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English as a Discipline; or, is There a Plot in This Play? Edited by James C. Raymond THE UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA PRESS TUSCALOOSA AND LONDON
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Copyright © 1996 The University of Alabama Press Tuscaloosa, Alabama 354870380 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America The paper on which this book is printed meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information SciencePermanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.481984. Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data English as a discipline; or, Is there a plot in this play? / edited by James C. Raymond. p. cm. "The nineteenth annual Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature"—P. 1. Includes index. ISBN 0817308202 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. English literature—Study and teaching (Higher)—United States— Congresses. 2. American literature—Study and teaching (Higher)— United States—Congresses. 3. Canon (Literature)—Congresses. American Literature (19th : 1993 : University of Alabama) PR51.U5E54 1996 820'.71'173—dc20 9526586 British Library CataloguinginPublication Data available
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UXORI MEAE CAROLINAE DILECTISSIMAE
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Contents Acknowledgments
ix
Introduction The Play's the Thing: English as Theater James C. Raymond
1
Is There a Conversation in This Curriculum? or, Coherence without Disciplinarity Gerald Graff
11
Teach/Discipline Paul Lauter
29
Back to the Future Louie Crew
44
Boiled Grass and the Broth of Shoes: Some Academic Anecdotes George Garrett
62
Shakespeare and the Department of English Thomas Dabbs
82
Canonization and Its Discontents: Lessons from the Bible Walter L. Reed
99
The More Things Change: Canon Revision and the Case of Willa Cather Phyllis Frus and Stanley Corkin
119
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Making Do, Making Believe, and Making Sense: Burkean Magic and the Essence of English Departments Tilly Warnock
143
Them We Burn: Violence and Conviction in the English Department Stanley Fish
160
Afterthoughts ... ... by Stanley Corkin ... by Phyllis Frus ... by George Garrett ... by Paul Lauter ... by Walter L. Reed
175 178 181 182 187
Contributors
189
Index
191
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Acknowledgments The Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature has been an annual occasion of learning and delight since 1974, when my colleague, George Wolfe, assembled the profession's most distinguished Faulknerians to mark the anniversary of the publication of The Marble Faun. From that time to this, the success of the series has always been attributable primarily to the generosity of the invited speakers. They go to great lengths to provide us with original scholarship; they take time from their regular responsibilities to join us for several days of intense interaction; and they wait patiently while the proceedings inch their way to eventual publication. It is fitting that to them—whose names appear in the contents of this volume—the first debt of gratitude should be acknowledged. Equally essential, however, are the help and support of numerous colleagues and friends. The Nineteenth Symposium was particularly indebted to Dr. James Taaffe, Provost for Academic Affairs, to Dr. James Yarbrough, Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences, and to the Society for Fine Arts for financial support; to the Greene Beverage Company and to Pete Foster for generous help in entertainment; to Salli Davis (chair of the English department), Hank Lazer, Jane Lazer, David Miller, Lynne Miller, Sharon O'Dair, Amy Jo Pardo, Richard Rand, Betsy Rand, Myron Tuman, Ginny Tuman, Allen Wier, Donnie Wier, George Wolfe, and Suzanne Wolfe, who hosted dinners; to Dana Barnett, Jason Billions, Polly Fields, Sarah Gannett, Tammy Horn, Neal Kirchner, Jeanne Leiby, Todd McCullough, and Angela Owens, who served as guides, drivers, and helpers for the individual speakers; to Marcy Hess, who helped coordinate logistics; and especially to Laine Scott, superwoman, who in addition to taking care of her small child found time to coordinate the entire project; to Jessica Hollis, who conducted the final stages of manuscript preparation; to Eric Johnson who took on the monumental task of indexing the proof pages; and finally to my wife, Caroline, whose love and support make whatever I do seem worth doing.
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Introduction— The Play's the Thing: English as Theater James C. Raymond These I call Idols of the Theatre; because in my judgment all the re ceived systems are but so many stageplays, representing worlds of their own creation after an unreal and scenic fashion. —FRANCIS BACON, NOVUM ORGANUM
The nineteenth annual Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature posed a question: "Is there a discipline in this department?" For a while I worried that the answer might be entirely too obvious. Of course there is no discipline in the English department. It is a collection of disparate activities with multiple objects of inquiry, vaguely articulated methodologies, and diverse notions of proof. Whatever arrangement exists among its competing scholarly, artistic, and pedagogical interests is a marriage of inconvenience, grounded not on any passion or admiration that would justify the union but on habit, historical accident, economic dependency, and perhaps anxiety about what people would think if we went our separate ways and whether we would actually survive. If English is a discipline in any traditional sense, this symposium failed to define it. It was a fitful conversation, at times a series of monologues, sometimes convivial, sometimes hostile. It was theater of sorts. Hence the metamorphosis of this book's subtitle from Is There a Discipline in This Department? to Is There a Plot in This Play?—with all the ambivalence of the key terms fully intended: plot as narrative momentum that results from unfinished business; plot as conspiracy; plot as a field with established boundaries; play as performance; play as leeway, margin, slack, excess; play as frolic and fun; play as pretend. If the answer to the original question is an unequivocal "no," the answer to the
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second would have to be "yes," with such excess of meaning as to be almost meaningless. With one exception. As a whole, there was little evidence of plot in the sense of orderly structure. English has no plot, at least not in the Aristotelian sense—no unified action, no entelechy. To be fair, the proceedings did open with what felt like a beginning (Gerald Graff's paper), and they ended with a bang (Stanley Fish's paper). And there was plenty of conflict between, particularly in Paul Lauter's paper and in the reaction to the paper presented by Phyllis Frus and Stanley Corkin. But although some of the players provoked reactions from others, many received no response at all, as if their papers had been chanted by a chorus detached from the action or recited by characters wandering onto the stage unaware of the play in progress. Theater of the absurd, perhaps? Or was it vaudeville? By the time it was over, conflict had erupted—the sort of conflict that could have produced a plot if it had occurred in the first act instead of the last. It concerned the question of defining what we do, of drawing boundaries that might make our task distinctive from others on campus. Stanley Fish, the final speaker, argued that the borders defining disciplines are inevitable, unless a discipline chooses to define itself out of existence; everyone else who addressed the question seemed to welcome the blurring of disciplinary boundaries and breaking down of barriers. Conflict also occurred between the recurring metaphors used to describe the way we interact professionally. Once again, Fish was on one side, in an improbable alliance with George Garrett, in favor of violence; everyone else who addressed the question favored conversation in one form or other. A third motif recurred throughout the symposium: the question of audience. Virtually every speaker worried about our ability to make ourselves intelligible to outsiders, to the public. Papers that addressed none of these questions were generally uncontested—safe, one presumes, by anyone's definition of what English is supposed to do and accessible to a general audience. Among the uncontested papers was Thomas Dabbs's. His thesis—that English departments have transformed Shakespeare from a popular playwright to an academic artifact, unapproachable without footnotes and lesson plans—may have been no surprise to people within the field. But a larger audience, people whose first encounters with Shakespeare may have been less than felicitous, might find comfort in the notion that there is truth in what they probably already suspected: the fault may have lain as much in their teachers as in themselves. At the same time, Dabbs reminded the smaller audience, his colleagues,
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of a persistent paradox: in our efforts to make learning more general, we teachers of English seem doomed to make it more exclusive. Louie Crew was the most methodical of the performers, delivering a paper carefully plotted from opening conflict to final denouement, reading each quoted segment in a voice modulated to suggest a different speaker. With its focus not just on students but on students from political, sexual, or economic margins, Crew's paper had something sixtyish about it, but it was a backtothefuture version in which gay, lesbian, and Hispanic students in New Jersey and California discuss the civil rights of the KKK with a young man in Mississippi—this over a computer network that enables students to log into library catalogs on several continents to explore how "culturally charged" subjects are perceived from corners of the earth hitherto remote from Newark. No one argued with Crew. Observers might have construed this as a sign that homosexual perspectives, social and political awareness, and the bewildering possibilities of computer technology are so domesticated within the discipline as to be beyond controversy. More likely, though, no matter how disturbing people might have found Crew's tolerance of difference and his willingness to experiment, they would have been silenced either by political correctness or by the dignity and civility of Crew's performance. In a classical play, Walter Reed's paper would have been assigned to "Chorus." Reed focused on the dialectic between two eternal impulses—the nomothetic (roughly, the impulse to exclude or set limits) and the idiographic (roughly, the impulse to include everything)—that shape canons in general, fueling our disputations like a pair of deities partisan to opposing sides in earthly hostilities. These same antithetical impulses, as Reed explains, eventually reached a settlement in what we now recognize as the Bible, whose contents, however inevitable they might seem to those familiar with them, are in fact the aftermath of vigorous contention. Although Reed is evenhanded in describing the conflicting forces, his interpretation of the story of Babel reveals his allegiance. The builders of the tower are not arrogant, he says, but frightened, afraid of diversity, in which they see the beginnings of chaos and the dissolution of culture. It is "this fearful huddling together, rather than the supposed hubris of their skyscraper, that causes God to come down and introduce them to multiculturalism." On the evening of the first day, George Garrett said, "Let there be violence," or words to that effect. Scheduled as something of a main event—the lecture normally attended by local townspeople—Garrett began his paper with a box
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ing metaphor: to win, he told us, citing his mentor, the Philadelphia heavyweight Joe Brown, ''you had to hurt the other guy." And "to hurt the other guy you had to come close enough for him to hurt you and then take your chances." Garrett delivered a string of satirical anecdotes. Playing on what is often a comic disparity between intellectual posturing and the modest realities of academic lives, Garrett delivered a killer punch line: "Our discipline, however interesting, even entertaining it may be to us, is not a matter of great importance to our betters." Other participants declined to counterpunch in public but privately groaned that Garrett's performance was "an exercise in selfloathing." That assessment, of course, occurred after the bell and was hardly fair. However marginal Garrett's perspective may seem within the range represented in this collection, it would be disingenuous to overlook his nostalgia for English as an unproblematic discipline, as teaching the pleasures of reading and the craft of writing—a nostalgia that is widely shared within the profession, in some circumstances not entirely indefensible, and certainly one the public can understand. Garrett, of course, represents what is sometimes called the creative side of the department, at least by people who haven't noticed that scholarship of consequence is always creative. As a fiction writer, he is skilled at reaching an extramural audience, people the rest of us would like to reach, though we generally succumb to institutional pressures and write for one another instead. And although we may bristle at Garrett's reference to those who do not appreciate our work as "our betters," he did touch a raw nerve in the profession, our increasing awareness that it would be in our interest to include the public in what we do—as Graff puts it, to "enable students and other nonacademics to begin decoding the academy's mysterious signals." But the real question about Garrett's paper, to which we will return later, is whether his humor is tonic or toxic—therapeutic wit to prevent us from taking ourselves too seriously or a case of the philistine within. Several papers in the symposium made reference to the sixties. Fish "HATED them" (emphasis his). Lauter, on the other hand, finds in them an instructive metaphor for classroom practice. On an earlier visit to Alabama, Lauter was put in jail for participating in the historic march from Selma to Montgomery. There he caught himself acting unthinkingly from habit—the habit of discipline, as he says—obeying a jailer's instructions and thereby perpetuating the practice of segregation he had come to protest. In the English
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department, he argues, discipline can become automatic, prompting us to behave in ways of which we do not really approve. Lauter's paper defies summation, in part because it takes up numerous problems in the profession: its utilitarian assumptions; its individualistic values; its teetering between unfounded certitude on the one hand and on the other, the "relativist discourse that ends in an intellectual swamp where halfbaked 'opinions' crowd out scholarship and intelligence." Although he seems to have liked the sixties more than Fish did, Lauter does not romanticize them. In particular, he argues that those laudable but futile attempts "to reduce discrepancies of power in the classroom" failed not because of "false consciousness" among students but because power discrepancies in the classroom are inevitable. When we delegate unearned authority to students, they become, quite understandably, "fearful of being swept away into uncharted seas." He concludes that the standard dichotomy—authority versus democracy—is itself false, and he describes specific teaching practices in which students earn authority by becoming resident experts on some aspect of the culture surrounding the texts in the syllabus. Lauter ends where he begins, with a reference to jail: "I am talking about what our teaching itself teaches students about becoming complicit in their own incarceration." In the drama of this collection, Lauter and Fish are antagonists, not just in vague ways that might be described, reductively, as liberal versus conservative, but more precisely in their definitions of what the proper object of our attention should be. For Lauter, to accept broader philosophical assumptions than those associated with the New Criticism is not necessarily to abandon the practice of close reading; it is, rather, to expand our notions of what it is to read and a more inclusive list of what should be read—including, as he says, "a canon, a syllabus, a discipline, a university, [as well as] what is demarcated and valued as 'literature.' " When Fish entered the fray, it was not with boxing gloves but with fire. "Them we burn," he intoned in his distinctive way, instantly polarizing the audience like so many iron filings pointing resolutely toward either love or hate. And Fish wasn't kidding. Not that he shared Milton's inclination to burn papist books, but he was dead serious in his objection to what he characterized as the liberal tendency to ignore disciplinary boundaries and to substitute endless conversation for conviction. Without the kinds of exclusions that make disciplines possible, without a willingness to say, "Them we burn," Fish argues, "it is hard to see what you are doing and why you should consider doing it."
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The immediate object of Fish's incendiary allusion was the paper delivered by Phyllis Frus and Stanley Corkin. By reading Willa Cather's My Ántonia, as they later said, "against the mythological and celebratory interpretations designed to ensure Cather's prominence in a newly formed canon," Frus and Corkin raise much larger issues: whether literary studies should be limited to what have been conventionally construed as literary texts and whether literary studies should be confined to questions of aesthetic effects, thereby ignoring social, political, or cultural contexts. For Fish, Frus and Corkin represent the English department's death wish, a fashionable compulsion to define itself out of existence by failing to establish and maintain boundaries around its task, to differentiate it from, say, history, or political science. The proper focus of our attention, Fish argues, is "literary effects." To treat literature as if it were history is to abandon our task, not to improve it. His attack, of course, was directed at all those within the profession who feel that to limit English to the study of aesthetic effects, to deprive it of attention to social and political consequences, is to make it, tautologically, less consequential. Graff, on the other hand, in the revised essay that appears first in this collection, takes a much more hospitable view of Frus and Corkin's paper, both as an instance of Cather scholarship and as an example of what is properly within the scope of English. The paper Fish singles out for particular praise is Tilly Warnock's, and indeed, Fish and Warnock do seem to share, with others represented here, a concern that we talk about our work in ways the public can understand. Warnock would have us define the discipline as "teaching reading and writing"; Fish, citing a drugstore stock boy he once knew, suggests that we present ourselves as people who take care of "verbs and adjectives." Warnock seems actually to be proposing rhetoric as a disciplinary framework within which the rhetoric of literature is only a part. Were her proposal to be taken seriously, it would invert the current structure of English departments, giving rhetoric the position of preeminence it once enjoyed, with literature simply one of the many kinds of texts to which rhetorical analysis might be applied. But Fish's gesture is ambiguous. "Someone should be taking care of verbs and adjectives," he tells us, suggesting that this description of our task is all the public really needs to know, perhaps all it can be expected to understand. But to that sentence he adds another: "Someone should be codifying and refurbishing those verbal skills that on occasion can move the world." The parallelism in the structure of these two sentences implies synonymy—the second sentence
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merely a stylistic variation of the first. But in substance there is a fissure (what else?) between them. Is it English as grammar Fish has in mind when he speaks of skills that can move the world? Or English as poetics? Or possibly English as rhetoric, as Warnock would use the term? Define English as "taking care of verbs and adjectives" and it becomes at once trivial and powerful, because we live in a culture conditioned to believe that taking care of verbs and adjectives is an important task. Define it as poetics, and we are talking about the discipline in its current traditional state, with aesthetic interests powerfully entrenched and rhetoric and grammar reduced to petty concerns that, paradoxically, justify our existence to a pragmatic public. But define it as rhetoric, as the study of "those verbal skills that on occasion can move the world," and it gains enormous theoretical and practical scope, capable of containing whatever tasks English chooses as its proper work. This is English at an earlier stage, before it turned first to philology and then to poetics for respectability. And yet to define English as rhetoric is to dispel the illusion of being manageable, like taking care of verbs and adjectives, and to lose the political power that comes with that illusion. However ancient rhetoric may be among academic pursuits, to define ourselves as rhetoricians would be to substitute one problematic and intractable term for another. Warnock's paper also differed from Fish's in its dominant metaphor, conversation as opposed to violence. Readers familiar with Warnock's work will notice that she changes the venue of her conversation—no longer what was once her favorite image, the cozy parlor room in Kenneth Burke's The Philosophy of Literary Form but instead "the edge of an abyss," in Permanence and Change, where people "build their cultures by huddling together, nervously loquacious." This image echoes Reed's "fearful huddling together" to describe the builders of the tower of Babel. In the drama of English, violence and conversation are not just antagonistic forces within the play; they are the context in which the drama takes place, the play outside the play. If God intervenes, as Reed says he does, on behalf of diversity, it is a heavy handed intervention, a divine enforcement of political correctness, a kind of violence. Fish, on the other hand, would have been unhappy in Babel either before or after the curse. Fish has had enough of talk, which in his original paper he described as "the favorite liberal mode, the mode of endless conversation." His alternative, like Garrett's (and God's?) is violence: "Not conversation but war, violence, force, conflicts, fights to the death, or at least (and this is my favorite mode) to the silencing of one's adversary."
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Graff's paper opened the symposium and is first in this collection. Because Graff revised it after the meeting to include references to other papers, it works both as a foreword and an afterthought. "The problem," says Graff, "lies in the failure of the academy—left, right, and center—to create a coherent conversation about the politics of education and culture that would enable students and other nonacademics to begin decoding the academy's mysterious signals." Interestingly enough, making ourselves intelligible to the public is one of the problems Fish and Garrett identified from what might be characterized as the right, Lauter from what some would consider the left, and Warnock from what is arguably a center. But the solution? For Graff, at least, it is "not to try to turn the university into a debater's club, but to create a democratic public sphere in which the politics of culture could be discussed openly and with profit to students." Graff laments, as he often does, our habit of domesticating difference by compartmentalizing it, enforcing quarantines to prevent contagion, fertilization, fermentation, and other signs of life. On the issue of conversation, Graff is clearly on Lauter's side and opposed to Fish; yet when he complains of the institution's tendency to "avoid the danger that actual conversation might break out," Fish rightly leaps on this oxymoron to remind us that it is not conversation but war that we normally speak of as "breaking out." It is also true that Graff thinks of "dialog" as a device for foregrounding conflict. It requires a kind of plotting. But it is plotting without predetermination: not creating the illusion of freedom, as playwrights do when in fact, like gods superior to the action, they control it all; but putting incompatible elements in contact with each other, letting characters work out a plot of their own in ways that are unpredictable and for that reason are unsettling to those forces in the profession that prefer order. If the papers in this collection fail to portray English as a conventional discipline, perhaps the fault is in the convention. The word discipline itself has never been entirely disciplined—evoking, as it does, a range of meanings from control to punishment to discipleship to (in certain religious communities) a flagellum used to subdue the flesh. In academic circles discipline suggests a state of metabolic equilibrium, an organized activity within boundaries established by what Michel Foucault might call an episteme, or Thomas Kuhn a paradigm. But as a matter of historical record, English has had no paradigm. Or more precisely, it has had many paradigms, all of them continually in question. For this reason it is immune to what Kuhn called a paradigm shift. New criticism, structuralism, feminism, critical theory, and the new historicism have failed
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fundamentally and universally to transform the field because the field has never had even the provisional stability necessary for transformation to be noticeable. Despite its essential plotlessness, perhaps because of it, the symposium did, as Graff predicted in the opening address, enact what English departments do. There are indeed plots in this play—plots and counterplots, politics, intrigue, pretenses of every sort, territories to establish, turf to defend. But the action is often random and disjointed. You never know when a loaded pistol is going to be picked up and fired or when it is going to be ignored entirely. And there are plays within the play. I was reminded of this recently when a vacancy in our department provided an occasion for us to be treated to a series of lectures by senior Renaissance scholars who had applied to fill it. I thought of Garrett's football players as I listened to these lectures, realizing that only a few of these genial athletes might have enjoyed what I was hearing—certainly not as many as those who could have shared my pleasure in Garrett's irreverent narratives. To imagine that the audience to which Garrett plays is the one we should all entertain would be to impoverish the profession, to deprive ourselves of pleasures available only to minds equipped to enjoy them. Nothing elitist about this; just a recognition that every human enterprise, even football, boxing, and English, has its cognoscenti. Therein lies the crux of Garrett's paper. Certainly not everything that masquerades as scholarship or theory is as important as it may pretend, and for that reason, the fear of being ridiculed by Garrett or by the New York Times is worth living with. At the same time, it is as easy to trivialize important ideas as it is to inflate the trivial. One function of the discipline of English is to determine which is which. To suggest theater as a metaphor for what we do is, of course, not to argue that it is somehow the appropriate metaphor. But it is historically rich. Francis Bacon used it, pejoratively, in his efforts to distinguish science from lesser modes of inquiry. For Bacon, theater was one of several forms of idolatry, all of which had as a "proper remedy" the scientific method, "the formation of ideas and axioms by true induction" (Novum Organum, I, xl). Now, of course, we are more aware of the limits of science than Bacon could have been and perhaps more receptive to the notion that theater is not just illusion. Theater is, or at least can be, a window, a lens, a means of observing. It is not just an object of critical interpretation but itself an act of critical interpretation. When the curtain falls, we find ourselves savoring a new understanding of fate, family, age, disease, love, or something else of human interest.
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It is often most satisfying when it leaves us least able to articulate what we have learned but feeling nevertheless that our perception has been altered and enriched. That, I think, was the effect of the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on most of those who attended it. Not that everyone walked away feeling good about the discipline; in fact, people were upset particularly by Fish's fire imagery and Garrett's boxing metaphors. The conflicts engendered were certainly not resolved before the symposium ended and are not resolved within this book. They continue in the "Afterthoughts" submitted by Corkin, Frus, Garrett, Lauter, and Reed. The most dramatic moment in the symposium was certainly Fish's endorsement of what he described as John Milton's inclination to burn dissidents. It is a deliberately distressing image, which, in characteristic Fish fashion, manages to be at once belletristic and bellicose. Throughout the symposium, metaphors of conversation and violence had alternated like strophe and antistrophe. Garrett's "few anecdotes ... delivered like unwanted messages in a hostile camp" were hardly what Graff had in mind when he called for focused, coherent discussion. In his conclusion, Fish allowed that "violence" is a dirty word and substituted "conviction," which he regards as a more palatable synonym. But when Lauter expressed his preference for "dialog and rationality as substitutes for violence," Fish called it "a gesture of piety.'' When, we might ask, does one person's "piety" become another's "conviction"? Conflict is the essence of plot, the lifeblood of theater—which is why Graff frequently exhorts us to foreground our disputes, live with them, perhaps even learn to love them, certainly learn to act them out in intelligible and interesting ways. The most important issue raised by this collection is a question of degree. English needs somehow to steer a course between chaos and overdetermination. But just how much plot does this require? And how much play?
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Is There a Conversation in This Curriculum? or, Coherence Without Disciplinarity Gerald Graff Edmund Wilson once entitled a famous essay on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" In preparing for this conference, for a brief moment I was tempted to borrow a page from Wilson and title my paper "Who Cares If There's a Discipline in This Department?" It seems doubtful to me that English is now, ever has been, or ever will be a coherently defined "discipline," but I do not find this troubling in the least. I nevertheless decided against the "Who cares?" response, and not just because it would have left me with a talk of two seconds' duration. I think the question "Is there a discipline in this department?" does point to something we should be concerned about, but I think the question needs to be reframed. What should concern us is not whether English studies is a discipline, I think, whatever that may mean, but whether English studies is conceptually coherent. And for reasons I hope to show, coherence should not be confused with disciplinarity. To be more specific, I think it should not disturb us if the English department's concerns turn out to be too diverse to fit under a single disciplinary definition, much less the "common culture" whose absence is so loudly lamented these days. We do have good reason to be disturbed, however, if students and other nonprofessionals find the diverse activities of the English department mysterious and unintelligible. The same holds for other departments of literature and for the humanities in general. The embarrassing fact is that to most laypeople it has always been unclear why there need to be professionalized deparments armed with elaborately analytical methods in order to deal with books that—to all appearances—were written simply to be enjoyed. (A college dean is reported to have said that he
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could not see why there needed to be whole departments to deal with the books that he read on the train to work every day.) The question remains as mysterious today as it was in 1900, but this fact is rarely acknowledged or confronted by English departments, doubtless because it would be demoralizing at this late date to admit that the public has never understood why English departments need to exist in the first place. Then, too, favorable budgetary conditions—now clearly a thing of the past—have afforded English departments the luxury of ignoring the problem. I believe that good justifications can be given for the existence of English (and other humanities) departments, but they will necessarily be different and often conflicting justifications, justifications that will not, as we say, be readily totalizable under a single story of our mission. I also believe, however, that there is a potential coherence in English studies that English departments have hardly begun to tap. But it is a coherence that cannot be reduced to the kind of consensus on fundamentals that has traditionally constituted our idea of a discipline. For me, the source of this potential coherence lies precisely in the conversations between different and conflicting languages of justification and practices, conversations that will likely remain unresolved and whose outcome is not predictable. For me, then, the productive question is not "Is there a discipline in this department?" but rather "How can the messy and often conflicted conversations of this department be made coherent, intelligible, and useful to students and other nonacademics?" That is, how can English studies achieve coherence without disciplinarity? This question in turn I would restate as "Is there a conversation in this curriculum?" For the curriculum seems to me ultimately the most useful location for addressing the questions this conference poses about the incoherence and public unintelligibility of English. It is no accident, I think, that the issue of curricular coherence has become the focal point of current debates about the humanities canon and the relations of knowledge and politics, for the curriculum is the major form of representation through which academic departments identify themselves to the world (or fail to do so). For some—Stanley Fish apparently among them, to judge from his concluding remarks at this conference—the English department's lack of a coherent, agreedon disciplinary definition is not only dangerous but suicidal insofar as it is selfinduced. Unless English departments cease trying to be all things to all people, according to Fish, unless they can coalesce around some distinctive set of goals and practices that will differentiate them from other departments
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in the university, English departments risk forfeiting even the tenuous public support that they have up to now enjoyed. More specifically, Fish thinks that English departments will forfeit their distinctive reason for being—and their justification for asking for public subsidy—unless they abandon their wellintentioned but ultimately selfdeceived attempts to save the world from political oppression. Just how far Fish would go in urging a return from the political to the literary is not clear—he implies that it is more a matter of subordinating politics than of abandoning them. But his overall message is clear enough: it is time to stop trying to "redraw the boundaries" and to start shoring them up, lest we redraw ourselves into extinction. Though Fish makes a usefully provocative point, for those who remember the sense of exhaustion with the New Criticism in the 1950s and 1960s that precipitated the turn to politics, it will be difficult not to see the interdisciplinary and political trend of recent work in the humanities as a sign of vitality rather than of institutional suicide. To be sure, a certain portion of these political and ideological boundary crossings have been facile, obnoxious, or downright silly, especially when they claim to debunk a conveniently unanalyzed "dominant ideology" or "hegemonic discourse" or to perform a supposedly risky act of "subversion," ''transgression," or "oppositionality." Nevertheless, the best of the boundarycrossing work in English and other literature departments (including prominent work by Fish himself and cogently defended by him against conservative attacks) has earned it a legitimate influence in disciplines such as law, philosophy, history, and anthropology. Bruce Robbins has speculated that the cry of "back to literature itself" that Fish echoes—Robbins terms it the "new localism"—may be "an attempt to pacify criticism's most strident enemies by retreating out of the glare of unfriendly publicity focused on 'theory,' 'cultural studies,' and 'PC' and returning to our assigned seat, where we will once again look studious and inoffensive if also a bit irrelevant." Robbins's comment serves to remind us that it was only because postwar English and other humanities departments had come to seem "inoffensive" that theory, cultural studies, and other recent innovations seemed necessary. It may be that these departments would truly be committing suicide if they were to try to return to their former state. Fish argued at the conference that "mixing literary criticism, history, and politics results in bad literary criticism, bad history, and bad politics—namely, the ineffectual politics of the academic cultural left." But any dominant critical mode at a given moment inevitably produces a certain quantity of bad, silly,
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formulaic work. So while Fish is right up to a point, he ignores the fact that in an earlier era the failure to mix literary criticism, history, and politics also resuited in a good deal of bad literary criticism, bad history, and bad politics. What provoked Fish's comments at the conference was the paper by Phyllis Frus and Stanley Corkin, which took Willa Cather's fiction to task for propounding nationalist myths. I personally found the paper persuasive, but even had I not, I would not agree with Fish's implication that English departments would somehow be better off if instead of encouraging such ideological critiques they went back to topics like "Willa Cather's Nature Imagery." For that matter, it simply isn't the case that politicized criticism has driven formalistic and belletristic criticism out of business. In an essay on Cather published in 1987, for example, we learn that O Pioneers! celebrates "an artist's ability to release a geographical region into beauty" and that Cather "gave her book the loose structure of newly broken sod" (Rosowski, 87). To me, such platitudes are considerably less interesting than critiques of Cather's investment in nationalistic myths, and they are certainly no more likely to rescue the discipline from oblivion. Then, too, as Frus and Corkin demonstrated, important connections can be made between Cather's nationalistic myths and images of nature. In any case, the return to literature itself desired by Fish and others seems about as likely as a return to manual typewriters. It would require an abrupt renunciation of what is arguably the most enabling discovery of the recent generation: that "literature" is not a closed category—to be counterposed against "ordinary language," as the New Critics used to do—but one that overlaps with and is permeated throughout by the concerns of philosophy, rhetoric, politics, sociology, law, psychology, and other disciplines. It does not seem any more likely that parallel developments in composition and rhetoric studies will soon reverse themselves. I agree with Robbins's conclusion that the recent interdisciplinary trend ''has sometimes been intellectually sloppy, but it is too late to rechannel it back between the banks of a discrete discipline." Fish has a point when he argues that English departments that claim to do everything risk being seen as doing nothing. The problem is that English departments could still be regarded as doing nothing even if they contracted their scope in the way he recommends. Fish would have English recover a distinctive function, but in some ways English has been all too distinctive—so much so that its presumed clients lack a clear picture of what it does. For English departments to desist from social interests and return to more conventionally defined literary concerns would in no way guarantee them greater intelligibility
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in the eyes of students and the general public, and as long as the practices of English departments remain opaque it may hardly matter whether the form our opacity takes is literary or political. What would more profitably concern us, I think, is how such departments can clarify a range of practices that for the foreseeable future seem likely to remain both literary and extraliterary—that is, diverse, mixed, and conflicted. Was There Ever a Discipline in This Department? The quest for a precise definition of the discipline of English has been a persistent one since the founding of English studies as an academic subject about a century ago. In fact, the establishment of English as a "department" in the new research universities of the 1880s and 1890s was initially prompted by dissatisfaction with the amateurish lack of discipline with which the subject had been taught in American colleges of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In those early colleges, what would come to be called English had comprised a loose mixture of rhetoric, oratory, elocution, grammar, and vaguely inspirational book chat, usually taught by a clergyman who commanded what was called "a general society knowledge" of belles lettres. With the rise of professionalism in the 1880s and 1890s, this undefined and amateurish state of affairs came under attack by a new breed of American philological scholars, many of whom had returned from German graduate schools with a mission to turn English and other modern languages into a rigorous academic subject. In that positivistic era, such a project meant demonstrating that humanistic subjects were susceptible to scientific methods of investigation, allaying the suspicion that these subjects were "feminine," akin to dancing instruction. As classical Greek and Latin gave way to the modern languages, it was Germanstyle philological science that gave the new English and modern language departments scientific, professional, and disciplinary status. For several reasons, however, philology never managed to win out over rival ways of studying English and other modern languages. For one thing, the narrow specialization that enabled philology to meet the scientific credentials required of an accredited academic discipline conflicted from the start with the generalizing needs of undergraduate education. In theory, philology as it had been defined by European founders like August Boeckh and Hippolyte Taine meant a broadly ambitious study of culture and cultural history. But in practice it usually amounted to a nitpicking accumulation of
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linguistic minutiae on topics such as "The Passive Voice in Old Icelandic," with hardly any mention of the larger cultural implications of such topics. For another thing, the relation of philology to specifically literary forms of study was unclear from the outset. Many of the first generation of American modern language professors thought of philology as a purely linguistic study, not a literary study at all, since literature for them was something that could be practiced but not rationally analyzed. James Wilson Bright of the Johns Hopkins University, for example, thought that "describing a philologist as a professor of literature would be as absurd as describing a biologist as a professor of vegetables" (21). The most popular undergraduate teachers of literature in the early university were not philologists or research scholars but impressionistic classroom spellbinders and belletrists, figures like Barrett Wendell of Harvard, William Lyon Phelps of Yale, and John Erskine of Columbia whose lack of scholarly discipline was ridiculed by their philological colleagues. Early efforts to unify English as a discipline were frustrated, then, by a conflict between "scholars" and "critics," the one typically preoccupied with narrowly positivistic facts, the other with vaguely specified tastes, values, and interpretations. 1 Another rift opened as English departments by the turn of the century became responsible in most universities for freshman writing courses. Though the grading of freshman themes was often scorned as an activity beneath the dignity of an English professor, it was the English department's control over required composition courses that enabled it to grow into the largest and most powerful department in the humanities, but with that size and power came diversification. The colonizing of composition was just one instance of how the territorial ambitions that led English departments to widen their range of interests made it difficult to maintain a unitary definition of the discipline. English departments seem to be forever stretching their boundaries to absorb new functions and then wondering why their boundaries are so unclear. These divisions between scholars and critics and between literature and composition teachers reflected fundamental disagreements over both the proper object of English study—was it language, literature, culture, or rhetoric?—and over the proper methods of such study, or whether "method" was really needed, as both belletristic professors and the lay public tended to doubt. Despite the efforts of the philologists, then, to clean up the messy conceptual situation of English, the nebulousness of the subject remained a common joke among early administrators. In 1911, William T. Foster observed in Administration in the College Curriculum that although everyone agreed that English should be a prescribed subject, there was little agreement on what the subject
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was. Even "the general prescription of English," Foster wrote, "is an agreement in name only; what actually goes under this name is so diverse as to show that we have not yet discovered an 'essential' course in English" (174). As it became clear that philological and historical methods could provide only part of the disciplinary foundation that English sought, leadership in the search for that foundation began to pass from research scholars to critics. But "criticism" was starting to be conceived in a new way—no longer as a belletristic and impressionistic practice but as a type of analysis and interpretation whose methodological rigor rivaled that of philology. Prior to the 1920s, the term academic critic would have seemed a contradiction in terms. But the emerging conception of criticism made it safe for the academy by laying claim to the same severe standards of objectivity in interpretation and evaluation that philology and literary history claimed for research. The case for making interpretive criticism the defining disciplinary activity of English studies was made by two influential books of the 1920s by the British critic I. A. Richards, Principles of Literary Criticism (1925) and Practical Criticism (1929). In the opening chapter of Principles, Richards reviewed the history of criticism and found it a "Chaos of Critical Theories" that had made remarkably little progress in answering "the fundamental questions which criticism is required to answer" (6). Richards then demonstrated in Practical Criticism that this theoretical chaos was mirrored by equally confused practices in the reading of literary texts, a confusion that had been passed on to college students. Problems of interpretation had come to seem peculiarly urgent after the carnage of World War I, which demonstrated the disastrous consequences of the breakdown of communication among modern nations. And after World War II, when unprecedented numbers of people poured into higher education, educators were impressed by Richards's dire findings about student reading habits. These were among the factors that enabled "criticism"—as distinct from "scholarship"—finally to become a respectable preoccupation of literary academics in the postwar era. If we compare the New Critics' account of the disciplinary claims of literary study to the rival accounts of the older philologists and literary historians, we can see why there was no contest. First, the New Critics had a clear and plausible theory of the object of literary study—literariness, or the unique nature and functioning of literary language, the uniquely literary way of knowing. Second, these critics possessed a method of close textual explication—Rene Wellek and Austin Warren in their Theory of Literature (1949) called it "the intrinsic study of literature"—that seemed manifestly more adequate to that
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object of study than the "extrinsic" approaches of the older scholars. Third, and most decisive institutionally, this explicative method seemed far more suitable to the needs and aptitudes of inexperienced undergraduates than the ponderous and often irrelevant methods of the older scholars. Nevertheless, like the philological model that preceded it, the New Critical idea of the literary discipline never achieved complete domination over English studies. Even at the height of its influence in the 1940s and 1950s, the New Criticism was vigorously challenged by continuators of the "extrinsic" modes of criticism and scholarship that occupied the other half of Wellek and Warren's book. Historical scholars, myth and archetypal critics, and a variety of ethical critics strongly contested the New Critical attempt to separate literariness from its historical, psychological, and moral contexts. Even in the classroom, where explication became the dominant practice, it coexisted in an uneasy and often confusing tension with historical analysis, a tension exemplified in the familiar survey course in which classic texts are studied New Critically in chronological order. Then, too, the entry of the New Criticism into the expansive postwar university opened the way to further innovations that deviated from the New Critics' disciplinary agenda. Courses and eventually programs in creative writing were ushered in by the critical movement, only to achieve semiautonomous status with either little relation to criticism and scholarship or a frankly hostile relation. Composition and rhetoric studies would undergo a similar evolution a generation later. As these changes were taking place, a growing interest in interdisciplinary study reflected the suspicion that the "intrinsic" and "extrinsic" are more difficult to distinguish than the New Critics thought, if the distinction does not simply beg the question. Finally, with the eruption of political revolt in the mid1960s, it became obvious that there was no more consensus on the disciplinary foundations of English than there was about the social function of education in general. And if some shred of consensus was reestablished in the 1970s, it has subsequently been shattered by such dissenting trends as feminism, ethnic studies, multiculturalism, and poststructuralist theory, which have in turn provoked today's culture war over humanistic education. Fragmentation as Collapse or Liberation Over the now onehundredyear history of English, then, Germanic philology, literary history, and the New Criticism have made successive attempts to
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locate definitively the essence of the discipline and thereby bring order to an increasingly unruly array of interests, assumptions, and practices. At no time, however, have English professors restricted themselves to the supposed object or method stipulated by the disciplinary definition. Today, English seems further than ever from defining a common disciplinary project. Conservative critics deplore this state of affairs, taking it as a symptom of the collapsing standards and capitulation to anarchy and relativism that they find everywhere. I do not agree with this dire picture, but the complacent response that often comes from the Left seems to me just as inadequate. Too often, the Left has been content simply to invert the conservative condemnation, glorifying incoherence and fragmentation as a healthy condition or even a "transgressive" one that undoes repressive totalizations. In an unwitting collaboration, the Right gives the idea of curricular coherence a bad name by conceiving it as a forced disciplinary or cultural unity, and the Left then reacts against this repressive unity by throwing out the baby with the bathwater and rejecting the very idea of curricular coherence. It seems to me a source of vitality that universities in general and English departments in particular have been able to assimilate so impressive a proliferation of innovations over a short span of time. Whereas the liberal arts colleges of the nineteenth century had repressed or excluded innovation and diversity, modern universities have thrived on them, making them their watchword in the emergence of the contemporary multiversity. The comment from 1911 that "what actually goes under the name" of English "is so diverse as to show that we have not yet discovered an 'essential' course in English" is in itself a sign of strength rather than weakness. Yet it does seem legitimate to ask whether this tolerance of innovation and change needs to come at the cost of progressively increased incoherence. To understand why this has happened, we need to glance at the curious way in which the modern university has assimilated innovation and change, a pattern that reflects a distinctively American helplessness in dealing with conflict. Whenever threatening innovations have appeared, the university has characteristically made room for them by adding a new unit—a new course, department, or program—that is not expected to be in dialogue with the existing ones. Curricular disputes have been resolved by appeasing opposing factions with a portion of the curricular turf and then keeping them as separate as possible so they cannot bicker. Such a resolution satisfies all parties for a while: in the humanities it leaves traditional humanists free to humanize away in their courses while revisionists get to revise and problematize in theirs, and the uni
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versity gets to boast of its increased diversity of perspectives and its balance of tradition and novelty. Yet the failure to confront the conflicts that result from the increased diversity creates the fragmentation that leaves students and other onlookers confused. In many ways, the American university has assimilated change in the same additive fashion as the American city, disarming threatening conflicts by opening new curricular "suburbs"—with the difference that in the academy the newcomers get to occupy the suburbs while the established residents stay where they are. The curriculum becomes a geological overlay of wildly disparate and conflicting assumptions, leaving it up to students to connect and synthesize what their teachers do not. For example, when courses in modern and contemporary literature won entry to the English department after World War II, they were simply overlaid on courses in earlier periods. Thus students took courses in ancient and modern periods without experiencing the connections and contrasts that give meaning to the ideas of "ancient" and "modern." In the same way, when creative writing courses were established, they were merely added to the existing scholarship and criticism courses. So even as poets and novelists taught alongside critical analysts of contemporary literature, the two rarely communicated outside the department cocktail party. A more recent case in point is the wellpublicized dispute at Stanford University over its Western culture requirement. Stanford was roundly denounced by conservatives for caving in to political pressure from multiculturalists and other minorities. But if Stanford "caved in" to pressure, it was pressure from all the factions involved. In a kind of academic version of Let's Make a Deal, Stanford established a multicultural track to satisfy multiculturalists while maintaining several traditional tracks to satisfy traditionalists. The dispute was "resolved," in effect, by creating two separate curricula, more or less separate but equal—or separate but unequal, according to some on both sides. (One track of the new course, "Europe and the Americas," does mount a dialogue between Western and nonWestern texts, but evidently not between opposing faculty perspectives.) This tactic seemingly disarmed hostilities, but it really only drove them underground by depriving them of institutional channels in which they might have been debated and resolved. The Stanford case is a classic illustration of how the modern university sacrifices curricular coherence to avoid the danger of a conversation breaking out that might not be entirely predictable. Not only is the curriculum damaged, however, but the university's intelligibility in the eyes of its constituencies also suffers. In other words, there
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is a connection between curricular incoherence and the opacity and unintelligibility of the English department to students and other nonacademics. Like the academic Right, the academic Left tends to be so caught up in the righteousness of its cause that it fails to see the problem of the university from the point of view of the confused student. But then, the idea that students might be confused ill accords with the sentimental image of the student as a member of an oppressed class who presumably longs to be "empowered" by the radical teacher, perhaps by eliminating whatever vestige of coherence may be left in the curriculum. The leftist rejection of coherence speaks in the name of student empowerment, but there is nothing empowering in a disconnected curriculum in which no course speaks to any other course. Today's students can go from an oppositional classroom in which it is taken for granted (and therefore probably not explicitly stated) that Western culture is a hegemonic discourse implicated in a legacy of historical oppression to a traditional classroom in which it is equally taken for granted (and therefore not stated) that Western culture is an unproblematic heritage to be noiselessly passed on. Students become volleyballs, constantly batted back and forth in an ideological game they are not invited to play and whose rules change without notice from course to course. To be sure, for the minority that comes to college with some already developed skill in synthesizing books and ideas on its own, putting together this doityourself kit of a curriculum can be an exciting and rewarding experience. Too often the rest, however, can only cope by giving each instructor what he or she "wants" even though it contradicts what the last instructor wanted. Insofar as the curriculum withholds a coherent conversation from students, it disempowers them by making them dependent on their teachers. Then, too, the confusion created by a disconnected curriculum defeats the aims of progressive politics, which require not only a diversity of perspectives but clear and focused public discussion between them. Instead of a clarifying discussion between and across different perspectives, students are exposed to a spectrum of self confirming professorial discourses that preach to the already converted, or at least are not interrupted when they do. In the absence of a real political conversation, the academic Left generates an ingroup discourse that fails to address those who must be persuaded if the Left's goals are to be achieved. The Left becomes a tight little enclave speaking chiefly to its own converts, at once reinforcing its pet dogmas and falling into increasingly marginal internal squabbles. I believe that much of the arrogance and ineffectuality that Fish pointed out in academic Left politics is attributable to this institutional and cultural isolation.
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Though the recent attack from the right on political correctness seems to me both overblown and hypocritical, I think it does point to a pervasive tendency of the academic Left to reinforce its own selfrighteous assumptions rather than to engage in persuasion with outsiders. And the more ghettoized the Left becomes in feminist, ethnic, gay, and cultural studies courses and programs, the more its selfprotective behavior comes to mirror that of the traditional disciplines. Indeed the Left simply replicates the traditional behavior of academic power groups, which make their way by establishing their own autonomous turf and then walling themselves off from outsiders. And as these conditions encourage leftist rhetoric to turn increasingly inward, the Left becomes easy prey for the misrepresentations of the Right. The public success of the antiPC campaign suggests that if oppositional academics are unable or unwilling to speak clearly about their work to a larger public, their most vicious detractors will speak for them. It is clear, however, that moralistic exhortations against ingroup discourse are not effective. And conditions would not be altered significantly if leftist academics began to speak more clearly or to use less jargon (though these things would help). The problem, as I see it, lies in the failure of the academy—Left, Right, and center—to create a coherent conversation about the politics of education and culture that would enable students and other nonacademics to begin decoding and mapping the academy's mysterious signals. For it is only in such a conversation that either traditional or oppositional positions can become intelligible to those constituencies, and it is only within the curriculum itself that such a conversation can achieve the centrality and visibility that it needs if it is to make a difference. Here is the comic irony of the present culture war: as traditionalists and oppositionalists wage their titanic struggle, many students find both vocabularies equally opaque. We become so caught up in the battle between competing lists of books and ideas that we forget that for the majority of students it has always been books and ideas as such that seem strange and alien, regardless which side is drawing up the reading list. To those who know the intellectual code, traditional humanists and poststructuralist theorists seem so far apart as to be living on separate planets. But for many students, the traditional conservative and the radical theorist seem far more similar to one another than they seem to themselves, their parents, and friends. The very issues that make it possible for the traditionalist and the theorist to dislike one another so intensely create a bond that separates them from those students.
