Enterprise Interoperability II: New Challenges and Approaches (v. 2)

Enterprise Interoperability II Ricardo J. Gonçalves, Jörg P. Müller, Kai Mertins and Martin Zelm (Eds.) Enterprise In...

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Enterprise Interoperability II

Ricardo J. Gonçalves, Jörg P. Müller, Kai Mertins and Martin Zelm (Eds.)

Enterprise Interoperability II New Challenges and Approaches

123

Ricardo J. Gonçalves, PhD New University of Lisbon UNINOVA Quinta da Torre 2829-516 Caparica Portugal

Jörg P. Müller, Dr. rer. nat., Dipl.-Inform. Technische Universität Clausthal Institut für Informatik Julius-Albert-Str. 4 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld Germany

Kai Mertins, Dr.-Ing. Fraunhofer IPK Pascalstr. 8-9 10587 Berlin Germany

Martin Zelm, Dr. rer. nat., Dipl.-Phys. CIMOSA Association e.V. at WZL Forum/ADITEC Steinbachstr. 23 52074 Aachen Germany

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data International Conference on Interoperability of Enterprise Software and Applications (3rd : 2007 : Madeira, Madeira Islands) Enterprise interoperability II : new challenges and approaches 1. Internetworking (Telecommunications) - Congresses I. Title II. Goncalves, Ricardo J. 004.6 ISBN-13: 9781846288579 Library of Congress Control Number: 2007920842 ISBN 978-1-84628-857-9

e-ISBN 978-1-84628-858-6

Printed on acid-free paper

© Springer-Verlag London Limited 2007 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a speciﬁc statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. 98765432 1 Springer Science+Business Media springer.com

Preface R.J. Gonçalves 1, J.P. Müller 2, K. Mertins3 and M. Zelm4 1

2

3

4

New University of Lisbon, UNINOVA, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal, General Chairperson of I-ESA’07 [email protected] Technische Universität Clausthal, Institut für Informatik, Julius-Albert-Str. 4, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany, Co-Chairperson of the I-ESA’07 International Program Committee [email protected] Fraunhofer IPK, Pascalstr. 8-9, 10587 Berlin, Germany, Co-Chairperson of the IESA’07 International Program Committee [email protected] CIMOSA Association e.V. at WZL Forum/ADITEC, Steinbachstr. 23, D-52074 Aachen, Germany, General co-Chairperson of I-ESA ’07 [email protected]

During the last 20 years, the business world has undergone significant changes. Most notably, concepts of cross-enterprise collaboration have been promoted to the center of enterprise strategy. For some organizations, doing business globally has become critical to their survival, whilst others discover new opportunities by focusing their business on a interconnected wide setting. Indeed, not only large organizations set up cooperation agreements with other enterprises, but also SMEs are combining forces to compete jointly in the market. And nowadays, the competitiveness of an enterprise is largely determined by its ability to seamlessly interoperate with others. Interoperability in the context of an enterprise is the ability to work with others. This capability to interact and seamlessly exchange information both internally and with external organizations, like partners, suppliers, customers, is a key issue for the business success in the enterprise sector. Interoperability research needs to address different enterprise models and architectures, and take the semantics of data, applications into account. This is not only a problem of software and information technologies, thought it implies support of communication and transactions between different organizations that must be based on shared business references. This book establishes the proceedings of the Third International Conference on Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications (I-ESA’07), held in Madeira Island (Portugal), on March 27—30, 2007. The I-ESA conference series is the result of a cooperation of two very important programmes in the Research and Technological Framework Programme 6 of the European Commission: the Network of Excellence INTEROP “Interoperability Research for Networked

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Enterprises Applications and Software” (IST- 508011, www.interop-noe.org) and the Integrated Project ATHENA “Advanced Technologies for Interoperability of Heterogeneous Enterprise Networks and their Applications” (IST-507849, http://www.athena-ip.org/). This book is a unique anthology presenting novel visions, concepts, research results and industrial experiences, dealing with a wealth of interoperability research subjects for business, enterprise applications and software. It includes 95 papers selected after a stringent peer review process, with contributions from world-leading researchers and practitioners in the area of enterprise interoperability, and it is an original contribution for the advances of the enterprise interoperability research area. The book is organized in nine parts addressing the major research areas in the scope of Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications: I Enterprise Modelling and Interoperability Engineering II Distributed, Decentralized and Adaptable Interoperability Architecture III Tools and Methodologies for Enterprise Interoperability IV Semantics and Knowledge Aspects in Enterprise Interoperability V Model-driven and Service-oriented Integration and Development VI Collaborative Architecture and Formal Interoperability Approaches VII Managing, Measuring, and Validating Interoperability VIII Cross-sector Interoperability Solutions IX Applications, Case Studies, Best Practice and Standards Enterprise Interoperability II: New Challenges and Approaches is certainly “the book” for those who want to know the future, the forefront of research and the industry expertise in and viewpoints on this very important domain of “Enterprise Interoperability and e-Business”. We believe that this thoroughly prepared volume is of particular value to all readers interested in key topics and most recent developments in a very exciting research field. Caparica, Clausthal, Berlin, Aachen January 2007

Ricardo Jardim-Gonçalves Jörg P. Müller Kai Mertins Martin Zelm

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the members of the INTEROP NoE and ATHENA IP for their support and their contribution to the establishment of the 3rd International Conference on Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications (IESA’07), held in Madeira Island (Portugal), on March 27—30, 2007. We want to thank all the authors, invited speakers, reviewers, Senior Programme Committee members, and participants of the conference that made this book a reality and the I-ESA 2007 a success. We express our gratitude to the European Commission, for their encouragement and active support through a grant. We are deeply thankful to the local organisation committee, for their excellent work for the preparation and management of the conference.

Contents

Part I Enterprise Modelling and Interoperability Engineering Requirements for Implementing Business Process Models through Composition of Semantic Web Services I. Weber .................................................................................................................... 3 Requirements Engineering for Improving Business/IT Alignment in Security Risk Management Methods N. Mayer, E. Dubois and A. Rifaut ......................................................................... 15 An Ontology for Requirements Analysis of Managers’ Policies in Financial Institutions C. Feltus and A. Rifaut ........................................................................................... 27 Interoperability Requirements Derived from Interoperability Dimensions R. Jochem and T. Knothe........................................................................................ 39 PeerítoíPeer Supported Design Infrastructure for Collaborative Business Processing P. Walter, D. Werth and P. Loos ............................................................................ 51 Model Transformations with Reference Models W.-J. van den Heuvel and M. Jeusfeld ................................................................... 63 Comparing GRL and KAOS Using the UEML Approach R. Matuleviþius, P. Heymans and A.L. Opdahl ...................................................... 77 Integrated Solution to Support Enterprise Interoperability at the Business Process Level on e-Procurement R. Costa, O. Garcia, M.J. Nuñez, P. Maló and R. Jardim-Gonçalves.................... 89

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Access and Semantic Level Integration of Building Models for Cooperative Fire Protection Planning M. Lange and U. Rüppel....................................................................................... 101 Business Process Modelling and Flexibility S. Nurcan.............................................................................................................. 111 Analysing CIM2PIM Approaches to Improve Interoperability R. Grangel, K. Correa, F. D’Antonio, J.-P. Bourey and A.J. Berre..................... 115 Using IIAM to Assess Interoperability Investments: A Case Study M. Grandin-Dubost, T. Finet, B. Lebreton and G. Doumeingts ........................... 119 Part II Distributed, Decentralized and Adaptable Interoperability Part II Architecture The EIC - A Consensus-centric Approach for Cross-organizational e-Business Standards Diffusion T. Samsonowa and C. Schroth.............................................................................. 127 Improving Interoperability in Collaborative Modelling S. Roser and B. Bauer .......................................................................................... 139 Designing a Service Oriented Domain Architecture J.L. Müller, G. Zhang, T. Kahl and P. Müller ...................................................... 151 Decomposition of Supply Networks - Business Modelling and Interoperability P. Hofbauer and U. Negretto ............................................................................... 155 An Ontology of Interoperability in Inter-Enterprise Communities T. Ruokolainen, Y. Naudet and T. Latour............................................................. 159 ICT Interoperability Challenges in Decentral Cross-enterprise Product Engineering P.D. Stiefel and J.P. Müller.................................................................................. 171 A Security Network for Smart Ubiquitous Industrial Resources A. Naumenko, A. Katasonov and V. Terziyan....................................................... 183 Interoperability through a Platform-independent Model for Agents C. Hahn, C. Madrigal-Mora and K. Fischer........................................................ 195 Architecture for the Design and Agent-based Implementation of Crossorganizational Business Processes T. Kahl, I. Zinnikus, S. Roser, C. Hahn, J. Ziemann, J.P. Müller and K. Fischer ...................................................................................................... 207

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The Data Grid for the Collaboration Development in the Virtual Enterprise D. Cui and L. Song ............................................................................................... 219 Conformance Test of Federated Choreographies J. Eder, M. Lehmann and A. Tahamtan................................................................ 223 Part III Tools and Methodologies for Enterprise Interoperability

