereafter. Prior to bankruptcy, this art line was highly decorated by staff artists, however, after bankruptcy the company produced and sold its ivory china “in the white’’ for decoration by independent artists. Willets Manufacturing Company survived until  when it went into receivership and was reorganized as the New Jersey Pottery Company. The latter firm continued to make “Willets Belleek’’ until at least . Frelinghuysen, Alice C. American Porcelain, – . New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, . Goldberg, David J. Potteries: The Story of Trenton’s Ceramic Industry. Rev. ed. Trenton: Trenton Museum Society, .

See also ceramic art; ceramics industry

Ellen Paul Denker

William Paterson University. Now part of the state higher education system, William Paterson University has gone through several major transitions: from a city to a state institution, from a narrowly focused teacher training college to a broader liberal arts one, and finally, from an undergraduate school to one that provides a wide range of graduate programs and has university status. The school started in  as Paterson City Normal School, an institution to train teachers by providing in-service courses to those already in the classroom. In  it began its transformation into a teachers college offering high school graduates first one, then two, and ultimately four years and a degree. In  it became a state-, rather than city-, supported institution and was renamed the New Jersey State Normal School at Paterson. The name was changed again in  to the New Jersey State Teacher’s College at Paterson. In  the state bought Alisa Farms, an estate that had been purchased by the family of Garrett Hobart in  (after his death in  while serving as vice-president under William McKinley). In  the college moved to Wayne and occupied the -acre property. It then expanded rapidly, in number of buildings, students, and courses, and in  was renamed Paterson State College. By  Paterson State had become a liberal arts college. To reflect this new status, the school was renamed William Paterson College of New Jersey, after the eighteenth-century state governor and U.S. Supreme Court justice. In  the school became William Paterson University of New Jersey. It serves ten thousand students in thirty undergraduate and eighteen graduate programs. The campus now covers  acres. What began as a small institution serving an urban and immigrant city has became a large university in a suburban setting.

Williams, William Carlos White, Kenneth B. Paterson State College: A History, –. Wayne: William Paterson College, .

See also higher education

Maxine N. Lurie

Williams, Frederick Ballard

(b.

Oct. , ; d. Dec. , ). Painter. Born in

Brooklyn, New York, Frederick Ballard Williams moved to Glen Ridge at the age of eight and remained in the area until his death. He married Marion Donovan and had two children. Williams studied art at the National Academy of Design. He specialized in two types of painting—pure landscapes and landscapes imaginatively inhabited by beautifully dressed women. Garrett’s Mountain, New Jersey, is a fine example of his pure landscape work, while A Glade by the Sea incorporates his romantic, imaginative side. Williams painted to “fit a space’’ and many of his paintings found their way into private residences where they completed the decor. Williams’s paintings currently hang in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the National Museum of American Art, and the Montclair Art Museum. Flockhart, Lolita L. W. Art and Artists in New Jersey. Somerville: C. P. Hoagland, . Zellman, Michael David, ed. American Art Analog. New York: Chelsea House, .

See also art

Robert Nelson

Williams, Madaleine Worthy

(b.

May , ; d. Dec. , ). Community activist

and politician. Madaleine Worthy Williams was born in Georgia, moving with her parents to Trenton in . There she taught for eight years in the only elementary school for black pupils, helping newly arrived southern children, whose habits and speech patterns were unfamiliar to northern teachers. After her marriage, she became youth division advisor of both the Oranges-Maplewood branch and the New Jersey State Conference of the NAACP, and an executive board member of the Oranges-Maplewood branch. She served in several capacities for the YWCA of the Oranges and Maplewood. One of the organizers of the East Orange League of Women Voters, in  she served as its vice president. In  Gov. Alfred Driscoll appointed her to the New Jersey Migrant Labor Board. Five years later, in , she became the first black woman elected to the state assembly, where she pursued her interests in child welfare, child labor, juvenile delinquency, and migrant labor legislation. One of two legislators appointed to represent New Jersey on the National Civil War Commission, Williams was refused accommodations at the Francis Marion Hotel in Charleston, South Carolina, where the commission’s Fourth National Assembly was to be held. The refusal attracted national attention, and was resolved only with

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a compromise suggested by President John F. Kennedy. Shortly after her election for a second term, she resigned and was elected Essex County Register of Deeds and Mortgages for two five-year terms, responsible for handling tax liens from the federal government and veterans’ discharges. Williams was honored by the OrangesMaplewood NAACP and cited by the National Council of Church Women in Cleveland, Ohio, for community Christian citizenship. In  she received the Shafer Award for outstanding work in civic and community affairs.

are highly stylized and use a minimum of different colors. The simplicity and decorative sense of Williams’s works has led to his being characterized as one of the best American folk painters. Considered in financial value, one of Williams’s works, a pastel of a young mother and child, circa , was sold at a  Sotheby’s auction for $,. Micah Williams’s works have been exhibited by the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the Abby A. Rockefeller Folk Art Center, Williamsburg, Virginia; the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City; and the Newark Museum.

Dannett, Sylvia. Profiles of Negro Womanhood. Yonkers, NY: Educational Heritage, .

Gerdts, William H. Art across America: Two Centuries of Regional Painting, –. New York: Abbeville, .

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Mildred Lockett Lipscombe

———. Painting and Sculpture in New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, .

See also art; illustration, color section

Stephen Maynard

Williams, Micah

(b. ; d. ).

Painter. Perhaps the most distinctive of New Jersey’s primitive painters, and known principally for his naive portraits in pastel on paper, Micah Williams worked for most of his career as a portrait artist in Monmouth County. Works attributed to him date from as early as  to as late as , with several likenesses of New Jersey residents postdating the War of . While his birthplace is unknown, newspapers of the era have referred to Williams as a native of Essex County. He worked for a few years (–) in New York City, and is known to have lived and painted in Freehold. Williams is buried in New Brunswick near the church where he was married in , and where his descendants live today. Williams was apparently well received by his peers. He is believed to have made his own pastel pigments, and often backed his portraits with layers of newspapers. His paintings

Jonathan Schanck, Micah Williams, c. –. Pastel on paper,  / ×  / in. framed

Courtesy Monmouth County Historical Association, Freehold. Gift of Mrs. J. Amory Haskell.

Williams, William Carlos , ; d. Mar. , ).

(b. Sept.

Poet and physician. Born in Rutherford, New Jersey, William Carlos Williams was the son of an Englishman who had spent most of his early life in the West Indies and a Puerto Rican woman who had studied art in Paris. After attending the local public schools, Williams studied in Geneva and Paris for two years, and then returned home and went to the private Horace Mann High School in New York City. But a year before high school graduation, Williams took and passed the entrance exam for the University of Pennsylvania Medical School, skipping college altogether. From the beginning, however, Williams’s greatest passion was for poetry. In Philadelphia, he gravitated toward kindred spirits like Hilda Doolittle (H.D.) and Ezra Pound. Pound and Williams remained friends for the rest of their lives, although there were several stretches during Pound’s later years of anti-Semitism and rabid anti-Americanism when they seemed more like lifelong enemies. Specializing in pediatrics (but a general practitioner for all practical purposes), Williams began his medical practice in  in Rutherford, gaining privileges that he maintained for the next forty years at Passaic General Hospital. He married Florence Herman in December  and they had two sons. Until he published a novel, White Mule, in , Williams’s books had mostly been either printed or subsidized by himself. By then, however, Williams had already put together several important modernist books: Spring and All (), The Great American Novel (), and In the American Grain (), among others, capped by an early Collected Poems in . After , most of Williams’s books were published by New Directions, including the five installments of Paterson (, , , , ), now universally acknowledged as one of the high-water marks of American poetry in the twentieth century. Robert Lowell in Sewanee Review (summer ) put it nicely when he said that Paterson

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made the rest of modern poetry look “a little secondhand.’’ Williams’s health began to decline in . His poor health, coupled with an insult from the Library of Congress (which first invited Williams to be its consultant in poetry and then withdrew the invitation in light of what it thought was procommunist affiliations), pushed Williams into a depression. Hospitalized for two months in , Williams began the fifth part of Paterson, working on the poem that would become “Of Asphodel, That Greeny Flower,’’ his love poem to Florence that, despite announcing his many infidelities, claimed a deep and abiding love for his wife of forty years. In the mid-s and early s, Williams won several poetry prizes and was elected to the American Academy of Poets, but his health continued to fail. He died quietly in his sleep in , at age eighty. Later that year, Williams was awarded the Pulitzer Prize and the Gold Medal in Poetry of the National Institute of Arts and Letters for his  book, Pictures from Bruegel. Broderick, James F. Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Mariani, Paul. William Carlos Williams: A New World Naked. New York: McGraw-Hill, . Whitaker, Thomas R. William Carlos Williams. Rev. ed. Boston: Twayne Publishers, .

See also poetry

Edward M. Cifelli

Williamson, Isaac Halsted , ; d. July , ).

(b. Sept.

Lawyer and governor. Isaac Halsted Williamson was born in Elizabethtown, the youngest son of Matthias and Susannah (Halsted) Williamson. After receiving a common school education, Williamson became an apprentice to his brother Matthias in his Essex County law practice. He quickly developed a reputation as an excellent lawyer. He married Anne Crossdale Juet in  and they had two sons, Benjamin and Isaac Halsted. Although initially a Federalist, Williamson successfully sought election to the General Assembly in  as a Democratic-Republican. His skill in legal affairs led to several appointments to legislative committees. Key among the legal issues he examined in the legislature were those dealing with indebtedness and the status of free blacks. Ironically, Williamson was a slave owner. In  the resignation of Gov. Mahlon Dickerson led the legislature to choose Williamson as his successor. As governor he actively championed canal construction and authorized a formal study of its benefits. That study supported the need for such an enterprise and, by , the legislature chartered the Delaware and Raritan Canal, which was completed four years later. The state constitution of  created a weak role for the governor in most areas of

authority. However, the governor also served as chancellor, thus providing unusual legal authority over the judicial system. For Williamson this dual role worked well. He was, above all else, a very astute lawyer. As a result, he focused most of his efforts on this role as chancellor. He drafted new procedures for debt collection, reordered court rules, and rendered several decisions that favored canal development. Among the most important of these was his refusal to grant an injunction to the Paterson-based Society for Useful Manufactures against the Morris Canal Company for its proposed use of Rockaway River waters for its operations. He ruled that since the water was not yet diverted for this use no damages could be claimed. Williamson supported John Quincy Adams in the elections of  and . A surge in Jacksonian support in the legislature led directly to Willamson’s defeat in  when he sought another one-year term as governor. By a vote of  to  Garret D. Wall, a Jacksonian candidate, defeated the National Republican Williamson. Despite defeating Williamson, Wall turned down the offer and the legislature chose Peter D. Vroom as the next governor. After leaving the governorship Williamson returned to private law practice. He was elected mayor of Elizabeth in  and served until . He also served as legal counsel to the Camden and Amboy Railroad and, in , argued against the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company’s claims that their charter permitted them to build a railway line along the canal. This was a switch from his earlier legal positions favoring canal development. In  he was a participant in the convention to design a new state constitution. He argued successfully for separation of the role of chancellor from that of governor and for a much stronger role for the chief executive. On July , , shortly after his resignation from the convention, he passed away in Elizabeth at the age of seventy-seven. Stellhorn, Paul A., and Michael J. Birkner, eds. The Governors of New Jersey, –: Biographical Essays. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

See also governor

Frank J. Esposito

Willingboro.

.-square-mile township in Burlington County. Willingboro was the ancestral home of the Lenape Indians, before the  settlement of the area by English Quakers from West New Jersey. Willingborough, named by founder Thomas Ollive after his home in England, was established as a constabulary in  and chartered as a township in . Reaching from Rancocas Creek to the Delaware River, the township was divided into “plantations’’ according to the number of shares purchased. It was also the home of the last royal governor of New Jersey, William Franklin (son of Benjamin Franklin), deposed during the American Revolution. In 

Willingboro was separated from what was to become Beverly City, Delanco Township, and Edgewater Park Township. Willingboro retained its agricultural focus, with the population staying between  and  persons, until the mid-s when builder William J. Levitt, having acquired most of the land in the township, began construction of a planned community, named Levittown after himself. By the end of the decade the population of the township had grown to ,. The name Willingboro was restored by referendum in . The reasonable cost of housing, combined with a welcoming attitude toward diversity created by community leaders, led to significant growth in the African American population. Carl Lewis, winner of nine Olympic gold medals, grew up in the township. With some light industry and retail, the township remains residential. The  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Gans, Herbert J. The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community. New York: Columbia University Press, . Suplee, Carol J. Cunningham Stories of Willingboro Township, New Jersey. Willingboro: Calkins Newspapers, . Woodward, E. M., and John Hageman. History of Burlington County. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Carol J. Suplee

Willowwood Arboretum.

Located in Chester Township, the -acre arboretum contains undisturbed forest, historic farmland, formal gardens, and informal paths. There are over , different species of native and exotic plants, with two formal gardens, the Cottage Garden and the Paris Garden, adjacent to the house. The house dates back to  when the property was a working farm. In  brothers Henry and Robert Tubbs purchased the property and began a collection of plants, adding approximately twenty thousand conifers to the site. It became a private arboretum in , and the Morris County Parks Department assumed control in . Zatz, Arline. New Jersey’s Great Gardens: A Four-Season Guide to  Public Gardens, Parks, and Arboretums. Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, .

See also gardens, public

Ellen Hostetter

Wilson, Alexander

(b. July , ; d.

Aug. , ). Ornithologist. Born in Paisley,

Scotland, Alexander Wilson, at age thirteen, was apprenticed to a weaver. He found the work tedious and soon quit to work as a peddler of cloth throughout eastern Scotland. His experiences helped him develop as a writer of humorous dialect poems, one of which sold , copies and was praised by Robert Burns. Siding with weavers in a labor dispute, Wilson wrote scathing satires on a

Wilson, Woodrow Paisley industrialist for which he was convicted of libel. Unable to pay his fine, and harassed with a series of jailings, he fled his homeland for America as a deck passenger. There, his interests in bird study and drawing were encouraged by the naturalist William Bartram. Wilson taught school in Bloomfield, worked as a cloth merchant in northern New Jersey, and traveled widely in the state observing and painting birds. His careful documentation, the first serious effort to depict the birds of America, became a ninevolume work, the classic American Ornithology, published in –. The work illustrated  species, including descriptions of  new species. Wilson made frequent trips to New Jersey’s southern shore, which was in the path of the Atlantic flyway. He often stayed at a tavern facing the sea where the Tuckahoe River flows into Barnegat Bay. Cantwell, Robert. Alexander Wilson, Naturalist and Pioneer. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, . Hunter, Clark, ed. The Life and Letters of Alexander Wilson. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, .

See also birds

William Gordon

Wilson, Edmund, Jr.

(b. May , ;

d. June , ).

Writer and literary critic. Edmund Wilson was born in Red Bank, New Jersey. Though both of his parents, Edmund Sr. and Helen Mather Kimball, were born in New Jersey, their families had deep roots in New York, and Wilson always considered himself a New Yorker. His father was an attorney who became attorney general of New Jersey, and his mother was a descendant of Cotton Mather. Wilson was educated at the Shrewsbury Academy in New Jersey and attended Princeton University, graduating in . After graduation, he moved to New York, and never lived in New Jersey again but made brief visits. Following service in World War I, he began work as a literary journalist, often in straitened circumstances, but he soon became one of America’s most distinguished literary figures. His best work includes literary criticism—Axel’s Castle: A Study of the Imaginative Literature of – (), The Wound and the Bow (), and Patriotic Gore ()—history—To the Finland Station ()— and fiction—Memoirs of Hecate County (). He also produced poetry, drama, and many other works. His life, including literary friendships and rivalries, four marriages (and three children), and numerous affairs, is chronicled, with startling and almost clinical candor, in the five volumes, posthumously published, of his notebooks and diaries—The Twenties, The Thirties, The Forties, The Fifties, and The Sixties. Castronovo, David. Edmund Wilson Revisited. New York: Twayne Publishers, . Meyers, Jeffrey. Edmund Wilson: A Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, .

Wilson, Rosalind Baker. Near the Magician: A Memoir of My Father, Edmund Wilson. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, .

See also literature

Kevin P. Mulcahy

Wilson, Woodrow (b. Dec. , ; d. Feb. , ). College president, governor, and president of the United States. Although widely known for his New Jersey connections (professor and president, Princeton University, governor, and longtime summer resident) Woodrow Wilson, in fact, was born and raised in the South—living and growing up in Virginia, Georgia, and South Carolina. Indeed, he often proclaimed his love for that region, and consistently reflected its mores and prejudices. “The only place in the world,’’he noted, “where nothing has to be explained to me is the South.’’ Moreover, as with many in his time he believed African Americans were inferior, and that immigration of non-British populations had diminished and degraded the quality of American democracy. After graduating from Princeton, Wilson went on to attend law school at the University of Virginia. For two years (–) he undertook an unsuccessful, unsatisfying, and ultimately brief career as a lawyer. In  he enrolled in the graduate program at Johns Hopkins University, and two years later published his doctoral dissertation as Congressional Government. (Wilson remains the first and only president of the United States with an earned Ph.D.)

Woodrow Wilson dressed for graduation ceremonies while president of Princeton University.

Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, University Archives, Princeton University Library.

877

Armed with his new degree, happily married and with an adoring family, Wilson taught history, jurisprudence, and American politics at the college level for the next seventeen years. Along the way, he published five books, as well as a multivolume History of the American People. While reasonably popular in its day, Wilson’s scholarly output was “often shallow or derivative.’’ It reflected the outlook typical of a white, Gilded Age conservative. A lifelong Democrat, nevertheless, Wilson denounced three-time presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan as “the most charming and lovable of men personally, but foolish and dangerous in his theoretical beliefs.’’ The “fine quality’’ of President William McKinley, on the other hand, “was evident to all who approached him: his sense of duty, his devotion to the principles of right action.’’ Wilson took up his final professorial post at his old alma mater, Princeton University, in . Although somewhat cold and reserved in manner, in the classroom and before large audiences he could be inspiring. He was always more successful at persuading groups of people, rather than individuals. Emphasis on the past, he maintained, especially the work of English-speaking societies, might contribute toward a revitalization of college education as a moral force. His writings attracted national attention, and a number of college presidencies had been offered Wilson by . In  Princeton followed suit. Wilson accepted immediately. Indeed, his travel to the White House may be said to have started with his move into the Princeton president’s mansion. Wilson transformed Princeton University and laid the foundation for its future greatness. He proposed new courses and reshaped the modern curriculum—focusing on general education followed by a narrower field of concentration. Drawing upon his experience at Johns Hopkins, he introduced the tutorial system, bringing in younger scholars to serve as “companions, coaches, and guides’’ for the students; a practice so successful that it was soon copied by both Harvard and Yale. Wilson inspired professors and trustees alike with his energy, vision, and imaginative innovations. But he also demonstrated, especially after , defects in leadership that would later be repeated at the national level. Between  and , Wilson faltered as Princeton’s president. He demonstrated a tendency to turn differences over issues into bitter personal quarrels, exacerbated by a proud if not arrogant demeanor. Moreover, although he had long studied politics, the professorturned-president found it very difficult to compromise, to work with the “opposition’’ toward a common goal. By  his leadership at Princeton had become so contentious that the trustees could only have breathed a collective sigh of relief when Wilson resigned to accept the New Jersey Democratic gubernatorial nomination. Along with the rest of the

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state, they, too, would learn that Wilson’s personal convictions were never as fixed as his political ambitions. Wilson was offered the nomination by conservative, urban “boss’’ elements that controlled the New Jersey Democratic party, who perceived Wilson as one who had become a national figure, but whose views remained compatible with those of the status quo. They were disconcerted, and with good cause, when Wilson accepted the nomination proclaiming “I did not seek this nomination . . . and shall enter office with absolutely no pledges of any kind to prevent me from serving the people.’’ Elected with the hearty support of reform elements in both the Democratic and Republican parties, Wilson repudiated those who had orchestrated his nomination, and from  to  presided over the most progressive political reforms thus far experienced in New Jersey’s history. To be sure, Wilson’s somewhat sudden adoption of progressive causes was opportunistic, but once committed to these goals, the sincerity with which he pursued them was beyond debate. Using his new language of idealism and reform, while accepting old tactics of patronage, in  Wilson’s administration had won legislative approval for a reform of the state’s election practices, a corrupt practices act, expanded authority of the state Public Service Commission to set rates, a workmen’s compensation law, and finally, local options for use of the referendum, initiative, and recall as well as a commission form of local government. His incredible success nurtured Wilson’s already well established desire for the presidency. Indeed, by  his extended quest for national office forced him to abandon his hands-on leadership style that had been so effective during his first year as governor. Wilson’s election to the presidency resulted not only from his own talents but from the split in the Republican party, torn between the incumbent William Howard Taft and his predecessor, Theodore Roosevelt. In  a defeated and somewhat disillusioned Wilson had resigned the presidency of Princeton. Two years later he would be elected president of the United States. And, as had been the case both in Princeton and Trenton, in the first part of his term Wilson demonstrated effective and inspiring leadership. But echoing once again his earlier disappointments as university president and governor, so during his last year as president he could not sustain his effectiveness as spokesman for the nation. As the country emerged from World War I, his presidency foundered, and in the end Wilson’s lifelong tendency to confuse “belief with truth,’’ joined with his talent for “substituting words for facts,’’ resulted not in presidential triumph but in heartrending personal tragedy. Blum, John Morton. Woodrow Wilson and the Politics of Morality. Boston: Little, Brown, .

Cooper, John Milton, Jr. The Warrior and the Priest: Woodrow Wilson and Theodore Roosevelt. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, . Garraty, John A. Woodrow Wilson: a Great Life in Brief. New York: Knopf, . Link, Arthur S. Wilson: The Road to the White House. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . ———. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era. New York: Harper and Row, . Wilson, Woodrow. The Papers of Woodrow Wilson. Ed. Arthur S. Link et al., multiple volumes. Princeton: Princeton University Press, –.

See also governor; Progressive Era

Jonathan Lurie

Winberry v. Salisbury. This landmark  New Jersey Supreme Court decision resolved a conflict in the  state constitution between the legislature’s power to pass laws concerning procedure in the courts and the supreme court’s power to make rules of “practice and procedure’’ for the courts. This is a matter of separation or distribution of powers within state government. A state statute provided a lengthy period during which parties could decide whether to appeal an adverse court decision. A directly conflicting rule of the supreme court, adopted under the new authority contained in the  constitution, provided for a much shorter period. The supreme court resolved this direct conflict in favor of its own rule-making authority, invalidating the statute. To reach this result, the court virtually had to ignore the article , section , paragraph  limitation on its rule-making power, expressed as “subject to the law.’’ The judgment established the state supreme court as the final authority on matters of judicial procedure, and as the final arbiter of conflicts that arise in this area between the legislature and the court. This decision has formed the basis of a number of later decisions displacing state statutes that purport to regulate judicial procedure. Pollock, Stewart G. “Foreword: Celebrating Fifty Years of Judicial Reform Under the  New Jersey Constitution.’’ Rutgers Law Journal  (): –.

See also government; law

Robert F. Williams

wineries.

New Jersey wines began winning awards over two hundred years ago when New Jerseyans first cultivated vineyards for the British Empire in the mid-s. In , London’s Royal Society of Arts recognized two New Jersey vintners for their success in producing the first bottles of quality wine in the New World, made from the native American varieties of grapes that were found growing wild throughout the thirteen colonies. These grapes produced a less refined wine, often called “foxy’’ today. The earliest attempts to introduce European vines to this continent met with failure, Thomas Jefferson being one of the most notable farmers to experiment. Today, due to modern science and advanced winemaking techniques, wine is produced from

European as well as native American grapes, and crosses of the two called French Hybrids. Renault Winery is the oldest in New Jersey and one of the nation’s oldest continuously operating wineries. It was established in  and was able to survive Prohibition by producing sacramental and medicinal wines. Renault Wine Tonic was sold in almost every pharmacy in the country and was fortified with  percent alcohol. During Prohibition, laws were put on the books that restricted the number of wineries in New Jersey to  per  million inhabitants. This law limited the number to  until the Farm Winery Act was passed in . This piece of legislation, which was championed by members of the wine industry, marked the beginning of the renaissance of grape growing and wine making in New Jersey. The number of wineries now has grown to nineteen with another half a dozen in the planning stages. New Jersey wineries are located in two distinctly different climatic areas. The viticultural areas in the southern part of the state date back to the s when a thriving wine and grape juice industry was concentrated in Vineland. These vineyards are characterized by a maritime climate with flat or low hills and sandy soils. The northern viticultural regions have developed over the past two decades. This area is typified by hilly terrain and hillside vineyards with limestone or shaley soils. Both areas rely on the climate-moderating influences of local waters such as the Delaware River and the Atlantic Ocean. Today, wineries in the state produce approximately , gallons of wine every year. New Jersey ranks among the top fifteen wine-producing states in the nation. Due to the use of American, French Hybrid, and vinifera grapes as well as numerous fruits, New Jersey produces over forty different varieties of wines ranging from dry to semi-dry table wines to sparkling, fruit, and dessert wines. In recent years, the desire to produce superior wine from vinifera grapes has led to vineyards being identified and established on sites that have the potential to produce the finest grapes New Jersey has ever seen. Located in the southernmost part of the state, these sites experience extremely mild winter temperatures and have the longest growing season. These characteristics will result in the vineyards’ ability to grow and ripen varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and other varieties that flourish in California. Once these vineyards are in production, the last essential ingredient to the wine-growing renaissance in New Jersey will be in place. De Vito, Carlo. East Coast Wineries: A Complete Guide from Maine to Virginia. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Summerskill, Mimi LaFollette. Daughter of the Vine: A Remembrance. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also agriculture

Gary C. Pavlis

Wistarburgh Glassworks

Winfield.

.-square-mile township and wartime housing development in Union County. Originally known as the Winfield Park Defense Housing Project, the development was constructed for Kearny Shipyard workers and their families. In  the New Jersey state legislature was petitioned to set aside the development as a separate township, taking land from Linden and Clark. Over the governor’s veto, the township was incorporated on August , . The development was named for the Winfield Scott Hotel, where shipyard union officials and the government negotiated the project. The first fifty families moved into unfinished homes on November , . The poor condition of the homes led to a Senate inquiry to establish responsibility for the inept planning, construction, and supervision of the -home project. The contractor was indicted for fraud, and repairs were eventually made. The Winfield Mutual Housing Corporation leased the property from the Federal Housing Authority in , and purchased it for $. million in . Through this unusual ownership arrangement, residents do not own their homes, but rather, own a stake in the corporation. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

879

Blue Anchor, Ancora, Williamstown Junction, New Freedom, Tansboro, Cedar Brook, and Braddock. The name Winslow was taken from the most important settlement in the area, a thriving glassmaking village founded by William Coffin, Sr., and continued by Andrew K. Hay. The glass business developed as a result of abundant natural resources in the area: timber, potter’s clay, and sand. The glass industry was abandoned in , and Winslow was deserted, but later had a renaissance because of its proximity to the railroad. Sawmills and taverns also thrived. In  an ambitious project was proposed to clear , acres of timber and lay out  model tenacre farms in order to create a community center and farm colony for returning World War I veterans; the project never came to fruition. Winslow’s peak growth period was the s. Today, although three major arteries cross the township, it still contains many rural stretches. The year  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . Prowell, George R. The History of Camden County, New Jersey. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards, .

Wine bottle made for Richard Wistar, Wistarburgh Glassworks, near Alloway, c. –. Transparent light green glass, applied seal impressed “R.W.,’’ h. c.  in.

Courtesy Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, NY. Gift of Miss Elizabeth Wistar, 86.4.196.

Gail Greenberg “Truman Committee Exposes Housing Mess; Winfield Park Defense Housing Project at Linden, N.J.’’ Life, Nov. , . “Two Scandals: Winfield Park and Tonawanda Projects.’’ Time, Nov. , .

Stacy E. Spies

Winser, Beatrice (b. Mar. , ; d. Sept. , ). Librarian and museum curator. Born in Newark, Beatrice Winser was the daughter of Henry and Edith (Cox) Winser. She was privately tutored and attended Columbia Library School. Hired by Newark Public Library in , she worked collaboratively with the founder, John Cotton Dana, and at his death in  was appointed director, serving until . She also directed the Newark Museum from  until . Appointed to the Newark Board of Education in , she was the first woman in Newark to serve on a governing board. Active in professional groups and widely respected, Winser died in Newark. ANB. Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Patricia A. Beaber

Wisconsin Terminal Moraine. Within the past .–. million years, New Jersey has been glaciated several times. The last glacial advance (called the Wisconsin or Wisconsinan) started melting back from its maximum extent about eighteen thousand years ago. A terminal moraine contains the deposits of sand, clay, and boulders that were left behind as the glacier receded. The terminal moraine in New Jersey goes in a curved line from Perth Amboy through the areas near Edison, Morristown, Dover, and Hackettstown and crosses the Delaware River near Belvidere in Warren County. Most of the land north of this moraine is covered with glacial deposits, and contains almost all of the natural lakes in the state. Schuberth, Christopher J. The Geology of New York City and Environs. Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, . Strahler Alan H., and Arthur N. Strahler. Physical Geography. New York: Wiley, . Widmer, Kemble. The Geology and Geography of New Jersey. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, . Wolfe, Peter E. The Geology and Landscapes of New Jersey. New York: Crane Russak, .

See also glaciation

Robert M. Hordon

Winslow.

-square-mile township in lower Camden County, the largest municipality in the county. Boundaries have changed since Winslow’s separation from Gloucester Township and its incorporation on March , , but it continues to be made up of a collection of villages, including Sicklerville,

Wistar, Caspar , ).

(b. Feb. , ; d. Mar.

Glassmaker. Caspar Wistar immigrated to Philadelphia from Germany in . He learned the trade of brass button making and started his own business. Wistar married Catharine Jansen, a Quaker, in  and went

on to become an important merchant, amassing a sizable fortune from land speculation and several businesses. In  he started the Wistarburgh Glassworks in Salem County, New Jersey, the first successful glasshouse in the colonies. The location was probably chosen to take advantage of raw materials in the form of New Jersey sand and wood for the furnace. Palmer, Arlene. The Wistarburgh Glassworks: The Beginning of Jersey Glassmaking. Alloway: Alloway Bicentennial Committee, . ———. The Wistars and Their Glass, –. Millville: Museum of American Glass, Wheaton Village, .

See also glassmaking

Jane Shadel Spillman

Wistarburgh Glassworks. This business, the first successful glasshouse in the American colonies, operated from  until about  on Alloways Creek, about eight miles from Salem. It was established by Caspar Wistar, a German emigrant who had no prior glassmaking experience but was a successful merchant. Wistar bought over two thousand acres of wooded land in  and hired four German glassblowers to come to America to run the business. These men—William Wentzel, Simeon Griesmayer, Caspar Halter, and Hans Martin Halter—signed a contract with Wistar promising to teach him and his son the art of glassmaking. The wood on the property provided fuel for the furnace and the location on a navigable creek enabled the transport of raw materials in and finished

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products out. The most important raw material was probably South Jersey sand. The factory operated successfully for almost forty years, producing bottles and window glass for most of that time. Unfortunately, there are only a few surviving pieces that can be reliably attributed to the glasshouse, although thousands of bottles were made while the factory was in operation. Window glass was also made in quantity and sold at the factory and in Wistar’s Philadelphia and New York stores. Windowpanes and bottles were among the commodities most needed by the colonists and the glasshouse could manufacture them and sell them more cheaply than the imported wares. An advertisement from  mentions window glass, lamp glasses, “most sorts of bottles,’’ scientific glassware, and “electerizing globes and tubes.’’ The latter were used by Benjamin Franklin in his experiments with electricity. Some tableware was probably also made, especially after the Townsend Acts limited the importation of English glass in the late s. Sugar bowls, tankards, and cream pitchers in greenish bottle glass were probably made at the glasshouse and a few pieces of refined colorless glass and pale blue glass were made there as well. Richard Wistar, Caspar’s son, inherited the business in  when his father died, and he ran it successfully until about , when the economic problems prompted by the American Revolution caused it to close. Wistar advertised it for sale in , describing the property as containing fifteen hundred acres with two furnaces, and buildings for making melting pots, cutting glass into windowpanes and other tasks associated with glass manufacture. There were also ten houses for workers, a store, and a “large Mansion-house.’’ In the s, at least twenty-eight workers were employed in the glasshouse and as woodcutters on the property. Probably only about a dozen of them were glassblowers and their assistants. The others would have been stonemasons to keep the furnaces in good repair, stokers for the fires, pot makers, and men or women to examine and pack the finished glass as well as at least one clerk to keep the records. It is probable that one of the German master blowers was the all-important craftsman who knew the glass recipes. There is no evidence that the Wistars ever learned either glassblowing or other trade secrets, but they did successfully manage the glasshouse for nearly forty years. Palmer, Arlene. The Wistarburgh Glassworks: The Beginning of Jersey Glassmaking. Alloway: Alloway Bicentennial Committee, . ———. The Wistars and Their Glass, –. Millville: Museum of American Glass, Wheaton Village, .

See also glassmaking

Jane Shadel Spillman

witchcraft.

The belief in witchcraft was not an isolated occurrence in Salem, Massachusetts, in the s. There has been a

continuous tradition of folk belief in witchcraft in both Europe and America from the Middle Ages to the present. New Jersey has its own examples. As early as , the General Assembly of East Jersey passed a law that established the death penalty for any person, male or female, found to be a witch. In a lawsuit before the New Jersey Supreme Court in , Abigail Sharp charged Abraham Shotwell of falsely accusing her of being “an old witch,’’ whom he saw “flying all night.’’ Furthermore, she stated that he falsely accused her of being on the top of his house in the shape of a cat and bewitching his horse, which eventually died. These kinds of accusations follow motifs common to the behavior of witches. The most famous example of witchcraft in New Jersey appeared in an article in the Pennsylvania Gazette of , describing an alleged trial by ordeal that took place in Mount Holly, Burlington County. The defendants were a man and a woman accused of making their neighbors’ sheep dance and causing hogs to speak and sing psalms. To determine the truth, two tests were devised: both the accused and their accusers were to be weighed against the Bible, and then all were to be bound and thrown into the river to see if they would sink. The tests proved inconclusive. Some scholars think that this article may have been a hoax fostered by Benjamin Franklin, who was the publisher of the newspaper at the time. Documented cases of New Jerseyans’ belief in witchcraft continue into the nineteenth century. In a lecture delivered in the Camden Lyceum in the winter of –, a speaker described some of the charms used in Cumberland County to counteract witchcraft. Among them was a heart-shaped piece of dried beef with two needles stuck in it in the form of a cross, to be worn around the neck. In  John Bell, a blacksmith from Park Ridge in Bergen County, reported that, “owing to the diabolic influence of witches’’ in his home, knives and forks jumped up and danced on the table; hairpins, an almanac, and an iron flew about the room; and an empty pair of trousers was seen “walking down the stairway behind its owner.’’ Similar testimony was given two centuries earlier at the Salem witchcraft trials. The belief in witchcraft continued into the twentieth century. In the early s folklorist Herbert Halpert collected a cycle of stories in the New Jersey Pine Barrens about a witch named Peggy Clevenger, who owned a hotel named the Half-Way Place near Red Oak Grove. According to the stories, Clevenger was able to transform herself into an animal and to cause and cure illnesses. Halpert also collected stories about Jerry Munyhun, the socalled Wizard of Hanover Furnace, who was believed to have sold his soul to the Devil. In the late s folklorist David Cohen collected similar stories in the Ramapo Mountains about alleged witches named Black Mag and Handsome Abbey. One informant told Cohen

that one night his cousin injured a white cat that crossed his path, and the next morning a suspected male witch named Jake De Groat could not get out of bed because of an injury. Belief in witchcraft is also common among certain ethnic groups in New Jersey. Among Hispanics, for example, witchcraft takes the form of santer´ıa. In this folk religion, Catholic saints are associated with African deities; for example, the Yoruban god of fire and war, Chango, is associated with Saint John the Baptist. There is also belief in possession by evil spirits and illnesses caused by witchcraft. Traditional healers known as santeros have the power to cure these illnesses, usually by prescribing charms, amulets, and herbs available at stores known as botanicas. Cohen, David Steven. The Folklore and Folklife of New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, . ———. The Ramapo Mountain People. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

See also folklore

David S. Cohen

Witherspoon, John

(b. Feb. , ;

d. Nov. , ).