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I am assuming here that learning is an inherently dialogical process, as Shirley Brice Heath and Kenneth A. Bruffee have argued, and as a range of philosophers and literary theorists from Mikhail Bakhtin, to Richard Rorty, to Kenneth Burke, to Stanley Fish have also helped us to understand. Knowledge, as these thinkers suggest, is best conceived not as a disembodied pyramid of facts or theories but as a function of discourse communities engaged in concrete social practices. To say that learning is dialogical is to say that understanding is differential and relational, that concepts like "Western culture" or "traditional canon" depend for their intelligibility on their contrast with "nonWestern culture" and ''revisionism." Yet we have not yet begun to translate our increasing recognition of the dialogical and relational nature of knowledge production and learning into a corresponding recognition of the need for a dialogical curriculum. This problem again points to a connection between the poor communications between humanistic academics and the wider world and the poor communications among humanistic academics. If individual arguments are necessarily formed in dialogue with other arguments, then the isolation of these positions from one another in noncommunicating courses deprives these arguments of the conditions they need to become intelligible to third parties. To revert to my earlier terms, we need an alternative to the narrowly conceived coherence of the Right and to the dismissal of coherence by the Left, an alternative either to everyone doing the same thing or everyone doing their own thing, an alternative to disciplinary unity on the one hand and undisciplined fragmentation on the other. I submit that such an alternative is provided by the concepts of conversation and connection. A dialogical model of coherence would entail a new type of curriculum in which courses would be in communication instead of passing one another like ships in the night. The idea of dialogue makes it possible to avoid the bad choice between forced order on the one hand and unproductive disorder on the other. When I use the word dialogue, however, I do not mean the sort of New Age blather about reaching out and touching one another that Fish rightly ridicules in traditional liberalism. I mean a rigorous and focused exchange of arguments of the kind at which Fish at his best excels. Take, for example, the previously mentioned split between literary and composition studies. In seeking to overcome this split we have tended to search for a synthesis or common ground that will unite literature and composition as part of a single discipline. For example, it was suggested at the Alabama con
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ference (by Tilly Warnock and Fish) that the disciplinary identity of English might be made to cohere around the terms reading and writing. In practice, however, there turn out to be so many different and conflicting approaches to reading and writing that the terms are not particularly meaningful or helpful. Since other attempts to define common ground inevitably turn out to be equally controversial, paralysis sets in and the gulf between composition and literature (intensified by their unequal institutional status) grows deeper. The assumption that is not challenged, however, is that composition and literary studies need to find a conceptual common ground to cooperate. It does not occur to us that the very differences between composition and literature, including their different political status in the university, could become the connecting link. (I will suggest in a moment how this could be done.) In other words, by opening a conversation between them, composition and literature could be connected without a prior consensus on the nature of reading, writing, and other concepts or a prejudgment about the outcome of the conversation. Another case in point is the gulf between the creative writing and criticalscholarly sectors of the English department. By now we have become so used to the separation between the concerns of contemporary writers and of academic critics that it seems natural and normal. Again, it does not occur to us that creative writing and criticism could be connected by their very differences in method and outlook, a connection that might help students understand the history of romanticism and avantgardism that created the opposition between artist and critic. The behindthescenes grumbling after George Garrett's talk that James Raymond describes in his introduction to this volume might then be channeled into a more useful kind of discussion. Take finally the question of how new trends such as multicultural, ethnic, feminist, and gay studies should be assimilated to the English department or the humanities. Typically, the choice tends to pose itself as one between isolated courses or programs, say, in feminism or multiculturalism, and the "infusion" of feminism and multiculturalism into most or all courses. In the first case, the result is the ghettoization of feminists and multiculturalists and the ingroup politics and discourse that I described earlier. In the second case, the result is resentment and backlash, as many instructors and students resist having their courses "infused" with the new texts and approaches. A conversational model enables us to avoid this unsatisfactory choice. For it is not a question of comprising ethnic or women's studies courses and programs but rather of putting such programs into dialogue with the opposing
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views they need to make themselves intelligible to third parties. Consider again the case of Stanford's civilization requirement. Had Stanford thought to reorganize its requirement around the dialogue between Western and nonWestern texts instead of separating these texts in different course tracks, it would have done more to help students understand the differences that terms like Western and nonWestern presuppose. Students come away with a better understanding of Western culture when for once they have something to compare it with. I have left to the end the question of how courses can be put into dialogue without either a lockstep required curriculum or cumbersome administrative machinery. It seems to me that academic conferences like this one can play an important role. Right now, such conferences tend to compete with the courses that take place concurrently at a campus, even though many of the issues taken up in the conference are the same as those studied in the courses. I would bet that the concerns of the present conference intersect with the concerns of innumerable courses being given at this moment at the University of Alabama across many departments, in the social sciences as well as the humanities. If this conference is not being used to create a dialogue among those courses, an opportunity is being missed. A conference on the Stanford controversy could be used to link courses in Western and nonWestern culture and to give students a sense of what is at stake in studying either. A conference on the controversy over the revision of the composition program at the University of Texas could be used to bring the concerns of composition into dialogue with those of the rest of the English department. In fact, organizing a conference on the Texas debacle may be the surest way to avoid repeating it. Giving students roles in such conferences—or, better still, encouraging them to organize the conferences themselves, as has been done at several campuses—would be an excellent way to convert students from passive spectators to active participants in our academic conversations. This idea of the studentrun academic conference, used to tie courses together, has been tried with success at a number of campuses of which I know—the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, the University of Illinois at Urbana, and the University of Arizona. We have experimented with the idea at the University of Chicago. Then, too, if we factor in the possibilities created by new telecommunications technologies, we can envision a conversation that crosses not only course and department boundaries but institutional and geographical ones as well. If the Alabama conference had been linked to a telecommunications network, my students back in Chicago could have benefited from this event, and they might have learned more about our concerns in a few minutes than I could have re
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constructed for them in many hours. Given these technological capacities, participation in a conference like this one could meet our obligations at home instead of competing with them. I know the objection that notions of "conversation" and "dialogue" are politically suspect because they presuppose a level playing field that does not exist. Who will be included and excluded in the dialogue, and who will dictate its terms? How can there be a dialogue between full professors of literature, say, and parttime instructors of composition? These objections are important, but they raise just the sort of questions that need a public dialogue to be widely heard. The point is not to try to turn the university into a debaters' club (as Fish supposes) but to create a democratic public sphere in which the politics of culture can be discussed openly and with profit to students instead of being marginalized and ghettoized, as it is now. In an important sense, students are already being exposed to this political conversation. Students encounter a political conflict every time they go from a course taught by a traditional humanist to one taught by a social constructionist or from a social science course to a humanities course. We are already "teaching the conflicts" every time our students change classes. The problem is that we are teaching the conflicts badly, in a way that gives students little chance to sort them out clearly or even identify them, much less become active participants in them. Structuring a dialogue between composition and literature into the curriculum (through crosscourse symposia or some other strategy) would not in itself do away with the invidious status gap between the two, but it would provide an arena in which that status gap could be examined, tracing its larger historical origins in the long standing American conflict between the aesthetic and the practical. Dialogue is indeed a sham if major voices are excluded from it, but, given the diverse representation that now exists in most universities, it does not seem naive to imagine a dialogue that would thematize and reflect back on its own political conflicts. In any case, hiding the conflicts by keeping hostile parties in separate rooms does nothing to create a more level playing field. The fact is that for all our talk of diversity and cultural difference, the university spoils us by organizing things in a way that exposes us as little as possible to those who might disagree with us. In this respect, academics on the left are no different from other kinds—they too fear a conversation whose outcome they would not necessarily control. They too want to be protected from the need to confront those with the "wrong" politics. But any vision of education
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that claims to be democratic must be able to speak for constituencies with conflicting interests. Theorizing the practice of entire institutions of higher education means thinking not just from an oppositional viewpoint but from the viewpoint of conservatives, liberals, and others whom we teach and with whom we teach. This process entails a willingness to engage in dialogue with those who disagree with us. The history of English in the United States has been a history of everincreasing diversification—cultural, demographic, methodological, and ideological. This diversification has produced conflicts that are now too fundamental to be avoided by the timehonored practice of adding new units to the aggregate and compartmentalizing the clashing parties, and in any case this practice has ceased to be an option economically. Diversification has also deepened the incoherence of the curriculum and thereby rendered the already mysterious image of English even more nebulous to the world outside the profession. The model of uncontrolled, pluralistic laissezfaire as a means of dealing with difference and diversity has clearly outlived its usefulness. But the very plurality, diversity, and conflict within English make it impossible to imagine uniting the field around some new consensus, whether based on a return to the traditional paradigm or on a commitment to social and cultural critique. A conversational structure would enable us to affirm a plurality of differences but to go beyond a merely vapid pluralistic celebration of difference as such. In fact, the more diversified and conflicted the domains of English, the humanities, and the university become, the more the model of conversation becomes the only feasible means of achieving conceptual coherence and representational clarity. If we can create a coherent conversation, we should no longer have to ask whether there is a discipline in this department. Note 1. On the emergence and development of this conflict between scholars and critics, see Gerald Graff, Professing Literature: An Institutional History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). Works Cited Bright, James Wilson. Qtd. by Kemp Malone. "Historical Sketch of the English Department of the Johns Hopkins University." Johns Hopkins Alumni Magazine 15 (1926–
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27): 116–28. Ctd. by Michael Warner. "Professionalization and the Rewards of Literature: 1875–1900." Criticism 27 (Winter 1985): 1–28. Fish, Stanley. "Them We Burn: Violence and Conviction in the English Department." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 9 October 1993. Foster, William T. Administration of the College Curriculum. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911. Frus, Phyllis, and Stanley Corkin. "The More Things Change: Canon Revision and the Case of Willa Cather." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 8 October 1993. Graff, Gerald. Professing Literature: An Institutional History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment. New York: Harcourt, 1964. ———. Principles Literary Criticism. New York: Harcourt, 1925. Robbins, Bruce. "Literature, Localism, and Love." Unpublished talk. Rosowski, Susan J. "Willa Cather and the Fatality of Place: O Pioneers!, My Ántonia, and A Lost Lady." In Geography and Literature: A Meeting of the Disciplines. Ed. William E. Mallory and Paul SimpsonHousley, 81–94. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987. Warnock, Tilly. "Making Do, Making Believe, and Making Sense: Burkean Magic and the Essence of English Departments." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 8 October 1993. Wellek, Rene, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. New York: Harcourt, 1949.
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Teach/Discipline Paul Lauter The Brain, within it's Groove Runs evenly—and true —EMILY DICKINSON
It is now more than a quarter century since I was first introduced to a form of Alabama hospitality somewhat different from that we are experiencing at this conference, and it is worth telling some of that story to illustrate the difficulty of breaking from the discipline—in the varied senses of that term—in which we are trained. As I recall, we were trying to deliver a message to Governor George Wallace during the march from Selma to Montgomery in spring 1965. We tried to carry our message onto the statehouse lawn, but some of the governor's folks—highway patrol, I think they were denominated—objected, telling us to go back into the street. And there, others in uniform told us to get back on the lawn or we'd be arrested for cluttering up the street. Well, that didn't seem to leave much choice, and so we soon found ourselves heading for the county lockup. There, four or five of us white men were ushered into an enormous room. There were about fifty or sixty men there, all white, sitting or lying on mattresses, but there were no mattresses for us newcomers. We protested. One of the jailers told us to line up and took us across the hall to a similar, though smaller, room, in which twenty or thirty black men were gathered. "There's plenty of mattresses there," the jailer told us, "pick up one and bring it back." We dutifully complied, marching with our mattresses over our shoulders back to the first room. Only after I heard the door slam and the lock clicking into place did it occur to me to ask myself why I had followed orders. Why had I not just stayed across the hall? There were mattresses, and space, and what were we about if not breaking down the structures called segregation?
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But patterns of obedience, a kind of inertia, some fear probably—discipline, in short—had succeeded in blinding me to an available alternative. I draw from this incident a conclusion of some urgency to those interested in the problems of reconstructing the discipline we call English. The momentum of the discipline itself will often involve us in teaching practices that, when we come to reflect on them, really contradict our values. We may have the best intentions in the world, but unless we consider carefully what we do in practice, we may find ourselves perpetuating habitual assumptions that work against our goals. We exist, after all, within the prisonhouses—as they may in a sense be described—we call institutions. They are established, in part, to define and patrol boundaries, as between disciplines (or guilds), between groups (or classes), between us (who are within) and them (who are without). In these remarks I want not so much to examine the historical construction of prevailing institutions and assumptions as to offer some thoughts about what we mean by an "English" course, about the classroom as a place, and about the roles played by different inhabitants of the classroom. 1 The first large set of issues focuses on what a course listed under "English" (or "Literature," "Humanities," and the like) is really about. When I was in college and graduate school in the 1950s, and for a good many years thereafter, the answer seemed reasonably obvious: we studied "primary texts" (poems, novels, plays, in the main) and particularly their structures, their uses of literary devices like metaphor and symbol, their forms as discrete works of art—in short, aesthetics. To be sure, underlying these kinds of formal inquiry was a set of values that privileged what was called "literature'' as an intellectual and finally moral stay against the chaos of the modern world (see, for example, Tate, 20–22). But in classroom practice, the New Criticism focused on the careful explication of structure and form within discrete literary texts. What we expected our students to learn, most of all, was close reading, some conception of how literary works were artistically constructed, and a sense of what constituted the differences in writers' styles. By contrast, the structures that interest many teachers of the new canons are those that produce and reproduce literary value or significance and cultural meaning.2 This move does not, I want to emphasize, imply discarding the skills of close reading. Rather, it involves the application of those (among other) skills to "reading" a variety of what we now call "texts," including a syllabus or anthology, the classroom itself, the history of literary study, and even differences in authority among those differently situated in a university. This shift seems to me at least as critical to the fierce debate between literary tradition
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alists and canon revisers as the issue of the content of a canon. From the point of view of traditionalists, this change of focus turns the literature classroom into some form of sociological study and may even deny students the pleasure of appreciating the artistry and the insights of classic works. From the perspective of revisionists, the new emphasis not only helps students to grasp the dynamics by which cultural formations—like a canon, a syllabus, a discipline, a university, what is demarcated and valued as "literature" or "American"—are historically constructed, but it also enables them to experience the "fun" of becoming players (rather than merely consumers) in this significant cultural work. In both kinds of classrooms, we claim that we want students to leave with new knowledge. But what constitutes that knowledge, and how is it reached? It seems to me that the traditional literature class is undergirded by a conception of knowledge as a kind of object, a pearl of precious price that one extracts from more or less resistant texts through more or less heroic intellectual efforts. Once grasped, this knowledge becomes a form of capital; it can be exchanged for other goods or deployed to the advantage of its possessor. The value of such pearls of knowledge is, however, frequently derided in the world of commodity exchanges, the marketplaces of capitalism—particularly in America. And therefore the significance of possessing literary knowledge has often been portrayed by intellectuals as a mark of distinction, separating them from ordinary people. In many of today's humanities classrooms, by contrast, knowledge emerges not as a precious object but as an intellectual construction, situated in a particular historical moment, and erected within a specific cultural space. It will not outlast all wind and weather; indeed, it may bend and twist over time, be broken into fragments and shards, put to uses and into new structures different from those that provoked its creation. Many people, differently situated, contribute to this process of construction, not just the learned. Indeed, as Bob Dylan said, "you don't have to be a weatherman to know which way the wind blows." Knowledge as a pearl is, I was taught, acquired by close reading and deep diving. One examines the object itself with care, penetrating through the intensity of one's wit the surfaces that have oft been viewed but ne'er so skillfully displayed. I do not want to be heard as denigrating this process of "diving into the wreck"; it is daring and inspiring. Still, to this end, a group is largely an unprofitable drag on an individual critic's ingenuity, although the group may provide intellectual mirrors to reflect the brilliance of critical performance. By
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contrast, I think that knowledge conceived as a construction emerges precisely from a group effort within which diverse individuals can play a variety of roles. Because the process of constructing knowledge takes place so differently in differently constituted classrooms (see Maher), the process is facilitated by heterogeneity within a group, which, by providing a multiplicity of perspectives, can help keep in view the constructedness of the conceptions arrived at. In the group, students best learn that knowledge is produced by producing it (as distinct from simply consuming it). This statement may seem a truism, but it foregrounds a fundamental pedagogical conception: process and product, how and what, are by no means separable. Indeed, as Jules Henry pointed out long ago, the vital learnings of the schoolhouse are precisely those produced by the process. If you follow the direction in which I am headed, you quickly bump into two widely held ideas in American education; I would describe them this way: knowledge is a utilitarian product; knowledge is valuable to the extent that an individual can appropriate it for his or her own use. The connection between these ideas is, to my mind, one of the basic, unexamined cultural learnings generated by American schools. As generation after generation of educational reformers has discovered, challenging, much less breaking, the link between knowledge as utilitarian product and as an object of individual appropriation turns out to be enormously difficult. Indeed, I can think of few projects more utopian, particularly in this historical moment, than calling into question the devotion to individualistic methodologies and instrumental goals that marks education in this country. Yet it does seem that some such countervailing project inevitably lurks in the variety of pedagogies now emerging from efforts to teach previously noncanonical texts. For establishing any new canon implies some shifting of cultural power among groups, not individuals, as well as redefining what constitutes desirable social goals as well as knowledge. Such a revisionary project will not leave unexamined the individualistic, instrumental assumptions upon which everything from raising hands to grading practices is based. I have one further remark about the character of knowledge in these different classroom universes. While in the past we did pay a certain lip service to remaining open to everrenewed readings of a text, a certain tendency toward closure—ruled over by the professor or the hegemonic textbook—prevailed. The forms of knowledge produced through a new canonical pedagogy will, I think, be less stable, probably more contentious, less subject to professorial
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closure than traditional ideas of what constitutes learning. Gloria Anzaldúa's formulation is helpful if conflicted: "These numerous possibilities leave la mestiza floundering in uncharted seas. In perceiving conflicting information and points of view, she is subjected to a swamping of her psychological borders. She has discovered that she can't hold concepts or ideas in rigid boundaries. The borders and walls that are supposed to keep the undesirable ideas out are entrenched habits and patterns of behavior; these habits and patterns are the enemy within. Rigidity means death. Only by remaining flexible is she able to stretch the psyche horizontally and vertically.... The new mestiza copes by developing a tolerance for contradictions, a tolerance for ambiguity" (79). I want to chart the implications carefully, because nothing in today's colleges seems to have enraged traditionalists more than the idea of the contingency of knowledge. I am not arguing that everything is relative and we should pack up our brains because there is no truth but only politics, opinion, and selfinterest. If no account of a text, an event, an observation is absolute in the sense of exhausting its possible meanings and power, some accounts are, in fact, better than others. They are more useful in a particular situation, they explain more, open more, engage readers more fully. Perhaps they are simply more elegant as intellectual structures. Those, for example, who deny the Holocaust deny the overwhelming weight of evidence, observation, and logic. If no syllabus perfectly and perpetually represents antebellum American literary production and its relation to slavery, some syllabi will be more effective toward that end than others, but even they will change with students, conditions, and the functions of an institution or a course. The practical problem concerns how teachers, disciplined to devote attention to the traditions of culture and the norms of profession, can enable students to question traditions and disciplines without leading them out onto the slippery slope of a relativist discourse that ends in an intellectual swamp where half baked "opinions" crowd out scholarship and intelligence. One last reflection on the question of what a course may or may not concern regards its boundaries. Is the end of the syllabus, the final exam, or the grade report the operative boundary? Or does the course lead out of the classroom and, one way or another, down the corridor and into the streets? To be sure, no one really argues that the learning involved in a course ends with the term—we all claim to be teaching beyond the ending. But in practice, some forms of organization lead to closure rather than to continuation. No one has the formula to insure extension of the cultural work of a class beyond its ending, but it is
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important—in connection with the rather abstract considerations in this section—to be conscious of the choices we make that are often hidden by our assumptions concerning the subject of a course. The second broad category concerns the classroom as a place. It is seldom, if ever, a neutral, unconflicted site of learning or a safe and homey environment supportive of any and all revelations. Rather, it is a public space and therefore subject to a variety of political interactions. Far from being insulated from power relationships, a classroom is constituted by them. Educational reformers of the 1960s were obsessed with the need to reduce discrepancies of power in the classroom, and we devoted endless energy to that goal. It soon became clear, however, that changing seating arrangements, validating all student responses to texts, democratizing classroom procedures, and otherwise attempting to transfer more authority from teacher to learner ran hard against how institutions structure power and, often, student expectations as well. Initially, educational reformers understood the problem as student resistance to our efforts to "liberate" them, a kind of false consciousness that simply needed to be overcome. In time, however, it came to seem that the false consciousness, if it existed, might reside more in the heads of instructors who tried to ignore the quite uneven relationships of power inherent in any situation in which one party organizes and judges and the others are expected to respond and be judged. A teacher could, for example, devise a variety of grading procedures (e.g., contracts, group processes) but it remained clear—certainly to students—that the power to determine procedure and ultimately therefore final product (grade) necessarily remained with the instructor, as surely as fines do with a traffic court judge. Furthermore, by deploying a professional discourse over which their training had given them some command, instructors could, without necessarily being aware of it, magnify power differences between themselves and their students. Even if one could virtually eliminate the structural causes of power differences, students fearful of being swept away into uncharted seas would seek authority within texts themselves. 3 It does not demean the classroom to think of it politically, indeed as a colonizing site. Teachers and students have significant interest in turning the texts under consideration into cultural capital. Texts are, as it were, mined for their uses within the classroom and in other cultural situations in which they can be made to pay. Teachers have both personal and professional interests in colo
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nizing students as acolytes, as enrollees in other courses, or simply as numbers that demonstrate their own value to the collegiate or departmental enterprise. Likewise, students have a serious interest in the transcript, recommendation, network value of particular professors with whom they choose to study. Finally, the academic norms that pervade almost all classrooms are by no means culturally neutral. For example, most of us tell students that silence in the classroom will not hurt their grade, for in liberal style we want to respect the rights of students who prefer not to speak. Implicit here, however, is the assumption that speech in the classroom is ipso facto a preferred form of behavior, and most of us are more likely to tolerate expressive silliness than silence. Similarly, we assume that classrooms are, at any time, appropriate sites for discussion of any and all texts. But some Native American storytellers—and, I suspect, religious fundamentalists as well—would claim that certain stories should not be told or talked about at certain times of year or in inappropriate settings. They would, I think, want to sustain a line, rendered invisible in most Western classrooms, between secular and sacred textual functions. I raise this consideration not because I believe in jettisoning the secular commitments of American education, which at least theoretically marks our discipline, but to illustrate the particularity rather than the neutrality of such norms. To say that power is always already operating in the classroom is not, however, to say that power is all that functions there. First of all, a variety of other forms of "social affiliation" with which we are all familiar deeply shape the classroom space: pleasure, eroticism, friendship, display (see Bhabha, 65). To concentrate on the dynamics of power can easily lead to missing the play and the possible enhancement of such forces. More important, perhaps, while differences in power cannot, in my judgment, be expunged, responsibility can more fully and systematically be distributed. The goal here, as Teresa McKenna has framed it, is to create a learning community in which all participants are responsible for what is learned. Toward that end, instructors can open course elements often perceived as foreclosed. For example, in his MLA presidential address, Houston Baker discussed what political activists will recognize as a brief agenda debate: an undergraduate student wanted to discuss of what an AfricanAmerican writer like Phillis Wheatley "means to the black community per se" rather than concentrating solely on what the instructor wished to consider, like neoclassical conventions and Wheatley's subversion of them. As activists also know, such agenda debates are generally awkward modes of carrying out a struggle over political and
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intellectual priorities. Providing a standard for selfcriticism, Baker enabled us to recognize that by putting the student down, he foreclosed the opportunity of eliciting "a response from the undergraduate that helped us understand the connections among Phillis Wheatley, the seminar room, male critical power, the white university geographies of Locust Walk, and the surrounding world of black West Philadelphians" (403). Not only are such opportunities missed, but students withdraw and, in Anne L. Bower's words, "continue to think of literature as selected and arranged and therefore owned by others." Bower proposed one alternative: So long as the instructor does the bulk of structuring, discussing, and devising assignments, students—be they reluctant readers or literature lovers—take the role of consumers. Since I'm trying to introduce the concept that American Literature is something we create, I need a classroom methodology in which the students "do" American literature.... What if I were to let the students participate in choosing our selections? Choices wouldn't range entirely free of course. We have to order our textbooks well ahead of each quarter. So I decided to order an anthology containing a good range of material from which students could select our readings.... My authority would be exerted in choosing the two novels we could read, and I would also allow myself to choose a few of our shorter selections, working to pick underrepresented genres or populations.... Students would be offered instruction, in the classroom and through conferences, on how to select a text and how to present it. (3, 5)
In such a classroom, students finally select more than half of what is read; they can use the anthology or go outside of it. Moreover, students have a variety of responsibilities in addition to choosing texts: devising assignments and homework, leading discussion, and developing ideas about how they will produce additional texts (i.e., writing). As Bower suggests, this approach not only demands that students assume an unusual classroom responsibility, but it also foregrounds the constructed nature of American literature. Another area in which responsibility can be distributed involves context. History, for example, is usually deemed to be the instructor's responsibility, students being accounted as historically ignorant. But Sue Danielson offers a strategy for involving students even in that deeply important form of classroom work. Her upperdivision American literature course was titled "Domestic Strains" and "took for its central inquiry the debate surrounding the 'woman question' as presented in several nineteenthcentury texts." By focusing on a theme rather than on a sequence of texts or even a group of authors,
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Danielson engaged students in the specific social discourses within which "literary" works were being created. She devised three key departures from usual practice: First, through a series of student reports on primary source materials, I focused our attention on the "private," female sphere in which marriage, divorce, and sexuality are privileged over the "public," male sphere of business. Second, I subordinated canonical works, in this case The Blithedale Romance and The Bostonians, to the reading of historically neglected fiction: Mary Lyndon: or, Revelations of a Life, published in 1854 by Mary Gove Nichols, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, finally published in 1860 by Harriet Jacobs ... and Iola LeRoy, published in 1894 by the most widely read black woman writer of the last century, Frances Harper. Finally, I invited continuous discussions of literary "valuation," asking students to use a reading journal to reflect on the assumptions underlying the ways in which they had traditionally categorized ''good" and "bad" literature. (9–10)
Danielson's strategy introduces a key issue: thematically organized courses are in many departments looked upon as suspicious—or worse, as intrusions from American studies. They are said to introduce nonliterary, historical, or sociological concerns, into literary work. If they are encouraged, as in institutions influenced by Chicago's Aristotelianism, they tend to involve "great themes," supposed to transcend mere history, like "the hero," "peace and war," or "dimensions of time." Or they mark out in a kind of empty gesture a more or less traditional clump of writers, as in the American Renaissance or modernism. It seems to me that the resistance to organizing courses around historically specific themes, like the one proposed by Danielson, the antebellum debate over slavery and race, or later fictions of industry and work, represents one of the ways that earlier formalist paradigms persist in pedagogical practice. For the historical divisions that structure most departmental offerings and many courses within those frameworks seldom have any substantial influence on how texts are studied, much less understood in relation to social and cultural movements. And while texts themselves may be examined from "new historicist" perspectives, in practice they often—ironically, most when they are well done—seem to defeat the objective of distributing responsibility to students for historicizing and contextualizing their reading. These examples are meant to suggest that a classroom is not a given, preformed space. On the contrary, it can be shaped toward a freer, more open, safer—or perhaps more creatively dangerous—environment than it often is. But it would be disingenuous to imagine that all change—or even any—will
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be welcomed by all students. In a sense, to the extent that teachers place the distribution of responsibility higher on the classroom agenda, the focus of the course shifts from the material, the texts, to the people. An old dilemma reemerges: do we teach subjects or students? The terrain here is fraught with danger, for as humanities faculty subject matter rather than experiments in student development is our professional bread and butter. Moreover, subject matter offers relatively stable ground amid the quicksand of process. For all that, the departures from convention I have summarized here suggest how urgently reconstructed canons drive us toward reconstructed classrooms. I have one further reflection on the definition of a classroom: Alexander Astin reports in his book What Counts in College? that student intellectual development is fostered most by peer interactions, especially, it would seem, those that take place in informal discussions of classroom material. If Astin's findings are accurate, and I think they are, then one of our major problems is reconceptualizing the boundaries of what constitutes a classroom—that is, where learning takes place. The kind of question that then comes to the foreground is not so much what can we encourage students to do, as individuals or collectively, to bring information and ideas into class but what can we do in class to encourage students in groups to carry the discussion outward. This proposition will sound absolutely visionary to those on commuter campuses, where studies suggest that students spend less than two minutes and fifteen seconds—or something equally absurd—on campus after their last classes. The new interactive computer technologies will be of some help here, as might the oldfashioned car pool. As to car pools, I have little to say, since I drove a 1974 Duster until recently. And I have only a little more to contribute regarding computerization, except to note some paradoxes, which are based upon limited concrete experience: in teaching the Trinity College American studies junior seminar, my coteacher and I used a system in which students worked anonymously in groups. The students put drafts of their papers into a sharing computer file; the other students in the group read the papers and made anonymous comments; students then revised their work and placed the draft, comments, and final version in a computer file to which only the instructors had access. It is a slightly complicated and cumbersome system, timeconsuming for everyone. It surely is for students, as the length and detail of some of their comments indicate. Reading them, I began to feel both cheered and—to approach my first paradox—increasingly superfluous. The students' comments dealt not only with issues but with organization, grammar, punctuation; one even demanded that the recipient of the comments visit the writing center! What remained for me to say or
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do—apart from the clerical task of insuring that papers and comments had been turned in and to badger the delinquents? Logically pursued, this process could, perhaps should, lead to my disappearance, like the state under true socialism. My simile is not altogether farfetched, since the process in a sense involves replacing individualism and hierarchy—the party speaks for the people, the central committee for the party, the general secretary for the central committee—with a largely democratic and collective project. To be sure, work in institutions seldom pursues thoroughly logical agendas or even those that grow from a strong burden of evidence, so I do not anticipate that my occupation will soon vanish. But I would recollect here Astin's finding about the power of learning from peers and therefore taking the discussion out from the walls of the traditional classroom. Here we approach the second paradox, also emphasized by Louie Crew: the isolation of the single person before the single keyboard and the single screen seems to enable construction of a kind of community most traditional classrooms discourage. Is the classroom as usually constituted in latetwentiethcentury American schools disabling? Or, perhaps it would be more accurate to say, how is it disabling? To consider that paradox and such questions, I will turn to a third general category, the people in the classroom—students and teachers—and the work we do there. We bring to the classroom a variety of personal identities, but classroom dynamics impose certain normative behaviors. Departing from anticipated roles can, in fact, prove risky on either side of the desk. It is therefore not surprising that classrooms, at least in the way in which they exact loyalty to certain institutional expectations, are among the more conservative locales on campus: my own teachers probably would not recognize the syllabi I construct as American literature but, for better and for worse, they would find rather familiar my instructional methods—that is, the roles I play in the classroom. The role of instructors is often dichotomized: they either perform in the classroom or facilitate interactions, either exercise power or foster democracy. On the one hand, instructors are pictured as authority figures, standing by the blackboard or the lectern, determining the content and flow of work; on the other, they are colleagues, seated with the other classroom participants in an interactive circle where all are, at least potentially, equal in the conversation. In my observation, such dichotomies, while reflecting certain truths, often misrepresent what takes place in practice. The individualistic, performative
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instructor can model for students usefully authoritative (and not necessarily authoritarian) approaches to the presentation of ideas; similarly, the forms of democratic participation, exemplified by the circle, often require careful direction by instructors who know where they are headed, if not all the pathways thereto. In thus questioning the usual dichotomy, I want to shift attention toward other fundamental and more significant elements of what the people in classrooms do: leadership, the student mix, and the related problems of subject position and vulnerability as matters for classroom discussion. Phyllis Palmer has commented that sharing leadership "requires understanding what tasks a group needs to function successfully and, then, recognizing that anyone in the group takes leadership by fulfilling a need when it arises" (Mazie et al., 284). Palmer's formulation leads, I think, to conceptualizing classroom tasks somewhat differently: instead of focusing on what needs to be covered in a given hour, one might wish to break down the work into discrete parts—in the sense both of units and of dramatic elements. 4 Such segmentation is difficult, of course, but probably less so than trying each day to generate discussion from the standing start, as one might call it, represented by invariable teacherinitiated talk. Given such a goal, it hardly matters how one defines parts as long as they are neither trivial nor makework. In fact, however, the format that this strategy suggests opens some significant avenues. For example, if you are studying Native American texts, as will now almost invariably be the case in a current nineteenth and twentiethcentury American literature course, one might appoint two or three students as the specialists in changing federal Indian policies of the period. The idea is not to have them "report" at the beginning of a class but rather to enable them to enter the discussion with their special knowledge when it seems appropriate. As we all know, most students love the opportunity to show what they know; one thus "seeds'' the classroom in the process of dividing and sharing tasks. Similar forms of specialization can, I think, usefully be devised for all of the previously marginalized cultures that constitute what we have been calling the new canon: what immigration policies affect AsianAmerican writers and characters and therefore texts through the first half of the twentieth century? How do marital property acts, issues of contraception, and domestic violence help shape women's lives and work? What is happening to midwestern farms and farmers or to Maine seaports that so shape the worlds of Garland's and Jewett's people? Similarly, one can identify critical points in upcoming readings and have students focus on each of them; I am thinking not only of allusive and symbolic details but also of characters or events to which a few students can give special thought.
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The point, however, is not somehow to create instant specialists, in any literal sense, out of undergraduate students but rather to divide and share tasks and thus leadership. In fact, in the course of a term, one might well find individuals and groups of students building considerable specialized knowledge about the areas you have identified. That process is, I believe, facilitated when the classroom is significantly heterogeneous, for it cannot be denied that many—though not all—undergraduates display particularist concerns for their own origins. The research conducted by Frances Maher and Mary Kay Thompson Tetreault has produced striking evidence that the single most significant determinant of how a text gets discussed is the mix of people in the classroom. These findings anchor a set of problems: if the course includes multicultural or otherwise noncanonical texts, students will often hide unfamiliarity and nervousness behind reluctance to engage or will retreat into forms of exoticizing texts, instructors, or both. If a course is required, moreover, students often want to get through it without being deeply involved or taking on additional responsibilities. We have other vulnerabilities, too, besides those imposed by the limits of our own knowledge, especially in fields that are rapidly changing and enormously expanding: there are vulnerabilities caused by career pressures and departmental norms. Moreover, a multicultural environment or even a multicultural course can produce serious anxiety in a white teacher. Such problems can block intellectual development, becoming walls behind which people retreat into the apparent safety of rejection. In short, both student resistances and vulnerabilities and our own can stand in the way of reshaping classrooms. On the other hand, these mutual vulnerabilities can also offer a basis for extending the sense of community within a classroom—providing that they can be brought to the surface and talked through. A starting place, McKenna has suggested, may be provided by discussing students' and instructors' subject positions. While they may seem far afield from the designated subject matter, they may be critical to the process of reconstructing the classroom environment. The objective, I think, is not to eliminate its politics and tensions but to widen the ground upon which the differing people in the classroom can honestly stand in common. Commonality does, after all, build trust, without which any effort to redistribute responsibility and redesign the operations of power will necessarily come to naught. It may seem counterintuitive to talk of widening common ground by focusing on different subject positions, but what is involved is shifting part of the definition of classroom identity from the dichotomy "instructor/student" to the shared category of subject position, which
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we all have, with attendant strengths and limits. For everyone in the classroom to become aware of both strengths and limits in others is, I think, to build a basis for commonality and trust. These remarks begin to address the contradiction that I tried to embody by talking of facilitating segregation in an Alabama jail. They also gesture toward a more fundamental realignment of work in literary studies than that addressed in curriculum committees or even in anthologies. I am talking about what our teaching itself teaches students about becoming complicit in their own incarceration. While I do not propose that English teachers will, or can, lead a jailbreak, perhaps we can nevertheless help to gather the skills and the community needed to come out into fresh air. Notes 1. The sections that follow are part of a longer study now in progress concerned with pedagogies for a new canon. 2. See, for example, Curtis and Herrington, 76: "It is perhaps worth emphasizing here that it was our primary intention, not to use pedagogy to further any single political agenda, but, quite the contrary, to understand the politics of curriculum development and canon formation in order to further pedagogical goals." 3. See, for example, Caccavari: "The text is 'directing' and 'enforcing' the students. The act of reading is intimately tied to their understanding of the act of learning. To counteract this tendency, I thought that I would make discussion and not lecture the method of teaching and learning in the course. What I did not realize was that not only did my technique not liberate the students, but it created an authority vacuum which they then supplied with 'the text,'" (250). 4. Palmer is drawing on Nancy Schneidewind's developmental theory of the women's studies classroom, one particularly appropriate to upperdivision classes. Works Cited Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera. San Francisco: Spinsters/Aunt Lute, 1987. Baker, Houston A., Jr. "Local Pedagogy, or How I Redeemed My Spring Semester." PMLA 108 (May 1993): 400–409. Bhabha, Homi K. Critical Fictions: The Politics of Imaginative Writing, ed. Philomena Mariani. Seattle: Bay Press, 1991. Bower, Anne L. "Sharing Responsibility for American Lit: 'A Spectacular and Dangerous World of Choice.'" In The Canon in the Classroom, ed. John Alberti, 221–40. Westport, Conn.: Garland, 1995.
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Caccavari, Peter. "Making the World Safe for Democracy and the Classroom Safe for Slavery: Teaching America to Americans." In The Canon in the Classroom, ed. John Alberti, 243–59. Westport, Conn.: Garland, 1995. Crew, Louie. "Back to the Future." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 7 October 1993. Curtis, Marcia S., and Anne J. Herrington. "Diversity in Required Writing Courses." In Promoting Diversity in College Classrooms, ed. Maurianne Adams, 71–84. San Francisco: JosseyBass, 1992. Danielson, Sue. "Domestic Strains: The Woman Question, Free Love, and NineteenthCentury American Fiction." In The Canon in the Classroom, ed. John Alberti, 73–98. Westport, Conn.: Garland, 1995. Henry, Jules. "Golden Rule Days: American Schoolrooms." In Culture against Man, 283–321. New York: Random House, 1963. Maher, Frances. "Toward a Richer Theory of Feminist Pedagogy." Journal of Education 169 (1987): 91–99. Maher, Frances, and Mary Kay Thompson Tetreault. The Feminist Classroom. New York: Basic Books, 1994. Mazie, Margery, Phyllis Palmer, Mayuris Pimental, et al. "To Deconstruct Race, Deconstruct Whiteness." American Quarterly 45 (June 1993): 281–94. Tate, Allen. "The Man of Letters in the Modern World." In The Man of Letters in the Modern World, 11–22. New York: Meridian, 1955.
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Back to the Future Louie Crew Rome, Georgia. Summer 1960 In the summer after my first year of teaching, the headmaster summoned me to his office. "Louie," he said, "a parent has complained about the list of six books you require returning juniors to read. He says he knows his son will learn to curse soon enough, but he resents paying good money to have you require him to read cursing." Quickly I reviewed the books I had assigned, but I drew a blank. I was saving Catcher for the fall. "'B .. B .. B .. B .. astard'" the headmaster stuttered the opening of the book with a wry smile. "Yes, I like All the King's Men, too," he said. "Now first let me assure you absolutely that I will back you up in your decision to require Warren's book. Nothing I am about to say will diminish my support. But do you want some advice from someone who has been trying to do the same thing for forty years?" I trusted him. He had given several books to me and we had often talked about our favorite poets. "Can't you find some other book that will open the kid up just as well? Then you would get his father on your side instead of on your back. You might, for example, simply add two more books and ask the kids to choose their own six. Then let the father battle with his son, not with you." I did just that. The kid was insatiable, read all eight, and later went on to read all of Robert Penn Warren's books. He battled with his father about Warren and with me about twentiethcentury music. I practically forced on him Gustav Mahler's "Resurrection Symphony," and he reciprocated with a copy of Franz Joseph Haydn's Missa in Tempore Belli. "No music after the eighteenth century is worth my time," he insisted.
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So the two of us entered the 1960s, deep behind the Cotton Curtain, segregated by great gulfs from much of our society and quite cut off from much that would later define us. Two years later, he went off to the University of Virginia to major in English as preparation for a medical career, and I went off to teach in a liberal boarding school up north. New Brunswick, New Jersey, 1991 Thirtyone years later, a student in one of my composition classes wrote the following letter. The class shared electronic mail with a class in California and a class in Mississippi. A Mississippi student talked about the relative harmony of life there and imagined hostility in New Jersey. My student replied that New Jersey has a "racial inbalance [sic]." Natalie, in Mississippi, asked him to clarify. Natalie, When I say there is racial inbalance I am talking about the different races that are being mixed. Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Mexicans, Blacks, poor whites, etc. Yes, I am also talking about numbers and prestige. These differents cultures are having a hell of a time trying to get along. People are dying on the streets from gun shots, stab wounds, and even vicious attacks. I won't deny that some of these attacks have nothing to do with racial background, but most are. In my father's bar just the other day a guy walked into the bar and sat down in the corner away from everyone else. As I continued to look closely at him he had this fierce gleam in his eyes. From what I could see he must have been using drugs prior to entering the bar. I watched him become more and more impatient with himself. Suddenly he gets up and heads toward the counter, where there are people sitting down drinking. I followed him because I thought he was going to start trouble. Sure enough, he did. He tried to take this guys money from the counter. The owner grabs him by the arm and they both get into an argument. I tried to mediate the situation, but the trouble maker did not want to understand. He yelled out "You son of bitch in spanish", and then says he's going to blow this guys brains out. At this point I just wanted to get away from the situation, but I couldn't. The "Mad Man" reaches for a gun with no hesitation. My only alternative was to act in a violent way to manuever this man somewhere where he could harm only himself. I grabbed the arm reaching for the gun and twisted it with an upward motion towards his head. I wrapped my arm tightly around his neck and headed out the door. He struggled for most of the way until I released him onto the concrete. The fact that he was'nt struggling made me scared. I took the chance to see if he really did have a gun, but I only found a knife. No he did not die, thank god!
Page 46 I used this as just one of the many situations I have encountered in my neighborhood. And I am student, who tries not to get into trouble. My question to you is. What about those who face this kind of war every day of their lives and they are just 14 to 18 years young! What kind of future do these kids have? Back to the bar incident and your question, the "Mad Man" was Dominican, the owner of the money was Rican and when I looked into the guys wallet after he was unconscious, there was plenty of it, so I doubt he started the whole problem for the money. Natalie, thank you for responding and wish to continue this conversation at some other time. Vin Man
Before this project began, Vin Man showed little interest in his work. At the computer, however, he changed. When he wrote this message, he was not aware that Natalie is Professor Natalie Maynor at Mississippi State University. He thought she was another student, and he wanted to impress her. In an electronic message to a group of dozens of English professors, Professor Maynor described the effect of the exchange on her students: Louie is right about the usefulness of email with developmental students. For the first time, some of my students are beginning to see that their writing has a purpose: They * want* to tell Louie's students and Milton's students about life in Mississippi. If they were writing these papers just for me, they would realize the phoniness of the assignment. After all, I know what it's like here. I live here. Although their writing is still pretty bad, I believe that wanting to communicate is a much better first step toward improvement than is talking about writing. Sitting here many miles from Rutgers, I have watched Louie's student Vin Man turn into a powerful writer. Some people would question my use of the word "powerful" in view of the mechanical errors in his writing, but I stand by that word choice. His account of the incident in the New Jersey bar was in fact powerful. —Natalie (
[email protected])
Others in my class knew that Vin Man was onto something. He piqued their curiosity and prompted constructive competition. His reputation in Mississippi helped immensely: I'm writing to Vin Mans response to my communication about the K.K.K. marching in my hometown last summer. How did I feel when I saw the unfamiliar faces of this "group" marching down main street? Were people afraid of what they saw? Who were the police protecting? It's rather difficult to say how I felt. When I heard that they were going to be marching, I felt it was a joke. The people who were discussing it were just
Page 47 confused. This is 1990, things like that don't happen anymore. Yes, I was very afraid. I kept thinking, What if a riot breaks out? Someone could get seriously hurt. I felt like our town had been raped. Strange people, who knew nothing about us or the way we live, were coming to our town using obscene language on our streets. It was very tense, people were frightened. Mothers who had older children, seventeen or sixteen, were coming into our store asking if we had seen them. But the K.K.K. members weren't the only strangers in our town. Men were riding in by the pickup loads. You could tell by looking at them, they were there to try and start something. I felt very sorry for these mothers very obviously frightened for their childrens' safety. Others were walking around laughing and having a good time like it was a joke or something. They were the ones who made me the maddest. They were to ignorant to see what was really going on. We could hear them talking as they walked by about if it was okay for the N.A.A.C.P. to march, the K.K.K. had every right to march. A lot of people were saying that someone in the K.K.K. was going to kill someone. But the thing they didn't understand is the K.K.K. doesn't have to get their hands dirty that way any more. They rely on the ignorance of the people they get stirred up. I must commend the Police Department of my hometown. They were there to keep anything from going wrong. And as much as I hated seeing them do it, they marched with the K.K.K. to keep anyone from stirring up more trouble. You could look at them and tell they were just as frightened as everyone else. The thing that really irritates me is people think it's funny now. But it's not. These strange people who know nothing about us came into our town and tried to start trouble. They were wearing the normal garb and didn't have to show their faces. I wonder how they would feel if someone broke into their homes and brainwashed their children.