Evaluating Quality of Enterprise Modelling Languages: The UEML Solution V. Anaya, G. Berio and M.J. Verdecho ................................................................ 237 Towards a Common Repository for Governmental Data: A Modelling Framework and Real World Application S. Mouzakitis, F. Lampathaki, C. Schroth, U. Scheper and T. Janner ................. 241 Improving the Collaboration Ability among SMEs by Developing and Open Source Based Collaboration Tool J.B. Hauge, R. Stevens and A. Imtiaz ................................................................... 245 Cartography for Designing Collaborative Processes V. Rajsiri, J.P. Lorré, F. Bénaben and H. Pingaud.............................................. 257 Building and Validating a Manufacturing Ontology to Achieve Interoperability V. Chapurlat, D. Diep, A. Kalogeras and J. Gialelis ........................................... 261 A Graph Based Approach for Interoperability Evaluation S. Blanc, Y. Ducq and B. Vallespir ....................................................................... 273 Product Ontology Supporting Information Exchanging in Global Furniture Industry C.A. Costa, V.L. Salvador, L.M. Meira, G.F. Rechden and C. Koliver ................ 277 Living Labs – A New Multi-stakeholder Approach to User Integration A.J. Schumacher and B.K. Feurstein.................................................................... 281 TermExtractor: A Web Application to Learn the Shared Terminology of Emergent Web Communities F. Sclano and P. Velardi ...................................................................................... 287 SMDA: A Service Model Driven Architecture X.F. Xu, T. Mo and Z.J. Wang .............................................................................. 291 Enterprise Interoperability Enabling Enterprise Collaboration K. Mertins, T. Knothe and F.-W. Jäkel................................................................. 303

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Classifying Interoperability Problems for a Method Chunk Repository M.A. Jeusfeld, P. Backlund and J. Ralyté............................................................. 315 Part IV Semantics and Knowledge Aspects in Enterprise Interoperability Towards an Ontology Using a Concern-oriented Approach for Information System Analysis C. Bogdan, D. Luzi, F.L. Ricci and L.D. Serbanati .............................................. 329 Integrating HAD Organizational Data Assets Using Semantic Web Technologies J. Cardoso ............................................................................................................ 333 Formalizing the OPAL eBusiness Ontology Design Patterns with OWL F. D’Antonio, M. Missikoff and F. Taglino .......................................................... 345 An Approach for Building an OWL Ontology for Workflow Interoperability S. Hamri, N. Boudjlida and M. Boufaida ............................................................. 357 Enabling Cross-border Interoperability: Modelling Legal Rules for Electronic Transactions in the European Union G. Gionis, Y. Charalabidis, K. Sourouni and D. Askounis................................... 361 On Capturing Information Requirements in Process Specifications E.J. Barkmeyer and P. Denno .............................................................................. 365 OntoMas: A Tutoring System Dedicated to Ontology Matching M. Huza, M. Harzallah and F. Trichet................................................................. 377 Combined SOA Maturity Model (CSOAMM): Towards a Guide for SOA Adoption E. Söderström and F. Meier ................................................................................. 389 Integration of Job Portals by Meta-search J. Dorn and T. Naz ............................................................................................... 401 Part V Model-driven and Service-oriented Integration and Development ABILITIES to Support a Federated Architecture Based Interoperability Bus with Groupware and Multimedia B. Pataki, L. Kovács, C. Guglielmina and A. Arezza............................................ 415 Context-aware Service Compositions: A Way to Facilitate Interoperability L. Bastida and F.J. Nieto...................................................................................... 427

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External Integration of an e-Services Hub G. Jiménez and J. Espadas ................................................................................... 431 Transforming GRAI Extended Actigrams into UML Activity Diagrams: A First Step to Model Driven Interoperability R. Grangel, R. Ben Salem, J.-P. Bourey, N. Daclin and Y. Ducq......................... 447 Interoperability Oriented Business Object Model D.C. Zhan, X.F. Xu, F.C. Meng and Z.J. Wang.................................................... 459 An Integrated Approach to Model-driven Design, Execution, Analysis and Monitoring H. Jonkers, M.-E. Iacob, C. Köllmann and M. Goedicke ..................................... 463 CCTS-based Business Information Modelling for Increasing Cross-Organizational Interoperability C. Schroth, G. Pamptroad and T. Janner ............................................................. 467 Applying TTCN to Enhance B2B Conformance Testing Frameworks S. Onofre, C. Agostinho, R. Jardim-Gonçalves and A. Steiger-Garção ............... 479 Enabling Semantic Mediation for Business Applications: XML-RDF, RDF-XML and XSD-RDFS Transformations I. Miletic, M. Vujasinovic, N. Ivezic and Z. Marjanovic....................................... 483 Towards a Service-oriented Enterprise Based on Business Components Identification S. Chaari, F. Biennier, J. Favrel and C. Benamar ............................................... 495 Business Level Service-oriented Enterprise Application Integration S. Pokraev, D.A.C. Quartel, M.W.A. Steen, A. Wombacher and M. Reichert....... 507 Interoperability for Transport Companies J.A. Álvarez, J.A. Ortega, L. González, F. Velasco and F.J. Cuberos.................. 519 Part VI Collaborative Architecture and Formal Interoperability Approaches Enabling Cross-organizational Interoperability: A Hybrid e-Business Architecture G. Gionis, Y. Charalabidis, T. Janner, C. Schroth, S. Koussouris and D. Askounis.................................................................................................... 525 Challenges in Collaboration: Tool Chain Enables Transparency Beyond Partner Borders S. Heinonen, J. Kääriänen and J. Takalo............................................................. 529

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A Case Study in Enterprise Modelling for Interoperable Cross-enterprise Data Exchange M. Jankovic, N. Ivezic, T. Knothe, Z. Marjanovic and P. Snack .......................... 541 An Interoperable e-Business Platform towards Better Integration of New Member States SME’s K. Tolle, V. Kiauleikis, K. Justinaviciene, G. Knoll, C. Guglielmina and A. Arezza........................................................................................................ 553 Interoperability in Collaborative Networks: An Innovative Approach for the Shoe Up-stream Business Segment C.-M. Chituc, C. Toscano and A. Azevedo ........................................................... 557 The ATHENA Interoperability Framework A.-J. Berre, B. Elvesæter, N. Figay, C. Guglielmina, S.G. Johnsen, D. Karlsen, T. Knothe and S. Lippe ............................................................................................. 569 Towards Precise Descriptions for Programming Language Interoperability: A General Approach Based on Operational Semantics G.A. Ospina and B. Le Charlier ........................................................................... 581 Organising Manufacturing Information for Engineering Interoperability A.G. Gunendran, R.I.M. Young, A.F. Cutting-Decelle and J.P. Bourey............... 587 Extended Influence Diagram Generation R. Lagerström, P. Johnson and P. Närman.......................................................... 599 Part VII Managing, Measuring and Validating Interoperability Assessing Interoperability in the Retail Industry A.C. Kürschner and B.F. Thiesse ......................................................................... 605 An Ontology for the Environmental and Safety Integration in the Construction Sector N. Forcada, M. Casals, M. Gangolells, X. Roca and A. Fuertes.......................... 617 The Value of Interoperability in Networked Enterprises: The Case of Health Care Management Companies A. Chapko, B. Lebreton and T. Finet.................................................................... 621 The Interoperability of Information and Its Representation in New Media: A Case Study of a Global Content Provider J.-C. Mariategui and J. Kallinikos ....................................................................... 625

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Building B2B Middleware – Interoperability Knowledge Management Issues L. Kutvonen .......................................................................................................... 629 Introducing the Common Non-functional Ontology V. Kabilan, P. Johannesson, S. Ruohomaa, P. Moen, A. Herrmann, R.-M. Åhlfeldt and H. Weigand.................................................................................................... 633 An Iterative Procedure for Efficient Testing of B2B: A Case in Messaging Service Tests J. Kim and S. Kulvatunyou ................................................................................... 647 Towards Interoperable Healthcare Information Systems: The HL7 Conformance Profile Approach R. Snelick, P. Rontey, L. Gebase and L. Carnahan .............................................. 659 Part VIII Cross-sector Interoperability Solutions An Intelligent Test Methodology to Achieve Interoperability between Business-toBusiness (B2B) Applications B. Jeong, H. Cho, T. Yoo and J. Chang................................................................ 673 Testing and Monitoring e-Business Using the Event-driven Test Scripting Language J. Durand, S. Kulvatunyou, J. Woo and M.J. Martin ........................................... 685 UN/CEFACT Core Components as the Basis for Structured Business Communication by SMEs, Employing Auto-generated, User Adjustable Forms F. van Blommestein and B. Broeksema ................................................................ 697 Interoperability Challenges and Solutions in Automotive Collaborative Product Development F. Stäber, G. Sobrito, J.P. Müller, U. Bartlang and T. Friese ............................. 709 A Case Study in Business Application Development Using Open Source and Semantic Web Technologies I. Novicic, Z. Kokovic, N. Jakovljevic, V. Ljubicic, M. Bacetic, N. Anicic, Z. Marjanovic and N. Ivezic ..................................................................................... 721 Interoperability Impact Assessment Model: An Overview B. Lebreton and C. Legner ................................................................................... 725 A Primitive Ontology Model for Product Lifestyle Meta Data in the Closed-loop PLM H.B. Jun, D. Kiritsis and P. Xirouchakis.............................................................. 729