Clergyman, educator, and politician. John Witherspoon was the son of the Rev. James Witherspoon, minister of Yester Parish, East Lothian, east of Edinburgh, Scotland, and Anne (Walker) Witherspoon. He was educated at home and at Haddington Grammar School, after which he earned his masters of arts () and divinity () from the University of Edinburgh. The Haddington Presbytery licensed him to preach on September , , and in January of  Beith Parish in Ayrshire elected him minister. He married Elizabeth Montgomery on September , ; their union produced ten children. On June , , he became pastor of the Laigh Kirk in Paisley, west of Glasgow.

The Rev. John Witherspoon.

Courtesy Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, New Brunswick.

woman suffrage In addition to his effective parish ministry, Witherspoon’s notable career in the Scottish Kirk was marked by his theological writings and his leadership of the strictly orthodox Calvinist Evangelical, or Popular, party in church politics. He published numerous sermons and doctrinal works. He became a leading spokesman for his party in the Church of Scotland, especially after his Ecclesiastical Characteristics, a powerful satire on his enlightened, liberal clerical opponents in the Moderate party, appeared in . He was a fierce debater at all levels of Kirk government and held many leadership positions. The University of Saint Andrews awarded him the honorary degree of doctor of divinity on June , . His growing reputation led to ministerial calls at home and abroad, all of which he declined. He also declined the presidency of the College of New Jersey in , but he accepted its second offer and was inaugurated on August , . Witherspoon’s strong leadership quickly pushed the college to the forefront of higher education in Revolutionary America. He recruited students throughout the colonies, raised money, and publicized its reputation for learning. But, most importantly, he reformed its curriculum along the lines of his Edinburgh education. He lectured on divinity, eloquence, history, and, most significantly, on moral philosophy, in which he synthesized his traditional Calvinism with the new, eighteenth-century currents of Scottish morality and commonsense philosophy. The moral and political ideas of Witherspoon’s moral philosophy lectures, especially his strong advocacy of civil and religious liberty, provided the intellectual foundation for his support of American independence. He delivered several sermons and wrote a number of political pamphlets justifying the Patriot cause. He served as a member of the Somerset County Committee of Correspondence in , the provincial congress of New Jersey in , and, most significantly, as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress from  to , where he signed the Declaration of Independence and served on over a hundred committees. After the War of Independence, he was a member of the New Jersey State Assembly in  and  and a delegate to the state convention that ratified the Constitution of . Lastly, he was instrumental in organizing the Presbyterian Church of America and presiding at its first General Assembly in . John Witherspoon’s contributions to education as well as to church and state in his adopted country made him one of New Jersey’s and the nation’s greatest men in the second half of the eighteenth century. Collins, Varnum Lansing. President Witherspoon: A Biography.  vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Fechner, Roger J. “The Godly and Virtuous Republic of John Witherspoon.’’ In Ideas in America’s Cul-

tures: From Republic to Mass Society, ed. Hamilton Cravens. Ames: Iowa State University Press, .

See also American Revolution; Presbyterians; Princeton University

Roger J. Fechner

Witkowski, Karl

(b. Aug. , ; d. May

, ).

Painter. Born in Jasiowiec in the province of Galacia, Austria (later Poland), Karl Witkowski showed significant artistic talent at an early age. His parents, however, did little to encourage him. He persevered, nevertheless, and managed to put himself through the art academy of Czortkow. Thereafter he was drafted into the Austrian army and made a name for himself sketching his commanding officers. One portrait led to another until he finally painted Prince Wittemberg of Austria and General Salomon von Friedberg, lieutenant field marshal of the Austrian army. Encouraged by the success of his military portraits, he later attended the school of art in Munich, Germany, where he studied under Karl von Piloty. He found his way to New York in , and in  he moved to Newark, then Irvington, and spent the remainder of his life there. Witkowski continually added to his reputation as a fine portraitist. He painted the elite in Newark, and his skills as a portraitist to the wealthy were always in demand. But ironically it was his paintings of newsboys and street urchins in the same city that brought him lasting recognition. His paintings of children are remarkable for their odd combination of sentimentalism and realism. Witkowski died a victim of blood poisoning and was survived only by his wife. Many of his paintings are currently owned by the Newark Museum. Falk, Peter Hastings, ed. Who Was Who in American Art. Madison, CT: Soundview Press, .

See also art

Robert Nelson

Wittpenn, Alexander

Caroline

Stevens

(b. Nov. , ; d. Dec. , ).

Penal reformer, social worker, philanthropist, and public administrator. While still a young woman, Caroline Wittpenn was involved with her mother in social service for women in Hoboken and New York. As a result, the Industrial School for Manual Training and the Memorial Day Nursery in Hoboken were lifelong interests. Wittpenn became active in public life in , and by contributing financially and administratively to nearly a hundred social service organizations and many state institutions, she helped better the lives of New Jersey orphans, poor people, the disabled, and prisoners. She served as manager of the New Jersey State Institution for Feeble-Minded Girls and Women in Vineland in ; manager of the New Jersey State Village for Epileptics in ; and president of the New Jersey State Board of Children’s Guardians in .

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Wittpenn is best known for her work in penal reform. She was appointed by Gov. Franklin Murphy in  to a commission to study the creation of a separate prison for women. When the Clinton Farms Reformatory for Women opened in , she became the first president of its board of managers. Wittpenn was an accomplished public servant at both the state and national levels. In  she was appointed the U.S. representative to the International Congress of Family Education in Brussels, Belgium. She was consulted by Woodrow Wilson, the state’s governor, on welfare problems and, when Wilson became president of the United States, served as New Jersey’s first national Democratic committeewoman. In  she was appointed by President Herbert Hoover as U.S. representative to the International Prison Commission in Switzerland. Wittpenn received an honorary doctor of laws degree at the first commencement of the New Jersey College for Women (now Douglass College) and served as a trustee of Stevens Institute of Technology for several years. In her later years she lived in Bernardsville; Congresswoman Millicent Fenwick was her great-niece. James, Edward T., ed. Notable American Women, –: A Biographical Dictionary. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Anna D. Kane

Wittpenn, Henry Otto

(b. Oct. , ;

d. July , ). Politician. The son of John J.

and Rebecca C. (Wede) Wittpenn, H. Otto Wittpenn married Caroline Stevens Alexander. Elected mayor of Jersey City in  and in , Wittpenn developed a progressive image that cost him the  gubernatorial nomination, which went to seemingly conservative Woodrow Wilson. After Wilson moved on to the U.S. presidency in , Wittpenn received the gubernatorial nomination but lost heavily to Republican Walter Edge, partly because of opposition from organization Democrats. His supporters lost in the  Jersey City municipal elections as well, effectively ending Wittpenn’s political career. Connors, Richard J. A Cycle of Power: The Career of Jersey City Mayor Frank Hague. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, . Noble, Ransom E., Jr. New Jersey Progressivism before Wilson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

Benjamin R. Beede

woman suffrage. New Jersey has the distinction of being the only one of the thirteen original states whose constitution permitted women to vote. Ironically, it was one of the last to guarantee women full suffrage, and then only through ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment. According to the New Jersey constitution of , adult residents

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Women’s Fund of New Jersey

worth fifty pounds were entitled to vote. Women of property are known to have voted in several elections in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In , however, the state legislature passed a law requiring that voters be “free, white, male’’citizens of the state, thus explicitly disfranchising slaves, free blacks, and women. This wording was written into the new state constitution of . Beginning in the late s, New Jerseyans petitioned the legislature to reform laws that limited women’s rights. In  Monmouth County residents, led by Harriet Price LaFetra, a Quaker from Shrewsbury, submitted a petition with the radical demand for woman suffrage. Later that year, Lucy Stone, the nationally known women’s rights advocate and a resident of Orange, protested paying taxes on her home because she was unrepresented. After the Civil War, New Jersey suffragists, led by Lucy Stone, argued for universal suffrage as a matter of justice. In  Stone spoke before the legislature, calling for a constitutional amendment enfranchising African American men and all women. When it became apparent that the New Jersey legislature was not receptive and that the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution would enfranchise only black men, social radicals from around the state met in Vineland to found the New Jersey Woman Suffrage Association (NJWSA). The NJWSA kept the issue before the legislature for the next several years. In  Vineland women, protesting their disfranchisement, attempted to vote at local elections. It was futile. The legislature and the general public ridiculed the suffragists and their cause. Unsuccessful in arguing for the vote as a matter of justice, suffragists pursued other tactics. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, they argued that women’s special interests in family welfare and the education of children entitled them to vote on local government and school matters. Many native-born, middle-class women resented the fact that immigrant men could vote when they could not. They wanted local suffrage to preserve traditional Protestant values in school and municipal matters, and to control the sale of alcohol. For these same reasons, immigrant groups, urban politicians, and the alcohol interests opposed the enfranchisement of women. When the New Jersey legislature finally bowed to pressure in , it passed an extremely limited act allowing women—from rural areas and small towns—to vote at school meetings. Even such fragmentary suffrage was declared unconstitutional in . This setback prompted the NJWSA to renew its demands for full woman suffrage, but the legislature was unresponsive. A modest amendment to reinstate rural and small-town school suffrage passed two successive legislatures only to be roundly defeated in an  referendum by urban male voters who saw any form of women suffrage as a threat.

For the next ten years, the NJWSA was led by women aligned with the growing women’s club movement, such as Mary Dudley Hussey and Emma Lawrence Blackwell of East Orange, Minola Graham Sexton of Orange, and Florence Howe Hall of Plainfield. Local suffrage groups worked to change public opinion on suffrage, and to achieve such progressive reforms as the appointment of women to municipal boards, the appointment of women physicians in state hospitals, the building of a state reformatory for women, and improving women’s and children’s working conditions. Though New Jersey seemed immovable on the suffrage issue, successful suffrage referenda in several western states, as well as the militancy of the British suffrage movement, encouraged New Jersey suffragists. In  Mina G. Van Winkle of Newark organized the Equality League of Self-Supporting Women of New Jersey (renamed the Women’s Political Union in ) to draw working women into the cause. Early in , members of the prominent Stevens family of Hoboken organized the Equal Franchise Society of New Jersey, attracting wealthy, reformminded women to its ranks. At the same time, the Men’s League for Woman Suffrage, led by William Lawrence Saunders, a mayor of Plainfield, pulled Progressive Party and progressive Democratic politicians into the movement. The NJWSA, under the leadership of Germanborn president, Clara Schlee Laddey of Arlington, reached out to trade unionists, socialists, the Grange, and the Women’s Christian Temperance Union in its petition drives. In an uncharacteristically flamboyant gesture, the NJWSA sponsored New Jersey’s first suffrage parade in Newark in October . These collaborating suffrage organizations, led by Lillian Feickert of Plainfield, another president of the NJWSA, won approval of a full suffrage amendment by two successive legislatures. The special public referendum, held on October , , was bitterly contested. Opponents of the referendum— including such inner-city political bosses as James R. Nugent, Democratic boss of Newark, the brewing industry, and women opposed to women’s direct involvement in politics— triumphed. The measure was defeated in every county except Ocean. Later that fall, state referenda were also defeated in New York, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. After the  defeats, many New Jersey suffragists focused their energies on the federal amendment, working with the National American Woman Suffrage Association and the more radical National Woman’s Party, led by a New Jerseyan, Alice Paul. In  New Jersey women were among those who picketed the White House to pressure President Woodrow Wilson to support the federal amendment. Among the picketers arrested and jailed was socially prominent Alison Turnbull Hopkins of Morristown, president of the New Jersey Woman’s Party. Other suffragists worked to get

pro-suffrage men elected to Congress and to the New Jersey legislature. The New Jersey woman suffrage movement mounted its final push after the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution passed the Senate in June . After intensive lobbying in Trenton by suffragists, the New Jersey State Senate ratified the Nineteenth Amendment on February , , making New Jersey the twenty-ninth of the required thirty-sixth ratifying states. New Jersey women gained full suffrage rights on August , , along with previously disfranchised women throughout the United States. Gertzog, Irwin N. “Female Suffrage in New Jersey, –.’’ Women and Politics  (): –. Klinghoffer, Judith Apter, and Lois Elkis. “‘The Petticoat Electors’: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, –.’’ Journal of the Early Republic  (summer ): –.

See also feminism

Delight Wing Dodyk

Women’s Fund of New Jersey. The Women’s Fund of New Jersey is an organization headquartered in Union. In , Myra Terry, then president of the National Organization for Women (NOW) and Melanie Griffin, former executive director of the Commission on Sex Discrimination in the Statutes, visited Women’s Way in Philadelphia to discuss the possibility of starting a similar women’s federation in New Jersey. In , in response to cutbacks in funding for issues affecting women, the fifteen founding member organizations came together to distribute money raised through workplace payroll deduction. The fund has since grown to eighteen member organizations dedicated to issues such as breast cancer, violence against women, reproductive rights, and sexual assault.

Emily Grant

Women’s Political Caucus of New Jersey. The Women’s Political Caucus of New Jersey was founded in  as an affiliate of the National Women’s Political Caucus. This multipartisan organization is dedicated to the election and appointment of women to every level of government. It recruits and trains women candidates and their campaign organizations, and it provides training on the process of being appointed to governmental boards and commissions. The caucus advocates on issues that support women and families. It endorses women candidates who support reproductive freedom, the Equal Rights Amendment, and other issues that affect the lives of women and families, and it gives financial support to women candidates through its political action committee. Some of the women it has backed are former governor Christine Todd Whitman and State Senator Diane B. Allen. The caucus also endorses men running for election who support its goals.

Marie C. Flynn

Woodcliff Lake

Woodbine.

.-square-mile borough in Cape May County. The Baron de Hirsch Fund was established in , to aid settlement of displaced Eastern European Jewry. That same year the fund purchased , acres of scrubland in Woodbine, Dennis Township, Cape May County. The Borough of Woodbine was incorporated in . Immigrants were offered acreage, low-interest mortgages, and training in farming techniques. Local officials were elected from Woodbine’s all-Jewish, Yiddishspeaking population. The Woodbine Brotherhood Synagogue and cemetery were built in ; final religious services were held in . The Woodbine Agricultural School, the first secondary agricultural school in the United States, opened in October . It was administered by agricultural scientist Dr. Hirsch Sabsovich, the catalyst of the school’s advanced science program. Classes included general farming, English, and machine shop. Graduates of this program included Dr. Jacob G. Lipman, dean of Rutgers Agricultural School, –, and Dr. Jacob Pincus, who developed the birth control pill. Local pioneer aviator Henry de Cinque established the Woodbine Airport and flying school. The fund subsidized industrial development to provide economic growth. Problems led to the demise of this effort, until the fund completely withdrew support of Woodbine in December . Over time the town’s population became ethnically diverse. In  the community of , residents claimed a population mix of  percent white,  percent black, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median

household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Joseph, Samuel. History of the Baron de Hirsch Fund: The Americanization of the Jewish Immigrant. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, . Sabsovich, Katharine. Adventures in Idealism: A Personal Record of the Life of Professor Sabsovich. New York: Katharine Sabsovich, .

Woodbridge.

-square-mile township in Middlesex County. Woodbridge is thought to be named for the Rev. John Woodbridge of Newbury, Massachusetts, the town from which the Puritan settlers who chartered the community in  came. It is today the state’s fifth-largest municipality and consists of Iselin, Colonia, Avenel, Keasbey, Sewaren, Hopelawn, Fords, Port Reading, Menlo Park, and Woodbridge proper. The first influx of residents came after World War II, when many returning servicemen were able to acquire GI mortgage loans and buy a single-family home. In the s, as land in the northern part of the state became increasingly expensive, Woodbridge’s population more than doubled. Commuters and corporations viewed the township as a prime location between New York and Newark to the north and Trenton and Philadelphia to the south. Sometimes referred to as the “Crossroads of New Jersey,’’ the township is known for Metropark Station, a major commuter railway hub, and as the site where several prominent highways cross, including the New Jersey Turnpike, the Garden State Parkway, and Routes , , , , and . Other focal points are Woodbridge Center, built by the Rouse Company in  as one of the state’s first indoor shopping malls, and the Arthur Kill, a tributary that allows oil tankers and other ships to sail between Newark Bay to Raritan Bay. The community supports three high schools, thirty-three churches and synagogues, and nine fire stations. The  population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The household median income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Bill Glovin

Woodbury.

Courtesy American Jewish Historical Society, New York and Newton Centre, MA.

through the turn of the twentieth century. In , the city was mostly residential, and undertook the revitalization of its Broad Street shopping district. Woodbury’s  population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures see chart, .

Joan Breslow

Wolk, Ruth. The History of Woodbridge. Woodbridge: Woodbridge Publishing Company, .

David and Dora Breslow, two of the original settlers of Woodbine, immigrated from Gorodok, Vitebsk, White Russia (Belarus), .

883

.-square-mile city and county seat of Gloucester County. Woodbury was first settled by Europeans in . By , it had developed into a center of activities for Quakers. The city’s proximity to Philadelphia and the Delaware River made it a focus of activity during the American Revolution; at different points during the war, Woodbury was occupied by both British and American forces. Woodbury was incorporated in . The city’s period of greatest economic and population growth began in , when a thriving patent and pharmaceutical manufacturing industry developed. Rapid growth continued

Carter, Benjamin F. History of Woodbury, New Jersey, from  to . Woodbury: J. D. Carpenter, .

Britta M. Ipri

Woodbury Heights.

.-square-mile borough in Gloucester County. Six Philadelphia and Camden real estate developers in  purchased  acres in Deptford Township and named the town Woodbury Heights. In a newspaper ad for prospective homeowners, the businessman described its high ground (“ feet above tide-water’’), its location (thirty minutes from Philadelphia by train), and its proximity to existing electric and gas plants. The auction held to sell the land attracted nearly  buyers. The developers mapped out streets, built homes, and finished a community hall in . In  it was officially incorporated as a borough. Today, it is still largely residential, with few businesses. Its high ground (from Route  motorists can see Philadelphia), location near trains and highways, and intimate size attract homeowners as these attributes did in . In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Mickle, Isaac. Reminiscences of Old Gloucester. Philadelphia: T. Ward, . Stewart, Frank H., ed. Notes On Old Gloucester County, New Jersey. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

Woodcliff Lake.

.-square-mile borough in Bergen County. Named for its location on a lake in the woods under a cliff, Woodcliff Lake is part of an area generally known as the Pascack Valley. Originally the Lenape Indians settled this fertile area. When the Dutch arrived, they traded with the Lenape for beaver pelts. As the beaver trade diminished, the settlers transformed the rolling hills beyond the Palisades into a productive agrarian society. In , Woodcliff Lake and many other settlements separated from Washington Township. At that time the borough was incorporated under the name of Woodcliff. The word “Lake’’ was appended in , to match the name of the post office. Today, Woodcliff Lake thrives as a fully developed residential community. Businesses in the borough include the Ingersoll Rand World headquarters, the BMW North American headquarters, a Hilton hotel, the Perillo Tours corporate headquarters, and Sony. There are two large recreational areas in the borough—Wood Dale Park, a fifty-five-acre county park, and the Old Mill Complex—both

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Woodhull, Alfred Alexander

located on the east side of town. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Linda J. Barth

Woodhull, Alfred Alexander

(b.

Apr. , ; d. Oct. , ). U.S. Army surgeon

and military hygienist. Alexander Woodhull was born in Princeton to Alfred Alexander and Anna Maria (Salomons) Woodhull. An ancestor, John Witherspoon of Princeton, was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Woodhull received his B.A. (), M.A. (), and honorary LL.D. () from the College of New Jersey (Princeton University), and his M.D. () from the University of Pennsylvania. On December , , Woodhull married Margaret Ellicott of Baltimore; they had no children. In September , Woodhull was commissioned a medical officer in the regular army, and served with distinction in the Civil, Spanish-American, and Philippine Wars. On April , , while stationed in Washington, D.C., Woodhull attended Secretary of State William H. Seward after he was stabbed by one of John Wilkes Booth’s coconspirators. Several years later Woodhull played another historic role by bringing John Shaw Billings, army surgeon and medical bibliographer, and the Johns Hopkins Hospital Building Committee together. Billings’s design was accepted in . When the hospital opened in May , it provided the practical clinical experience that previous generations of American physicians had to travel overseas to get. Although Woodhull published on the nonemetic uses of ipecac, yellow fever, cholera, military clothing, Hospital Corps training, and the Battle of Princeton, his most important contribution to military medicine

was as a hygienist. From  to  Woodhull taught military hygiene to company-grade officers at the U.S. Infantry and Cavalry School, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. His textbook, Notes on Military Hygiene for Officers of the Line, based on his lectures, went through four editions (, , , ), and was the principal reference work for the military hygiene course at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York, from  to . Woodhull published many articles on military hygiene, winning the Gold Medal () and Seaman Prize () of the Military Service Institution. He argued that sanitation was essential for maintaining military effectiveness, and that it was the line officer’s duty to safeguard the health of his troops. Disease prevention was the key. Woodhull’s views were vindicated when the Spanish-American War exposed the culpability of line officers in the  typhoid fever epidemic, and awakened the army to the need for educational reform. “The object . . . of teaching military hygiene to cadets,’’ Woodhull wrote, “is to supply them with one more qualification for command, with one more agency of success.’’ In  military hygiene became an integral part of military science. After leaving the service, Woodhull returned to Princeton where, from  to , he lectured on hygiene and sanitation at his alma mater. He published a manual for the course titled Personal Hygiene: Designed for Undergraduates (). He died in Princeton. Cirillo, Vincent J. “Fever and Reform: The Typhoid Epidemic in the Spanish-American War.’’ Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences  (): –. Schullian, Dorothy M. “Alfred Alexander Woodhull, John Shaw Billings, and the Johns Hopkins Hospital,  June .’’ Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences  (): –.

Vincent J. Cirillo

Woodland.

Maj. Alfred A. Woodhull, c. .

Courtesy National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.

.-square-mile township in southeastern Burlington County, bordered by Ocean County on the east. Woodland was formed in  from parts of Pemberton, Shamong, Southampton, and Washington townships. A portion of its land seceded in , to become part of the newly formed Tabernacle Township. The majority of Woodland lies within the Pine Barrens, and much of its acreage is part of the Brendan T. Byrne State Forest. Its central commercial and farming village, the tiny hamlet of Chatsworth, has long been locally called the “capital of the Pines.’’ From Woodland’s beginning, the local economy has been based on the cultivation of blueberries and cranberries. But in the late s an Italian nobleman, Prince Mario Ruspoli de Poggio-Suassa, acquired substantial holdings in Woodland through marriage. He erected the Chatsworth Club, a resort that attracted the wealthy from Philadelphia, New York City, and Washington, D.C. to Chatsworth’s lakes, into the early twentieth century. A one-time

carriage house that still stands in Chatsworth is now the target of preservation efforts. Today Chatsworth is a clutch of homes and small businesses near huge freshwater lakes that feed the bogs of A. R. DeMarco and Sons, the town’s largest berry producer. Ocean Spray operates a cranberry transfer station just outside Chatsworth. Development is limited by state and federal Pine Barrens protection guidelines. The  population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of Its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Woodlynne. .-square-mile borough in Camden County. Once part of the area known as Newton Colony, originally settled by Quakers in , Woodlynne separated from Haddon Township in . The borough was the site of Mark Newbie’s bank, the first bank to issue money in America, using Irish pence that Newbie brought from England. It was also the site of Woodlynne Park from  to , an amusement center that featured a carousel and shooting gallery, boating, open-air movie and dance pavilions, and picnic grounds. It drew thousands daily from Philadelphia and surrounding towns. The Woodlynne Log Cabin, built by the Works Progress Administration during the s, is listed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places and continues to be a meeting place for scouts and other local civic groups. Today the densely populated community has five times the county’s average population per square mile. Taxes on its aging single-family and row homes provide the major source of income for the residential community. There is no industrial or commercial tax base. The year  population of , was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Dorwart, Jeffery. Camden County, New Jersey: The Making of a Metropolitan Community, –. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, .

Gail Greenberg

Wood-Ridge. .-square-mile borough in Bergen County. In  Capt. John Berry received from the East Jersey proprietors land extending from the Hackensack River to the Passaic and Saddle rivers; he called it New Barbados. In  George Brinkerhoff purchased a parcel in present-day Wood-Ridge, becoming the first settler in the area. Lodi Township was carved from New Barbados in , and the borough of Wood-Ridge was

Woolman, John incorporated in . Its first mayor, Anton Molinari, established a business (the forerunner of Becton-Dickinson) to manufacture surgical instruments. In  the Hackensack and New York Railway came to town, bringing more industry and encouraging residential development with its easy commute to New York City. Anticipating a real estate boom with the opening of the George Washington Bridge, in  Charles Reis turned  acres into Sunshine City, a development of  massproduced homes. Among the early businesses was the Carlstadt Bottling Works, named for another town but located in Wood-Ridge before . In  Wright Aeronautical Corporation, a division of Curtiss-Wright, began making , aircraft engines for the war effort. Although CurtissWright has left the borough, its facility is now leased by other firms. Today Wood-Ridge, with its varied architecture, is a community of single-family homes with easy access to New York City by bus and rail. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, .

Linda J. Barth

Woodruff, Marietta Huntoon Crane (b. May ; d. Nov. , ). Homeopathic physician. Marietta Crane was born in Pine Brook (Montville Township), the daughter of Judge Benjamin Crane and Barbara (Parlaman) Bowlsby. In  she married Christopher Denman Woodruff. She began her studies at age thirty-four after the birth of her third child. A graduate of New York Medical College for Women, Woodruff specialized in obstetrics. She advocated natural childbirth and used homeopathy in treating her patients, avoiding the use of drugs, preferring nontoxic medicines intended to stimulate the body’s immune system. For many years she served the residents of Boonton. Her patients included many immigrants from Italy and Eastern Europe. Woman’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

David Mitros

Woodruff House and Eaton Store Museum. In  John Woodruff was granted a small portion of property on which his heirs built the Woodruff House in . The original structure, with additions made in  and , now houses eighteenthand nineteenth-century artifacts. In  the Eaton Store was built to sell goods from the Woodruff Farm. Located in Hillside, the museum was acquired by the Hillside Historical Society in . Today, the store museum is a

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re-creation of the old general store with original containers, shelving, and goods on display. It is listed on the State and National Registers of Historical Places. See also museums

A Pictorial Souvenir of Woodstown, New Jersey. Woodstown: Pilesgrove-Woodstown Historical Society, .

Rachel Hatzipetros

, ). Religious leader and abolitionist. John

Woodson, S. Howard, Jr.

(b. May ,

; d. July , ). Clergyman, civil rights leader, and politician. Born in Philadelphia, S. Howard Woodson earned a divinity degree from Morehouse College in Atlanta in  and became pastor of one of Trenton’s largest black churches, Shiloh Baptist, in . Woodson used his pulpit to advocate civil rights, pushing for the first statewide conference on fair housing and for more governmental hiring of minorities. He was chosen president of the State Conference of the NAACP in . Woodson’s election to the Trenton City Council in  made him the first black elected official in city history; two years later, he was elected as a Democrat to the first of six terms in the state assembly. In  and , he served as assembly Speaker, the first African American to lead the lower house of a state legislature. In  he was appointed president of the state Civil Service Commission (now Personnel Department). He ran unsuccessfully for mayor of Trenton in . Woodson’s church promoted interfaith events for racial harmony in the turbulent s, and Woodson personally walked the streets trying to restore calm during a devastating Trenton race riot in . He retired as pastor in , months before his death. See also civil rights

Patricia W. Blakely

Woolman, John

(b. Oct. , ; d. Oct.

Woolman was a descendant of one of the earliest families to settle the colony of West Jersey. He was born in Northampton, Burlington County, the child of Samuel and Elizabeth Woolman, Quaker farmers. He was educated in Quaker schools and supported himself as a shopkeeper, tailor, schoolteacher, surveyor, and executor of wills. His most important vocation, however, was that of a Quaker minister. Woolman began speaking on behalf of the Society of Friends as early as  and two years later was recorded as an official minister of the society. Woolman’s Journal, which he began writing in , reveals the intensity with which he lived his Quaker faith. His pursuit of an inner spiritual life translated into a concern for social justice and a fierce opposition to the French and Indian War. Woolman traveled thousands of miles, many of them on foot, throughout the British Empire on behalf of the Friends. He spoke with slaveholders about the evils of slavery, encouraged Quakers not to pay war taxes, and visited Delaware Indians to promote peace. Woolman embodied the Quaker experience in colonial America. He wrote dozens of books and pamphlets on Quaker-related themes and was one of America’s earliest and most prolific crusaders against the institution of African slavery.

Jon Blackwell

Woodstown.

.-square-mile borough in Salem County. Originally, there were two settlements—Pilesgrove, home of Jachinias Wood, after whom Woodstown was named, and Mill Brook, home of Jeremiah Wood, father of Jachinias. Jeremiah Wood had a tannery at Mill Brook. This pond area attracted a miller and other tradesmen to serve the local farmers who came to the mill to have their wheat and corn ground. This millpond is now known as Memorial Lake. Later Woodstown was home to a cabinetmaker and a locally famous clockmaker, George Hollinshead. The two settlements combined to become Woodstown borough in . The borough continues to be a business center, meeting the needs of the surrounding agricultural areas. Many large Victorian and Federal-style homes line Main Street. Woodstown has the tradition of having candles in the windows of many of its homes at Christmas time, when it has a Candlelight Walking Tour. In  the population of , was  percent white and  percent black. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, .

Title page of Considerations on Keeping Negroes by John Woolman, .

Courtesy Rare Books Division, The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations.

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Woolwich

Cady, Edwin H. John Woolman: The Mind of the Quaker Saint. New York: Washington Square Press, . Moulton, Phillips P., ed. The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman. New York: Oxford University Press, . Whitney, Janet. John Woolman: American Quaker. Boston: Little, Brown, .

See also abolition

John Fea

Woolwich.

.-square-mile township in Gloucester County. Swedes settled the area during the seventeenth century, followed by other Europeans, all attracted by the farmland near the Delaware River. In  the area was removed from Greenwich Township and, with a royal charter, named Woolwich, after a town on the Thames made famous by a naval academy. Woolwich incorporated as a township in . Its location on the Delaware River was advantageous to farmers and sawmill owners, who used the waterway for delivery of goods before railroads were built. From  to , Logan Township, Harrison Township, and Swedesboro split off from Woolwich and became independent. Today, Woolwich remains rural, with some farms. A majority of the dwellings are singlefamily homes. In , the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . “A Historic Weekend in Gloucester County.’’ Eagle Scout Service Project by William S. Entrekin, . Gloucester County Historical Society Library. Stewart, Frank H., ed. Notes on Old Gloucester County, New Jersey. Camden: Sinnickson Chew and Sons, .

Valeri Drach Weidmann

WOR. Pioneer radio station WOR signed on the air February , , from a tiny studio on the sixth floor of Louis Bamberger’s department store at  Market Street in Newark. While radio was still a minor electronic curiosity, its promise of free in-home entertainment was intriguing, and Bamberger had ordered a shipment of units to sell. WOR, the call letters he accepted when he found WLB had already been assigned, was conceived as a promotional device to familiarize customers with the concept of voices and music magically appearing out of thin air. Within a year, WOR was so successful that Bamberger almost shut it down, fearing it would hurt sales of his other entertainment products. He was persuaded radio had a future outside promotion, however, so he kept it alive and commissioned a Manhattan studio. By  WOR was developing the prototype talk-and-information morning program under John B. Gambling, whose son and grandson would continue the dynasty on WOR for seventy-five years. In  WOR cofounded Mutual Broadcasting, whose newscasts and entertainment programs like The Shadow were influential far beyond their modest budgets. WOR maintained dual studios in Newark and Manhattan until

February , , when the Newark facility was closed. See also radio

David Hinckley

Works Progress Administration. The administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt established the Works Progress Administration (WPA) by Executive Order Number , dated May , , under the authority of the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of , approved April , . In  the Federal Works Agency incorporated the WPA and renamed it the Works Project Administration. The WPA was originally intended to provide employment for needy workers on small projects and to coordinate the “Works Program,’’ which supervised the efforts of forty federal agencies to create emergency public employment. In practice, the WPA was a cooperative federal, state, and local enterprise. State and local entities determined eligibility for employment and proposed projects for funding. The WPA officially terminated its activities on June , . From  until early , WPA projects never employed fewer than  million people nationwide. During late  and early , the agency employed in excess of  million people a month. It reached its peak in November  with ,,. About . million individuals worked on WPA projects during the life of the program. From  to , three-quarters of all WPA employment was for construction projects. Total WPA expenditures were $,,,. Of this total, . percent paid for highway, road, and street construction. Ten percent went to buildings, and another  percent was invested in water and sewer systems. WPA projects constructed , miles of roads, , bridges and viaducts, and , public buildings. In New Jersey, the WPA supervised a high of , employees in September . From late  to early  it employed no fewer than , persons annually. New Jersey ranked among the top ten states in numbers of WPA jobs. From  to , the WPA expended $,, in New Jersey; only seven states received more. The highest expenditures, $,,, occurred in . In New Jersey, the preponderance of WPA funds went to the construction of highways (. percent), buildings (. percent), recreational facilities (. percent), and water and sewer systems (. percent). The WPA constructed , miles of roads in the Garden State,  bridges and viaducts,  schools, and , new buildings or additions. It funded  new or improved parks,  new or improved playgrounds and athletic fields,  swimming pools, , school improvement projects, and , renovations of existing public buildings. The WPA was not just bricks and mortar, however. Its Federal Theater Project gave jobs to actors, directors, and backstage craftspeople, who put on plays, shows, circuses, and

other events. The Federal Writers’ Project produced about a thousand publications, including The WPA Guide to s New Jersey, a volume in the American Guide Series. The Federal Art Project gave work to unemployed artists. This agency revived mural painting, inspired by the great Mexican muralists of the time, especially Diego Rivera. The WPA was also involved in adult education, nursery schools, library services, social and economic surveys, research projects, public records administration, and many other services. Leuchtenburg, William E. Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, –. New York: Harper and Row, .