"I'm really glad to see DS's KKK insights getting attention," Natalie wrote to me and to Milton Clark, our collaborator at the California State University in San Bernadino. "Interestingly," Natalie continued, "I sent [DS's paper] as one of three examples yesterday to my guru in our [computer center] since it occurred to me that he might like to see what my students are doing on the network. Here's what he said: 'Very interesting. This was from one of your slow students? It isn't badly written at all.''' "How will email move students farther in the discipline of academic writing?" repeatedly asked the mathematician who chairs my developmental department. When he read DS's reply, he claimed to see a connection: Louie— There is one point that this person made that really impressed me. He or she stated that the KKK doesn't have to get their hands dirty since they can "rely
Page 48 on the ignorance of the people they get stirred up." This is a powerful insight, one that I had not ever considered, but one whose truth is obvious. It seems to me that this point could be elaborated. For example, one could discuss the mechanism of how groups like the KKK play on the ignorance of people so that the people do the dirty work of the KKK. That is, it's an insight that is generalizable to other situations. Wow, indeed. It is impressive how Vin Man's story has contributed to the richness of the transcontinental conversation among three sites of students. I think what I'm seeing was that your project could be used to stimulate the type of academic writing and responding that ought to be the direction into which CS students are pushed.
The persons we now teach bring diversity not anticipated by those who initiated me to the discipline of English when I entered college forty years ago. Because I was born to privilege, teachers almost never called to my attention the vast inequities that sustained my privilege. Huge portions of my community could not even drink out of the same water fountains or use the same public toilets, much less attend the same university with me. Only three faculty members at my undergraduate institution of five thousand students dared even hint that anything was wrong with that system. Had any openly opposed the system, they faced being driven away. The discipline of English in America, like U.S. law, has been shaped to serve those who oversee it. They give up control much more slowly in practice than in creed. I did not have to teach in Beijing to discover that it is much easier to talk about liberty than to assure liberty for all citizens: I learned that growing up right here in the United States. Our pedagogy still needs to live up to the promises of inclusion that have shaped much else in modern life since the 1700s. Many English departments delayed almost a century and a half before they honored the nation's own literature, visàvis British literature, and they delayed closer to two centuries before allowing us to have an American dictionary on descriptive rather than prescriptive principles. The march toward democracy and inclusion is much too slow. In the last forty years, by dint of very hard work, African Americans and feminists have forced open the canon ever so slightly to include reality hitherto deemed unworthy of study. Hispanics and Asians still knock. But millions of all ethnicities are locked out. During a recent Christmas I watched a father become annoyed as he spotted his daughter, a girl of about twelve, lagging behind to admire a pretty bauble in a fancy shop. "What are you looking at?" he shouted as he grabbed her arm.
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"Look, Daddy, look, that pretty pocketbook." "Chile," he said as he tugged at her, "That costs so much you can't afford even to dream about it! You hear me! Not even dream about it!'' Vin Man, himself a Puerto Rican, is right to bemoan our racial "inbalances" and the violence and hopelessness that they encourage. The great liberating ideas of our discipline cost so much that millions of Americans cannot even afford to dream about them. The infant mortality rate in Camden, New Jersey, the second wealthiest state in the nation, approaches the infant mortality rate in Bangladesh. 1 Nearby Latinos flock to the south Bronx only to discover statistics worse than those in most of Latin America. As English professors we need the integrity to acknowledge how much we are privileged by these structures. We need the courage to reshape our own discipline to be more inclusive. We need the imagination to live out that vision with our students and colleagues. If we fail to try, we professors have little of value to profess. Only slowly, and always reluctantly, has the discipline of English accommodated the cultures of new learners. Those who framed our constitution never anticipated full personhood, much less equal rights for key players in the decisions of Brown v. Board of Education, the Miranda Ruling, Roe v. Wade, or Hardwick v. Bowers. I fear that English departments will give equity to diversity in our curriculum only after two or three generations of each excluded group have had enough time to write the texts and enough enfranchisement that no one any longer notices the difference. Meanwhile, as my headmaster counseled me back in 1960, we have to "find some other book that will open the kid up just as well;' which may not be altogether bad. Reform rarely is a corporate act until the forces that drive the change are themselves fully in charge. At our best, professors are pied pipers playing a strange, new, and seductive song. Eureka is our proper interjection, even when we are not present to hear it shouted in the privacy of a mind we have influenced. We plant; we don't harvest. "As one who has taught for the past eighteen year," a stranger from my past wrote to me last year, "I am aware just how indirect an idea we have of what we accomplish there." Then he described his first day in my English composition class: "What was for you merely an introduction to the course and the establishing of authority was for me something unforgettable. You picked up one of the oversized ceiling lamps that had been left on the desk and calmly recited Wordsworth's 'The World Is Too Much with Us' into it. From that very moment of hearing the spoken music, poetry has lived within me. That night
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I read aloud poems for the first time. I learned to read. Writing poems soon began defining my life. This book that I send to you with gratitude took most of the last fifteen years. I hope it offers you some pleasure." It did. It also pleased Annie Dillard, who says on the jacket, "This is a powerful, moving poem. It travels deep as liturgy; it tells a story; it makes a rhythm as beautiful as that of any poem in English." I do not name the poet because I can take no credit for his achievement. For a moment I lived into my shaman role, into Wordsworth's poem. I doubt that anyone else there on that day remembers the occasion, or if so, the person probably remembers it as one of a series of examples of the wacky teacher. That was my discipline. A few months ago I arrived for an evening class to whom I had assigned several poems. I began with the first in the series: 1587 He ate and drank the precious Words— His Spirit grew robust— He knew no more that he was poor, Nor that his fame was Dust— He danced along the dingy Days And this Bequest of Wings Was but a Book—What Liberty A loosened spirit brings— —EMILY DICKINSON
"What does it mean, line 1?" I asked. Their eyes glazed. "What does line 1 mean?" I asked again, gently but persistently. "What does it mean to eat the precious words?" I decided to wait them out. For at least three minutes we sat in silence. Some nervously read the poem again and tried to get with it, but their hearts were not in the exercise. My own head swarmed with misgivings. "Have I chosen something inaccessible?" I asked myself. "After all, this is an adult evening class in Newark, the Calcutta of the West. Can Emily Dickinson open them up? Maybe I should skip this one and move to the next assignment by Baraka. Isn't this like the time I tried to share Gatsby with the lads in my class in the London slums or like the time my Hong Kong students could not understand Graves' 'London Snow,' a poem they had chosen for state dramatic competition? Am I culturally out of touch?" My own silence was terribly noisy, but suddenly it stilled. I reread the poem for myself and, like Jeremiah, suddenly I surprised myself by my own action. I
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tore the page out of my book and then methodically pinched a circle round the poem itself. Then I rolled the poem into a small ball, pitched it to the back of my throat, and swallowed it. No one left that class until 10:30 that night, more than two hours after it was supposed to end. They did not stay with my theatrics, however. That catalyst was forgotten within a minute or two. Instead, the class talked about Eucharist! They did not have that word for it until I earned my salary with it near the end, but they had that concept, that experience, and Emily Dickinson connected them with it. A student in his midforties broke the initial silence. "I'm eating words in my drug rehabilitation program all the time, yet," with a new crescendo of eureka, "mere words are all I've got. They're all that stands between me and chaos." Words are all we have. They stand between our discipline and chaos. Little is mere about them. Occasionally they become flesh. They can be Eucharist. "Find some other book that will open the kid up just as well;' my first collegial mentor had advised. "If they were writing these papers just for me," Natalie Maynor had written, "they would realize the phoniness of the assignment. After all, I know what it's like here. I live here. Although their writing is still pretty bad, I believe that wanting to communicate is a much better first step toward improvement than is talking about writing." Syllabi will shift. Canons will expand or explode. Technology hourly grows obsolete. But epiphany remains forever. We cannot put epiphany into our syllabi, but we betray our discipline, our heritage, if we fail to expect it or do not even believe in it. Some Other Way Edwin Friedman notes that shortly after Columbus discovered America, someone also invented the watch and the telescope. Within the next fifty years Europe experienced both the Reformation and the Renaissance. "Columbus did not discover just real estate;' Friedman asserts, "but a new vision of who he was and of how he fit into the world" (see Friedman). Through cyberspace Vin Man in my class and DS in Natalie Maynor's class experienced a new way of fitting into the world and new visions of who we are. In cyberspace I have had similar experiences regarding my own identity and my own fit with the world. In over three hundred of my more than one thousand publications, I have addressed lesbian and gay community issues; in many I have addressed issues concerning lesbian and gay academics. Yet even when I earned my doctorate in 1971, I knew personally only three gay academics, and
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they would not have been comfortable talking about lesbigay scholarly issues. Three years later, I coedited College English (November 1974) for a special issue on "The Homosexual Imagination"—the first issue of any scholarly journal to address lesbigay issues from a lesbigay point of view. During the same period, the Gay Academic Union began. Dolores Noll at Kent State and Louis Crompton at Nebraska convened the new Lesbian and Gay Caucus of the Modern Language Association; Julia Penelope and I convened the Lesbian and Gay Caucus of the National Council of Teachers of English. In the course of those projects, I met several hundred lesbigay academics. The word community is very important to lesbigays living at the margins of heterosexual culture. With community, like Columbus, we stake claim not to real estate but to a new vision of who we are. No lesbigay professor educated us into our identity: we discovered it, or as some argue, "constructed" it. The pace was slow, and unless you lived in urban centers, the isolation was fierce in the intervals between professional meetings. No wonder lesbigay scholars poured forth such an abundance of manuscripts: in addition to sleuthing and reclaiming our past, we were writing ourselves into community. In fall 1991 I announced through a few electronic networks that I was creating an electronic directory of lesbigay scholars. Within a few days I had assembled several dozen. More than 250 are currently active in the directory and almost two hundred others have been listed at one time or another. All new listings go to everyone in the directory; scholars cite their lesbigay publications and current projects. Most discourse circulates through smaller networks thus enabled. Only new listings and announcements of venues for lesbigay scholarship go to everyone. Even so, only those who use email regularly can accommodate the flow: hence, when someone wants to collaborate, needs to find a citation, or has a similar task, the person merely searches the directory, finds a connection, posts a message, and rarely waits more than two days for a response. Most people respond within twelve hours. The same month I coedited the special lesbigay issue of College English, I published a newsletter for lesbigay Episcopalians called Integrity. Within a month we had a chapter meeting in Chicago. Within nine months, we had more than three hundred people at our first national convention. We now have more than seventy chapters worldwide, most meeting as worshiping communities at least twice a month, many once a week. Most chapters publish monthly newsletters as long as our national one was at the beginning. At a time when mainline denominations are diminishing rapidly, we have brought at least thirty thousand people into or back into the Episcopal Church.
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Last December I sent out to various religious discussion groups a sassy announcement: "Electronic Catacomb for Lesbigay Christians" Attention Lesbigay Christians: Tired of Being Fed to the Lions? Put away your asbestos tenny pumps for a while and come to our prayerlit electronic catacomb, LUTI. God is here, as the Holy Spirit, and here God dares to love absolutely everyone. You don't even have to speak or be known. If you need to, you may sit in the corner and lick your wounds. Lo, everyone that thirsts, come, drink eternal water which Jesus revealed at Samaritan wells! For a guide away from the Coliseum down the Appian Way, send email with the SUBJECT: LUTI, yes to H.R.H.Quean Lutibelle
or from CompuServe to: >INTERNET:[email protected] No one will check your plumbing. In this space we know one another not by whether we are Jew or Greek, cut or uncut, male or female, straight or gay, pigmented privileged or pigmented vulnerable ... but by whether we love one another. Come, be the church with us. Faithfully, H.M.H. Quean Lutibelle a.k.a. Louie Crew, Li Min Hua, Br. ThornintheFlesh Founder of Integrity: The Justice Ministry of Lesbigay Episcopalians
The group had 410 communicants during its first ten months, some for short stays, some for the entire time. Once reaching one hundred, it did not go below ninety, even in the summer. The group generated an average of 1.3 megabytes of text each month, or approximately eighty doublespaced manuscript pages—an eight hundredpage book—in just ten months. We have communicants from every racial group, from every part of the globe, and from virtually every religious denomination. While discussion is intense and people disagree, the catacomb markedly contrasts with other electronic religious forums: people allow themselves to be vulnerable about their doubts and their beliefs, and most manifest respect for those who hold beliefs radically different from their own. No one is out to convert; the group convenes to share. Cyberspace literalizes community—not just for my classes or for folks stalking the same margins I stalk. The Chinese student protest movement in the spring and summer 1989 was orchestrated largely through the aegis of soc.cul
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ture.china, a discussion group on the Internet. What official Chinese news networks would never have allowed, Chinese students at home and abroad effected through an imaginative combination of the abundant fax technology in China and the ubiquitous Internet outside China. Students in all parts of China would fax in Chinese script reports of actions at their isolated sites to friends studying abroad. The friends would quickly translate these documents into English and post them by email to soc.culture.china, where a fuller picture began to emerge. In that way, for example, student leaders could know of growing solidarity all over the country, could even know whom to expect and when as the summer holiday began. Those who read these digests faxed to friends in China the parts that otherwise they would not know (see Stahle and Uimonen). Assignments on the Internet can open us up to the wonders of our discipline as writers. Witness these: 1) Locate the archives for soc.culture.china and download all postings for the week leading up to the Tiananmen Square massacre. Analyze your findings as a prelude. 2) Lurk on a group where you would usually be a stranger (e.g., soc.culture.afghanistan; soc.motss [lesbigays]; soc.culture.men or soc.culture.women) and find a way to quantify evidence to support some of your hunches. 3) Download a representative sampling of discourse on any group where those who use English as a second or foreign language heavily post messages. Develop at least two theories about error or rhetoric; then analyze the candid data you have gathered to support or refute your theories. 4) Save twentyfive messages on the same subject from any group. Then write a thesaurus entry for each of the key terms in the common "subject." After you have finished your entry, in a separate report, list new terms and old terms—compared with the listing for these terms in Roget's Thesaurus. 5) Study citation patterns on any group for a period of two weeks (i.e., who quotes whom): Write a paper on how "authority" seems to
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manifest itself in the group. (Use a group outside your own discipline and field of expertise.) 6) Collect fifty signature files and analyze them. You should monitor at least two other variables. (You might want to check how many of the quotations you may find in your system's online quotation dictionary.) 7) Choose any words or phrases that seem especially charged for you (e.g., neologisms, current political jargon). Then collect samples of these items from two or more contrasting user groups. Analyze. 8) Use your expertise at the systems level of your mainframe(s) to snoop on usage patterns, e.g., who logs in most frequently, what tasks do you find them doing when checking at regular intervals, and so forth. Or study the file naming patterns of between twenty and thirty users. 9) Login remotely to a dozen libraries. Trap the login process. Then evaluate the ease or difficulty of each login. 10) For a week monitor closely the clari (UPI) groups or the postings of any other commercial news service. Note patterns by which articles are withdrawn and revised or withdrawn hastily and never posted again. Analyze these editorial decisions from all angles. 11) Do a crosscultural comparison of the way posters from two different cultures discuss the same subject. For example, compare discussions of sex on soc.culture.christian with those on soc.culture.india 12) Log into library catalogs on three continents and do a crosscultural comparison of holdings on a culturally charged subject. 13) Collect a list of verbs that stereotypically suggest authoritarian personalities—e.g., order, command, demand. Collect random samples of extended discourse in two professional communities and analyze any patterns in the ways that your stereotype vocabulary appears. Did folks in one profession show up as more authoritarian? 14) Using any commercial hypertext program, write a hypertext introduction to your major (or your dormitory or whatever else you can think of).
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15) Create a virtual experience of any poem. 16) Using a spreadsheet, inventory every item in your dorm room or bedroom at home. Estimate the cost to replace each item. Then catalog these items by up to five categories. Write a paper about your values as reflected by how you spent your money. Use line graphs, bar graphs, and pie graphs, together with any other visual devices to make your point. 17) Use the resources of the Internet to discover statistics on the way other persons with a budget similar to yours spend their money. Revise your paper in no. 16 to accommodate this information. 18) Use ftp to retrieve any fulllength novel. Search for the terms earth, wind, fire, and water and collect the context for up to twenty examples of each. Read three chapters of a biography of the author and write a paper applying insights into the biography that have come to you from your nonlinear reading of the texts. How do the words for the four elements infuse the fiction? What relations, if any, did the biographer draw between the author and the elements? 19) Do a hypertext comparison of any ten to twenty terms of fundamentalism as they appear in the prose of David Koresh, John Shelby Spong, and Margaret Atwood. 20) Write four exercises to help classmates/colleagues experience a treasure hunt for any Internet treasures that you have discovered on your own. With these exercises I am trying to assign to the computer what computers do best and trying to assign to the student what human beings do best: Computers collect, download, gather, list, login, quantify, sample, save, and trap the process; people analyze, compare, contrast, evaluate, finish, lurk, note patterns, study, support, theorize, and write. Both computers and persons choose, find, monitor, post, and snoop. I often assign myself such projects. I was startled to look at the spreadsheets I had prepared of my own expenses since I got my first personal computer in 1983, asking a new question, "Do I put my money where I claim my values are, and what shifts do I need to make?" That is not a paper I will publish! It is an assignment I need to do again and again, and the computer makes it much easier.
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Many uses of the computer are just playful: 38 times: was. 34 times: unto. 31 times: be. 28 times: Lord. 20 times: god, is. 19 times: said. 18 times: were. 16 times: came, thou. 15 times: hath. 14 times: angel, not, thy. 12 times: child, days, Mary, things. 11 times: called, holy, name. 10 times: unto. 9 times: behold, me, my, thee, went. 8 times: before, blessed, Elizabeth, pass, people, saying, son, Zacharias. 7 times: city, fear, great, heard, house, I, Israel, Jerusalem, mother, shalt, womb. 6 times: according, David, father, ghost, man, spake, temple, upon. 5 times: about, after, also, among, day, filled, Jesus, Joseph, law, many, mercy, now, out, own, seen, spirit, up, wife, years. 4 times: accomplished, babe, because, brought, delivered, forth, found, good, hand, hast, hearts, highest, made, Nazareth, returned, shepherds, so, told. Thrice: am, art, away, been, both, call, come, conceived, country, custom, departed, even, every, fathers, Galilee, give, glory, go, incense, John, joy, Judaea, know, manger, marveled, named, old, one, order, peace, salutation, salvation, saw, sent, servant, sought, speak, strong, taxed, wisdom, word, ye, you. Twice: Abraham, abroad, again, age, answered, barren, being, believed, Bethlehem, born, bring, children, Christ, clothes, course, dealt, death, down, drink, enemies, espoused, ever, face, favor, feast, first, fulfilled, Gabriel, grew, haste, heart, hill, just, kept, known, laid, leaped, light, lo, looked, low, lying, manner, men, mighty, mine, month, months, most, mouth, multitude, night, office, over, parents, performed, power, praising, prepared, priest's, rejoiced, revealed, round, savior, sayings, see, set, shewed, sign, Simeon, sixth, soon, soul, spoken, stricken, swaddling, tarried, thing, three, through, thus, tidings, time, troubled, turn, understanding, visited, voice, waxed, well, whereby, wherein, while, whose, without, women, world, wrapped.
That is a wordfrequency list of Luke's Christmas narrative. I call it "Christmas Deconstructed." Wordfrequency programs are available everywhere. For a more serious project I gave developmental students wordfrequency lists for Shirley Jackson's "The Lottery." "You are anthropologists," I said. "Suppose you had only these lists as the remains of 'The Lottery.' Obviously you do not have the evidence needed to reconstruct the story, but what evidence in the lists points to what you discovered to be the heart of the story?" Some played with the puzzle pieces, never discerning any patterns, bored with it all. A few wrote their best papers of the semester, pursuing the patterns hidden in the stacks of evidence—the use of the word black and variants of laugh, for example. When these detectives wrote, they did so not only with the authority of insight but also with the weight of specific evidence, which they had made their own.
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Trained as a linguist, I have delighted in the power of the computer to analyze structures. I wrote a program, STYLED.EXE, popular with the forum of professional journalists on CompuServe and with several reviewers. I do not pretend to monitor all aspects of style, but a narrow list of items that concern me with my own prose, such as pulse. Here is a graph of the punctuation patterns in the first five sentences of St. Paul's famous love passage, 1>ooooooooooo,oooo,oooooooooo. 2>ooooooo,oooooo,ooo,ooooooooo,ooo, ooo oooooo , . 3>oooooooo,ooo,oooooooooooo,oooo, ooooooo . 4>oooooo; oooo; oooooo; oooooo; ooooo, oooo . 5>ooooooooooooo; oooooo,oo,oo,ooooo. Periods: 5 Commas: 16 Semicolons: 5
Twentysix punctuation marks of these kinds in a text of 155 words—i.e., punctuation for every five words. St. Paul's Original If I have all the eloquence of men or of angels, but speak without love, I am simply a gong booming or a cymbal clashing. If I have the gift of prophecy, understanding all the mysteries there are, and knowing everything, and if I have faith in all its fullness, to move mountains, but without love, then I am nothing at all. If I give away all that I possess, piece by piece, and if I even let them take my body to burn it, but am without love, it will do me no good whatever. Love is always patient and kind; it is never jealous; love is never boastful or conceited; it is never rude or selfish; it does not take offense, and is not resentful. Love takes no pleasure in other people's sins but delights in the truth; it is always ready to excuse, to trust, to hope, and to endure whatever comes. Corinthians 13:1–7. Jerusalem translation.
Contrast that vitality with the punctuation patterns of most beginning writers—or even some professional journals. STYLED does not create pulse but playfully invites it.
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STYLED offers specific help with those of us who want to name our agents and to put actions into verbs, as recommended by my mentor, Joseph Williams. The program graphs the stylistic cholesterol in this passage by a department head. Boldface alone indicates words that possibly bury action. Boldfaced italics indicate forms of to be. 1. Implicit in what has been suggested above is the fact that the department needs significantly to increase its expectations and its requirements. (22) 2. Both sections of the Graduate Division now have completed the pioneering phase of their programs. (15) 3. The programs are well established. (5) 4. A satisfactory international recognition for the programs has been achieved. (10) 5. The time now has come to build upon the initial successes of the department's postgraduate program. (16) 6. During the forthcoming triennium, postgraduate course work within the department must be made more complex. (14) 7. Students must be required to operate at more sophisticated—at genuinely international—levels of commitment and skill. (17)
Forms of to be:
6
(6%)
Possible buried action:
12
(12%)
Total word count:
99
Forms of to be: 1—been; 1—is; 3—are; 4—been; 6—be; 7—be. Words that may bury action: 1—department; 1—expectations; 1—requirements; 2—sections; 2—Division; 2—pioneering; 4—international; 4—recognition; 5— department's; 6—forthcoming; 6—department; 7—commitment; The report prompted me to revise the passage: I have implied that the department needs to expect more, to require more. We have pioneered long enough. Now we must sophisticate our graduate stu
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dents. During the new triennium, our students must demonstrate more skill. They must commit themselves to the more complex materials. The faculty must serve international, not parochial, standards. An elderly woman approached me after I spoke at a cathedral in California this July. She introduced herself as the last female deputy elected but denied a seat in the General Convention (the legislative body of the Episcopal Church), in 1969; only in 1970 did we rise above an allmale convention. ''Do you remember a student you had long ago named Doug?" she asked. She gave his last name too, but it rang no bell. "In the last thirtyfive years I have taught well over three thousand students. Doug—hmm. No. I am so sorry, but..." "Well, he remembered you!" she said, smiling persistently. "He said you led him to major in English. He told me again and again that you had taught him to value strong clear sentences. He graduated from the University of Virginia and later became the chief coroner in Washington, D.C. He said he was the coroner preferred by the courts because of his command of English: he had the ability to convey complex medical jargon into something a jury could comprehend." "Doug? Doug! Who went to the University of Virginia. But I taught him in my second year of teaching, thirtyfour years ago. I thought you meant someone much more recent." "Yes," she said, "and I encouraged him many times to call you, but he would not. He loved you very much." "I remember, yes, Doug, whose father objected to my assigning All the King's Men. Where is he? Does he live here?" "He told me that he knew I would see you some day, and he told me to tell you that he grew up gay." "Doug? Where is he? May I see him? Does he live near here? Yes, he didn't like Mahler but introduced me to Missa in Tempore Belli." "As an Episcopalian, he was enormously grateful for your work with Integrity," she continued, as if she had escaped some disaster. "He knows about that?!" I asked. "Yes, and he was awfully proud of you. I met him at a healing service at church. I was only a stranger, and I don't know why he told me, but he said he was dying of AIDS." "Doug! Doug! Who read every word of Robert Penn Warren! Not Doug!" "We became very close," she continued. "He said to me many times, 'Why couldn't I have had a mother like you?' I just did what any Christian would do.
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His mother preceded him in death, and his father wouldn't even speak to him after he told them he was gay. They cut him off completely and would not even allow him to come home. His father was so ashamed of him, even after he graduated from the University of Virginia and became a famous doctor. Look, here's a picture of the two of us together, and I've made a copy for you of his obituary. He told me he wanted you to have these. I am here by his mandate." And now abideth syllabi, canons, and epiphany. But the greatest of these disciplines is epiphany. Note 1. In Camden County, the infant mortality rate is 84 per thousand births; in Bangladesh, 119 per thousand. See 1988 data in United Nations, 332. See also Center of Health Statistics, Mortality, D33, and Natality, C22. Both figures refer to deaths of infants under the age of one. Works Cited Center of Health Statistics. Mortality. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Health. 1988. Center of Health Statistics. Natality. Trenton: New Jersey Department of Health. 1988. Dickinson, Emily. The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson, ed. Thomas H. Johnson. Boston: Little, Brown, 1960. Friedman, Edwin. "Healing Sick Institutions." Paper presented at National Symposium of Episcopalians. St. Louis, Mo., 13 August 1993. Stahle, Esbjôkrn, and Terho Uimonen, eds. Electronic Mail on China. Stockholm: Fôreningen fôr orientaliska studier, 1989. United Nations. Demographic Yearbook. New York: United Nations, 1992. Williams, Joseph. Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace. New York: Harper Collins, 1981.
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Boiled Grass And the Broth of Shoes: Some Academic Anecdotes George Garrett We all know, that as the human body can be nourished on any food, though it were boiled grass and the broth of shoes, so the human mind can be fed by any knowledge. —Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The American Scholar"
For almost forty years I have been in this line of work, practicing this discipline of ours. It was not planned that way. Was not meant to be that way. Initially I acted on impulse. Within days after returning to the United States on a troopship and being honorably discharged from the U.S. Army, I took a chance that came along (the G. I. Bill and a fellowship that nobody else seemed to want at that time) to go back to Princeton to graduate school. It wasn't going to be for keeps (I thought), not a serious commitment. I just needed a little time, a few years at most and worst, to find myself as a writer, preferably a rich and famous one. How well my casual, tentative life plan has worked out is witnessed by the undeniable fact that I am now close to retirement as a professor of English. An alien observer, just passing through, I have been here the whole time in spite of myself. Meanwhile what do I have to show for it all? What have I learned? For better or worse I have my books, the better part of me, all written during my years as a teacherwriter. And I am left with plenty of memories, a string of academic anecdotes, more like worry beads than a rosary, little fabliaux exemplary at best of an academic life (thus of our discipline) in our times. Each little story here has a lesson or two that I learned at the time. Each little story also should tell a little about our discipline in changing times.
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One thing that has not changed, after all, is that our discipline was not and is not a matter of great importance to our betters, and we need to keep that in mind. Wesleyan: Body and Soul in Connecticut At Wesleyan, my first teaching job, they were suddenly discovering the life of the body. Professional types, who had, so far in their sedentary lives, broken less sweat than wind, were suddenly trotting around the track in brand new sweat suits and shiny white sneakers. This epiphany occurred well before the fashions of jogging and real running shoes. I remember standing in the shade of the old, nineteenthcentury gymnasium with some of the coaches (one of which I was, on a parttime basis, thanks to the wasted jock time of my youth) watching this new development with uniform bafflement. I was relieved that they didn't choose to hoot and jeer at my academic colleagues. I was on crutches, having broken a leg—I forget which one—trying to run back punts against the varsity football team. Served me right. Coaches aren't supposed to do that kind of thing. When it came to exercise, coaches in general followed the customs of the army: never run if you can walk; never walk if you can ride. "What's going on?" the old football head coach asked me. "Beats me," I replied. What else could I say? How could I stand there and tell him, this nice old man, what was going on in academic offices and classrooms? These academics—who as recently as the 1948 election, when most of them supported and a few even ran for state offices in the Progressive Party, trying at the least to topple a man they seriously considered an enemy of the people, Harry S. Truman—had recently turned their failed (and mostly imaginary) revolution inward, where it was less costly and less embarrassing. All of a sudden there was a lot of talk in the usual places about discovering and cultivating the free, impulsive, animal life of the body and, beneath the skin, the dark and Dionysiac gods of the blood and a lot of other stuff that should have been discredited with the rise and fall of the Third Reich. Imagine trying to explain to the coaching staff the deep meanings involved in the actions of a few outofshape faculty members trotting and skipping around the track. My friend and colleague Ihab Hassan put on the gloves with Norman Mailer and earned a black eye, some swelling, and a few minor bruises as the price for
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an interview. There was a certain amount of arm wrestling going on at the lunch table and some instances of necking with other people's wives in dark parking lots. A thrilling time to be in the profession. Other colleagues began to go around singing the praises of the newly revealed Beats, some of whom I knew from here and there and almost all of whom had been to good graduate schools. Many held more advanced degrees than I did. The whole Beat thing, even though a lot of it was the smoke and mirrors of publicity, was a part of the same selfstyled revolution. One of the leading local figures, indeed soon to be a guru and an ideological monitor for the larger movement, was Norman O. Brown, known around Wesleyan as Nobby. He transformed himself before our very eyes (and without benefit of phone booth) from a straight, mildmannered classics professor into a supermensch, babbling not of green fields but of blood and guts, enough so as to be named in due time as the General Patton of the counterculture. I liked old Nobby and I enjoyed hearing him hold forth, though I didn't and still don't claim to understand what he was talking about. I figured that maybe he and the rest of them were on to something and that maybe some day I would have the time to find out what it was all about. In the meantime, a heavy load of classroom teaching was eating up my waking hours. Since I was the newest and lowestranking member of the English department (except for my office mate, who was coming off four or five years as a Pinkerton detective and very soon would wisely decide to return to that line of work), my office, our office, was the least desirable space in the old house that served the department. To get there I had to go through the office of Robert Lucid and enter his closet and go up a flight of stairs to a converted pigeon loft. A lot of pigeons did not believe or accept the fact that it was now an office. They came and went. There were a couple of high, small, dirty windows that you could look through if you stood on a chair. What you saw was the rooftops of town, the Connecticut River, and a cluster of large ugly brick buildings on the other side that were part of the state mental hospital. I would climb up on a chair and look. Down below, out of sight in the backyard of the house next door [still lived in], a chained dog moaned, barked, and howled most of the time. A student of mine worked at the hospital as an orderly for the senile and geriatric wards. He told and wrote some truly horrendous stories about events at this workplace. The one I always remember had to do with the tricks, the japes and pasquils, the day shift played on the night shift and vice versa, like
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giving the incontinent old people a heavy dose of laxative just before going off duty. You want to celebrate the life of the body? I'll give you the life of the body. I wrote a poem based on all that. I guess now that it was mostly all about depression. Solitaire The days shuffle together. Cards again? No, no, I mean little convicts in lockstep, like the patients on the senile ward I saw once, gray and feeble, blankeyed creatures in cheap cotton, brimfull of tranquilizers. ("It's the only efficient way to handle this situation," an attendant told me.) So lethargic they could hardly pick up their feet. The gray days shuffle together. The trees are picked and plucked, sad tough fowl not fit for stewing. The round world is as shaved and hairless as the man in the moon. Screams! But I can't hear it. Next door a dog howls and I can. Break out a brand new deck for God's sake! Bright kings and queens and oneeyed jacks. Free prisoners. Let the old men go home.
One break I had in the routine was every Wednesday night, when I took a twohour train ride on the decaying New Haven Railroad from nearby Meridien to New York City, where I was enrolled in an evening course. I returned on the last train back, another two hours. My journey began at a bus stop near the campus in Middletown. Every time, a half a mile or so beyond Wesleyan, Nobby Brown would board the bus, too. It seemed vaguely odd because it was a good distance from school and was not anywhere near where he lived. He seemed slightly furtive as he entered the bus, took a seat by himself up front, and quickly hid behind a newspaper. He seemed even more furtive when be got off the bus, a couple of blocks before the railroad station, and after a quick look around (as if to determine if he were being ob
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served), ducked down an alley, a dark alley, at that time of year, and disappeared. Week after week the same thing happened until my curiosity was as itchy as athlete's foot. What could Nobby, apostle of the dark secrets of the body and the immemorial music of the blood, be up to in a dark alley in downtown Meridien, Connecticut? Finally, my itch to know was so bad that I knew I had to follow him and find out, even at the risk of missing the train to New York. I was almost certain that he had never noticed me on the bus, and I was glad that I had never greeted him. So I took my usual place in the back of the bus and waited. At his usual place he signaled and boarded the bus. Furtively. Took a front seat and opened up a newspaper. At the usual place he pulled the cord and the bus stopped. He got off, looked left, right, and all around, then vanished into the alley. At the last possible second—the driver had already shifted gears—I pulled the cord myself and leapt off the back exit. I then tiptoed down the alley. Up ahead of me a light went on, on the second floor of a dark building. I kept close to the wall beneath, outside of the pool of light. Then in a moment I heard Latin music and a very slightly accented woman's voice saying over and over again, "One, two, three, chachacha! One, two, three, chachacha!" I stepped briefly into the light so I could look in the window. And there was Nobby Brown with a partner, an instructor, actually (a sign on the window announced the place to be an Arthur Murray dance studio), learning to do the chacha. I turned away, ran, and just made the train as it was pulling out of the station. Feeling better about things. Feeling better about Nobby Brown and Dionysius and the pains and pleasures of the academic life. Like JeanPaul Sartre and Albert Camus, Allen Ginsberg and Gregory Corso, they were only about half kidding. Just messing around, as we would have put it down home. And all that it added up to, in the real world of kisses and bruises, was some private lessons at Arthur Murray's. Rome: A Great Big One In Rome that year a pope died and a new pope was elected by the College of Cardinals. Frederico Fellini was making the movie La Dolce Vita (only it was then titled La Vita Dolce, which is not only different grammatically but also underlines the homage/allusion to Dante and La Vita Nuova). A group of us
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were busy putting together and bringing out the first two issues of the new and improved Transatlantic Review (a copy of the first issue is seen [less than a blink or a wink] on a coffee table in La Dolce Vita). But mostly I was holed up in the American Academy using this rare gift of free time to write a novel. In Rome, at the American Academy, I learned many things, not the least of which was the difference between the critic and the artist. I might not have learned that crucial distinction from the literary world. It was easier to see in the company and by the examples of the other kinds of artists who lived and worked at the American Academy—composers and musicians, architects, painters, and sculptors. One of the sculptors was my friend and good buddy, in those days. Allen Harris was a large, powerful man with a commensurate enthusiasm for his work with clay, stone, and bronze and for the good things of life in Rome. One of the things he did (and we all had a lot of fun doing "research" for it) was to write a little book, called Tables on the Tiber, about the really good and really cheap eating places in the city. It was a wonderful little book with maps and menus and anecdotes. Allen and I had the army in common. Our experience was different, but it was a bond, something we could talk about or take for granted. He had had some extraordinary times, serving as a rifleman (just seventeen years old) in an infantry assault company in General George Patton's Third Army. Less than a dozen of the original company that landed in France were still alive at the end of the war. Allen's kind of sculpture—mostly figurative and based on modeling—was not exactly fashionable at that time. In America he had earned his keep, between sales and commission for sculpture, as a bronze caster for other artists and anybody else who needed to have such work done. He was really good at that work, a master, so he soon made contact with the bronze casters of Rome. Sometimes he would knock off work in his studio at the academy and take me along to see the Romans working with bronze. We visited a busy little group at a rundown farm at the edge of the city that made fake Etruscan bronzes. They were very well made, and, after they had been soaked in a barrel of urine (and other things) to acquire a good patina and buried in mud for a while, they looked authentic enough to be successfully sold to Americans and others who wanted Etruscan artifacts. Once, in another place, we were watching them pour a casting for some local sculptor when Allen suddenly grabbed me by the elbow and said, "Let's get out of here right now." We didn't run but walked quickly out of the shed and into the fabulous Roman sunlight, hearing behind us a lot
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of voices yelling all at once. He explained that they were working on a shoestring and that the only way they could possibly make a profit was not to waste anything. While we were watching them carefully pouring the cast, he realized there wasn't enough bronze to do the job. It was going to be a complete disaster, not only for the casters but for the sculptor, who was pacing nervously in the shadowy background. "Didn't you want to see the shit hit the fan?" I asked. "Oh no," he said. "That would be brutta figura." Meaning a bad scene, the worst kind of bad manners to bear witness to somebody else's misfortune. Another time we were at a more elegant foundry watching them cast works for a Middle Eastern sculptor who did large public statues of leaders all over the Third World. These figures were all pretty much the same except for a few details and, of course, different heads. He was working on a big one that had already been cast while the new casting was going on. When he found out that Allen was a sculptor, too, he apologized for his work, especially the casual, even sloppy attention to detail. "You have to understand," he said. "I make the statues of the leaders of these countries. They pay me very well for this. But it is heartbreaking. The statues go up in the parks and squares. Then after a while comes a revolution. And what is the first thing the new regime does? They topple and destroy the statues and order new ones. It's a good living for me, but it's discouraging. You can understand why I am indifferent to the little details." At the American Academy there were conventional academics, too—a lot of classicists, who impressed me more than any other academics I have ever known before or since, at least in the socalled humanities. They had to know so much as a matter of course—languages, archaeology, anthropology, and so on. They seemed real in ways that other academics did not. There were various other critics and scholars as well. And we all got to know each other during the long leisurely lunch hour and in the evenings at cocktails and dinner. One man I met and enjoyed talking to was an art historian who was doing a book on Bernini's public sculptures. I liked to hear him talk about what he was doing. He was excited and enthusiastic, and I could get on a bus and in fifteen minutes see for myself what he was talking about. Once he asked me if any of the sculptors at the academy were working on anything that might be considered public sculpture. He knew about Milton Hebald and the zodiac he was making for the Pan American building at La Guardia. That was a big operation and he had been to see it. But how about anybody else?