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SAMBA – An Agent Architecture for Ambient Intelligence Elements Interoperability A.-J. Berre, G. Di Marzo Serugendo, D. Khadraoui, F. Charoy, G. Athanasopoulos, M. Pantazoglou, J.-H. Morin, P. Moraitis and N. Spanoudakis.............................................................................................. 741 Determining Runtime Properties of Mobile Software Architectures V. Gruhn and C. Schäfer ...................................................................................... 753 Part IX Applications, Case Studies, Best Practice and Standards Enabling Interoperability in the Area of Multi-brand Vehicle Configuration M. Klein, U. Greiner, T. Genßler, J. Kuhn and M. Born...................................... 759 Model-generated Workplaces: An Interoperability Approach R.K. Rolfsen, D. Boell, C. Pronios, T. Knothe, M. Anastasiou, B. Elvesæter and H. Jørgensen.................................................................................................. 771 Parsing Effort in a B2B Integration Scenario – An Industrial Case Study B. Bazijanec, O. Gausmann and K. Turowski ...................................................... 783 Towards Automatic Semantic Integration G. Lukácsy, P. Szeredi and T. BenkĘ.................................................................... 795 Integration of an Acoustic Simulation Tool with CAAD Environments Using ifcXML M.E. ølal and S. Macit .......................................................................................... 807 On Web Service Evolution Monitoring W. Schreiner and P. Hrastnik............................................................................... 811 Enhancing STEP-based Interoperability Using Model Morphisms C. Agostinho, J. Sarraipa, F. D’Antonio and R. Jardim-Gonçalves .................... 817 Schema Description for Arbitrary Data Formats with the Data Format Description Language A. Beardsmore ...................................................................................................... 829 Web Services to Resolve Concept Identifiers for an Effective Product Data Exchange W. Wilkes, N. Ondracek, M. Oancea and M. Seiceanu ........................................ 841 Application Development with Virtual Teams: Models and Metrics D. Radoiu ............................................................................................................. 853

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Business Interoperability Profiles: Relating Business Interoperability Issues to Technical Interoperability Solutions U. Greiner, C. Legner, S. Lippe and K. Wende .................................................... 865 An Approach for Service-oriented Urbanism S. Izza, L. Vincent and P. Burlat........................................................................... 879 Index of Contributors ........................................................................................... 891

Part I

Enterprise Modelling and Interoperability Engineering

Requirements for Implementing Business Process Models through Composition of Semantic Web Services Ingo Weber SAP Research, Vincenz-Priessnitz-Strasse 1, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany [email protected] Summary. Despite signiﬁcant research eﬀorts, automated service composition is neither taken up broadly nor can it be considered a solved problem. We believe that this is partly the case due to an unclear formulation of the actual business requirements and frame for this technology. In this paper, we formulate a list of 14 requirements for composition in the contexts of business process implementation, enterprise application integration, and interoperability, which can be considered quite challenging not only for current technology but also in terms computational complexity. However, if these requirements are met by an approach to composition – potentially by combining existing technology – the relevance of automated composition to enterprise application software could increase signiﬁcantly, and also quicken its success in other usage scenarios. We give a list of requirements towards service composition along with a starting point for a composition approach and a short analysis of the computational complexity.1

1 Introduction The basic building blocks of Service-Oriented Architectures (SOAs) are Web services (WSs): self-contained pieces of software that are remotely callable and described in a standardised way. Service composition, the task of automatically combining the functionality of multiple Web services to yield a composite service with higher utility, is a big challenge and opportunity for the SOA paradigm. In order to tackle this and other problems, methods for describing Web services’ semantics in a formally and machine-accessibly were developed in the more recent past [21, 3] and are referred to as Semantic Web services (SWSs). Composite services, workﬂows and executable business process models are considered to be quite similar [20, 4], thus, a composite service can be ex1

This work has in part been funded through the European Union’s 6th Framework Programme, within Information Society Technologies (IST) priority under the SUPER project (http://www.ip-super.org)

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pressed as an orchestration in a language such as WS-BPEL [1]. An orchestration expresses control ﬂow over calls to various Web services and guarantees a predeﬁned execution order. In BPEL, the orchestration itself is exposed as a Web service. In contrast to other approaches towards web service composition, we plan to use service composition for the implementation of business process models. Here we refer to business process models as graphical diagrams, which depict a business process (BP) in an enterprise on a higher modelling level, such as that of a business expert. Since functionality from various application systems in an organization can be provided through Web service interfaces and composed together in an end-to-end business process, this approach can serve as a corner stone for facilitating enterprise application integration (EAI). The service composition problem in this setting becomes the following: given a high-level BP model and a set of services, some with and some without control ﬂow semantics over their operations, the composition component should automatically ﬁnd a way to combine the services in order to implement the process model. For each of the activities in a high-level process model, this means ﬁnding one or more services which directly or together, respectively, implement the desired behavior, and establish an execution order over them. Some of the requirements and challenges are: subprocess interfacesthat implement more than one function; consistency in the orchestration of the various high-level activities, e.g., services which are supposed to be executed in parallel must be compatible with each other; varying data formats between various services; and more. Composition in this setup is clearly not an easy task, and will be accompanied by many requirements in any real world-domain. A list of such requirements is given in this paper, which, to the best of our knowledge, addresses a number of aspects that were neither stated nor taken into account in their completeness in previous work. Besides, it is yet unclear if the requirements can all be satisﬁed jointly, preferably through an eﬃcient algorithm, or whether the resulting computational complexity exceeds tractability. The remainder of this work is thus structured as follows: in order to give some background, Section 2 discusses the problem of composition in business process modelling in more detail. Section 3 is the main contribution of this paper, as it lists the actual requirements. Subsequently, some ﬁrst steps towards an approach meeting the requirements are given in Section 4.1, while Section 4.2 discusses in short the computational complexity in domain. Related work is presented in Section 5, and Section 6 concludes.

2 Business Process Modelling: Background and Current Challenges Business Process Modelling (BPM) serves as an abstraction of the way enterprises do business, whereby threads of work are noted down as humancomprehensible business process models. While notations such as the Event-

Requirements for Composition of Semantic Web Services

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driven Process Chains (EPCs) received much attention as notations in the past, the Business Process Modelling Notation (BPMN) is gaining momentum and support. Figure 1 shows an example of a BPMN process model. When modelling a business process today, the modeller usually creates the process manually in a graphical tool. Three common approaches are: creating the process from scratch, starting from a reference model, or improving or creating a variant of an existing process model (cf. [10]). The outcome is a process model that reﬂects a business expert’s view. Subsequently, this process model is implemented by IT experts – or, rather, its control and data ﬂow are mapped to implemented artifacts in information systems. The relationship between the business-level model and its IT-level implementation is oftentimes weak. Consequently, the process implementation can deviate substantially from the model, and changes on one of the levels cannot be easily propagated to the respective other level.

Fig. 1. Order-to-provisioning process from the Telecomunications domain.

The approach of automated composition which we pursue attempts to bridge that gap by ﬁnding program parts which can be used for the implementation of a process model and deﬁning their usage in an executable process model. For this vision to become reality, several needs must be met: ﬁrst, ap-

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plication program fragments must be available for remote invocation and loose coupling, e.g., as Web services. Second, in order to allow the automation of tasks such as composition, these services are annotated with formal, machineaccessible semantics. If such an infrastructure is available and the requirements from the next section are met by a composition system, the automated implementation of business process models can in principle be performed. A very favorable side eﬀect is the intrinsic relation between activities in the model and services in the implementation: it can simplify change management in both, graphical process model and executable process, signiﬁcantly. We look at composition from the viewpoint of an enterprise, not an end user. While business processes in business-to-consumer (B2C) scenarios can be a touching point with end users2 , service composition on the consumer’s end is not the focus here. Rather, our work which can be regarded in the context of enterprise application integration and interoperability. In the scope of this work, composed processes must be correct and compliant with regulation such as Basel II or Sarbanes Oxley (SOX). Thus, the focus is on design-time composition in a known domain, which simpliﬁes the problem in two ways: ﬁrstly, design-time composition can always be checked and approved manually before deploying and enacting it. Thus, unanticipated side eﬀects3 can be avoided through the manual control step, where decisions from the automated composition can be overruled. And secondly, in our known domain – the enterprise – we can assume to own the services and can thus enforce a uniform way and formalism of description. If the approach is extended towards larger domains (e.g., crossorganisational, to service marketplaces or ecosystems, or even the internet), where presented information is more likely to be incomplete, knowledge gathering techniques as in [12, 13] can be re-visited. Also, adaptors for diﬀering service descriptions need to be constructed, e.g. in form of mediators. Runtime service composition, on the other hand, is suggested as one of the base requirements of several existing approaches towards composition. While being an interesting problem with desirable features, the quality and correctness of current runtime composition forbids its application in our context of enterprise-level composition today and in the near-term future. Other BPM-related interpretations of composition than ours are given in the following. (1) If a given process interface has to be implemented by orchestrating web services and (sub-)processes. (2) A collaborative, crossorganisational business process, also called choreOgraphy, requires the provision of a executable process from each one of involved parties. There is an 2

3

Note, that e.g., the often-cited travel booking example (cf. among others [15, 2]), where a customer wants to book hotel and ﬂight at the same dates, is a B2C scenario, where the service composition could be triggered by the customer. However, it is far more likely that the composite process is provided by a travel agency, which provides correct and tested composite services to the customers. Cf. [11] for such a side eﬀect: a composite process satisﬁes the pre-condition of having a credit card by applying for one.