See also Great Depression; illustration, color section

Mark Wasserman

World Trade Center attack.

On September , , followers of Islamic fundamentalist Osama Bin Laden took control of four transcontinental jetliners, two of which they flew into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in lower Manhattan. The impact and resulting fires ultimately leveled the towers and other buildings in the plaza while causing major structural damage to a number of others. A third plane caused widespread damage on the fourth, fifth, and sixth corridors of the Pentagon in northern Virginia, the impact tearing a gaping hole in one side of the building. The combative resistance of passengers on the fourth plane, which departed from Newark International Airport, led to the crashing of the plane into a field in western Pennsylvania before it could be used as a weapon. Six hundred seventy-nine New Jerseyans perished in the attacks. Many New Jersey municipalities suffered multiple casualties. Among the heroes of that day was Todd Beamer of Plainsboro, who died aboard the fourth plane. Talking to an operator from an on-board telephone, he was heard to say, “Are you guys ready ? Let’s roll,’’ before he and fellow passengers charged the hijackers. The event and its aftermath shocked the economy of the entire New York–New Jersey region. The consequences—social, political, and economic—continue to challenge the state’s citizens and officials.

Howard Green

World War I.

When war broke out in Europe in the summer of , sympathies in America divided along ethnic lines. New Jersey’s German Americans, reluctant to fight former compatriots, were joined by many Irish Americans, who expressed their opposition to everything British by siding with Germany and Austria-Hungary. The allegiance of Americans of English and Scots descent would prevail when the United States entered the war on the side of the United Kingdom and its allies, France and Russia, on August , . During the war, German Americans in New Jersey suffered considerable hostility. The teaching of

World War II

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Company H, th Infantry, American Expeditionary Force, Camp Dix, January .

Courtesy National Archives and Records Administration.

the German language was banned in schools, German publications were prohibited in many places, and, in Hunterdon County, German Valley was renamed Long Valley. The early years of the war presented economic opportunities for American businesses and particularly for New Jersey’s chemical industries. To fill British orders in , Hercules Powder produced , pounds of cordite per day at the company’s Kenvil plant, and it acquired another plant in Gillespie. Du Pont’s munitions plant at Carney’s Point had expanded to sixty-seven times its prewar capacity by , employing , workers, and Du Pont also opened a supplementary plant at Deepwater Point. By , with the added production of other companies, New Jersey was the largest supplier of munitions in America. Before the war,  percent of the dyes used in the United States were imported, and during  Germany continued to exchange dyes and pharmaceuticals for American textiles. The termination of German exports in  by a British blockade was met with the Emergency Dye Tariff Act of , which encouraged Du Pont to acquire indigo dye technology and build a dye works at Deepwater. By the s, Du Pont would become the most important dye manufacturer in America. In other areas, New Jersey pharmaceutical companies began to pursue research; before the war, this work was done in Germany. New Jersey’s shipyards increased their output in the war effort. The New York Shipbuilding Corporation, located at Camden, received orders for thirty destroyers between July  and December , , as well as orders for major components for transport ships under construction elsewhere. This corporation added the Destroyer Yard and the Middle Yard to accommodate wartime production at Camden. Suspicions and harassment of German Americans increased, especially after captured documents indicating plans for German sabotage were published in a New York City newspaper in August . On July , , railroad cars packed with ammunition blew up at the Black Tom depot in Jersey City, rocking New York Harbor, killing seven people, and spewing shrapnel that tore holes in the Statue of Liberty. The blast caused $ million damage in New Jersey and lower Manhattan. An equally devastating blast struck Morgan on

October , , when a munitions storage facility exploded. Both incidents were blamed on residents and citizens of foreign birth. In  pharmaceutical supplier George Merck, who had become a U.S. citizen in , severed ties with his family in Germany and forfeited German-owned Merck stock to the Alien Property Custodian of the United States. The U.S. government allowed Merck to purchase the stock in , maintaining Merck and Company of Rahway as a publicly owned U.S. company. Congress passed the Selective Service Act of  on May . New Jersey would contribute , conscripts and , volunteers. Counting those already in the service, an estimated , New Jerseyans served by the war’s end in November . Women made up the deficit in the workforce, often in fields previously closed to them. When the New Jersey ferry stations of the Lackawanna Railroad first employed women in the ticket booths, the New York Times reported the surprising news. More than one hundred thousand American women found work with the railways, and an equal number were employed by munitions plants. The federal government created or enhanced thirty-eight military installations in New Jersey, including Camp Dix, the training facility near Wrightstown that later became Fort Dix. Camp Dix opened on July , , and the Seventy-eighth “Lightning’’ Division was activated there on August , . With men from New Jersey, New York, and Delaware, the Seventy-eighth sometimes trained with picks and shovels in preparation for trench warfare. They arrived in France in June  to join the final offensive against German forces. About twenty-one thousand women served in the Army and Navy Nurse Corps, which had been established in the first decade of the s. New Jersey was the training site for the approximately three hundred women who served in the Army Signal Corps as bilingual (French-English) long-distance operators. These women were sworn into the U.S. Army and left New Jersey in March and June  to serve behind the lines in France, providing communications between troops in the trenches and their commanders. American forces made their most noteworthy contributions in the field at the Battle

of Saint Mihiel, September –, , and during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, from September  until the Armistice on November , . The Congressional Medal of Honor was awarded to Capt. L. Wardlaw Miles of Princeton; Sgt. John Cridland Latham of Rutherford; Sgt. Alan Louis Eggers and Corp. Thomas E. O’Shea, both of Summit; Pvt. Frank J. Bart of Newark; Sgt. William Sawelson of Harrison; Sgt. Ladiovous Van Iersal of Glen Rock; and Boatswain’s Mate Second Class John Otto Siegel. The poet Alfred Joyce Kilmer of New Brunswick may be America’s most famous World War I enlistee. Kilmer attained the rank of sergeant and was killed at the Battle of Ourcq on July , . World War I was known as the Great War and was memorialized as “the war to end all wars.’’ Gutzon Borglum, who sculpted Mount Rushmore, created the massive bronze statue Wars of America for Newark’s Military Park in . Wars of America symbolizes all wars from the Revolution to World War I and depicts civilians as well as soldiers. Lender, Mark Edward. One State in Arms: A Short Military History of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

Pamela Cooper

World War II.

Until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December , , New Jersey residents remained sharply divided over America’s entrance into the war. Jewish communities across the state viewed the growing strength of Nazi Germany with alarm and organized some of the first protests against the Nazi regime in the s. The pro-Nazi Bund drew a small but significant following among German Americans in the state, and this organization maintained three camps in New Jersey. In the late s, frequent clashes took place between the Bund and Jewish war veterans and other anti-Nazi groups. The outbreak of the war in Europe in September  led to a sharp rise in defense contracts that served to end the Great Depression in New Jersey. After the fall of France in , President Franklin D. Roosevelt mobilized units of the New Jersey National Guard. His call for aid to Great Britain (and later the Soviet Union) provoked considerable debate in the state, which mirrored sentiments in the rest of the nation. The isolationist

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Wortendyke New World Dutch Barn

America First Committee attracted a significant following in New Jersey, but a number of interventionist groups emerged to support FDR’s policies. After Pearl Harbor, federal and state governments took a series of measures to protect coastal communities and essential military and industrial facilities in New Jersey. Local governments organized civil defense efforts that included thousands of volunteer air raid wardens and frequent blackout drills in the early years of the war. Although German planes never crossed the Atlantic, scores of American merchant ships fell victim to German submarines along the Jersey coast, especially in . Many Shore communities, heavily dependent upon tourism, resisted efforts to dim their lights in the evening until pressured by federal authorities. New Jersey contributed , men and women to the armed forces, and fourteen residents earned the Congressional Medal of Honor. The most prominent, Sgt. John Basilone of Raritan, “The Hero of Guadalcanal,’’ was featured in several major defense bond drives before his request to be reassigned to a combat unit was granted. He was killed during the battle for Iwo Jima. Close to ten thousand women served in the Woman’s Army Corps (WAC), the Women’s Reserve of the U.S. Naval Reserve (WAVES), and other auxiliary branches established during the war. Commander Joy Bright Hancock of Wildwood, the highest-ranking WAVES officer assigned to the U.S. Navy’s Bureau of Aeronautics, played an instrumental role in expanding the occupational specialties open to naval servicewomen.

Wartime needs led to the expansion of existing military and naval bases in New Jersey, including such major facilities as Fort Monmouth, the Naval Air Station in Lakewood, and Picatinny Arsenal in Morris County. More than  million servicemen went through basic training at Fort Dix, and  million servicemen passed through Camp Kilmer in Piscataway on their way to overseas service. A number of civilian facilities were taken over by the military for the duration. Hotels in Atlantic City and Asbury Park served as barracks and rest centers for servicemen. Newark Airport came under the jurisdiction of the Overseas Air Technical Command and sent thirteen million tons of cargo overseas, as well as forty thousand aircraft and  million gallons of aviation fuel. New Jersey also guarded German and Italian prisoners of war. Service units were assigned to Belle Meade Depot, Camp Kilmer, Fort Dix, Fort Monmouth, Port Johnson Terminal, and Raritan Arsenal. New Jersey’s industry grew exponentially to meet Allied and then American war needs. In  New Jersey industry employed , workers; by , the workforce had grown to nearly a million to fill over $ billion worth of contracts. A large number of women entered the workforce to replace men who were in the armed services. Among notable contributors to the nation’s war production was New York Shipbuilding in Camden, which built more than a hundred naval vessels. Curtiss Wright in Paterson became one of the nation’s important producers of aircraft engines. New Jersey institutions of higher learning were also mobilized for the war effort. Princeton and Rutgers received a number of

federally sponsored contracts for research and development projects with wartime applications. Both institutions, along with a number of smaller ones in the state, participated in officer training programs for the military. Demographically, the war encouraged the migration of African Americans to New Jersey’s urban centers in search of jobs. It also intensified the struggle by state civil rights organizations to end segregation in New Jersey schools and to protest continued employment discrimination. In  New Jersey became the second state in the nation to pass legislation barring discrimination in employment. Beginning in , Japanese Americans released from federal internment camps in the West began to settle and work at Seabrook Farms in Cumberland County. Politically, the war did little to diminish the struggles between Mayor Frank Hague of Jersey City and reform Democrats and Republicans to amend the state constitution to strengthen the power of the state government. Neither Democratic governor Charles Edison nor his Republican successor, Walter E. Edge, succeeded in gaining the necessary public support to amend the constitution. Yet wartime conditions granted the governor extraordinary executive powers that provided important precedents for the postwar period. In  Republican governor Alfred Driscoll secured the passage of the new constitution, which strengthened the power of the executive branch and also mandated the integration of the public schools and state militia. With the war’s end on August , , New Jersey experienced dislocations as a result of conversion and demobilization. Demands on the state’s unemployment insurance fund soared as civilian workers lost their jobs to layoffs or to veterans returning to reclaim their old positions. A feared postwar depression did not materialize, but labor proved restive, and there were a number of strikes in . The passage of the GI Bill of Rights by Congress in  brought an influx of veterans to New Jersey’s colleges and universities between  and . The explosion of enrollments at Rutgers and the need for increased funding for facilities and faculty prompted the state to designate Rutgers formally as “The State University’’ in . The home loan provisions of the GI Bill proved an enormous impetus for the growth of suburban communities throughout the state. Edge, Walter Evans. A Jerseyman’s Journal: Fifty Years of American Business and Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Lender, Mark Edward. One State in Arms: A Short Military History of New Jersey. Trenton: New Jersey Historical Commission, .

G. Kurt Piehler

During the Second World War, people began to grow “Victory Gardens’’ to supplement the shortages brought on by the war.

Courtesy John T. Cunningham Collection.

Wortendyke New World Dutch Barn. Wortendyke Barn, along with the red sandstone farmhouse across the street, is all that remains of the Wortendyke Farm,

Wright, Joseph which originally covered more than  acres in northeastern Bergen County in the town of Pascack, now Park Ridge. The landmark is representative of the Dutch barns that could be found throughout eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Bergen County. The Wortendykes settled in the area in , when Frederick Wortendyke, Sr., purchased the acreage from Hendrick Vanderlinda. The land was maintained by the Wortendyke family as a working farm from  to , when the farm was sold. The Wortendyke Barn Museum’s exhibits feature handmade eighteenth- and nineteenth-century farm implements and tools, the history of the Wortendyke family farm (including the impact of the Revolutionary War on the family), and the agricultural history of Bergen County from the first settlers until the present. The main attraction of the museum is the barn building, an outstanding example of the vernacular architecture referred to as a “New World Dutch barn.’’ Wherever the Dutch settled along the Hackensack, Passaic, Raritan, and Millstone rivers and their tributaries, they constructed three-bayed barns with floors raised off the ground. The barns were made completely of local wood, down to the nails (called trunnels). Owing to the ravages of time and the advancements in agriculture that have taken place over the last century and a half in this area, only a few examples of this type of barn survive. The Wortendyke New World Dutch Barn is listed on the State and National Registers of Historic Places.

Exterior of home in Millstone designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.

Courtesy The Star-Ledger.

House, Bernardsville (); Sweeton House, Cherry Hill (); and Bachman-Wilson House, Millstone (). Heinz, Thomas A. Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: St. Martin’s Press, . Izzo, Alberto, and Camillo Gubitosi. Frank Lloyd Wright: Three-Quarters of a Century of Drawings. New York: Horizon, . Storrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog. Cambridge: MIT Press, .

See also architecture

Arthur, Eric, and Dudley Witney. The Barn: A Vanishing Landmark in North America. Greenwich, CT : New York Graphic Society, . Endersby, Elric, Alexander Greenwood, and David Franklin. Barn: The Art of a Working Building. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, . Fitchen, John. The New World Dutch Barn. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, .

See also barns; Dutch

Robert Cohen

Wright, Frank Lloyd d. Apr. , ).

(b. June , ;

Architect. Son of William Cary Wright and Anna Lloyd Jones Wright, Frank Lloyd Wright attended the University of Wisconsin, but left his studies to work as a drafting assistant. He established his own practice in . Considered one of the great international architects, Wright’s innovation resulted in approximately one thousand designs, of which approximately four hundred were constructed, including Fallingwater () and the Guggenheim Museum (). Wright is considered the master of the Prairie style, although his later work is best described as idiosyncratic. Four Wright buildings are located in New Jersey, all of them “Usonian’’—a term Wright used to describe his mid-twentieth-century modular designs: Richardson House, Glen Ridge (); Christie

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Stacy E. Spies

Wright, Joseph

(b. July , ; d. Sept. ,

). Painter, sculptor, and engraver. Joseph

Wright was born in Bordentown, the son of Joseph Wright, a cooper in Philadelphia, and Patience Lovell Wright, a sculptor and modeler in wax. He received his first artistic training from his mother. In , he was enrolled in the Academy of Philadelphia. His mother established a waxworks in New York City and, in , moved to London to open a studio and waxworks there. Wright soon joined her and his sisters. In , he became the first American-born student to be admitted to the school of the Royal Academy of Art. He studied with Benjamin West and the English portraitist Edward Hoppner. Wright began his professional career in  when he first exhibited at the Royal Academy’s annual exhibition. One of his submissions, a portrait entitled Mrs. Wright Modeling a Head in Wax, depicted his mother modeling a head of King Charles I while busts of King George III and Queen Charlotte watched. Its clearly pro-American tone caused such a controversy that Wright never submitted another work to the Royal Academy. Perhaps as a response he produced his first known

self-portrait, an etching entitled “Yankee Doodle; or, The American Satan.’’ Wright went to Paris in  where he painted a portrait of Benjamin Franklin, then the American representative to France. He sailed for America in , but was shipwrecked off the coast of Maine. He finally reached Philadelphia in  where he painted his first commission, a portrait of Anne Shippen Livingston and her daughter. Wright was selected by Congress to create the likeness of George Washington to be used as the basis for an equestrian statue. In late summer , he went to Washington’s headquarters at Rocky Hill near Princeton where he painted a small portrait on a mahogany panel rather than canvas to make it more easily portable. Wright also made a life mask of Washington and modeled a clay bust, the first known sculpture of the president. Washington was pleased with the portrait, writing in  that Wright had “taken a better likeness of me, than any other painter has done.’’ Wright returned to his Philadelphia studio, where he produced several copies of the Washington portrait. In , Washington himself commissioned one for which he paid  pounds. In , Wright established his studio in New York City. He painted portraits of several prominent citizens, including John Jay and Frederick Muhlenberg, the first Speaker of the House of Representatives. Wright married Sarah Vandervoordt in  and they had three children. Wright returned to Philadelphia in . He continued painting and took William Rush, the sculptor, as his pupil, teaching him the art of modeling in clay. In addition, Wright worked as an engraver for the U.S. Mint. In , he designed and cut dies for a gold medal for Gen. Henry Lee, one of ten medals

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Wright, Marion Thompson

commissioned by Congress honoring Revolutionary War heroes. He also engraved the dies for a quarter-dollar coin, which was never issued. Wright died during the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia. Fabian, Monroe H. Joseph Wright, American Artist, –. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, .

See also art; sculpture

Jan Kelsey

Wright, Marion Thompson (b. Sept. , ; d. October , ). Educator and historian. Marion Thompson was born in East Orange, daughter of Moses R. Thompson and Minnie Holmes Thompson. Her parents separated and her mother raised four children while working as a domestic servant in Newark. When Marion Thompson started Barringer High School, she was one of only two black students. At sixteen she married William Moss and had two children, Thelma and James. Separated from her husband, she returned to high school, graduating at the head of her class. Initially leaving the children with her husband, she accepted an undergraduate scholarship at Howard University in Washington, D.C. This was a time when Howard, like most other institutions, did not accept married or divorced women as students, so Wright hid her marital status. When she divorced, the children remained with her mother, and she continued the deception. While at Howard, she became active in women’s and peace organizations, and majored in sociology. She finished her undergraduate education in , staying on at the college first to earn an M.A. in history and education, and then as an instructor. In , she started work on a doctorate at Teachers College, part of Columbia University in New York City, and married Arthur M. Wright (a marriage that also soon ended in divorce). At Columbia she worked with Merle Curti, an intellectual and social historian open to the study of African American history. In the midst of the Depression she supported herself, while trying to complete her dissertation, by working first for the Newark Department of Welfare and then for the New Jersey Emergency Relief Organization. In , she completed her Ph.D. with a dissertation, “The Education of Negroes in New Jersey,’’ which was soon published. In a work described as both “original’’ and “exhaustive,’’ Marion Thompson Wright traced the education of blacks in the state from slavery to the s, from infrequent private efforts to teach slaves and freedmen to public but increasingly segregated and unequal educational institutions. With her degree she became the first African American women in the United States to have earned a Ph.D. in the field of history. She then returned to Howard University to teach. In the course of the distinguished career that followed she published a number of

articles in the Journal of Negro History and other scholarly publications. Most were on African Americans and their experiences in New Jersey. She also worked to provide counseling services to students at Howard, and directed student teachers there. In the s she did research for the NAACP that, along with her published works, was used in the  Brown v. Board of Education case to prove that segregated education was unequal education. Despite her academic success Wright’s personal life was a lonely one. Relationships with her children and other family members were often strained. These difficulties, and the alienation she felt as a black and woman in a white- and (academically) male-dominated world, apparently contributed to her suicide in . Crocco, Margaret Smith. “The Price of an Activist Life: Elizabeth Almira Allen and Marion Thompson Wright.’’ In Pedagogies of Resistance: Women Educator Activists, –, ed. Margaret Smith Crocco, Petra Munro, and Kathleen Weiler. New York: Teachers College Press, . Wright, Marion Thompson. The Education of Negroes in New Jersey. . Reprint. New York: Arno Press, . Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

See also African Americans; education

Maxine N. Lurie

Wright, Patience Lovell

(b. c. ;

d. Feb. , ). Sculptor. Born on Long Island,

Patience Lovell Wright was the fifth daughter of the ten children of John and Patience Townsend Lovell. In , her strict Quaker parents moved their family to the banks of the Delaware River in West Jersey, an area later named Bordentown, after the town’s most prominent citizen, John Borden. During her childhood, Patience began modeling in clay, developing a talent that

ultimately led to her identification as the first known American-born sculptress. After her March , , marriage to Joseph Wright, a Bordentown cooper who worked in the shipbuilding trades, she was able to escape the eccentricities of her parents’ household, which included a strict form of vegetarianism and a requirement to wear a veil in public. Although a largely unhappy union, the marriage produced five children: Mary, Elizabeth, Phoebe, Joseph (who became a painter), and Sarah (born after Joseph Wright Sr. died in ). Finding herself in difficult economic circumstances after her husband’s death, Patience also rebelled against her dull life in Bordentown. With her sister, Rachel Lovell Wells, she revived her childhood interest in modeling. Working in wax, a medium used since antiquity, the pair created busts as well as full-size figures; soon they began to attract the attention of Bordentown’s Francis Hopkinson, who earlier had admired wax exhibits in London. A move to New York in  was followed by a voyage to London in February , where Wright established a popular waxworks, began to depict notables including William Penn and William Pitt (the earl of Chatham), and establish friendships with King George III, Queen Charlotte, and Benjamin Franklin, for whom she created a profile wax portrait. A devout Patriot, she is said to have served as a spy during the American Revolution. On February , , Patience died in London as a result of a fall she sustained after a visit to the American ambassador, John Adams. Sellers, Charles Coleman. Patience Wright: American Artist and Spy in George III’s London. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, .

See also sculpture

Barbara J. Mitnick

Wrightstown.

Anon., Patience Lovell Wright, n.d. Oil on canvas,  / ×  in.

National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.

.-square-mile borough in east-central Burlington County. Originally called Penny Hill, Wrightstown was renamed in  for early landowner Jonathan Wright. Established as a village within New Hanover Township in , it became an independent borough in , with parts of New Hanover and North Hanover. More small land acquisitions from New Hanover took place in  and . Wrightstown was a sleepy village amid lush farmlands until the United States entered World War I in . Building began on a huge U.S. Army basic-training post called Fort Dix, on land acquired from New Hanover. The borough’s border literally met the post’s front gate. Businesses including car lots, restaurants, bars, tattoo parlors, motels, and pawnshops stretched to the edge of government property, and gave the town a lurid, raucous, and largely unwanted image that persisted for generations. Until active-duty army basic training ended at Fort Dix in , millions

Wyeth of recruits passed through its gates, and most of them sampled the nearby commercial offerings of Wrightstown. Fast-food restaurants and other service-type businesses still exist, but the military downsizing—despite an upswing of activity at nearby McGuire Air Force Base, which opened in —has considerably altered the borough. Recent efforts have focused on attracting light industry to its limited land area. The  population of  was  percent white,  percent black,  percent Asian, and  percent Hispanic (Hispanics may be of any race). The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Woodward, E. M. History of Burlington County, New Jersey: With Biographical Sketches of its Many Pioneers and Prominent Men. . Reprint. Burlington: Burlington County Historical Society, .

Jim Donnelly

Wyckoff. .-square-mile township located in northwest Bergen County, on the fringe of the Ramapo Mountains. The land that became the township of Wyckoff was reputedly the site of an Indian burial ground. In  the first European settlers were John and William Van Voor Haze. Thirteen historic homes and structures remain today, including the Van Voorhees–Quackenbush– Zabriskie House, originally built in , and believed to be the oldest structure in Wyckoff. During its early settlement Wyckoff was part of Saddle River Township, but in  the territory, including Wyckoff and other towns, formed a new entity, Franklin Township. In , four years after the creation of Franklin Lakes borough, the name was changed from Franklin Township to Wyckoff to avoid confusion. Today this residential community is characterized by volunteerism that has resulted in a new playground, a new town park, and a school expansion. Zabriskie Pond, Spring Lake Park, and the James McFaul

Environmental Center provide peaceful areas for passive recreation. In  the population of , was  percent white. The median household income was $,. For complete census figures, see chart, . Fogarty, Catharine M., John E. O’Connor, and Charles F. Cummings. Bergen County: A Pictorial History. Norfolk, VA: Donning, .

Linda J. Barth

Wyeth. Founded in  as American Home Products (AHP) and currently headquartered in Madison, seven decades of mergers and acquisitions has transformed this business from a diversified holding company into a focused, global pharmaceutical and biotechnology company. In  the founding partners of AHP, with the goal of expanding their consumer medicine company, purchased John Wyeth and Brother, a well-respected Philadelphia pharmaceutical firm founded in . Wyeth and Brother served as a complement to AHP’s first purchase, Deshell Laboratories of California, makers of the well-regarded prescription laxative, Petrolagar. In  the partners had acquired the A. S. Boyle Company, makers of Old English floor wax, and found international success in  with their toothpaste Kolynos. The company’s  diversification strategy led to the acquisition of thirty-four new companies in the next fifteen years, including Chef Boy-Ar-Dee and Wizard, Inc. AHP went on to acquire the SMA Corporation (), Ayerst, McKenna, and Harrison of Canada (), and Gilliland Laboratories and Reichel Laboratories (). Respectively, these acquisitions extended AHP’s holdings to the fields of baby formula, hormone research, and vaccine. This rapid growth prompted the reorganization of pharmaceuticals into a new Ethical Drug Division composed of Wyeth Laboratories and Ayerst Laboratories. In , the AHP acquired Sherwood Medical, capturing a share of the growing

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medical devices market. When John R. Stafford became the company’s CEO and chairman in , he completed the divestiture of noncore businesses—household products, foods, and candy. To further strengthen AHP’s pharmaceutical operations, Wyeth and Ayerst were merged into a core pharmaceutical organization in : Wyeth-Ayerst Laboratories. In the same year, the animal health business of Bristol-Myers was acquired and assimilated into the Wyeth’s Fort Dodge, a leading manufacturer and distributor of animal health care products for the livestock and companion animal industries. The  acquisition of A. H. Robins, makers of popular consumer brands Robitussin, Chap Stick, and Dimetapp, promised both notoriety and revenue, but it was the  acquisition of American Cyanamid that accelerated the company’s evolution into a top-tier pharmaceutical firm. When Cyanamid Agricultural Products was spun-off in , it marked the final step in the company’s transformation into a researchdriven, global pharmaceutical company. In , Robert Essner became AHP’s CEO and focused on strengthening the company’s core values and mission as a world leader in prescription pharmaceuticals, nonprescription medicines, and animal health products. Moreover, this shift in focus was the basis of the company’s subsequent name change. Paying tribute to the organization’s deepest historical roots in pharmaceuticals (John Wyeth and Brother) and nonprescription medicines (Wyeth Chemical), AHP changed its name to Wyeth in . Today, Wyeth’s worldwide resources include more than , employees, manufacturing facilities on five continents, and a discovery and development platform encompassing pharmaceuticals, vaccines, and biotechnology. Barr, Stephen. New Jersey: Setting the Pace for the Twenty-first Century. Encino, CA: Cherbo Publishing, .

See also pharmaceutical industry

Pamela Cooper

Y Yardley, Margaret Tufts Swan (b. ; d. Sept. , ).

Community leader. Maragaret Tufts Swan was born to Dr. Samuel Swan and Lucretia Green (Staniels) Swan in Auburn, New York. She married Charles B. Yardley and lived in Yonkers, New York, until moving to East Orange in . The couple had five children. In , Yardley joined the Sorosis Club of New York City, the first women’s club in the nation. After moving to New Jersey, she joined the Woman’s Club of Orange, the first in the state, and became active in philanthropic civic work. In , Yardley helped found the New Jersey State Federation of Women’s Clubs. She was elected its first president in .

Women’s Project of New Jersey. Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, .

Margaret Smith Crocco

Yorkship Village.

The  plan for Yorkship Village—now known as Fairview— was billed as the first community in the United States designed according to Ebenezer Howard’s famous “garden city’’ principles. Located in South Camden, Fairview remains one of the country’s most powerful urban design statements. Designed by Electus Litchfield, Henry Wright, and others under the direction of Frederick Ackerman, it was built by the U.S.

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Shipping Board’s Emergency Fleet Corporation for workers in the shipbuilding and munitions industries. Occupying the -acre former Coopers farm, Fairview comprises some , housing units, including two- and threestory rowhouses, twins and triplexes, as well as single-family dwellings and apartments. Fairview’s elegant plan combines generous amounts of public open space with careful attention to design details. Retail and services along with apartments are grouped around a central green (Yorkship Square), which in turn is linked to the surrounding neighborhoods by a radial pattern of streets and pedestrian connections. The neighborhood school is located immediately behind the green. Other community buildings—a church, library, and meeting hall—are located along linear parks radiating from the square. The neighborhood is flanked on three sides by parks and the Newton Creek. Today, Yorkship Village is still a predominately working-class neighborhood. It has suffered from its proximity to Camden City, and its aging population. The state is considering ways to revitalize the village. Lang, Michael H. “The Design of Yorkship Garden Village: Product of the Progressive Planning, Architecture, and Housing Reform Movements.’’ In Planning the Twentieth-Century American City, ed. Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, .

See also Camden

Carlos Macedo Rodrigues

Young, Charles Augustus (b. Dec. , ; d. Jan. , ). Astronomer, teacher, and author. Charles Augustus Young was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, to a family long associated with Dartmouth College. He

graduated from Dartmouth in  and taught at Phillips Academy (–) and Western Reserve College (–), before being appointed to a professorship of natural philosophy and astronomy at Dartmouth. Princeton University selected him in to succeed Stephen Alexander as professor of astronomy (– ), and to become the first director of the observatory. Young was an authority on the sun and a pioneer in spectrum analysis. A total eclipse of the sun occurred the day of his death. DAB. Leitch, Alexander. A Princeton Companion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, . Young, Charles Augustus. Faculty Records. Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, Princeton.

See also astronomy and astrophysics

Kristine J. Marconi

Youth Theatre of New Jersey.

A nonprofit arts organization, founded in  and based in Sparta, Youth Theatre of New Jersey (YTNJ) specializes in training young artists in theater skills such as acting, mime, improvisation, voice, playwriting, musical theater, directing, and stage managing. It has developed and produced over  new plays and musicals. YTNJ’s Summer Theatre Institute is a month-long residential teen theater training program open to young actors, directors, and playwrights from the United States and overseas, in residence at Alfred Lerner Hall, Columbia University. Youth Theatre of New Jersey is a member of the American Alliance for Theatre and Education. See also theater

Allyn Sitjar

Z

Founding and Development of a Company and an Industry, –. New York: New Jersey Zinc Company, .

See also minerals

Andrea C. Dragon

Zarephath.

The Pentecostal Union, led by Alma White, moved its headquarters from Denver to New Jersey in . Zarephath, meaning “melting pot,’’ was established along the Delaware and Raritan Canal in Franklin Township, Somerset County, on land given to the group by a local follower, Catherine Garretson. In  the Pentecostal Union became the Pillar of Fire, the name it has kept to this day. The community established a printing operation soon after moving to New Jersey. Constructed on the site also were the Alma Preparatory School and Alma White College. The school, founded in , continues to operate as Zarephath Christian Schools. The college lost its accreditation in the s. A replacement, Somerset Christian College, opened in . Zarephath remains the headquarters of Pillar of Fire, which has become an international organization with branches throughout the United States and in several other countries. Beginning with about eighty acres, the community has expanded over the years to encompass more than one thousand acres. Its radio station, WAWZ, was started in  and has been broadcasting ever since with a signal strong enough to cover an area from eastern Pennsylvania to New York City.

Brahms, William B. Franklin Township, Somerset County, NJ: A History. Somerset : Franklin Township Public Library, . Van Horn, J. H., comp. Historic Somerset. New Brunswick: Historical Societies of Somerset County, .

See also Pillar of Fire Church; White, Alma

Edward Skipworth

Zimmerman, Arthur Augustus (b. July , ; d. Oct. , ).

Cyclist and bicycle manufacturer. Arthur Augustus Zimmerman, who was born in Camden, came to Manasquan as a child and remained a resident of Monmouth County. He was a partner in the Zimmerman Manufacturing Company of Freehold. A natural athlete, “Zimmy’’ won fourteen hundred races between  and , racing in America, Great Britain, Europe, and Australia under the colors of the New York Athletic Club. Among his triumphs, he won the first world championship race held at Chicago’s  World’s Columbian Exposition. A contemporary English correspondent wrote, “Cycling has never seen and will never see his like again.’’

Arthur Augustus Zimmerman, world champion cyclist.

Courtesy Monmouth County Historical Association Library and Archives, Freehold. Zimmerman, Arthur Augustus, Scrapbook, – . Monmouth County Historical Association Library and Archives, Freehold. ———. Zimmerman on Training with Points for Cyclists. Leicester, U.K.: F.W.S. Clarke, n.d.

See also bicycling

Lee Ellen Griffith

zinc. The first zinc mines in the United States were opened in  in Sussex County and commercial mining began ten years later with the creation of the Sussex Zinc and Iron Mining Company, later known as the New Jersey Zinc Company. Because the zinc-bearing ores of Sussex County—franklinite, willemite, and zincite—occur nowhere else in the world, commercial smelting of the ores was delayed until technological breakthroughs in the latter half of the nineteenth century enabled chemists to extract first zinc oxide and later metallic zinc from the ores. By , the United States was producing nearly one-third of the world’s zinc, most of it from New Jersey mines. Production doubled and tripled during World War I because zinc was needed to produce brass shell casings and other munitions. The world’s largest zinc smelter was built in the Lehigh Valley to process zinc from Sussex County. Zinc was used extensively during World War II, but demand for New Jersey zinc fell after the war due to competition from plastics and stainless steel and from mines in Canada and Australia. The New Jersey mines were closed in the mids. New Jersey Zinc Company. The First Hundred Years of the New Jersey Zinc Company: A History of the

zoning. Zoning is one of the principal forms of land-use regulation. In order to separate incompatible uses and provide for an orderly pattern of land development, zones are mapped, and specific uses are permitted (or prohibited) in each zone. The first comprehensive zoning ordinance in the United States was adopted in New York City in , and the technique spread rapidly after the U.S. Supreme Court found zoning constitutional in Euclid v. Ambler Realty (). The resulting wordplay, “euclidean zoning,’’ was inevitable, and the label is widely used. Doubts about whether zoning was permitted under the New Jersey state constitution were dispelled with a constitutional amendment in  authorizing the legislature to delegate zoning power to municipalities (but not to counties). In the two decades after World War II, New Jersey became a national leader in the evolution of zoning as the technique that shaped suburbia. Permissive judicial rulings approved ordinances requiring large minimum lot sizes, large minimum square footages, and restrictions on (or outright prohibition of) multifamily uses, trailer parks, and many commercial activities. Then, in  the Supreme Court reversed course in the Mount Laurel case, and New Jersey has since been the national model for prohibiting what is pejoratively called “exclusionary zoning.’’ Cox, William M. New Jersey Zoning and Land Use Administration. Newark: Gann Law Books, annual. Haar, Charles. Suburbs Under Siege: Race, Space, and Audacious Judges. Princeton: Princeton University Press, .