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It happened that Allen had just won a contest for a big piece to be made in honor of a dead basketball player in Kansas City. It had been kind of a feat because the people in Kansas City wanted something big but cheap. Allen had figured out a brilliant way to do it, flashy and inexpensive. He had a scale model in his studio. Did I think I could arrange for the art critic to visit Allen in his studio? Maybe. Probably. All the artists were more than a little edgy about letting people come to their studios unless it was definitely a potential buyer. Even then they might be or seem reluctant; buyers generally liked the idea of acquiring a work of art from a real and maybe "difficult" artist. I asked Allen, and he said okay. A date and time were set, and when the time came I took the art historian to the studio. Allen showed him around first, looking at a lot of different things, large and small, on which Allen was working in various stages. I could tell the art historian's enthusiasm was fueled by what he was seeing. He understood what Allen was up to and he didn't care if it was fashionable or not. Finally they came to the scale model of the Kansas City piece. It was really something—neat, efficient, beautiful—and the art historian got very excited looking at it, talking about it. For maybe five minutes he talked rapid fire in a multisyllabic jargon that might as well have been another language but that certainly was intended to be praise. He talked and Allen listened, nodding, poker faced. He talked until he ran out of breath and then smiled and looked directly at Allen as if waiting for a reply. Always good mannered, never wanting to make a brutta figura, Allen cleared his throat and spoke softly: "Well, yes, I guess you're right. It's a great big motherfucker, ain't it?" Outside I walked across the gravel courtyard with the art historian. He seemed spent and depressed. I didn't have to ask him why. He told me: "All my adult life I have dreamed of what it would be like to have some time, maybe five minutes with Bernini. We could meet outside of time and space and I could ask him about, oh, the colonnade and the obelisk at the Vatican or maybe the four rivers statue in the Piazza Navona. I would ask him and he would tell me. Now I know exactly what he would tell me." The art historian was a true gentleman. The punch line, emphatic, raucous, insistent as a train whistle, echoed in the empty air. Rice University: Send Me In, Coach Rice University had approximately six hundred students, all of whom attended free of charge. Rice was a very wealthy school with oil wells, land, and
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investments (they even owned the land that Yankee Stadium stood on) and a football team that was always a serious contender in the Southwest Conference and, thus, also a national power. That was no mean feat for a little school with very high academic standards. Actually, in those days (to the best of my fading recollection) all the football players came from the commerce department, a mysterious brick building located off by itself and close to the shadow of the huge stadium. The commerce department, as I understood things, took care of all of the courses and requirements of its own undergraduate students for the whole four years. In fact, students from that department were strongly discouraged from taking any courses outside of their department. All of the students in the commerce department were athletes. The chairman of commerce was Jess Neely, who did double duty as the football coach. All in all it seemed to be a pretty sensible system. The ''real" students at Rice hated football players in general and with good reason. These brilliant students had suffered all through high school at the hands of the athletes and their active supporters, the overwhelming and mediocre majority. Now, though only about six hundred, the serious students were the majority. They wouldn't even walk across the campus to the stadium to watch a football game. The stadium was usually filled, but not with Rice students. Over coffee, the young and ambitious instructors and assistant professors in the department of English, taking their cue from their own students, muttered mutiny and rebellion. It was a sure enough shame (on you and on me, on them, on everyone), they said, that a potentially topflight university, filled with firstrate students and paying betterthanaverage salaries, should go on blandly permitting something like the blatantly bogus commerce department not only to exist but also to thrive. They agreed to (pardon the expression) tackle the problem head on at the first big faculty meeting. Even though I was only a lowly lecturer and anyway thought of myself, as ever, as just passing through this place, I figured the upcoming meeting might be more than mildly entertaining, not to be missed. I could see all kinds of possibilities. I am here to tell you, however, that what really happened took me completely by surprise. Here is how it went. Purely and simply by accident, I ended up walking to the meeting with the chairman of English. We made some pointless small talk as we walked across the wellkept sunstruck campus toward the airconditioned auditorium where the meeting was scheduled. When we entered the lobby of the building, there, lo and behold and looking altogether fine and dandy in an expensive
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and perfectly tailored suit, was Coach Neely. Smiling, he stepped up to our chairman, greeted him warmly and then openly handed him an envelope. And he said (in words to this effect, as I recall): "We had a much better year with the stadium concessions than I had anticipated. So I feel that it's only fair to share our windfall profits with you and the other chairmen. Buy yourself some books or something." Our chairman accepted the envelope, put it in his inside coat pocket, and thanked the coach kindly. Then we went inside and took seats. Untroubled, the chairman ripped open the envelope and exposed for my easy inspection a check made out to our department for eighty thousand dollars. The meeting soon got underway. The young Turks were up on their feet savagely attacking the commerce department, attacking Coach Neely, making motions to change everything for the better once and for all. I wondered what the famous coach would find to say in his own defense. As it happened, not one word. He could just as well have been snoozing for all I knew and all he cared. Then what we witnessed was truly wonderful, as, one by one in turn, each department chairman rose and eloquently and seriously described the commerce department as an outstanding, indeed essential part of the Rice academic family. Neely was a true scholar and a gentleman, and his students brought credit and distinction to this institution. It never even came to a vote. Later Coach Neely went to Vanderbilt, his old school, to be athletic director. Vanderbilt, that fine university, has a boulevard named after him. South Carolina: Come On, Baby, Light My Fire One of the things that happened at South Carolina—one of the good things—was the local premiere of Deliverance. Jim Dickey generously invited my wife and me to ride with him and his family in the huge stretch limousine to the theater. It was a blacktie affair and a large crowd; maybe everybody in Columbia who could rent, beg, borrow, or steal a tuxedo showed up. The theater was packed. Once the lights went down and the movie started, Jim jumped up and patrolled the aisles. He was giving a running commentary on the action ("Look at that! Look at the expression on Burt Reynolds's face!") and sometimes preparing the audience for what was to come and how they should react ("You're gonna love this next scene. Watch what happens to Jon Voight when he falls out of the canoe."). When the sheriff, played by Dickey himself, ap
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peared near the end of the movie, Jim received a standing ovation as he spoke the sheriff's lines, loud and clear, in perfect sync with his image on the screen. It was reliably reported that, from time to time, afternoon or evening, Jim would show up at the theater and, to the surprise of the paying customers, would give the same restless commentary and favorable critique of the movie. Later, in another context, I learned that in Japan they did not use subtitles or dubbing until very recently. From the days of silent film on into the postwar period, theaters had a live narrator, commentator, and critic called a benshi. It seems like an interesting idea. It seems even better to have the author of the book and the screenplay selling his product in person during the showing of the film, a wonderful combination of hands on and high tech. At South Carolina, during the bad years, we had campus riots just like everybody else. On one occasion, the worst, maybe, they were planning to burn down the president's house with the university president in it. All this took place at the place called the Horseshoe, roughly shaped like one and marked by the oldest buildings, one of which was the president's house. At one part of the Horseshoe, perhaps fifty yards away from the target, there was a portable speaker's stand, some microphones and loudspeakers, torches, and enough gasoline in cans to burn down a lot of the city of Columbia. Speakers were whipping up the mob of students. A couple of cops stood casually by, seeming kind of indifferent and smirky. What they knew (and I guessed) was that a small brigade of policemen, discreetly out of sight behind the president's house and in his basement, was standing by ready, willing, able, and eager to break heads and to shoot to kill if need be. And because arson is (or, anyway, it still was then) a felony, a capital crime in many states, any amount of force they used would have been lawful. And ever since William Tecumseh Sherman burned a lot of Columbia to the ground, people there have been especially sensitive to the use of arson as a political gesture. My guess was that the cops couldn't wait to take on the students and that the student organizers couldn't wait, either. They could already see the headlines and imagine the sound bytes. My best judgment was that things were going to get bloody and bloody awful very soon. So, first things first, I found myself a safe berth, next to an old oak tree with an easy egress to personal safety, and settled in to watch whatever came to pass. What came to pass was nothing that I or apparently anybody else expected. The mob had the torches and the gasoline, and the leaders had them chanting threats and slogans. I could picture the president up there pacing in his bed
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room with a fine view of the mob. He was a nice cheerful guy, a drinker with whom I had lifted and belted a few. And I knew he would be scared shitless, not just for himself but for everything and everybody. Bad things were just about to happen any minute. Suddenly one of the student leaders grabbed the microphone, yelled ("Wait a minute! Wait a minute! Listen here! Listen to me!"), and got the mob's attention. He looked at his wristwatch and announced in a loud clear voice: "Star Trek begins in five minutes." The Horseshoe was empty of students in a minute and a half as they tossed aside their torches and dropped their gas cans and ran off in every direction toward the nearest television sets. Maybe they planned to come back after Star Trek and start all over. If so, they forgot about it. The attention span of the 1960s revolutionaries was famously brief. Only the leaders and provocateurs were singleminded and relentless. It was widely believed that the kid who remembered Star Trek at the last minute was working for the Central Intelligence Agency. Bennington: Garbage and Other Collectables Bennington is a progressive, freewheeling, freespirited, and very expensive place. I had always liked Bennington, what I knew about it. A couple of my cousins were graduates. I worked for Bennington for ten summers on the staff of the writers' workshop. And, boy oh boy, I could tell you a story or two about some of those summers. But this one is about the regular academic year at Bennington, where I worked only once. This story is all about garbage. Besides the fact that most of the students were stoned most of the time those days, and even the dogs and cats seemed to be on quaaludes, the biggest problem at Bennington was garbage collection. Oh, there were other pressing problems for the college, to be sure. The budget situation was desperate. No endowment, you see, and plenty of debt service to be paid off with everything else. Mostly everything was paid for by the highest tuition in the world. Even so, trying to make ends meet and to balance the budget called for fiscal magic (smoke and mirrors). The unenvied president had done away with all forms of maintenance of any kind, buildings and grounds, for at least a year. Grass and weeds grew tall and taller. Windows, here and there,
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were boarded up. Doors hung loosely on broken hinges. Toilets and light fixtures went unattended. Half the time the heat did not work. During wintertime in Vermont that was a problem. Most frills were dispensed with. For example, the library sold off most of its books. For campus security the rentacops were replaced by stoned and longhaired kids looking like victims of a bad rock concert. Once they disappeared en masse for several days when the word went out (a joke, as it happened) that an Upper New England chapter of Hell's Angels was on the way to Bennington for purposes of loot and pillage, planning to rape all the available girls and generally to trash the place. Let trash be my segue. Garbage collection was private, and collectors in the area were few and far between. Among the faculty, almost all of them living in college housing of one kind or another, it proved to be easier to get the names and numbers of their favorite babysitters or to divest them of their cleaning ladies than to find out how to plug into a garbage pickup service. It was made quickly and abundantly clear to newcomers that it was a local tribal taboo, an unacceptable breach of etiquette, to ask anybody directly how one could make contact with their garbage collectors. (The few collectors listed in the phone book were not taking on any new customers.) The longtime faculty people seemed to have different collectors. And these collectors formed some kind of hierarchical status—good, better, and best. None was accessible or available to strangers and newcomers except by means of some kind of personal introduction. At first it seemed funny, even as week by week, big green plastic bags piled up in my garage. Pretty soon, though, the garbage was ripe and stinking. I broke the rules, then, asking friends and strangers, anyone, for advice and comfort. In all other matters they were warm and wonderful people. But in the case of garbage disposal, they were blankly indifferent. I don't know what might have happened if I had not scouted and scoped out the location of every Dempsey Dumpster in Bennington and North Bennington. By the dark of the moon, headlights off, I would cruise behind the shopping mall or maybe McDonald's and furtively dump my green bags. Sometimes, on a weekend, I would bring a whole carload of garbage bags all the way home to Maine. One evening at a dinner party in the apartment of the poet Stephen Sandy, a jolly and lively affair (whatever else, they knew/know how to party at Bennington: every Friday night the students managed to produce a wild and wooly "Dress to Get Laid" party in one of the dorms), I witnessed a moment of truth about garbage collection. Sitting next to me at the long table was Bernard
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Malamud, that mostly gentle, always eccentric, and greatly gifted man. Across the table from us was Luis, an elderly Spaniard whose last name escaped me then and still escapes me now, though I do remember that he had held high offices in the Republican government of Spain until Francisco Franco won the civil war. Later he served in the American army in World War II and then was a professor at Stanford or Berkeley or somewhere out on the West Coast. He had now retired and was living in Bennington and, together with his wife, teaching some Spanish there. He struck me as, outwardly and visibly, everything a Spaniard ought to be—handsome, suave, polished, knowledgeable. "Luis," Malamud was saying, "tell me how things are going for you here." "Everything goes well, thank you," Luis replied. "Everything is fine. Except for one bad thing." "And what might that be?" "My house, it is swimming in garbage. There is garbage everywhere. Soon it will be completely uninhabitable. What can I do about it?" Solid frozen silence at the table. Heavy breathing and cutlery noises. Luis might just as well have pounded on the table and shouted out a string of obscenities. Abruptly, Malamud produced a little notebook and a ballpoint pen. He scribbled in the notebook. (I tried my best to sneak a peek, but he was protecting the notebook from the sight of others.) He ripped out the page, folded it twice to a tiny size, and reached across to Luis, who deftly palmed it. "Luis," Malamud said. "You seem to be a very nice person, and you come from another country. Call that number and tell them it was given to you by Professor Malamud and that Professor Malamud personally recommends you. Of course, I can't promise anything, but I think it may work." Everyone brightened. All voices began talking at once. I took a good gulp of my wine, thinking, "I am only here for this year, anyway." Virginia: Snickering in Solitary The glorious setting of the University of Virginia ought to make it incongruous, if not impossible, as a place for the commonplace low cunning, the routine, if sly, habits of back stabbing, the leadlooted dance of petty politics, the ordinary, runofthemill lying, stealing, and cheating that haunt the academic life. Amidst such a beautiful preservation of its founder's vision, and, indeed, with Mr. Jefferson, himself, overseeing it all from many angles, in bronze and stone, painted on canvas, it would seem at once inappropriate and
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unlikely that we could go about our ways and means without being stricken by the guilt of selfaware hypocrisy. And the truth is that all of these good qualities of the surroundings serve to mute loud voices and to reduce somewhat the rages of confrontation, so much so that it is possible to be deluded by good manners and gentility into believing that we have managed to pass beyond brutish behavior and to arrive at a more civilized level of discourse and selfdiscipline. Virginia has an odd shape in my experience and memory, a kind of double exposure. Because I have taught there twice, first in the early 1960s, then again since the mid1980s—same place and roughly the same job with a twentyyear intermission. Most places in twentiethcentury America tend to change a lot, at least outwardly and visibly, in a twentyyear period. Much of Virginia, all except for the essential Jeffersonian core—the Lawn, the Rotunda, the Pavilions, the East and West Ranges—is much changed and ever changing. In my first hitch, for example, the school was not yet coeducational, there was a coatandtie dress code, and the football team set some kind of a record by losing twentyeight games in a row. When I got back, after those years, it seemed very different and yet the same. My wife put it most accurately: "It's like being in a strange country where you know what's around every corner." The most interesting thing I discovered was that some places, and Virginia is surely one of them, are haunted, spooked. They remain forever inwardly and spiritually the same. The people are different, the place is much different, and jackhammers and cranes are daily at work making more changes. And yet, at heart, nothing changes much. New faces commit the same old low crimes and misdemeanors. It would be false not to admit that there was often a great deal of laughter in the groves of academe. Though it is surely no trouble for anyone alive and sentient in our century to imagine such a place, I, myself, have never been anywhere, in fact and in flesh, where laughter was wholly absent or inappropriate. The late John Ciardi put it very nicely in "Snickering in Solitary," a poem about the Birdman of Alcatraz. Have I ever told you about the time Leslie Fiedler came to give a lecture at UVa during the middle of spring vacation? It was a lazy Tuesday afternoon during the week of spring break, nobody much around the place. Just a few of us, younger people with no place to go and no money to go there, anyway, hanging out at the department in Cabell Hall, supposed to be catching up on work but not really working much, mostly
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sitting around smoking and talking trash. All of a sudden the battleax department secretary calls for me to come to the phone. (In those days we only had phones in the departmental office.) She figured that I should deal with this phone call. A voice busily informed me that this was Leslie Fiedler, that he was calling from Lynchburg or Roanoke or somewhere, where he was lecturing this evening, and that he was just checking in to be sure that everything was still set for him to lecture at Virginia on Thursday night. Right here was where I made my first big mistake. I didn't know a thing about any scheduled visit to UVa by Fiedler for the day after tomorrow or ever. This was the first I had heard anything about that. Somebody must have known something, but not I. And whoever that somebody was, he or she was out of town on vacation. But somehow I did not want to admit to complete ignorance. So I heard myself say, "Yes, sir. We are all set, and we are looking forward to your visit here." He then told me he would be coming up to Charlottesville on the train and what time the train would arrive. I said I would pick him up at the train station. We—myself, junior instructors, aging graduate students—had a pretty good laugh about the whole thing. "How do you know it was really Fiedler?" "I don't. We won't know until he gets here, if he gets here." And gradually it dawned on us that we were going to be responsible for Fiedler. There was no one else. Suddenly it was a challenge. Could we, somehow or other, in the middle of spring vacation, put together some kind of an audience for an appearance/performance by Fiedler? Probably not, but why not give it a try? Nothing ventured, nothing gained. Another big mistake. We lined up a room for the lecture in the library. Then we started thinking about where we would find some people, warm bodies to fill the room. I went directly to the only place I was certain there were still some students—the football practice field. Spring practice was going on, vacation or no vacation. I went down there and managed to catch the attention of some football players who owed me a big favor. (Never mind what. Guess.) When I told them the problem, they quickly assured me that they could and would find enough students to come to Fiedler's lecture and to fill up the room in the library. "It only looks empty," they told me. "There are plenty of creeps in the dorm rooms just studying and stuff. Got no place to go and nobody wants them. We will encourage them to come to this lecture. In fact, we will come, too, and be like your ushers. Don't worry about a thing."
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I was worried, though, worried sick at that point. But what could I do but trust my faithful football players? I had no choice but to trust them and hope for the best. Back at the department, the gang was trying to make plans, to think of something we could do. "Hasn't Fiedler got a new book out?" "Beats me. Maybe so." "What is the title? Does anybody know?" "I think it's something about a wall." "Maybe it's The Great Wall of China." "Yeah. That sounds right." So we mimeographed (this was well before the arrival of copying machines in our department) an announcement boldly stating that the distinguished Leslie Fiedler, author of The Great Wall of China, would be lecturing, in person, at the library at 8:00 p.m. Thursday night. We weren't quite sure what to do with these announcements. We could run around and post them on bulletin boards. We could send out a bunch by messenger mail to university people, who might or might not— most likely not—be in town. Regular mail would be too slow to reach anybody at home in time. Somebody—I wish I could remember who it was—had an idea. We could send out the announcements to people we thought might be interested by special delivery. Locally, special delivery would be delivered the same date it was mailed. Special delivery cost an exorbitant thirty cents. The department, then or now, would never have paid for anything like that. We pooled all our resources, paper money and loose change, and discovered we had just enough money to buy two hundred special delivery stamps. Somebody took the money and headed off in a hurry to the post office. Meanwhile we stuffed two hundred departmental envelopes with our little mimeographed announcement and started addressing them to people we thought might want to know. After twenty or thirty names we drew a blank. Somebody with a flair for leadership and organization suggested maybe we should use the catalog and the faculty directory to get more names and addresses. So we did that for a while. Twenty or thirty more names. By then the guy was back with all the special delivery stamps, about 150 of which looked to be wasted. Then somebody else had a moment of pure inspiration. The Great Wall of China, see? Maybe we should send a special delivery to every Chinese name listed in the faculty directory. That gave us another twentyfive or so names. And now we were on a roll. We had purpose. We went through the Charlottes
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ville phone book, seeking and finding what looked like Chinese names. Every one we could find, until we ran out of stamps, was elected to receive a special delivery letter announcing the Fiedler lecture. By then it was close to five o'clock. Somebody else grabbed all the envelopes and ran to the nearest mailbox and mailed them. Here a brief digression. Much later I ran into a guy who worked for the post office and had been working on that day. It fell to him to deliver the special deliveries of the day—usually half a dozen, he said—on the way home. For this service he would be given maybe an hour of overtime. The day we sent out the Fiedler announcements by special delivery is one that he will always remember. It was worse than you might imagine. Under the rules of the time he had to deliver special deliveries in person to the addressee. If nobody was home, he had to leave a little signed note—a handwritten and signed note, not a form. About half of the people were not at home. This postman didn't get home until after two o'clock in the morning. Now it was in the hands of the gods. The next problem was how to keep Fiedler from reaching the grounds of the university and seeing that everybody was away on vacation. We met the train and, sure enough, there was Fiedler. We greeted him warmly—all the more so in our relief that it was the real Fiedler and not some imposter—and shoved him in the car (we might as well have been kidnapping him, and in a way I guess we were) and proceeded to drive him all over the area, everywhere except the university, sightseeing: Monticello, Ash Lawn, the Blue Ridge Mountains, Skyline Drive. Then we took him somewhere for dinner, plied him with booze and food, and kept talking and talking, trying to disguise our anxiety in a shapeless fabric of words. Because now we were really sweating it. Would anybody at all be there for his lecture? If nobody showed up—and that seemed like a very real possibility—what would we do next? What would we tell Fiedler? In the course of dinner we managed, by slight indirection, to discover that Fiedler had not written a book called The Great Wall of China and had no evident interest in China or things Chinese. By now it was getting dark and time to face the music. When we got to the library, just about the right time, we had trouble getting into the room. It was crowded to the last inch with people standing and sitting, and more people were packed in the hallway outside. My gigantic football players, all dressed in dark suits and wearing dark glasses, were much in evidence. They had searched the dormitories and the fraternity houses high and low and had brought everyone they could find to fill this room. It was clear, too, that they had been
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running some rehearsals before we arrived, because, just as we walked in, one of the players made an emphatic gesture and then they were all standing and applauding wildly with enthusiasm. A couple of players pushed and shoved and helped us fight our way to the podium and the lectern, where we were able to turn around and face the tumultuous crowd. I was just about to launch into my very brief introduction (''Ladies and gentlemen, here is the speaker for whom we have all been eagerly waiting.") when I saw that the center of the room, the center of the audience, was occupied by a large group, maybe fifty, of plainly Asiatic faces, all looking intently, seriously, and with an appropriately inscrutable bafflement at myself and Fiedler. I hurried through my introduction. Fiedler took the stand and (we had forgotten to ask him what he was going to do) read erotic poetry, written by himself, for about an hour. His reading was followed by another huge, footstamping, whistling, standing ovation, which in turn was followed by a sudden exodus that couldn't have been any quicker if it had been a fire drill or a bomb scare. Years later I ran into Fiedler somewhere and introduced myself, reminding him of his visit to Virginia. He told me that it was an important time for him because at Virginia he first became aware of his popularity in China. "I don't know why," he told me, "but the Chinese love me." Ending: Never Hit on the Break How do I end this raggedy story? There are so many other places I have been under the yoke of my discipline as a teacher of reading and writing, so many, each with its own highstrung necklace (like a circle of shark's teeth) of anecdotes, that there is no way to be complete. These stories will only end when I do, and in the meantime there are always more. I am not retired yet. And when I do retire from active duty, that, too, may be a kind of an academic anecdote. One thing everyone looks forward to at Virginia is a gold parking sticker earned by emeritus professors in good standing, a token that finally transcends all the intricate complexity and interdisciplinary class warfare of the Virginia parking system and allows its possessor to park anywhere there is a parking place—except for a growing number of slots reserved for the growing number of administrators. Surely there's a story about that just waiting to happen. Stories are, or are supposed to be, my stockintrade, my real discipline. Discipline—the word rings here and now like a cracked liberty bell. Where is mine? You are thinking—and who can blame you?—that the subject at hand has been demonstrably absent. And I am thinking, in a surge of selfjustification, that
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I have known the meaning of discipline for years in the army yand as an athlete of limited natural skills. But that is the discipline of memory and the discipline of limited definition—meaning "control gained by enforcing obedience or order," punishment, training, selfcontrol. But the true and inclusive meaning is teaching and learning, which may easily enough contradict the other usual and accepted definitions and which definition I have been pursuing all these years, some of it as an anarchist, yet another yahoo in the Academy of Projectors. Someone telling tales out of school. And I could tell you a tale or two about what I have always thought of as my once and future discipline—writing, writers, the literary world. That would be savage enough, more a matter of confession than satire. And it may come to that someday soon enough—the urgent need for true confession. Meanwhile, a few anecdotes have been delivered like unwanted messages in a hostile camp. Based on an irrefutable lesson I learned, bruise by bruise, bloody nose and cracked teeth, almost fifty years ago from my boxing coach, the great Philadelphia heavyweight Joe Brown, who said again and again that maybe the only good and true lesson of boxing was that to win you had to hurt the other guy; that to hurt the other guy you had to come close enough for him to hurt you and then take your chances.
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Shakespeare and the Department of English Thomas Dabbs The vast history of Shakespeare's reception is marked essentially by one major change that occurred during the mid to late nineteenth century. During this period the playwright was taken over by socially conscious educators and publishers, and his works were preserved for academic study in newly developed middleclass schools and colleges. Before the advent of mass English education, Shakespeare was well known in England because his works had been consistently revived and reproduced by the popular theater and the popular press; however, the difficulties presented by the very definition of the term popular have recently been the subject of a number of slippery and mindgrinding investigations into the social meanings and cultural implications of the phenomenon of popular culture. Therefore, it is necessary to begin this paper with a pedantic but blessedly short observation on the differences between the historical Shakespeare, who was a popular writer, and the current Shakespeare, who is an academic subject. And, it is also necessary to comment on how the term popular culture relates to the advent of mass production and hence mass culture. According to Raymond Williams, one of the modern definitions of popular culture would be, simply enough, the type of expression that is "wellliked by many people" (99). This definition is suitable but, in the case of Shakespeare's historical reception, not very helpful. Shakespeare's work has been and continues to be well liked, but there is an enormous difference between the way his works were marketed and received before the midnineteenth century and the way the "Shakespeare industry" operates today. Shakespeare was no doubt a popular figure during the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and a few of his plays won prestige after altered versions of them appeared on the aristocratic Restoration stage. 1 His works were then well received throughout the eigh
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teenth century by practicalminded middleclass citizens who, although literate and urbane (and often fashion conscious and pretentious), were not educated or trained specifically in what we would consider literary studies. Shakespeare's plays remained popular after his era because Restoration producers found them adaptable and later because eighteenthcentury producers and publishers found them marketable as esteemed but accessible Restoration productions and not as an outgrowth of the yettobenamed Renaissance. As larger urban centers appeared and literacy became more prevalent, Shakespeare's presence in culture was upheld not by the aristocracy or the literati but by a large following among upwardly mobile classes who by and large aped the social habits of Restoration aristocrats rather than trying to cultivate profound wisdom or to gain insights into universal or social truths (for broader studies of Shakespeare's reception, see Schoenbaum; Taylor; for the history of mass readerships, see Altick's introduction). Before the era when the mass distribution of culture became possible, the term popular should not be taken to mean widespread or egalitarian (Lowenthal, 52). Shakespeare was well liked by many, but the playwright's general reception certainly could not be described as geographically widespread. During preindustrial periods, of course, the vast majority of people hailed from rural areas or small towns rather than from urban London or one of the handful of other provincial centers that had active theaters and citizens who could afford expensive editions. Furthermore, in preindustrial England, most of the population was illiterate. It would be difficult to argue for the cultural ubiquity of such a linguistic playwright, one who was fastidiously attentive to minor nuances in verbal style and poetic diction, among those who could not read (see Lowenthal; Altick). The democratic or mass cultural period of Shakespeare's popularity began during the later decades of the eighteenth century and continued through roughly the mid nineteenth century. During this period the playwright's works began to be mass produced and mass distributed; that is, the knowledge of his works was disseminated commercially throughout populations that were far more concentrated and more literate. From the early to the mideighteenth century, Shakespeare had gained a number of devotees among the literati and moneyed classes, but not until the 1780s and 1790s did theaters and presses develop the ability to attract more diverse audiences. During this period, existing London theaters such as Drury Lane and Covent Garden were expanded, and new theaters were built. Eventually enough cheap theater space was developed to include a significant number of people
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from the working class. And although the proper and the moralistic were quick to condemn plays and playgoing, this period may be seen as one that sustained a truly public stage in which the workaday person had the opportunity to see Shakespeare performed regularly. As during the mideighteenth century, records show that Shakespeare was common fare throughout the first half of the nineteenth century, although a purist would probably reel at the sight of Macbeth played as a crowd pleasing melodrama. Apparently a little slow to realize the potential of mass distribution, publishers eventually began to cultivate new audiences. During the early decades of the nineteenth century, certain houses began targeting diverse readerships with myriad varieties of affordable Shakespeariana, including cheap and quickly edited individual prompt books, serial publications, finer coffeetable editions, excerpted passages or "beauties," and children's adaptations. Entrepreneurial publishers found that Shakespeare could be profitably recycled and reproduced in a variety of formats for buyers who were interested in a type of nonacademic cultural investment that might seem inappropriate to some of us: that is, even though Shakespeare had become a cultural icon of sorts, even though progressives had begun to postulate that moral and intellectual lessons could be culled from his plays, the Shakespeare print market during this period largely comprised the type of casual readership that was more interested in being au courant than in seriously studying dramatic history (for changes in the theater, see Booth; see also Nicoll; Altick, for a detailed description of the changes in readership around the turn of the nineteenth century; Gross). Thus, the late eighteenth century until the midnineteenth century constituted a type of golden age of Shakespearean popularity; roughly speaking, the playwright was popular in the way we understand current "Top 40" entertainers to be popular. He was well liked, and his works were distributed throughout broad populations both in England and abroad for many types of audiences and readers. All said, Shakespearean theater revivals and publishing ventures of this period had more to do with moneymaking and popular entertainment than with sustaining any direct political, scholarly, or high cultural initiatives. Furthermore, this democratization of the playwright was not the outgrowth of a grassroots movement; indeed, it was methodically engineered by producers and publishers who saw financial potential in distributing and redistributing a subject of national interest to larger markets that we would call "mass" markets (Lowenthal, 53). Average playgoers and readers apparently found Shakespeare's plays accessible even though they had received no formal training in the subject. Some
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people thought that the plays contained intellectual or academic value, but this way of thinking was not part of the prevailing public understanding of the playwright's function as a well liked and engaging dramatist. Today, Shakespeare is still wellliked by a large number of people across the globe, but only during roughly the past one hundred years has the feeling existed that his writings are too erudite to be staged or printed for people lacking specific academic exposure to them. In fact, only during the past century has Shakespeare, however well liked, not been produced for socalled popular mass entertainment markets; instead, the playwright's works are now presented and mass distributed by high or academic cultural concerns for readers who are trained or who are in the process of being trained. Taking note of Michael Denning's recent essay, "The End of Mass Culture," I should add that both Shakespeare and Michael Jackson are mass cultural commodities, but to identify both figures as part of mass culture in our mass cultural period does little to explain the different methods by which each figure is marketed and received. Current Shakespearean audiences and readers have been led to expect more than mere entertainment from their exposure to the playwright's works, and they literally have been taught to seek out Shakespeare chiefly for the purpose of selfimprovement (through being exposed to "culture") rather than to be fashionable or to seek thrills. But regardless of how high cultural or rare one may now find Shakespeare, the playwright remains part of a large and profitable mass marketing system that is driven, ironically, by the notion that the playwright is not a popular writer not "wellliked by many," but only for the informed class or for that quasimythical sometime class, the cultural elite. The age of Shakespearean popularity began to wane during the second half of the nineteenth century. In London, there is abundant evidence that audiences became better behaved and the people represented in the theater gradually began to shift upward in class and become fewer in number. Moreover, during the same period, publishers began to print editions of Shakespeare that were more meticulously edited, with more attention paid to historical detail. Gradually the demographics of Shakespearean reception began to shift into the pattern that we see represented today (see Cooper). Lawrence Levine has recently observed that a similar "transformation" also began to take place in America during the second half of the nineteenth century. He notes that in Shakespearean productions there was a decline in such common features as betweenact entertainments, farcical interludes, and other spontaneous diversions that had pleased popular audiences for years. "Every
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where in the United States during the final decades of the nineteenth century, the same transformation was evidently taking place; Shakespeare was being divorced from the broader world of everyday culture" (33). Levine concludes that there was really no organized movement behind the removal of Shakespeare from the American populace, vaguely suggesting instead that such "cultural developments" as theater incorporation may have inadvertently contributed to dividing tastes into distinct class patterns in America (78). I agree with Levine; there was no conspiracy—by a dominant order, by the bourgeoisie, or by any other oppressive force—to reclaim Shakespeare, although I think that there was a specific and direct reason for the change in public sentiment. Both the popular Shakespeare of the nineteenth century and the academic or highcultural Shakespeare of the twentieth are the result of distinct initiatives by mass cultural concerns that were (and that still are) tied in with a network of influential cultural critics; however, the ways in which the playwright's works are marketed—the strategies, conscious or unconscious, used to position Shakespeare as a cultural commodity—are distinctly different. Indeed, the creation of a Shakespearean pedagogy during the second half of the nineteenth century saw a widely popular and endlessly adaptable playwright forged socially into the classical author that he is today. Shakespeare was formed in schools as both a quotable shaman and a purveyor of essentialist truth. He was largely abandoned by the entertainmentseeking playgoer and reader and taken up by the student. At that time, any young person in England and America who was afforded even the most basic education would have come across the works of Shakespeare. This exposure to the playwright came within the context of the student's compulsory assignments, and the effort to understand Shakespeare quickly became a task that was associated with classrooms and teachers rather than with recreation or leisure. It is not difficult to see how the social understanding of Shakespeare's works might change at roughly the same time that these works began to be used by educators for mass instruction; indeed, educational institutions intervened even further by enveloping the playwright within erudite theories that addressed the nature and purpose of his works. These theories, although they arose out of democratic thinking, were inaccessible for the untrained mind and tended to reframe the playwright in a way that disenfranchised him with the popular playgoer and reader. Let us break from the nineteenth century for a moment and consider the current status of Shakespearean pedagogy in the college classroom and to a degree in the high school college prep classroom. In most colleges there is at
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least a threehour class, required for majors and strongly urged as an elective, devoted solely to Shakespeare, and in most high schools students—usually advanced students—are required to read and discuss between two and four Shakespearean plays. The Shakespearean assignment is practically unavoidable in the American education system, and no other author carries nearly as much weight in the general humanities curriculum. Most efforts to teach Shakespeare fall into distinct but often overlapping categories: there is the standard lecture approach in which the informed and inspired teacher explains textual meanings, brings in pertinent historical material, and points out certain points of interest to notetaking students. This approach is taken both by the traditional, A. C. Bradleytype theorists and by many of those of the newer, politically minded Stephen Greenblatt school of criticism. However many claims are made from the newer school toward deprivileging the literary text, the title of the course is still "Shakespeare," and it would follow that the control texts are still largely Shakespearean. The lecturebased approach is familiar to all of us; students are often encouraged to discuss interpretive problems with the professor and among themselves. The discussion may be spontaneous, but it is usually short, as priority is given to coverage and to learned commentary from the instructor. There is also the more recent interactive or dialogic approach, in which an author, in this case Shakespeare, is inducted into a type of studentbased pedagogy. This approach features a decentered instructor who attempts to involve students in a partnership with the playwright's works through classroom performances and other creative exercises. This method (a radical method, although being radical these days means that you do not hunt dolphins with an AK47) seeks, through abundant discussion and other activity, to empower students as interpreters rather than subject them to the theoretical stance taken by a single dominant instructor. Almost always, the interactive instructor hails from newer theoretical schools and emphasizes primal patterns of political oppression and cultural hierarchy that can be found in Shakespeare's work and in the Renaissance. 2 Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses: the first can be inspiring and intellectually engaging although in some cases a little staid; at its worst it is boring and pedantic. The second can be empowering and insightful but perhaps a little nerve wracking; at its worst it becomes a type of vacuous summer camp activity in which the teacher acts as a glorified counselor. Whether one stands on traditional ground or explores new political directions, whether one
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employs a lecturebased approach or one in which the instructor is decentered, the notion still prevails that the class in Shakespeare is of central importance to the high school and university curriculum. The traditionalist usually takes for granted that learning Shakespeare is good for the soul; that is, it enhances one's criticalthinking skills, and it is morally affirming. After a cocktail he may admit that knowing one's Shakespeare can also be part of a social class expectation that students will encounter on their way to the high suburbs. Progressivists will be quick to point out that traditionalists have ignored the distinct political and social patterns of dominance and exploitation to be found in Shakespeare, patterns that come to the fore when Shakespeare, and perhaps the instructor, too, is deprivileged in a class. Nontraditionalists may also point out that students should encounter these themes without being dominated by an egotistic lecturer. In short, they are saying that Shakespeare can be used to raise social consciousness; after a cocktail—perhaps—they, too, may admit that Shakespeare is good for the soul and good for the suburbs. In both cases, the teachers hope, above all else, that their students are genuinely inspired in some way. As I will attempt to explain below, this is the point where the "muse" may be misplaced in the classroom. Most of us hope that our students will be inspired or enlightened by our teaching and by the material we teach; however, there is a point at which this hope may slip in as an explicit or an implicit expectation or requirement for the course. The notion of Shakespeare as "soul man," whether it sprouts from an essentialist understanding of universal truth or from leftist cultural theory, is still rooted in a nineteenthcentury educational initiative, a distinct social construct, that succeeded in bringing the playwright into the classroom. In a number of cases, understanding Shakespeare's soul became a requirement that was advanced by wellmeaning educators along the way. Most of us still agree with the required learning of Shakespeare; however, it does not seem right minded for us to require further that our students demonstrate a love for their learning once they have completed their assignments. This point should not be misunderstood as being a call for dispassionate teaching and learning; to the contrary, it is a plea to check our need for classroom enthusiasm when that need reflects a general lack of confidence in our discipline. The eloquent and visceral writing of Shakespeare is not at the source of this problem but rather the nature of the humanist principles under which the playwright was guided into the American classroom. Let us look for a moment at the early formation of the academic Shakespeare industry and see what the original organizers managed to accomplish in the
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way of articulating or justifying their discipline. As early as the eighteenth century, Shakespearean excerpts were used to teach grammar and rhetoric; instructors assumed that students could learn how to use English excellently if they carefully studied fine examples of English usage. This proved to be a useful but highly limited way to work English into the classroom, and, besides, this type of instruction was part of a smaller school system. Mass Shakespearean education did not come to fruition until the second half of the nineteenth century, when the playwright, then one of the most popular cultural figures in England, was placed at the core of the new English literature curriculum. The nineteenthcentury founders of the English discipline held far greater ambitions for Shakespeare and the English classics than their grammar and rhetoricoriented predecessors. Reformers sought to humanize the existing "Gradgrindian" system by including a fullblown English literature curriculum. Although it may seem to us in hindsight like a weak reform effort, it is unfair to view this generation of educators merely as a pack of coopted liberals. Regardless of how one views the liberal humanist political agendas of the period, the thinking that went into this effort to bring the middle classes into the arena of humanist learning, to democratize the pursuit of cultural enlightenment, was sophisticated and, in the beginning, clearminded and effective. Simply put, romantic philosophy, specifically that brand of transcendental metaphysics forwarded by Georg Hegel, was institutionalized. Under the auspices of an artistic theory that was appropriated to affirm social unification through cultural unification, the basic requirements for English education and for the study of Shakespeare were laid down by forwardlooking advocates of progressive (albeit liberal) social reform. This effort was maintained by an enthusiastic publishing industry that inculcated Shakespeare, then considered by many to be too freewheeling and too morally suspicious for classroom study, into an academic and soon highly specialized quest to uncover the exact history, the essence of the English cultural consciousness. Moreover, it was felt that the middle, lower middle, and in some cases even the working classes should also be embraced within this ambitious effort. As a number of institutional historians have pointed out, Matthew Arnold's argument for the inclusion of English studies in schools also suspiciously revolved around the belief that, through cultural enfranchisement, the growing middle classes would be more likely to identify with the thendominant class ideology and less given to radical social alternatives. The immediacies of work allowed no time for an average member of the middle class to undergo the traditional university study of Greek and Latin, but an exposure to excellent
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examples of English literature would provide the necessary cultural enlightenment within a reasonable amount of time. According to Arnold and his followers, English literature was accessible and highly worthy of academic consideration. Once an appropriate curriculum was established, the teaching of English would undertake the same social ends as classical learning: in short, teaching English literature would encourage greater social stability by providing the middle classes with a large piece of the new cultural pie (see e.g., Applebee; Altick; Gross; Graff; Eagleton; Baldick). The teaching of English literature became the solution to the problem of mass cultural education because English classics were accessible; however, their accessibility also presented the chief barrier to introducing English to the classroom. Certain opponents of English studies argued that English authors could be read along the way and that there was no need to include them in school curricula. Although most of the naysayers were university men guarding their turf they correctly observed that many English authors, especially Shakespeare, were, in fact, read along the way by average and untrained readers. When the first generation of English educators eventually gained a foothold in the schools, they were thus charged with the task of proving that the study of English was something more than institutionalized chitchat about popular literature. From the beginning, Shakespeare was the core figure in the English canon, and the consideration of his works comprised a sizable—in fact the dominant—portion of the English curriculum. In making a discipline of the study of Shakespeare, however, the new breed of liberal educators had to provide a serious format for teaching the works of an author whose intelligent but often bawdy and violent plays were still viewed by many in both England and America as popular entertainment. At the beginning, therefore, Shakespeare was taught with a vengeance; specifically, educators presented the playwright to students in the philosophically erudite and methodically severe ''German" way. Shakespeare's works were initially related to German romantic metaphysics by the influential Irish educator Edward Dowden. In fact, the playwright's corpus was practically embalmed for later generations by Dowden's dazzling perception of Shakespeare's "Mind and Art." Much more concise and academic than Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Dowden provided a coherent metaphysical ordering to Shakespeare's work that sought to identify the playwright's development as a transcendental artist. Dowden believed that Shakespeare was great because he arose from an unrefined but lifeseeking era: Shakespeare ingenuously drew from his environs a rich, organic, poetic landscape that was highly worthy of cultivation by mod
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ern, civilized people. The playwright's unschooled but refreshing language and themes were highly adaptable to the agonistic principles of romantic metaphysics, and they could be studied by openminded, inspired thinkers to retrieve "unifying" or "universal" truths in the human consciousness that modern civilization had worked to restrain. Dowden's method was obviously designed to engage the advanced student in a type of profound social criticism, however benign that line of questioning might be. Junior students were given less exposure to theory, although without question they were instructed on Shakespeare's philosophical importance to the study of language and history. In our equivalent to high school, Shakespeare was usually presented in ways that often aped the dry German philological method of research (although it was identified as literary and historical rather than severely philological). In a nineteenthcentury edition of Julius Caesar, for instance, one of the chief advocates of English study, Churton Collins, was invited to provide a brief preface and some "useful" study aids for students after the play was read—in fact, after the play was read and read and read and read and read. Among abundant other exercises, the student was asked to describe with remembered quotations the chief points in Cassius's character and asked to identify from memory specific places where Shakespeare departed from his source. The student was also asked to provide historical notes on Lupercal, Anchises, Spain, Colossus, Nevii, Pompey's Porch, Olympus, and Parthia and to give the exact historical context in each case. For those students not eager to seek out artistic or transcendental enlightenment, early Shakespeare educators made sure to point out that there might be dire social consequences for not knowing the subject. Collins openly admitted in his preface to the same edition of Julius Caesar that his study aids were there "to assist those who are preparing for examinations." One assumes that without a knowledge of Shakespeare, a student would not fare well on the English literature requirement that had recently and menacingly appeared on standard placement exams. In fact, a number of editions appeared during this period that were published specifically for the purpose of preparing students for tests—so many in fact that the publishing industry shifted its emphasis from the popular reader's edition to the "useful" and reliable educational edition that would continue to sell as long as the English requirement remained on standardized examinations. For a brief period, the journey to cultural and thus social enfranchisement, to the learning of Shakespeare, to the passing of exams, to middleclass employment, became a march instead of a stroll. The student needed to gain an
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acquaintance with high German metaphysics via Shakespeare and also be willing to read individual plays repeatedly and even memorize sizable sections. Ironically, the notion that Shakespeare is a difficult subject probably grew out of this nineteenthcentury institutional reaction (perhaps an overreaction) to the feeling that a sound knowledge of Shakespeare could be acquired without academic intervention. No one who endured the CollinsDowden methods would come away from this experience thinking of Shakespeare as an accessible author. However, not Shakespearean drama itself but the institutional framework, the classroom methods and the lecturehall philosophy, initially made Shakespeare inaccessible, and while the English education movement sought to democratize the understanding of cultural history, of Shakespeare, for the masses, it had, in the act of intervening on the popular marketplace, dedemocratized what had been a popular form of entertainment. It seems as if the Collins and Dowden methods of teaching Shakespeare quickly raised eyebrows, especially in America, where the suspiciously classoriented and overtly draconian approach to Shakespearean pedagogy apparently was viewed by a number of educators as too dictatorial. A number of early editors of school editions of Shakespeare took note of this problem. For instance, the 1879 version of Julius Caesar published by Ginn and Heath of Boston offers an antimethodological statement by the Reverend Henry Hudson. He began by drawing the distinction between scholarly critics and true teachers, an early sign that the rift that Arthur Applebee noted in higher education during the early twentieth century was already taking place. In a publisher's notice in the back, Hudson stated that "for years the study of vernacular authors has been pursued on a critical, philological, and biographical basis. During the past few years much uneasiness has been felt with the results thus attained, and the feeling has been gaining ground that this method of instruction is not the best. Learned criticisms about an author do not give to the pupil a knowledge of the matter concerning which the author is writing. He must read freely the best authors, and become not only imbued with their spirit, but also at home with the matter and thought of the writer." In a 1901 "beginner's" school edition of Comedy of Errors published by D. C. Heath of Boston, Sarah Willard Hiestand noted that "the objective of this edition is to cultivate a love for Shakespeare to young readers in such shape that [his plays] may be found readable and attractive. Notes and comments are frequently a hindrance and stumbling block to the beginner, and the very thought of having to study a piece of literature is enough to make it seem repellent at the outset." The statements in these editions are typical of a number of American school editions from roughly the 1870s until the 1920s. Many of them provide
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short manifestos in their prefaces, denouncing "scholarly" methodology, claiming that their study aids, if included, are merely there to provide assistance for free learning, not, as in Collins's edition, because the reader would be tested on the very material that the study aids cover. Unlike a number of early British editions, few American editions mention English requirements for college admission or standardized tests; such requirements usually are brought up only when the editor is belittling the importance of these considerations in what is made to seem an essentially pastoral pursuit. (Uniform entrance requirements and standardized testing were certainly a force early on in the American system; see Applebee, 30–34.) From the early decades of Shakespearean education, American reformist editors and critics provided a kinder and gentler approach to learning Shakespeare. In both of the above editions, the romantic "free and natural" spirit via Dowden (and Coleridge and Ralph Waldo Emerson) is present but not identified and certainly not examined. The Collins method of drilling for exams, of course, is rejected. This is not to say that the drilling of students on Shakespeare did not take place in American classrooms. It certainly did, especially on the high school level: but from the beginning there was a persistent American effort to encourage students to love the bard and to downplay the necessity of passing the institutional standards for "knowing" Shakespeare before moving on to the next step in becoming a gentleman (or, in fewer cases, a lady). One does not have to be an expert in psychoanalysis to sense that American educators are protesting too loudly in these early editions. It makes sense: they are speaking to teachers, humanists who perhaps became teachers because of their strong belief in progressivist social principles but would be absolved of their dictatorial methods only if their students really do acquire a love for Shakespeare. That love, that inspiration, would transcend the reality of the institutional and thus the class requirements that are being imposed. This love removes educators from the role of tormentors and places them in the role of spiritual guides. Am I being overly suspicious, or is there something Orwellian about these seemingly corrective alternatives to the disciplined method of teaching Shakespeare? Which is more undemocratic, requiring the student to learn or requiring the student to love learning? Although the Collins approach to teaching Shakespeare is admittedly severe, it provides a distinct and highly disciplined method that arose from a generation of British educators who seemed less concerned than their American counterparts about the hierarchical process of appropriating popular culture for academic study in schools. They apparently justified their effort by insisting that academic intervention was necessary. They forged an explanation of cul
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ture and cultural history because, in their minds, the popular marketplace had not approached Shakespeare with broader humanist principles. There was, no doubt, some smugness in this effort, and it is tempting to sneer at those egghead Victorian ideologues who insisted on making something complex and class oriented out of something so simple and democratic. If Shakespeare was popular, then why didn't they leave him alone? Why did they have to intervene on the free marketplace with their erudite theories? I used to sneer, but I remembered several years ago trying to describe to a class the exact cultural context of Steppenwolf's "Born to be Wild" to reveal the absurdity of using that same song to sell conventional cars. How quickly I intervened on the popular marketplace to set things straight! I also remember the vacuous stares of my students when I explained the difference between outlaw 1960s culture and consumer culture of the 1980s. "This needs to be part of an entire course," I thought as I left class that day. "They need to see the movie Easy Rider. Most of them would understand the era better if they understood the social context; but some of them wouldn't do the assignment because they'd think it was liberal or silly. Well—they wouldn't have to like it, but they'd have to learn it. I'd fix their wagons if they didn't...." One of the major misunderstandings in the movement to democratize cultural education by teaching it in school was, especially in America, the heartfelt unwillingness to accept the fact that academic intervention by its nature theoretically frames the interpretation of popular forms and renders them less accessible to those who do not have the ability or the will to pursue this type of education. This intervention almost inadvertently posits value on cultural forms by theorizing them and thus making them less accessible, by disciplining them and thus making them harder to understand, and by institutionalizing them and thus making cultural knowledge part of an initiation to middleclass life. What seems to have been born early in the American system is a sense of institutional guilt, manifested even in the pages of early school editions, over the nondemocratic nature of teaching English, over the fact that as teachers we both valuate and broker cultural capital (for more on the problem of selfimage in the profession, see Fish, "Profession Despise Thyself"). It does not even seem necessary to discuss the years between the period that I just covered and our current period. It is a history that most of us already know because so little has changed. The teachers took over high school and undergraduate education while the scholars went on about the business of being scholars and, later, the new theorists went on about the business of being new theorists. Only recently
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has the notion of actually teaching our research and our theory gained serious attention from cultural critics, most powerfully from the work of Gerald Graff. None of the several "new" critical approaches to Shakespeare that have been developed for reading the playwright in this century have challenged fundamentally the tenor of the nineteenth and earlytwentiethcentury American Shakespeare editions discussed above. Some modern editions provide critical essays; others include historical details or copious notes. One recent edition of Hamlet offers a number of new and competing critical approaches to the play; perhaps this is a step in the right direction. However, in most editions, one still senses that the extra information is given by force of habit rather than to provide a clear understanding of the Shakespeare discipline, the theory and the scholarship, that have made such editions so important culturally. Certainly such artistic movements as modernism and postmodernism and such critical methodologies as the New Criticism and New Historicism have worked their way into the Shakespearean classroom, but students are seldom given a sense of the competing theories or the various views of history that have arisen from Shakespearean interpretation and Shakespearean scholarship. At this point one might be thinking: "Okay, wiseguy, then how do you think we should approach Shakespeare in the classroom? Are you saying that we should drone on about nineteenthcentury Shakespeare editions and dissect patterns of false consciousness instead of considering the plays?" The answer is that I'm not even sure that Shakespeare should be a classroom subject—or, let us say, Shakespeare and only Shakespeare. The closed emphasis on Shakespeare's plays is, in my view, too restrictive and too enveloped by aesthetic theories that claim suspiciously to be ahistorical or apolitical. But then I am one of those who tends to find everything, even worms crawling underground, to be both historical and political. I think that the playwright's works, along with many socalled literary and nonliterary works of his contemporaries, help to recover the consciousness during a historical period that is still culturally important and, yes, even inspirational. However, I approach the subject matter, if you have not already guessed, from a historical and materialist position rather than from a formal or essentialist point of view. (Yet often I find myself just as concerned with textual forms and meanings as my colleagues on the other side.) It is most important, I believe, that as professionals, we need to reexamine continually the foundational principles of a cultural consensus figured during a prior period. We should recognize that a change in that consensus might necessitate adjustments in our methods and approaches to our subject matter. If we find reasons to teach Shakespeare or any other author or period that we
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deem important, then we should go about it thoughtfully but unapologetically. I am certain that a number of approaches can be successfully employed for the classroom presentation of Shakespeare. My central point is that the basic requirements should be concise, that competing theoretical issues should be examined and discussed, and that students should not be required to demonstrate an inspired love of the subject. When our classes lack a clearly stated cultural objective, when we feel uneasy about making distinct requirements, we end up confounding and in some cases abusing our students, and we end up placing ourselves among the socalled soft disciplines that are commonly ushered aside by a number of modern institutions as impertinent atavisms. I have conveniently strode across a bulk of twentiethcentury intellectual thought that is pertinent to this discussion, but I hope at least that the points brought up in this essay provide an introduction to the problems confronting Shakespeare pedagogy and the overall teaching of literature. Intellectually, there are several ways to manage the necessary social problem of access inherent to the study of Shakespeare and to the study of culture. For instance, we should consider, as Andrew Ross urges in No Respect, that we are changing from a production economy to a more service, technology, and informationbased economy. The attendant social hierarchy we may have served traditionally has changed in ways that may clear us of the specific charge of brokering capital for the privileged classes by teaching Shakespeare or other authors and periods. Simply put, Shakespeare does not carry as much class value in a society that is undergoing an upheaval in its standard patterns of class identification. I do not think that we really uphold dominant class values by teaching Shakespeare; in fact, there have been a number of days recently when I would swear that we've been put out to pasture. At any rate, by teaching culture, by making cultural knowledge a school requirement, we risk becoming evaluators and brokers for selected cultural commodities, whether we approach our disciplines as traditionalists or as leftists. We move these commodities from the democratic, popular, or alternative marketplace into an academic, specialized, or even highcultural framework. We should understand that when we embrace such excellent, influential, and accessible authors as Alice Walker and Toni Morrison to relieve us of the study of dead white men, we also risk pushing them into the same highcultural framework that took over Shakespeare during the past century. Shakespeare, too, was an alternative choice. We should recognize that an access problem could arise for a Walker or a Morrison during the next generation. After all, one day it may be necessary to explain to students, some of them unenthusias
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tic, the philosophical impact of such lost cultural forms as blues and gospel, and it may be required of students to define such obscure terms as sharecropper and civil rights. We could instead take a handsoff approach to studying and preserving the prominent voices of our own time. We could simply allow the engineers of the mass or free marketplace to decide Walker's cultural destiny. That might be magnanimous on our part, but count me out. I think our interests are best represented by ourselves and not by people who use retrorock to hard sell consumer goods. One could argue that there are other effective public media—educational television, perhaps—that would work more democratically and more competently than we do to recover and preserve cultural consciousness. Wait—the Public Broadcasting Network—wasn't that sold off to Fox Entertainment in the late twentieth century? Notes 1. There are abundant sources that examine Shakespeare's popular reception. Of course Chambers's The Elizabethan Stage is invaluable, as is Bentley's The Jacobean and Caroline Stage. See also Wright. Also The Revels History of Drama in English, particularly Edwards and McLuskie. In the same series see also Loftis. 2. I am thinking primarily of how the recent work of such critics as Henry Giroux, Ira Shor, and Paulo Freire may feed into Shakespearean pedagogy, although dialogical approaches to teaching Shakespeare have been around, in one form or another, for some time. Fish's article on antifoundationalism, although directed toward composition, has interesting implications concerning the methodology of teaching interpretation. Works Cited Altick, Richard. The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public 1800–1900. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957. Applebee, Arthur N. Tradition and Reform in the Teaching of English: A History. Urbana, Ill.: NCTE, 1974. Baldick, Chris. The Social Mission of English Criticism. Oxford: Clarendon, 1983. Bentley, Gerald Eades. The Jacobean and Caroline Stage. Oxford: Clarendon, 1968. Booth, Michael R. "Public Taste, the Playwright, and the Law." In The Revels History of Drama in English: 1750–1880, 6:1–57. London: Methuen, 1975. Chambers, E. K. The Elizabethan Stage. Oxford: Clarendon, 1923.