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overlap between these situations and the problem that is addressed here, and potentially parts of the solution here can be used for a solution to those issues. However, the focus of this work remains on process model implementation.

3 Requirements for Service Composition Support to Business Process Modelling Service composition in the context described above needs to meet a row of requirements, which we state in this section after describing the setup more concretely. 3.1 Problem Setup Given a business process model and a set of Semantic Web services, each of the activities in the process must be implemented with one or more services. It is assumed that each activity is described in terms of preconditions and the anticipated goal (in a formal representation). The composition approach should then be able to come up with a BPEL-like orchestration fragment of calls to the provided subprocesses for each activity. The overall composite process, which is the join over the composite process fragments implementing the activities, can also be constrained in terms of the interface it should provide and must be consistent and constraint-preserving with respect to the fragments’ content, i.e., the used services. 3.2 Requirements A list of the most important requirements is provided below, which is divided into fundamental, common, and situational requirements. Fundamental requirements serve for deﬁning the functionality of the basic composition technology in terms of service combination. Common requirements are expected to arise in most of the cases of the problem described here. Situational requirements point at speciﬁc situations in an enterprise application world that are more business-driven. Fundamental Requirements 1. A task4 can be implemented by one service operation5 . The service must be found, included, and data formats must be adjusted accordingly (data mediation). 4

5

Here we refer to tasks as they are used in the BPMN notation. In other business process modelling notations, the respective matching concepts are sometimes called functions or activities. This case comes down to service discovery, which can thus be seen as a special kind of composition.

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2. A task can be implemented by a service with multiple operations. Here, the constraints may be overlapping with those of other called services (among others: process mediation between diﬀerent subprocesses in the process model). 3. A task can be implemented by orchestrating multiple services. This implies that the control ﬂow over the service calls must be inferred from their description. The need may arise from dependencies leading to the execution of services not directly related to the goal of a certain task. 4. Multiple tasks may be implemented by a service. This case may arise, when the granularity of the tasks is smaller than that of the service. Since BPEL processes can be exposed as Web services again, the case is considered to be relevant. 5. A task has a resource6 attached to it, which must be taken into account in the composed process. 6. A task has multiple resources attached to it. 7. A set of tasks shares a resource assignment. Note, that the combinations of these requirements are likely to occurr. E.g., the combination of multiple services (Requirement 3) with multiple operations each (Requirement 2) span and together implement multiple tasks from the high-level process (Requirement 4). Common Requirements 8. Take into account transactional requirements as also done by [17], e.g., book hotel and ﬂight, but if one of them fails, don’t book anything. Scopes over which transactional behavior is speciﬁed could be expressed in the high-level business process. 9. Preparation of the runtime choice of one out of a class of services: e.g., based on non-functional properties like price, estimated execution time, location a runtime selection on a concrete service out of a class of functionally matching services can be made. 10. Protection scopes within subprocesses, i.e. parts of processes where certain constraints must hold (e.g. a customer complains about his invoice, and the respective department did not yet answer him – then the customer should not get a dunning letter before his complaint was processed). In terms of the workﬂow patterns [25], this requirement leads to the need for the pattern “interleaved parallel routing”. The used language must be expressive enough to allow for modelling this kind of protection, and the composition must be able incorporate it. 6

In BPM, such resource assignments are not uncommon. E.g., an approval task may be associated with a manager-role, meaning that during the execution of the process a speciﬁc manager needs to be assigned to the role. The term resource is more general than a role, and also used for machinery, physical goods, and the like.

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11. Take into account business rules, in that the space of all allowed composite services may be constrained through such rules. E.g., if insurance claim approval must follow the four-eye principle, the composition approach must take this into account and only come up with composite processes that conform with the business rules. 12. Correctness and validity7 of the dataﬂow: the composed process has a dataﬂow, be it implicit or explicit, which has to be correct by some means. E.g., data should be available by the point in the process where it is needed. This aspect can get tricky, e.g., when data is only provided by an optional branch in a process, and guarantees should be made regarding the availability of this data after the optional branch. Situational Requirements 13. Goal-based conﬁguration of subprocesses. If a subprocess is conﬁgurable and it is necessary or beneﬁcial to the composite process to exploit this fact, then the composition approach should make use of it. E.g. if there are two mutually exclusive branches in a subprocess, the branching condition is conﬁgurable, and the only way to achieve a goal is to take one of the branches, then the composite process should call a respectively conﬁgured variant of the subprocess such that it always takes the desired branch. 14. Detection of missing services, as suggested in [9] and potentially identifying services that are related to a missing service. This issue requires some heuristics for ﬁnding the gaps, i.e., one must know that he is on the right street before he can say that a bridge is missing. He must thus know that the street goes in the desired direction, both, in front of and behind the obstacle, and that all that is missing is this bridge. As services may be heterogeneous in terms of data structures in their messages or their behavioral interfaces, the composition approach should be able to overcome the heterogeneities through incorporating mediators at planning time: a mediator can, e.g., overcome diﬀerences in message formats, given the content is compatible on the semantic level. Thus, the question if two services can interact is no longer the question if their message formats are compatible out-of-the-box, it is rather the question if a mediator can be found that can bridge the gap. The requirements given here arise from the diﬀerences between a business process modelling context and various Web service composition approaches: we see them as the ﬁrst logical step in the attempt to bridge the perceived gap. In essence, they attempt to answer the question of why service composition is not widely used in today’s EAI and BPM scenarios, and what is necessary to make a change to this situation. 7

A thorough deﬁnition of correctness or validity regarding dataﬂow in process models is outside the scope of this work.

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4 Analysis of the Feasibility of Technical Solutions In the previous section, a number of requirements for BP implementation through service composition were listed. This section is concerned with ﬁrst steps towards a solution and the issue that service composition is often challenging in terms of the computational complexity of used algorithms. At the end of this section, we shortly elaborate on existing results regarding the latter aspect. 4.1 Starting Points for a Composition Approach In order to achieve the targeted composition, we suggest to combine Semantic Web services technology with AI planning [22]8 , such as Hierarchical Task Network planning (HTN), Partial-Order Planning (POP), or Forward/Backward Search. The high-level to-be process model serves as a detailed goal description, including a reﬁnement of the goal in the sense of HTN’s task decompositions. E.g., the ordering process from Fig. 1 has as overall goal a successful new order, potentially a new customer in the CRM system, and service provisioning to the new customer. The process model itself then can be seen as a reﬁnement of this goal towards an implementation, which orders the various tasks and shows other tasks, such as credit checks, consistency checks in the purchase order, or the distinction between existing and new customers. Based on such a process model, the composition component then tries to ﬁnd existing services for each of the tasks, where it is likely that more than one service is required for a task. The combination of all the service calls in the complete process then has to be consistent, such that concurrency of service execution does not violate constraints on service usage, a service call does not undo a previous achievement of another service call, and more. Preconditions and goals for single tasks are given through its semantic mark-up. In part, they may also be reﬁned by inferrence from the bigger process model and environmental context of the process. One issue with this approach is, that Semantic Web technology is usually based on the open-world assumption, while planning usually assumes a closed world.9 We are aware of this issue and will take it into account in our approach to composition. Missing rich semantic description identiﬁed as one of the strongest issues in existing composition approaches [11]. We believe in a number of advantages of combining AI planning and Semantic Web technology. One of them is that in former approaches to planning [22], the relationship between subgoals was unclear. By having taxonomies in ontologies, the relationships between 8 9

Cf. Part IV, Planning The closed-world assumption means that any not-stated fact is assumed to be false, while the open-world assumption does not allow this inference: a not stated fact is simply not known.