See also land use

John M. Payne

Zworykin, Vladimir K.

(b. July ,

; d. July , ). Scientist and inventor.

Born in Murom, Russia, to a wealthy merchant family, Vladimir Zworykin attended the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology where he studied under Boris Rosing, whose interest in a new electronic field of research, television, would prove fortunate. The violence of the Russian Revolution led Zworykin to immigrate to America in August . Within the year, he secured a position in television research with Westinghouse Electric Research Laboratories in Pittsburgh. By , he had earned a doctoral degree in physics from the University of Pittsburgh. David Sarnoff, another Russian immigrant and an executive of the Radio Corporation of America, hired Zworykin in November of 

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Zworykin, Vladimir K.

after hearing him speak at a meeting about his invention, a kinescope (picture tube). Within a few months, Zworykin was in charge of his own lab at RCA headquarters in Camden. He spent his career in these facilities, heading a team that developed an iconoscope, an electronic tube for a television camera, and

an improved kinescope. His work on television, which produced a U.S. patent for an allcathode-ray system in , earned him the title “the father of television.’’ He retired from RCA in . He married twice and had two children. Until his death at Princeton Hospital in , he worked on

the electron microscope and other areas of medical electronics. ANB. Abramson, Albert. Zworykin, Pioneer of Television. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, .

See also Radio Corporation of America

Kitta MacPherson

About the Editors and the Contributors Maxine N. Lurie, chair of the History Department at Seton Hall University, is the author of works on early America and New Jersey history. She has been a frequent speaker at conferences on how to find and use a wide variety of materials to teach New Jersey history from kindergarten to college.

Marc Mappen is the executive director of the New Jersey Historical Commission. He is the author of several articles and books, including Jerseyana: The Underside of New Jersey History (). He has a Ph.D. in American history from Rutgers University.

Mary Anne Adams received an M.L.S. degree from the School of Communication, Information, and Library Studies in  and an M.A. in history from Rutgers University in . She manages the Research Library at Johnson & Johnson’s Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics in Raritan and is the author of “Illusions of Rural Character: Hunterdon County, New Jersey’’ (M.A. thesis, Rutgers University, ).

Rita Ecke Altomara received a B.A. from Barnard College and an M.S. from Columbia University. She is the director of the Fort Lee Public Library, lectures on Fort Lee’s role in silent films, and is the author of Hollywood on the Palisades ().

D. C. Agrawal has a master’s degree from North Carolina State University and a bachelor’s degree from the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, India. He serves as an assistant executive director with New Jersey Transit and as secretary of the National Executive Committee of the Association of Indians in America (AIA). He is a practicing Hindu, and worked on a guide to Hinduism for New Jersey law-enforcement officials to train them to deal with bias crimes. Joseph-James Ahern received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in public history in  from Rutgers University–Camden. He works at the American Philosophical Society Library and conducts research on local military and naval history. Sunil Ahuja, Ph.D., is a member of the Political Science Department at Youngstown State University. He has published book chapters and articles on Congress and congressional elections, and is coeditor of the Legislative Studies Quarterly. Susan Akers was copresident of the Mount Tabor Historical Society. Flavia Alaya, Ph.D., a professor emerita of literature and cultural history at Ramapo College, is a biographer, memoirist, and author of several studies on Paterson notables. Richard C. Albert received his M.S. from Virginia Tech. He worked on Delaware River matters for twenty-seven years, and is currently the restoration director with the Delaware Riverkeeper Network. He has also written two books on the Delaware River. Sam Alewitz received a B.A. in mechanical engineering in , an M.A. in  from Cleveland State, and a Ph.D. from Case Western Reserve in . He has written and lectured on the social history of New Jersey public health. Vincent M. Altamuro received a bachelor’s degree in business administration from the City College of New York and an M.S. from Columbia University; he also pursued postgraduate studies at Northwestern University, Fordham University Law School, and New York University. He has been a faculty member at Columbia University’s Graduate School of Engineering, the City University Graduate School of Engineering, Manhattan College, and New York University’s School of Continuing Education. William Althoff, a writer and professional geologist, has published extensively. From  until , he held the Ramsey Fellowship in Naval Aviation History at the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.

G. Alex Ambrose is an undergraduate at Rutgers College enrolled in the five-year master’s in elementary education program. He is also enlisted in the New Jersey Army National Guard and attends Officer Candidate School. Dona M. Amici received a B.A. in political science and history from Temple University in . She has been a sportswriter, reporter, and editor for both weekly and daily newspapers for more than twenty years. William E. Andersen, deputy attorney general of New Jersey, is counsel to the Tidelands Resource Council. Andrew J. Anderson received a B.A. from Trenton State College in . A former member of the Ocean County Culture and Heritage Commission, he has written two books on the Borough of Seaside Park and developed a lecture series on the Pine Barrens. Karl Anderson is the director of the New Jersey Audubon Society’s Rancocas Nature Center and a field botanist. With Beryl Collins, he is the coauthor of Plant Communities of New Jersey (). Barbara Hilkert Andolsen received her Ph.D. in religion from Vanderbilt University. She is the Helen Bennett McMurray Professor of Social Ethics at Monmouth University and the author of many publications, including Daughters of Jefferson, Daughters of Bootblacks: Racism and American Feminism (). Paul S. Anselm is a retired forensic fire investigator, and he is the president of the Ocean City Historical Museum. James E. Applegate is a professor of natural resources at Cook College, and is the only member of Endangered and Nongame Species Advisory Committee remaining from the original appointees of . Grace A. Aqualina was a contributor to Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Roc´ıo Aranda-Alvarado is the associate curator at the Jersey City Museum. Her work deals primarily with relationships between American and Latin American art. Patricia M. Ard received a B.A. from Douglass College in , a J.D. from Seton Hall Law School in , and a Ph.D. in English from Rutgers University in , and is currently teaching English at Ramapo College. She has published a number of articles on nineteenth-century American literature and is coauthor of The Jews of New Jersey: A Pictorial History (). 895

896

About the Editors and the Contributors

Doris B. Armstrong received a B.A. from DePauw University, an M.A.T. from the University of Notre Dame, and an Ed.D. from New York University. She contributed to Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (), and wrote a history of the Unitarian Society of Ridgewood.

Michael D. Banick received a B.A. in history in  and an M.L.S. in  from Rutgers University. He is an assistant librarian at the Guggenheim Memorial Library at Monmouth University, where he oversees the Archives and Special Collections, including the New Jersey Collection.

Lorraine Ash has a B.A. in sociology from Drew University and an M.A. in communications from Fordham University. She has worked as a journalist in New Jersey since , currently as a features writer for the Daily Record in Parsippany.

Annette Barbaccia received a B.A. in political science and an M.S. in urban policy from the State University of New York at Stony Brook. She was executive director of the New Jersey Pinelands Commission from  to .

Frank Askin received his J.D. from Rutgers School of Law–Newark and his B.A. from the City College of New York in . He is a member of the Rutgers Law School faculty and in  founded the Rutgers Constitutional Litigation Clinic.

Peter F. Bariso, Jr., received a B.A. from Rutgers University in  and a J.D. from Rutgers University School of Law in . He currently practices law at the Secaucus firm of Chasan, Leyner, Bariso & Lamparello, P.C., where he is the managing partner for the firm’s Insurance Defense and Education Law departments.

Ashley L. Atkins received an A.B. from Duke University in , an M.A. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in , and is a Ph.D. candidate at Rutgers University. Her dissertation is entitled “Playgrounds, Promenades, and Parks: Images of American Urban Parks, –.’’ Sharon Matt Atkins is a doctoral candidate in art history at Rutgers University. She received a B.A. from Iowa State University and an M.A. from Rutgers. Fred J. Aun is a freelance writer with more than twenty years’ experience covering news in northern New Jersey and southern New York. He grew up along the Delaware River in Sussex County and now lives in Warren County’s Frelinghuysen Township. Kimberly Avagliano received a B.A. in  and an M.L.S. in  from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro. She has been with the Monmouth County Library since . Paul Axel-Lute is the deputy director and collection development librarian at the Law Library, Rutgers University–Newark. He received a B.A. from Brandeis University, an M.L.S. from Rutgers University, and is the author of the New Jersey Legal Research Handbook and Lakewoodin-the Pines: A History of Lakewood, New Jersey (). Christine V. Baird is a staff writer for The Star-Ledger. She received a B.A. and an M.L.S. from Queens College and an M.S. from Columbia University. Anny Bakalian received her B.A. from the American University of Beirut in , an M.A. from Exeter University (U.K.), and a Ph.D. from Columbia University in . She has taught sociology and is the author of Armenian Americans: From Being to Feeling Armenian (). Ross K. Baker is a professor of political science at Rutgers University and author of Friend and Foe in the U.S. Senate (), The New Fat Cats: Members of Congress as Political Benefactors (), and House and Senate (). He writes political commentary for a number of newspapers as well as scholarly publications. John A. Bale is the president of the New Providence Historical Society. Bruce Balistrieri is a graduate of William Paterson University, where he majored in history, political science, and urban education. He has worked at the Paterson Museum for the past fifteen years. Mary McAleer Balkun, Ph.D., serves as assistant chair of the English Department at Seton Hall University. She has published articles on Sarah Kemble Knight, Phillis Wheatley, and Walt Whitman. Margaret S. Bandrowski received a B.A. from Rutgers University– Newark and an M.A. from the University of Michigan. She is the president of the Springfield Historical Society.

Linda Barker is the chief administrative officer of the Cancer Institute of New Jersey. Linda J. Barth received a B.A. in elementary education from Paterson State College in . She serves as a director of the Canal Society of New Jersey, and has written children’s books, travel articles, and guidebooks about canals around the world. Stephanie Bartz received a B.A. in  and an M.L.S. in  from Rutgers University. She is currently employed as an information services librarian at the Archibald S. Alexander Library at Rutgers. Patricia A. Beaber received a B.A. from the University of Massachusetts, an M.A. from the University of Pennsylvania, and an M.S. from Drexel University. She is a reference librarian at The College of New Jersey and has contributed to Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Nancy Beadie has also written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Marshall J. Becker has a B.A., an M.A., and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. His original work in archaeology was with Classic Period lowland Maya sites. His principal research now focuses on the archaeology and ethnohistory of the peoples of the lower Delaware Valley since European contact. Recent papers in scholarly journals have helped to identify the Lenopi, the native people south of the Raritan River, and to distinguish them from other native cultures in the region. Ronald Becker has worked at the Rutgers University Libraries since . Since , he has been head of Rutgers Special Collections; he was previously curator of manuscripts. From  to , he was cataloger at the New Jersey Historical Society. He holds degrees from Duke University and Rutgers. A past president of the Mid-Atlantic Regional Archives, he currently serves as a member of the State Historical Records Advisory Board and the Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission. He has published in New Jersey bibliography and history and in archival studies. David L. Beckman is the director of the Norwood Public Library. He received a B.A. in English from Clark University in , an M.A. in English from Seton Hall University in , and an M.L.S. from Long Island University in . Benjamin R. Beede received an A.B., an M.L.S., and an M.A. in political science from Rutgers University. He is a librarian emeritus at Rutgers and coedited Politics and Government of New Jersey, –: A Bibliography (). Michal R. Belknap received his B.A. in  from UCLA, an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from the University of Wisconsin, and a J.D. in  from the University of Texas. He is the author of numerous books and articles on twentieth-century legal history, and currently

About the Editors and the Contributors

teaches law at California Western School of Law and history at the University of California, San Diego.

Wayne T. Bell, Jr., received a B.S. in  and an M.S. in  from Rutgers University. He has published various natural resource studies as well as on local history, including Ocean Grove (). Bonnie Benbow, M.Ed., is the administrative director of Princeton Friends School. Donald E. Bender, president of Bender Associates Historical Consultants, received a B.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University and studied design at Cornell University, Parsons School of Design, Pratt Institute, New York University, and the New School for Social Research. He is the author of many articles about former military sites within New Jersey. Dery Bennett is the executive director of the American Littoral Society. David Bensman received his Ph.D. in history from Columbia University. He is the author of The Practice of Solidarity: American Hat Finishers in the Nineteenth Century () and a professor of labor studies and employment relations in the School of Management and Labor Relations at Rutgers University. Lucille Bertram, M.L.S., is a reference librarian at the Teaneck Public Library. She is vice president of the Fort Lee Historical Society. John M. Bettis was the Grand Master of Prince Hall Grand Lodge, Free and Accepted Masons, State of New Jersey, –. He received a B.A. and a B.S. from Stockton State College, and completed graduate studies at the University of Houston and Rider College, and is the city administrator of Pleasantville. Joseph G. Bilby received a B.A. and M.A. from Seton Hall University, and is a freelance outdoor writer and historian specializing in New Jersey subjects. He is the author, coauthor, or editor of several articles and books, including Remember You Are Jerseymen: A Military History of New Jersey’s Troops in the Civil War (), and is a columnist for New Jersey Sportsmen News. Richard B. Bingham earned his Ph.D. in history in . He served as historian at the U.S. Army Communications–Electronics Command and Fort Monmouth from  to . He is the editor and publisher of Digital Editions, history and genealogy.

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Jon Blackwell, a copyeditor at the New York Post, was a reporter and night city editor at The Trentonian from  to , where he put together a -part series about each year of the twentieth century in the Trenton-Princeton area. Patricia W. Blakely received a B.A. from Ohio Wesleyan University in . She holds New Jersey teaching certificates in English and elementary education, and has taught in public schools, as well as providing English instruction for foreign businessmen. She has also taught courses in genealogy. Mary W. Blanchard is associate fellow and member of the advisory board at the Rutgers Center for Historical Analysis. She received a B.A. from Vassar College, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Rutgers University. Norman V. Blantz, professor emeritus at Burlington County College, received a B.A. from Lebanon Valley College and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the Pennsylvania State University. He was a member of the Burlington County Historical Society Board of Trustees from  to . Kristen Block received her B.A. from Beloit College in , and is currently pursuing her doctoral degree in the Department of History at Rutgers University. Beth S. Bloom received her B.A. from the University of Wisconsin in , an M.A. in , and an M.L.S. in  from Rutgers University. She is currently a reference librarian/associate professor at Seton Hall University. Joseph Marty Boa received a B.S. from Springfield College in  and an M.S. from Monmouth University in  with additional graduate course work at Montclair State and Rutgers. An active member of Outdoor Writers Association of America, he has been an outdoor writer and columnist since . Gloria Bonilla-Santiago is a professor of public administration and policy and the director of the Center for Strategic Urban Community Leadership at Rutgers University–Camden. She received a B.A. from Rowan University, an M.S.W from Rutgers University, an M.A. in philosophy, and a Ph.D. in sociology from City University of New York, and completed postdoctoral studies at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government.

Michael J. Birkner is Benjamin Franklin Professor of Liberal Arts and chair of the Department of History at Gettysburg College. He is the author of numerous works on New Jersey topics, including a biography of nineteenth-century Whig political leader Samuel L. Southard.

Patricia U. Bonomi received her Ph.D. in American history from Columbia University in . She is a professor emerita at New York University, and is the author of books and articles on colonial America.

Blair T. Birmelin has written novels, stories, and criticism; her work has appeared in such quarterlies as Southwest Review and Literary Imagination.

Mark Boriek is a biologist in the Principal Fisheries, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection.

Dan Bischoff received a B.A. from Vanderbilt University in . He worked as national affairs editor at the Village Voice from  to , and became an art critic with The Star Ledger in . Henry Bischoff received a B.S.F.S. from Georgetown University in , an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from the University of Chicago. He is professor emeritus at Ramapo College, and the director of historical studies at The Hermitage in Ho-Ho-Kus. He has written books and articles on immigration and ethnicity and on New Jersey and local history. David A. Black is an associate professor of communication at Seton Hall University, and the author of Law in Film: Resonance and Representation (). His work has appeared in the Yale Journal of Criticism, Media, Culture and Society, Cinema Journal, and other publications.

Sylvia Borsuk received a B.S. and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. She has been a reference librarian for over thirty years. Lora Bottinelli received a B.A. in English and American studies from Rutgers University in . A native of South Jersey, she has written articles on the folklife of the state. Bobbie Bouton-Goldberg has worked on several sports books and written articles about New Jersey history. She has a B.S. from Western Michigan University and a teaching degree from William Paterson College and was a visiting instructor at Shanghai University. Henry Warner Bowden received a B.A. from Baylor University in  and a Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He has taught at Rutgers University since  and also serves as executive secretary of the American Society of Church History.

898

About the Editors and the Contributors

Suzanne Geissler Bowles received a Ph.D. from Syracuse University and is an assistant professor of history at William Paterson University. She is the author of a number of works on American religion including Lutheranism and Anglicanism in Colonial New Jersey (). Daryl Boylan, a resident of Wyckoff, is a writer of biographies, plays, and children’s stories, and also serves as a volunteer writing teacher at Patterson schools. William J. Boyle, Jr., received a B.S. from Duke University in  and a Ph.D. in organic chemistry from Northwestern University in . He works as a chemist, but has pursued the hobby of bird watching and is the author of A Guide to Bird Finding in New Jersey (d ed., ). Thomas F. Breden was the administrator of the New Jersey Office of Natural Lands Management. He received a B.S. in forest biology from the College of Environmental Science and Forestry of the State University of New York and an M.S. in botany from Rutgers University. He also led the New Jersey Natural Heritage Program.

William H. Burket received a B.S. from Monmouth University in . A past president of the Union Beach Memorial Library Association, he is the author of Union Beach (). Bernard Bush received a B.A. in  from New York University, an M.L.S. in library science in  and an M.A. in history in  from Columbia University. He was executive director of the New Jersey Historical Commission, –, and is the editor of the four-volume Laws of the Royal Colony of New Jersey, – (–). John Harlan Buzby received a B.A. from Upsala College in  and a D.D.S. from the School of Dentistry, Fairleigh Dickinson University, in . He is the vice president of the library and a regular contributor to the Quarterly Newsletter of the Salem County Historical Society.

Joan Breslow is a fourth-generation descendant of original Woodbine settlers. She has an M.A. in mental health from the University of New Mexico.

Michele S. Byers received a B.A. in biology from Western State College in Colorado. She serves as executive director of the New Jersey Conservation Foundation, vice chair of the State Planning Commission, chairman of the New Jersey State Committee of the Highlands Coalition, and a member of the National Council of the Land Trust Alliance.

James F. Broderick, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of English and journalism at New Jersey City University. He has written for newspapers, magazines, and wire services in the Midwest and the New York area, and is the author of Paging New Jersey: A Literary Guide to the Garden State ().

Joseph P. Byrne is an associate professor at Belmont University, and is author of numerous articles on medieval and early modern European history. He received B.A. degrees in history and business, master’s degrees in history and uban planning from the University of Washington, and a Ph.D. in history from Indiana University.

Myron J. Bromberg, a founding principal of Porzio, Bromberg & Newman, P.C., received a B.A. from Yale University in  and an L.L.B. from Columbia University School of Law in . He is a civil trial lawyer, who has published and lectured extensively in his field.

Meredith Arms Bzdak holds a B.A. in art history from Mount Holyoke College and a Ph.D. in art history from Rutgers University; she currently serves as architectural historian and director of development for Ford Farewell Mills and Gatsch, Architects, LLC, in Princeton. She is the author of Public Sculpture in New Jersey: Monuments to Collective Identity ().

Edward Brown received a B.S. from Rutgers College in  and a master’s degree from the University of Wisconsin in . He is a longtime regional writer with credits in the New York Times and Philadelphia Inquirer, and one book still in print, Just Around the Corner, in New Jersey (). Kimberly Brown received a B.A. in history from the University of California, Los Angeles, in , and an M.S. in journalism from Columbia University in . She is a reporter at The Star-Ledger. Lloyd L. Brown is the author of a novel, Iron City (), and author of the preface to Here I Stand () by Paul Robeson. His articles and reviews have appeared in the New York Times, The Nation, Negro Digest, and other periodicals. Peter A. Buchsbaum received an A.B. from Cornell University in  and a J.D. from Harvard Law School in . He is currently a partner in the Woodbridge law firm of Greenbaum, Rowe, Smith, Ravin, Davis & Himmel LLP. William R. Buck is the senior curator of bryophytes at the New York Botanical Garden. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan. His research interests are the phylogeny and floristics of mosses. Joanna Burger received a B.S. from the State University of New York at Albany in , an M.S. from Cornell University in , and a Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis in . She currently teaches ecology, animal behavior, and ecological risk at Rutgers University, and has written extensively on coastal and pinelands species and ecosystems in the state. David Burke received a B.S. from Utah State University in  and an M.A. from Rowan University in . He currently is a research scientist with the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife, and coordinates and supervises a wide range of wildlife research projects.

Radhames Camilo graduated with a bachelor’s degree in computer science from Rutgers University in . He served as an editorial assistant at The Encyclopedia of New Jersey from  to . Ann Marie T. Cammarota earned a B.A. from Glassboro State College (Rowan University) in , an M.A. from Villanova University, and a Ph.D. from Temple University. She teaches at Neumann College and Rosemont College, and is the author of Pavements in the Garden: The Suburbanization of Southern New Jersey, Adjacent to the City of Philadelphia,  to the Present (). Daniel R. Campbell, J.D., is the author of “Hendrickson’s: A Bayonne Landmark,’’ in Township to City: Papers about the Founding of the Municipality of Bayonne (), and has written on topics related to law libraries and law librarianship. Marilyn Campbell received an A.B. from Vassar College, and an M.A. and A.B.D. in communication arts from the University of Wisconsin. She has worked at Princeton University Press and for the film journal Wide Angle. She is the director of the Prepress Department at Rutgers University Press, and is also a panelist on “A Fistful of Popcorn,’’ Princeton’s movie review show on TV . Melissa Drake Campbell received a B.A. in English and art history from Douglass College in  and an M.A. in communication from William Paterson University in . She works in public relations. Robert J. Canace received a B.A. in geology from Rutgers University in . He is the section chief for hydrogeology in the Bureau of Ground Water Resource Evaluation department of the New Jersey Geological Survey. Sue Bennett Canale received a B.S. in biology from the State University of New York College at Oswego, and an M.A. in biology from

About the Editors and the Contributors

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SUNY–Geneseo. She is a wildlife biologist working for the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife’s Bureau of Information and Education, specializing in coastal and aquatic resource education.

an Urban Wilderness (), In Lights and Shadows: Morristown in Three Centuries (), Morris Township Times, – (), and coauthored At Speedwell in the Nineteenth Century ().

Paul R. Cappucci received his B.A. from King’s College in , an M.A. from the College of New Jersey in , and a Ph.D. from Drew University in . He is currently an assistant professor of English at Georgian Court College.

Peter Childs received his B.A. in history from Drew University and his M.S.L.S. from Drexel University. He is the former president and trustee of the Camden County Historical Society, and has been the director of the Collingswood Public Library since .

John M. Carbone earned his B.A. at Villanova University and J.D. at New York Law School. He is a practicing attorney.

Mary Faith Chmiel, a  graduate of Douglass College, received an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in , and is currently director of the Spotswood Public Library.

Margaret Carlsen is a senior historic preservation specialist with the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Parks and Forestry. She received a B.A. from Monmouth University and an M.A. from Kean University. Roger Carp received a B.A. from Duke University in  and a Ph.D. in American history from the University of North Carolina in . He is a senior editor at Classic Toy Trains magazine, and has written three books on the history of Lionel, including The Art of Lionel Trains (). Patrick C. Carr received a B.S. from the Pennsylvania State University in  and an M.S. from the University of Tennessee at Knoxville in . He currently is a principal wildlife biologist with the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife, leading the black bear project. Guy C. Carter received a B.A. from the University of Saint Thomas, Houston, in , an M.A. from Marquette University in , an M.Div. from the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago in , and a Ph.D. from Marquette University in . He is an ordained minister of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the pastor of Saint James Evangelical Lutheran Church in Brogue, Pennsylvania.

Susan Chore received a B.S. in journalism from Boston University in , and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . She currently works as an archivist for a museum in New York City. Alexandra Christy is the senior program officer of the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation. Carla Cielo holds a master’s degree from Columbia University in historic preservation and an undergraduate degree from Drexel University in design. She manages her own historic preservation business, and is involved with conservation, historical, and architectural projects. Edward M. Cifelli received a Ph.D. at New York University in , and is an emeritus professor of English at County College of Morris. He has edited the poems and letters of John Ciardi in addition to writing the only full-length biography to date. Vincent J. Cirillo, Ph.D., is the author of Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish-American War and Military Medicine ().

Lorraine Caruso has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women ().

Carolyn Clark is the executive artistic director of the New Jersey Ballet. She has performed classical and contemporary ballet with the American Ballet Theater and other companies throughout the world.

Joan S. Case, a Chester native, is a fine art photographer and gallery owner. She has written one book and many articles on Chester’s history.

Claudia Clark received a B.A. from Rider University and Ph.D. in history from Rutgers University in . She is the author of Radium Girls: Women and Industrial Health Reform, – ().

Tim Casey, a physiological ecologist by training, is a member of the faculty of Ecology Evolution and Natural Resources. He is former chairman of the Department of Entomology, and currently serves as the dean of Academic and Student Programs, Cook College, Rutgers University.

Geoffrey W. Clark received a B.A. in  from Columbia College, and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from Columbia University. He currently teaches history at Stevens Institute of Technology, and has written a number of articles on the Stevens family and a history of Stevens Institute of Technology.

James H. Cassedy, Ph.D., is a historian with the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland. He has written widely on the history of American vital statistics, medicine, and public health. His most recent book is Medicine in America: A Short History (). Paul M. Castelli received a B.S. from SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry and an M.S. from Cook College, Rutgers University. He currently is a supervising wildlife biologist with New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife, where he studies Canada geese and other migratory gamebirds. Gloria Castucci received a B.A. from Felician College in  and an M.A. in early childhood leadership from Kean University in . She is the director of early childhood programs for the Archdiocese of Newark, an adjunct professor at Caldwell College and Seton Hall University, and has coauthored a book on early childhood. Phillip Dennis Cate is supervisor of curatorial and academic activities at the Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers University. Cam Cavanaugh is a historian specializing in Morris County. She has written Saving the Great Swamp: The People, the Power Brokers, and

Kathleen E. Clark received a B.S. in natural resource management from Rutgers University and an M.S. in wildlife management from West Virginia University. She is a principal zoologist with the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife’s Endangered and Nongame Species Program, and has conducted research and surveys of wildlife in the state since . Mark H. Clark received his doctorate in the history of technology from the University of Delaware in . He is an associate professor at the Oregon Institute of Technology, and a specialist in the early history of magnetic recording and the transfer of technology between Denmark and the United States. Bruce Clarke is the director of the Center for Turfgrass Science and extension specialist in turfgrass pathology for Rutgers Cooperative Extension. His research focus is on ectotrophic root-infecting fungi of cool-season turfgrasses and integrated pest management to reduce fungicide usage in turf. Paul Clemens received his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin– Madison in . He teaches history at Rutgers University–New Brunswick, and his publications include The Uses of Abundance: A

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About the Editors and the Contributors

History of New Jersey’s Economy () and, with Peter Wacker, Land Use in Early New Jersey ().

Seton Hall University, he has authored various works on New Jersey constitutional history, government, and politics.

John W. Coakley, Th.D., is L. Russell Feakes Professor of Church History at the New Brunswick Theological Seminary.

Willa Conrad is a graduate of Seattle University and the Peabody Conservatory of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, where she earned her master’s degree in music criticism. She has served as a classical music critic for newspapers in North Carolina and Ohio and, currently, for The Star-Ledger in New Jersey.

David S. Cohen received a B.A. in history from Rutgers University in , an M.A. in American history from Claremont Graduate School in , and an M.A. in  and Ph.D. in American civilization in  from the University of Pennsylvania. He currently is senior research associate and director of the Ethnic History Program at the New Jersey Historical Commission. Robert Cohen received a B.A., M.Ed., and M.S.W. from Rutgers University. He is the curator of both the Wortendyke Dutch Barn Farm Museum in Park Ridge and the Demarest House Museum at New Bridge Landing Historic Park in River Edge. His articles on early American history have appeared in de Halve Maen and other scholarly journals. Simon A. Cole, Ph.D., was a postdoctoral fellow at the Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research at Rutgers University from  to . Henry A. Coleman is an economist with a B.A. from Morehouse College and a Ph.D. from Princeton University. He currently serves as the director of the Center for Government Services, and he teaches at the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, at Rutgers University. Bettye Collier-Thomas, Ph.D., is a professor of history and the director of the Center for African-American History and Culture at Temple University. She is the author of Daughters of Thunder (), coauthor of My Soul Is a Witness (), and coeditor of Sisters in the Struggle (). Patricia F. Colrick holds a B.A. from Barnard College and an M.S. in historic preservation from the Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation. A design historian, she is the owner of Landmark Books and author of Spring Lake (), Hoboken (), and Montville (). She is editor of Toward the Light: Meditations on the Stained Glass Windows of St. Catherine Church (), and A Centennial History of St. Catherine Church (). Charles R. Colvard, Jr., is a Ph.D. candidate in geography at Rutgers University, and received a B.A. in geography from the University of North Carolina in  and an M.S. in geography from Rutgers University in . He is currently writing a dissertation on the distribution of deer and deer management in New Jersey. Bruce C. Compton received a B.A. in history from LaSalle University in , and holds certificates in oral history from Vermont College and records management from George Washington University. He is currently archivist for the Pew Charitable Trusts in Philadelphia, a member of the Gibbsboro Borough Council, and chairman of the Gibbsboro Historic Preservation Commission. William J. Connell received a B.A. from Yale University in  and a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in . He holds the Joseph M. and Geraldine C. La Motta Chair in Italian Studies in the History Department at Seton Hall University, and has published many books and articles on Italian history.

George W. Cooke holds graduate degrees from Michigan State University, New York University, and Rutgers University. He is the director of the Franklin Lakes Public Library in New Jersey, has written numerous articles for preservation and conservation journals, and has lectured widely at numerous local groups. He has served as president of the New Jersey History and Preservation Section of NJLA, and, as a CAPES consultant, has surveyed the special collections of many New Jersey libraries and institutions. Jill E. Cooper received a B.S. in biology from Bucknell University in  and a Ph.D. in the history of science, medicine, and technology from Rutgers University in . She was a postdoctoral fellow in mental health history at the Institute for Health, Health Care Policy, and Aging Research at Rutgers University. Pamela Cooper received a Ph.D. in history, specializing in twentiethcentury American history, from the University of Maine. Currently, she teaches at Baruch College. She is the author of The American Marathon (), and an assistant editor at The Encyclopedia of New York State. Linda Barone Corcoran is the associate director of corporate and foundation relations for Rutgers University. She has a B.A. in journalism and mass media, and received her master’s degree in liberal studies from Rutgers in . Timothy S. Corlis received a B.A. and an M.A. from Rutgers University. He has worked as an archivist at the New Jersey Division of Archives and Records Management, Educational Testing Service, and Rutgers University Special Collections and University Archives. Graham A. Cosmas, Ph.D., is chief of the General Histories Branch, U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington, D.C. Among his publications is An Army for Empire: The United States Army in the Spanish-American War (). Patrick Cote earned his Ph.D. in physics from McMaster University in . His postdoctoral experience includes the National Research Council of Canada (–) and the California Institute of Technology (–). He is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Rutgers University, and his research interests include galaxy formation, dark matter, and globular clusters. Nena Couch received a B.A. in , an M.M. in musicology in , degrees from George Peabody College for Teachers, and an M.L.S. in  from Vanderbilt University. She is a professor at Ohio State University and curator of the Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee Theatre Research Institute. Kevin Coughlin covers technology for The Star-Ledger. He is a Rutgers University graduate, and a former Knight Science Journalism Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Holly Pyne Connor received her B.A. from Boston University in , an M.A. from the Courtauld Institute, London University, in , and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University in . She is currently the associate curator of American art at the Newark Museum.

Bruce R. Cowen received a B.A. from Bowdoin College and an M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. He retired from the practice of medicine in  after thirty-six years as a family physician in Edison.

Richard J. Connors received a B.A. from Seton Hall College, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Columbia University. Professor emeritus at

Sheila Cowing received a B.A. from Barnard College in  and an M.F.A. from Goddard in . She has published two nonfiction

About the Editors and the Contributors

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children’s books and a book of poetry and is a freelance writer and editor now living in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Trenton (). He has also written on industrialization in America and a history of the environment and state in New England.

David E. Crabtree received a B.A. from Ohio State University in  and an L.L.B. from Harvard University in . He served for eighteen years as a judge of the Tax Court of New Jersey, retiring in .

Charles F. Cummings earned his A.B. at the University of Alabama, B.A. at Vanderbilt, and M.L.S. at Rutgers University. He is the assistant director of Special Collections at the Newark Public Library, and produces indexes and articles about New Jersey. He is also the author of the “Knowing Newark’’ column in The Star-Ledger.

Marlene Craig received a B.S. in psychology from Wayne State University, attended C.U.N.Y. City College master’s program in psychology, and earned a Certificate of Paralegal Studies from Fairleigh Dickinson University. She is a freelance writer who has resided in New Jersey for over twenty years.

Richard Cummings received degrees from Seton Hall University, Boston College, and an Ed.D. in school psychology from Rutgers University. He is a professor emeritus in the Special Education Department at New Jersey City University.

Robert W. Craig, an architectural historian with the New Jersey Historic Preservation Office in the Department of Environmental Protection, is the National Register of Historic Places coordinator for New Jersey. He holds a B.A. in history from Syracuse University and an M.S. in historic preservation from Columbia University.

Declan J. Cunniff, O.S.B., a monk of Saint Mary’s Abbey and a teacher in the religious studies department of Delbarton School, received a Th.M. from Princeton Theological Seminary in , an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in , and a D.Min. from Drew University in .

Wayne J. Crans, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Entomology at Rutgers University. He is a medical entomologist who specializes in mosquito biology, and currently serves as director of the Mosquito Research and Control Program at Cook College.

John T. Cunningham is an alumnus of Drew University, and has been long recognized as New Jersey’s foremost popular historian. He has written forty-six books, two thousand magazine articles, and eighteen documentary films, including Dreams of Distant Shores, which won a TV Emmy.

Suzanne Corlette Crilley received a B.A. from Smith College and an M.A. from the University of Pennsylvania. From  to she was curator of cultural history at the New Jersey State Museum. She has written and lectured on the decorative arts of New Jersey, and currently is a trustee of the Trent House Association and the New Hope Historical Society, Pennsylvania.

Frank A. Curcio received his undergraduate degree at Rutgers University, and his graduate education in social psychology at Yeshiva University and Kean College. He is a member of the Hunterdon County Cultural and Heritage Commission, and a national director for the Lincoln Highway Association.

Angela Cristini received a B.A. from Northeastern University and a Ph.D. from the City University of New York. She currently teaches at Ramapo College of New Jersey, and has completed several research projects on the physiology and ecology of the blue crab.