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Collins, Churton. Preface to Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare. London: Arnold, 1896. Denning, Michael. "The End of Mass Culture." In Modernity and Mass Culture, eds. James Naremore and Patrick Brantlinger, 253–68. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991. Dowden, Edward. Shakespeare: A Critical Study of His Mind and Art. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1892. Edwards, Philip. "Society and the Theatre." In The Revels History of Drama in English: 1613–1660, 4:1–67. London: Methuen, 1981. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory. Minneapolis: Minnesota University Press, 1983. Fish, Stanley. "AntiFoundationalism, Theory Hope, and the Teaching of Composition." In Doing What Comes Naturally, 342–55. Durham: Duke University Press, 1989. ———. "Profession Despise Thyself: Fear and SelfLoathing in Literary Studies." In Doing What Comes Naturally, 197–214. Durham: Duke University Press, 1989. Graff, Gerald. Professing Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Gross, John. The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969. Hiestand, Sarah Willard. Preface to The Comedy of Errors, by William Shakespeare. Boston: Heath, 1901. Hudson, Henry. Preface to Julius Caesar, by William Shakespeare. Boston: Ginn and Heath, 1879. Levine, Lawrence W. Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988. Loftis, John. "The Social and Literary Context." In The Revels History of Drama in English: 1660–1750, 5:1–80. London: Methuen, 1981. Lowenthal, Leo. Literature, Popular Culture, and Society. Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific Books, 1961. McLuskie, Kathleen. "The Plays and the Playwrights: 1613–42." In The Revels History of Drama in English: 1613–1660, 4:127–258. London: Methuen, 1981. Nicoll, Allardyce. Early Eighteenth Century Drama. Vol. 2 of A History of English Drama, 1660–1900. 6 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1965. Ross, Andrew. No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture. New York: Routledge, 1989. Schoenbaum, Samuel. Shakespeare's Lives. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Taylor, Gary. Reinventing Shakespeare. New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Wright, Louis. Middle Class Culture in Elizabethan England. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958.
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Canonization and its Discontents: Lessons from the Bible Walter L. Reed Disciplines and departments depend on an understanding of boundaries, on some intuition about where home ground turns into alien turf. Sometimes these boundaries are indicated by markers almost overgrown; sometimes they are represented by high walls adorned with pieces of broken glass. But the curse pronounced upon "the man who moves his neighbor's boundary stone" in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (a paraphrase of Deuteronomy 19:14) is still felt by academics who wander too far and carelessly afield from whatever subplot they were hired by their employers to cultivate. Those who dare to be interdisciplinary sometimes find themselves under the cold stare of the border patrol that any duly constituted institution cannot live without. Such are the facts of academic life, perhaps of life in general. I have chosen to approach the modern political dilemma, as many of the essays in this volume conceive of it, from an ancient religious perspective—from the perspective afforded by the concept of a canon. The word canon, as students of this phenomenon will tell you if you give them half a chance, comes from an ancient Semitic root word meaning "reed." I do not propose, however, to exploit this coincidence and offer myself as an embodiment of canonicity. Rather, I write as a canon inspector, a licensed examiner (licensed by a department of English) of a curious and persistent byproduct of the way people deal with books—or texts—or written stuff. Canonization, as I prefer to call it, emphasizing the process rather than the product, is something to which I was first introduced in my undergraduate education at Yale in a prerequisite for the English major called "Representative English Poets." The course was limited to Chaucer, Spenser, Donne, Milton, Pope, Wordsworth and T. S. Eliot. "Why these guys?" I wondered. ''Why isn't Shakespeare a representative English poet?" "Why were these guys all guys?" I learned to wonder later. Canonization and its discontents occupied me as I went on to
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study the history of the novel: why had popular and prosaic works of genius been barred for so long from membership in this exclusive country club of books? The process was even more mysterious when I began to notice the Bible. Why did this infinitely more elite collection of texts assume the particular size and shape that it did? Who said there had to be four Gospels or five books of Moses? After all, the author of the Fourth Gospel noted in closing that "there were also many other things which Jesus did; were every one of them to be written, I suppose that the world itself could not contain the books that would be written." Recent commentators on the literary canon have argued that the biblical concept and the literary concept do not shed much light on one another. John Guillory says as much in his article on "Canon" and has elaborated his analysis in Cultural Capital. And in an essay entitled "Canonicity," Wendell Harris writes of the ''inappropriateness of the biblical parallel" (110). In one sense, I agree; a biblical scholar looking at what passes for "the canon" in literary affairs might well say, paraphrasing the Red Queen's reply to Alice in Through the Looking Glass: "You call that a canon? I've seen canons compared to which that is a Publisher's Clearing House catalog!" Nevertheless, allowing for important differences between the strong, sacred force and the weak, secular force of canonization, I will proceed to argue that the biblical parallel does offer significant insights into the literary phenomenon. Thus I will offer eight lessons from the Bible, but I will correlate them with cases from the history of literature and with examples from my own experience of professing literature at several universities: Yale, the University of Texas at Austin, and Emory. As I said, I'm not claiming to be an embodiment or an incarnation of the canon, but I will testify to what I have observed, in the corridors of English departments and literature majors as well as in the stacks of the library. "I, Ishmael, was one of that crew; my shouts had gone up with the rest." The first lesson is already indicated by my title: canonization is inseparable from discontent. Seen from one perspective, it is a response to a threat from without: the barbarians are at the gates and are about to trash the sacred books. Such was literally the case in the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple of Solomon in 587 B.C. This trauma, according to historians of the biblical canon like James Sanders, led Jewish leaders to put their Torah or Law in its canonical form during the Babylonian captivity. By the time Ezra the scribe returned to Jerusalem some 130 years later, he had the Book of the Law of Moses, in something close to its present fivebook, fourdocument form, under his arm, and a group of Levite interpreters of the Law along with him. A similar
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trauma, the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in A.D. 70 many scholars believe, led to the closing of the canon of the Hebrew Bible as a whole, the finishing touches apparently given by a group of rabbis at Jamnia or Javneh twenty years later. (I should note, however, that the scholarly consensus on the importance of this particular event has begun to unravel in recent years; see Lightstone.) In the canonization of the New Testament, the threat was spiritual attacks from within rather than physical attacks from outside. The classic account of this process, given by Hans yon Campenhausen, claims that it was the radical editorial work performed by Marcion and his followers in the middle of the second century that convinced the larger Christian church that a wider canon was necessary. Marcion cut the Jewish Scriptures or Hebrew Bible off from the Christian sacred library and reduced the acceptable Christian writings to ten letters of Paul and a strippeddown, Pauline Gospel of Luke. At the other extreme, before the New Testament canon was closed, came the threat of the Montanist sect, which was in the habit of receiving fresh words of prophecy beyond the traditional writings and which produced written versions of these supplementary revelations. According to the Church Fathers, even those like Tertullian who were sympathetic to the Montanist cause, this overproduction of "sacred texts" had to be controlled. The boundaries of a canon were erected to keep upstart documents out as well as to save the revered ones from expulsion (Von Campenhausen, 145–67, 221–35). What is at issue here is what Mikhail Bakhtin has called "two embattled tendencies in the life of language," a struggle in and around and through all human communication between the desire for centralized control and the desire for peripheral diversity (272). Other theorists have called these underlying and opposite intentions the nomothetic and the idiographic. 1 Nomothetic forces lay down the law from a governing center or headquarters. Idiographic forces valorize the memoranda of every individual, giving the otherwise mute and inglorious a place of honor in the archive. Canonization is a discontented operation because it attempts to mediate between these two embattled extremes. Canonization may seem to privilege the nomothetic tendencies alone, but as we can see in the case of Marcion's severe and restrictive imposition of a Pauline gospel on the early Christian writings, it runs the risk of provoking a powerful resistance from the larger idiographic community if it draws the circle of accepted works too narrowly. On the other hand, one should not judge the phenomenon from a position of kneejerk liberalism alone. If the official archives are being set on fire, it is well to know which are the community's most
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important books. One of the criteria for deciding those books to include in the New Testament canon was to remember which books Christians had been willing to die for rather than surrender during the Roman persecutions of the early church. In the case of the literary canon, this battle of the books has been more metaphorical than literal, as in Swift's satire, A Full and True Account of the Battel Fought Last Friday, between the Ancient and the Modern Books in St. James's Library, in which Aesop's provocative description of ancient books as sweetness and light and modern ones as dirt and poison leads to allout war between bound volumes. Nevertheless, the "Quarrel of the Ancient and the Moderns," as it was more politely called in seventeenthcentury France, was a similar struggle. It pitted a nomothetic neoclassicism, which would allow new books and authors into the canon only if they kissed the rod of Aristotle and followed the ancient precepts and examples (if it allowed them in at all) against an idiographic modernity, represented by someone like Cervantes, who ironically dignified the Early Modern bestsellers known as chivalric romances—books, as his fictionalized "Friend" in the Prologue to Part One of Don Quixote puts it, that "Aristotle never dreamed of, Saint Basil never mentioned, and Cicero never ran across" (29). The politics of these controversies were often quite complicated. The party of the Moderns sometimes argued that recent books should be admitted to the canon because they followed the rules of Aristotle's Poetics more closely than the books written by the ancient writers themselves. And the defenders of the Ancients, like Cervantes's Canon of Toledo in Don Quixote, sometimes turned out to have tried to write popular fiction themselves and failed, giving their defenses of a canon of the Ancients the flavor of sour grapes. Those who can, do; those who can't, make up reading lists. But nomothetic and idiographic impulses can be seen in the ongoing struggle nonetheless. Indeed, as I tried to show in An Exemplary History of the Novel, neoclassicism and the novel are only meaningful in diacritical opposition to one another. In my own experience at Yale, especially between 1969 when I joined the faculty and 1976, the forces of law and order seem to be embodied in the English department and the forces of liberation and anarchy in a newly founded literature major, an undergraduate comparative literature program that emphasized popular literature and literary theory. The English department defended the nomothetic status quo with "Representative English Poets" and its country cousin, a parallel sophomore course not required of English majors and called, chauvinistically, "European Backgrounds of English Literature." The figures in these backgrounds included Homer, Sophocles, Virgil,
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Dante, and, oddly enough, Shakespeare. The literature major, with its own required course democratically labeled "Man and His Fictions" (feminism had not yet penetrated the literature departments at Yale in the early 1970s), promoted the idiographic age to come. We read detective stories, comic books, and Tarzan of the Apes. But some years later, when I returned for a celebration of the tenth anniversary of this eclectic and innovative program, I discovered that new presbyter was becoming old priest writ large, as a new deconstructionist orthodoxy had cleaned up with the populist mess and sent Tarzan, Love Story, and Great Comic Book Heroes packing. On the other hand, according to a recent course catalog for Yale College, there is less certainty in the English department about the prerequisite "Representative English Poets" than in the past. Chaucer, Spenser, Milton, and Pope still appear on the roster, but Donne, Wordsworth, and Eliot—the other heavy hitters in my day—may be traded for other, less stellar figures in the positions of Renaissance lyricist, Romantic long poet, and Modernist synthesizer of the great tradition. The English department canon seems to have devolved into a major and a minor league, although discrimination against novelists is still in effect. I apologize for moving so rapidly from the strong force to the weak force of canonization. I may seem to have trivialized my topic by leaping from the majesterial to the mundane. But as John Guillory has argued and as most of the essays in this volume confirm, literary canonization is closely connected to schooling. Furthermore, in my experience of canons in their various manifestations, I have become convinced that there is a complementarity of religious and aesthetic concerns. There is a recessive literarycritical agenda in the debates that are dominated by theological imperatives, as the debates over the biblical canon surely are. And there is a recessive theological agenda in the debates among literary critics about which books are artistically the greatest. Unless we see the complementary nature of all these debates, we will remain imprisoned in our own sectarianism, religious or otherwise. This brings me, then, to my second lesson from the Bible: a canon is a reflection of the deepest values—the beliefs and needs—of a community. This second lesson hardly needs emphasizing as far as the biblical canon is concerned. But the fact that "the Bible" belongs to a number of different religious communities is worth dwelling on. In several of these communities the Bible has a different table of contents; we optimistically singularize the Greek plural ta biblia, from which our English word comes. One of the phenomena of the recent revival of the "Bible as literature" criticism is the reminder to Christian critics from Jewish critics that the Hebrew Bible has a different shape
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as well as a different name from the Christian Old Testament. A canon composed of the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings and ending with the backward glance of 1 and 2 Chronicles tells a different story from a canon composed of the Pentateuch, the Historical Books, the Poetical Books, and ending with Prophetical Books that look ahead to something (or someone) yet to come. One of the conclusions I have come to in my own research on the biblical canons (plural) is that the Christian reconstruction of the Hebrew Bible into a canonical Old Testament took place well after the closing of the New Testament canon at the end of the second century. It is not a case, as it used to be thought, of an independent Jewish, "Alexandrian canon" being taken over readymade by the Christian Church but rather a case of retroactive canon reformation, a canon reconstruction like the one described by Borges in his essay "Kafka and His Precursors." Until Kafka's late stories, there were no "precursors" of Kafka in literature. After these stories, one can see them in the most improbable places. It was on the basis of a fourfold New Testament, consisting of gospels, church history, letters, and apocalypse, I have argued, that the fourfold Old Testament assumed its definitive shape, if not its definitive contents. The alternative versions of the canon of Scripture are not limited to this monumental parting of the ways of two sects within firstcentury Judaism. The Protestant Reformation revived a disagreement among the Church Fathers over the placement and authority of the socalled Apocrypha, the handful of Jewish writings that were excluded from the Hebrew Bible of the rabbis. The Reformation produced two versions, an expansive Catholic version and a restrictive Protestant one, of the Christian Old Testament. This often violent debate in sixteenth and seventeenthcentury religious circles had a significant effect on the debate in literary circles over the canonicity of ancient and modern works. It is interesting that the most restrictive neoclassical versions of the literary canon came from the Catholic countries, like France and Spain, where the Vulgate was in force, the most accommodating vernacularist versions from Protestant countries like Germany and England, where the Hebraica veritas was being translated into the national tongue. Several hundred years later, it is also clear that the expanded religious canon of Mormonism, which adds its Book of Mormon to the Christian Scriptures—a new "New Testament" modeled on the Old Testament—was influenced by the Romantic Hebraism of late eighteenthand earlynineteenthcentury men of letters, as seen, for example, in Herder and Blake. My contemporary institutional example of this lesson is the Book of J, recently masterminded by Harold Bloom, who has become a major force of canonization in his own right. I speak here without full knowledge of the master's
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reasoning—without authority, as Kierkegaard would say. But from my corner of the map of misreading, I would describe what Bloom has done in this book as a brilliant canonical hijacking. He has lifted the narrative produced by the Yahwist source, J, relying on the decanonizing historical analysis known as the Documentary Hypothesis (a theory that has not been as nearly as widely accepted for the Torah within normative Judaism as it has been for the Pentateuch in Protestant [and more recently Catholic] Christianity), and he has installed this new original at the beginning of a great literary tradition governed by the Romantic sublime and the Freudian uncanny. Bloom's hypothetical Jewish princess, "J," becomes, in fact, one of Kafka's most distinguished precursors, not to mention the great original of Shakespeare and Tolstoy, in Bloom's bold reconfiguration of the literary canon. From a purely parochial, Yale School perspective, it is as though Bloom's personal canon (which of course has never been merely personal) has abandoned its native English roots in "Representative English Poets" (where everything leads up to and falls away from Milton and Paradise Lost) in favor of the foreigner's canon, complete with Shakespeare, of Yale's "European Backgrounds to English Literature." But this is merely speculation. I confess to preferring Leslie Brisman's more subtle reconfiguration of the biblical, the literary, and the psychoanalytic canons in a Bloomian analysis he published before The Book of J, The Voice of Jacob. Here the rival documents, J and E, interact with one another in an anxiety of influence. Lesson number three: one man's canon is another woman's conspiracy. This lesson follows logically from the previous one. I have phrased it in a crossgendered way to underline the fact that within communities officially and traditionally defined there are interests and affinities that go unacknowledged by those in charge of official and traditional definitions. Happy hegemonies usually turn out to contain resentful resistance movements. The apostle Paul spoke of early Christianity as leveling all worldly distinctions—"there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal. 3:28). But he also had a lot to say about women's inferior status in the Church, pronouncements that have stuck in many women's craws and have led some recently, like Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza, to resurrect an earlier Jesus tradition in which women are preeminent in ministry and in which divinity itself, as in the theology of Sophia or Lady Wisdom, is feminine. 2 This kind of pitting of one part of the canon against another, of course, goes back to Paul himself, who in his famous argument in Romans uncovers a more foundational faith in Abraham, prior to Moses and the giving of the Law. And it is a form of argument adopted by Bloom in The Book of J: inside this oppressive religious
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canon is an original work of literary genius that will set the captive imagination free. It is not at all clear that Bloom's hypothesis that the author of "the Book of J" was a woman will be welcomed by biblical feminists. But he uses the same kind of approach to the Bible—Hebrew or Christian—common in feminist efforts to save a redemptive remnant of the canon for a group of readers who perceive themselves as subjugated by the canon as a whole. These sympathies for the victims of canonical oppression have led in turn to a dramatically increased appreciation for those extrabiblical Scriptures that never made it into the Hebrew or the Christian canons—particularly the Jewish sectarian apocalypses and the Christian Gnostic gospels. A recent collection of these writings is entitled, with subversive panache, The Other Bible. The literary illustrations of this third principle or lesson are legion. They are certainly in the forefront of discussions of the literary canon today. A canon made up mostly of books authored by deceased, Caucasian Europeans of the male persuasion is being renegotiated, to put it politely. This fact is certainly not news to anyone perusing this volume. Different approaches are being taken in this renegotiation, the most derivative of which is to set up a countercanon for the excluded community of women, of African Americans, of Americans of Spanish descent, and the like. Various Norton anthologies and publisher's "libraries" of this sort have been produced or are underway. As we shall later see, however, an anthology or two does not a canon make. Less separatist or symmetrical approaches uncover and revalue texts, published and unpublished, written by women, members of minority groups, and Third World societies. They insert these texts into syllabi, scholarly books and articles, and established collections—new editions of Norton Anthology of English Literature or the more radical Heath Anthology of American Literature, for example. As a practicing Romanticist, I now find it unthinkable to teach a course in Romanticism without reading Mary Wollstonecraft, Dorothy Wordsworth, and Mary Shelley at least, certainly not the way I taught this period for many years. And if Stuart Curran, Margaret Homans, Paula Feldman, and others have their way, the number of firstclass women Romantics (whatever that means) will loom much larger in years to come. A third approach is to read the old canon or the Old Masters in the light of new political principles, separating liberationist grain from sexist, racist, or otherprejudiced chaff. Credit for winnowing the liberationist kernel may be given to the critic rather than to the author of the great book, but it is not at all clear, even to the most radical of uprooters, that the gender, ethnic origin, or professed political allegiance of its author is the most important thing about a piece of imaginative writing.
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Nevertheless, I must confess here to the large amount of unexamined patriarchal and Eurocentric baggage I have dragged along with me, in spite of a number of awakenings. ("Fled is that music:—Do I wake or sleep?") I did feel the scales being forcibly removed from my eyes when I moved from the University of Texas, where these winds of change were still somewhat gentle in the mid1980s to Emory, where they had, for different reasons, begun to whip up a storm. At Texas, I had helped to cobble together a version of the canon for the English department. Another older, male colleague and I spent a pleasant summer dreaming up a series of reading lists for English majors who wanted to continue their education beyond the usual hodgepodge of the courses they had taken. It was a truly elegant list of representative or exemplary texts covering a variety of periods and genres, nostalgic for our own Ivy League educations and suitably idealized in retrospect. It was received with gratitude—and promptly forgotten—by the members of that particular department. But when I attempted to insinuate this project into the English department at Emory, the excrement hit the fan. Where were the women? Where were African Americans, anglophone Africans, and Chicanos? Where were the Native and Asian Americans? Did I really want to take the department back to the Stone Age? The list was politically corrected with all deliberate speed—and promptly forgotten as well. But my own canonconsciousness was racheted up several notches. The fourth lesson I draw from the Bible is that there is always (or often) a canon within the canon that sets the agenda for interpretation in the canon as a whole. Within the total membership of the organization there is usually a board of directors. As I have argued, the importance of the New Testament within the Christian Bible influenced the eventual reordering of the Old Testament's books. Even more significantly, the writings that proclaim the "gospel of Jesus Christ" require that the writings that tell how God dealt with the people of Israel be read as a "salvation history" leading up to the new, definitive revelation. Everything in the Hebrew Bible is therefore read as prophecy of "these last days" (1:2), as the Epistle to the Hebrews puts it. Marcion's early and unsuccessful canon of the New Testament had its directorate in the letters of Paul; from that vantage point it rejected the Hebrew Bible in toto and only included additionally the Gospel of Luke, the narrative of Jesus' earthly ministry that explicitly validated Paul's mission to the Gentiles. The Hebrew Bible itself was subject to this canonwithinthecanon principle, however. Rabbinic Judaism read its canonical scriptures from the perspective of the Law, the Five Books of Moses. Given the date, circa 200 C.E., at which
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the traditions of the "oral Torah" probably began to be committed to writing, it is hard to know just when this dominant authority was assumed by the written Torah and how much it was influenced by a rivalry with Christianity once that sect began to grow. But it is clear that the Hebrew Bible was and still is read within normative Judaism as a "stepped" or "concentric" canon, in which the last nineteen books, the Prophets and the Writings, are treated as a form of commentary or elaboration on the first five books, the Law, not as a new or additional set of revelations. Literary examples of this lesson will have occurred to you already. When I was an undergraduate at Yale, the canonwithinthecanon was constituted by the metaphysical poets, headed by Donne and underwritten by T. S. Eliot. The steps to Parnassus led to this peak of poetic excellence, and the quality of "wit" was the key to a particular poet's canonical status, as Maynard Mack shrewdly proved in his influential essay, "Wit and Poetry and Pope." But in the late 1960s, as Frank Lentricchia has noted, one began to find more and more revaluations guided by the poetry of Wallace Stevens, which was part and parcel of a new ascendancy of the Romantic poets after their earlier demotion in favor of the school of Donne (30–35). I am not speaking merely of rising and falling fortunes on the literary stock exchange but of the way in which critics inevitably read the canon at large by means of a hermeneutic constructed from the writings of a few privileged authors, even from a privileged subset of these authors' texts. Within the canon of British Romanticism, in which six major male poets still dominate the broader historical landscape, one can distinguish constructions of the period centered on everyone but Keats, although when bolstered by Hazlitt, even this most belated and most modest member of the visionary company can call the critical shots. Wordsworth is most perspicuous in the 1805 Prelude; in The Ecclesiastical Sonnets, he is relatively opaque. And this is to say nothing of what happens to the canon of Romantic poetry when one begins to read it through the lens of the novel, that persistent observer from the margins of literary respectability. Recent interest in the Gothic novel has cast the achievement of the Romantic poets in a strange new light. I seem doomed myself, in recent years, to read everything as if it were written by Borges—even, God help me, the Bible. The fifth lesson, which says that the reading of the canon is also governed by a canon beyond the canon, is the paradoxical corollary of the previous principle. The canon attracts but is also constituted by the body of interpretation and commentary that grows up around it. The canon within the canon, one might say, is the Archimedean point from which the canon beyond the canon
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exercises its hermeneutic leverage. The expanding circles of rabbinic commentary that make up the Talmud render the "fence" or "hedge around Torah," as it was called, an essential feature of the sacred landscape. This rabbinic commentary is referred back to Moses himself, who on Mount Sinai is said to have been given not only the written but an oral Torah as well. Indeed, they are not regarded as two different communications in separate media but as two halves of a single unitary Law. A looser, Christian version of this Jewish canon beyond the canon arose in the fourfold allegory of Patristic exegesis, which connected the two Christian testaments with increasingly finespun threads of doctrine. Later translations and editions of the Christian Bible have included authoritative commentary as a hedge around the gospel, printed in the margins: the medieval Glossa Ordinaria, the Geneva Bible of the sixteenth century, the Interpreter's Bible of the twentieth. In literary history, it seems to be in the eighteenth century that commentary and annotation begin to accrete around individual texts and authorial oeuvres in significant amounts. Annotations of Shakespeare and Milton were provided by others, annotations of Gray's poems and Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner were provided by the authors themselves. Like many things in Augustan satire, Pope's parodic annotations to The Dunciad were intended to discredit this new species of textuality. The literary canon today is thoroughly swathed in authorized, outercanonical garments, in academic forewords and afterwords, scholarly footnotes, editions with the Modern Language Association's seal of approval, Norton critical editions, and various variorums on beyond Chaucer. In fact, one might almost stipulate as a mark of canonicity in the lowest degree that a book be reissued with some sort of academic apparatus, preferably within its own covers. Publishers' blurbs and collected editions without any footnotes do not count, though one would have to make some allowances for the exigencies of modern copyright law, which can preserve the naked aloofness of the first edition from the canonical drapery for fiftysix years. A pseudoscholarly fiction like Nabokov's Pale Fire is the exception that proves the rule. It is not merely in these superficial phenomena of the classroom and the marketplace that the canon beyond the canon asserts itself, however. It is also in the displacement of exegetical attention from the primary text to the secondary opinions that have grown up around it. This displacement is more pronounced in modern biblical scholarship, in the genre of Einleitung or "introduction to the study" of one part of the canon or another, in which the conservation of earlier readings is a primary goal of the latest one. Thus, in
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Stephen Moore's recent Literary Criticism and the Gospels, the author's own interpretation (a deconstructive exegesis of the Gospel of John), occupies eight pages, while his interpretation of other critics' readings of the Gospels occupies 170 pages. 3 But the proportions in Moore's book are probably influenced as much by recent literary criticism as by the biblical tradition, a literary criticism where metacriticism, paracriticism, and reception histories investigate an increasingly wide zone between academic readers and the primary canonical text in which they naively thought they were interested. Melville once claimed that ''in Shakespeare's tomb lies infinitely more than Shakespeare ever wrote" (408). The New Historicists sometimes give the impression that this infinite surplus, deadening or enlivening, lies in the books and articles of their fellow Shakespeareans. But they are not alone in this disciplinary reflexivity, and, according to my analysis, this contemporary situation is nothing new under the sun. One should perhaps posit a rhythm of expansion and contraction, a systole and diastole, in the canon beyond the canon. One cuts down the old hedge around Torah only to begin planting a new one. Lesson number six is as follows: a canon is an idealized library, an anthology laid up only in heaven. This statement may seem counterintuitive as far as the Bible is concerned; after all, we know every jot and tittle of the Law, every redlettered word that proceeds from the mouth of the Lord. But as anyone who regards the biblical canon (in one form or another) as something more than a "man speaking to men" will testify, the fullness of revelation is only partially accessible to the perishing reader of the imperishable Word. This is how I read John's curious remark at the end of his Gospel that if all things Jesus did were written down, the world itself could not contain all the books that would be produced. There is always a surplus of salvation history. Rabbinic tradition reports that God himself consulted the Torah before he undertook the Creation and that the Torah continues to be studied in heaven even as it is being studied on earth. The sixth article of religion in The Book of Common Prayer states that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation," but it does not contradict Paul's claim in 1 Corinthians 13 that "now we see through a glass, darkly," the Scriptures notwithstanding. The Law, capital L, is always larger than its visible, semiotic expression. The gospel, small g, has not been heard in its entirety until it has been preached to all the nations. As I mentioned earlier, I think that a version of this theological agenda is recessive, not dominant, in the literary process of canonization. But it is present nevertheless. No one confuses the "FiveFoot Shelf" of The Harvard Classics or the fiftyfour volumes of the Chicago Great Books of the Western World with
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the canon pure and simple. To bring one's sacrifices and offerings before a copy of the Norton Anthology, even The Norton Anthology of World Masterpieces presided over by Maynard Mack, would be an act of absurd idolatry. One of the many lessons about the canon conveyed by Don Quixote is that even someone who confuses the world with books ends up demonstrating, in spite of himself, that books are an ideal construction and virtual Houdinis in the way they escape from the world's techniques of confinement. Every brute fact of a recalcitrant reality can be read as the fiction of an evil enchanter. This is true, in Cervantes's more compendious version of the canon, even if he—or she (think of Emma Bovary)—confuses a boring world with books that are third rate and beneath the canon's contempt. The literary manifestations of this principle can be presented in a less quixotic fashion. The literary canon is an ideal totality, within which a particular work may be included (or from which it may be excluded) in an actual act of canon formation. One may regard this ideal totality as a pernicious design to keep one religious sect dominant over others, as a pompous delusion in the minds of cultural politicians, as a necessary pedagogic fiction in a world where semesters are short and art is long, or as all of the above. But it is hard to imagine a brave new world in which all texts are treated as though they were created equal, unless it is a world that has no authors in it. To imagine a more inclusive canon, a plurality of canons, or a canon of measureless expandability is not so difficult, but such is merely to conceive of the essential idea in a different historical embodiment. On the other hand, the canon is not simply a supreme fiction with no idea of order, all sublime ineffability with no beautiful articulation. Herein lies my seventh lesson: every canon is also the realization of a poetics. A poetics provides the organizational chart; canonization fills the slots with personnel. The poetics may remain unwritten or implicit; an Aristotle or a Northrop Frye need not be around to take minutes. But the implicit categories of genre and style, of different kinds of writing, allow the canonical ideal to achieve a less than material form without ceasing to function as an agenda. As I mentioned earlier, this lesson is recessive in the biblical canon and dominant in the literary one. This is one of the main concerns of my Dialogues of the Word. In one chapter I try to read out an implicit poetics within the Hebrew Bible; in another chapter I read out a somewhat more explicit poetics within the Christian New and Old Testaments. The poetics of the Hebrew Bible that I have been able to fix in my sights—still subject to the process of canonization, which is never completely com
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pleted, even after the books are closed—is governed by three supergenres or paradigms of divinehuman communication, the genres of law, prophecy, and wisdom. The genre of law presents the original constitution of the people of Yahweh in religious community. Set primarily in the liminal space of the wilderness, between Israel's slavery in Egypt and its mastery of itself and other peoples in Canaan, law also foregrounds a liturgical present that is to be regularly reenacted. Law is designed to bind the historical time of Israel's political future to religious observance. The genre of prophecy dramatizes the reformation of Israel as a political nation in the midst of historical time and space, during the occupation of the Promised Land. In prophecy, these people of God experience God's corrective judgments and his restorative blessings among the other nations, but they experience these judgments and blessings only within an openended temporal future that is never realized in full within the text. The ceremonial nature of law is not condemned as such in prophecy but is presented as something in need of redemption and renewal through God's sovereign activity. The genre of wisdom, the third paradigm of biblical communication, articulates the preservation of Israel, no longer clearly demarcated from the other people by its cultic and political boundaries and now turned toward a past of tradition and the fathers. In wisdom, Israel is domestic rather than dynastic and exists in a space of exile, explicit or implicit. Wisdom also gives greater authority to women than law or prophecy allow. I am not arguing that this is the only logic of the Hebrew Bible's canonical organization. Nor am I simply describing the rationale of each of the three divisions of the Jewish Scriptures: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. Rather, I am eliciting what seems to me a necessary dimension of any process of canon formation: the invention and/or discovery of a scheme for selecting and combining a large amount of written material from a much larger archive of documents and oral traditions. This process is clearly circular; some genres are broken up and ground down and others are used as blueprints for much larger synthetic constructions. It is also a process where the whole is larger than the sum of the parts, as Claudio Guillén has argued in his essay "Literature as System," where a limited number of genres divide up the canonical universe among themselves. The role of a poetics in the constitution of a canon is more obvious in literature. Candidates for canonization present themselves as tragedy or comedy, epic or drama, as versions of pastoral or inescapable romance. New genres define themselves in opposition to or as radical transformations of old ones. In the case of the novel, I have argued that this perennially "new species of writ
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ing" defines itself in opposition to the traditionbased conception of literature that a poetics implies. Yet in doing so, I would now add, the novel only opens a new, backdoor entrance or annex to the club. Authors already in the canon become generic; they become sponsors for new candidates, who present themselves as Shakespearean, Miltonic, Wordsworthian, Faulknerian, or Kafkesque in stature and type. The question of literary quality is inseparable from the question of literary kind, as Saul Bellow testified when he said that he would regard a Zulu work as canonical when he could be sure that the Zulus had produced a Tolstoy—this from the author of Henderson the Rain King, the great American novel in African drag. In the case of those indoctrinations in the canon with which I am—or was once—familiar, I would suggest that they, too, have their poetics, implicit or explicit. Yale's "Backgrounds to English Literature" was overtly Aristotelian, devoting one semester to drama and one semester to epic and recovering Aristotle's lost (or perhaps apocryphal) treatment of comedy as well as his surviving discussion of tragedy. (As I remember, this format was the brainchild of the late A. B. Giamatti, who went on to organize larger and greener pastures in his deeply humanistic way.) Yale's "Representative English Poets," on the other hand, was based on a poetics of epic belatedness. It showcased long narrative poems like The Canterbury Tales, The Faerie Queene, Paradise Lost, The Prelude, and The Waste Land that were robust English equivalents of the classical epics, not the slavish imitations enacted by their Continental counterparts. "Man and His Fiction," the foundation course of Yale's countercanonical literature major, at least as I knew it once upon a time and have tried to recreate it in different institutional settings since, was based on a poetics—or better, a prosaics—of the novel. Things have changed in some curricula, but not all that much in the institutions with which I am familiar. The canon is alive and well in a number of English departments; reports of its demise have been greatly exaggerated. At last, I have come to lesson number eight, the biblical number of completion (arrived at, I believe, by dividing it into seven plus one). This lesson says that books included in the canon, at least the most ambitious ones, contain icons of, or advertisements for, their own canonicity. The seal of canonical status is often stamped within them. One can find overt examples in Deuteronomy and Revelation, where a curse is pronounced on anyone who adds to or subtracts from the words of text. One can also find an example in Ovid's boast at the end of the Metamorphoses, perhaps ironic, "I shall be read, and through all centuries. / If prophecies of bards are ever truthful, / I shall be living, al
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ways." This was a piece of canon consciousness taken over by Shakespeare in several of his sonnets. But there are more figurative expressions of this confidence in the monumental permanence of one's own work: the shield of Achilles in the Iliad, the marriage bed built and reoccupied by Odysseus in the Odyssey, the sculptured depictions of the Trojan War on the bronze doors that Aeneas is astonished to find in the temple at Carthage in the Aeneid. After so much apodictic generalization, I feel obliged to offer a sample of close reading, if only to reassure the ghosts of former formalist mentors that I have not forgotten the most important lesson I learned during my canon inspector's apprenticeship: that reading well is the best revenge. My text is Genesis 11:1–9, the story of the Tower of Babel. The Tower of Babel is an icon not of canonicity achieved, however, but of canonization aborted. And yet it has a happy ending, or a happy new beginning, in the larger biblical plot. "Now the whole earth was of one language and few words," the episode begins in the RSV (now replaced by the NRSV, one should note). There was little cultural or literary diversity in the primeval period, just after the Flood. These people, all descended from the clean slate provided by Noah, move west into what is now Iraq, and begin to build, with words as well as dirt. "And they said to one another, 'Come let us make bricks, and burn them thoroughly.' " From this unwitting echo of both Creation accounts at the beginning of Genesis ("Let us make man in our image" and ''the LORD God made man of dust from the ground"), they go on to plan a city and a tower, but this latter construction begins to spell trouble. The tower will have "its top in the heavens." This proposal may be offensive to God, but it seems to provoke in the men themselves an immediate reaction of fear. "Let us make a name for ourselves, lest we be scattered abroad on the face of the whole earth," they say. Several commentators suggest that it is this fearful huddling together, rather than the supposed hubris of their skyscraper, that causes God to come down and introduce them to multiculturalism. What God says, in what can only be taken as a speech laced with considerable irony, is "Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language; and this is only the beginning of what they will do; nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. Come, let us go down, and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another's speech." It seems unlikely that God is being paranoid here, that he is afraid of an actual assault on heaven. Rather, he is frustrated that in holing up in their one city, their one tower, and the one name that they want to make for themselves, these people are ignoring his purpose in making man—and woman—in the first place. In the combined command and blessing that he gives to the first
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male and female in chapter 1 of Genesis and again to Noah and his wife in chapter 9, the human creatures are told to "Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth" as well as to "have dominion." What they do in Babel (and it may be significant that only men and not women are mentioned) is attempt a solitary immortality, a dominion that is artificial and autistic. They fear being scattered abroad. God sees their neurotic monologism and decides that it can only be cured with a healthy dose of heteroglossia. Once God has created ethnic diversity, he can begin negotiations with Abraham. He can begin to shape a chosen people, a more promising ethnic subgroup, out of humanity as a whole. Abraham is commanded to leave his homeland, to let himself be scattered abroad, away from his country and kindred and his father's house, and he earns his place in biblical history by agreeing to the project. "What does this have to do with canonization?" you may be asking. I will pass over the possibility that the Tower of Babel represents the glory that was Ancient Near Eastern literature, which some commentators (e.g., David Damrosch) have suggested. I will say simply that it represents the nomothetic, conservationist impulse that canonization brings into play. Such an impulse to literary law and order is here exposed as founded in human selfishness and selfprotection. The idiographic impulse to dispersion and diversity is here revealed as a divine initiative. Read providentially instead of moralistically—as God's ultimate spokesperson in the Book of Genesis, Joseph, tells his brothers the history of human error should be read—the Tower of Babel shows how the canon scattered abroad can sow the seeds of a new and better canon for future generations. "You meant evil," Joseph tells his repentant and frightened brothers, "but God used it for good." 4 There are certainly evils as well as discontents attached to canonization. Every document of civilization is a document of barbarism, as Walter Benjamin has said, and a canon of great documents is no exception to this melancholy rule. But this last lesson from the Bible, that "other seeds fell on good soil and brought forth grain, some a hundredfold, some sixty, some thirtyfold," is a lesson full of hope. Those who have ears to hear will recognize this last bit as a parable—as the tail end of a parable about parables. Here is another one. There once was a man who was educated in one of the great English departments of the land. He was wise in the ways of the canon, or so he was led to believe; he had taken and then taught many courses in this department, including ones called "Representative English Poets," "European Backgrounds of English Literature," and "Man and His Fictions." He knew the Iliad and the Odyssey, the Aeneid and the Inferno, The Canterbury Tales, The Faerie Queene, and Paradise Lost. He even
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knew Blake's Milton, Melville's MobyDick, and Burroughs's Tarzan of the Apes. But there was a book of books, older and more influential than all of these, a great book from which many of these later ones drew much inspiration—of it he knew next to nothing, except as a source of something known as biblical allusions. He later learned to be embarrassed at this canonical blind spot or black hole. (Frank Kermode says that a test of a book's canonicity is whether it is humiliating to admit you have not read it.) But the man also realized that in his blindness he was not untypical of his colleagues in that place, at least at that time. It was only when he was scattered abroad, into the alien corn of a far country (otherwise known as the great state of Texas) that he began to be aware of what he had been missing and began to try to make a place for the Bible among the great books that he had been professing. As this essay will no doubt have demonstrated, making a place for the Bible is not an altogether easy thing to do. I conclude my remarks not with a lesson or with a parable but with some questions. Does the Bible belong, in the final analysis, to the canon of Western literature? Can "the best that has been thought and said" in Arnold's phrase, contain "all the words of this law" or "the words of the book of this prophecy," as Deuteronomy and Revelation designate their own—and the rest of the Bible's—sacred contents? Or does this strong force of canonization expose the weak force as a "library of Babel," as the title of Borges's story has it, a library that the Bible itself must always already have left behind in sacred discontent? These are not just rhetorical questions; they are ones that I am still trying to answer, for myself as well as for my students. But I will rest uneasily until I find an answer, remembering the challenge that Blake voices through the Bard in Milton, the poet among the Eternals who recalls Milton to his true spiritual discipline in the English department of Blake's visionary university. "Mark well my words!" the Bard proclaims, "they are of your eternal salvation." Notes 1. I am told that these terms were coined by Heinrich Rickert, a neoKantian philosopher who influenced Max Weber, but I have been unable to track down the chapter and verse. 2. A more recent analysis by Gilbert Bond argues that Paul was more concerned in his letters with disciplining ecstatic worshipers, the majority of whom were women, than he was with disciplining women per se.
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3. Moore has gone on to offer a fulldress deconstructionist reading of two of the Gospels in Mark and Luke in Poststructural Perspective. 4. For a deconstructionist reading of the Tower of Babel story and an appreciation of its idiographic implications not unlike my own, see Derrida. Damrosch's reading of the episode as a comment on the celebration of the walled city of Babylon at the end of the Epic of Gilgamesh appears in his The Narrative Covenant, 132–34. Works Cited Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays, ed. Michael Holquist and trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981. Benjamin, Walter. "Theses on the Philosophy of History." In Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt and trans. Harry Zohn. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1968. Bloom, Harold, and David Rosenberg. The Book of J. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1990. Bond, Gilbert. "Katallayn as Creolization: Hermeneutic Phenomenology of Paul's Religious Experience." Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1994. Brisman, Leslie. The Voice of Jacob: On the Composition of Genesis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. Cervantes, Miguel de. Prologue to Don Quixote, trans. J. M. Cohen. Harmondsworth, U. K.: Penguin, 1950. Curran, Stuart. "Romantic Poetry: The I Altered." In Romanticism and Feminism, ed. Anne K. Mellor, 185–207. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988. Damrosch, David. The Narrative Covenant: Transformations of Genre in the Growth of Biblical Literature. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1987. Derrida, Jacques. "Des Tours de Babel." In Difference in Translation, trans. and ed. Joseph F. Graham, 165–207. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985. Feldman, Paula, ed. British Romantic Poetry by Women, 1770–1840. Hanover, N. H.: University Press of New England, 1994. Fiorenza, Elizabeth Schussler. In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins. New York: Crossroad, 1983. Guillén, Claudio. "Literature as System." Essay 9 of Literature as System: Essays Toward the Theory of Literary History, 375–419. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971. Guillory, John. "Canon." In Critical Terms for Literary Study, ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin, 233–49. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. ———. Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Harris, Wendell V. "Canonicity." PMLA 106 (January 1991): 110–21.