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subgoals should become available for reasoning. Also, non-functional properties can be beneﬁcial, by allowing for service composition with insights into price/cost, duration, security requirements, quality of services, and more. The taxonomies in ontologies should also allow us to deal with diﬀering modelling levels with respect to the objects in a process or the modelling level of a function, in that taxonomy helps identifying the relationship between modelling artifacts on diﬀering levels. Especially subsumption reasoning could prove a valuable tool for this task. Now, combining these ideas with real-world services and processes should serve us as a very promising starting point: not only do we have activities available for the composition that have a real-world meaning, also the heterogeneities between such activities can be overcome through mediation, and the level of goal-achievement can potentially be assessed during the planning process. The assumption that implementations are available as services or executable subprocesses can be seen as realistic, e.g. the SAP Enterprise Services Repository contains all kinds of business functions exposed as services. Typically, if a new business process needs to be implemented, the service implementations are available already before its design. 4.2 Analysis of the Computational Feasibility The composition problem is computationally quite challenging and many problems are undecidable or of exponential complexity [7]. One of them is that comparing behavioral interfaces, e.g., abstract BPEL in the unconstrained case is very similar to the Turing-equivalence problem, and suﬀers from exponential complexity [8]. This may apply to control ﬂow-based check of discovery outcomes in our approach. Besides these less encouraging results, there are a few concrete prototypes for automatic Web service composition which allow for a more optimistic outlook. E.g., [18]10 performs composition with 500 services and up to 50 parameters per service in reasonable time frames. Furthermore, in [23] composition based on OWL-S process models is compared to composition based on abstract WS-BPEL processes. There are two timing tables for this issue, showing that the former approach is several orders of magnitude faster than the latter - based on their approach. This approach transforms the domain to a state-transition system, where each possible value for a variable has to be represented in the states - which decreases its applicability in real world scenarios. However, their conclusion is that composition should take place on the appropriate level of abstraction. In general their evaluation shows - at least - that composition problems in reduced domains (limited number of available services and the like) are computable in time frames between fractions of seconds and few hours. 10

Cf. Section 8.5

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5 Related Work The recent years brought afore a vast number of publications around the service composition topic, just to mention a few: [19, 17, 18, 2]. Amongst them is a collection of surveys on approaches, frameworks, and platforms in the service composition area [11, 5, 16, 20] and more. Some of these surveys formulate needs and motivations for service composition. But, in contrast to this paper, those needs and requirements are rather vague, the focus is on diﬀerent ways of solving them. Requirements on service composition are mentioned in a couple of publications. In [14] a list of requirements for a speciﬁc software component, the service composer, is given. Naturally, those requirements are much more specialized than the ones given here. [24] discusses among other aspects so-called non-functional requirements in service composition. While those are mostly related to modelling non-functional properties in our words, the point that those should be included in composition is emphasized. Web Service Composition Management, as described in [6], deals with security, fault, accounting, performance and conﬁguration management aspects of service composition, and addresses these issues by giving requirements for this purpose. To the best of our knowledge, general requirements for service composition in the realm of business process enactment as given in this paper have not been published before. Related work that does not focus on requirements only is given in the following. [11] lists a number of problems in current approaches, which partially overlap with the requirements collected here. Additionally, they describe the problem of degrading quality in long service chains, which we see as minor in the realm of a business process model: the process serves as the ﬁrst reﬁnement of the business goal, given certain requirements are met. Thus, our approach is going to be guided by the process model, and should therefore produce long service chains only in a user-desired way. [5] deﬁnes seven criteria, along which they evaluate existing composition approaches/frameworks/platforms. Four of those criteria have the characteristics of requirements, and overlap with our requirements. Business rules in composition play a role in [15] as well, only there they are not used as constraints to the search space, rather, the composition process is deﬁned through composition rules. The composite service then is a result of evaluating the rules. Business-Driven Development (BDD) [10, 8] is also related, but assumes many manual steps and is more directed to traditional software engineering, in contrast to the service-assumption made here. Probably it is not feasible to automate all the tasks in BDD, but the use of explicit, formal semantics could provide many desired features. If the requirements in this paper are met by a composition system, this system might advance automation in BDD signiﬁcantly.

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6 Conclusions and Future Work In this paper, we presented the idea of using composition for the implementation of newly created or re-designed high-level business process models. Hereby, a BPEL-like process description is created based on the higher-level model, which orchestrates calls to Semantic Web services that encapsulate the actual business functions. This approach needs to take into account a number of requirements, such as the opportunity to deal with transactional behavior of parts of a process. 14 such requirements are listed in the body of this work. Fulﬁlling these requirements while solving the composition problem is a hard task, in technical and computational terms. However, a solution to this problem could facilitate tackling the interoperability issue between enterprise application systems. First approaches for the technical solution are given here, followed by a short analysis of the computational complexity. The approach we take is hard and signiﬁcantly exceeds today’s state of the art, since in practice one can encounter business processes with over a hundred involved activities, running over several months or even years. With that in mind, the computational issue might prove the hardest issue for real world application of the approach. In future work, we plan to attempt solving the described problem step by step, starting with a general framework and extending it one after one for meeting the requirements from this paper. We plan to employ a careful combination of existing techniques together with required extensions in order to create an applicable and well-scaling solution.

References 1. T. Andrews, F. Curbera, and more. Business Process Execution Language for Web Services. Version 1.1, 5 2003. 2. B. Benatallah, M. Dumas, Q. Sheng, and A. Ngu. Declarative Composition and Peer-to-Peer Provisioning of Dynamic Web Services. In ICDE ’02: Proc. 18th Intl. Conf. on Data Engineering, page 297, Washington, DC, USA, 2002. IEEE Computer Society. 3. M. Burstein, J. Hobbs, and more (eds.). OWL-S: Semantic Markup for Web Services. OWL-S 1.1. http://www.daml.org/services/owl-s/1.1/, Nov. 2004. Version 1.1. 4. F. Casati, M. Sayal, and M.-C. Shan. Developing E-Services for Composing EServices. In CAiSE ’01: Proc. 13th Intl. Conf. on Advanced Information Systems Engineering, pages 171–186, London, UK, 2001. Springer. 5. S. Dustdar and W. Schreiner. A Survey on Web services Composition. Int. J. Web and Grid Services, 1(1):1–30, 2005. 6. B. Esfandiari and V. Tosic. Requirements for Web Service Composition Management. In Proceedings of the 11th HPOVUA Workshop, June 2004. 7. R. Hull, M. Benedikt, V. Christophides, and J. Su. E-Services: a Look Behind the Curtain. In Proc. 22nd Symposium on Principles Of Database Systems – PODS, San Diego, CA, USA, pages 1–14, June 2003.

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8. J. Koehler, R. Hauser, J. K¨ uster, K. Ryndina, J. Vanhatalo, and M. Wahler. The Role of Visual Modeling and Model Transformations in Business-driven Development. In 5th Intl. Workshop on Graph Transformation and Visual Modeling Techniques, April 2006. 9. P. K¨ ungas and M. Matskin. Detection of missing web services: The partial deduction approach. Special Issue on Recent Innovations in Web Services Practices, Intl. Journal of Web Services Practices, 1(1-2):133–141, 2005. 10. J. K¨ uster, J. Koehler, and K. Ryndina. Improving Business Process Models with Reference Models in Business-Driven Development. In Proc. 2nd Workshop on Business Processes Design (BPD’06), LNCS, Springer, 2006. 11. U. K¨ uster, M. Stern, and B. K¨ onig-Ries. A Classiﬁcation of Issues and Approaches in Automatic Service Composition. In Proc. 1st Intl. Workshop on Engineering Service Compositions (WESC’05), pages 25–33, Dec. 2005. 12. U. Kuter, E. Sirin, D. S. Nau, B. Parsia, and J. A. Hendler. Information Gathering During Planning for Web Service Composition. In ISWC 2004: Proc. 3rd Intl. Sem. Web Conf., Hiroshima, Japan, pages 335–349, 2004. 13. S. McIlraith and T. C. Son. Adapting Golog for composition of semantic Web services. In KR-02: Proc. of the 8th Intl. Conf. on Principles and Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Toulouse, France, 2002. 14. H. Meyer and D. Kuropka. Requirements for Service Composition. Technical report, Universit¨ at Potsdam, Hasso-Plattner-Instituts f¨ ur Softwaresystemtechnik, Technische Berichte Nr. 11, Univ.-Verlag Potsdam, 2005. 15. B. Orri¨ens, J. Yang, and M. P. Papazoglou. A Framework for Business Rule Driven Service Composition. In TES-03: Proc. 4th Intl. Workshop on Technologies for E-Services, Berlin, Germany, pages 14–27, Sept. 2003. 16. J. Peer. Web Service Composition as AI Planning - A Survey. Technical report, Univ. of St. Gallen, Switzerland, 2005. 17. M. Pistore, P. Traverso, and P. Bertoli. Automated Composition of Web Services by Planning in Asynchronous Domains. In ICAPS-05: Proc. Intl. Conf. on Automated Planning and Scheduling, 2005. 18. J. Rao. Semantic Web Service Composition via Logic-based Program Synthesis. PhD thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2004. 19. J. Rao, D. Dimitrov, P. Hofmann, and N. Sadeh. A Mixed Initiative Approach to Semantic Web Service Discovery and Composition: SAP’s Guided Procedures Framework. In ICWS-06: Proc. IEEE Intl. Conf. on Web Services, Chicago, USA, Sept. 2006. 20. J. Rao and X. Su. A Survey of Automated Web Service Composition Methods. In SWSWPC, pages 43–54, 2004. 21. D. Roman, H. Lausen, and U. Keller. D2v1.2. Web Service Modeling Ontology (WSMO) WSMO Final Draft 13 April 2005. wsmo.org, 2005. 22. S. J. Russell and P. Norvig. Artiﬁcial Intelligence: A Modern Approach. Pearson Education, 2003. 23. P. Traverso and M. Pistore. Automated Composition of Semantic Web Services into Executable Processes. In ISWC-04: Proc. 3rd Intl. Semantic Web Conf, Hiroshima, Japan, pages 380–394, 2004. 24. M. T. Tut and D. Edmond. The Use of Patterns in Service Composition. In AiSE ’02/ WES ’02: Intl. Workshop on Web Services, E-Business, and the Semantic Web, pages 28–40, London, UK, 2002. Springer. 25. W. M. P. van der Aalst, A. H. M. ter Hofstede, B. Kiepuszewski, and A. P. Barros. Workﬂow Patterns. Distrib. Parallel Databases, 14(1):5–51, 2003.