Augustine J. Curley, O.S.B., received a B.A from Assumption College in , an M.A. from Immaculate Conception Seminary of Seton Hall University in , and a Ph.D. from Boston College in . He currently teaches at Saint Benedict’s Preparatory School in Newark.

Margaret Smith Crocco, an associate professor of social studies and education at Teachers College, Columbia University, received her bachelor’s degree at Georgetown University and master’s and doctoral degrees at the University of Pennsylvania. She is coauthor of Pedagogies of Resistance: Women Educator Activists, – () and coeditor of Bending the Future to Their Will: Civic Women, Social Education, and Democracy ().

Monica A. Czaplinski, B.A., is the mayor’s secretary and deputy clerk for the Borough of Longport. She has written numerous articles on the Absecon Island communities including the Borough of Longport, Margate, and Ventnor cities as a journalist for the Downbeach Current newspaper.

Stephen D. Crocco received a Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He has written a number of articles about American theologians, and is currently the James Lenox Librarian at Princeton Theological Seminary. Carol C. Cronheim is a doctoral candidate in public policy at Rutgers University. A graduate of Princeton University, she served in Gov. Thomas H. Kean’s and President George H. W. Bush’s administrations, and as a speechwriter, acting secretary of state, and deputy chief of policy and planning for Governors Christine Todd Whitman and Donald T. DiFrancesco. Jo Ann Cubberley, C.P. (ASPRS), is the manager of the Bureau of Tidelands Management, which assists the Tidelands Resource Council. Brian J. Cudahy has written widely about transportation subjects, from subway trains and ferryboats to cruise ships and zeppelins. He earned a Ph.D. in philosophy from Saint Bonaventure University in , and retired from a position with the U.S. Department of Transportation in . John T. Cumbler is a professor of history at the University of Louisville and author of several works on New Jersey, including A Social History of Economic Decline: Business, Politics, and Work in

Richard J. Dalik is a graduate of Freehold Regional High School, . He is a native of Manalapan, and an outdoorsman and local historian, recently retired. Stephen M. Dalina, university records manager for Rutgers University, received a B.A. from Rider College and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. He also serves as a part-time lecturer at Rutgers University’s School of Communication, Information, and Library Studies. Scott Daniels lives in Mountainside, and is the chairman of the Mountainside Historic Preservation Committee. George Dawson received a B.A. from Clark University. He was formerly a newspaper reporter for the Worcester Telegram & Gazette, Providence (R.I.) Journal & Bulletin, and the Daily Home News of New Brunswick (now Home News Tribune); and a public information officer for the N.J. Board of Public Utilities. He is an organizer of the New Brunswick Historical Society and is New Brunswick’s City Historian. Anthony P. DeCondo, Sr., is a fifth grade teacher at the Nellie K. Parker Elementary School in Hackensack. He received a B.S. from Seton Hall University and an M.A. from William Paterson University. Martin Deeks worked for Ringwood State Park in New Jersey. Leonard DeGraaf is an archivist at Edison National Historic Site, National Park Service, in West Orange. He received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in  from Rutgers University. He has written several articles

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About the Editors and the Contributors

on the history of the recording industry, and is completing a Ph.D. dissertation on Edison’s phonograph business.

Richelle J. Delavan received a B.S. in behavioral sciences from Grand Canyon College, and is currently the director of practice development at Riker Danzig in its Morristown office.

in , and an M.A. in early American culture from the University of Delaware Winterthur Program. He is responsible for the restoration of the  Ballantine House in Newark, and is the editor and coauthor of The Glitter and the Gold: Fashioning America’s Jewelry ().

Alan Delozier received an A.A.S. from Mercer County College in , a B.A. from Saint Bonaventure University in , an M.A. from Villanova University in , and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . He is currently a librarian/assistant professor and university archivist at Seton Hall University.

George DiFerdinando, Jr., M.D., M.P.H., has been with the New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services since March  as its deputy commissioner for Public Health Services. He received his M.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and served as an Epidemiology Intelligence Service (EIS) officer with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and an NCI fellow in cancer epidemiology.

Kayo Denda is the women’s studies librarian at Rutgers University, New Brunswick. She received her B.S. from the Universidade Federal of Rio de Janeiro, and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in .

Maureen Dillon received a B.A. in journalism from Douglass College in . As a corporate communicator, she has researched and written business history articles.

Ellen Paul Denker received a B.A. from Grinnell College in  and an M.A. from the University of Delaware in , where she was a fellow in the Winterthur Program. She is currently a museum consultant, writer, and lecturer.

Sunday Di Palma received a B.A. from Rutgers University–Newark in , an M.S.W. from the Graduate School of Social Work in , and a Ph.D. from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences–New Brunswick in . Formerly the associate dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences–Newark, she is presently teaching in the Department of Social Work.

Lois R. Densky-Wolff received a B.A. from the University of Colorado at Boulder in  and an M.A. from the University of Denver Graduate School of Librarianship and Information Management in . She has been the archivist for the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey since  and, since , head of the Special Collections Department. Howard M. Dess received his B.S. in chemistry from Indiana University in , a Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Michigan in , and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . He currently serves as physical science resource librarian at Rutgers University’s Library of Science and Medicine. Edward Devine received a B.A. from Temple University in  and a J.D. from Rutgers Law School–Camden in . From  through , he represented the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection in complex environmental litigation. David H. DeVorkin is curator, history of astronomy and the space sciences, at the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum, and editor of Beyond Earth (). Larry A. DeYoung received a B.A. in economics from Hiram College in , an M.S. from Purdue University in , and did further graduate work at the University of Cincinnati; and, in , qualified to write for a Ph.D. at the Ohio State University. He is a New Jersey– based independent consultant and freelance writer, secretary and archivist of the Erie Lackawanna Historical Society. He spent sixteen years in Conrail management and has written seven books and numerous articles on railroad topics. Marta Mestrovic Deyrup received a B.A. from Wesleyan University, an M.A. in Russian literature from Columbia University, and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. She is assistant professor/librarian at Seton Hall University. Gloria Dickinson is the chair of the African American studies department at the College of New Jersey and a contributor to Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Keith G. Diem earned his B.S. in animal sciences and his M.S. in agricultural education from Purdue University, and his Ph.D. in extension education from Ohio State University. He is currently the program leader in educational design and an associate professor in the Department of -H Youth Development with Rutgers Cooperative Extension at Cook College, Rutgers University. Ulysses Grant Dietz, curator of decorative arts at the Newark Museum since , received his B.A. in French from Yale University

Karen Di Prima received her B.A. in communications from Millersville State University, Pennsylvania. She is the director of marketing and public relations for Fox Rothschild, LLP. She is also an accomplished freelance writer with the National Academy of Sciences and several business publications. Gloria S. Dittman has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Kathryn Smith Dodson received her undergraduate degree from the University of Delaware in  and continues to study at Rutgers University and Rowan University. Since , she has been the museum curator of the James and Ann Whitall House at Fort Mercer/Red Bank Battlefield. Delight Wing Dodyk received a B.A. from Smith College, an M.A. in women’s history from Sarah Lawrence College, and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University. She taught American women’s history at Drew University, is president of the Women’s Project of New Jersey, Inc, and is an editor of Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Jameson W. Doig received an A.B. degree from Dartmouth College in  and a Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He teaches at Princeton University, and has written on the New York–New Jersey metropolitan region and other subjects. Eugene E. Donatiello received a B.A. from Montclair State College in , and is a retired educator. He is the Brick Township historian and has written many articles and books on local history. Joann E. Donatiello received a B.A. from Drew University in , an M.A. from Rutgers University in , and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . She is the information specialist/librarian at the Center for State Health Policy at Rutgers University. Jim Donnelly received a B.S. from Saint Francis University. He is senior staff writer at the Burlington County Times in Willingboro, and has covered news and history in Burlington County for more than twenty years. Burt Doremus moved to Hopewell Township in . He was a member of its Planning Board from  until , and was township administrator and clerk from  to . In , he helped produce a “Brief Early History to Celebrate the th Anniversary of Its Formation as a Precinct of Cumberland County,’’ which can be found in the Cumberland County Library.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Sharon M. Doremus received her B.A. from the Connecticut College for Women. She is the author of two books: Shorebirds and Seagrapes: The Island Inn, – () and The Country Club of Harrisburg, – (). Jeffery M. Dorwart is a professor of history at Rutgers University– Camden. He is the author of eight books, including histories of Camden County and of Cape May County, and a history of the Philadelphia Navy Yard. John Dougherty received his B.A. in English literature in , his M.A. in elementary education in , and his doctorate in curriculum and administration in , all from Temple University. He has served as an elementary school teacher and a high school principal in Pennsylvania, and worked at Research for Better Schools in Philadelphia. He is the social studies coordinator with the New Jersey Department of Education. Andrea C. Dragon received a B.A. from Portland State University, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. She has taught at Rutgers University, Rider University, and the College of Saint Elizabeth. John W. Drew, a founder and current president of the Board of Directors of the Algonquin Arts, is responsible, along with his wife, for renovating and reopening the Algonquin Arts Theatre in Manasquan in . A chemical engineer by profession, he is founder and president of Drew Engineering, Inc., and is a fellow of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. He is a member of the Association of Performing Arts Presenters and Consortium of Eastern Regional Theaters. Mark J. Duffy received a B.A. and an M.A. from the University of Massachusetts, and is a doctoral candidate at the University of Texas, Austin. He is currently director of archives of the Episcopal Church USA. Patrick E. Dunican received his B.A. from Marquette University and an M.P.A. from New York University. He has been a judicial administrator for over twenty years with both federal and municipal courts. Ronald J. Dupont, Jr., received his B.A. from Columbia University in . He has authored two books and numerous articles and reports on local and regional history in northern New Jersey. Louise Duus received a B.A. from Oberlin College, an M.A. from the University of Michigan, and a Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. She retired as associate dean of Douglass College in , and currently teaches part-time in the American Studies Department at Rutgers University. James A. Eberwine is the marine weather and hurricane program leader at the National Weather Service. In  he flew into Hurricane Mitch, a category V storm; and, while serving in the U.S. Marine Corps, he was the weatherman for President Richard M. Nixon. Paul Eck, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus of horticulture at Cook College. In addition to The American Cranberry (), he has written Blueberry Science (), edited Blueberry Culture () with N. F. Childers, and published extensively on blueberry and cranberry culture. Hendrik Edelman is professor emeritus, Department of Library and Information Science, at Rutgers University. His historical publications include The Dutch Language Press in America: Two Centuries of Printing, Publishing, and Bookselling () and Dutch-American Bibliography, –: A Descriptive Catalog of Dutch-Language Books, Pamphlets, and Almanacs Printed in America ().

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Donald B. Edwards became president of the American Boychoir School in , after serving as vice president for advancement. Previously, he served as president of the American Repertory Ballet, and for twenty-one years, was a vice president at Rutgers University with responsibilities including communications, government relations, development, and alumni relations. Harris I. Effross received his Ph.D. from Rutgers University in . He is a professor emeritus at Rutgers, and is the author of County Governing Bodies in New Jersey: Reorganization and Reform of Boards of Chosen Freeholders, – (), Juries, Jails, and Justice: The Sheriff’s Office in New Jersey Since the Seventeenth Century (), and many other works on New Jersey local government. Robert Egan, M.L.S., M.A.T., is an associate professor and librarian at Raritan Valley Community College. Gladys Harry Eggler is a retired advertising copywriter/freelance writer. She is the past president of the Warren County Historical Society, former editor of society newsletter, former editor/contributor to Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission newsletter, and current member of the Morris Canal Committee. Joan G. Ehrenfeld, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Cook College. She has conducted extensive research in the New Jersey Pinelands. Stephen Eisdorfer, an attorney in private practice, received a B.A. from Haverford College and a J.D. from Harvard Law School, and served as law secretary to Justice Morris Pashman, New Jersey Supreme Court. He was a staff attorney with the Department of the Public Advocate, –. Lee Eisenberg graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and earned a master’s degree from the Annenberg School for Communication. He began his career at Esquire magazine and in  became editor-in-chief. He is the author of several books, including Breaking Eighty: A Journey Through the Nine Fairways of Hell () and coauthor of Atlantic City:  Years of Ocean Madness (). Sarah Elbert received her Ph.D. from Cornell University in . She currently teaches history and women’s studies at S.U.N.Y. at Binghamton. She is the author of A Hunger for Home: Louisa May Alcott’s Place in American Culture (), editor of Louisa May Alcott’s Moods () and Louisa May Alcott on Race, Sex, and Slavery (), and is currently at work on Taming the Call of the Wild: Animal Representations in Twentieth-Century America. Joseph V. Ellis received his M.A. from Temple University in . He is a professor in the History Department at the College of New Jersey. Edward G. Engelbart earned his B.A. in government–public affairs from George Washington University and his M.A. in American studies from the University of Maryland. He was a teacher for thirty-seven years, and now serves on the Pequannock Township Council. Gayle Englert received a B.A. from Syracuse University and an M.A. in public administration from Fairleigh Dickinson University. She currently holds the position as director of human resources at Cole, Schotz, Meisel, Forman, & Leonard, P.A. with more than fifteen years’ experience in law firm administration. Herbert B. Ershkowitz is a professor of history at Temple University. He is the author of The Origins of the Whig and Democratic Parties: New Jersey Politics, – () and John Wanamaker, Philadelphia Merchant (). Constance Killian Escher graduated from Vassar College, and served on the research faculty in history at Princeton University. She is a master teacher, who currently teaches history at the middle

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About the Editors and the Contributors

school in Princeton. A writer, she is finishing a full-length biography of Betsey Stockton.

She is also a senior professor at Union County College, where she teaches composition, public speaking, and literature.

Frank J. Esposito is a professor of history and a former dean of the Nathan Weiss College of Graduate Studies at Kean University.

Robert Jack Fitzpatrick received his B.A. from the Pennsylvania State University in . He is broker and vice president of operations at Diller & Fisher Realtors, and editor of The Fisherman’s Net, a Lutheran Church publication, and Stone Harbor, The Early Years. He is president emeritus Stone Harbor Museum Corporation, and former borough councilman and Chamber of Commerce president.

Robert J. Esposito is a vice president of sales, Fimat, New York City. Firth Haring Fabend received a Ph.D. from New York University in . She is the author of A Dutch Family in the Middle Colonies, –  (), Zion on the Hudson: Dutch New York and New Jersey in the Age of Revivals (), and numerous articles. Betty Faber earned her Ph.D. in entomology from Rutgers University, and worked at the American Museum of Natural History for ten years. She now works at the Liberty Science Center. John Fabiano received a B.A. from Boston College in . He is president of the Allentown–Upper Freehold Historical Society and designated historian of Allentown. He is pursuing a master’s degree in public history at Rutgers University–Camden. Melissa Fabros, doctoral candidate in English at the University of California at Berkeley, is completing her dissertation on American poetry. She received an M.A. and a B.A. in English from the University of California at Riverside. Mark W. Falzini is the archivist of the New Jersey State Police Museum. He received a B.A. in history from Trenton State College and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. William R. Farr is a retired attorney at law, who received an L.L.B. from Temple University in  and practiced law in Camden County for forty years. He lived most of his life in Barrington, and has researched the place names of Camden County for the past thirty-five years. John Fea received his Ph.D. in American history from the State University of New York at Stony Brook in . His dissertation focused on the early religious history of southern New Jersey. He currently teaches in the History Department at Messiah College. Roger J. Fechner, Ph.D., is professor emeritus of history at Adrian College. He has published essays on Robert Burns, Adam Smith, and John Witherspoon. Alvin S. Felzenberg received a B.A. and M.A. from Rutgers University, and a Ph.D. and M.A. in politics from Princeton University. He is deputy director for communications at the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks on the United States. He has held several senior posts on the majority staff of the House of Representatives, and served as New Jersey’s assistant secretary of state in the s. He writes, comments, and lectures on national and New Jersey affairs, and is currently writing a biography of Gov. Thomas H. Kean. Laurence D. Fish, S.T.M., is rector of Saint David’s Episcopal Church in Cranbury, archivist and historian of the Episcopal Diocese of New Jersey, and editor of the Via Media, the diocesan newspaper. Jim Fisher, a former FBI agent and current criminal justice professor at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, has written two books on the Lindbergh kidnapping case. He is also the author of Fall Guys: False Confessions and the Politics of Murder () and Crimson Stain (). Sondra B. Fishinger received a B.A. and M.A. from Kean University, an M.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University, and a Ph.D. from Drew University. Her doctoral dissertation is entitled “Mary E. Wilkins Freeman: The Life of Her Work, the New Jersey Years.’’ She has served as a member and president of the Rahway Library Board, and is currently a member of the New Jersey Council for the Humanities.

Tracy Schpero Fitzpatrick earned a Ph.D. in art history from Rutgers University. She received a B.A. from Tufts University, an M.A. from George Washington University, and was formerly an assistant curator at the National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. Joan E. Fleming received a B.A. in English from Oxford University in , and an M.Div. in  and a Th.M. in  from Princeton Theological Seminary. In  she was installed as the rector of Christ Church, New Brunswick. Stephen Fleming received his B.A. from Brigham Young University in  and his master’s from California State University, Stanislaus, in . Marie C. Flynn is past president of the Women’s Political Caucus of New Jersey, and is senior portfolio manager and vice president of Glenmede Trust Company. She received a B.A. from Trinity College, and holds the Chartered Financial Analyst and Certified Financial Planner designations. Thomas Folk earned his Ph.D. in American art. He is the associate curator of the James Michener Museum, and an adjunct lecturer in the Department of Fine Arts at Saint Peter’s College in Jersey City. Susan E. Ford, Ph.D., is a research professor in the Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University. She works at the Haskin Shellfish Research Laboratory studying shellfish disease prevention and control. Jo Renee Formicola received a B.A. from Le Moyne College, an M.A. from Georgetown University, and a Ph.D. from Drew University. She is a professor of political science at Seton Hall University, and is the author/editor of five books and numerous articles in the field of politics. David J. Fowler received a Ph.D. from Rutgers University in . He served as the director of the David Library of the American Revolution in Washington Crossing, Pennsylvania, and is currently an independent historian. Michael Fowler received a B.S. in marketing in  and an M.A. in business education in  from Seton Hall University. He received an M.B.A from Monmouth University in , and is currently professor of marketing at Brookdale Community College. W. James Franklin received a B.A. from S.U.N.Y. at Oswego and an M.A. from Hofstra University. A professor of English and journalism at Mercer County Community College, he is the author of Inside Out: Fifty Years behind the Walls of Trenton State Prison (). Kenneth French was the head librarian of the New Jersey Room of the Jersey City Free Public Library from  through . He received his B.A. in  and his M.L.S. in  from Rutgers University. He is the author of Jersey City, –: The Dan McNulty Collection (). Raymond Frey, Ph.D., is an associate professor of history and dean of the faculty at Centenary College in Hackettstown. He is the author of William James Durant: An Intellectual Biography () as well as numerous book reviews, essays, and encyclopedia articles.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Robert Fridlington is a professor emeritus of history at Kean University. He received a B.A. and an M.A. from Drake University. He is the editor of The Reconstruction Court (), and has written for New Jersey History and other journals. John Fritz earned his A.B. from William and Mary College and his M.A. from Princeton University. He is professor emeritus of history at Fairleigh Dickinson University, and is a retired executive vice president of the U.S. Equestrian Team. J. William Frost was the Jenkins Professor of Quaker History and Research at Swarthmore College, and director of the Friends Historical Library. He has written many articles and books on Quaker history. Jack Fruchtman, Jr., Ph.D., is a professor of political science at Towson University. He is the author and editor of six books, including two on Thomas Paine. Thomas J. Frusciano received his B.A. from William Paterson University in  and an M.A. from the University of Montana in . He currently serves as the university archivist of Rutgers University. Amelia R. Fry is a widely recognized authority on women’s international equality leader Alice Paul. As a teacher, researcher, interviewer, editor, and producer of seventy-five oral history volumes at the University of California–Berkeley, she has also authored dozens of published articles, and has consulted for several TV documentaries, books, articles, and dissertations. Randall Gabrielan is the executive director of the Monmouth County Historical Commission. He has written and lectured extensively on a variety of New Jersey subjects. Debra Galant writes the “Jersey’’ column for the New York Times. She has also written for New Jersey Monthly and many other publications. William B. Gallagher received a B.A. from Rutgers University and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. He is registrar of natural history at the New Jersey State Museum, and an adjunct faculty member of the Department of Geological Sciences at Rutgers University. Kathleen P. Galop is a principal of Preservation Possibilities. She received a B.A. in history from Caldwell College and a J.D. from the Dickinson School of Law of the Pennsylvania State University. Joan Garb has a B.A. from Skidmore College () and an M.A. from New York University (). Laura Garber received a B.A. from Ithaca College in . After working in book and magazine publishing, she is currently a freelance writer. Vince Gargiulo is the founder and executive director of the Palisades Amusement Park Historical Society, and maintains the Palisades Amusement Park website at www.palisadespark.com. Russell L. Gasero has an undergraduate degree from Hope College and a graduate degree from Rutgers University. He has been an archivist of the Reformed Church in America since , and has held leadership positions in a variety of regional and national archival associations. Randy Gaugler received a B.S. from North Dakota State University in , an M.S. from North Carolina State University in , and a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin in . He currently teaches biology at Rutgers University, where he pursues his research interests in parasitology. Charles T. Gehring received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in  from West Virginia University, and a Ph.D. from Indiana University in . He currently is director of the New Netherland Project, a privately

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funded translation program located in the New York State Library in Albany.

Peter Genovese is a feature writer for The Star-Ledger and the author of The Jersey Shore Uncovered (), The Great American Road Trip: U.S. , Maine to Florida (), Jersey Diners (), and Roadside New Jersey (). Ellen Gerstle, Ph.D., is a professor at Fairleigh Dickinson University. She has lectured on Philip Roth and written about him for Studies in American Jewish Literature. Janet Frances Gibbs received her B.A. in history and literature from American University, her Litt.M. from Drew University, and is currently working on her Litt.D. at Drew. She has published poetry and nonfiction, and is a middle school teacher. Ron Gibbs served as the assistant to the director of the Paper Mill Playhouse. Carolyn DeSwarte Gifford has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Ellen D. Gilbert received a D.L.S. from Columbia University in . She is currently social sciences librarian at Rutgers University, and does research on U.S. publishing history. Gregory Gilbert received a B.F.A. from the University of Kansas, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Rutgers University. He is an assistant professor of art history at Knox College, and author of George Overbury “Pop’’ Hart: His Life and Art () and other publications on twentiethcentury American art. LaVerne McCain Gill received a B.A. from Howard University, an M.B.A. from Rutgers University, and an M. Div and Th.M. from Princeton Theological Seminary. She is author of three books, including African American Women in Congress (), and is currently a lecturer and an ordained minister in the United Church of Christ. Maria Mazziotti Gillan is the executive director of the Cultural Affairs Department and the Poetry Center at Passaic County Community College. She has published seven books of poetry, including Where I Come From () and Things My Mother Told Me (). Angus Kress Gillespie received a B.A. from Yale University in  and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in . He currently teaches American studies at Rutgers University, where he founded and directs the New Jersey Folk Festival. Howard Gillette, Jr., received his B.A. and Ph.D. in American studies from Yale University. Currently, he is a professor of history at Rutgers University–Camden, where he is writing a book on the impact of disinvestment on the city of Camden. William Gillette earned his Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He currently teaches history at Rutgers University. He has written two books on the national political history of Reconstruction and Jersey Blue: A Reappraisal of Civil-War Politics in New Jersey, – (). Michele M. Gisbert is the assistant to the director and subsidiary rights manager at Rutgers University Press. She received a B.A. from Rutgers University and an M.A. from the University of Delaware. Monica R. Gisolfi is working on her dissertation at Columbia University. She received a B.A. from Barnard College and an M.A. in United States history from Columbia University. Jeffrey Glassberg is president of the North American Butterfly Association, and author of Butterflies through Binoculars (), a series of field guides.

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Harry Glazer is the communications coordinator for the Rutgers University Libraries. His work has appeared in the Home News Tribune, The Star Ledger, the Highland Park Herald, and the Jewish State.

William M. Gordon studied journalism at Marietta College, and is currently a staff feature writer at The Star-Ledger. Previously, he was a reporter at the Newark News.

Bill Glovin is senior editor of Rutgers Magazine, the flagship publication of Rutgers University. He is former editor of New Jersey Business magazine, managing editor of New Jersey Success, and staff writer for The Record.

Agnes Tracy Gottlieb received her doctorate in public communication in  from the University of Maryland, with a concentration in journalism history. She is the dean of freshman studies at Seton Hall University, as well as a professor of women’s studies and communication. She is the author of Women Journalists and the Municipal Housekeeping Movement, – (), and the coauthor of One Thousand Years, One Thousand People: Ranking the Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium ().

Anne Marie Glowacz is a graduate of Rowan University and earned a master’s degree in public relations from Rowan University. She is the director of Naval Air Station Wildwood Aviation Museum. Michael Gochfeld, M.D., Ph.D., a physician and ecologist, is a professor of environmental and community medicine at the University of Medicine and Dentistry’s Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and a member of the Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute. He specializes in medical problems related to exposure to hazardous chemical, physical, and infectious agents in the home and workplace environment; he also conducts behavioralecology research on birds and butterflies. Barbara L. Godbold is a high school teacher and world traveler. She received a B.A. from Montclair University, an M.A. from Montclair University, and an Ed.D. from Rutgers University. David Golden received a B.S. in biology from Kutztown University in  and an M.S. in zoology from Miami University in . He currently works as a biologist for the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife’s Endangered and Nongame Species Program. Cynthia Martin Goldsmith holds an M.S. degree in historic preservation from the Graduate School of Architecture and Planning of Columbia University. She currently is the executive director of the New Jersey Museum of Agriculture. Steve Golin received a B.A. from Wesleyan University and a Ph.D. from Brandeis University. He is a professor of history at Bloomfield College, and writes about New Jersey working-class history. He is the author of The Newark Teacher Strikes: Hopes on the Line (). Evelyn Gonzalez, Ph.D., is an associate professor of history at William Paterson University. She has written entries for the Encyclopedia of New York City (), articles, and a book, The Bronx (), on the urbanization of the Bronx. Marfy Goodspeed, historian for Delaware Township from  to , is working on a history of the township. Under the business name of Goodspeed House Histories, she has been researching the history of private houses in Hunterdon County for their owners since . Ann D. Gordon received an A.B. from Smith College, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. She is Research Professor of History at Rutgers University, and is the editor of the multivolume Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (–), and the author of articles on the woman suffrage movement. Anne Connor Gordon received a B.S. from Rutgers University in . She currently serves as public information officer for Piscataway, is the writer/editor of Piscataway News, a quarterly newsletter, and produces the Channel  television program “Eye on Piscataway.’’ Felice D. Gordon received her B.A. in History from Antioch College, an M.Ed., and M.A. and Ph.D. in American history from Rutgers University. She is the author of the book After Winning: The Legacy of the New Jersey Suffragists, – (). Pat Gordon is the director of development at Saint Vincent Academy.

Joseph Gowaskie teaches courses in U.S. and world history at Rider University. He has written Workers in New Jersey History (), a volume in the New Jersey History Series. Emily Grant worked for the Women’s Fund of New Jersey. H. Roger Grant received a Ph.D. from the University of Missouri in . He is a professor of history at Clemson University, and the author of several books on railroad history. J. Frederick Grassle received a B.S. from Yale University in  and a Ph.D. from Duke University in . He is currently a professor of marine and coastal sciences and director of the Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University. Jeffrey Gray, associate professor of English at Seton Hall University, is the author of numerous critical articles and a forthcoming book, The Trouble with Travel, which treats late twentieth-century poetry in the Americas. A native of Seattle, he has lived and taught in Latin America, the South Pacific, Asia, and Europe. Howard Green is the research director of the New Jersey Historical Commission. He is the author of Words That Make New Jersey History (), and numerous articles and reviews. A specialist in oral history, he is a past president of the Oral History Association. Shirley Green attended Southside High School in Newark. She is the founder and general director of the Whitesboro History Museum and executive director of the Whitesboro Historical Foundation. She has also published a book about the history of Whitesboro. Frank L. Greenagel received a B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota, and taught there, and at the University of Colorado. He is managing director of Guided Learning Systems, LLC, and author of The New Jersey Churchscape (). Brian Greenberg received his Ph.D. from Princeton University, and is the Jules Plangere Chair in American Social History at Monmouth University and chair of the Department of History and Anthropology. He is the author of numerous works on labor history. Gail Greenberg received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in American history in  from Hunter College. From  to , she was the Camden County historian and executive director of the Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission. She is currently the county’s historic preservation professional. Michael R. Greenberg received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in , and writes about public health and economic revitalization. He served as codirector of the New Jersey Graduate Program in Public Health for twenty years, and directs the National Center for Neighborhood and Brownfields Redevelopment. Larry A. Greene received a Ph.D. in American history from Columbia University in , and is currently a professor of history and director of the Multicultural Program at Seton Hall University.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Lise Greene works for the Office of Communications, Montclair State University. Deborah S. Greenhut, Ph.D., founded Priority Consulting in  to develop and deliver training programs. She has served as an editorial consultant for the Journal of International Business Studies at Rutgers University. Constance M. Greiff is an author and preservation consultant. A graduate of Vassar College, she studied architectural history at the Institute of Fine Arts at New York University. Her works include Princeton Architecture () (coauthor), Lost America (), John Notman (), and Independence: The Creation of a National Park (). James Greller is a transportation executive with New Jersey Transit and the New Jersey Department of Transportation. He assisted in the creation and development of the Hudson-Bergen Light Rail Transit line, PORTWAY, the Newark-Elizabeth Rail Link extensions, and other transportation innovations. Robert D. Griffin received a B.A. in English and English literature from the University of Colorado (Boulder) and an M.S. in business from Columbia University. He is president of Bergen Historic Books, Inc., and makes his living as a publisher and bookseller. He is active in many historical and genealogical organizations, including the Bergen County Historical Society and the Genealogical Society of New Jersey. David Griffith received a Ph.D. from the University of Florida in , and is currently a professor at East Carolina University specializing in economic anthropology, labor studies, migration, and the Caribbean. Lee Ellen Griffith received her Ph.D. in American civilization from the University of Pennsylvania in . She currently is the executive director of the Monmouth County Historical Association, and serves on the New Jersey Historic Trust. Irving G. Grossman received a B.A. from Brooklyn College in  and an M.A. from Columbia University in . He has authored or coauthored about thirty scientific and technical publications on geology and hydrogeology, and is currently a consulting reports and publications editor. Alissa Grosso, a graduate of Rutgers University, is an employee of Waterloo Foundation for the Arts, Inc. Susan Charles T. Groth received a B.A. from Middlebury College in , an M.A. from the College of New Jersey in , an M.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in , and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in . She is currently chair of Social Sciences and Humanities at DeVry College of Technology, and has published on Girl Scouting and northwestern New Jersey folk culture. Marion Grzesiak, an art historian, is executive director of the Jersey City Museum. She received a B.A. from Kean University and an M.A. from Rutgers University. Krista Gulbin received a B.A. in English from Rutgers University in . She was an editorial assistant for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey and an intern at Rutgers University Press. R. Eric Gustafson attended Columbia University and Queens College, earning his B.A. in English and theater, and he earned his M.F.A. in theater directing at Carnegie Mellon. He has curated several museum exhibitions at many locations, including the Museum of the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center. As a journalist, he covers music and international travel, and he spent twenty years creating and directing cultural activities for Apollo Muses.

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Martin L. Haines received an A.B. degree from Lafayette College in  and an LLB degree from the University of Pennsylvania in . He is a retired New Jersey Superior Court assignment judge, was president of the New Jersey State Bar Association in , and has published over  judicial opinions. Thea Halo attended the Cooper Union School of Art and Architecture, and has since shown her paintings in galleries and museums in the American northeast and Canada. She is the writer of many poems and short stories, and she has constructed radio plays, based on short stories, for National Public Radio. Joseph V. Hamburger received a B.A. from Rutgers University in  and an M.S. from Virginia Commonwealth University in . He has published book and record reviews and articles on popular culture in newspapers in several states including New Jersey. Susan Hamburger received a B.A. in  and an M.L.S. in  from Rutgers University, and an M.A. in  and Ph.D. in  from Florida State University. She is currently the manuscripts librarian at Pennsylvania State University, and has written several biographical entries on New Jerseyans for the American National Biography (). Sandy Brown Hamingson received a B.S. in industrial design from Purdue University in , and studied English architecture and preservation at Christ Church College, Oxford University. She is a member of the Society of Architectural Historians, twice serving as president of the New Jersey chapter. Cynthia Hammell received an A.A. from Middlesex County College, and a B.A. and M.L.S. from Rutgers University. She has worked for the Rutgers library system and in the Arthur K. White Library at Somerset Christian College. Martine Hammond-Paludan received a B.S. degree from the University of Texas, Austin, an M.S. from the University of Texas, El Paso, and a Ph.D. from Syracuse University. She is a senior consultant with the Education Alliance in Framingham, Massachusetts; and from  to , she was executive director for the New Jersey Commission on Higher Education. She has published in the Journal of Higher Education, the College Board Review, and the Review of Higher Education. Steven N. Handel is professor of ecology and evolution at Rutgers University, and does research and field projects to improve native habitats. He received his B.A. from Columbia College in  and Ph.D. from Cornell University in . Marc Handelman is a lawyer in a Manhattan law firm. Ella Handen has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Nathan Handlin is the Marlboro Township historian. He received a B.A., an M.B.A., and a Ph.D. from New York University, an M.S. from Columbia University, and is the author of Marlboro Township: A Rich History, a Bright Future (). Christopher Hann is the senior editor of New Jersey Monthly. He has received state and national journalism awards for feature writing, enterprise reporting, business reporting, and investigative reporting. Bruce Hanson received his B.A. in journalism from Rutgers University. He lives and works in Hightstown. Lisa M. Gillard Hanson received a B.A. in journalism from Douglass College. She currently serves as communications manager for the State Theatre in New Brunswick. Joseph Haro has been a member of the Haddonfield Historic Preservation Commission for ten years. He has been a guide with the

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Philadelphia Museum of Art for thirty years, and also with Walk Philadelphia and the Kimmel Center. He is a professor emeritus of business administration/marketing at Camden County College.