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Homans, Margaret. Bearing the Word: Language and Female Experience in NineteenthCentury Women's Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Kermode, Frank. "Institutional Control of Interpretation." In The Art of Telling: Essays on Fiction. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983. Lentricchia, Frank. After the New Criticism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Lightstone, J. N. "The Formation of the Biblical Canon in Judaism of Late Antiquity: Prolegomenon to a General Reassessment." Studies in Religion 8 (1979): 135– 42. Mack, Maynard. " 'Wit and Poetry and Pope': Some Observations on His Imagery." In Pope and His Contemporaries, ed. James L. Clifford and Louis A. Landa, 20–40. Oxford: Clarendon, 1949. Melville, Herman. "Hawthorne and His Mosses." In The Portable Melville, ed. Jay Leyda, 400–421. New York: Viking, 1952. Moore, Stephen. Literary Criticism and the Gospels: The Theoretical Challenge. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. ———. Mark and Luke in Poststructural Perspectives: Jesus Begins to Write. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. The Other Bible. Ed. Willis Barnstone. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984. Reed, Walter L. Dialogues of the Word: The Bible as Literature According to Bakhtin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. ———. An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Sanders, James. Torah and Canon. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1972. Von Campenhausen, Hans. The Formation of the Christian Bible, trans. J. A. Baker. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1972.
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The More Things Change: Canon Revision and the Case of Willa Cather Phyllis Frus and Stanley Corkin Those of us who would like to see a truly new American literary history, one based on contextual and selfconscious approaches rather than New Critical or biographical ones, must acknowledge how difficult it will be to shift scholars' attention away from aesthetic criteria. No matter how much attention we shower on works by neglected writers or groups and how much effort we put into reperiodizing our national literature, developing a comparative approach to works by writers of various ethnicity, race, gender, or sexual orientation, and locating texts in meaningful historical contexts, the primary activity of the academic literary establishment remains the process of defining the literary object and ranking texts according to their beauty or truth value (see Williams, 146). This process forms the canon, which by definition is ahistorical, for the term designates a body of works that transcend their particular time and place to speak to readers generations and centuries later. The focus on standards or quality—whether primary, secondary, or tertiary—inevitably dooms any kind of canon revision, for it is a reminder that the canon is based on absolute premises beyond the control of the revision process. The upholders of the "great books" tradition realize this fact, and so we probably should, too. That is, we ought to give up attempts to broaden or reconfigure the canon and find ways to design our courses that do not orient by this term. We should put our efforts into other means of changing the curriculum and choosing our texts. Attempts to expand the list of great American writers and works without fundamentally critiquing the idea of a canon leads to a parallel system of essentialized categories of people and texts. The principal justification for broadening the core group, diversity, easily leads to a kind of tokenism. The desire to include more women, AfricanAmerican, and Native American authors and to add writers from various ethnic groups is admirable, but our choices for in
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clusion tend to be limited to writers in what John Higham calls "endowment groups," reducing these writers to their race and gender in unproblematized ways, as if all Jews were Philip Roth in the 1960s, all African Americans Zora Neale Hurston in the 1930s, and all Hispanics Rudolfo Anaya in the 1970s. The result of this focus on aesthetic and biological criteria is that history takes second or perhaps third place, for an approach that emphasizes recovery affirms a static and unreflexive conception of history. As Henry Louis Gates points out, "Once a text by, say, Alice Walker becomes essentialized as the Eternal Black Feminine," the debate about value and standards no longer takes place in a historical context ("Multiculturalism," 36). When one simply adds to the canon, the artist becomes, through canonization, a figure outside of history and a static object of literary inquiry. As long as we proceed with the canon in place, no matter how corrected and expanded, we are in effect affirming the notion of what Michael Denning calls "a common curriculum of classics, an ahistorical conversation among great minds, transcending time and culture, and finally speaking of little of any importance" (41). We envision a world without a canon and, correspondingly, a world without anthologies, survey courses, and traditional narratives of American literary history. We plan to bring this world about by questioning the definition of literariness as the best that has been thought and said. We cannot make more inclusive what is by definition exclusive; we cannot historicize what is selfevidently ahistorical; and we cannot operate within both this elitist definition of literature and what we might call the cultural definition, which sees literature as socially constructed, as the result of keeping certain works in print, selecting particular representative works to teach in a survey with a "master" narrative centered on the American Ideal (see Carafiol), and writing essays on a few dozen standard writers because they are sure to be accepted by publishing "gatekeepers." 1 Removing the conceptual boundaries of a canon frees us to ask questions that speak to matters more pressing than literary value or even the worthiness of other literatures, such as that produced by AfricanAmerican, Asian, or women writers. For example, both Gates's theory of "signifying" and Houston Baker's use of the blues as a trope enabling what he calls a vernacular theory of AfricanAmerican literature seem to us successful to the extent that they bypass the problem of defining that tradition's literary or aesthetic value and instead suggest how these practices provide a set of structures through which a particular culture produces itself. Similarly, keeping the concept of a canon in place seems unlikely to lead to a fundamentally altered examination of a particular period.
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In fact, doing without a canon almost requires a selfconscious or reflexive history that calls attention to the interpretations one is constructing. A truly revisionist history, the kind most useful to readers of American literature, does not just supplant the data and interpretation previously in place (all history does that) but also acknowledges its particular, subjective point of view and its partiality (in both senses). A weakness of the current "revisionist" strategies is that they reinforce a static category (history as myth) rather than fostering a dynamic historical approach. The most visible sign of this failure is the number of canonical readings of major and aspiring figures or recovered seminal figures that gatekeepers of academic publishing encourage. Another is the gathering of scholars in clusters around major figures that we identify by such terms as "our Hemingway man" and the "Faulkner industry"; our claims to "work on" Edgar Allan Poe or Zora Neale Hurston or Shakespeare; and the debate over whether to choose Alice Walker or Toni Morrison to represent AfricanAmerican women in a survey course. To make a figure or work canonical, scholars perpetuate what we are calling canonical readings: the variously ahistorical interpretations that provide the rationale for our interest in texts from the past. As long as the canon is the basis of our profession—not only of the curriculum but of the scholarship required to keep our jobs and get promoted—these readings will be repeated and recycled endlessly. The growth in minority representation and the broader basis of the canon has not diminished the reproduction, with only slight variations, of canonical readings that make bibliographies like Eight American Authors, Fifteen American Authors before 1900, and Sixteen Modern American Authors both so necessary and so tedious. We need them to find out what has been done before, and when we read them we discover most things have been done already, usually more than once. We will demonstrate the validity of these propositions by taking the case of Willa Cather and her newly enshrined masterpiece, My Ántonia. Cather provides the means of considering the outcomes of canon revision, on the one hand, and abolishing the canon, on the other: what each does to curriculum and to scholarship and what each leaves intact in the disciplinary model. Our proposal to abolish the canon leaves the discipline in place, but we formulate that discipline—and thus English departments—differently. We define literariness as derived from the process of reading: one that is selfconscious, informed by sufficient knowledge, and framed by a dialectical conception of history. It should be clear that although this conception does not privilege literature as a body of works of a certain quality, it would not eradicate literary studies. It would, however, affect our concept of literary history. 2
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In contrast to those who focus on rewriting this history, we attack the older history indirectly, resisting New Critical hegemony at the site where it seems strongest: the study of a particular author and her work. From this changed manner of reading individual texts and authors, we will alter the dominant narrative of literary history. This narrative will also change simply as the result of abolishing the canon, for the canon implies a particular relation between texts and literary history; as Paul Lauter says, "from a limited set of texts we project standards of aesthetic excellence as well as the intellectual constructs we call 'literary history'"(54). 3 The recent surge in critical attention paid to Cather, especially by feminist scholars, makes her a suitable and interesting illustration of the problems of canon revision. This resurgence of fame centers on her narratives of prairie or Western themes—the novels O Pioneers.!, My Ántonia, Lost Lady, and The Professor's House and short stories like "Neighbor Rosicky" and "Old Mrs. Harris" (see also Carlin, 7–8). Since 1987 there has been a rash of scholarship on My Ántonia in particular— three recent collections of articles4 and one set of new essays due out from Cambridge—which suggests that this is the Cather novel most ensconced in the canon. Authors of these new and reprinted articles and of books of criticism and biography that interpret My Ántonia have raised historical and contextual issues surrounding the novel, such as the immigrant experience, the reallife antecedents to the characters, the novel's intertextuality, and the possible effect of Cather's newly named lesbianism on her depiction of not only Jim Burden but also on Ántonia, its heroine. Despite the spate of intriguing new studies and Sharon O'Brien's claim that much of the interest comes from scholars who are questioning rather than perpetuating the politics of canon formation (117), the effect seems to us to be the elevation of Cather for many of the same reasons that led to the decline of her academic reputation and the neglect of the "Nebraska" fiction beginning in the 1930s: her aesthetic, her regionalism, and her sex—that is, Cather's belief in the separation of art from politics and the critics' emphasis on her concern with a remote or mythical past, her Western subject matter, and the "feminine" characteristics of her writing. All of these factors at various times relegated her to minor status in the view of professional critics eager to establish a "masculine," academically legitimate American literature. These qualities and concerns are now cited to justify adding her to a multicultural, more inclusive canon. What were felt to be drawbacks are now couched as virtues: she believes in the autonomy of art, and her work is aesthetically superior in either a classical, pastoral, romantic, or modernist style (take your pick); her subjects are the universal American ones of the frontier myth and the successful assimilation of immi
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grants; and she is a powerful, even masculine, writer who moves easily from female to male points of view but nevertheless is a woman, and so her presence alters slightly the canon of predominantly white male writers. (For the fall and recent rise of Cather's reputation, see O'Brien.) We ought to be a bit nervous about the ease with which Cather has come to rank among America's best novelists. Not only is she associated with the minimalist version of prose modernism, which expresses aesthetic formalism in one of its purest forms, but she satisfies political rationales for canon revision as well. She meets the requirements of many groups seeking entry for their representatives to the restricted group of classic American works, such as women, lesbians, and proponents of multiculturalism, and many of her novels suit those looking for fictional examples of people and themes, such as historians of the West, feminist critics, and those who study place, landscape, and the environment. If My Ántonia can be called "great" on the grounds of its "esthetic, intellectual and moral complexity and artistry" (Nina Baym's definition of canonicity [qtd. in Robinson, 576]), what need is there to challenge the basis of the canon? This situation is unlike the dilemma of feminist criticism based on recovering neglected women writers and arguing for the work of the genres in which they have practiced, such as sentimental and romance fiction, and indeed unlike the case made for inclusion of writers who are doubly "other," such as AfricanAmerican women writers. As Lillian Robinson points out in "Treason Our Text," the result of these critics' best efforts has been a twotier system of American literature: one studying the classics (mostly by men) and a secondary realm of women's literature and the female tradition (580) and of AfricanAmerican and ''minority" writers. The insistence on including works by women has resulted in at best an alternative canon, a "women's literature ghetto—separate, apparently autonomous, and far from equal" (581). By being designated "great," Cather escapes being ghettoized in an alternative canon of women writers, only to be essentialized in a different way: as an ahistorical conservative, categorized variously as an artist of some timeless persuasion: mythic, classical, pastoral, romantic, or modernist. Perhaps most importantly, canon revision has been unable to "lead students to understand the possibility of an integrated society"; apparently, as Hazel Carby insisted in 1992, we must do more than add "token" texts written by members of excluded groups, because the number of African American faculty members, Ph.D.'s, graduate students, and undergraduates is decreasing, despite the addition of AfricanAmerican studies and texts to the curriculum (8). We ought to beware of assuming that adding writers and works from previously excluded groups in pro
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portion to their numbers in the U.S. population will bring about equality of representation. In other words, we want to avoid the intellectual equivalent of the election of Warren Harding, the first American president elected after women were constitutionally guaranteed the right to vote. Clearly, we must do more than pick up a writer, dust her off, make her presentable. We ought to critique the bases by which she is to be elevated, indeed, question the power relationships that the canon perpetuates. Carby suggests that we "reveal the structures of power relations that are at work in the racialization of our social order" (13). In the case of Cather, we can show how her aesthetic and the canonical readings she now receives contribute to the reproduction of cultural myths that have come to stand for historical truth, and we should underscore how resistant this strain of myth is to criticism because of its quintessential "Americanness." As Deborah Carlin says, "Cather's canonical value resides in the heroic myth of national destiny that a vast array of readers recognize" in My Ántonia and other early novels like O Pioneers! and Song of the Lark; they are "stories already inscribed within the national imagination'' (7). And her very suitability to so many "interest groups" enables the body of Cather criticism and teaching—the "Cather industry"—to maintain a certain "safe" range of critique. In the dominant interpretation, My Ántonia is one version of the mythic story in which nature is boundless, without beginning or end, and persists despite or outside of history. In critical formulations that allow Cather's assertions of the transcendence of her art to stand, the violence of a specific historical transformation is lost. One could quote almost at random from the commentary to show how readily critics accept her mystifications and make them the stuff of great art. Representative is a critic's comment on the famous image of the plow in some upland field magnified against the sun: "The symbolic plough, rendered 'heroic in size' by the prairie landscape, encapsulates Cather's vision of the pioneer spirit" (Thacker, 168; see also Rosowski, 68; Tichi, 65). 5 My Ántonia is distinctly about a certain time and place: the plains of southcentral Nebraska in the last decades of the nineteenth century, to which its narrator, Jim Burden, recalls his travels via railway at the age of ten from Virginia. The novel, comprising episodes, traces Jim's gradual immersion in late nineteenthcentury capitalism and through its specific method of presentation mystifies the circumstances of this system. Overall, the narrative moves from a presentation of an ideology based in material fact to increasing abstraction, as Jim leaves the farm for town, the town for college in the capital, and then the plains for law school at Harvard. Each of these physical moves suggests that
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the frontier as a place has become more distant, yet as the frontier vanishes from Jim's life as a physical entity, the ideological rationale for devising a frontier way of life becomes all the more compelling. The work expresses this transition under the cover of an increasingly aestheticized view of Jim's life, as he becomes smitten with classical texts, such as Virgil's pastoral poetry and romantic drama. Critics have alternately described this movement as motivated by classical models, such as pastoral and epic. Simply to call it that with no critical impulse allows the mystification to stand. The text most clearly eludes its frame of reference in the novel's last book, where Jim comes back for the first time in twenty years, as a lawyer for the railroad, and the work culminates its predominantly ahistorical journey. Ántonia is turned into the earth mother, the very soul of the land, and Jim takes his place among her boys, sleeping in the loft with them and offering to join them in hunting. In effect, Jim has reconceived himself in a perpetual past, which is where he and "his" Ántonia will reside. Although others have called My Ántonia a celebration of pioneers on the last frontier and of the values and virtues fomented by it, we believe that to read in such a way is to freeze time, to use Cather's novel to assert the perpetuity of a condition. Indeed, in this model Jim is allowed the luxury of a broad selfdeception. His life choices—to leave Black Hawk, to go to university, to attend Harvard, to become a lawyer, to work for the railroad—are never a matter of explicit decision, and their implications are not a matter of deep consideration. Rather, these events more or less happen by themselves. By making this process of acquiring a life outside of the West so much a matter of inference, Cather mutes the distinction between Jim's very particular circumstances and those of the people who have remained in Black Hawk. In effect, she allows Jim the romance of the past without having him account for his leaving its material circumstances. We would argue that this textual gap allows Jim, and possibly the reader, to avoid the class abyss between Jim and Ántonia and as a result to remain nostalgically a captive of a rather regressive vision of the American West and of "America" as a construct. The novel's primary critique, and it is a mild one, is of the repressive pietism of small towns, which Jim expresses directly in book 3, "The Hired Girls." We have included these details to illustrate how canonical readings enable the novel to do what it was designed to do and to show that how it was designed enables canonical readings. The fact that both its structure and themes can be construed as highly compatible with the premises on which the canon was founded make My Ántonia suitable for a genuine reexamination of those premises rather than their unquestioned acceptance. We are proposing a redefinition of the literary to incor
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porate selfconscious historicizing. Some would argue that historical work on Cather has been done as part of the process of her canonization. But we would argue that the predominant work on Cather has avoided this redefinition. The literary remains privileged in a way that tends to celebrate the mythologizing tendencies of the work. The result is biography serving in lieu of a broader textual consideration. Biographical criticism does not alter the aestheticizing disposition of literary readings. Rather, it privileges the artist as a romantic figure relatively unencumbered by broader social movements. This criticism tends to find Cather an extraordinary individual and then goes on to fairly typical mythic reading. One device for asserting her exceptional qualities is to focus on revealing the mystery of her lesbian identity. In one example of this type of reading the novel becomes an artful subterfuge designed to lead readers away from her infatuation with the "true" figure Annie Sadilek Pavelka, who is the basis for Ántonia and is stated as the object of Cather's fascination as a young woman (see Lambert, 124–25). 6 True to their disciplinary training, historians who encounter this novel frequently become captivated by its documentary element. Those who mention Cather have largely praised her verisimilar treatment of life on the plains in the late nineteenth century for its accurate depiction of harsh conditions, strong women, and ethnicity (see Riley, 9; Luebke, xi, xiii; Wrobel, 104). Such an approach is understandable, but it also illustrates why historical analyses of imaginative works may require the efforts of those in literary studies—that is, those who have been trained to read texts as problematic expressions and not as transparent documents. Indeed, it is true that the mundane details of Ántonia's life do largely jibe with the documentary evidence depicting women on farms on the plains. For example, in the work's first book, Ántonia Shimerda labors intensively, even though she is only an adolescent. She assists her mother in "making garden," hires out to cook for Jim's grandparents, the Burdens, and generally assists in farm activities. These activities all were common to women on the plains during the era. Similarly, the tension between Ántonia's desires to work "outofdoors" and her declaration, "I like to be like a man" (89), largely follows the lines of recent histories of women on the plains in the late nineteenth century, which stress that women were by no means confined to indoor pursuits (Riley, 53, 135–38). But simply to dwell on these textual moments obscures the larger movements of the novel. The novel couches its particulars in a body of myths that define the American frontier experience as a finally ennobling encounter between the spiritual quality of the land and the essence of a regenerate humanity.
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Perhaps the best way of seeing Cather's perspective in all its power and resonance is to consider her in relation to Frederick Jackson Turner's most famous essay on the American West and its role in American culture. Writing in 1917, Cather was doubtless aware of Turner's thesis, and we believe she found much in his theory to admire if not to employ deliberately in her fiction. At the least, their affinities are instructive and suggest the cultural weight of Cather's vision. As is well known, in 1893 Turner, already an eminent historian, presented a paper called "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" before the American Historical Association meeting in Chicago held in conjunction with the Columbian Exposition. In this paper Turner declared that the census of 1890 had marked the closing of the frontier, an event he defined as the disappearance of a clear border between lands with two or more settlements to the square mile and those with fewer. Turner's thesis has influenced greatly the conceptual distinction called "America," affecting not simply how we think of the West but also the manner in which we think of ourselves as a culture. Turner found in the concept of the frontier the defining ingredient in his idea of Americanness: "The advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines. And to study this advance, the men who grew up under these conditions, and the political, economic, and social results of it, is to study the really American part of our history" (30). Turner finds in the settlements of the frontier his notion of democracy, which is the expression of individualism and, in latenineteenthcentury terms, laissezfaire economics. He links environment, social impulse, political system, and economic practice. At the end of his largely celebratory essay, Turner turns nostalgic, a sentiment critics find Jim Burden sharing in book 5 of the novel. "What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks ... the ever retreating frontier has been to the United States directly, and to the nations of Europe more remotely. And now, four centuries from the discovery of America, at the end of a hundred years of life under the Constitution, the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period of American history" (Turner, 58). By employing geography as means of linking democracy and capitalism, Turner readily intertwines factors that need not be inextricable from one another. Yet Turner slides from an assertion of nature as a cause to what it has necessarily produced—Americanness as he celebrates it. He touches on national myths: opportunity, individuality, and the connection between the mythic cowboy and the mythic freerange capitalist. He justifies a line of cele
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bration that takes us from the West, to John Wayne (in and out of his movies), to the contemporary fascination with Ross Perot. We are troubled by this fascination and believe that a politically and historically unproblematic presentation of My Ántonia supports too many of these focal mystifications of American life. Like Turner, Cather in My Ántonia produces and reproduces the idea of the American frontier as a unique place and condition that fits its heirs as inevitable successes in American life. In the first part of the novel, Jim's retrospective narration describes the plains as mystically infusing him with a spiritual quality he maintains throughout his life: "I was something that lay under the sun like the pumpkins, and I did not want to be anything more. I was entirely happy" (14). To examine material circumstances implied by the work but minimized by paying excessive attention to its aestheticizing impulses is to find not a place beyond society but very much a place where social definitions exist and limit one's circumstances. Ántonia's family, the Shimerdas, are not simply exotic but painfully poor. Ántonia is not the essence of farm life but a character whose possibilities are straitened by her poverty and place of origin. And yet in the second book, "The Hired Girls," Cather's narrator insists that the limited opportunities of the adolescent girls who have hired out are an explicit benefit. The older girls [those who have gone to work in town], who helped break up the wild sod, learned so much from their mothers and grandmothers; they had all, like Ántonia, been early awakened and made observant by coming at a tender age from an old country to a new.... Physically they were almost a race apart, and outofdoor work had given them a vigour which, when they got over their first shyness on coming to town, developed into a positive carriage and freedom of movement, and made them conspicuous among Black Hawk women. (127)
This turning of the idea of class on its head—seeing a lack of privilege as a privilege—somehow makes lives that were arduous to the point of pain something to which all might aspire. Indeed, the hard work required by the land infuses these girls with the American qualities—independence, vigor, and pride—even as the girls of the town, because of their relative comfort and distance from the frontier, are described as "listless and dull" (128). In endowing these immigrant girls with the spirit of frontier and its gifts, the narrator goes on to make precisely the same connection that Turner traces between capitalist enterprise and frontier ethos. Writes Jim, "I always knew I should live long enough to see my country girls come into their own, and I have. Today the best
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that harassed Black Hawk merchant can hope for is to sell provisions and farm machinery to the rich farms where that first crop of stalwart Bohemian and Scandinavian girls are now" (129). In order to extend the logic of his and Cather's ideas of natural endowment and frontier fitness and her vision of the frontier as the place where a distinct and valuable way of life is formed, these girls must end in conventional American economic success. Indeed, if the qualities Cather associates with the frontier are not part of a legacy of material success, then is there not a flaw in either the theory of the frontier or in modern economic practice? For Cather no such flaw exists; thus, her cause and effect produce a desirable end. But what if this is not necessarily true? At best, Cather's assertion stretches the historical case. A little research tells us that by the first years of the twentieth century the farm economy was in decline as a proportion of the gross national product, from 30 percent in 1860 to 20 percent in 1900. The number of people in agricultural employment also declined: in 1860 around 60 percent of all employment was agricultural; in 1900 it was 36 percent (Shannon, 351). Similarly, the proportion of Americans who lived in rural locales fell; it was less than 50 percent in 1920, down from 60 percent in 1900. To some degree western settlement was in conflict with these broader national trends, as areas that had been relatively unsettled by the Civil War certainly gained both in population and in prosperity from 1860 to 1900. The particular county that Cather writes about, her home, Webster County, went through cycles of boom and bust throughout the last decades of the nineteenth century. Those cycles were primarily related to broader national economic trends, and they were also influenced by rainfall (Baltensperger, "Agricultural Adjustment," 43–49). By the end of the period Cather writes about—about 1916, the "present" of the novel, when, after Jim has returned to meet Ántonia's family, he gives his manuscript to the author—there were few distinctions between ethnic farmers and nativeborn farmers. One could say that the immigrants' children were relatively more prosperous than their parents, as they had become accustomed to agricultural practice in a semiarid region. There was relatively less improvement from generation to generation among Americanborn farmers, since most of this group who had moved to Nebraska came from abutting prairie states with similar agricultural conditions. In the period at the end of the novel's chronology, some years of sufficient rainfall and the disruption in European grain growing caused by World War I had caused a boom market for American farm products. Although immigrant farmers, as of 1916 or so, seemed to be prospering, they did not do
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so in relation to "Americans," and their prosperity would not be permanent. It certainly was not a matter of ethnicity. Cather's investment in the idea of the Turner thesis that links economic success with the qualities accrued from the land, however, leads her to such overstatement. Similarly, Jim's success as a lawyer for the railroad is treated as a continuation of his frontier ethos, once again tying the idea of the frontier to American capitalism. After Jim leaves Harvard he goes to work for "one of the great Western railways" (1)—probably the Burlington, since that is the only line that runs through Red Cloud and out to Wyoming and Montana. In the 1925 introduction, the one found in contemporary editions, Jim's career is described as a direct result of his "romantic disposition": "He loves with a personal passion the great country through which his railway runs and branches. His faith in it and his knowledge of it have played an important part in its development" (3). In the introduction to the first edition in 1918, this sentiment is further elaborated: ''He is always able to raise capital for new enterprises in Wyoming or Montana, and has helped young men out there to do remarkable things in mines and timber and oil. If a young man with an idea can get Jim's attention, can manage to accompany him when he goes off into the wilds hunting for lost parks or exploring new canyons, then the money which means action is usually forthcoming. Jim is still able to lose himself in those big Western dreams" (xi). To a latetwentiethcentury reader this treatment of railroads in a work that seems to be a celebration of small farmers on relatively unspoiled lands rubs against contemporary ideas of that industry's legacy. By 1871 the federal government had granted the railroad more than 286,000 square miles, an area equal to 10 percent of the nation's land mass (excluding Alaska) (Shannon, 64–67). Thus, the West was largely closed before it was opened, and the myth of free land looks somewhat different in this light. Indeed, immigrants were lured to the semiarid regions of the West by railroads eager to sell them land. Through their ownership of the best lands, the railroads could manipulate prices for acreage by tinkering with the available supply. That is, they could either flood the market to increase sales and decrease prices or withhold land and drive prices up. The latter case was more usual, resulting in farm prices that required significant mortgages and therefore necessarily involved small landowners in a cash economy. This debt eliminated any notion of subsistence farming in the West, because such an enterprise would likely result in foreclosure. The necessity of earning currency led to the dominance of single cash crops in specific regions. In central Nebraska this crop was corn, which required
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a farmer to have several hundred acres in cultivation to make a living. In this case, a living included paying exorbitant elevator and shipping fees, since the railroads often had a monopoly over both the shipping and storing of grain. Indeed, these shipping rates were often four times those charged in the East. 7 To maintain her romantic perspective, Cather overlooks the oligarchical presences that affected farm life. She had surely seen in 1917 that the farm economy was cyclical and often depended on factors beyond an individual's control, such as market conditions, climate variations, and insect infestations. Similarly, her representation of ethnicity blurs the distinction between firstgeneration and subsequent "ethnic" Americans. Yet, in these and other similar representations in the course of plotting her novel, she appears to deny changing circumstances to arrive at static or essential truths. Therefore, one could say that this novel offers mediocre history, but does that make it bad art? We could not and would not say. What we can say is that approaching it only as art, defined here as that which transmits timeless truths and beauty, leaves the center of the work largely unexamined and allows the novel to transmit a specific legacy without contradiction or clarification. The revisionist school of Western history provides us with a context for reading this novel that details both the things it leaves out and the reasons why. The works of these New Western historians suggest how the mythos of America has helped to obscure the material conditions of the West in the nineteenth century and aid us in seeing that this mystification has been the center of a certain form of jingoism that has fed imperialist, antienvironmentalist, and racist actions in the late twentieth century. (Have you ever wondered why the rightwing group is called Posse Comitatus, John E Kennedy named his vision of American global dominance the New Frontier, or Ronald Reagan and James Watt presided over what they called the sagebrush rebellion?)8 For example, Patricia Limerick in her Legacy of Conquest tells us that the dynamic enterprise of western settlement was land titles. "In truth, agriculture was not a refuge from or an alternative to commerce. Rather the two were often intertwined. The acquisition of land, the purchase of equipment, the marketing of the farm's surplus—many of the essential transactions of farming put the farmer in closer relation to the market than to nature" (68). Similarly, in other recent histories we find the idea of the region's selfsufficiency and antipathy to cooperatives or federalist imperatives to be simply untrue. Viewing this novel historically, by which we mean seeing it not as a series of inevitabilities but as body of specific material practices, we can locate the
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things Cather left out. We can say that the Cuzaks are not genteely impoverished at the end of the book; rather, they suffer. The railroads' specific practices of dominating land supply made the economics of small farming extremely precarious and led to the ultimate poverty of farmers like the Cuzaks and Jim's grandparents. 9 In this light, Jim's big Western dreams become the dream of exploitation and the domination of farmers by larger corporate entities. His romance is with the financial markets; his sense of the remarkable includes large timber and mining operations. As a lawyer for a major railroad who is generally surveying the corporations' vast western holdings, his job is to define the terms by which those lands can yield their maximum profit to the railroads. As a novel of the American West, My Ántonia cooperates in a vision of that region that mystifies its circumstances and the economic forces that shaped and continue to shape them. Exploitation, is, of course, not a matter of romance but of economic power and imperative. In the model of exploitation romanticized in the novel, few gain and many suffer. It is no accident that two of the "hired girls," Tiny Soderball and Lena Lingard, must leave Nebraska to prosper. If we reinsert the implied material circumstances that this novel's modernist gaps leave out, we see that the romantic assertions allowed by the modernist technique of forming a narrative as the sum of relatively fragmented parts enable circumstances that might defy logic if presented in a more coherent work. Turner's thesis left its vision of the frontier as an elliptical lament. He praises what has gone before and questions what is to come. Cather implies the continuities between the Turnerian past and the industrial present. In Leo Marx's terms, the machine has become part of the garden or the garden has become part of the machine of commerce. In his return to Black Hawk after his prelaw studies at Harvard, Jim spies "black puffs of smoke from the steam threshing machines" (197). He says of the results of mechanized farming, "The changes seemed beautiful to me; it was like watching the growth of a great man or of a great idea" (197). Cather applies the Turner thesis and makes its romantic equation between Westerners and the land a perpetual one. In a later essay, entitled "Nebraska," Cather shows how her idea of the frontier's natural endowment has the effect of cleansing the region of those who are not fit to receive its gifts. She writes of the economically disrupted period from 1893 to 1897 that "the strongest stock survived, and within ten years those who had weathered the storm came into their reward" (623). The metaphoric storm, however, was not one of nature but of specific economic practice. If, as in the Turner
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thesis, the frontier as a place has a particular effect on a civilization, then to admit the range of responses to this force diminishes its objective quality. Rather, it then becomes something that mixes with the peculiar circumstances of individuals. But because Jim remains endowed with frontier qualities, as does Ántonia—and because the facts of their lives in no way mitigate that essentialized endowment—Cather's vision of the West is impervious to history, as is her idea of ethnicity. Our sense is that this great idea mentioned in the narration must not remain unproblematic. 10 In light of Cather's relation to Turner and the disrupting of her vision by contemporary historians, how shall we approach her? Because the canon entails aesthetic choices, to dwell on those purely textual or even biographical features of the text that the notion of canon implies leaves her mythology of the region unchallenged. Therefore, we believe that Cather should not be canonized. Besides, a canon that admits her because of an essentialized idea of her gender and region cannot be particularly different from one that excludes her. In effect, inserting her into the canon makes perfect sense when one notices whom she effectively accompanies: those other antimodern modernists, the twelve southerners who collaborated to produce the volume I'll Take My Stand in the 1930s (for a suggestion of how the connection might be drawn, see Corkin). To look at Cather from the vantage point of a selfaware historical critic is to approach her in relation to the intellectual currents of her period (primarily Turner) and ours (Limerick and others) and thus to see her contingent value but not her transcendent quality. As Michael Denning pointed out in a 1992 survey of the academic Left and cultural studies, because "the dominant way of categorizing cultures ... remains national— American culture, English literature, and so on— ... the debate over the 'canon' is not a debate about literature but one about national identity and national education" (39). This statement may explain the heated tone of the debate over reform and suggests why anything less than a radical proposal for reforming the way we study American literature is easily coopted or rejected by the forces for the status quo. As evidence, consider an article in the American Scholar in 1993 by Edward Shils, a contributing editor, who concludes that academic freedom need no longer be guaranteed because the academy is now dominated by revisionists and relativists; his argument is that they are out of the bounds of disinterested inquiry that the doctrine of academic freedom assures and by which it is justified (203–9).
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The implications for the study of humanities are clear: the idea of a progressive agenda of canon revision is untenable, and such attempts reveal a disciplinary blindspot. If we trace the argument for a canon through literary studies or the humanities in general, we see that the model is one of disinterested inquiry; the goal is to say which works are objectively masterpieces and why. When anyone begins to question that mode of inquiry, usually because of reflecting theoretically or in response to scholars noting the absence of works by members of groups identified by race, ethnicity, or gender, the choice for conservatives is obvious: either reject the challenge, the call for inclusion, because you affirm that the masterworks are clearly better and the others are trying to get their writers in on political grounds to make the canon more representative of the nation's diversity or recognize that "objectively better" is a flawed category. Lillian Robinson states the choice from the revisionist point of view. She points out that, unlike the "pantheon," which is potentially infinite, syllabi have room for only a finite number of writers and texts. Thus, the question becomes one of purposes: "Is the canon and hence the syllabus based on it to be regarded as the compendium of excellence or as the record of cultural history?" If one answers by accepting the premise of the canon, any woman or minority writer proposed for inclusion must meet the "good enough" test. If the goal, however, is "telling the truth about the culture," then this test is not appropriate. Nevertheless, one has to argue for inclusion on this basis, not fudge the question of standards. If we have not conducted the debate over what we want the curriculum and the reading list to do, we have to accept the basis of the canon as it exists (579). 11 In this scenario, revisionist history or social construction theory is implicitly excluded. When scholars realize that the qualities of a masterpiece are not selfevident, as when critics make a case for other works that did not rise to canonical status by themselves, they are obligated to explore the concerted recovery effort, including reprinting and expending critical energy. In effect they must acknowledge the fact that a case had to be made for this writer or work's greatness despite its neglect. The next step (and it is not inevitable) is to wonder how those heretofore selfevident masterpieces won that status and to ask if there was an equivalent process that enabled them to rise to the top, to have their greatness acknowledged and their qualifications put before the reader. Consider the circumstances of American history of the West before the old paradigm, based on westward expansion along a clear frontier line by predomi
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nantly Anglo settlers, was contested by revisionists in the 1980s: although, as Limerick points out, the "Old Western Historians ... thought of themselves as rigorously neutral, without ideology or bias, they had in fact placed their sympathies with Englishspeaking male pioneers and then called that point of view objectivity" ("Trail" 67). We have a similar situation in American literary history, with the difference that there is no equivalent of the New Western historians. These scholars substitute the conception of history as constructed in the act of narrativizing and therefore of events as derived from narrative for the usual historian's view of history as a narrative of what has happened. We need literary critics and readers of texts who hold that the opposite of disinterested inquiry is selfconscious or reflexive history, who define history not as a narrative of triumph but as a body of recoverable material and ideological practices. This practice produces a dialectical concept of history that allows us to see a work in its past and present context. This attempt at revision too may be disallowed as relativist, deemed invalid because it is subjective, or rejected for other reasons. As proponents of a broader canon have discovered, their attempts may even be selfdefeating because of the backlash their efforts provoke. Their calls for expansion are easily ridiculed by the academic Right and the mainstream media, who spot the fatuity of the attempt to make a concept based on exclusivity more inclusive, and they see the end logic of questioning the premises of the canon. Conservatives' response may be virulent because they view the desire to expand the canon as a pretext for affirmative action (see Denning, 34). Those who seek to revise the canon avoid fundamentally reconsidering the terms of the literary object. Thus, they find themselves fighting their political battle in retreat and always on the terrain of their enemy. The result is a theory of inclusion that fails to note the obvious illogic of its presumptions, since no field can be both democratic and undiscriminating and elitist and excluding. Because we are proposing a reconception of the field, one without the device of a list of masterworks, let us propose that we will never mention the word canon again. While we do not want to minimize the degree to which the old framework is entrenched, we will nevertheless emphasize the possible ease of doing away with it simply by focusing on the implications of the revisionist definition of a socially constructed canon. Marjorie Perloff believes that it is not a simple matter to abolish the line of texts we call canonical because it is always implied by what PMLA and similar journals publish, and we can derive it as well from syllabi and reading lists
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(126). We would point out that, if professors do define the operative canon by teaching and writing about particular texts within certain critical and theoretical paradigms, then the way to change this practice is to resist such consistent efforts, and alter the frameworks into which they fit. Without the governing idea of the canon, not only would the range of authors taught expand exponentially, but—perhaps more important—the terms by which we order our study of texts would remain persistently visible. If it seems as though we are making light of this problem, let us examine the curricular and scholastic implications that result from eradicating this term, which would make any effort worthwhile. Our proposal necessarily involves eliminating the broad and fiat survey as a course title and as a means of structuring knowledge. The term survey designates a representative sampling of a specific field—but in the usual case, a field defined by what boundaries? We would argue that those boundaries are traditional disciplinary borders that derive their putative coherence from the idea of a canon. We are not arguing against the device of chronology as a means of structuring courses; rather, we oppose the current practice of forming courses around this one explicit marker and leaving the other markers—often reactionary white males—implicit. By doing away with the survey, courses could develop according to more compelling and historically specific ideas. 12 We might, for example, focus on antislavery literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, looking at writings by Olaudah Eequiano, Benjamin Franklin, St. Jean de Crèvecoeur, Frederick Douglass, Wendell Phillips, and Angelina Grimké. Another organizing subject would be race in America after World War II, where texts by Gunnar Myrdal, Saul Bellow, Thulani Davis, Harry Truman, and Amiri Baraka form part of the curriculum. We are not arguing that such courses do not exist. We are asserting that they are too rarely taught and that they occupy a curricular fringe, pushed to the margins by the survey and the major figures who inhabit that course. Similarly, with the relative opening up of curriculum caused by the elimination of surveys, the major textual proponent of the canon, the anthology, would no longer have a predominant course whose needs it answers and could therefore cease to exist. We would argue that the anthologies, particularly the Nortons, define a standard edition of great works in English and American literature. With the demise of the survey, publishers could make nonstandard course texts their province by allowing for the practice of teachers devising their own textbooks—fascicles specific to a particular course. Here we borrow
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an idea picked up from our participation in a focus group for the revision of the Harper American Literature: several colleagues mentioned the possibility of publishing much of the contents of anthologies as fascicles—that is, installments—that can be ordered and bound to satisfy institutions' and even instructors' requirements. We seem to be headed in this direction, with the widespread use of photocopied readings, but we probably ought to have a central clearinghouse for reprinting copyrighted material similar to music publishers' BMI and ASCAP. 13 Other institutionalized practices we would like to see undercut or banished are "major figures" courses and courses with titles representing unproblematized assumptions. For example, for the usual five figures in the "American Renaissance," we would substitute a "problems" or period course, fill it with texts of all kinds to be examined, and name it "Revising the American Renaissance." When we read works by Cather and others, and we doubtless will, we will choose several works by each author, not just one. Why not a develop a broadly titled course like Western American literature with a subtitle such as "Writing on the Plains''? In a course like this we would group My Ántonia with Turner's essay and responses to it; Richard Slotkin on myth as historical memory; Lillian Schlissel's editions of women's diaries of westward expansion; Gabriel Kolko on the railroads; Walter Prescott Webb's Great Plains; fiction by Hamlin Garland and Frank Norris; another Cather novel, Lost Lady; Leslie Silko's Ceremony; essays by other revisionist Western historians; and Ian Frazier's Great Plains. We would surely work to promote a new definition of historical fiction that does not see history informing the text but emphasizes the history that is part of the text and the history of which the text is part. Read this way, all fiction becomes historical fiction. We could use such a concept to subvert the periodizing framework of our curricula, for example, by teaching a contemporary American fiction course using frankly historical novels and reading them chronologically—not in order of their publication, but in order of their events. One could easily go from an early slave revolt as interpreted by William Styron (The Confessions of Nat Turner) or Toni Morrison's study of the effects of the Fugitive Slave Law (Beloved) up to the Kennedy assassination (Don Delillo's Libra) and the fall of Saigon (Joan Didion's Democracy) and cover much history—of all kinds—in between. For example, Lee Smith's Fair and Tender Ladies offers social history of Appalachian women; The Book of Daniel by E. L. Doctorow favors revisionist Cold War history in explaining the execution of
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the Rosenbergs; Thomas Berger's Little Big Man is an epic, even encyclopedic, history of one man's encounter with northern Plains Indians and most of the Anglo mythic heroes of the Old West. We can choose a mode or concept that is usually used to define a period, such as realism or naturalism, and read assorted texts against the usual literary critical assumptions we have made about them. For example, we would like to show how realism as a mode works to contain the anxiety over the closing of the frontier. What will drive Americans without Manifest Destiny, without somewhere to go? This approach should provide a model to allow for historicizing not only texts that have been in the canon but also ones revisionists are even now uncovering and reprinting. It seems obvious that the only way to read against the dominant definitions of realism is to regard the frontier as dynamic, not as a static concept, as it is usually represented in literary histories and reading texts since the 1880s. By showing the persistence of both realism and naturalism beyond the usual demarcated period of several decades, such a course would aid in another goal, the reperiodization of American literature. Again, we are not necessarily proposing to dispense with the likes of William Faulkner. We are, however, suggesting that the repeated inclusion of Faulkner simply as a great writer creates a curricular emphasis that dooms us to conservatism or irrelevance. Rather than showing why a given writer's works surmount their particular time and place—the contingency of their origins—we emphasize these locations. After all, readers are not isolated from history; no more, we believe, should works and writers be asked to transcend their circumstances in order to remain available to successive generations. Notes 1. Similarly, Carafiol points out that the New Americanists (or American New Historicists) are not adequately revisionist because they make critical claims that "oscillate between the cultural and aesthetic models of literary explanation that have always characterized American literary study" (5). 2. Carafiol is not specific about what will succeed his abolition of American literature. But because, in American literature, the "canon and the field itself are mutually defining," he believes that the end of the canon means the end of the discipline of American literature (25). 3. Carafiol says that American literary scholarship arose out of political and professional motives that are now gone, and so the field should disappear, too. "An alter
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native approach would make the word America just another national category, shorthand for all the disparate activities that occur in America rather than the name of a unique and coherent literary heritage or the defining subject of a distinct sort of professional scholarly discourse." What holds American literature together as a distinct field is "ideal glue": the belief that these texts reveal "some uniquely American character" and constitute "expressions of the experience of the New World" (150). 4. Bloom has edited two collections for Chelsea House, one on the novel and one on the literary character Ántonia; My Ántonia is part of the MLA Approaches to Teaching series (see Rosowski, ed.); Sharon O'Brien is editing the collection forthcoming from Cambridge. 5. For an example of the aesthetic transcendence that predominates in readings of My Ántonia, see Miller: "For Jim,... Ántonia is the insistent reminder that it is the tragic nature of time to bring life to fruition through hardship and struggle only to precipitate the decline and, ultimately, death, but not without first making significant provision for new life to follow, flower and fall" (22). 6. Katrina Irving views "Cather's concern to point out the ethnocentric assumptions of this midwest community" as a displacement of her anxiety about being both a "female author within what she saw as a predominantly male profession" and a "lesbian within a heterosexual society" (92). 7. This paragraph synthesizes information from Chandler, Fogel, Kolko, and Shannon. 8. Carafiol, too, links the unified, transcendent "master" narrative underlying the American literary canon to "a reactionary and dangerous view of America itself" (4). He says, "The idealist narrative strategies that have characterized the discourse about 'America' alienate the justifying spirit of 'America' from any particular acts. 'America' is of good character, so its particular actions must be either good by definition or irrelevant. Only the motives behind them or the spirit in which they are carried out matter" (171n.) 9. See book 5, where one of Ántonia's daughters, Lucie, confides to Jim that "they were going to have a parlour carpet if they got ninety cents for their wheat" (223). This aptly supports Limerick's demystification of the supposed distinction between agriculture and commerce; the Cuzaks are here "in closer relation to the market than to nature" (Legacy, 68). 10. Worster tells us of the region's reliance on federal dams. For an overview of the West's dependency on federal money back to the region's territorial days, see Malone, 148–49. 11. Elizabeth FoxGenovese says first place among selection criteria is probably given to "quality": the texts' or authors' "incontestable superiority of craft, reasoning, and execution." Second is the criterion of theme; how important are their themes "in western culture"? Finally, how "representative of that culture" are they (136)?
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12. We wish explicitly to distinguish our proposal (and our motives) from suggestions to abolish the canon and even do away with the ideas of the "personal subject or author" simply because the list of major figures inevitably includes some members of minority cultures and women. See FoxGenovese, who criticizes those "pressing to substitute a higher level of abstraction and depersonalization" for the elevated figures they identified with in constructing themselves as elites. She says, "Surely it is no coincidence that the Western white male elite proclaimed the death of the subject at precisely the moment at which it might have had to share that status with the women and peoples of other races and classes who were beginning to challenge its supremacy" (134). 13. Teachers will have many more texts to choose from because without a canon, there will be no reason to exclude nonfictional narratives until they have stood the test of time and are found to be canonical by virtue of their style. We might borrow William C. Spengemann's expansion of the concept American literature to mean "everything having to do with civilization in the New World since the European discovery" (23–24). But whereas he says that "literature" includes "every written document that will respond to literary analysis" (24), we do not require the response test; because we define literary as a way of reading that selfconsciously treats form in relation to content, we can read any document as American literature. Works Cited Baker, Houston. Blues, Ideology, and AfricanAmerican Literature: A Vernacular Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. Baltensperger, Bradley H. "Agricultural Adjustment and Great Plains Drought: The Republican Valley 1870–1900." In The Great Plains: Environment and Culture, ed. Brian W. Blouet and Frederick C. Luebke, 43–79. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979. ———. "Agricultural Change among Nebraska Immigrants, 1880–1900." In Ethnicity on the Great Plains, ed. Frederick C. Luebke, 170–89. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Bloom, Harold, ed. Major Literary Characters: Ántonia. New York: Chelsea, 1991. ———. Willa Cather's My Ántonia. Modern Critical Approaches. New York: Chelsea, 1987. Carafiol, Peter. The American Ideal: Literary History as a Worldly Activity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Carby, Hazel. "The Multicultural Wars." Radical History Review 54 (1992): 7–18. Carlin, Deborah. Cather, Canon, and the Politics of Reading. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992. Cather, Willa. Introduction to My Ántonia, ix–xiv. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918. ———. My Ántonia. 1918; rpt. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.