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Comparing GRL and KAOS using the UEML Approach R. Matuleviþius1, P. Heymans1 and A. L. Opdahl2 1

2

Computer Science Department, University of Namur, Belgium {rma, phe}@info.fundp.ac.be Department of Information Science and Media Studies, University of Bergen, Norway [email protected]

Goal-oriented modelling languages are central in the information systems (IS) field, both for aligning new IS with organisational needs and for developing agent-oriented software systems. However, existing goal-oriented languages differ significantly in both syntax and semantics. The paper analyses and compares the syntax and semantics of GRL and KAOS using the UEML approach, providing a systematic and detailed comparison of the two languages, in part based on the Bunge-Wand-Weber (BWW) model and Bunge's ontology. The work offers a path towards integrated management and use of models expressed in GRL and KAOS, it contributes to incorporating GRL and KAOS into version 2 of the unified enterprise modelling language, which is currently being developed. Keywords: Goal-oriented modelling, GRL, KAOS, ontological analysis of modelling languages, Unified Enterprise Modelling Language (UEML).

1 Introduction Enterprise models are an efficient means to tackle the complexity inherent to the engineering of enterprise information systems (IS). In addition to the traditional informational and functional modelling views, it has been recognised that other complementary views are necessary [21]. In requirements engineering (RE), the last decade has witnessed a growing interest in the goal-oriented view [8, 14]. The idea of modelling goals came from the necessity of describing not only what the system should do, but also why it should do it, i.e., its rationale. The goaloriented view is based on the premise that, in collaborative work situations, people act according to personal and group goals, not strictly following rules or procedures. It has turned out that making goals explicit actually pays off: since

This work is partially supported by the Commission of the European Communities under the 6th framework programme (InterOP NoE, Contract 508011), URL: http://www.interopnoe.org/.

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goals tend to be more stable than requirements, they should be used as the key drivers of system design, helping to discriminate between alternative solutions. Several goal-oriented modelling languages have been proposed in the literature: KAOS [10, 11], i* [24], GRL [7], Tropos [4], GBRAM [1], NFR [5] and Lightswitch [20]; but the research is currently still fragmented [8]. Each language (or even its version or dialect) comes with its own syntactic and semantic singularities [18, 22, 23], which are a major obstacle to model and tool interoperability, and prevent wider adoption by practitioners. In this paper we compare two prominent goal-oriented languages, GRL and KAOS, using the unified enterprise modelling language (UEML) [3, 15, 16, 17, 18] approach. UEML and the present work are being developed within the InterOP NoE, and aims to support enterprise model interoperability. Our contribution is fourfold: (1) it defines the semantics of both languages on top of the UEML ontology; (2) it offers a path towards automated transformations between, and integrated management of, goal models; (3) it contributes to a broader understanding of goal-based modelling in general; and (4), it contributes to the development of the UEML 2 by incorporating the two goal-oriented languages. The paper is structured as follows: section 2 provides the theoretical research background; section 3 describes the research method; results are presented in section 4 and discussed in section 5; finally, conclusions are presented in section 6.

2 Theory This section describes the syntactic constructs of GRL and KAOS using the well known meeting scheduler exemplar [11, 24]. It also recalls the UEML approach. 2.1 GRL (Goal-oriented Requirements Language) GRL supports goal-oriented modelling, and reasoning about requirements [7]. It has four main categories of constructs (Fig. 1): intentional elements, links, actors, and non-intentional elements. The intentional elements (goal, softgoal, task, resource and belief) tend to answer questions about intents, motivations and rationales. A goal is a condition or state of affairs that the stakeholders would like to achieve (e.g., goals Meeting be scheduled in Fig. 1). Like a goal, a softgoal is a condition that the stakeholder wants to achieve, but there are no clear-cut criteria to determine whether this condition is achieved (e.g., Quick, Low effort). A task describes a particular way of doing something (e.g., Schedule meeting). A resource is an entity for which the main concern is whether it is available (e.g., Proposed dates). A belief is used to express design rationale. Links are means-ends, decomposition, contribution, correlation and dependency. Means-ends are used to describe how goals are achieved, typically through tasks. A decomposition link defines the subcomponents of a task. A contribution link describes the impact that one element has on another by design,

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while correlation indicates a side effect. A dependency link describes the interagent relationships.

Fig. 1. Fragment of the GRL model for the Meeting Scheduler [24]

Actors are holders of intentions and characterise active entities (e.g., Meeting initiator in Fig. 1). Actors want goals to be achieved, tasks to be performed, resources to be available and softgoals to be “satisficed”. Non-intentional elements are references to model elements outside the GRL model, i.e. traceability links. Unlike i* [24], GRL does not separate between strategic dependency and strategic rationale models A GRL model could be composed of either a global goal model or of several goal models distributed among actors. If a model includes more than one actor, then the dependency relationship is used to relate them. 2.2 KAOS (Knowledge Acquisition in autOmated Specification) A KAOS model includes a goal model, object model, agent model and operation model [10, 11]. We focus on the goal model; however, agent, object and operation models are not excluded completely, as all those models are interrelated. A goal is a prescriptive assertion that captures an objective, which the systemto-be should meet. Goals can be classified according to one of four patterns:

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maintain, avoid, achieve and cease. For example, goal Participant info up to date in Fig. 2 follows the maintain pattern in which a property always holds. A goal can be refined through G-refinement, which relates it to subgoals whose conjunction, possibly together with domain properties, contributes to the satisfaction of the goal. A goal can have alternative G-refinements (e. g. Participant info known in Fig. 2), which result in different software designs. A set of goals is conflicting if these goals cannot be achieved together. It means that under some boundary condition these goals become logically inconsistent in the considered domain. An object is a thing of interest in the system (see Object model in Fig. 2). Its instances can be distinctly identified and may evolve from state to state. Objects have attributes. Goals concern objects and attributes (e. g., Def in textual goal syntax in Fig. 2). An agent plays a role towards a goal satisfaction by controlling object behaviour. Goals are refined until they are assigned to individual agents. A goal effectively assigned to a software agent is called a requirement. A goal effectively assigned to an environment agent is called an expectation. An operation is an input-output relation over objects. Operations are characterised by domain and required conditions. Whenever the required conditions hold, performing the operations satisfies the goal. If a goal is operationalised and has a responsible agent, the latter performs the operations (see Operation model in Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Fragment of the KAOS model for the Meeting Scheduler [11]

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2.3 The UEML Approach The UEML approach [15, 16] uses the BWW model [22, 23] to describe modelling constructs in a way that facilitates precise language integration. The UEML construct template clearly and systematically distinguishes between how a construct is presented (concrete and abstract syntax), and what a construct represents (semantics). A central idea behind the UEML approach is separation of reference [17, 18], a technique that supports language and model interoperability by (i) breaking modelling constructs and model elements into ontological primitive parts1 and (ii) mapping each concept into a common ontology. The common ontology was initially derived from the BWW model and has since grown incrementally as additional classes, properties, states and events have been used to incorporate modelling constructs. Hopefully, it will continue to grow as more languages are added. In consequence, when two modelling constructs, from the same or from different languages, have both been described using the UEML approach, the exact relationship between them can be identified in terms of their mappings onto the common ontology. It might suggest the way for comparison, consistency checking, update reflection, view synchronisation and, eventually, model-to-model translation across modelling language boundaries.

3 Research Method Firstly, we identified language constructs and their interrelations. This was not easy since the languages are not precisely described. For instance, the GRL source [7] does not provide abstract language syntax. For KAOS, a part of the metamodel is described in conventional mathematics [11] but intertwined with other topics. In [10], all focus is on the KAOS metamodel. However the author uses non-standard constructions to visualise it, omitting multiplicities, specialisation-related constraints and abstract classes. Integrity constraints are only given partially and informally. To facilitate analysis, we represented our understanding of GRL and KAOS in a UML 2.0 class diagram (see [6] for GRL, and [13] for KAOS). From the metamodels, we identified 11 GRL and 25 KAOS constructs and applied the UEML approach to map constructs to the common ontology. In section 4, we will analyse our findings and compare the semantics of both languages.

4 Results In this section before presenting the overall comparison of GRL and KAOS constructs, we will introduce the semantics of the central goal construct. The section ends with an example of model translation between the two languages. 1

Examples of primitive ontology concepts are a particular class of things, a particular type of property or relationship, a particular state or a particular transformation.