Robert W. Harper, Ph.D., worked in the Department of History at Glassboro State College in New Jersey. Erin V. Harrell is currently the administrative coordinator for Creative Glass Center of America. She received a B.F.A. from Moore College of Art and Design, and an M.S. in Arts and Cultural Management from Rosemont College. Margaret L. Harrer received a B.A. from Brown University. She is president of the Water Works Conservancy, and has been writing about the Historic Hackensack Water Company site since . Cynthia Harris received a B.A. from Saint Peter’s College in  and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . She taught in the Jersey City Public Schools for twenty-five years, and is now the department supervisor of the New Jersey Room of the Jersey City Public Library. Sheldon Harris has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Charles H. Harrison is the author of eight books, including Salem County: A Story of People (). He has also written about New Jersey for such magazines as INSIDE, Motor Home, New Jersey Country Roads, and Trailer Life. William Hart received a B.S. from Montclair State College in  and an M.B.A. from Rutgers University in . He is the author of East Orange in Vintage Postcards (). Dorothy W. Hartman received a B.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University and an M.A. in American history from Rutgers University. She has been a consultant for public history and history museums for the past twenty years. Nathaniel H. Hartshorne was director of publications at Princeton Theological Seminary until his retirement in . His articles have been published in Harper’s, the New York Times, McCall’s, and other publications. John Hasse is an assistant professor of geography at Rowan University. He received a B.S. from Rowan University, an M.S. in geography from Rutgers University, an M.S. in planning from the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, and a Ph.D. in geography from Rutgers University. John Hassell is a staff writer for The Star-Ledger. He received a B.A. from Cornell University in . Rachel Hatzipetros received her B.A. in journalism and media studies from Rutgers University in . She was an editorial assistant for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. Jessie Havens is a journalist whose “Hindsight’’ column has been appearing weekly in the Somerset Messenger-Gazette since . She is the author of Somerset County: Three Centuries of Progress (), coauthored Somerset County – (), and contributed to Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Philip A. Hayden received a B.A. from Connecticut College and an M.A. from the Winterthur Program at the University of Delaware. He recently oversaw the public tour program at the State Capitol, and has worked for the Historical Society of Princeton and the New Jersey Historical Society. Priscilla E. Hayes received an A.B. from Princeton University in  and a J.D. from Duke University in . She coordinates the New

Jersey Solid Waste Policy Group at Cook College, and is completing a book on Feltville.

Sharon Hazard graduated from Rutgers University with a degree in journalism. She has written articles for newspapers and magazines, and was the illustrations editor for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. John David Healy received a B.A. from Rutgers Newark in , a J.D. from Rutgers Newark Law School in , and an M.A. from American University in . He is engaged in the practice of law, has written numerous articles on legal history, and is a D.Litt. candidate at Drew University. Jeffery Heim is a former Ocean County–based reporter and editor of the Point Pleasant Historical Society newsletter. Kathleen Ferris Heim received a B.A. from Franklin and Marshall College in . She is museum curator and past president of the Point Pleasant Historical Society, author of the  centennial history, Point Pleasant Beach: Celebrating the Early Years (). She was also the Ocean County–based reporter and editor of the Point Pleasant Historical Society newsletter. Rita Rubinstein Heller received her Ph.D. from Rutgers University, and she is an associate professor of history at the County College of Morris, where she created its Local History Program. She produced the documentary films Chanceman’s Brothers and Sisters: The Origins of the Twentieth-Century Morris County Black Community and The Women of Summer: The Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers. James N. J. Henwood, a professor of history at East Stroudsburg University, received a B.S. from West Chester University, and an A.M. and Ph.D. in history from the University of Pennsylvania. He has written two books (one as coauthor), several articles, and is book review editor of Railroad History and the National Railway Bulletin. Robert Herman is a professor in the Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience at Rutgers University. His Ph.D. thesis was done under the direction of Dr. Leslie Stauber. Gregory Herringshaw received a B.F.A. from Wayne State University and an M.A. from the Fashion Institute of Technology, S.U.N.Y. He is currently a museum specialist in the Wallcoverings Department at the Cooper-Hewitt, National Design Museum, Smithsonian Institution, New York. Frederick M. Herrmann received a B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in , and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University. He has worked in state government for over twenty-five years, is the author of publications about history and government, and is a member of the Editorial Board of Public Integrity and a Trustee of the Friends of the State House. Evelyn M. Hershey received a B.A. from Douglass College in , an M.A. from Rutgers University in , and is a Ph.D. candidate at Pennsylvania State University. She is currently the education director at the American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark. Cynthia Hertlik was the public information officer for the Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission. Mark Alan Hewitt received a B.A. from Yale University in  and an M.Arch. from the University of Pennsylvania in . He is an architect, teacher at Drew University and Rutgers University, architectural historian, and the author of The Architect and the American Country House () and Gustav Stickley’s Craftsman Farms: The Quest for an Arts and Crafts Utopia (). Brian O. Hill earned his B.A. at Trenton State College in , and is pursuing his master’s degree in museum management at Seton Hall University. He has extensive consulting experience with Grounds

About the Editors and the Contributors

for Sculpture and Johnson Atelier. He is the director/curator at Ellarslie.

John Paul Hill received a B.A. from Transylvania University in  and an M.A. from Western Kentucky University in . He has published articles in The Filson History Quarterly and The Historian. David Hinckley received a B.A. from Drew University in , and since , has written about popular culture for the New York Daily News. Rudy Hirschmann is IT manager of the Einstein Papers Project at Caltech. He received a B.A. from Valparaiso University, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Colorado. David Hochfelder is an assistant editor of the Thomas Edison Papers at Rutgers University. He has advanced degrees in both electrical engineering and history, and he is currently writing a book on the history of the American telegraph industry. Sheldon Hochheiser received a B.A. from Reed College, and an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. He is a corporate historian for AT&T, and has written and lectured widely on the history of telecommunications. He is the author of Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (). Lawrence D. Hogan received a B.A. from Fairfield University in , an M.A. from the University of Connecticut in , and a Ph.D. from Indiana University in . He currently serves as senior professor of history at Union County College and is a founder of, and serves as secretary to, the John Henry “Pop’’ Lloyd Committee of Atlantic City. Richard A. Hogarty received a B.A. from Dartmouth College in , an M.G.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in , and a Ph.D. from Princeton University in . He is professor emeritus and senior fellow at the McCormack Institute of Public Affairs at the University of Massachusetts in Boston. He has written several articles on New Jersey state and local politics. Briavel Holcomb, Ph.D., is a professor at the Bloustein School of Rutgers University. She has written extensively on urban redevelopment and tourism. Robert M. Hordon received a B.A. from Brooklyn College, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Columbia University. He currently teaches physical geography at Rutgers University, and has written numerous articles and reports on water and other environmental issues in New Jersey. Shirley J. Horner received a B.A. from New York University in , an M.A. in , and an M.Phil. in  from Columbia University. She is an editor of Ladies at the Crossroads (), author of Conserving Communities: Urban and Suburban (), and a contributor to the New York Times Book Review, Publishers Weekly, and Horizon. Stephen Hoskins graduated from Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, and from Harvard Law School in . He has been with McCarter and English, LLP, since , and is now a senior partner. He grew up in Morristown. Ellen Hostetter graduated from Douglass College, receiving a B.A. in American studies. She also completed the landscape architecture program at Cook College. Charles M. Hubbard, a Fulbright Scholar, received his Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee. He is vice president and associate professor of history at Lincoln Memorial University, where he also serves as director of the Abraham Lincoln Library and Museum. His books include The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy (), Lincoln and His Contemporaries (), and The Many Faces of Lincoln () (coauthor).

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Connie O. Hughes is a commissioner of the New Jersey Board of Public Utilities, and a former deputy commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Labor. She received an M.C.R.P. degree from Rutgers University in . James W. Hughes is dean of the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy at Rutgers University. He received his Ph.D. from Rutgers University in , and has written extensively on demographics. Pat Pizzini Huizing was executive director of Preservation New Jersey from  to . She has fifteen years’ experience working with nonprofit organizations in communications and development. Elizabeth Hull received her B.A. from Whitman College in Walla Walla, Washington, and her Ph.D. from the Graduate Faculty of the New School for Social Research. She has been an associate professor of political science at Rutgers University–Newark since . She has written two books—Without Justice for All: The Constitutional Rights of Aliens () and Taking Liberties: National Barriers to the Free Flow of Ideas ()—and is working on a new book, focusing on the disfranchisement of ex-felons. Nick Humez teaches mythology at Montclair State University. In the s, he served as the principal music reporter for the Portland Press Herald/Maine Sunday Telegram. The coauthor of several books, including Latin for People/Latina pro Populo () and Alpha to Omega: The Life and Times of the Greek Alphabet (), he also writes an etymology column for VERBATIM: The Language Quarterly. He is a life member of the British Society of Indexers. Taras Hunczak received a Ph.D. from the University of Vienna in , and has since taught for the History Department at Rutgers University. He specializes in Russian, Ukrainian, and Eastern European history, and has edited and contributed to many publications on these topics. Gary Hunter received a B.A. from Lincoln University and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Michigan. He served as a professor of history at Rowan University. Richard W. Hunter is president of Hunter Research of Trenton, a historical and archaeological research consulting firm. He holds a Ph.D. from Rutgers University, an M.A. from Bradford University, England, a B.A. from Birmingham University, England, and he teaches as an adjunct faculty member in the historic preservation certificate program at Drew University. Robert J. Hunter is the director of the Haddon Heights Public Library. He received a B.A. from Washington College in Maryland, an M.A. in history from the University of Rhode Island, and a master’s degree in library science from Rutgers University. Michael Immerso is a cultural historian, publicist, and social activist. He received a B.A. in  from Rutgers University–Newark. He is the author of Newark’s Little Italy: The Vanished First Ward () and Coney Island: The People’s Paradise (). Joseph Ingerson-Mahar, M.S., is the vegetable integrated pest management coordinator for Rutgers University. He has produced several extension publications and newsletter and newspaper articles on pest management and crop production, and book chapters on integrated pest management and insect morphology. Britta M. Ipri received a B.A. from Rutgers University in . She currently works as assistant director of University Relations at Rutgers University. Paul Israel, Ph.D., is coeditor of the Thomas A. Edison Papers at Rutgers University. He is author of Edison: A Life of Invention ()

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About the Editors and the Contributors

and From Machine Shop to Industrial Laboratory: Telegraphy and the Changing Context of American Invention, – ().

Patrice M. Kane is head of Archives and Special Collections at Fordham University Library.

Joseph Jacobs served as the curator of American art at the Newark Museum from  to . He received his B.A. in history from Rutgers University and an M.A. in art history from Brown University.

Carmela Ascolese Karnoutsos received a B.A. from New Jersey City University in , and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from New York University. She is a professor of history at New Jersey City University, and the author of New Jersey Women: A History of Their Status, Roles, and Images () and an associate editor of Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women () by the Women’s Project of New Jersey.

Caroline Wheeler Jacobus received a B.A. from Mount Holyoke College and an M.S.W. from Rutgers Graduate School of Social Work. Throughout her career, she has served as director of research at New Jersey’s Commission on Sex Discrimination in the Statutes, executive director of the Essex County Court Appointed Special Advocate, and, most recently, as director of community outreach at Broadway House for Continuing Care, which is New Jersey’s only specialized HIV/AIDS skilled nursing and rehabilitation facility. Nancy Van Doren James received a B.A. in fine arts and photography from Glassboro State College (now Rowan University) in . A former graphic designer, she is currently a writer and journalist. Edward A. Jardim majored in journalism at Temple University in Philadelphia before going on to a long career as reporter and editor for various newspapers, including the New York Daily News. Now semi-retired, he writes and edits travel articles for APA Insight Guides. Timothy Jecko, B.A., M.F.A., Yale University, is a newspaper columnist and theater critic. He teaches writing and personal communication skills, and is a former Broadway and television actor and Olympic swimmer. Regina Jennings received a B.A. in , an M.A. in , and a Ph.D. in  from Temple University. She currently teaches African American literature at Rutgers University, and has written a number of articles on the literature of the civil rights movement. ¨ chle, D.V.M., diplomate of the American College of TheWolfgang Jo riogenology, was an honorary professor at the Veterinary School of Hanover, Germany. He is a retired consultant to the pharmaceutical industry. Anthony P. Johnson is a minister of the First Unitarian Universalist Church of Essex County. He received an A.B. from Boston University, an M.Div. from Harvard Divinity School, and an M.S. from the New School University. Patricia Johnson received her B.A. from the State University of New York at New Paltz in . She is a reporter for The SandPaper and the Tuckerton, Little Egg Harbor Township Leader, a contributing author of Stafford Chronicles: A History of Manahawkin, New Jersey (), and president of the Tuckerton Historical Society. Daniel P. Jones earned his B.A. in history from Carleton College in  and his Ph.D. in history from Brown University in . He worked for twenty years as an archivist and publications manager at the New Jersey State Archives. Katherine Jones received a B.A. from East Stroudsburg University in  and an M.A. in museum professions from Seton Hall University in . She is currently employed as the collections manager at the Vietnam Era Educational Center.

James A. Kaser received a B.A. from Kenyon College in , an M.L.S. from Kent State University in , and a Ph.D. from Bowling Green State University in . He is currently the director of services at the Godine Library of Massachusetts College of Art. Paula Kassell graduated from Barnard College in . She was the founder and first editor/publisher of New Directions for Women, and now is vice president and representative at the United Nations for the Women’s Institute for Freedom of the Press. Avrum Katcher graduated from Pennsylvania State College, and earned his M.D. from Johns Hopkins Medical School in . He served as a pediatrician at the Hunterdon Medical Center from  to . Frank F. Katz received a B.Sc. in biology from the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science in , an M.Sc. in parasitology from Tulane University in , and a Ph.D. in parasitology from the University of Pennsylvania in . He is professor emeritus at Seton Hall University, and is currently an independent scholar in the history of biology and medicine. Stanley N. Katz teaches public policy and history at the Woodrow Wilson School of Princeton University. He began his career as an historian of colonial New York and New Jersey. Philip M. Kayal received his degree at Fordham University in , and is a former chair of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Seton Hall University. He is a recognized scholar on Arab immigration and Arab American communities in the United States, having published numerous articles and several books on these topics, including editing The Coming of the Arabic-Speaking People to the United States by Adele Younis (). Jan Kelsey received a B.A. from Vassar College in  and an M.L.S. from Long Island University in . She is currently the head of reference at the William D. Walsh Family Library at Fordham University. P. C. Kemeny, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of religion and humanities at Grove City College. He is author of Princeton in the Nation’s Service: Religious Ideals and Educational Practice, – (). June O. Kennedy received her A.A. in journalism from Fairleigh Dickinson University and a B.A. in humanities from Thomas Edison State College. She is author of A Sketchbook of Little Silver History (); A History of the Library in Basking Ridge (); Around and About Basking Ridge, Liberty Corner, and Lyons (), and numerous other local histories.

Anna Kane has written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women ().

Amy Kesselman received her Ph.D. in history at Cornell University and her master’s degree in history at Portland State University. She is a professor in the Women’s Studies Department at the State University of New York at New Paltz, and author of the book Fleeting Opportunities: Women Shipyard Workers in Portland and Vancouver during World War II and Reconversion ().

Joyce Kane received a B.S. from Seton Hall University in , and teaches elementary school in Colonia. She currently resides in Island Heights, and is a member of the Cultural and Heritage Society of Ocean County.

Ann Kessler received her B.A. in history from Gettysburg College in  and her M.A.L.S. from the University of Michigan in . Based in Washington, D.C., she currently researches and writes on banking issues.

Ralph H. Jones received an A.B. degree from Indiana University. A journalist who retired in , he is a trustee of the Westfield Historical Society and of the Proprietary House in Perth Amboy.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Kathryn P. Kimball received a B.A. from Brigham Young University in  and an M.A. in journalism from New York University in . During graduate school, she worked as a reporter for the Jersey Journal in Jersey City. Edward Kissling received his B.A. from Marist College in , an M.A. from California Coast University in , and a J.D. from Seton Hall University in . He currently teaches business and history at Ocean County College. Jerome E. Klein received a B.A. from Oberlin College in  and did postgraduate work at the University of Wisconsin and Bristol College (England). He has published thirty-four books, mostly on travel, and articles on travel in several hundred U.S. and foreign publications. Milton M. Klein received his bachelor’s degree in  and his M.S. in education in  from the City College of New York, and his Ph.D. from Columbia University in . He has taught colonial American history and American legal history at Long Island University, the State University of New York at Fredonia, New York University School of Law, and the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. He is professor of history emeritus at the University of Tennessee. Susan E. Klepp has a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania, and is a professor of history at Temple University. She is on the executive councils of the McNeil Center for Early American Studies and the Pennsylvania Historical Association, and has published several books and articles on the history of the region. Thomas Koch received his Ph.D. in musicology from Rutgers University, where he served as lecturer. He also holds degrees in piano performance and music education from Oberlin College Conservatory. Brigitte Koenig received an A.B. from Occidental College in , an M.A. from the University of California at Berkeley in , and a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in . She is an assistant professor of history at Seton Hall University, and has published on the American left. Terry Kohn has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Jeanne Kolva received a B.A. and an M.A. in art history from the City University of New York Graduate School in . She is the coauthor of Highland Park, New Jersey (). Richard Koszarski, Ph.D., teaches in the English department at Rutgers University. He is the editor of Film History: An International Journal, and a member of the Fort Lee Film Commission. Scott M. Kozel received a B.S. () and an M.S. () in business from Virginia Commonwealth University. He currently works as a computer systems analyst at the Virginia Department of Transportation. Herbert C. Kraft (–) was professor emeritus of anthropology and director of the Archaeological Museum and Research Center at Seton Hall University. He received a B.A. in business and an M.A. in anthropology from Seton Hall University. He also received an M.A. in history from Hunter College and an honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Kean University. He was the leading expert on the Lenape, and the author of over  articles and books including The Lenape: Archaeology, History, and Ethnography () and The Lenape-Delaware Indian Heritage , B.C. to A.D.  (). Alan M. Kraut received his Ph.D. from Cornell University. He is a professor of history at American University, and is the author of five books, including Silent Travelers: Germs, Genes, and the Immigrant Menace (), and over a hundred articles and book reviews. He is working on a book about the history of Newark Beth Israel Hospital.

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Beth Kressel received her B.A. in English from Rutgers College. While at Rutgers, she served as a staff writer for the Daily Targum, and a publicity intern at Rutgers University Press. Robert F. Krygoski is a self-employed electrician, born and raised in Hanover Township. He coauthored Hanover Township, Whippany, and Cedar Knolls (). Bunny Botto Kuiken graduated from Drake Business College in . She has been the Haledon town historian since . John E. Kuser received a B.A. from Princeton University in , an M.S. from Rutgers University in , and a Ph.D. from Oregon State University in . He currently teaches forest ecology, silvics, and urban forestry at Rutgers, and has edited a book and written a number of articles on forestry in New Jersey and the Northeast. Edward L. Lach, Jr., received a B.S. in  and an M.A. in  from North Carolina State University. He wrote extensively for the American National Biography project and has worked as an archivist at the Baltimore Museum of Industry, the Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, and the Maryland State Archives. Philip J. Landrigan has an M.D. from Harvard Medical School and an M.Sc. from the University of London. He is a professor at Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City, and has had a long career in pediatric and occupational medicine. Rudy Larini received a B.A. in communications from Rutgers College in . He has been a reporter at The Star-Ledger in Newark since , after six years at the Home News in New Brunswick, which is now called the Home News Tribune. William J. La Rosa received a B.A. from Jersey City State College in  and an M.A. from New York University in . He is currently the director of the Hudson County Office of Cultural Affairs and Tourism. Richard Lathrop is director of the Rutgers University Grant F. Walton Center for Remote Sensing and Spatial Analysis and an associate professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources. Gregory D. Lattanzi received a B.A. from Binghamton University and an M.A. from Hunter College–CUNY. He is currently registrar of the Bureau of Archaeology and Ethnology at the New Jersey State Museum in Trenton. Michael J. Launay is a member of the Board of Directors of the Madison Township Historical Society, and is the author and publisher of the “New Jersey History’s Mysteries’’ website. He has written articles for the Asbury Park Press, Jersey Journal, and Weird NJ Magazine; and has also contributed to, and been featured in, a number of articles in the New York Times. Donald Launer holds a U.S. Coast Guard captain’s license. He is author of the book A Cruising Guide to New Jersey Waters (), and contributes to several boating magazines. Daniel J. Leab is a professor of history at Seton Hall University, managing editor of Labor History, and general secretary of the Historians of American Communism. His most recent book is I Was a Communist for the F.B.I.: The Unhappy Life and Times of Matt Cvetic (). William W. Leap attended Rutgers University in  and the University of Pennsylvania from  to . He has served as president of the Camden County Historical Society and the Heritage Assets Study of New Jersey; he is also past vice president and historian of the League of Historical Societies of New Jersey. He is the author of The History of Runnemede, New Jersey, – (), Ashbrook’s Burial Ground (), and contributor to many other works.

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Bryan F. Le Beau is the John C. Kenefick Faculty Chair in the Humanities at Creighton University. He received his B.A. in history from North Adams State College, his M.A. in U.S. history from the Pennsylvania State University, and his Ph.D. in American civilization from New York University. Hubert A. Lechevalier, Ph.D., is professor emeritus of microbiology at Rutgers University. Charles F. Leck received a B.S. from Muhlenberg College in  and a Ph.D. from Cornell University in . He has taught at Rutgers University–New Brunswick since , and has published widely on New Jersey birds. Mary Allessio Leck is professor emeritus of biology at Rider University. She received a B.S. from the University of Massachusetts– Amherst and a Ph.D. from the University of Colorado–Boulder. She studies seed germination ecology of wetland plants, and has authored a number of ecological studies of the Hamilton-Trenton Marsh, a freshwater tidal wetland. Roger Lederer earned his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Illinois. He has been teaching at California State University at Chico for thirty years, and has produced numerous publications on birds. In addition, he manages the website www.ornithology.com. Stephanie P. Ledgin received a B.A. in  from Rutgers University, where she directs the New Jersey Folk Festival and lectures in American studies. She is a music journalist and photographer, whose work in bluegrass and folk music has appeared in magazines, books, museums, and recordings around the globe. Ceil Leedom, received an M.L.S. from the School of Communication Information and Library Science, Rutgers University. She is a retired librarian, who currently serves as the South Brunswick Township historian. Richard Lehne, a professor of political science at Rutgers University, has taught and written about New Jersey politics. His most recent book is Government and Business: American Political Economy in Comparative Perspective (). Mark E. Lender is a professor of history at Nathan Weiss College of Graduate Studies at Kean University. He has published extensively on early American social and military history. Edward G. Lengel received a B.A. from George Mason University in , and an M.A. in  and Ph.D. in  in history from the University of Virginia. He is currently an associate editor of the Revolutionary War Series at the Papers of George Washington in Charlottesville, Virginia. Tina Lesher received an A.B. in history from Wheeling Jesuit University, an M.A. in journalism from the University of Missouri, and an Ed.D. in English education from Rutgers University. She is a journalism professor at William Paterson University in Wayne, and twice served as president of the New Jersey Press Women Association. Mimi Letts graduated from the University of Pittsburgh with a degree in mathematics. She is currently the mayor of Parsippany, and is on the Board of Directors of the Parsippany–Troy Hills Senior Citizen Housing Corporation, the Planning Board, the Zoning Board of Adjustment, and the board of the New Jersey Conference of Mayors. Vicki Gold Levi is an historical image consultant, curator, author, and professional picture editor. She is exhibit director and cofounder of the Atlantic City Historical Museum, and has served as a consultant on Atlantic City for several films and television programs. She is coauthor of Atlantic City:  Years of Ocean Madness (). Laura Levine works at the Liberty Hall Museum in Union.

Evelyn Stryker Lewis is a historian and author. She received a B.A. from Thomas A. Edison State College in , and is currently curator for the Township of Neptune Historical Museum. Joel Lewis received a B.A. and an M.A. from William Paterson University, an M.A. in creative writing from City College of New York, and an M.S.W. from Yeshiva University. He is the editor of Bluestones and Salt Hay: An Anthology of Contemporary New Jersey Poets (), and author of Vertical’s Currency: New and Selected Poems (), a collection of his own poetry. He resides in Hoboken. Peter Li teaches Chinese literature, history, and culture at Rutgers University. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, and has taught at Rutgers since . He is the author of books and articles on China, and he coedited Understanding Asian Americans (). Eugene K. Liberatore received an aeronautical engineering degree from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and has over forty years’ experience in helicopter and naval hovercraft research and development. Currently a consultant, he has published two books and many technical documents that have appeared in journals, book annuals, and handbooks. Doris Licameli is a freelance writer, who took her one and only flying lesson at Teterboro Airport. She has published feature articles in the New York Times, the Bergen News, and various magazines, and is also the author of a series of educational children’s stories. William Lichten received a B.A. from Swarthmore College in , and an M.S. in  and a Ph.D. in  from the University of Chicago, all in physics. He is professor emeritus of physics and a fellow in the Institution for Social and Policy Studies at Yale. Dan Lieb is president of the New Jersey Historical Divers Association, Inc. He has participated in sixteen archaeological investigations on wreck sites in and out of New Jersey. Peter Lindenfeld was a faculty member in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at Rutgers University from  to , where he continues to be a member of the Graduate School. He is the author of numerous articles on condensed-matter physics, especially superconductivity. Daniel J. Linke received his M.A. in history from Case Western Reserve University in . He is an archivist at Princeton University’s Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, home to the university’s archives. Don Linky is the president of Joshua Communications Inc., and a visiting professor at the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University. In the past, he served as the director of the Governor’s Office of Policy and Planning, and is a former senior vice president and general counsel to the New Jersey Business and Industry Association. Paul J. Lioy is a professor of environmental science at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–Robert Wood Johnson Medical School and Rutgers University. He received a B.A. from Montclair State College, an M.S. from Auburn University, and an M.S. and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University. Yukio Lippit earned a Ph.D. in Japanese art history from Princeton University. He is an assistant professor of Japanese art at Harvard University. Mildred L. Lipscombe earned a B.A. from Virginia Union University and an M.L.S. from the University of Illinois School of Library Services. She is a retired Newark public librarian, and now is a volunteer at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, the Newark Museum, and the Heard A.M.E. Church. She served as a board member in the Women’s Project of New Jersey.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Theresa M. Liu graduated with a B.A. from Rutgers University in  and an M.A. from Stanford University in . Elizabeth Llorente is a senior writer at The Record. She has covered immigration and ethnic affairs for The Record since , and was named New Jersey’s Journalist of the Year in . She holds degrees in journalism and liberal arts from the University of Missouri– Columbia. John Bailey Lloyd received a B.S. in history from Mount Saint Mary’s College in , an M.A. in English from the University of Michigan in , and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . He was a reference librarian at the Lacey Branch of the Ocean County Library, and has written two books on the history of Long Beach Island: Six Miles at Sea () and Eighteen Miles of History on LBI (). Meriam Lobel received a B.A. in anthropology from the University of Wisconsin and a master’s in performance studies from NYU in . She is the director of Folk Arts Programs for Northeastern New Jersey, and the curator of the exhibit The Cultural Thread/El Hilo Cultural: Embroidery and Lace in New Jersey at the Park Performing Arts Center in Union City. Roger R. Locandro received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. from Rutgers University. He is professor emeritus at Rutgers, teaching the landscapes of New Jersey and the natural resources of Alaska, and formerly taught fisheries and research. Nancy J. Luberecki is a former treasurer of the Jamesburg Historical Association and works as a librarian at the Jamesburg Public Library. Rebecca L. Lubetkin retired in  as a professor at Rutgers, where she was founder and executive director of the Consortium for Educational Equity for twenty-five years. She has lectured widely, and written extensively, on reducing the achievement gap in schools. Eric v. d. Luft received his A.B. from Bowdoin College in , his M.A. in  and Ph.D. in  from Bryn Mawr College, and his M.L.S. in  from Syracuse University. Since , he has been curator of Historical Collections in the Health Sciences Library of SUNY Upstate Medical University.

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Carol Karels Lutchen has a B.A. degree in history from the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle. She is Leonia Borough historian, and author of two books on Leonia history: The Leonia Line () and Leonia Legacies (). Christine Lutz received a B.A. from the University of Georgia in  and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . She is currently pursuing an M.A. in American studies at the University of Maryland. Elizabeth A. Lyons received her B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania. She worked for the New Jersey State Health Department for forty-three years. A lifelong resident of Haddonfield, she is a member of many New Jersey historical societies, including the Historical Society of Haddonfield. Larry D. Lyons II received his B.A. in English Literature from Rutgers University in . He served as an editiorial assistant for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. He currently serves as a wordsmith, literary theorist and freelance philosopher. Henry Innes MacAdam is a contributing writer for the West WindsorPlainsboro News and U.S. , and author of West Windsor Then and Now: – (). He has taught humanities at DeVry University in North Brunswick. Betty McAndrews, retired director of public information at ReevesReed Arboretum, began her career as a newspaper reporter and editor, and received a dual B.A. degree in communications/ liberal arts from Syracuse University. She is working on a book on railroad history from  to the present. Judith E. McCabe is the director/curator of the National Guard Militia Museum of New Jersey. She received a B.A. from the University of Kentucky, an M.Ed. from Seton Hall University, and an M.P.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University. She is a chief warrant officer in the New Jersey Army National Guard. Thomas A. McCabe received a B.A. from Princeton University in , and is currently a Ph.D. candidate at Rutgers University. He is assistant headmaster at Saint Benedict’s, and is writing his dissertation on the history of this school.

Leonard Luizzi is official city historian, vice chairman of the Hoboken Historic Preservation Commission, past president of the Hoboken Historical Museum, a past member of the New Jersey Historic Sites Council, and the author of numerous articles about Hoboken.

Deborah A. McCarson teaches middle school English at Lambs Road Christian Academy in Sewell, where she enjoys introducing students to good books.

Daniel J. Lurie received a B.A. from Swarthmore College in . Maxine N. Lurie’s youngest son, he currently works as a horticulturist at the historic Filoli Center in Woodside, California.

Bonnie J. McCay received a Ph.D. from Columbia University in , and has been teaching anthropology and human ecology at Cook College since . She has written books and articles on fisheries of New Jersey and the larger region.

David Lurie, an assistant professor of Japanese History and Literature at Columbia University, received a B.A. from Harvard and a Ph.D. from Columbia University. He is the eldest son of Maxine N. Lurie. Jonathan Lurie is a professor of history at Rutgers University. He received a B.A. and an M.A.T. from Harvard University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. He is the author of The Chicago Board of Trade (), Law and the Nation (), Arming Military Justice (), Pursuing Military Justice (), and Military Justice in America (). Richard L. Lurie is editor of the New Jersey Lawyers Diary and Manual and Fitzgerald’s New Jersey Legislative Manual. He received a B.S. from Syracuse University and a J.D. from Rutgers Law School–Newark. Jay Lustig has been writing about popular music for The Star-Ledger newspaper since . He received a B.A. from Swarthmore University in , and was managing editor of the Montclair-based weekly music newspaper the East Coast Rocker.

Brendan McConville received his Ph.D. from Brown University. He is an associate professor of history at Binghamton University, and has authored numerous publications, including the book These Daring Disturbers of the Peace: The Struggle for Property and Power in Early New Jersey (). Richard P. McCormick is University Professor of History and University Historian, Emeritus at Rutgers University. He has written on New Jersey history and other topics. Grace-Ellen McCrann received a B.A. from Seton Hall University and an M.L.S. from North Carolina Central University in Durham. She currently is chief, Government Documents Division, and a member of the faculty at the City College of New York. Blanche M. McEniry has written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). David W. MacFarlane, a naturalist, forest ecologist, and New Jersey Certified Tree Expert, earned his Ph.D. at Rutgers University. He is

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About the Editors and the Contributors

author of numerous scientific publications on the subject of forestry and landscape ecology.

Hall University, teaches a course on New Jersey government, and is a frequent commentator on state politics.

Mark McGarrity was an outdoors editor/columnist of The StarLedger. Writing as Bartholomew Gill, he was the author of fifteen mystery novels published by HarperCollins.

Anthony Marchetta received a B.A. from Rutgers University in  and a J.D. from American University, Washington College of Law, in . He is a civil trial attorney, who became a partner of Pitney, Hardin, Kipp & Szuch LLP in .

Brian McGonigle received a B.A. from Gettysburg College in . He served as an editorial assistant for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. Patricia M. McGuire received a B.A. from Rutgers University in . She is a freelance journalist, and served as associate producer for a radio series produced by the Office of Television and Radio, Rutgers University, for five seasons. Patricia A. McKiernan is executive vice president of the Hunterdon Medical Center Foundation. E. Richard McKinstry, M.A., M.L.S., is Andrew W. Mellon Senior Librarian at the H. F. du Pont Winterthur Museum. His publications include book-length collection guides and bibliographical writings. Jeff Maclin received a B.A. from Vassar College in  and an M.S. from Columbia University School of Journalism in . He was executive director of communications for NJDOT. Kitta MacPherson is the science writer for The Star-Ledger. Rosalie McQuaide has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Linda B. McTeague, M.C.R.P., is executive director of the Merchants and Drovers Tavern Museum Association. She is a preservation planning and museum planning consultant. Alexander B. Magoun received a B.A. from Trinity College (Connecticut) in , an M.A. from the University of East Anglia (U.K.) in , and a Ph.D. from the University of Maryland, College Park, in . He wrote his dissertation on the development of the phonograph record, and is currently the director of the David Sarnoff Library in Princeton. Joseph Francis Mahoney received a B.A. from Duns Scotus College in , an M.A. from Seton Hall University in , and a Ph.D. from Columbia University in . He taught history at Seton Hall University from  to , edited New Jersey History, and has written a number of articles on aspects of the state’s history. David C. Major, Ph.D., is a natural resources economist and planner. He is the coauthor of William P. Major: A Bergenfield Life (with John S. and William D. Major, ), and of many other books on natural resources and for the general reader. John S. Major, Ph.D., is a historian of Asia. He is the coauthor of William P. Major: A Bergenfield Life (with David C. and William D. Major, ), and of many other books on Asian history and for general audiences.

Margherita Marchione, a member of the Religious Teachers Filippini, is professor emerita of Italian language and literature at Fairleigh Dickinson University. She received a B.A. from Georgian Court College, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Columbia University. Kristine J. Marconi is an archivist at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of the American Indian. She received a B.A. from Susquehanna University, an M.A. from Temple University, and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. Jeffrey A. Margolis, a program specialist in the College of Education at Rowan University, received a B.S.Ed from Temple University and an M.A. from Glassboro State College (now Rowan University). He is the author of Violence in Sports: Victory at What Price? (), Teen Crime Wave (), and Everything You Need to Know about Teens Who Kill (). Gregory A. Mark received a B.A. from Butler University in , an M.A. from Harvard University in , and a J.D. from the University of Chicago in . He teaches corporate law and legal history in the law school at Rutgers–Newark, and has written a number of articles on the legal history of the business corporation. Norman Markowitz is an associate professor of history at Rutgers University. He is a student of twentieth-century U.S. politics and society. Steven Maron, M.D., is a  graduate of the Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Israel. He is a practicing pediatrician in Kingston, Pennsylvania, and a past member of the Medical History Society of New Jersey. Stephen Marshall received B.A. and J.D. degrees from Rutgers University–Newark. He is a former administrative law judge. William G. Marshall attended Trenton State Teachers College and Rutgers University. He worked in the New Jersey Department of Labor and Industry from  to  as supervisor of an administrative law judge section (unemployment insurance). He served in the U.S. Navy between  and  and again between  and . David G. Martin, a Latin instructor at The Peddie School in Hightstown, received a B.A. from the University of Michigan, and an M.A. and a Ph.D. from Princeton University. He has written or edited over twenty books on the American Revolution and Civil War, including Gettysburg, July  () and The Philadelphia Campaign ().