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———. "Nebraska: The End of the First Cycle." Nation 5 September 1923. Rpt. in America Is West: An Anthology of Middlewestern Life and Literature. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1945. Chandler, Alfred J. H. Railroads: The Nation's First Big Business. New York: Harcourt, 1965. Corkin, Stanley. "Jean Renoir's The Southerner and the Agrarian Myth." Southern Studies 26 (1987): 52–62. Denning, Michael. "The Academic Left and the Rise of Cultural Studies." Radical History Review 54 (1992): 21–47. Fogel, Robert. Railroads and Economic Growth: Essays in Econometric History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1904. FoxGenovese, Elizabeth. "The Claims of a Common Culture: Gender, Race, Class, and the Canon." Salmagundi 72 (1986): 131–43. Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. "Multiculturalism." In Profession 92, 35–38. New York: MLA, 1992. ———. The Signifying Monkey: Towards a Theory of AfroAmerican Literary Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Higham, John. "Multiculturalism and Universalism: A History and Critique." American Quarterly 45 (1993): 195–219. Irving, Katrina. "Displacing Homosexuality: The Use of Ethnicity in Willa Cather's My Ántonia." Modern Fiction Studies 36 (1990): 91–102. Kolko, Gabriel. Railroads and Regulation, 1877–1916. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965. Lambert, Deborah G. "The Defeat of a Hero: Autonomy and Sexuality in My Ántonia." In Willa Cather's My Ántonia, ed. Harold Bloom, 119–31. New York: Chelsea, 1991. Lauter, Paul. Canons and Contexts. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Limerick, Patricia. Legacy of Conquest. New York: Norton, 1987. ———. "The Trail to Santa Fe: The Unleashing of the Western Public Intellectual," In Trails: Toward a New Western History, ed. Patricia Limerick, Clyde A. Milner, and Charles E. Rankin, 59–77. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991. Luebke, Frederick C., ed. Ethnicity on the Great Plains. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980. Malone, Michael P. "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History, an Assessment." In Trails: Toward a New Western History, ed. Patricia Limerick, Clyde A. Milner, and Charles E. Rankin, 139–60. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991. Miller, James E., Jr. "My Ántonia: A Frontier Drama of Time." In Willa Cather's My Ántonia, ed. Harold Bloom, 21–30. New York: Chelsea, 1991.
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O'Brien, Sharon. "Becoming Canonical: The Case against Willa Cather." In Reading in America, ed. Cathy Davidson, 240–58. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. Ohmann, Richard. Politics of Letters. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1987. Perloff, Marjorie. "An Intellectual Impasse." Salmagundi 72 (1986): 125–30. Riley, Glenda. The Female Frontier: A Comparative View of Women on the Plains. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988. Robinson, Lillian S. "Treason Our Text: Feminist Challenges to the Literary Canon." In Critical Theory since 1965, ed. Hazard Adams and Leroy Searle, 572–82. Tallahassee: Florida State University Press, 1986. Rosowski, Susan. "The Romanticism of My Ántonia: Every Reader's Story." In Approaches to Teaching Cather's My Ántonia, ed. Susan Rosowski, 65–70. New York: MLA, 1989. Rosowski, Susan, ed. Approaches to Teaching Cather's My Ántonia. New York: MLA, 1989. Scholes, Robert. "Aiming a Canon at the Curriculum." Salmagundi 72 (1986): 101–17. Shannon, Fred. Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1997. New York: Rhinehart, 1945. Shils, Edward. "Do We Still Need Academic Freedom?" American Scholar 62 (1993): 187–209. Spengemann, William C. A Mirror for Americanists: Reflections on the Idea of American Literature. Hanover, N. H.: University Press of New England, 1989. Thacker, Robert. The Great Prairie Fact and Literary Imagination. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989. Tichi, Cecilia. "Women Writers and the New Woman." In Columbia Literary History of the United States, 589–606. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. Turner, Frederick Jackson. The Significance of the Frontier in American History. Ed. Harold P. Simonson. New York: Ungar, 1963. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977. Worster, Donald. Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West. New York: Pantheon, 1985. Wrobel, David M. The End of American Exceptionalism. Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993.
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Making do, Making Believe, and Making Sense: Burkean Magic and the Essence of English Departments Tilly Warnock To begin, I want to complicate matters by responding to the question at hand, "Is There a Discipline in This Department?" with a touch of magic, Kenneth Burke's magic. He opens The Philosophy of Literary Form, first published in 1941, with an invitation to his readers to imagine: "Let us suppose that I ask you: 'What did the man say?' And that you answer: 'He said "yes." ' You still do not know what the man said. You would not know unless you knew more about the situation, and about the remarks that preceded his answer" (1). Burke raises further problems as he attempts to explain this representative anecdote: "Critical and imaginative works are answers to questions posed by the situation in which they arose. They are not merely answers, they are strategic answers, stylized answers. For there is a difference in style or strategy, if one says 'yes' in tonalities that imply 'thank God' or in tonalities that imply 'alas!' " (1). On page 1, Burke undercuts his own critical work by presenting it as a response to a situated question and by acknowledging the rhetoric of his own discourse. He implies that critical and imaginative works are alike—that his criticism is a fiction—in that they are dialectically related to the contexts from which they grow and to which they respond. Neither a critical nor an imaginary work is an objective representation or an assertion of a truth: all questions and answers are motivated and consequential, including Burke's own. Burke seems to make matters even worse for himself when he next narrows his scope and circumference to discuss poetry as "strategies for encompassing situations." He adds that these strategies "size up the situations, name their structure and outstanding ingredients, and name them in a way that contains an attitude towards them" (1). Not only does he grant criticism the status of
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fiction and poetry, but he also grounds poetry in situations, in dialogue, and in the practicalities of everyday life. This shuffling of terms allows Burke to claim, or admit, the magic in what he does as a critic and poet: "Magic, verbal coercion, establishment or management by decree, says, in effect: 'Let there be'—and there was" (3). Everyone is a magician who uses language to create illusions of reality: "men share in the magical resources of power by speaking 'in the name of' that power" (3). By this sleight of hand or of words Burke redefines language as both creative and critical of reality, without denying material reality: "The device, in attenuated and alembicated variants, is not so dead, or even so impotent, as one might at first suppose" (4). Finally, having led us step by step (perhaps with our understanding or perhaps with enough understanding to agree to continue reading), we accept what he finally pulls out of his bag of verbal tricks: "The magical decree is implicit in all language; for the mere act of naming an object or situation decrees that it is to be singled out as suchandsuch rather than as somethingother. Hence, I think that an attempt to eliminate magic, in this sense, would involve us in the elimination of vocabulary itself as a way of sizing up reality. Rather, what we need is correct magic, magic whose decrees about the naming of real situations is the closest possible approximation to the situation named (with the greater accuracy of approximation being supplied by the 'collective revelation' of testing and discussion)" (4). Burke has led us to accept this assertion not as a truth but as a practical, workable metaphor—language is magical in that it decrees that this is and this is not and that our verbal decrees have real consequences. Without saying so directly, Burke also teaches us to read his own critical work as an imaginary or fictional response to a question, itself imaginary or fictional. His book of criticism is a book of magic, a rhetoric in other words, that attempts to size up a situation and decree "Let this be" or "Let us imagine." Burke relies not upon his authority or upon appeals to others' authority; instead, he appeals to his readers' own experiences—specifically, their experiences in collaborating with him on the creation of his meaning. By the time the rabbit comes out of the hat, we expect it and feel gratified because it is our own creation. Burke's rhetoric assumes that in this realm of doubt and uncertainty in which we live, rhetoric is what we have to make do, to make believe, and to make sense. He also assumes that most are convinced by their own experiences in constructing meaning in texts and in life. I think that at this time, in the 1990s, we finally understand Burke's 1941
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assertions, but I am not sure we have accepted what he says follows from his assertions: the measure for the greater accuracy of approximation to the situation named (whether the rhetoric of fiction or the rhetoric of fact, science, nonfiction, whatever) is supplied by the " 'collective revelation' of testing and discussion" (4). Our namings must stand pragmatic tests; when they do not, we must revise, and when situations change, as they do, we must revise. For Burke, forms of the world, forms of the mind, and forms of the text are dialectically related. And all of Burke's rhetoric assumes that people decide to act in language, for specific motives, individual and collective, having gauged the probable consequences in specific situations. In Language as Symbolic Action, Burke explains that "the difference between a thing and a person is that the one merely moves whereas the other acts" (53). Consistent with his assertions about the rhetoric of all discourse, he adds that he is "willing to admit that the distinction between things moving and persons acting is but an illusion." In one of his rare moments of certainty, Burke explains that "the human race cannot possibly get along with itself on the basis of any other intuition" (53). Getting along is always Burke's final goal, and he says here that responsibility for what we do in language is essential to accomplishing this purpose. His emphasis on purposive action, within his definition of people as animal symbolicum, locates ethical decision making at the heart of Burke's rhetoric: we are responsible for the magic we perform, for the illusions of reality we create and respond to as real. In this context of Burkean rhetoric, I want to perform "correct magic" three times by examining closely some of the situations that for me ground the strategic question of this conference, "Is There a Discipline in This Department?" First, I will explore motives for change. Second, I will make a decree. And third, I will then gauge the probable consequences of various answers to the question, so that we in English can judge which of our various responses to this and similar questions will be rhetorically effective in fulfilling our collective purposes. We cannot know for certain that our namings, our titles, our words will work, but we can make educated and ethical decisions that will most likely be "correct magic," the closest possible approximation to the situation at hand that will meet the " 'collective revelation' of testing and discussion." Motives Burke's roundabout method allows me to stop at this point, on the brink of a decree, to explain why I have used his theories of language as symbolic action.
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First, he is persuasive within English studies, at least to more people than ever in his career, which began in the late 1920s. Second, he is seldom reductive of complex language issues, terms, and theories. As a model, he also allows me to say too much at once and to take the long way home. He allows me to ask midstream, "Now, where are we?" to offer contradictory evidence and conflicting anecdotes, and to admit that I am trying to suggest something rather than to make it "pinpointingly clear" (Philosophy, v). In other words, I am using Burke to justify the way I have decided to write this paper, in a topheavy manner, with more attention devoted to the contexts of the question, "Is There a Discipline in This Department?" than to my response. He permits me to answer not in universals but in specifics and to abstract from my own situation as director of the composition program at the University of Arizona. And finally, I want to use Burke to honor him, knowing full well the impossibility of that task, since our symbolusing inevitably entails symbolmisusing and symbolabusing. I have chosen to answer the question "Is There a Discipline in this Department?" by what Burke calls his "yes, no, maybe approach," for yet another reason that I want to declare, at the risk of undermining my own purposes. By adopting Burke's roundabout approach, I figure that I might be able to draw readers in, step by step, without their even noticing, so that when I vary the pattern, or pull the rabbit out of the hat, readers experience that wonderful sense of "Aha!" rather than that dreaded sense of "So what?" or "Hell, no'' or "What in the world?" I have to pace this essay just right, choose my words carefully, consider my readers, and on and on, because I really care and want desperately for others to join me in saying finally, "Let this be," not because readers accept my declaration as true but because they judge it might be most persuasive in some specific contexts. As changes in our culture require changes in education, we in English departments must be able to argue persuasively for the value of what we do. Before moving directly to further motives and to my decree, I want to digress again briefly to clarify my choice of a rhetorical stance as a person who is trying to figure out what might work, rather than the stance of one who knows and tells. This is risky business. Because of Burke's attitudes toward language and rhetoric, his texts were not widely persuasive for many years—decades, in fact. They did not meet the tests of the collective: he simply would not say what he meant. How can people take someone seriously who questions what he says and undermines his own arguments? But Burke's rhetorical stance, as someone who is trying to figure
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out what just might work, has had a boomerang effect, so that his assertions, theories, strategies, and anecdotes are finding a home in today's world. As he taught us to read his own critical and creative works, he taught us to read contemporary works of fiction and nonfiction that persuade by their reliance on readers' active re creation of meaning. Once readers agree to read Burke and then decide again and again to keep going, they are partners with him in the discovery and creation of meaning; they are convinced finally by their own experiences and believe so firmly in their own acts of magic that they accept them as truths. We seem finally to be accepting what Burke has tried to say in as many ways as possible: that it is practical to realize that we are always engaged in rhetoric—in figuring out what will most likely work in a particular context. The increasing persuasiveness of Burke's rhetoric over the decades has taught us, first, that what is rhetorical changes according to situational and cultural contexts and, second, that rhetorics of invention, discovery, and change typically flourish during times when social change is possible, whereas rhetorics of decorum, or rhetorics of forms, figures, flowers, and tropes, tend to triumph when social change is unlikely. Most agree on the first but perhaps not on the second because it is impossible to know for sure what is going on at a particular time and whether actions are actually perpetuating or challenging the status quo. Burke's rhetoric of action and change began to flourish when challenges arose to higher education's claim that it was the source and repository of knowledge. Burke's rhetoric became more persuasive along with the new answers provided by social constructionists and other theorists who advocate the rhetoric of discourse and writing as the means by which knowledge is created and recreated. Perhaps more immediately important, Burke's rhetoric, his literacy program, which provides strategies for coping and equipment for living, has become persuasive at a time when the need for additional resources for coping and surviving has become dramatically apparent. A Decree Burke's rhetoric, then, just might provide strategic responses to the stylized question of this conference. Taking a chance, I want to respond to the question: Yes. English departments teach reading and writing; all members of the department are engaged in literacy work of various kinds, from functional liter
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acy to highly theoretical literacy work. Despite differences in teaching, research, and service, we are all committed to teaching language and literature as strategies for coping and as equipment for living. My decree, that we acknowledge ourselves confidently, at particular times and in specific situations, as teachers of reading and writing, is not calling for an assertion of a truth, although I believe it is the closest possible approximation of the situation named English. It is, I believe, the correct magic for now, if what we want is for people to come to terms, to negotiate, and to survive. This occasional selfdefinition as a teacher, not as a theorist, researcher, rhetorician, or even faculty, may be uncomfortable for many who have worked hard to distinguish themselves. A focus on reading and writing—rather than on literature, linguistics, cultural studies, and rhetorical studies—may be even scarier. What is at stake in renaming is, as Burke makes clear, our individual and collective identities; we fear transformation, if not loss, as we resist the certainty of change and perhaps growth. Burke's rhetoric of "perhaps" prevents us from accepting this or any interpretation of a situation without looking carefully at the motives and probable consequences of such claims. For example, who is doing what to whom by defining poverty, violence, alienation, and homelessness as literacy problems? Is literacy, for example, the best naming of a situation? What does that terministic screen allow us to see, and what does it prevent us from seeing? What might be the gains and losses of declaring ourselves teachers of reading, writing, and literacy? Despite our hesitations about motives, acts, and consequences, we do act, and I advocate that we present ourselves as literacy workers of various kinds, degrees, and purposes, understanding that our decisions are ethical and that our work as teachers of reading and writing consists of strategic responses to specific, stylized questions. This representation of what we do is a close approximation to what we do, not individually always, but collectively. We in English departments know how to analyze and interpret texts, oral and written, from medieval poetry to contemporary rap, news, film, and fiction. We know how to distinguish among theories and their underlying assumptions and ideologies and their probable consequences in classrooms and in broader cultural contexts. We have studied the production and reception of texts across the ages and can make sound judgments about the likely effects of these symbolic actions. We know how to work with unsophisticated readers and with skilled graduate students; we know how to work with terrified and terrific writers. We know about the gains and losses of various methods of evaluation at different times and places during the course of a reader's and
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writer's development. We know about reading and writing as foundational and antifoundational, and we are usually wise about which definition to use in particular contexts. We are engaged in the teaching of reading and writing at all levels and in all departments across the campus, in university policies about writing requirements and assessments, and in university outreach efforts to strengthen the teaching of reading and writing at all levels. Perhaps most important symbolically, we have been responsible for the development and expansion of writing centers, places where writers and readers go for help from peers. We have revised images of higher education so that students, their parents, and the broader public see universities as centers for writing, reading, and research, where people work together to construct and reconstruct knowledge and to write and rewrite themselves. With this new image, universities will be seen as enterprises in which research becomes service to a state, teaching becomes a form of research, research becomes a critique of teaching and basis of curriculum, and service becomes again a form of human action to which academics aspire. A writing center is a living symbol of what a university is and what it does. Following Burke's advice by shifting to a downward way from this upward way, near rotten with perfection, we in English departments are also aware that our motives, methods, and meanings are constructed by the academic communities to which we belong, and we admit that our actions are motivated in part by our desires to maintain our positions and our communities within the university and the culture. With this general yet complex understanding of what we in English departments do, we can decide how to present ourselves to students, to the university, and to the public: we do not have to change what we do, but we do have to change our perspective on what we do (realizing, of course, that our terms affect our attitudes or, in Burke's terms, our incipient actions). We are not limited to a single identity, way of positioning ourselves, or kind of argument. In every given situation, we must weigh the gains and losses of identifying ourselves in particular ways, including the presentation of ourselves as teachers of reading, writing, and literacy. We do not have to accept current definitions of literacy education as the solution to all society's problems, but we also do not have to accept the perspective that literacy work is only an effort to maintain the status quo or our own positions. We do not have to define literacy in a simple way or define literacy work as all alike. We all read daily that illiteracy is the root of all problems. Our task is to determine the motives and probable consequences of this and other assertions of what are metaphors, not truths. We must ask ourselves, "What might this
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metaphor allow and what might it prevent?" Take, for example, an article on the oped page of the New York Times on 29 May 1992, by Richard C. Wade. Wade opens with the claim that "one out of every five adult Americans is functionally illiterate" and that "a renewed emphasis on literacy would enhance" the possibilities of the return of violent criminals to society so that they could "lead useful and productive lives." Wade then explains that the "cost of illiteracy is up to $200 billion annually, if we take into account unemployment, health, welfare, and incarceration." He says that the Governor's Commission on Libraries in New York will recommend that ''literacy be placed into the sentencing system for convicted criminals" Without denying the connections Wade makes among reading, writing, and rehabilitation, English department faculty would read Wade's text critically by placing it in its cultural context, assessing the evidence, and exploring why Wade and the business he writes for want to offer literacy education as the cure for acts now described as "criminal." We would ask what he and others mean by "literacy education" and what that education might include and exclude. (A reminder from Burke comes in handy. While he argues for verbal rather than physical war, he does not deny reality or fail to distinguish differences between verbal and physical acts of violence.) Another example illustrates the complexity of arguments about literacy education and the roles that English department faculty can play if we decide to present ourselves as teachers of English. Membership in the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) may seem the easiest way to declare oneself a teacher of English, united with teachers from kindergarten on, but this road is also rough because of the large numbers of people involved and the differences in purposes, languages, and contexts represented. For example, Anna Flanagan, in the NCTE's Council Chronicle, reports that the NCTE/College Board Task Force is making significant progress on the twelfthgrade English project, one part of the College Board's Pacesetter project, which is "driven by the question, 'What do all students need to know before they graduate from high school?' "(4). If we understand this as a rhetorical question and the twelfthgrade course as a rhetorical answer, we can then ask who is asking the question, what are their motives, and what are the likely consequences of such courses for students and faculty in schools and colleges and for NCTE, the College Board, and public education. We can also consider the development of this course at a time when Ernest Boyer and others are saying that business is moving away from public education, not forgetting that the College Board, NCTE, and the schools
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are all big business. We can question why this course, at this time, is concerned about organization and genre classifications and why the working title is "Voices in Modern Culture." We can also question why uppermost in the minds of those involved is "making sure that the course is adaptable within all 12th grade English classrooms" at a time when most acknowledge that writing is contextdependent and that educational contexts differ significantly. One final example indicates the need for English department faculty to present ourselves collectively as teachers of reading and writing in our particular schools, colleges, and communities. In an article in the Council Chronicle, Diane Staub discusses NCTE's efforts to establish national standards and quotes Shirley Brice Heath as supporting national standards. But Heath's words make clear to me the impracticality (if not impossibility) of this effort, especially if they are understood as cures for alienation, violence, and hopelessness: "The students of this decade do not think, look, or learn as we do, and their parents don't want them to be like us." Heath says that to picture the world of many students today, we must " 'envision a kaleidoscope' in which not only the figures and their relationships but the 'ground as well' is constantly changing in response to 'inexplicable, unidentifiable forces' beyond the control of existing powers" (1). Staub continues to quote Heath, whose words suggest the need for more dramatic changes in education: "Educators' cherished beliefs—that finishing high school improves one's economic and social status, that community institutions prepare children for adulthood, that schools protect democratic society, and that adolescence is a time to absorb 'the liberal arts tradition of the nation' before assuming adult roles—are out of touch with reality" (1). Rather than national standards, Heath's words call for major revisions in public education and in its role in today's world. Based on the collective revelation of testing and discussion, we judge whether Wade's, Boyer's, Heath's, and others' readings of the current situation and of solutions to the problems in society are accurate. We explore beyond the stated to figure out whether such calls to action are calls to change or to maintain. We listen to J. Elspeth Stuckey's caution in The Violence of Literacy about the connections between literacy and the economy and the ways that literacy efforts are often acts of destruction, but we do not have to heed this warning entirely. We complicate definitions of literacy by including the diverse and sophisticated work of people in English, and we apply our scholarship and methods to texts and contexts outside the academy. Let me repeat my decree a second time: We in English departments are all
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already engaged in literacy education of various kinds, and presenting ourselves as united in teaching reading and writing is the most persuasive rhetoric we can use in certain contexts with our colleagues across the university and with the citizens of our local communities and states. This dream, prayer, or magic does not prevent us from continuing our current research and teaching. What it does prevent is denial of the action that unites all of us in English departments: we are all teachers of reading and writing. This is how we are known and understood by people within the university, and this is how we are known and respected by people outside the university. Although we have spent years distinguishing ourselves from each other, within the department, to outsiders we are more alike than we are different. The particular rhetorical stance I advocate will most likely work, in given situations, because it states confidently that (1) we do, indeed, know what we are doing; (2) what we are doing is coherent, purposeful, and consequential; (3) what we think about ourselves confirms what others think about us; and (4) what we do, because it is different from what anyone else in the university or outside the academy does, makes us essential to school, higher education, the community, and the workplace. Of course this decree will not work magic if English department faculty do not accept it. I imagine a loud negative response, at best, from those who have fought against the commonly held view by outsiders that English departments are essentially service units by arguing that research in English is competitive with any research across the campus in its intellectual rigor. I imagine a loud negative response from those who have argued forcefully and successfully in the past for English studies as an essential aspect of the education for men and women who aspire to a particular class, profession, or position. Arguments about theory, intellectual rigor, aesthetics, technology, and belles lettres all must change to accommodate teaching, literacy work, and service. We must respond to questions from citizens, legislators, parents, and students who ask, "What's the use?" Within the university, we must quit competing with the sciences on their terms, especially without their kind of external funding and instead begin to compete by confidently declaring that what we do is different and yet fundamental to what they do and to what people do outside the academy. We make our arguments convincing to colleagues and administrators about how writing constitutes and revises knowledge in all disciplines. Within English departments we must ask difficult questions about our purposes, situations, languages, ethics, and strategies for coping. We must try
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for the magic "whose decrees about the naming of real situations is the closest approximation to the situation named" (Burke, Philosophy, 4). Possible Strategies for Coping with a New Entitlement for English Departments For years I thought Burke's image from The Philosophy of Literary Form of the parlor room conversation was the best assessment of how a language class, conference, department, college, or text should work. But when I began asking Mary Pratt's question, "Who's at the table," and "Who invited whom?" I changed my mind. We don't all converse in a parlor room; some of us never get in the door, or, if we enter, we are too afraid to speak or few align themselves with us. Therefore, some of Burke's other images—the barnyard, the muddle, and the abyss—began to make more sense to me. Now, his image of the abyss from Permanence and Change seems most useful as a way of thinking about classrooms, curriculum committees, departments, universities, and cultures because it has a borderland flavor and contact zone exigencies: In these troublesome antics, we may even find it wise on occasion to adopt incongruous perspectives for the dwarfing of our impatience. We in cities rightly grow shrewd at appraising manmade institutions—but beyond these tiny concentration points of rhetoric and traffic, there lies the eternally unsolvable Enigma, the preposterous fact that both existence and nothingness are equally unthinkable. Our speculations may run the whole qualitative gamut, from play, through reverence, even to an occasional shiver of cold metaphysical dread—for always the Eternal enigma is there, right on the edges of our metropolitan bickerings, stretching outward to interstellar infinity and inward to the depths of the mind. And in this staggering disproportion between man and noman, there is no place for purely human boasts of grandeur, or for forgetting that men build their cultures by huddling together, nervously loquacious, at the edge of an abyss. (272)
As we in English departments huddle together, nervously loquacious, we ask not just the question of this conference but other questions: Who wants to know? What is their point and position? Will an answer make any difference? What is in it for the asker? What is in it for the respondents? If all of this is imaginary, if our questions and answers are all rhetorical, does this count at all? How might it count?
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Each of us considers the general question for this conference from our situations, our local sites, with, we probably hope, just the right amount of this or that to accomplish whatever it is we have decided or figured out is what we want. We can never know for sure that what we do will work, so we take risks, gamble, make judgment calls, certain only that we will suffer the consequences. The question of this conference serves for me as an abstraction from several specific situations at the University of Arizona. The question also reverberates for me and mixes in with questions addressed by faculty in composition and rhetoric at other conferences: What counts as writing? Who should fund composition? Who should teach writing? Should composition programs exist? Do students write across the curriculum? What counts as academic writing? What are the most effective ways of teaching writing? How does research on writing affect the teaching of writing? What happens to English departments when composition instruction and funding move across the curriculum? People in composition and rhetoric are answering these questions in various ways. Some argue that "writing" means academic, argumentative writing, while others argue that it means personal writing. Some argue that student writing is nonfiction writing or essay writing. Some propose that writing should be taught by all faculty across the curriculum, in writing centers, in high schools, or anywhere else but here. The abolitionists argue that the composition requirement be abolished, so that faculty across the curriculum assume responsibility for teaching writing in their classes and so that English no longer bears the burdens or reaps the benefits of teaching assistantships. Some argue that composition should be extracted from English departments and given its own lines, budgets, administrators, and support from a provost. Some argue that, without a solution to the parttime or adjunct problems and to the temporary and erratic funding of composition, English departments will remain unstable and underrated within the academy. Few, I believe, discuss the status of academic professionals at universities, not just those who teach in composition programs but those scattered across the campus, the number of which at many universities is probably equal to or more than the number of faculty. Others discuss the pressures from professional organizations for lawyers, engineers, and agriculturalists to teach students to communicate so that they will be prepared for the world of work. And more and more people are arguing for what was clearly the most important topic at last year's Conference on College Communication and Composition meeting: community literacy projects as sites for both teaching and research. From Anne Ruggles Gere's presidential ad
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dress to panel topics and hallway discussions, community literacy work dominated the program. (One aspect of community literacy work that is not discussed here is that in some states—for example California and Arizona—prisons are competing successfully with institutions of higher education for funding. Legislatures are allocating funds to real correctional facilities, where problems of recruitment, retention, grade inflation, and violence are more likely to be controlled.) All of these responses to the complex situations in today's universities are strategic and stylized, but the fiction I want to promote asks not for these or other reconfigurations of English or of composition but for a new entitlement for English departments as centers for reading and writing, for literacy, a name that will both unite faculty and promote their different areas of expertise. Anything less, I fear, will only perpetuate problems by allowing us to continue avoiding the difficult questions about our overall purposes and the interrelationships among language, literature, and life. This new title will not necessarily change what we already do, although over time it will affect us and our work. By presenting ourselves at times as teachers of reading and writing, we will shift our focus from texts to people interacting with each other through texts and to the situations, both in school and out of it, where such interactions take place. Our theories have already made these turns, but they have not, for the most part, affected classroom structures and practices or our relationships with surrounding communities. We are often guilty of not practicing what we preach, but this new rhetoric for what we do will make pedagogy a key term, and pedagogy brings issues of power out of the hat. There is no way for people to learn to read and write without recognition of their own agency—that is, if what we mean by "read" and "write" is an active construction of meaning. Renaming ourselves will give us stronger positions within the university and community and allow us to grow, individually and collectively, into our larger social aims. Some English departments have no option other than taking on new identities and purposes, while some have much to lose by taking on a new definition. In general, though, I believe that, if we in English do not present ourselves confidently as different from but essential to others within the academy, our work will be defined for us by others as technological in a limited sense of that word. The demographic and economic forces that are currently redefining English studies are powerful. The question of this conference echoes the question asked about the coherence of the English department's curriculum plan by former
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dean of the faculty of humanities at the University of Arizona, Annette Kolodny. I believe that my department, and others, can claim coherence and strengthen the diversity of what we do, from teaching writing and English as a second language to teaching creative writing and literary and cultural theory, if we move to a third term that transcends familiar oppositions such as theory and practice, literature and language, American and British, and so on: that third term is teaching; that third term is literacy education. More recently, our current senior vicepresident for academic affairs and provost, Paul S. Sypherd, charged academic and service and support units at the University of Arizona to develop a strategic longrange plan: "The tactic that most of us have used in the past to achieve change (i.e., an increase in quality) has been to grow into it. For the most part, this tactic will not work in the future, making it necessary for academic units to change direction, not by hiring more faculty to develop a new facet of the discipline, but through changes in existing programs, principally by focusing on a selected set of important facets of their educational and scholarly activities, and by eliminating dated or outmoded courses and research approaches. We have to deal with a world which we do not control by changing those activities which we do control, and fundamentally by changing ourselves and the way we conduct ourselves" (1). Sypherd also said that we must recognize that the people of Arizona established the university for two reasons—"first and foremost for their sons and daughters to have a quality educational experience, as well as professional and graduate opportunities" and, second, to "contribute both to economic development and to improving the quality of life of Arizona residents." He explained that "more than simply making it possible for our graduates to have jobs and earn higher salaries, we are to be responsible for a variety of services and activities, from cultural events to cancer therapy.'' He concluded, "Finally, there is the role the University of Arizona must play in the discovery of new knowledge, an activity that is the least well understood by the public, but which largely drives the two previous activities" (2). English department faculty may accept these new definitions or they may continue their emphasis on either the aesthetic or the technical, with both justified by intellectual or scientific rigor. English department faculty may decide not to make choices or to act in response to Sypherd. But as a way to make do, it makes sense to me to define ourselves as teachers of reading, writing, and literacy, with expertise in the aesthetic and the tech
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nical and in language and literature, all understood as aspects of literacy education. If English departments embrace the teaching of reading and writing, we can argue persuasively that we provide what no one else within the university provides but what is essential to all. By embracing writing and reading, we will include everyone in English, including graduate teaching assistants and adjuncts, as united in a common purpose, and we will position ourselves so that we must respect each other and have confidence in what we do. We will frame our research and teaching as parts of our shared goal to educate students in reading and writing as strategies for coping and equipment for living. Sypherd also opened doors for English rewritten. He defined the university's current mission to streamline, consolidate, and represent what it is all about: "Our task for the future is to reduce this fragmentation, to eliminate much of the curricular overspecialization, and to concentrate our human resources on educating a citizenry that is literate and able to write, reason, solve problems, understand itself, deal humanely with its neighbors and to live successfully in an increasingly technological world" (2). He then revised the old order: "Our planning for the future needs to recognize the role that 'service' plays in defining these new opportunities. I believe that our outreach efforts, involving problem solving, in organizing communities and services, and developing educational solutions, will take on an increasing portion of the mission of the 'new' global landgrant university" (3). As if by magic, service is no longer a word to denounce committee work, composition, firstyear courses, undergraduate education, and all those students who do not know how yet to act scholarly and therefore do not really belong. Sypherd decrees that both research and teaching are service to the state. By this move, Sypherd solves the conflict between the university's land grant and research missions. Although responses to Sypherd's memo have not focused on his verbal decrees or made real what I see possible, I think that efforts to revise the work of English departments and of humanities faculty under the heading of reading, writing, and literacy will be persuasive. Redrawing boundaries, replacing faculty by adjuncts and vice versa, recharting texts into new categories that blur fiction and nonfiction, combining courses across disciplines, creating another layer over general education or over a university college, resurrecting freshman seminars, and building liberal arts colleges—none of these strategies will make much difference. Shifting from literature to cultural studies or from canonical to multicultural texts will not be persuasive either. No moves that English de
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partments make will persuade others in the academy or out that we are essential unless we decide to agree on a common purpose that matches the perception that others have of us and of what we do. Internal revisions of the text that is English or external revisions of that text by the administration or legislature will not revive English. We must recontextualize English by placing it in the broader cultural context and by giving it a new name and a new purpose. The rhetoric I am proposing is not easy to accept because we have for so long sat in a circle facing each other and have talked mainly to ourselves. We have had to work hard to differentiate ourselves to have a name and place within our circle. But we must play musical chairs and turn our seats so that we face outward, our backs to each other for support, and declare in unison that our mission is clear and clearly directed toward the needs of students and people within the university and state. We are determined to teach language and literature and writing and reading as strategies for coping and equipment for living, in part because this teaching will always be challenging and changing. When we shift our positions, put ourselves in other people's shoes, and see ourselves from the outside, we might be able to realize that what seems like a magical and impossible transformation is, in fact, not magic at all but a simple renaming of ourselves that has been ours all along. Let us just suppose that we can present ourselves as united in a common mission. Then what? I propose that we define ourselves as teachers of reading and writing for particular outside audiences and purposes and that when we talk to each other to solve internal problems, we accentuate our differences. I propose that when we speak across the campus, we speak as a group with a clear character and agenda. I propose that when we speak beyond the campus, we figure out the probable means of persuasion for the specific situation, confident enough in who we are to be flexible in what we might become. Works Cited Burke, Kenneth. Language as Symbolic Action: Essays on Life, Literature, and Method. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966. ———. Permanence and Change: An Anatomy of Purpose. 3d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. ———. The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action. 3d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.
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Flanagan, Anna. "Task Force Making Significant Progress in Senior English Course." The Council Chronicle 3 (September 1993):4. Staub, Diane. "National Standards for English: Handson Work Now Under Way." The Council Chronicle 2 (April 1993):1, 4, 5. Stuckey, J. Elspeth. The Violence of Literacy. Portsmouth, N. H.: Heinemann, 1991. Sypherd, Paul S. "Memorandum." University of Arizona (21 September 1993): 1–4. Wade, Richard C. "Reading, Writing, and Rehabilitation." New York Times, 29 May 1992.
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Them We Burn: Violence and Conviction in the English Department Stanley Fish In his witty and generous introduction, David Miller mentioned that I joined the University of California at Berkeley "just in time to enjoy the 60s." Actually, a lot hangs on the simple fact that I did not enjoy the 60s. I HATED the 60s! My wife enjoyed the 60s—which is another story called marriage. I hated the 60s and everything about them, and especially hated, as I once put it in an essay, "The Unbearable Ugliness of Volvos." One day in the 60s I saw some of my colleagues in the English department shift from abasing themselves before deans and boards of trustees to abasing themselves before students, and it is then that I coined the first of my long series of "Fishy academic aphorisms," which, as most of them do, comes in two parts. Part 1: Academics like to eat shit. Part 2: In a pinch they don't care whose shit they eat. When I got to Berkeley I noticed this curious relationship assumed by my colleagues between virtue and being downtrodden—between acting with good faith in one's profession and being endlessly apologetic and shamefaced in relationship to it. I did not then, nor do I now, understand this; and my views on some of the subjects that have been discussed in the last couple of days can be traced to that experience. On occasions like this you always say relatively little about the papers with which you agree. That is, of course, the nature of the assignment. Let me begin then by noting some points of agreement. First, I agree strongly with Tilly Warnock when she urges us to present to the public a face that is open, accessible, and easily read. Specifically she urges us to allow the public to understand our mission in terms that it can immediately grasp. Indeed—and this I think is the important point—in terms that it already holds and wants to hold. As she spoke I flashed back on two incidents that occurred when I was in
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graduate school. The first took place in a drugstore called the Hamden Mart. I worked in this drugstore during the first and second semester of my third year on Thursdays and on weekends. It was one of those drugstores that sold almost everything—lumber, baseball gloves, automobile materials—and you wondered whether or not it actually dispensed prescriptions. One of my coworkers was a young high school student, and during one of our breaks we posed to each other the usual questions—"Well, what is it that you do?"—which is going to be a leitmotif of this presentation. I told him I was a graduate student at Yale University, and he asked me in what subject. "English," I said. He looked very puzzled for a moment, but then he brightened up and said, "Oh, verbs and adjectives!" I don't know what I replied to him at the time, but I hope (and doubt) that I was smart enough to say nothing, but simply to nod in agreement. The second incident had to do with the fact that I played on the English department softball team. And when a team from engineering, say, would show up, its members would always make a great show of complaining that we, members of the English department team, were no doubt going to try to talk our way into victory, that is, to distract our opponent by using verbal skills as a substitute for the athletic skills we no doubt lacked. Before Tilly spoke to us I told those anecdotes to illustrate the weak understanding of the lay public with respect to our profession. But since listening to her yesterday, I have a quite different sense of those anecdotes and will in the future tell them with a different spin: that is, as indications of what the public expects from us and as a lesson in the foolishness of failing to take advantage of those expectations. We should, in fact, as she urged, make them into a strength. What the public wants, in Tilly's words, is to think that we have "an area of expertise." That is, and again in her words, "something that we do." And moreover, that is something the larger society wants done. Someone, after all, should be taking care of verbs and adjectives. Someone should be codifying and refurbishing those verbal skills that on occasion move the world. If in fact the larger society believes these two things, then we have a readymade rationale for our existence, and we would be foolish to surrender it for no good reason, except for the reasons we find in our endless, anxious theorizing about ourselves. This allows me to make one of my major points: in order to win a place at the table of tasks, a task must be distinctive. That is, it must conceive of itself and be conceived of by others as doing a specific, particular job. As doing this and not that, and surely as not doing everything, which is in effect to do noth
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ing. A specific job, a doing of this and not that; where "that" is any one of the other jobs done by other enterprises whose sense of task must also be diacritically defined and known by what it is not. You know when your enterprise has achieved this status—that is, of being a specific task with boundaries and definitions and mechanisms of selfrecognition—when you can say confidently of a task offered to you in its precincts, "That's not the kind of thing we do around here." Of course, someone is immediately going to challenge me and say, "Well, we do lots of kinds of things around here; how can there he one kind of thing that we do?" But that's to grab the wrong end of the epistemological or indeed disciplinary question. My thesis is that the kind of thing we do around here is not positively defined in a list, or even in a very precise single statement; it is defined by our being able to have a share of a franchise to which no one else can lay a plausible claim. The kind of thing we do here is known not as a discrete item, but in contrast with the kinds of things done by members of other enterprises: let's call them history, sociology, statistics, political science, etc. In short, the content of "kind of thing we do around here" is differential. It comes into view against the background of the practices it is not; and it must display itself to the public in that way, as something we, not others, do. Because if it did not, it could not sustain a challenge to its usefulness. It is a requirement, then, for the respectability of an enterprise that it be, or at least be able to present itself (which is even more important) as, distinctive. This understanding of the distinctiveness of a task does not imply an endorsement of any of the shapes a task might take. The fact that an enterprise acquires an identity by carving out a space for itself in the landscape of enterprises does not determine forever the specific features of that identity. So long as the enterprise exists in a differential relationship with others, the content of the difference can change over time, as it obviously has in the course of what we think of as literary history or literary studies. Within the space that has been carved out, moreover, all questions, including questions touching on basic concepts, remain open, although not all of them are open at exactly the same time, because if they were, the space would have become entirely permeable, no space at all. Nor are the boundaries between enterprises fixed and impermeable (I am here warding off accusations of essentialism before they reach the back row). Negotiations on the borders go on continually, and at times, as we know, border skirmishes can turn into largescale territorial disputes in which the very right of an enterprise to the space it has long occupied is hotly contested.
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At these times internal debates will focus on fundamental issues of selfdefinition, and when those debates are concluded, or rather put temporarily to rest (because they could always begin again), the internal map of the enterprise will have been significantly altered. And at that point the content of "the kind of thing we do around here" will have changed. What will not have changed, however, is the claim to be distinctive—that is, unless the enterprise is bent on suicide. The enterprise will still present itself both to the outside world and to its members as uniquely qualified to perform a certain task. And this is a point that I want to emphasize, because from it follows everything else that I will be saying: Objects, including texts, do not have an identity apart from some discursive practice, and persons do not have an integrated essence that will emerge if they will only break free of disciplinary constraints. Objects, including texts, come into view within the vocabularies of specific enterprises (law, literature, economics, history, etc.) and in relation to the purposes of which that enterprise is the vehicle. The application of the vocabularies of different enterprises to an object will not bring out facets of the object's "complexity" or ineffable thingness, but rather will constitute different objects. In sum, the existence of sharp disciplinary boundaries, along with the attendance of supposedly hermetically sealed vocabularies, is not an unhappy accident, an excrescence, on the purity of our task; it is in fact what makes our task possible. If distinctiveness is a requirement for effectivity and even for the security of existence, then many of the agendas urged on us by some of the previous speakers at this conference would, if they were put into action, weaken or destroy that distinctiveness and put us out of business. Now—and I really mean this seriously—maybe we should be put out of business. But let's do it in a relatively straightforward way, rather than as the byproduct of an effort whose end supposedly is to exalt our sense of task and give it the force of revolution and wholesale change. It is this effort, evermore selfdefeating as its ambitions grow larger, that is being made when we hear talk of blurring or breaking down boundaries. That's the effort, in my view, to expand the sense of our task to the point where it will disappear and no longer exist. Whenever you hear talk of "blurring boundaries," or of "breaking down boundaries," or of "replacing partialities and exclusions with full articulations of complexity and/or the correspondingly full acknowledgment of difference"—be suspicious. Breaking down boundaries in this rhetoric is usually thought of as reattaching (or in some vocabularies reembedding) an enterprise to (or in) the larger social and political panorama from which it has illegitimately sequestered itself in the arbitrary and artificial
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confines of a discipline. If I had to list all the papers and essays in which a sentence like that occurred, it would fill this room and many others. The project of breaking down boundaries can go forward under any number of names, but three are particularly possible: historicism, political criticism, and the project of interdisciplinarity. To take them in order: Historicism—here the rap is "If we wean ourselves away from the circular and selfreferring vocabulary of aesthetics and literariness and substitute for those vocabularies a strong sense of the contingent historicity of our efforts, we shall be better at our jobs because we will be doing them with an awareness of the political and social context that enabled them and can be altered by them. We will become truly effective if we widen our understanding of the historical stage on which we are performing." To which I reply, if we were to do that—if we were to attend to all or even to many of the contexts with which our efforts may have affiliations and complicities, if we were to keep our eye on the big picture and try always to leave nothing out, we would be either (a) paralyzed, because there will always be something more to take into account, something additional to be factored in before assertion is hazarded; or (b) we would be doing some other job, but it wouldn't be the job we present ourselves as doing. Take away the focus of the vocabulary and machinery of literary studies as they are conventionally understood and you will neither expand nor improve literary studies; you will abandon them, and remove them from the world, and remove both their objects and their pleasures. Those who preach historicism strongly are saying we should all be historians. That is a proposition—like the proposition that we should be out of business (it is the same proposition)—I am willing to entertain. Someone might persuade me that we should all become historians. But whether or not we decide to become historians, we shouldn't delude ourselves into thinking that by becoming historians we shall become better literary critics. An example of the confusion that follows when the questions appropriate to the doing of history are put to efforts that are literary is visible in the paper by Professors Frus and Corkin. At one point Frus and Corkin fault Willa Cather for being a bad historian. Here is a part of a sentence in which their judgment on Cather's historical accuracy is made; they are referring to the representation of Nebraska in her novels: "Cather's assertion overstates its case." Now, to say that, from my point of view, is to assume (and I think to assume incorrectly) that it was Cather's intention, that is, her selfconception of her task and its purpose, accurately to describe Nebraska's economic and agricul
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tural history. She could well reply, "I wasn't doing that or trying to do that; I was doing or trying to do something else, and if you are not interested in the kind of thing I was trying to do, but in another kind of effort, that's all right. But leave me alone and turn your attention to those whose intentions and sense of specific tasks are in the line of work that concerns you." An analogous effort to join history and literary studies has been made by Robert Hodge. In the course of a book on Donne, however, Professor Hodge acknowledges that his project has been a failure. In the course of surveying recent studies of the life and works of Donne, Hodge finds that despite the pronounced intentions of many authors to marry the disciplines of literary criticism and history, the marriage is never consummated because "each has a different defining object which cannot be incorporated into the other domain without challenging the identity of the discipline itself" (225). Thus while Terry Sherwood, Hodge points out, in his 1984 book on Donne's thought makes many references to "historians of religious thought" (221), these historians would have no reason to return the compliment, since he uses them to explain an object that is outside their system, i.e., the work of a poet. For Sherwood, as for the other critics Hodge examines, and again I quote Hodge, "explanation seems to go in one direction," and when all is said and done, Hodge reports, the disciplinary boundaries remain in place (221). Hodge's analysis is right on target. When he speaks of the separate developments and histories and the different logonomic rules that organize each as a distinct discipline and accords them the status of potent social facts (this is his vocabulary), he is, I think, speaking the truth. And then in a moment of insight he urges us to take seriously the resistance of disciplines to incorporation and not to dismiss it "in the name of some illusory project of unity." And yet no sooner has Hodge said this than he issues a call for just such a project: "The need is to replace the tunnel vision of the past with a broadly based practice that is situated socially and historically" (233). What I am saying is that tunnel vision is the only vision that enables you to see, and that if you want to see two or three things at the same time or see everything, you will end up seeing nothing. What Hodge calls the potent social fact of disciplinary organization is more potent than he knows. For that fact gives us the only leverage and potency we could possibly have; independently of the potent social fact of disciplinary organization we would have nothing to say. And since what we say and do will have reference to and be intelligible within the concerns and goals recognized by the traditions and history of our discipline, our sayings and doings will he
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efficacious—make a difference, only within that discipline. In short, the effects of one's actions will always be confined to their disciplinary settings, even when those settings receive some grandiose new name like ''cultural studies." That conclusion, which you may think was arrived at a bit too swiftly, leads to the second banner under which the blurringofboundary crowd usually marches: the banner of political criticism—criticism that attempts not merely to explicate texts or to describe aesthetic structures, but also to change the larger social and political world. My response to this is exactly like the response I have already given to the historicists' rap. If you want to do politics, do politics. (I sometimes put this in a way calculated to infuriate everyone: The academy—love it or leave it.) But don't think that in doing politics you are also improving and enhancing a literary job of work; you are abandoning it. Perhaps for good reason. There are lots of good reasons for doing something else other than talking about Paradise Lost, although I have been doing that for thirtytwo years, quite happily. This point of view will seem perverse, at least in the context of what everyone now knows and says ad nauseam, i.e. that everything is political. In a finally trivial sense, that is true. Every action in a fallen world—that is, a world where matters of truth and value are ever contested and where there is no ready recourse to an undisputed source of authority or revelation—every action rests on assumptions and commitments that are challengeable and partial, and therefore by definition, since the challengeable and the partial is the political, every act is political. But that general point—which extends to the tie I am wearing, to the pen I'm holding, to the room we are in, etc.—is so general that it has no consequences in particular. Asserting it about any particular situation doesn't give you any methodological help. It doesn't tell you what to do. That's point one. Point two is that the general point—that everything is political in the trivial sense I have specified—is not the same as the false point, often confused with it, that we should therefore perform every task with a political intention. That's a wholly different matter. For once we have our eyes on political effects, once we substitute for the literary question, "What's the best or most accurate or most illuminating reading of Paradise Lost?" the political question, "Which reading of Paradise Lost will best enable us to topple patriarchy, or subvert the war effort?"—we shall no longer be doing a literary job of work, but some other. You cannot simultaneously approach a task with an eye toward its longrange or widescale political effects, and still be performing that task.