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4.1 Analyses of Goal Constructs in GRL and KAOS Following the UEML approach, modelling constructs such as GRL.goal and KAOS.goal each represent a “scene” of ontologically primitive elements. Each such “ontological scene” comprises interrelated represented classes and represented properties2 that are mapped to the common ontology (Fig. 3). Hence both GRL.goal and KAOS.goal are static or structural modelling constructs. The scenes of dynamic or behavioural constructs would comprise represented states and represented transformations in addition to the classes and properties.

Fig. 3. Classes and properties of the Goal in the common ontology3, 4

2

3

Represented classes and properties are an indirection level to account for the many-tomany relationship between constructs and concepts in the common ontology. They also account for modelling constructs the represent several instances of a class, property, etc., each instance perhaps playing different role. Fig. 3 simplifies an UML object diagram (which is too long for this brief outline) that instantiates of the meta-meta-model presented in [17]. The classes and properties are also related both with one another and with the states and transformations for each class. In addition, classes, properties, states and transformations are organised into hierarchies.

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The upper half of Fig. 3 shows the ontological scene of GRL.goal and how the elements in the scene are mapped into the common ontology. The lower half shows the corresponding ontological scene and ontology mapping for KAOS.goal. Fig. 3 shows that the two constructs map onto the same classes in the common ontology: An ActiveThing that holds the goal and an ActedOnComponentThing that the goal is about. These two classes of things are further elaborated in the description of the common ontology through their textual definitions and other attributes, their defining properties and their relations to other ontology concepts. The two constructs also map onto the same properties in the common ontology: A ComplexLawProperty that describes the state or transformation that the goal should achieve or avoid, several AnyRegularProperties that describe further details about the goal and act as parameters to the law and a MutualProperty that relates the goal holder to the “thing the goal is about” (GRL) or the “concerned object” (KAOS). Explaining these properties and their relations in full detail requires an understanding of the BWW-model that goes beyond this paper. However, the ComplexLawProperty deserves a few comments. In the BWW-model, a Law is a property “that restricts values that other properties can have” [17, 18] and laws are complex (or compound) because they restrict the values of other properties. Laws can be either about states or transformations. The ComplexLawProperty is therefore central to describing goal constructs in both GRL and KAOS, because it describes a state or transformation that the goal should achieve or avoid. Fig. 3 also shows that the two constructs are not identical. The represented classes and properties are named differently in the upper and lower half. This is a shallow difference of terminology between GRL and KAOS. Furthermore, the ontological scene for KAOS.goal is more detailed than for GRL.goal. For example, KAOS has a notion of attribute that the concerned object possesses and that the goal's law restricts. KAOS also divides goals into subtypes: maintain goal, achieve goal, avoid goal and cease goal. Maintain goals (and avoid goals) represent state laws and indicate the allowable (forbidden) states that concerned objects can be in. An achieve goal (or cease goal) accordingly represent transformation laws. 4.2 Comparing GRL and KAOS The GRL and KAOS construct descriptions using the UEML approach are discussed in [6, 13] and compared in [12]. Table 1 presents the primary mapping of GRL and KAOS constructs to the common ontology, i.e., the BWW element in the ontological scene, for the class and property entry. A similarity noted “+” indicates that two constructs of different languages map to the same or overlapping sets of ontological elements/concepts, or to elements/concepts that are hierarchically related as it is shown in section 4.1 for goal. Similarity “+/-” indicates that there are semantic similarities between language elements. However there are additional obstacles, which limit their comparison. For example, both GRL.decomposition 4

theGoal laws are greyed to indicate they play a particularly important role in constructs. But it is an informal annotation, which is not central in the UEML approach.

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and KAOS domain and required conditions, are related in sense that they define rationale and conditions for goal satisfaction. However, KAOS conditions (1) are much more fine-grained and (2) they are not constructs but attributes of operationalisation and operation. Similarity “-” means that a construct in one language maps to few or no ontological elements/concepts that are mapped onto by a construct in the other language. Due to the space limits we do not include these similarity evaluations in Table 1. 4.3 Model transformations We will use the correspondences identified in Table 1 to illustrate how models created in one language could be translated to the others. The translations might be semi-automated by tools which would suggest model similarities. But the actual model translation is still left to the engineers who know the language. Table 1. Comparing GRL and KAOS constructs (* – not language construct) GRL Constructs

Actor

Goal

Softgoal Task Belief Means-ends Dependency Contribution (softgoals) Correlation (softgoals) Decomposition (task and elements)

Mapping

Active thing

Complex law

Complex law Transf. law State law Complex mutual Complex law Complex mutual Complex mutual Law

Constructs

KAOS Mapping

Agent Environment agent Software agent Goal Requirement

Similarity

Active comp.

+

Active comp.

+

Softw. comp. Complex law

+ +

Complex law

+

Expectation

Complex law

Achieve goal

Transf. law

+/-

Avoid goal

State law

+/-

Cease goal Maintain goal Softgoal Operation Domain property

Transf. law State law Complex law Transf. law State law Complex mutual

+/+/+ + +

Operationalisation

Complex mutual

Dom. and req. conditions*

Actor holds task*

Performance

Actor holds goal*

Assignment

+ +/-

Dependency* G-refinement

+

+/+/-

Complex mutual Complex mutual

+/+/-

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Fig. 4 (a) presents a fragment of the meeting scheduler system from Fig. 1. The corresponding KAOS model is presented in Fig. 4 (b). According to Table 1, GRL.actor Meeting scheduler transforms to KAOS.agent Meeting scheduler. Next, agent Meeting scheduler becomes responsible for (is assigned to) two goals and performs four operations that satisfy the goals the agent is responsible for. GRL.means-ends are transformed to operationalisations. GRL.task Schedule meeting is decomposed into several tasks and a goal. In KAOS the decomposition is defined in the required pre- and post- conditions of the operationalisation between Schedule meeting and Convenient meeting held (e.g., To execute operation Schedule meeting, operations Merge avail. dates, Obtain avail. dates and Obtain agreement must be finished, and goal Find agreeable date reached).

(a) GRL model

(b) KAOS model

Fig. 4. Model transformation from GRL to KAOS

Fig. 5 presents the opposite situation – translation from KAOS (see Fig. 2) to GRL. Taken from Table 1 KAOS.agent Scheduler corresponds to GRL.actor Scheduler, which holds one goal (Participant info requested), and two tasks (Collect participant info and Send info request). Note that GRL does not define goal patterns. Operationalisation corresponds to means-ends. A new task Request participant info is introduced in the GRL model to require that execution of both tasks Send info request and Collect participant info is needed to satisfy the goal. We assume that the object model has some similarities with GRL resource and dependencies; therefore, we define input and output relationships as GRL dependencies.

(a) KAOS model

(b) GRL model

Fig. 5. Model transformation from KAOS to GRL

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5 Discussion An evaluation of the UEML approach is presented in [13, 16]. Here we discuss limitations of goal-oriented languages and survey the related work. 5.1 Language limitations Goal-oriented languages, like other modelling approaches, contain a number of limitations that place boundaries on model transformation. First, languages use different concrete syntaxes. Second, their abstract syntax is not defined precisely. Our work contributes to clarification of abstract GRL and KAOS syntax using UML class diagrams. Our main concern is to use the UEML approach to identify semantic discrepancies [18, 22, 23]. We restrict our discussion to examples of observed redundancy, overload, incompleteness and under-definition limitations. Ontological redundancy means that two constructs have the same or overlapping semantics – modelling constructs refer to the same things, properties, states or transformations in the common ontology. We note the intensive use of BWW laws, mutual and complex properties to ground constructs ontologically. GRL correlation is redundant with contribution, because correlation’s mapping is a subset of the contribution’s mapping in the common ontology. A similar redundancy exists between goal and softgoal in GRL, and between goal, requirements, and expectation; software, environment agents and agents in KAOS. Ontological overload exists if the same language construct has several meanings. An example is KAOS agent, which despite of being mapped to the class of ActiveThings, is also an object of the system-to-be. Therefore it could also be represented as the CompositeThing in the common ontology. Ontological incompleteness appears when a language does not convey information on a certain ontological phenomenon. It is already illustrated in Fig. 5 where the KAOS goal pattern is lost in the GRL model. Other examples are GRL contribution and KAOS G-refinement. Contribution describes only the softgoal refinement; but there is no construct for goal refinement in GRL. In KAOS Grefinement is used for both softgoals and goals; but G-refinement is not applicable for strengthening argumentation of relationships (unlike contribution in GRL). Ontological under-definition (or excess) arises when a language construct has no semantics. For example, “in GRL, only tasks are semantically decomposable, but for convenience, in short hand forms for a combined structure goals could also be connected by decomposition links” [9]. But, actually, semantics of decomposition between goals is not defined. 5.2 Related work Kavakli and Loucopoulos [8] examine 15 languages and classify them along four dimensions: “usage” (what RE activity does goal modelling contribute to?), 2“subject” (what is the nature of goals?), “representation” (how are goals expressed?) and “development” (how are goal models developed and used?). The authors argue for more integration by obtaining “a stronger framework that takes advantage of the many streams of goal-oriented research” [8]. Kavakli [9] further

Comparing GRL and KAOS using the UEML Approach

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proposes a unification of goal method meta-models at the “usage” level. Regev and Wegmann [19] compare various meanings of goal and related concepts found in KAOS, GBRAM and GRL. The authors provide definitions of and interrelations between the key constructs based on the concept of “regulation” borrowed from the general systems thinking, and argue for formalisation of constructs using the BWW model. In [2] languages of the i* family are compared according to their abstract syntax. The work highlights noises, silences, ambiguities and contradictions of i*, GRL and TROPOS and proposes a general abstract syntax. This work describes GRL and KAOS constructs according to the BWW model. It opens the way for a systematic and tool-supported language comparison at the fine-grained level.