Bob Makin has been covering the New Jersey music scene for twentyfour years for such publications as the Aquarian Weekly, East Coast Rocker, the Asbury Park Press, the Courier News, JamBands.com, Backstreets, Details, Downbeat, and The Record.

James Kirby Martin earned his B.A. at Hiram College, and his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in U.S. history from the University of Wisconsin. He has published extensively on Revolutionary America, and holds the rank of Distinguished University Professor of History at the University of Houston.

Karyn Malinowski is extension specialist in equine sciences and professor at Rutgers Cooperative Extension, Cook College. She received her B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. from Rutgers University, and has coedited the Horse Industry Handbook: A Guide to Equine Care and Management ().

Julie B. Martin received a B.A. from Radcliffe College in , an M.A. and Certificate from the Russian Institute at Columbia University in , and joined the staff of Experiments in Art and Technology in . She has cowritten books on social art history and art technology with Billy Kluver.

Joseph R. Marbach received his Ph.D. from Temple University in . He is the chair of the Department of Political Science at Seton

Robert J. Martin is professor and director of the Center of State and Local Government Law at Seton Hall Law School, and also serves as a

About the Editors and the Contributors

New Jersey state senator. He received a J.D. from Seton Hall University and an LL.M. from New York University, and has written numerous law review articles on legislative and judicial issues.

Shannon E. Martin received an M.A. from Indiana University– Bloomington and a Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina– Chapel Hill. She is a member of the faculty at University of Maine– Orono. James H. Mason, M.D., a retired physician, is founder and president of the Ventnor City Historical Society and is past president of the Atlantic County Historical Society, Atlantic County Medical Society, Atlantic County United Way, and of the medical staff of the Atlantic City Medical Center. He has also chaired the Batsto citizens committee. Mike Mathis is a reporter at the Burlington County Times in Mount Holly. A graduate of Villanova University, he has authored two books on the local history of Cherry Hill and coauthored books on Campbell Soup and Burlington City. Shirley Boyden Maxwell received a B.A. in English in  from Kean University. She currently serves as editorial associate, corporate communications, for Schering-Plough Corporation, and as president of the Kenilworth Historical Society. Grace May is an associate professor of education at Seton Hall University. She received a B.S. from Cedar Crest College, and her M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. She currently teaches in a special education teacher preparation program. Michael L. May, Ph.D., is a professor of entomology at Cook College. He has studied various aspects of dragonfly biology for over thirty years, and coauthored two books on the subject. Patricia Mayer is chair and founder of the Department of Dance at Mason Gross School of the Arts. She is an active choreographer and artistic director of Patricia Mayer and Dancers. Stephen Maynard is a freelance copywriter in Bedminster. He received a B.F.A. in film and theater from Florida State University, and has studied film history at Columbia University in the City of New York, and at motion picture theaters near you. Carol Fisher Megill received a B.A. in English from Georgian Court College in  and an M.A. in history from Monmouth University in . She is the archivist for the Spring Lake Historical Society, and has written articles and books on genealogy. Patricia E. Meola, author of a postcard history of Summit, received a B.A. from Kent State University in news/editorial and Spanish in . A trustee and past president of the Summit Historical Society, she is managing editor at the Independent Press and Herald-Dispatch, newspapers based in New Providence. David Messineo, publisher of Sensations Magazine, holds a B.A. in communications from Fordham University. He is the author of five poetry books, including Suburban Gothic. Claire E. Meyer has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Peter Mickulas received a Ph.D. in history from Rutgers University in , and served as assistant editor of The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. He hopes you are enjoying your time spent with this book, and recommends highly the “Britton, Nathaniel L.’’ entry. Ruth Mihalenko is a graduate of Rutgers University School of Communication, Information and Library Studies. She was previously a reporter for The Home News and The Sentinel, a tax assessor in North Brunswick, and is author of the official township history.

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Ann Marie Miller received a degree in art education from Moore College of Art and Design in Philadelphia. She was director of development at McCarter Theatre, and also served as grants coordinator at the New Jersey State Council on the Arts. She is executive director of ArtPRIDE New Jersey. Edward C. Miller, Jr., is the director of marketing of Norris, McLaughlin & Marcus. He received his B.S. in marketing management from Syracuse University. Pauline S. Miller, historical preservationist and author, is the administrator of the Ocean County Cultural and Heritage Commission. She has produced books on local history, a documentary film, slide programs, pamphlets, and brochures, including Ocean County: Four Centuries in the Making (). Steve Miller received a B.A. from Bard College and the Principles of Conservation Science Certificate from the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, Rome, Italy. Miller currently holds the position of Executive Director of the Morris Museum after thirty years of experience as a museum professional, with positions held as curator, director, and trustee at major cultural institutions. Elizabeth A. Milliken received a B.A. from the College of the Holy Cross in , and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from Cornell University. She currently teaches American history at Mount Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon, and has written on Catholic history and women’s history. Steve Misiur has served as curator of the Sterling Hill Mining Museum, Ogdensburg, and as editor of The Sterling Hill Newsletter. Mark D. Mitchell received a B.A. from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst in  and an M.A. from Princeton in . Barbara J. Mitnick, an art historian/independent curator specializing in American history painting, received a B.S. from Cornell University, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Rutgers University. She is the author of Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge () and general editor of George Washington: American Symbol (). David Mitros received a B.A. from Montclair State University in  and an M.A. from California State University, Dominguez Hills, in . He is currently the archivist for the Morris County Heritage Commission and has compiled, edited, or written several books and a number of articles on the history of Morris County. Glenn R. Modica, a senior historian with Richard Grubb and Associates, received a B.A. from Northwestern University and an M.A. from the City College of New York. He has recently written The History of the Newark Sewer System (). Robert E. Mohowski is currently doing graduate work at Drew University. He has written numerous articles on railroad history as well as three books: The New York, Ontario & Western in the Diesel Age (), Milk Cans, Mixed Rains, and Motor Cars: The New York, Ontario & Western and the Dairy Industry of New York State (), and The New York, Susquehanna, and Western: A History (). August J. Molnar is president of the American Hungarian Foundation in New Brunswick. He received a B.A. from Elmhurst College, an M.A. from University of Michigan, and a Ph.D. from Columbia University, and has published works on Hungarian literature and immigration. Shirley M. Montgomery received a B.A. from Saint Lawrence University and an M.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University. She is a retired teacher of elementary education and writes children’s books.

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Eileen Moon is the managing editor of The Two River Times, a weekly newspaper in Red Bank. She has written for many newspapers and magazines including the New York Times, the Chicago Tribune, the Asbury Park Press, Redbook, and Ladies’ Home Journal. Linda S. Moore received a B.A. from Douglass College in  and a J.D. from Rutgers University School of Law in . She is currently the director of development at the Newark Museum, has served as a juror for several major craft shows, and has written numerous articles for and about the New Jersey craft community.

Kevin P. Mulcahy received a Ph.D. in English literature from Rutgers in . He has worked at Alexander Library, Rutgers University, as a reference and humanities librarian, since . Carla J. Mulford received her B.S. in , M.A. in , and Ph.D. in  from the University of Delaware. She has taught at Temple University, Villanova University, and Pennsylvania State University since . She teaches early American studies and Native American studies.

Louis Moore, Ph.D., is assistant director of curriculum, social studies, and language arts for the Hackensack Public Schools District. His Rutgers University dissertation was a study of New Jersey’s political response to Reconstruction.

Marie Marmo Mullaney received a B.A. from Seton Hall University in , an M.A. in , and a Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University. Professor of history and political science at Caldwell College, she has written numerous books and articles on women’s history and American politics.

Wayne D. Moore, an associate professor, Department of Political Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, received his J.D. from the University of Virginia School of Law and his Ph.D. from Princeton University. He is the author of Constitutional Rights and Powers of the People ().

Marian H. Mundy-Hooper received an A.B. from Vassar College. She is a columnist and feature writer for Recorder Newspapers, New Jersey Countryside magazine, and many other publications; and is a trustee of the Mendham Borough and Township libraries as well as a member of the Mendham Borough Historical Society.

James H. Moorhead was educated at Westminster College in Pennsylvania and Princeton Seminary, and holds a Ph.D. from Yale University. He is a professor of American church history at Princeton Theological Seminary.

Hillary Murtha received a B.A. from Rutgers University in  and an M.A. in  from the Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts. She was the curator of exhibitions at the Cornelius Low House/Middlesex County Museum.

Barry Moreno is a librarian and historian at the Ellis Island Immigration Museum and the Statue of Liberty National Monument, where he has worked since . Educated at California State University, Los Angeles, he has written on immigration history, and is the author of The Statue of Liberty Encyclopedia () and Ellis Island ().

Jeanette K. Muser received a B.A. and an M.A. from the University of Wisconsin, and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. She is a member of the Rocky Hill Planning Board, volunteer at Rocky Hill Community Group archives and museum and at Rockingham State Historic Site, and is the author of Rocky Hill, Kingston, and Griggstown () and local history articles.

Mark D. Morgan, a professor of zoology and chair of the Biology Department at Rutgers–Camden, received a B.S. and Ph.D. from the University of California–Davis and an M.S. from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. He was a colleague of Ralph Good, and studies Pinelands aquatic systems.

Andrew C. Mutch received his B.A. from Gettysburg College in  and an M.F.A. in illustration from the School of Visual Arts in . He was the director of the United States Golf Association Museum and Adjunct Archives in Far Hills.

David C. Morris received a B.A. from Wesleyan University in  and a J.D. from Rutgers University Law School in . He worked in corporate labor relations; currently working in the public sector, he is president of Gay Activist Alliance in Morris County and chairperson of the Gay Helpline of New Jersey. John Louis Morsa received a B.A. in American studies from the University of Maryland at College Park in . He is currently a resource interpretive specialist at Wharton State Forest/ Batsto Village in New Jersey. Sandra Moss, M.D., received her degree from Mount Sinai School of Medicine in . She is professor emeritus of medicine at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, former director of the outpatient department at Saint Peter’s University Hospital, and past president of the Medical History Society of New Jersey. She is also the author of several articles in the field of medical history. R. Alan Mounier is a consulting archaeologist and president of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey. He received an A.B. degree from Syracuse University and an M.A. from Memorial University of Newfoundland. He has written articles, and is the author of Looking beneath the Surface: The Story of Archaeology in New Jersey (). Khalil G. Muhammad received a B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in , and is currently a Ph.D. candidate in American history at Rutgers University. He is writing a dissertation on the origins of African American criminality in early twentieth-century Philadelphia.

Connie Myers received her B.A. in English from Montclair State College and her M.A. in public administration from Rider College. She is an assemblywoman in New Jersey’s Legislative District , and a member of the Descendants of Founders of New Jersey. David Myers received a B.A. from Drew University in  and an M.A. from Rutgers University in . He is currently a high school teacher in Princeton. Kenneth John Myers is a curator of American art at the Freer Gallery of Art, a branch of the Smithsonian Institution. He received his B.A. from Cornell University and his Ph.D. from the American Studies Program at Yale University. Currently, he is writing an intellectual biography of the Detroit industrialist and art collector Charles Lang Freer (–). Irmari Nacht has had her artwork exhibited in museums and galleries, nationally and internationally, and has written articles about New Jersey history. She majored in history at S.U.N.Y.–Cortland and English at the NYU Graduate School of Arts and Science. Medhat Nasr is extension specialist in apiculture, Cook College. He received a B.Sc. and an M.Sc. from Cairo University, and a Ph.D. from the University of California. Marjorie Frankel Nathanson is the executive director of the Hunterdon Museum of Art. Edward M. Neafsey received a B.A. degree from Assumption College in , a J.D. from Southwestern University of Law in , and has been a certified criminal trial attorney since . He served as assistant commissioner for enforcement in the Department of

About the Editors and the Contributors

Environmental Protection, as assistant attorney general in charge of the Environmental Crimes Bureau in the Attorney General’s Office, and as New Jersey’s first inspector general.

Robert C. Nelson received a B.A. from Saint Francis College in  and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . He currently works as the assistant director of the Long Hill Township Public Library. Mark Bishop Newell received master’s degrees from Wheaton College, the University of Notre Dame, and Drew University, and teaches history at Ramapo College of New Jersey. He is currently writing his doctoral dissertation on New Jersey’s water supply at Drew University. Karl J. Niederer is director of the New Jersey Division of Archives and Records Management. He received a B.A. from Otterbein College (Westerville, Ohio) and an M.A. from the University of Delaware. Linda I. Nieman received a B.F.A. from William Paterson University. Originally hired at Sussex County Community College as the director of public information, marketing, and publicity, she is now executive director of advancement and planning. Catherine Noonan is the division secretary for the Ecosystem Processes Division, and has been at the James J. Howard Marine Sciences Laboratory for thirty-four years. Jeffrey Norman received a B.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University and a Graduate Certificate in Nonprofit Management from Seton Hall University. He is currently vice president, public affairs, for the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. David A. Norris holds a B.F.A. degree from East Carolina University. He is an independent historian, who lives in Wilmington, North Carolina. Peggy W. Norris is a reference librarian at the Ridgewood Public Library and the Ridgewood Village Co-Historian. She received her M.L.S. from Rutgers. Jennifer North received a B.F.A. from the University of the Arts in . She is currently the public relations/marketing director of Perkins Center for the Arts, and has written articles that have appeared in an “Arts and Humanities Month’’ special section of the Philadelphia Inquirer. P. Gerard Nowicki received a B.A. from Jersey City State College in , a Master’s Certificate from George Washington University in , and certification as a Project Management Professional (PMP) from the Project Management Institute in . He is a trustee of the Bayonne Historical Society, Inc., a commissioner of the Bayonne Historic Preservation Commission, and the editor and coauthor of Bayonne Landmarks (). Daniel F. O’Connell received a B.S. in economics from Villanova University and his J.D. from Rutgers University School of Law. He is a partner in the Business and Finance Department of Drinker Biddle & Reath LLP, head of the Health Law Practice Group, and the partner in charge of the Florham Park office. Lucinda S. O’Conner received a B.S. from Trenton College in , and has been executive director of the Wetlands Institute since . Jane R. Odenweller received a B.A. from Smith College in . A poet, fiction writer, and archivist at Macculloch Hall Historical Museum in Morristown, she has written and lectured frequently on women’s history. David M. Oestreicher received a B.A. from S.U.N.Y.–Purchase in , an M.A. from New York University in , an M.A. in , and a Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University. He has worked as a freelance

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lecturer and museum curator, conducted original research among Lenape Indians in Oklahoma, Wisconsin, and Ontario, and published his findings disproving the Walam Olum in a series of monographs. He is currently working on a book about the hoax.

Maureen Ogden received a B.A. from Smith College in , an M.A. from Columbia University in , and an M.C.R.P. from Rutgers University in . She has served as mayor of Millburn Township, as a member of the New Jersey General Assembly, and on state and national boards. As the first chair of the Garden State Preservation Trust, she has continued to work to protect the environment. Daniel J. O’Hern, retired associate justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court and counsel to Becker Meisel, LLC, devotes his practice to the areas of appellate practice, alternative dispute resolution, trial practice, and mediation. Elisabeth Oliu is an assistant professor and reference librarian at Middlesex County College. She received a B.A. from the College of William and Mary and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. Kevin Olsen received a bachelor’s degree from Plymouth State College (New Hampshire) and a master’s from Montclair State University, both in chemistry. He has been a volunteer archaeologist and docent at Wayne’s Van Riper–Hopper House Museum, and volunteer docent at Passaic County’s Dey Mansion Museum. Brendan O’Malley acquires and edits history books for a scholarly publisher in New York City. Margaret O’Neil received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in  in art history from Rutgers University. She was site administrator of the Walt Whitman House in Camden. Nan Childress Orchard received a D.M.A. in piano from Rutgers University’s Mason Gross School of the Arts, an M.M. from the University of Cincinnati’s College-Conservatory of Music, and a B.A. from Portland State. She is an adjunct assistant professor at Caldwell College, and wrote the article on classical chamber ensembles for Women and Music in America Since : An Encyclopedia (). David M. Oshinsky, a former long time resident of New Jersey, is the George W. Littlefield Professor in American History at the University of Texas–Austin. Wesley H. Ott was a printer and Dunellen’s historian. He wrote The History of Dunellen, N.J., Centennial Edition, – (). Patrick J. Owens is currently a historian with the U.S. Army Armament Research, Development, and Engineering Center at Picatinny Arsenal. He received an A.B. from Massachusetts State College at Boston, and an A.M. and Ph.D. from the University of Notre Dame. Lumina Pacheco has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Frederic C. Pachman earned his B.A. from Syracuse University and his M.L.S. from Columbia University. Born in Patterson and raised in Glen Rock, he is the director of the Medical Library at Monmouth Medical Center in Long Branch. Mark E. Packer received an A.B. in sociology from Kenyon College in . Since , he has served as the executive director of Appel Farm Arts and Music Center. Lisa Paine received a B.A. from Princeton University in . She is the former director of the Drumthwacket Foundation. Phillip Papas wrote his Ph.D. dissertation on the Loyalists of Staten Island, at the CUNY Graduate Center. He received a B.A. and M.A. from Hunter College–CUNY.

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Aline S. Papazian received a B.A. from Vassar College, and did graduate study at Syracuse University. She is the assistant director of the Passaic County Cultural and Heritage Council at Passaic County Community College. She has coedited a number of anthologies of children’s poetry. David C. Parris is curator of natural history at the New Jersey State Museum, where he has worked since . A Kansas native, he received a B.S. in geology and paleontology at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, an M.S. from South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, and an M.A. from Princeton University. He has published on paleontology, biostratigraphy, zooarchaeology, and archaeological numismatics. Ann Pason has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Richard Patterson earned his B.A. in American history from Hunter College–C.U.N.Y., and his M.A. in public history from S.U.N.Y.– Albany. He worked for the National Park Service at the American Museum of Immigration at the Statue of Liberty, and as a park historian at the Saratoga battlefield. He has been the executive director of the Old Barracks Museum since . Martin Paulsson teaches history at Rider University and at the College of New Jersey, and is the author of The Social Anxieties of Progressive Reform: Atlantic City, – (). Gary C. Pavlis received a B.S. from Rutgers University in , an M.S. from the University of Arkansas in , and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University in . He currently is the agricultural agent with Rutgers Cooperative Extension in Atlantic County, and writes a newsletter called the Blueberry Bulletin that is received by blueberry growers in thirty-seven states and twenty-one countries. John M. Payne received a B.A. from Yale College in  and a J.D. from Harvard Law School in . He is professor of law and the Justice Frederick Hall Scholar at Rutgers Law School–Newark. In addition to writing extensively about affordable housing and planning issues, he has represented public interest groups in a number of Mount Laurel–related cases. Stacey C. Peeples received her B.A. from Rider University in  and M.A. from American University in . She is currently the archivist at Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia. Jessica Pellien received a B.A. in English from Rutgers University in . ˜ a is catalog librarian at the Grolier Club of New J. Fernando Pen York City. He received his B.A. from Stanford University, an M.A. in Semitic philology from Harvard University, and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. William A. Peniston received his Ph.D. in history from the University of Rochester in , and his M.A. and M.L.S. from the University of Maryland in . He is currently the librarian at the Newark Museum. Barbara Pepe earned a B.A. in history in , and her master’s in history from Monmouth University in . She is the author of Freehold: A Hometown History (). Aimee Pereda-Kuc worked at the Hun School of Princeton. Rhett Pernot received her B.A. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison in  and her M.A. from New York University in . She is the director of the William Trent House. Charles Perrone received a B.S. from Temple University in  and

an M.S. from Drexel University in . He was a librarian at Burlington County College from  to .

Fernanda Helen Perrone received a B.A. from McGill University in , a Ph.D. from Oxford University in , and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . She is currently an archivist at Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries, and has published primarily on the history of education. Kevin C. Perry graduated from the University of the State of New York in . He is a local historian, concentrating on the history of New Jersey’s iron industry in the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries. Steven P. Perskie received a B.A. degree from Yale University in , a J.D. from the University of Pennsylvania Law School in , and an LL.M. (in taxation) from New York University Law School in . He has been a member of the State Assembly (–) and Senate (–); as well as Superior Court judge (–), chief of staff to Gov. James Florio (–), and chairman of the New Jersey Casino Control Commission (–). Mimi Peteet was the director of communications for the Pingry School. She attended the University of California at Riverside, and previously worked as the communications director for the Liberty Science Center in Jersey City. Scott D. Peters was research director/archivist for the Ocean County Historical Society, and is currently researching a history of the antislavery movement in New Jersey. He received a B.A. in history from William Paterson University, and is a candidate for an M.A. in history from Monmouth University. Jane T. Peterson, Ph.D., is an associate professor of theater at Montclair State University. She has written Women Playwrights of Diversity () and articles on nineteenth- and twentieth-century theater. Barbara Petrick received a Ph.D. in American history from Rutgers University in . She is an adjunct professor at Saint Peter’s College and Hudson County College, and has written and lectured on local history. V. Gary Petrie received an A.A. from Reinhardt College in  and a D.C. from the Chiropractic Institute of New York in . Sara B. Pfaffenroth received her A.B. in English from Bryn Mawr College and her M.A. in English from Indiana University. She is a professor of English and intercultural communication at the County College of Morris, and has written and lectured extensively on the topic of intercultural communication. G. Kurt Piehler received his Ph.D. from Rutgers University. He is an associate professor of history and director of the Center for the Study of War and Society, University of Tennessee at Knoxville. He is the author of Remembering War the American Way () and coeditor of Major Problems in American Military History (). Helen-Chantal Pike received a B.A. from Principia College in , a language certificate from the Sorbonne, Paris, in , and an M.S. from Columbia University in . She is a freelancer writer, book author, photographer, and researcher. John C. Pinheiro received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in  from California State University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Tennessee in . He currently works as an assistant editor for the Papers of George Washington at the University of Virginia. Frances Pinto received a B.S. from Villanova University in  and an M.L.I.S. from Rutgers University in . She currently teaches history at Morris Hills High School in Rockaway.

About the Editors and the Contributors

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Nancy A. Piwowar received a B.A. from Wilson College in . She is employed by the U.S. Postal Service, and serves on the City of Plainfield Cultural and Heritage Commission and Union County Cultural and Heritage Affairs Advisory Board.

James W. Reed received a Ph.D. from Harvard in , and is a professor of history at Rutgers University–New Brunswick. He is the author of The Birth Control Movement and American Society: From Private Vice to Public Virtue ().

Charles A. Poekel, Jr., is an attorney and a historian. He is a former member of the New Jersey State Historical Commission, and the author of West Essex ().

Karen Reeds, an exhibit curator and historian of medicine, is the author of A State of Health: New Jersey’s Medical Heritage () and two other books on the history of medicine. She received a B.A. from Stanford University, an M.A. from the University of Michigan, and a Ph.D. from Harvard University.

Eileen L. Poiani received a B.A. from Douglass College in , and an M.S. in  and Ph.D. in  in mathematics from Rutgers University, where she is a charter trustee. A professor of mathematics, and currently the vice president for student affairs at Saint Peter’s College, she has served as the assistant to the president for four of the college’s chief executives. Deborah Epstein Popper received an A.B. from Bryn Mawr College, an M.L.S. from Rosary College, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Rutgers University. She is an associate professor of geography at the College of Staten Island, and has written on New Jersey colonial roads, frontier and western development, and, with Frank Popper, originated the Buffalo Commons, an alternative development path for the American Great Plains. Albert Porroni received a B.A. in English from Rutgers College in  and a J.D. from Temple University School of Law in . He is the executive director of the Office of Legislative Services and the legislative counsel. Melissa L. Posten was the director of marketing and public relations for the Haddonfield Symphony. Mary Prendergast received an A.B. from Smith College in  and an M.A. from Rutgers University in . She is the chairperson of the Morris County Heritage Commission, the Morris County historian, and a member of the Harding Township Committee. Jane R. Primerano received a B.A. in English/secondary education from Wagner College, and is a freelance writer specializing in agriculture, the environment, and historic preservation topics. Norbert P. Psuty, Ph.D., is a professor emeritus of geography, geological sciences, and marine and coastal sciences at Rutgers University. He is the director of Sandy Hook Cooperative Research Programs at the Sandy Hook Unit of Gateway National Recreation Area, National Park Service. John H. Puffer, Ph.D., is a geology professor at Rutgers University– Newark. His research focuses on continental flood basalts, pegmatites, and asbestos. James P. Quigel, Jr., Ph.D., is head of the Historical Collections and Labor Archives in the Special Collections Library at Pennsylvania State University. He has written articles on the International Union of Electrical Workers for Labor History and Labor’s Heritage. Dermot Quinn received a D.Phil. at Oxford University, and is currently an associate professor of Irish and British history at Seton Hall University. John W. Raimo received a B.A. from Seton Hall University in , and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from the University of Wisconsin. He is the author and editor of several books, including the Biographical Directory of American Colonial and Revolutionary Governors, – (), and is the former president of Montserrat College of Art. Amy Rashap received a Ph.D. in folklore and folklife from the University of Pennsylvania in . She was marketing and sales director of Rutgers University Press until decamping for Singapore in .

H. V. Pat Reilly graduated from New York Military Academy in , and Pace Institute in . He is the founder/executive director of the Aviation Hall of Fame and Museum of New Jersey, and wrote From the Balloon to the Moon (). Howard K. Reinert received a B.S. from Pennsylvania State University in , an M.S. from Clarion University of Pennsylvania in , and a Ph.D. from Lehigh University in . Currently a professor of biology at the College of New Jersey, he has published numerous scientific articles concerning snake ecology and behavior. Janet Davis Richardson has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Steven M. Richman, J.D., is an adjunct professor of international business law at the College of New Jersey, and an attorney in private practice. He received a B.A. from Drew University and a J.D. from New York University, and is chair of the editorial board of New Jersey Lawyer Magazine. Donald N. Riemer received a B.S. and Ph.D. from Rutgers University, and an M.S. from Auburn University; and is the author of many popular articles on turtles. He is professor emeritus at Rutgers University, where he taught a course entitled “Turtles, Tortoises, and Terrapins’’ for many years. Janet Riemer is president of the Genealogical Society of New Jersey and coeditor of The Genealogical Magazine of New Jersey. A graduate of Douglass College and Auburn University, she is retired from Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Library, where she was preservation archivist. Barbara Polk Riley received a B.A. from Howard University, a B.S. in library science from the New Jersey College for Women, and an M.L.S. from Columbia University. She is a retired librarian, and was a board member of the Women’s Project of New Jersey, Inc. Jason Rimmer received a B.A. from Stockton State College, and was an assistant editor for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. Joe Rizzo is a waterman currently working Barnegat Bay and Great Bay in Ocean County, New Jersey. He is a board trustee for the Garden State Seafood Association, a board member of Save Barnegat Bay, a member of the N.J. Marine Fisheries Council, and serves as marine advisor for the Ocean County Board of Agriculture. Marion Mann Roberts is a graduate of New York University, and has a lifelong devotion to the arts. A resident of Mountain Lakes, she has been active in local and national philanthropic activities for many years, and has contributed to other New Jersey publications. Russell Roberts is a full-time freelance writer. He has published eleven books and over two hundred articles. Cynthia Robinson has written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). David Robinson received a B.S. from Dickinson College in , and continued his education at Columbia University for an M.S. in  and a Ph.D. in . He is currently the chairperson for the

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Department of Geography at Rutgers University and author of many publications on climate.

Mark G. Robson received a B.S. in , M.S. in , and Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University, and an M.P.H. in  from the School of Public Health–UMDNJ. He is an associate professor and the director of Environmental and Occupational Health in the School of Public Health at UMDNJ. He is the author of many scientific peerreviewed articles as well as numerous reports, abstracts, and popular articles. Kathy B. Roche has written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Kathleen Rockland earned her B.A. in English from Rutgers University. She served as an intern at Rutgers University Press. Michael Aaron Rockland is professor and chair of the American Studies Department at Rutgers University. Two of his eight books, Looking for America on the New Jersey Turnpike () and Snowshoeing Through Sewers (), are concerned with issues in New Jersey life. He is a longtime contributor to the state magazine, New Jersey Monthly. Michael L. Rodburg is managing director of Lowenstein Sandler, P.C. He is founding chairman of the New Jersey State Bar Association’s Environmental Law Section, and recognized by the National Law Journal as one of the ten founders of modern environmental law. Rachel A. Rodgers is museum curator/executive director at the Cape May County Historical and Genealogical Society. She received her B.A. in history from Wheaton College and an M.A. in museum education at the University of the Arts. Carlos Macedo Rodrigues, P.P., A.I.C.P., is an architect and a planner. He is the manager of special projects for the New Jersey Office of State Planning, where he focuses on physical planning and community design, and is author of Designing New Jersey. Raffaele A. Roncalli, D.V.M., M.S., is the historian of the American Association of Veterinary Parasitologists. He has published extensively on the history of parasitology. Kenneth Rose received a Ph.D. from Case Western Reserve University in , and is currently a professor at Rockefeller University. His areas of specialization are twentieth-century American history, social welfare, and race relations. Robert Rosenberg, former editor and director of the Thomas Edison Papers at Rutgers University, is now editor of the Johns Hopkins University Press’s Guide to the History of Technology in American Lives. Jay S. Rosenblatt, Ph.D., is Daniel S. Lehrman Professor of Psychobiology at Rutgers University–Newark. He has edited a volume on parental behavior, and published more than  articles on this subject. Stacy Flora Roth is a living history interpreter, who does presentations through her company, History on the Hoof. She received a B.A. from Kean College, an M.L.S. from Rutgers, and an M.A. from the University of Pennsylvania. Roberta Chopp Rothschild received a B.A. from Hofstra University in , an M.A. from Kent State in , and is A.B.D. in English from the University of Michigan. She currently is a public relations, writing, and marketing consultant and childbirth educator. Michele Rotunda is a Ph.D. candidate in American history at Rutgers University. She received a B.A. at Rutgers College and an M.A. at Rutgers University/NJIT.

Emily W. B. Russell is a plant ecologist, who has been studying the forests of New Jersey for twenty-five years. She has numerous publications on forest history, and teaches science at Notre Dame Academy, Middleburg, VA. Kim M. Ruth is a founder and charter member of the New Jersey Lighthouse Society. He has authored articles on lighthouses for various publications, and is the coauthor of Guiding Lights of the Delaware River and Bay (). Jane B. Rutkoff received her B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania and her M.Litt. from Bryn Mawr. She is the executive director of the New Jersey Council for the Humanities. Letitia Lyon Sage is a retired newspaperwoman and editor. She is the public relations chairman for the Ramsey Historical Society, and an active participant on the Ramsey Library board. Barbara St. Clair is a freelance history writer in Cape May County. Her articles have been published in newspapers and other publications in the southern New Jersey area. Anne Salvatore, M.Ed., cofounded Historic Cold Spring Village with her husband, Joseph, in . She currently serves as executive director of the Village and president of HCSV Foundation, the nonprofit organization responsible for administration of the site. Joseph E. Salvatore, M.D., cofounded Historic Cold Spring Village with his wife, Anne, in . A retired orthopedic surgeon, he currently serves on the New Jersey Historical Commission, and chairs the Naval Air Station Wildwood Foundation and Historic Cold Spring Village Foundation. Suzanne U. Samuels is an associate professor of political science at Seton Hall University. She has written widely on decision-making by the U.S. Supreme Court and on the role of interest groups in the adjudication process. Sagan T. Sanderson graduated with highest honors and a B.A. in communications from Rutgers University, where she was a member of the editorial staff of the inaugural issue of The Podium, the university’s literary magazine. She and her family were among the first shipload of Kalmyks to arrive in the United States on board the Liberty Ship S.S. General Stewart. She is a member of the Howell Township Kalmyk community and the Kalmyk American Society. Angelica M. Santomauro is director of the American Labor Museum/Botto House National Landmark in Haledon. She received a B.A. from New Jersey City University, an M.A. from Kean University, and an Ed.D. from Rutgers University. Joseph Sapia is a lifelong resident of Helmetta. He is active in Helmetta area history projects, and is a newspaper reporter. Gary D. Saretzky received a B.A. in history in  and an M.A. in American history  from the University of Wisconsin, and a B.A. in photography from Thomas Edison College in . He is the Monmouth County archivist, coordinator of internship programs at the Department of History, Rutgers University–New Brunswick; and teaches the history of photography at Mercer County Community College. He researches and publishes on topics in photographic history, and has developed a directory of nineteenth-century New Jersey photographers. Richard L. Saunders received a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois in . He is a professor of history at Clemson University, and the author of several books on railroads. Stephen O. Saxe is a printing historian specializing in the nineteenth century. He is the author of American Iron Hand Presses (), numerous articles on printing history, and for five years he edited the American Printing History Association Newsletter.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Donald M. Scarry received his B.A. in economics from Rutgers University, University College in , a Ph.D. in economics from Rutgers University’s Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in , and a J.D. from Rutgers–Camden School of Law in . He currently manages New Jersey economics in a public policy and consulting firm, and writes on economic and business issues for a number of New Jersey magazines and newspapers. Shane Schaffer is a markting executive with Novartis. Melissa Schiavo received a B.A. from Rutgers University in . She was an editorial assistant for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey. William A. Schleicher received a B.S. from the University of Maryland in  and an M.B.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson in . A member of the Board of Crossroads of the Revolution National Heritage Area, and a contributing editor to New Jersey Heritage Magazine, he has written a number of books and articles on New Jersey history. Leonard Schlup received a B.A. from the University of Akron, an M.A. from Kent State University, an M.L.S. from Indiana University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He is the author of articles in journals and encyclopedias, edited It Seems to Me: Selected Letters of Eleanor Roosevelt (), the Historical Dictionary of the Gilded Age (), and is currently compiling several other dictionaries. Lawrence Schmidt received a B.A. in history from the University of Pennsylvania. He is the executive director of the Noyes Museum of Art, and a member of the Burlington County Historical Society. Karen L. Schnitzspahn, a freelance writer and native of New Jersey, is the author or coauthor of eight books and numerous articles relating to the history of Monmouth County, where she resides. She studied theater, puppetry, and art at several colleges and professional studios in New York City. Robert D. Schopp received his B.S. and M.S. in civil engineering from Drexel University in  and , respectively. He currently is the district surface-water specialist for the U.S. Geological Survey, New Jersey District, in West Trenton. Susan R. Schrepfer is an associate professor of history at Rutgers University, and codirector of project “Industrial Environments: Creativity and Consequences,’’ Rutgers Center for Historical Analysis, –. She is the author of The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, – (). Constance B. Schuyler, R.N., received her Ed.D. from Columbia University. For many years, she was a professor of nursing at Wagner College, where she also developed and administered the masters program. In addition, she served as associate provost and dean of graduate programs. She is now retired, and resides in Bound Brook. Robert L. Schuyler, an associate professor of anthropology and associate curator at the University of Pennsylvania and its Museum, received his B.A. from the University of Arizona, and M.A. and Ph.D. from University of California–Santa Barbara. He is currently doing historical archaeology in New Jersey. Elaine L. Schwartz received a B.A., with honors, in history from the University of Pennsylvania. She is an economics teacher at the Kent Place School, a mentor teacher for the Foundation for Teaching Economics, and is the author of Economics: Our American Economy () and Econ / (). Dale F. Schweitzer, Ph.D., is an invertebrate zoologist for NatureServe, and works for the Nature Conservancy as a consultant. He has written on the biology, systematics, and conservation of moths and butterflies.