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If you want to explicate Paradise Lost, fine; if you want to alter the present structures of the United States, fine. As an illustration consider a piece of the history of Milton criticism that some of you will either have forgotten or never known about. It concerns an interlude in Milton criticism that for the world was not an interlude. It was called World War II. And of course during World War II some of the urgencies impelling literary studies were relaxed, quite understandably, in favor of others. And that relaxation produced at least one important, that is, at the time wellattended to, book, G. Wilson Knight's The Chariot of Wrath: The Message of John Milton to Democracy at War. The subtitle tells us everything we need to know about Knight's intention. We can assume (and we would assume correctly) that he is going to search Milton's poetry for passages and images that will provide comfort and inspiration to a nation beleaguered by evil forces. He is not going to claim—he did not claim, and it would have been rather odd to claim—that the meanings that he finds are the meanings Milton intended. He claims only that the meanings he finds are helpful to the British people in a moment of crisis in 1942. What follows in the book is a marvelously zany allegorical reading of Milton's poem, presupposing at every point a homology between the battle of Christ against Satan and the battle of Winston Churchill (an excerpt from one of his addresses graces Knight's title page) against Hitler. This allegorization generates innumerable parallels, including a oncefamous, or infamous, characterization of this onrushing chariot of God in Book Six of Paradise Lost as "a gigantic, more than human, airplane" (159). On the other side of the Atlantic, Douglas Bush was not impressed. "While one may respect the feeling behind Professor Knight's allegorization," he said, "it may nevertheless be thought that Milton might have preferred intelligible criticism to a whirlwind apotheosis" (6). But Bush misses the point. The intelligibility Knight is after is not literary but topical and political. He wants to rouse a nation. He wants to be a national cheerleader, and in the context of those purposes, details that seem strained and even bizarre to Bush are perfectly apposite. And of course Bush needn't have worried about the danger of Knight's book to Milton and to Milton criticism. Knight's "whirlwind apotheosis" is barely remembered and has had no longlasting effect on Milton criticism. It could not have had, because it was not a critical but a hortatory effort, and once the occasion provoking it had passed from the scene—that is, once World War II was won—that effort ceased to be of interest, and the tradition of Milton criticism returned with scarcely a ripple to its former ways.
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The example of The Chariot of Wrath allows me to underline my point; it is one thing to say that everything is political when it means no more or less than any task one prosecutes proceeds within incontestable assumptions; it is another thing to say that whenever one prosecutes a task, one does so in that sense with specifically political intentions. No act is unrelated to the large political structures within which it is something possible; but while the fact of this interrelatedness can tell us something about the eventual fate of disciplinary actions in some etiolated and unpredictable way—like every drop of rain they will finally participate in the alteration of everything—it cannot be the basis of the actions that we undertake when we think of ourselves as literary agents. Actions are specific to projects, and so are their effects. The obvious rejoinder to everything I have been saying so far is very simple: "Who says? Who are you to say what questions we may and may not ask about a literary work, what directions of inquiry we may pursue, what paths of influence and possible effect we may or may not open? If a sufficient number of persons succeed in changing the mode of interrogation considered appropriate to literary studies, literary studies will have a new shape and your strictures will be heard as what they probably are: the dyspeptic complaints of someone whose day has come and gone." Now, it is certainly true that if enough people produce readings with an eye to their immediate political effect and call what they do literary criticism, then in the eyes of the world, literary criticism will be coextensive with what they do. But the fact that a new practice bears an old name will not mean that it does what its predecessor did, only better; it will mean that it does something else, and that what was formerly done is no longer available. My point is the tautological one that different activities are different, and engaging in them will be differently productive, and no doubt valuably different, or differently valuable. When you exchange one activity for another, you lose something. And although you might mask the loss by calling the new activity by the old name, the phenomena that came into view under the previous dispensation will have disappeared in your brave new world. Maybe they should disappear, maybe the pleasures particular to close literary analysis are too esoteric and overrefined in a time of great social urgency. But we should at least have a clear idea of what would be at stake were we to think of ourselves as politicians first and literary critics second, if at all. I am not and would not want to be understood as making an essentialist point here. I am not saying that there is a fixed entity called "literary studies"
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and that those who reject its decorums are committing a crime against the category. Indeed, it is because literary study is a diacritical or conventional category and activity, shaped by the vocabulary and distinctions and questions it employs, that it behooves us to be wary of too easily discarding that machinery. If the category of literary study were essential rather than conventional, then a departure from it by a generation of practitioners would do it no permanent harm. It would still be waiting there to be rediscovered by the remnant, by the faithful; but a conventional activity—one that lives and dies by the zeal with which we ask its artificial questions and care about its artificial answers—will no longer be performable if those questions no longer seem urgent. If no one any longer asks, "What is the structure of this poem?", or "What is the intention of the author and has it been realized?", or "In what tradition does this poet enroll himself and with what consequences for the tradition?", something will have passed from the earth, and we shall read the words of what once was literary criticism as if they were the remnants of a lost language spoken by alien beings. We shall make love to the same (unhappy) fate if we hearken to the siren song of interdisciplinarity, the third weapon in the arsenal of those who would break down boundaries. We are told that if we would only attend to the methods, material, and perspectives of "neighboring disciplines," we would perform our disciplinary task in a larger and a more inclusive way. But in fact, if we were thus to widen the scope of our attention, we would not be reforming our task; rather, we would be abandoning it in favor of some other. Having all the disciplines in mind as you proceed will not make you a better literary actor; it will make you a sociologist or historian of disciplines, which may be a perfectly respectable and valuable thing to be. There is nothing wrong with that as long as you don't pretend that in taking up this new task you are perfecting the distinctive task of your home discipline. You will be erasing it. This point is inseparable from the one I have made several times: a practice only acquires identity by not being other practices, by representing itself as not doing everything, but as doing one thing in such a way as to have a society habitually look to it for specific performance. When the hard outlines of a practice are blurred by a map that brings into relief its affiliations, borrowings, lendings, and overlappings with other practices, those affiliations, rather than anything specific to the practice, are what become visible. Although the interdisciplinary map is general, surveying many disciplines rather than focusing on one, its generality is itself particular, for the shapes it
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makes available gain their prominence at the expense of the other shapes it renders invisible. The fact that the interdisciplinary map, or the map of a cultural text, as it is sometimes called, has no place in it for the routines and imperatives of specific practices like literary studies is not a sign of its completeness or deeper perspicuity, but of its partiality. To say that the interdisciplinary map or text is partial is not to criticize it or to deny its usefulness in certain circumstances; it is merely to deny its claim to be representationally superior to other partial texts that are doing other jobs. Were it not partial, were the cultural or interdisciplinary text or map wholly adequate to every detail in the universe as seen from every possible angle, were the interdisciplinary project possible, no one could read the resulting account. A text that was adequate to every detail as seen from every possible angle would be unsituated. It would not perceive from a perspective, a "here, not there"; it would perceive from everywhere and therefore from nowhere. Human beings, however, cannot be in such a condition of dispersion. Human beings are always in a particular place; that is what it means to be human: to be limited by what a specific coordinate of space and time permits us to see until we move on to another coordinate with its equally, if differently, limited permission. For human beings the phrase "as far as I can see" is more than a ritual acknowledgment of fallibility; it is an accurate statement of our horizonbound condition, of the fact that at any one moment the scope of our understanding—and within that understanding the range of actions we might think to take—is finite and cannot be expanded by an act of the will. In short, we cannot intelligibly say things like "I will now see beyond my horizon." Seeing beyond your horizon, stepping out of the confines and boundaries of your particular historical practices in your situatedness, is the real project of all of the three agendas—historicism, political criticism, and interdisciplinarity. And having said this allows me finally to make my last point, which is that all of these projects—historicism, political criticism, and interdisciplinarity—are forms of liberalism, and it is against liberalism that I have waged a lifelong and largely losing battle. Liberalism in any of its versions valorizes thought and discursive processes over the body, over noise, over conflict, over battle. Mental and discursive processes, processes of rationality and talk are, in the structure of liberal thought, universals; they transcend the messy and conflictual scene of history. I find it ironic that some of those who have spoken here against an ahistorical and apolitical mode of being are themselves urging an apolitical mode of
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being in their presentations. We are told in the paper by Professors Frus and Corkin that we must be selfconscious, that "we must base ourselves on contextual and selfconscious approaches." The word "selfconscious" means only one thing, and that thing is impossible. It means stepping back from the convictions, presuppositions, assumptions, and ordinary senses of routine obligation that are the furniture and structure of our consciousness. The same impossible imperative reappears later in the paper when we are told of the value of "acknowledging a particular subjective point of view and its partiality." To which I always put the question, "Acknowledging it with what?'' That is, with what part of the mind do you acknowledge its partiality? Either you acknowledge the mind's partiality with a part of your mind that is itself historically situated, and therefore partial, in which case partiality hasn't been transcended but reconfigured, or you acknowledge the mind's partiality with a part of your mind that is not historically situated, and you are an ahistorical essentialist despite all your historicist rhetoric. Later, Frus and Corkin urge us to perform acts of "selfconscious historicizing." Presumably, one is selfconsciously historical when one is able to reflect on one's historical situation. But that ability would be the ability to detach ourselves from history and if we had it—and we don't—"historicizing" would hardly be the name to give it. You cannot "take account" of your own historicity without becoming an ahistorical being, one that rather than being in history stands above it or to the side of it. The imperative "always historicize" is either superfluous or impossible to follow. It is superfluous because if the strong thesis of historicism is correct (as I think it is) then historicizing, in the sense of always proceeding within a temporally bound perspective, is what you inevitably do. It is impossible to follow if it asks you to "place" your historical being, for you could only do that from a vantage point of a being other than the one you historically are. Selfconscious historicizing, if it could be performed, would be the feat of escaping history by entering into a conversation about it; and that is, par excellence, the dream of liberalism. Escape into conversation, into the life of the mind, is what liberalism teaches; and it is what I think Gerry Graff teaches when he urges us in his paper "to imagine a dialogue that would thematize its own political conflicts." Listen to the word "thematize." When you thematize political conflicts, you in effect have washed them in talk, smothered them in discourse. You have thrown a tablecloth of conversation over them and muffled them, which of course may be a very good thing to do. In fact, in many situations I can think of—I refer again to marriage—an excellent thing to do.
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At another point, Graff chastises the modern university for its determination "to avoid the danger that actual conversation might break out." But what one hears behind Gerry's sentence is of course the reference to what usually is said either to break out or not to break out. Not conversation but war, violence, force, conflicts, fights to the death, or at least (and this is my favorite mode) to the silencing of one's adversary. That is the danger—violence, war, conflicts to the death—that Graff would avoid, and who of us would not join him at times, as would, I think, Professor Lauter when in the question period he hastened to assure us (as a gesture of piety) that he certainly preferred "dialogue and rationality as substitutes for violence." "Violence," of course, is a dirty word. It has the same force in some conversations as "relativism," or "KKK," or "Nazis,'' or "deconstructionist." Therefore, I would substitute for it a word by which I understand the same thing, but which is rhetorically a softer word. It is "conviction." What liberal projects are designed to stigmatize and to evade is conviction—whether the project is called historicism, political criticism, interdisciplinarity, or "teach the conflicts." "Conviction" means believing that something is at stake, and that the highest priority is not keeping the conversation going or expanding its horizons or filling it with endless selfqualifications, but turning it in the direction you think good and right—which means silencing the voices of those you think bad and wrong. Here my guide is, as always, Milton, in a famous, and to some embarrassing (but to me glorious) moment in his Areopagitica. After all those wonderful praises of tolerance and freedom of the press, Milton turns around and says, "Hey, but of course I didn't mean Catholics. Them we burn." Now don't get me wrong: I have nothing against Catholics. What I'm saying is that if conviction is not simply a component in an endless liberal debating society, there is always going to be some point at which you are going to say, "Not X; them we burn." And if you are never willing to say that, it is hard to see what you are doing and why you should continue doing it. The force and value of Milton's positive assertion in the Areopagitica is a function of what he would exclude. He imagines here and elsewhere in his works a better life for himself and for his fellows. But he knows that such an imagination requires the equally strong imagining of what actions, what agents, will have to be excluded from that better life, or else it won't be any better. If we teach and write from conviction and do not sacrifice it to utopian dreams in which all can say or do anything because nothing matters, our discipline will then live in all its glorying and enabling particularity.
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Works Cited Bush, Douglas. Paradise Lost in Our Time. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1945. Fish, Stanley. "Dennis Martinez and the Uses of Theory." Yale Law Journal 96 (July 1987): 1773–1800. ———. "The Unbearable Ugliness of Volvos." Frus, Phyllis, and Stanley Corkin. "The More Things Change: Canon Revision and the Case of Willa Cather." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 8 October 1993. Graff, Gerald. "Is There a Conversation in This Curriculum? Or, Coherence without Disciplinarity." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 7 October 1993. Hodge, Robert. Literature as Discourse: Textual Strategies in English and History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. Kellman, Mark. Stanford Law Review. Knight, G. Wilson. The Chariot of Wrath: The Message of John Milton to Democracy at War. London: Faber and Faber, 1942. Sherwood, Terry. Fulfilling the Circle. Toronto, 1984. Warnock, Tilly. "Making Do, Making Believe, and Making Sense: Burkean Magic and the Essence of English Departments." Paper presented at the Nineteenth Alabama Symposium on English and American Literature. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, 8 October 1993.
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Afterthoughts ...: When Is an English Teacher Not an English Teacher? Stanley Corkin As stanley fish has himself argued in another forum ("The Common Touch"), the conflicts exemplified by the canon wars have resulted in polarities within the academy and within literary studies as an endeavor. Yet Fish earlier took a position quite different from the one we heard in Alabama. Wrote Fish, If values and standards are themselves historical products, fashioned and refashioned in the crucible of discussion and debate, there is no danger of their being subverted because they are always and already being transformed. Transformation, however, is always a painful process, at least for those persons (and I am often one of them) who want things to stay the same, and one can understand the Juvenalian laments ("we are going to hell in a handbasket") even if one is not moved to echo them. (264)
He goes on to throw in his lot with those who would advocate "more subject matter, more avenues of research ... more work, in short, for academics." He sees this position as a desirable alternative to that proposed by "those who would hold back the tide and defend the beachhead won thirtyfive or fifty years ago" (265). When I returned to my home in Cincinnati after the invigorating exchange that marked the Alabama symposium, I reached for the collection in which Fish published these earlier remarks to see if perhaps I had misremembered them. But I had not. So now I know I have at least one Stanley Fish as an ally, even though I cannot claim the support of all Stanley Fishes. Disciplinarity as it has been constructed in the academy is to some degree marked by the logical and internally coherent objects and methods it characterizes. But this internal logic also has its limits. Disciplinarity is also a matter of turf, of funding, of professional oligarchy. Departments of psychology broke off from those of moral philosophy
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because they had distinguished their disciplinary model as empirical, and thus scientific, and had developed an ability to acquire funding for this type of research. Without the claim to science there would have been no funding. But the terms of this definition have restricted the types of questions that are asked within departments of psychology and, for that matter, within philosophy. The modern distinction between the psyche and the mind relies in large part on this received concept of disciplinarity. But what if my considered scrutiny of those terms finds that they are more alike than disparate? Periodically, scholars and teachers chafe at the boundaries imposed by such historical distinctions. We ask if we have the right or the opportunity to shift disciplinary boundaries to take as our object of study what we feel are more compelling materials. This strikes me not as the disciplinary dance of death to which Fish refers or the act of doing something other than what we are supposed to as English professors. Rather, we are engaging in precisely the type of transformation that Fish has termed inevitable. Perhaps the fact that I name myself as an actor within this historical shift illuminates what about Phyllis Frus's and my essay so upsets our esteemed (and celebrated) antagonist. Unlike Fish, I am both aware of and in history. It seems to me that to deny the former is to subsume the category of epistemology with that of ontology. If we do this, we may always be historical but we may never know it. This model does not seem an accurate depiction of how we operate in the world and the academy or a productive one. Indeed, it recalls the words of baseball great Mickey Rivers, who once said (and I paraphrase here), "Ain't no use worrying about the things you can't do anything about. Ain't no use worrying about the things you can do something about. Ain't no use worrying." But as intellectuals we are professional worriers, rehashing and reviewing a range of issues and texts through the posing of analytical questions. When we are particularly engaged, we pose these questions with some idea of how we formed them and why. Knowledge is always partial and, at best, recursive. We interrogate what we thought we knew with what we think we know. History as a representation of the past is always the result of such questioning and subject to such questioning. In the process of such revision, we locate ourselves consciously within the various currents of our age. We may choose to swim with some and against others, but these choices depend on an awareness (however partial) of where we are and how we got here. We know that Willa Cather was not a historian. But we also know that she was, at least in the case of My Ántonia, a novelist who was vitally concerned with issues of historical representation. If we scrutinize her use of historical
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referents, are we not developing some means of understanding this novel? I would argue that we are indeed engaging in somewhat traditional disciplinary activities. Though, in this era of institutional retrenchment and the general defunding of humanities, perhaps we need a new and more effective rationale. To maintain that we are teachers of literature, mandarins who reveal the timeless qualities of a rarefied body of writings, restricts us in a manner that locks us within a prison of discipline. Bound by a sense of mission wholly justified by past practices, we remain as premodern curiosities whose primary function is to mediate disputes between the spectre of F. R. Leavis and the corpus of Harold Bloom. Perhaps we need a more worldly function. We would redraw those walls to recast ourselves as public intellectuals, speaking to contemporary matters of national definition. Work Cited Fish, Stanley. "The Common Touch, or, One Size Fits All." In The Politics of Liberal Education, ed. Darryl J. Gless and Barbara Herrnstein Smith. Durham: Duke University Press, 1992.
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Afterthoughts ... Phyllis Frus I can add a story to go along with Stanley Fish's about how he has been perceived by nonacademics. When I tell someone taking my check or giving me credit that my occupation is English teacher, the response invariably is, "Uhoh, I'd better watch my grammar." I usually assure such an insecure person that I do not focus on that kind of English but on literature and writing. I am not that kind of "disciplinarian," one who ridicules others' nongrammatical speech or corrects problems with verb noun agreement in conversational English. I want to move away from this notion, which I think is a common perception of our discipline. But I also want to move away from a disciplinary role in which I am conceived of as caretaker of interpretations of masterpieces. Because I know that most students, even at the elite university where I have been teaching, will not become literary critics or perhaps ever again even read another canonical novel after they graduate and these works are no longer assigned, I want to broaden the practice of literary study to include historical and political work on texts. There seems more likelihood of students becoming engaged in reading and discussing novels, stories, and poems in their postcollegiate lives if they have learned to view them as part of culture defined as Raymond Williams does—as "the relationship between elements in a whole way of life" (13)—rather than as part of some rarefied category of art, viewed as above and outside their political, historical, economic, and social lives. Fish's comment that if we do something other than aesthetic readings, we are not doing literary work sounds suspiciously as though New Criticism still defines our profession. He would surely agree that literary history has also been part of the discipline of English. By taking history into account, we are not practicing history instead of criticism; rather, we are combining the two exercises that have in some traditionbound views of literary study been split. We do not take Willa Cather to task for not writing history rather than a novel. We
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simply refuse to participate in elevating her to the highest reaches of literature by taking her on her own terms, which would be to read her transparently. By reading selfconsciously and stating that our disciplinary goal is the creation in students and other readers of a reflexive historical consciousness, we are taking note that no such "pure" reading is possible. All of us always read through the lens of our particular time, place, and historical circumstances (located as we are, as Fish agrees, in history), and when we are aware of this lens, when we acknowledge it, we become selfconscious interpreters. I have a personal reason for becoming disquieted by attempts like Fish's to police disciplinary boundaries and to implicate me in his sweeping claim that liberal projects such as historical and political criticism and interdisciplinarity itself evade conviction and are therefore hopelessly utopian and ineffectual. I fear the conviction of one who is so sure he is right that he is willing to silence others who he "knows" are wrong. Fish's cynical putdown of those of us who would teach the conflicts, engage in dialogue and rational discourse, account for our interested and partial interpretations, and acknowledge the impossibility of apprehending truth when it is viewed as noncontingent, absolute, or essential seems quite close to the position of Edward Shils. Shils says that academic freedom is a useless doctrine when the "truth which it would protect" is regarded as an illusion. He says that a body of "antinomian academic opinion" now holds sway, and so there is no use upholding standards of truthfulness, whether they are those by which we judge scholarly research and award appointment and tenure or those that enable us to distinguish good dissertations from poor ones (209). I believe that this opinion, like Fish's, leaps much too far from some historians' and critics' observation that truths are contingent and contested to the conclusion that no standards can be upheld and applied. To me, academic freedom is based on a dialectical, not an absolute, view of truth; it guarantees some maneuvering room as we pursue conclusions we can support and can persuade others to accept as true. That is, academic freedom ensures that the process of inquiry will be open, not that the results will be selfevident or even convincing to all who follow the process by which they are obtained. The doctrine does not imply that there is one truth to which we all must agree to be granted protection from those interfering with our pursuit of knowledge. In short, academic freedom means the freedom to question existing verities and paradigms and to overturn them when they no longer are valid. If we cannot question such matters, why have a discipline at all? We all agree on the artifice of disciplinary boundaries—our profession has a history, and
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not just a single one on which we all agree; otherwise we would not need the several different narratives of how it came to hold the form in which we find it today. If such is the case, why maintain the absolute efficacy of doing literary study in one particular way, disregarding changing circumstances? This is a personal issue for me because I did not get tenure at my university this past year, despite (or perhaps because of) a book that Cambridge University Press is publishing. In it I argue for a contingent view of literature as the best way to understand why the difference between journalism and fiction came to be equated with the distinction between what is true and what was made up. As I pursue a grievance contesting this decision, I do not want the university to rely on arguments like those of Shils and Fish to avoid acknowledging my right to question established but not determinate truths, such as the dominant definition of literature. Works Cited Shils, Edward. "Do We Still Need Academic Freedom?" American Scholar 62 (1993): 187–209. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.
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Afterthoughts ... George Garrett In the early 1960s, that time on which so many of my fellow academics look back with unmitigated nostalgia, I was working at two fulltime jobs—teaching at the University of Virginia and writing screenplays for Samuel Goldwyn, Jr. There was a connection. Goldwyn was an alumnus of Virginia, and once he visited the old school and met and talked a while with my other boss—the inimitable Fredson Bowers. Goldwyn later told me, "That guy could run a major studio." It was intended to be a high compliment. My feeling after this conference is a little like the feeling I had on an occasion when I was visiting Goldwyn in Los Angeles. Once upon a time in Hollywood, at lunch, I found myself surrounded by a whole table of agents—those infamous killer sharks in dark suits. They were swapping tales of savage betrayals and breathtaking treachery, of corporate back stabbing and groin kicking. At a pause in this vicious litany, I jumped in and told them about a recent department meeting at Virginia, a routine mousetrap play, a double whammy, a laying on of hands upon some poor nerd who was hoping for a promotion. Not only did the agents listen to me attentively, they fell into what I took to be a stunned silence. Finally one of them spoke up for the whole group. "Do you mean to sit there and tell me that people like that are allowed to teach our children?" I leave this conference convinced, among other things, that our discipline is not antagonistic or far removed from the ways and means, the good and evil of corporate America. We have a discipline all right, and we share its characteristics with the rest of society.
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Afterthoughts ... Paul Lauter I am quite willing to grant the fundamental point that Stanley Fish argues: disciplines are distinct, have intelligible if sometimes furry and shifting boundaries, and display dissimilar though partially overlapping methodologies and objects of study. Moreover, it is foolish to assume that by carrying out work in an academic discipline one is doing political work in the usual sense of that term. I am thus perfectly willing to close a door between the House of English Studies and the world of politics outside. But frankly, I do not find the efforts to establish and police such borders very interesting. What is of interest to me are the processes by which changes come about in a discipline and particularly in the one called English. No one could deny that the "objects of study," as Professor Fish has called them, as well as the methods of study in English have altered significantly in the past quarter century—as, indeed, they have before. When I was in graduate school in the 1950s, for example, Charles Chesnutt and Mary Wilkins Freeman were functionally unheard of; if we studied turnof thecentury stories, they were probably by Stephen Crane or, less likely, W. D. Howells or Jack London. Now, an American literature course covering the turn of the century can hardly omit writers like Chesnutt or Freeman. Moreover, the critical strategies for approaching texts have undergone a similar transformation. Added to a continuing interest in irony, point of view, and ambiguity are such analytic categories as signifying, call and response, and bidialectism. For example, in Chesnutt's story "Sis' Becky's Picaninny," the black storyteller, Uncle Julius, displays a lucky rabbit's foot, to which the white narrator of the story, John, reacts with ridicule: "Your people will never rise in the world until they throw off these childish superstitions and learn to live by the light of reason and common sense. How absurd to imagine that the forefoot of a poor dead rabbit, with which he timorously felt his way along through a life surrounded by snares and pitfalls, beset by enemies on every hand, can promote
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happiness or success, or ward off failure or misfortune!'' Julius responds, "Dat's w'at I tells dese niggers roun' heah.... De fo'foot ain' got no power. It has ter be de hin'foot, suh,—de lef' hin'foot era grabeya'd rabbit, killt by a crosseyed nigger on a da'k night in de full er de moon." By signifying on John's pious speech and so turning the joke, Julius is able to slip the yoke—a main point of the story he is about to tell. Similarly, in "The Passing of Grandison," Chesnutt deploys point of view less as an aesthetic tactic than as a political device through which he implicates his readers with the outlook, and thus the culture, of slaveholders. Twentyfive years ago, few if any of us would have been discussing these details, much less teaching Chesnutt's stories. What has made the difference? The short answer, I would argue, is "politics." Politics in the form of the civil rights movement, which placed on the cultural agenda questions like "Where are the blacks?" in American literature classrooms and histories. I could argue this assertion in terms of historical particulars or personal experience, but I do not think I really need to do that, for the assertion seems to me rather more a statement of fact than an arguable conclusion. Thus, "politics," which we have just agreed to bar at the front door of our discipline, comes back in through the windows. To be sure, once a political imperative becomes activated within a disciplinary context, it will be articulated in terms drawn from, or drawn into, the discipline. Politics may, that is, be initially expressed by a picket or sitdown or hunger strike, but within the discipline of English, political energies will emerge as categories of language, which is what links irony and signifying. Both are verbal phenomena. That seems to me obvious. One cannot claim to predict, on the basis of a particular political initiative—like ending school and college segregation—the precise forms of change in the objects of study and the methods of analysis that will emerge within a discipline. But that is not my point. My point is that the effort to separate a discipline from political forces thought of as outside of it is futile—and, moreover, philosophically groundless. Arguments over resources and priorities, over power and control—politics, in short—will always be contested in a wide variety of arenas, including every one of the institutions that constitute a society. It will thus come as no news that political struggles are always already embedded within disciplinary assumptions about, for example, what it is worthwhile to study and the terms in which disciplinary work is best conducted. The impact of politics is therefore anything but "weak and undistinguishing" as Fish would have it. Politics does not,
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I need to emphasize, constitute a discipline, and to return to one of my initial accessions, pursuing a disciplinary work does not constitute politics. But the House of English cannot be shut off from the world outside, for the world is, indeed, too much with us. To add a slightly different angle of vision: it is true, as Fish argues, that "there is a great difference, finally, between trying to figure out what a poem means and trying to figure out which interpretation of it will contribute to the toppling of patriarchy or the subversion of capitalism." It is equally true that such a binary obscures what we actually do both in figuring out what a poem "means" and in carrying out political work. For one part of figuring out "what a poem means" may well be understanding how it embodies, mystifies, or otherwise provides cultural sustenance to patriarchy or capitalism. That effort, while it may not be direct political work, is work strongly inflected by politics (but in no sense more so than, for example, Lionel Trilling's attacks on Theodore Dreiser and F. O. Matthiessen in "The Liberal Imagination" or Allen Tate's attack on Edna St. Vincent Millay's ''Justice Denied in Massachusetts"). Moreover, the work that we might agree to designate as political is not at all separate from how one comes to understand (i.e., figure out "what a poem means") literary texts—not just those like Uncle Tom's Cabin that announce themselves as political or at least religious but also those like The Scarlet Letter, which do not. Figuring out what a text means may well be, indeed for intellectuals will necessarily be, a significant part of shaping how we understand the world we wish to affect. I have to add in all honesty that I find it impossible to support Fish's absolute division of academic from political work: "But you can't do interpretive work (at least not in the humanities) with the intention of doing political work because once you decide to do political work—that is, have before you from the start a particular political purpose you are trying to effect—you will be responsive and responsible to criteria that do not respect or even recognize the criteria of the academy." Herein I see reinvoked precisely the grounds upon which in the 1950s communists were fired from their academic jobs. But that is not my real complaint. Rather, this sentence seems to reveal a remarkable oversimplification about the ways in which political desire inflects academic work; in my judgment, as I said above, politics is expressed more in what one poses as an object of study and a relevant set of methodologies than crudely in terms of purpose. Only the most naive of people doing politics decide from the start to effect the immediate overthrow of patriarchy, even assuming—which is absurd—that one knew from the start what would effect that project. Moreover,
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the implicit description of the process of decision seems to me subject to the same complaint that Fish levels against Louis Montrose's use of choosing. Things, and especially political things, just are not that simple. Just as the specter of politics comes in to haunt the House of English, so, too, does it depart from our precincts into the world. Such is the case, I think, not only in the sense that I have already mentioned: the analysis of textual meaning helps shape consciousness. It is also true, for example, in the sense that for much of this century what a discipline within the academy has found it important to study has gradually changed what is seen outside the academy as culturally and socially significant. One impact of studying Chesnutt and other AfricanAmerican writers is that they have become more important to teachers outside the academy, who in turn have transmitted that sense of value and significance to some of their students. That the process is and has been slow, often painfully so, does not deny that it occurs; that media other than education carry out similar functions, with perhaps more direct impacts (like Bill Cosby on television) does not contradict my point. Indeed, it raises a more central concern, the issue of the serious erosion of academic cultural authority in our time. I cannot here develop a detailed account of this problem, as I have done elsewhere, but I think it is accurate to say that the standing of higher education—financially, politically, and culturally—has seriously declined in recent years. We cannot now assume that programs, departments, or even whole institutions will necessarily continue to exist in their present forms, if at all. In fact, I think, institutions of higher education are being reshaped to emphasize rather different functions in the political economy; they have more to do with dividing and disciplining the workforce, socializing foreign elites to American corporate norms, and the like. However that may be, my main point here is that students increasingly derive social ideas and cultural norms from other institutions, particularly the media and its attendant complex of advertising and promotional activities. This phenomenon is not altogether a bad thing, given what one might call the imperial culture that much of the academy, until recently, seemed committed to sustaining. Moreover, the media in general and television in particular have the capacity to bring to our students an extraordinary range of experiences and information—whether they do so in fact is another matter. For all that, however, the underlying cultural message of the media is the idea that anything can be turned into a commodity and exploited, that the marketplace is finally the only determinant of value, and that competition and profit are the only reliable sources of human motivation. Now while the acad
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emy is hardly exempt from venality and selfishness, I continue to believe that its underlying premises and its latent cultural message differ. I think the academy can, as it should, stand for the exercise of human rationality—however sporadically it may appear—and, especially in democratic classrooms, for collective efforts to create knowledge, however often it may be privately appropriated. And because I believe in education more generally as a center of value alternative to that of the marketplace, I deeply resent the habits of selfhatred that some academics—together with their critics—often trot out for laughs. Ironies surely abound in the processes that are so radically altering colleges and universities; to find these laughing matters, however, seems to me a betrayal not only of the young people who have committed their lives to the honorable profession of teaching but also of one of the few institutional alternatives to the narcissism, violence, and fanaticism now stalking the world.
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Afterthoughts ... Walter L. Reed Was there a genre to this debate? James Raymond wrestles valiantly in his introduction with the cantankerous multifariousness of the nineteenth Alabama symposium and—by analogy or synecdoche—with the cantankerous multifariousness of the latetwentiethcentury English department. His specification of "theater" as the proper generic category and "plot" as the heart of the matter hearkens back to Aristotle, who used these concepts to rescue imaginative literature from the cruel grip of the philosophy department as conceived by Plato. Aristotle was, of course, busy laying the foundations for the whole university, a more inclusive institution of higher learning than Plato's exclusionary Academy. The space he cleared for literary criticism was only one disciplinary arena among the many that he helped to establish, but it is only appropriate that the record of this symposium should find shelter under his wings. I assent to Raymond's casting of my paper in the role of Chorus in the Alabama play—a Chorus of Old New Critics, I suppose. And I am tempted to elaborate his image, assigning other participants to the roles they enacted with such panache: the senex, the alazon, the young lovers, the ranting Herod, the deus ex machina. I will refrain from running a good metaphor into the ground, but it seems to me that our plot, as enacted at the symposium and reenacted in the generic English department, is comic rather than tragic, in the specific sense that the plot of comedy is multiple, socially democratic and intellectualized, as Bruno Snell noted in The Discovery of the Mind. In contrast, tragedy has a unity of royal action as described by Aristotle. The spirit of Aristophanes has seemed to me to preside over many an English department meeting. But perhaps we have gotten tangled in our metaphors. We are neither actors nor prizefighters, neither senators nor Grand Inquisitors. We teach English—or, as my department has recently decided to put it, we teach writing in English. We unsnarl the writing of subliterate students at one end of the scale of our
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endeavors; we explicate the writing of superliterate poets at the other. We deal with many kinds of writing as well as many levels of literary achievement. There are enough styles, genres, periods, authors, ethnicities, movements or schools, and theories to keep a large number of teachers and learners (happily not always distinguishable from one another) busy. And there are plenty of seminars, lectures, tutorials, curriculum committee meetings, and even Alabama symposia to keep us out of trouble. Nevertheless, we find time for metaprofessional lamentation, imagining ourselves badly used in comparison with—what? The way it used to be? The way it might yet be? The way the other departments or other professions are regarded and rewarded? A disgruntled student working at the circulation desk of the university library once noticed that I was a faculty member in the English department. "English!" he snorted, "What can you do with that?" ''What can you do without it?" I asked. "Perhaps you are more fluent in Italian?" Perhaps the genre of this debate, as Gerald Graff has suggested, is debate itself. Ever since Aristotle's inaugural defense of poetry, professors of literature have been on the defensive. But still, some debates are more memorable than others. My own answer to Raymond's query is, "Yes, there is a plot in this play, and the script is worth preserving." Work Cited Snell, Bruno. The Discovery of the Mind: The Greek Origins of European Thought. Trans. T. G. Rosenmeyer. New York: Harper and Row, 1960.
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Contributors is an Associate Professor of English at the University of Cincinnati. He is the author of Realism and the Birth of the Modern United States: Literature, Cinema, and Culture (1995) as well as of various essays on American literature and cinema, including a group of studies about leftist writers of the 1930s. He is writing, with Phyllis Frus, An ExCentric Discipline: American Literary Studies without a Canon, and he is composing a collection of essays concerned with American film genres after World War II. STANLEY CORKIN
is an Associate Professor of English at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, and the author of more than one thousand published essays and poems, including The Gay Academic (1978) and A Book of Revelations (1991). LOUIE CREW
is an Associate Professor of English at Hiroshima University. He is the author of Reforming Marlowe (1991) and is currently completing a history of Shakespearean pedagogy entitled Shakespeare in Chains. THOMAS DABBS
is Arts and Sciences Professor of English and a Professor of Law at Duke University. He is also the Executive Director of the Duke University Press. His most recent book, There's No Such Thing as Free Speech, and It's a Good Thing, Too, won the 1994 PEN/SpielvogelDiamonstein Award. STANLEY FISH
is the author of The Politics and Poetics of Journalistic Narrative: The Timely and the Timeless (1994). She is currently working on Journalism and Literature: Crossing the Boundaries and, with Stanley Corkin, An ExCentric Discipline: American Literary Studies without a Canon. PHYLLIS FRUS
is Hoyns Professor of Creative Writing at the University of Virginia. He is the author of twentyseven books, including, most recently, The Old Army Game (1994). He has also edited seventeen books, the latest of which is That's What I Like (About the South) (1994). GEORGE GARRETT
is George M. Pullman Professor of English and Education at the University of Chicago and the author of Beyond the Culture Wars (1992). He spent 1994–95 as a fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, GERALD GRAFF
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where he worked on a book about academic discourse and students' problems with it. is Allan K. and Gwendolyn Miles Smith Professor of Literature at Trinity College (Connecticut). He is author of Canons and Contexts (1991) and general editor of The Heath Anthology of American Literature. He is currently president of the American Studies Association and is writing a book on the rise and decline of academic cultural authority. PAUL LAUTER
is Professor of English and Director of English Composition at The University of Alabama. He is the author of Literacy as a Human Problem (1982), Writing (Is an Unnatural Act) (1980), and Clear Understandings: A Guide to Legal Writing (1983). He is also past editor of College English, a journal of the National Council of Teachers of English. JAMES C. RAYMOND
is Professor of English at Emory University. He is the author of An Exemplary History of the Novel: The Quixotic versus the Picaresque (1981) and Dialogues of the Word: The Bible as Literature According to Bakhtin (1993). WALTER L. REED
is an Associate Professor of English at the University of Arizona. She is the author of Writing Is Critical Action (1989) and coeditor of Understanding Others: Cultural and CrossCultural Studies in the Teaching of English (1992). She is currently writing a book on Kenneth Burke's place in the contemporary critical scene. TILLY WARNOCK
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Index A Aesthetics, 30, 120, 128, 133, 164 American Academy in Rome, 67, 69 American West, 132, 13435. See also Frontier Anzaldúa, Gloria, 33 Aristotle, 2, 102, 113, 187, 188 Arnold, Matthew, 8990, 116 Astin, Alexander, 38 B Bacon, Francis, 9 Baker, Houston, 35, 120 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 101 Baym, Nina, 123 Bennington College, 7375 Bible, 99, 100102, 103104, 11112, 11416 Bloom, Harold, 104106 Bower, Anne L., 36 Brown, Norman O., 6466 Burke, Kenneth, 14348, 149, 153 Bush, Douglas, 167 C Canon, 12, 48, 99, 105, 107, 119, 133; revision of, 3031, 32, 40, 99, 106, 113, 121, 13435; abolishment of, 121, 13537 Canonization, 99100, 133; of the Bible, 100102, 103104, 107; literary, 102103; defects of focus on quality, 11920, 134 Capitalism, 124, 128, 130 Carafiol, Peter, 120, 138 (nn. 13), 139 (n. 8) Carby, Hazel, 12324 Carlin, Deborah, 124 Cather, Willa, 14, 121, 16465, 176, 178; My Ántonia, 121, 12233 Cervantes, Miguel de, 102, 111 Chesnutt, Charles, 18283, 185 Clark, Milton, 4748 Classroom dynamics, 3942 Close reading, 30 Collins, Churton, 91, 93 Communities, 155, 157; lesbian and gay, 5152; Internet, 5354 Composition, 16, 18, 146, 154 Computer, 3; style analysis, 5759; use in writing classes, 5456 Conservatism, 5 Conviction, 10, 172, 179 Corkin, Stanley, 2, 6, 14, 164, 171, 189 Crew, Louie, 3, 39, 189 Critic: as opposed to artist, 6769 Criticism. See Historical criticism; Literary criticism; New Criticism; Political criticism Cultural authority, 185 Cultural education, 8990, 94, 96 Culture, 120; popular, 8285, 90; mass, 82, 8586; high, 85, 96 D Dabbs, Thomas, 2, 189 Danielson, Sue, 3637 Denning, Michael, 120, 133 Dickey, Jim, 7172 Disciplinarity, 11, 12, 17576 Disciplinary boundaries, 2, 13, 163, 165, 169, 176, 179, 182 Dowden, Edward, 9092 E Email, 4648 Education: politics of, 2122; as dialogical process, 2326 English departments: history, 1518 Episcopal Church, 5253, 60 Epistemology, 8, 176 F Fiedler, Leslie, 7680 Fish, Stanley, 2, 56, 7, 1214, 21, 94, 97 (n. 2), 17576, 17879, 180, 182, 18485, 189 Football: at Rice University, 6971 Freedom: academic, 133, 179 Friedman, Edwin, 51 Frontier, 12628, 130 Frus, Phyllis, 2, 6, 14, 164, 171, 176, 189 G Garbage collection, 7375 Garrett, George, 2, 34, 7, 9, 24, 189
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Gates, Henry Louis, 120 Genre, 112 Graff, Gerald, 2, 6, 8, 95, 17172, 188, 18990 Guillén, Claudio, 112 Guillory, John, 100, 102 H Harris, Allen, 6769 Harris, Wendell, 100 Hegel, Georg, 89 Hiestand, Sara Willard, 92 Historical analysis, 126 Historical criticism, 14, 18, 179 Historical fiction, 137 Historicism, 16466, 170, 171; New, 95, 110, 138 (n. 1) Hodge, Robert, 165 Hudson, Reverend Henry, 92 I Idiographic, 3, 101, 102 Individualism, 127 Interdisciplinarity, 16970, 179 Internet, 5456 K Knight, G. Wilson, 167 Knowledge, 149, 156; as object or intellectual construction, 3134 L Lauter, Paul, 2, 45, 122, 172, 190 Left, 133 Levine, Lawrence, 8586 Liberalism, 5, 17072, 179 Limerick, Patricia, 131 Literacy, 14748, 14950, 15152, 155, 15657 Literary criticism, 1314, 164, 165, 168, 169, 178 Literary history, 12122, 178 Literature: cultural definition of, 120 M McKenna, Teresa, 35, 41 Magic, 14445 Maher, Frances, 41 Malamud, Bernard, 75 Marx, Leo, 132 Maynor, Natalie, 4647, 51 Miller, David, 160 Milton, John, 167 Modernism, 132, 133 Mythology, 126, 133 N Naming, 144 National Council of Teachers of English, 15051 National identity, 124, 133 Naturalism, 138 Neely, Jess, 7071 New Criticism, 5, 13, 14, 1718, 30, 95, 119, 122, 178, 187 New localism, 13 Nomotheic, 3, 101, 102, 115 O Ontology, 176 P Palmer, Phyllis, 40 Paradigm, 8 Paul (apostle), 105, 107 Pedagogy, 1, 155 Perloff, Marjorie, 135 Philology, 1517 Poetics, 7, 11113 Political correctness, 3, 13, 22 Political criticism, 13, 16668, 170, 179, 183 Power relationships: in classroom, 5, 3439; in canon, 124 Prison, 2930, 42, 155 Protest: Selma to Montgomery march, 2930; by students, 7273 R Raymond, James C., 187, 188, 190 Realism, 138 Reed, Walter, L., 3, 7, 190 Research, 149 Revisionists, 19, 3031 Rhetoric, 6, 7, 89, 144, 14547, 152, 153, 154, 158, 163 Rice University, 6971 Richards, I. A., 17 Right, 135 Robbins, Bruce, 1314 Robinson, Lillian, 134 Romanticism, 108, 132 S Sanders, James, 100 Schneidewind, Nancy, 42 (n. 4) Service, 149, 152, 157 Shakespeare, William, 2, 114; popularity, 8285, 97 (n. 1); current teaching of 8688; industry, 82, 8894; theoretical issues, 9596 Shils, Edward, 133, 17980 Stanford University: Western culture requirement, 20, 25 Student: as consumer, 36; as interpreter, 87 Style, 143 Sypherd, Paul S., 15657 T Testing, standardized, 93 Tetreault, Mary Kay Thompson, 41 Tower of Babel, 11415
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Traditionalists, literary, 19, 3031 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 12728, 130, 13233 U University of Virginia, 7580 V Vocabulary: of literary studies, 163, 164, 169 W Wade, Richard C., 150 Warnock, Tilly, 6, 16061, 190 Wesleyan, 63, 65 Wheatley, Phillis, 3536 Williams, Raymond, 82, 178 Wilson, Edmund, 11 Writing centers, 149