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David B. Schwendeman is a zoologist, taxidermist, and business manager of Schwendeman’s Taxidermy Studio and Museum Services. Currently, he is curator of the Milltown Historical Society. Jane E. Scimeca is an associate professor of history at Brookdale Community College in Lincroft, where she serves as the chair of the Departments of History and Political Science. She received a B.A. from Douglass College in  and an M.A. from Rutgers University in . Barea Lamb Seeley is an author and historical consultant for Lamb Studios. She received a B.A. from Smith College, studying an academic year in France. She apprenticed at, and was employed by, the J&R Lamb Studios. She is the author of Ella’s Certain Window (). Corey Seeman is an assistant dean for library systems, University Libraries, at the University of Toledo. He has written extensively on the history of baseball, popular culture, and librarianship. Joanne Seitter received her B.A. from Rowan College and her M.A. from Rutgers University. She is currently the archivist for the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, and was a curator of the “In Harm’s Way: New York Shipbuilding in WWII’’ exhibit at the Camden County Historical Society. Joseph Seneca, Ph.D., is a professor at the Edward J. Bloustein School of Public Policy and Planning, Rutgers University, and has served in various economic advising roles to the State of New Jersey since . He has written extensively on government regulation of business, and state and local economic development. Harriet Sepinwall, Ph.D., is a professor of education and codirector of the Holocaust Education Resource Center at the College of Saint Elizabeth. She teaches New Jersey history, American and world culture studies, and was cofounder of the New Jersey Studies Academic Alliance. Arthur Shapiro received a B.A. from Rider University in , an M.A. from the College of New Jersey in , and an Ed.D. from Rutgers University in . He currently teaches special education at Kean University, and is the town historian for the Borough of Roosevelt. William D. Sharpe, M.D., is a clinical associate professor of pathology and laboratory medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. Beth Shaw is a member of the Mount Tabor Historical Society. Kelly A. Shea is an assistant professor of writing and director of the Writing Center at Seton Hall University. She received a B.S. from the College of William and Mary, an M.Ed. from Harvard University, and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania. Helen E. Sheehan received a B.A. from Syracuse University in , an M.A. in South Asian studies in , and a Ph.D. in sociology in  from the University of Pennsylvania. She is professor emerita of sociology and anthropology at Saint John’s University and a lecturer at the University of Pennsylvania. Janet L. Sheridan received a B.A. from Lock Haven State College in  and an A.S.T. from Pennsylvania Institute of Technology in . She is a photographer and consultant for history and historic preservation projects. Fr. John Shimchick has been the pastor of the Church of the Holy Cross in Medford since . Margaret L. Shultz earned her A.A. in history from County College of Morris in , and her B.A. and M.A. in history from William Paterson University in  and , respectively. She is employed as a historian for the Morris County Heritage Commission, and an adjunct instructor of history at William Paterson University.

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Alan A. Siegel, J.D., is a practicing attorney in Chatham who has written eight books on New Jersey history, two published by Rutgers University Press. His works have twice won the New Jersey League of Historical Societies’ Certificate of Excellence.

Alfred A. Slocum received a B.S.E.E. from the Newark College of Engineering, a J.L. from Rutgers Law School, and an L.L.M. from Yale Law School. He is professor emeritus of law at Rutgers Law School in Newark.

Michael Siegel is staff cartographer in the Rutgers Geography Department. He has been running the Cartography Laboratory and teaching undergraduate cartography courses in the Geography Department since . He enjoys exploring the changing landscape of New Jersey, and maintains a website of historical maps at http://mapmaker.rutgers.edu/MAPS.html.

Diane Slover received her A.A. degree from Long Island University. She is the author of seven novels, including Burn the Bank Down () and Mother of Death ().

Edith Silberstein received a B.A. from Hunter College in  and an M.A. from Rutgers University in . She is a member of the Camden County Cultural and Historical Commission.

Joseph C. Small received a B.A. from Williams College in  and a J.D. from Columbia University in . He is the presiding judge of the Tax Court of New Jersey.

Ruth J. Simmons was senior archivist and curator of the William Elliot Griffis Collection at Rutgers University. She received a B.A. from the University of California at Berkeley and an M.A. from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.

Andrew F. Smith is an independent scholar and freelance writer. He teaches culinary history at the New School University in Manhattan, and serves as a consultant to television series on food history. He is the author of The Tomato in America: Early History, Culture, and Cookery (), Pure Ketchup: The History of America’s National Condiment (), Popped Culture: A Social History of Popcorn in America (), and Souper Tomatoes: The Story of America’s Favorite Food ().

Richard C. Simon received a B.A. from Amherst College in  and an M.B.A. from Harvard Business School in . A retired business executive, he is currently active on boards of organizations involved in history, preservation, and the arts.

Bolling Smith received a B.A. in history from Furman University. He is a past chairman of the Coast Defense Study Group, editor of the Coast Defense Journal, and a retired captain from the Metropolitan Police Department, Washington, D.C.

Alan Singer received a B.A. from City College New York in , and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University. Currently, he is an associate professor of curriculum and teaching at Hofstra University.

Don Jay Smith received a B.A. from the University of Virginia in , a teaching certificate from Princeton University in , and an M.A. from the University of Virginia in . He currently is president of Wordsmith Communications, and serves as chairman of the board of the Community Theatre in Morristown.

Harbans Singh received a Ph.D. from Rutgers University, and is a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Studies at Montclair State University. His research focuses on geography and the environment of New Jersey. Clayton Sinyai earned a B.A. in liberal studies and an M.A. in political science at the University of Hawaii and a Ph.D. in political science at Rutgers University. Edward J. Siskin has studied postal history, particularly of the American colonial era, for more than forty years. He has written more than two hundred articles for the philatelic press. In –, the Smithsonian Institution had an exhibit based on his collection and research. Allyn Sitjar is the founder and artistic director of Youth Theater of New Jersey and the Summer Theater Institute. She is a director and producer of over  original shows, and earned a master’s degree in drama therapy at New York University. Merrill Maguire Skaggs is a professor of English at Drew University. She has written and edited several books and numerous articles on American literature, most recently the essay collection entitled Willa Cather’s New York: New Essays on Cather in the City (). Sheila L. Skemp received her B.A. in history from the University of Montana and her Ph.D. in history from the University of Iowa. She is a professor of history at the University of Mississippi, and the author of three books, including Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist (). Edward T. Skipworth retired from a position as library associate at Special Collections and University Archives in the Rutgers University Libraries in New Brunswick. Diane Jones Sliney received a B.A. from Brown University in  and an M.A. from Fairleigh Dickinson University in . She has penned numerous articles and edited several books on New Jersey history, and has a special interest in the Atlantic Terra Cotta Company.

Richard D. Smith, a native of Somerset County, received a degree in mass communication from Emerson College, Boston, in . He is a journalist/author, specializing in biography, history, and other nonfiction writing; and is also an administrator at Princeton University. Susan Smith received an A.B. in history from Vassar College in  and M.A. from Columbia University School of Architecture in . She currently serves on the Palisades Interstate Park Commission as restoration and development coordinator. Tracy L. Smith is a children’s librarian at the Mercer County Library System. She received a B.A. from Douglass College and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. Robert W. Snyder, a historian, is an associate professor and director of the journalism and media studies program in the department of visual and performing arts at Rutgers University–Newark. D. Albert Soeffing received a B.A. from Saint John Fisher College in  and an M.A. from Fordham University in . He teaches at New York University, has written extensively on the subject of American silver, and is a contributing editor of Silver Magazine. Paul Somers earned his bachelor’s degree in music from Ithaca College. He is the director of the Classical New Jersey Society and a music reviewer for The Star-Ledger. He has composed several pieces of music for productions, including a New Jersey Shakespeare production of Macbeth. Leonard J. Soucy, Jr., is the founder and director of the Raptor Trust, a wild bird rehabilitation center. A lifelong resident of New Jersey, he is a naturalist, photographer, author, and raptor researcher. He has been studying wild raptors and caring for injured ones for over thirty years. Stacy E. Spies earned a B.S. from Georgetown University in  and an M.S. in historic preservation from the University of Pennsylvania in . She works as a self-employed historic preservation consultant, and has documented sites throughout New Jersey.

About the Editors and the Contributors

Jane Shadel Spillman, deputy director for collections and curator of American glass at the Corning Museum of Glass, received an A.B. degree from Vassar College and an M.A. from the Cooperstown Graduate Program. She is the author of more than sixty articles and a dozen books on glass and glassmaking, as well as serving as the editor of the Glass Club Bulletin. John Spring is the Cresskill Borough historian, chair of the Cresskill Historic Preservation Commission, and retired president of the Bergen County Historical Society. Scott D. Stanford is a supervising geologist at the New Jersey Geological Survey. He received a B.S. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, an M.S. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University. Susie C. Stanley received a B.A. from Towson University in , an M.A.R. from Iliff School of Theology in , and a Ph.D. from Iliff School of Theology/University of Denver in . She teaches historical theology at Messiah College, and has published on women preachers in the Wesleyan/Holiness movement, most recently Holy Boldness (). Charles A. Stansfield, Jr., earned a B.S. from West Chester University in , an M.S. from the Pennsylvania State University in , and a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in . He currently teaches geography at Rowan University, and has published nine books and over two dozen articles and educational software packages. Douglas A. Stark, librarian at United States Golf Association, received a B.A. from Brandeis University, an M.A. from New York University, and an M.B.A. from University of Massachusetts. He has written articles about sports, museums, and archival practices. Betty Steckman worked at the State Library from  to , when she retired from her position as assistant coordinator of library programs. She received a B.A. from Otterbein College and an M.S. in library science from Drexel University. Virginia Oberlin Steel received her B.A. from the University of Hartford and an M.A. from the University of Massachusetts. She is director of Rutgers University–Camden Center for the Arts, and serves as a trustee of South Jersey Cultural Alliance, Arts and Business Partnership of Southern New Jersey, and ArtPride New Jersey. Robert B. Steelman is a retired minister and the historian of the Greater New Jersey Conference, United Methodist Church. He received a B.A. from Western Maryland College, an ST.B. from Temple University School of Theology, and an ST.M. from Temple University. He is the author of What God Has Wrought: A History of the Southern New Jersey Conference of The United Methodist Church (). Allan R. Stein is a professor at Rutgers Law School–Camden. He is the coauthor of Civil Procedure: Theory and Practice (), and has written extensively on judicial procedures. Robert S. Steinbaum received his B.A. from Yale University and his J.D. from Georgetown University Law Center. He has served as publisher of the New Jersey Law Journal since . Scott Stepanski received a B.A. in English from Rowan University. He is a freelance science, nature, and travel writer, and author of The Resource Guide to Earth Sciences () and coauthor of Gem Trails of Pennsylvania and New Jersey (). Guy Sterling received a B.A. from the University of Virginia in  and an M.S. from Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism in . He has been a general assignment reporter at The Star-Ledger in Newark since , covering horseracing, among a wide variety of topics.

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Gail F. Stern completed an independent major in art and society from Brown University and an M.A. in American civilization at the University of Pennsylvania. Prior to becoming director of the Historical Society of Princeton, she was museum director of the Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies for fourteen years. Marc J. Stern earned his B.A. at the University of Colorado, and his M.A. and Ph.D. at the State University of New York–Stony Brook. He is an associate professor of history at Bentley College, and specializes in U.S. economic, labor, and technological history. Stephanie B. Stevens received a B.S. from Rowan University and graduate certification in special education from the College of New Jersey. She currently serves as a trustee of the New Jersey Historic Trust, is historian of the County of Hunterdon and Township of Readington, and has written four books and numerous articles on local history. Edmund Stiles received an A.B. from Oberlin College in  and a Ph.D. from University of Washington in , and is currently a professor in the Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources Department at Rutgers University. Eric Stiles, who received his M.S. in ecology and evolution from Rutgers University, is employed by the Audubon Society. He specializes in wildlife conservation policy. Gloria T. Still received her A.B. in English from Goucher College. She is a spokesperson for the historic Still family, which is recognized as an American First Family. She is an inspirational speaker, storyteller, poet, writer, and educator. Brian D. Stokes received a B.A. from Rowan University in  and an M.A. from Rutgers University in . He currently teaches history at Rowan University and Camden County College. Garry Wheeler Stone received a Ph.D. in American studies from the University of Pennsylvania in , and is currently historian for the Monmouth Battlefield State Park. He is past president of the Society for Historical Archaeology. Michael T. Stowe founded the Millville Army Air Field Museum in Cumberland County in . He was a career New Jersey National Guard member, retiring in . He continues historical work with the Millville Army Air Field Museum, Naval Air Station Wildwood Foundation, and Levoy Theatre Preservation Society. Thomas Strider received a B.A. from Appalachian State University. He is collections manager for the Jersey City Museum, and organized the exhibition “William Armbruster, Pictorial Photography,’’ for the museum in . Paul G. Stridick, A.I.A., received his B.A. in environmental design from Philadelphia College of Art (University of the Arts) in . He is an architect, member of the Borough Council of Merchantville, and state coordinator for Main Street New Jersey. Harvey Strum received a B.A. from Syracuse University in , an M.P.A. in , and a Ph.D. in . He teaches history and political science at the Sage Albany campus, and has written a number of articles on the political and military history of New Jersey, with an emphasis on the early national period. Lena Struwe received her B.Sc. in  and her Ph.D. in  from Stockholm University, Sweden. She worked in the research program of the New York Botanical Garden until , and currently teaches plant systematics at Rutgers University. Joseph Sullivan has written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women ().

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About the Editors and the Contributors

Margaret M. Sumner received a B.A. from Mount Holyoke College in . She is currently a student in the American history doctoral program at Rutgers University. Carol J. Suplee, freelance journalist and former editorial page editor of the Burlington County Times, is author of Stories of Willingboro Township () and editor of From the Balloon to the Moon by H. V. Reilly (). Donald J. Sutherland, professor emeritus at Rutgers University, received a B.S. from Tufts University, an M.S. from the University of Massachusetts, and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University. He taught entomology, and conducted research on the physiology and toxicology of insects. Patricia Taylor Sutton received an A.A. from Green Mountain College in , a B.A. from State University of New York at Oneonta in , and an M.A. from Rowan University in . She is the program director at the Cape May Bird Observatory, and has written numerous articles for national publications and has coauthored three books with Clay Sutton, her husband: How to Spot an Owl (), How to Spot Hawks and Eagles (), and How to Spot Butterflies (). Bill Swayze is a reporter in the Morris County Bureau of The Star-Ledger, where he covers topics including historic preservation. Among the stories he has written are the revival of Historic Speedwell, the Morristown birthplace of the telegraph, and Morris County’s top ten list of threatened historic sites. He also has his own photography business, taking photos of New York and New Jersey urban streetscapes, rooftops, old neon signs, and gargoyles. Roberta C. Swenson received her B.A. from Mount Holyoke College in  and an M.P.H. from New York University in . She currently is the director of public education for the New Jersey Poison Information and Education System, and also an educator for the Bergen County Bloodborne Pathogen Speaker’s Bureau. Marie A. Sylvester is the historian for the Borough of Interlaken, Monmouth County, and author of many articles on local history, as well as a book in the Arcadia Images of America series. Lawrence Tamburri served as executive director of the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra from  to . Prior to joining the NJSO, he served as executive director of the Savannah Symphony, and general manager of the New Hampshire and Mesa Symphony orchestras. Pat Tanner is a freelance food and travel writer, who has written extensively for New Jersey newspapers and magazines. She is currently restaurant reviewer and columnist for the Princeton Packet. She received a B.A. from Newark State College in . G. Alan Tarr received a B.A. from the College of the Holy Cross in , and an M.A. in  and Ph.D. in  from the University of Chicago. He directs the Center for State Constitutional Studies at Rutgers University–Camden, and is the author of seven books and numerous articles dealing with state constitutions and state courts. John C. F. Tedrow received a B.S. from the Pennsylvania State University in , an M.S. from Michigan State University in , and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University in . He is professor emeritus in Soil Morphology at Rutgers University. Harriet P. Teweles received a B.A. from Queens College in , and an M.Ed. in  and certification as a learning disabilities teacher/consultant in  from the College of New Jersey. She taught at the Marie H. Katzenbach School for the Deaf from  to , and is now retired. Mark E. Thistlethwaite is a professor of art history at Texas Christian University. He received a B.A. and an M.A. from the Univer-

sity of California, Santa Barbara, and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania.

John A. Tiedemann is an assistant dean of the Monmouth University School of Science, Technology, and Engineering, and a faculty member of the biology department. He has been professionally employed in the marine and environmental field in the region for over twenty years. Michael B. Tischman is a founding/senior partner of the law firm of Sills, Cummis, Radin, Tischman, Epstein & Gross, P.A. Brian P. Toal received a B.A. and an M.A. in history from Fairleigh Dickinson University. He has been the official municipal historian of the Township of Clark, Union County, New Jersey since , and is an elected member of the Township Council (– and – present). He is employed as a legal and corporate researcher. Carla Z. Tobias received a B.A. from Duke University, an M.A. from New York University, and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University. She is the librarian/archivist at the Monmouth County Historical Association. Rocco G. Tomazic, Cdr., U.S.N. (ret.), is the assistant superintendent of the Linden Public School District. He is currently a doctoral student in social education at Rutgers University. Francis T. Tomczuk received his Litt.B. in journalism from Rutgers University in  and his M.Ed. from New York University in , in addition to attending Indiana University and Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Poland. He served as a combat interpreter with the Fighting Sixty-ninth Division in World War II. He is a retired educator from the Carteret public school system. Barbara Tomlinson, Ph.D., is retired from Kean University. She is the author of the article “Making Her Way: The Career of Congresswoman Florence P. Dwyer’’ in New Jersey History (). Gerald Tomlinson received a B.A. from Marietta College in , and attended Columbia Law School in –. A longtime book editor and short story writer, he is the author of Murdered in Jersey () and Fatal Tryst: Who Killed the Minister and the Choir Singer? (). Mariam Touba received a B.A. from Rutgers University and an M.A. from the University of Denver. She is a reference librarian at the New-York Historical Society. Patricia J. Tracy began to research the history of Northampton and the Edwards family while a student at Smith College. Her dissertation at the University of Massachusetts became the book Jonathan Edwards, Pastor: Religion and Society in Eighteenth-Century Northampton (). She taught at Williams College for twenty-three years; and now teaches part-time at Virginia Tech, and sells residential real estate. Suzanne Travers received her B.A. from Brown University in  and her M.A. from McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, in . She covers immigration for the Herald News of West Paterson, and teaches in the Political Science Department at Rutgers University–Newark. She grew up in Summit. Robert L. Trelstad received a B.A. from Columbia in  and an M.D. from Harvard in . He was chair of pathology at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School from  to , and in  he was named to its Paz Chair of Developmental Biology. Virginia Bergen Troeger received a B.A. from Goucher College and an M.A. from Kean University. She is a retired elementary school library media specialist from the Berkeley Heights Township School,

About the Editors and the Contributors

and is the author of Berkeley Heights (), and coauthor of Woodbridge,  vols. (, ).

Steven Trout received a bachelor’s degree in art from Rutgers University–Camden, where he also studied religion and philosophy. Rodham E. Tulloss, Ph.D., is a mycologist specializing in taxonomy, morphology, and ecology of the Amanitaceae, and is a New Jersey Poison Information and Education System volunteer for the identification of mushrooms. He is a retired fellow of Bell Laboratories, and an honorary research associate of the New York Botanical Garden. James Turk is the curator of cultural history at the New Jersey State Museum. He formerly served as director of the Salem County Historical Society, and vice president of programs, Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies, in Philadelphia. Jean-Rae Turner received a B.S. from Trenton State College in , an M.A. from Teachers College, Columbia University, in , and studied at Columbia Journalism School, the New School, and Kean University. She was a general assignment reporter for the Elizabeth Daily Journal, a history teacher at Hillside High School, and a librarian for New Jersey News photos. Nicholas Turse received a B.A. from Seton Hall University in  and an M.A. from Rutgers University–Newark in . He is currently a doctoral candidate in the Program in the History of Public Health and Medicine at Columbia University. Arthur T. Vanderbilt II received a B.A. from Wesleyan University in  and a J.D. from the University of Virginia School of Law in . He is the author of many books, and is a partner in a New Jersey law firm. Shaun C. Van Doren is the township historian for Tewksbury Township, and has served as president of the Tewksbury Historical Society since . He has given talks and lectures on the history and preservation efforts of Tewksbury, and has written articles about the township. Richard W. Van Vranken received B.S. and M.S. degrees in vegetable crops from Cornell University in  and , and is the county agricultural agent with Rutgers Cooperative Extension of Atlantic County. For more than twenty seasons, he has worked to maintain viable production and marketing systems for vegetable crops for southern New Jersey farmers. David J. Vecchioli is archivist and chief of cultural resource management at Morristown National Historical Park. He earned a B.A. at Rutgers University, an M.S.L.S. at Catholic University, and an M.A. at University of Maryland–College Park.

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Richard A. Volkert, M.S., is a supervising geologist at the New Jersey Geological Survey, where he coordinates the state’s bedrock geologic mapping program. He has written extensively on the Precambrian geology of the New Jersey Highlands. Arlene Gibbs Wacker is retired from her position as chair of the History Department at Rutgers Preparatory School. She continues to teach as an adjunct at Rutgers University. Peter O. Wacker is a retired professor of geography at Rutgers University, and a member of the Historical Preservation Certificate Program at Drew University. He received a B.A. from Montclair State University, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from Louisiana State University. Olga Jimenez Wagenheim is professor emerita of history at Rutgers University–Newark. She received her B.A. from Inter-American University, San Juan, Puerto Rico, an M.A. from the State University of New York at Buffalo, and a Ph.D. from Rutgers University. Betty Wagner received a B.A. from Duke University and M.S.L.S. from the University of Michigan. She is the Cranbury Township historian and director of the Cranbury Historical and Preservation Society’s History Center, and has written and lectured extensively on Cranbury. Lorryn Wahler has served as the executive director of the New Jersey Psychological Association since . Richard Waldron received a B.A. in  from Trenton State College and an M.A. in European history from Saint John’s University. He is the executive director of the American Swedish Historical Museum in Philadelphia. Cheryl A. Wall is a professor of English at Rutgers University, and author of Women of the Harlem Renaissance (). David R. Wall, an attorney working for a New York appellate court, received his B.A. in history from Saint Peter’s College in , a certificate from the University of London, a J.D. from the University of Notre Dame, and an LL.M. from New York University. He has served on the Tenafly Historic Preservation Commission and the Tenafly Centennial Book Committee. Linda P. Waller received a B.A. in journalism in  from the University of Bridgeport. She is president of the Lawnside Historical Society, Inc., and a member of the Camden County Cultural and Heritage Commission. Donna Walling has written articles for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Jill Walsh graduated from Douglass College in , receiving a B.A. in English and women’s studies. She worked as an editorial assistant for The Encyclopedia of New Jersey.

Richard F. Veit received a B.A. from Drew University in , an M.A. from the College of William and Mary in , and a Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in . He is an assistant professor in the Department of History and Anthropology at Monmouth University, and is the author of Digging New Jersey’s Past: Historical Archaeology in the Garden State ().

Kathleen Walz received a B.S. in biology at Ramapo College in  and an M.S. in botany from Rutgers University in . She currently works as an ecologist with the New Jersey Natural Heritage Program in the Office of Natural Land Management of the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection.

Earl R. Verbeek received a B.S. in  and a Ph.D. in  from the Pennsylvania State University. For twenty years, he served as a research geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey in Denver, Colorado. Currently he is curator of the Thomas S. Warren Museum of Fluorescence in Ogdensburg.

Frances Ward, R.N., A.P.N.C., is a professor of nursing at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–School of Nursing. She received a B.S. from Rutgers University in , an M.A. from New York University in , and a Ph.D. from New York University in .

Herwart C. Vogt received a B.A. from Northwestern University, an M.S. and Ph.D. from the University of Delaware, and an M.S.L.S. from Wayne State University. He currently volunteers at the Edison National Historic Site.

Harry M. Ward is William Binford Vest Professor of History, emeritus, at the University of Richmond. He received a B.A. from William Jewell College in , and an M.A. in  and a Ph.D. in  from Columbia University.

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About the Editors and the Contributors

George K. Warne received a B.S. in  and M.Ed. in  from Rutgers University. He chaired the Warren County Cultural and Heritage Commission for fifteen years, and has written and edited a number of articles and books relating to Warren County. Chuck Warner received a B.A. from the University of Redlands in . He currently coaches the Rutgers University–New Brunswick men and women’s swimming and diving, and is the author of Four Champions, One Gold Medal (). Yvonne N. Warren received her M.S. from Colorado State College. She is a retired educator, consulting historian for the Lambertville Historical Society and Mount Hope Cemetery Association, and coauthor of two books on Lambertville. Ethel M. Washington is history programs coordinator, Division of Cultural and Heritage Affairs, County of Union. She received a B.S. from Central State University in Ohio, an M.A. and M.Ed. from Teachers College, Columbia University, and a Museum Studies Certificate from the Graduate School of Art History, Rutgers University. Mark Wasserman is a professor of history at Rutgers University– New Brunswick. He has written three books on Latin American history, and is currently writing a book on the effect of the Great Depression on everyday lives in the United States. Marlie Parker Wasserman is the director of Rutgers University Press. Beverly A. Weaver is supervisor the Office of Historic Sites, New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry. She holds an M.A. in history from West Virginia University, and is a graduate of the Seminar in Historical Administration at Colonial Williamsburg. Anne E. Weber received her B.S. in engineering and applied sciences from Yale University, and her M.S. in historic preservation and M.Arch. from Columbia University. She is an architect at Ford, Farewell, Mills, and Gatsch. Richard P. Wedeen received an A.B. from Harvard University in  and an M.D. from New York University Medical School in . He is associate chief of staff for research and development at the VA New Jersey Health Care System, professor of medicine, and professor of preventive medicine and community health, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey–The New Jersey Medical School. Valeri Drach Weidmann received a B.A. from the State University of New York at New Paltz in  and an M.A. in journalism from New York University in . She writes features for newspapers and magazines, as well as corporate, government, and library newsletters. Lawrence D. Weimer received a B.A. from Rutgers University in , and is a graduate student in the Department of History at New York University. He works for Prudential Financial as a member of management in their Newark office. Joseph Weisberg received a B.A. from New Jersey City University (), an M.A. from Montclair State University (), and an Ed.D. from Teacher’s College, Columbia University (). He retired from Jersey City University as a professor of geoscience and science education. He chaired the New Jersey Historical Commission, –. Robert Weisbrot is the Christian A. Johnson Distinguished Teaching Professor of History at Colby College in Waterville, Maine. He is the author of eight books, including Father Divine and the Struggle for Racial Equality (). Matthew J. Weismantel received a B.A. in  and an M.A. in  from Rutgers University. He currently serves as a university director in campus information services at Rutgers University.

Allen B. Weisse received his M.D. from the State University of New York in , and is currently a professor of medicine at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey. Susan B. Welsh has written for Past and Promise: Lives of New Jersey Women (). Roger H. Wesby is a graduate of the Eastman School of Music, holds a master’s from Westminster Choir College, and a doctorate from Indiana University. He is director of choral activities at Wagner College, and teaches courses in music history, blues and jazz history, and conducting. Henry Wessells is an antiquarian bookseller in New York City and science-fiction bibliographer. He received a B.A. from Princeton University and an M.F.A. from Columbia University. Carmen Teresa Whalen is the author of From Puerto Rico to Philadelphia: Puerto Rican Workers and Postwar Economies (). She received a B.A. from Hampshire College in , an M.A. in  and Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University, and currently teaches Latina/o history at Williams College. Linda J. Wharton received a B.A. from Bryn Mawr College and a J.D. from Rutgers University School of Law–Camden. She served as the managing attorney of the Women’s Law Project in Philadelphia, and is now a lecturer at the University of Pennsylvania School of Law and a visiting specialist in constitutional law at Richard Stockton College. George White, Jr., a Geraldine R. Dodge postdoctoral fellow at the Rutgers Institute on Ethnicity, Culture, and the Modern Experience, is an assistant professor of history and African American studies at the University of Tennessee. He received a B.A. in history from Southern Methodist University in , a J.D. from the Harvard Law School in , and a Ph.D. in history from Temple University in . Paul B. Wice received his B.A. from Bucknell University in  and a Ph.D. from the University of Illinois in . He currently teaches at Drew University, and is the author of nine books on the American legal system including, Rubin “Hurricane’’Carter and the American Justice System (). Lee E. Widjeskog received a B.S. in wildlife management from Colorado State University. He is the regional superintendent of the southern part of the state for the New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife. Tom Wilk works as a copyeditor at the Courier-Post in Cherry Hill. He is coauthor of two books: Tales of South Jersey: Profiles and Personalities () and New Jersey Firsts: The Famous, Infamous, and Quirky of the Garden State (). Robert F. Williams is Distinguised Professor of Law at Rutgers University School of Law in Camden. He is the author of The New Jersey State Constitution: A Reference Guide (rev. ed., ). Yohuru Williams, Ph.D., is an associate professor of history and director of Black studies at Delaware State University. He is the author of Black Politics/White Power: Civil Rights, Black Power, and Black Panthers in New Haven (). Harry Williamson received a B.S. in mathematics from Westminster College. In , he cofounded the West Milford Bears Hockey Club, and has served as a coach and board member. Susan J. Winter is the president of the Branchburg Historical Society, and a member of the board of the Somerset Heritage Trail Association. She is a contributing editor to New Jersey Heritage Magazine, and has written a number of books and articles pertaining to New Jersey history.

About the Editors and the Contributors

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Robert J. Wister, Hist.Eccl.D., is chair of the Department of Church History, School of Theology, at Seton Hall University. He has written numerous articles and edited numerous books on ecclesiastical history.

Joanne L. Yeck received a B.A. in history from Miami University in  and a Ph.D. in cinema studies from the University of Southern California in . She is currently a freelance writer, specializing in classic Hollywood and popular culture.

Audra J. Wolfe is the science editor at Rutgers University Press. She received a B.S. in biochemistry and chemistry from Purdue University and a Ph.D. in the history and sociology of science from the University of Pennsylvania.

Sally Yerkovich, Ph.D., is president and CEO of the New Jersey Historical Society.

Leonard J. Wolgast received a B.S. in , an M.S. in , and a Ph.D. in  from Rutgers University. He currently teaches wildlife ecology and management at Rutgers University, and has written a number of articles on New Jersey wildlife. Gary K. Wolinetz received a B.A. from Rutgers University in  and a J.D. from Rutgers University Law School–Camden in . He is a partner at the Woodbridge law firm of Greenbaum, Rowe, Smith, Ravin, Davis & Himmel L.L.P. Edward Lama Wonkeryor is the project coordinator and consultant for the Underground Railroad Project at the New Jersey Historical Commission. He received a B.A. from Rowan University, an M.M.C. from the University of South Carolina, and a Ph.D. from Temple University. Fran Wood is an op-ed columnist for The Star-Ledger. A journalist for the past twenty-eight years, she attended Elmira College, and graduated from the School of Visual Arts. Jonathan E. Wood, retired teacher of American history, received a B.A. and an M.A. from the Pennsylvania State University. He currently writes articles and speaks about local history, and serves as board chair for the Library of the Cumberland County Historical Society.

Claribel F. Young received a B.A. from Georgian Court College in , an M.A. in British history in , and a Ph.D. in Anglo-American history in  from Rutgers University. She currently teaches history at Georgian Court College, where she specializes in New Jersey history. Nikisha Young received her B.A. and M.A. from Rutgers University. She worked at Rutgers University Press. George D. Younger was an executive minister of American Baptist Churches of New Jersey. He taught Baptist history and polity at Union Theological Seminary, Drew Theological School, New Brunswick Theological Seminary, and Princeton Theological Seminary. He died in . Michael A. Zaccaria, Ed.D., is professor emeritus of history and geography at Cumberland County College. Currently he is an adjunct professor at Pima Community College in Tucson, Arizona. He is a charter member of the Tile Heritage Foundation, and a collector and researcher of late nineteenth-century ceramic tiles. Ulana Zakalak received her B.A. in American history from Rutgers University in  and her master’s degree in historic preservation from Columbia University in . She is a historic preservation consultant who specializes in the cultural resources of urban New Jersey. In , she was honored with a Certificate of Appreciation from the Newark Preservation and Landmarks Committee for her “Outstanding Contribution to the Preservation of Newark’s Past.’’

Kimberly Elizabeth Wood received a B.A. in broadcasting/ telecommunications from Salem College. She serves as the marketing and business retention manager for Cumberland County.

Joanne M. Zangara received a B.A. in art from Douglass College in  and an M.L.S. from Rutgers University in . She was a librarian at the College of New Jersey.

Peter J. Wosh received a B.A. from Rutgers University in , an M.A. in , and a Ph.D. in  from New York University. He currently serves as director of the Program in Archival Management and Historical Editing at New York University, and has written widely on archival management and American religious history.

Janet Zapata is a decorative arts consultant, who specializes in American jewelry and silver. She received a B.A. from Upsala College and an M.A. from Rutgers University, and is the author of The Jewelry and Enamels of Louis Comfort Tiffany (), The Art of Zadora: America’s Faberg´e (), and coauthor of The Jeweled Menagerie ().

Giles R. Wright is the director of the Afro-American History Program at the New Jersey Historical Commission. He received a B.S.F.S degree from the School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, an M.A. in African studies from Howard University, and has undertaken doctoral studies in comparative labor history at Rutgers University.

Gail Enid Zimmer, M.L.S., is head of the reference department at the Maurice M. Pine Free Public Library of Fair Lawn. She is also a contributor to international periodicals for doll collectors, and is a member of the Authors Guild.

Kevin W. Wright received a B.A. in history from Rutgers College in . He is the resource interpretive specialist for the northern region for the Division of Parks and Forestry, and a curator at the Steuben House. Layla Wuthrick received a B.A. from Drew University in . She currently works for the Middlesex County Cultural and Heritage Commission. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin teaches history at Rutgers University. She is an expert in immigration history, and has been an advisor to the National Park Service Ellis Island site since .

Susan M. Zimmermann received a B.A. from Colby College in  and a Ph.D. from Brown University in . In , she completed a postdoctoral fellowship at Rutgers University, and became a research associate at Dartmouth College Medical School. Lowell H. Zuck, Ph.D., is emeritus United Church Professor of Theology and History at Eden Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri. He is senior research consultant for the Archives of the Evangelical Synod. B. Michael Zuckerman received his B.A. from Wesleyan University in  and his Ph.D. in American history from Brown University in . Since December , he has served as director of the MidAtlantic Center for the Arts in Cape May.