6 Conclusions and Future Work In this paper, we compare two goal-oriented languages – GRL and KAOS. Our investigation shows the difficulty of comparing their syntax and semantics. First, neither language possesses a well-documented reference meta-model describing its abstract syntax. Their concrete syntaxes are also significantly different. Foremost, language semantics is not precisely defined in the available sources. This work compares the languages using the UEML approach. Thereby, it suggests a more precise ontological semantics for the language constructs. It also suggests possibilities to translate GRL and KAOS models to each other based on their explicit semantics. The next step should be to validate the proposed semantics with the users and proponents of the languages. Semantics-preserving model transformations are a means to attain model and tool interoperability. In particular, they could substantially improve the traceability between models and tools used at different stages of requirements engineering – for instance, between early requirements elicitation using GRL, and late requirements specification using KAOS, as was suggested by some authors [8, 14]. Our future works include the analysis of other goal languages. Thereby, it will be possible to devise more semantic-preserving model transformations, and view synchronisation mechanisms across language boundaries. Also, it might be a first step towards the creation of an integrated, expressively complete goal-modelling language. Our endeavour is not limited to goal languages since UEML targets the interoperability of all sorts of enterprise models [19]. This work enriches the UEMLBase (UEML’s supporting tool prototype) with goal-oriented constructs, making it closer to a comprehensive arsenal for enterprise models interoperability.

7 References [1] [2]

Anton AI (1996) Goal-based Requirements Analysis. Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conference on Requirements Engineering (ICRE ’96), IEEE Computer Society, 136-144. Ayala CP, Cares C, Carvallo JP, Grau G, Haya M, Salazar G, Franch X, Mayol E, Quer C, (2005) A Comparative Analysis of i*-based Agent-oriented Modelling Languages. Proc. of the int. workshop on Agent-oriented Software Development Methodology.

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Berio G, Opdahl A, Anaya V, Dassisti M, (2005) Deliverable DEM 1, UEML 2.1. URL: www.interop-noe.org. Bresciani P, Perini A, Giorgini P, Giunchiglia F, Mylopoulos J, (2005) Tropos: An Agent-oriented Software Development Methodology. Autonomous Agents and MultiAgent Systems 8(3): 203–236. Chung KL, Nixon B, Mylopoulos J, Yu E, (2000) Non-Functional Requirements in Software Engineering. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. Dallons G, Heymans P, Pollet I, (2005) A Template-based Analysis of GRL. Proc. of the 10th CAiSE Int. workshop, EMMSAD’05. FEUP Edicoes 493–504. ITU (2003). Recommendation Z.151 (GRL) – Version 3.0, September. Kavakli E, Loucopoulos P, (2005) Goal Modeling in Requirements Engineering: Analysis and Critique of Current Methods. Krogstie J, Halpin T, Siau K (eds), Information Modeling Methods and Methodologies, Idea Group Publishing 102–124. Kavakli E, (2002) Goal-oriented Requirements Engineering: a Unifying Framework. Requirements Engineering Journal 6(4): 237–251. van Lamsweerde A, (2003) The KAOS Meta-model: Ten Years After. Technical report, Universite Catholique de Louvain. Letier E, (2001) Reasoning about Agents in Goal-Oriented Requirements Engineering. PhD thesis, Universite Catholique de Louvain. Matuleviþius R, Heymans P, Opdahl AL, (2006) Comparison of Goal-oriented Languages using the UEML Approach. Proc. of the 2nd International I-ESA 2006 Workshop EI2N 2006. Matuleviþius R, Heymans P, Opdahl AL, (2006) Ontological Analysis of KAOS Using Separation of Reference. Proc. of the 11th CAiSE’06 Int. workshop EMMSAD’06 395-406. Mylopoulos J, (2006) Goal-Oriented Requirements Engineering, Part II, Proc. of the 14th IEEE Int. Conference on Requirements Engineering (RE’06) 4. Opdahl AL, Berio G, (2006) Interoperable Language and Model Management using the UEML Approach. Proc. of the 2006 Int. workshop on Global Integrated Model Management, ACM Press 35–42. Opdahl AL, Berio G, (2006) A Roadmap for UEML. Proc.: of the Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications Conference (I-ESA'06). Opdahl AL, Henderson-Sellers B, (2004) A Template for Defining Enterprise Modelling Constructs. Journal of Database Management (JDM) 15(2): 39–73. Opdahl AL, Henderson-Sellers B, (2005) A Unified Modelling Language without Referential Redundancy. Data and Knowledge Engineering (DKE). Special Issue on Quality in Conceptual Modelling 277-300. Regev G, Wegmann A, (2005) Where do Goals Come From: the Underlying Principles of Goal-oriented Requirements Engineering. Proc. of the 13th IEEE Int. Conference on Requirements Engineering (RE’05). Regev G, (2003) A Systemic Paradigm for Early IT System Requirements Based on Regulation Principles: The Lightswitch Approach. PhD thesis, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL). Vernadat F, (2002) UEML: Towards a Unified Enterprise Modelling Language. International Journal of Production Research 40 (17): 4309-4321. Wand Y, Weber R, (1993) On the Ontological Expressiveness of Information Systems Analysis and Design Grammars. Journal of Information Systems 3: 217–237. Wand Y, Weber R, (1995) On the Deep Structure of Information Systems. Journal of Information Systems, 5: 203–223. Yu E, (1997) Towards Modeling and Reasoning Support for Early-phase Requirements Engineering. Proc. of the 3rd IEEE Int. Symposium on Requirements Engineering (RE’97), IEEE Computer Society.

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Analysing CIM2PIM Approaches to Improve Interoperability Reyes Grangel1 , Kleber Correa1,2 , Fulvio D’Antonio3 , Jean-Pierre Bourey4 , and Arne J. Berre5 1 2 3 4 5

Grupo IRIS, Dept. de Llenguatges i Sistemes Inform` atics, Universitat Jaume I, Castell´ o, Spain [email protected] Dept. de Eng. de Prod., Univ. Federal de Santa Catarina, Florian´ opolis, Brazil CNR-IASI, Rome, Italy Lab. de G´enie Industriel, Ecole Centrale de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France SINTEF, Oslo, Norway

1 Introduction In the context of the INTEROP NoE [1], the Task Group 2 is working on the deﬁnition of a methodology based on both, Model Driven Architecture (MDA) [2] and ontological approaches used as semantic support to solve interoperability problems [3]. This proposal, called Model Driven Interoperability (MDI), starts from Enterprise Modelling level, that means at Computation Independent Model (CIM) level, deﬁning the interoperability needs independently of the technology for both systems involved in interoperable issue. These needs are captured at the CIM level into an Interoperability Model which plays a dual role. The ﬁrst is to ensure a semantic bridge between the both systems, interconnecting them and supporting horizontal model transformations, but also establishing a direct correspondence between concepts at the highest level of abstraction and then producing ’conversion code’ by means of MDA-Based techniques. The second role played by the Interoperability Model is to be a kind of reference model for successive vertical transformations used according to MDA in order to go towards the Platform Independent Model (PIM) and the Platform Speciﬁc Model (PSM), and thus to generate the interconnections at the enterprise software application level. In this context, the ﬁrst diﬃculty deals with the transformation of Enterprise Models into IT or System Models, i.e. from CIM to PIM. In this paper, we intend to identify and analyse a number of approaches, which are related to the research into Enterprise and System Modelling. First, the objective is to understand how they consider models at the CIM level, i.e. what kind of concepts are represented at the CIM level, with the objective of categorising them. The second goal is to investigate what mechanisms and strategies are used to bridge the gap between CIM to PIM. In this paper, this kind of approach will be called CIM2PIM approaches. The ﬁnal objective is, from a methodological point of view, to take some ideas on how these

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approaches solve the problem of transforming CIM models into PIM models, and to apply the lessons learned from these approaches to improve Model Driven Interoperability Methodology.

2 Analysis of CIM2PIM Approaches Table 1 shows the diﬀerent approaches analysed in this paper from diﬀerent points of view and with the aim of learning how these approaches bridge the gap between the CIM and the PIM level, since all of them are related in some way with the kind of models that can be performed at the CIM or PIM level and with the processes that are carried out. The main reason for choosing these examples is that they are representative examples of each approach. Table 1. CIM2PIM approaches analysed N 1

Approach Tasks-Roles Oriented Engineering

2

Enterprise Modelling and ERP Customisation

3 4

Model Driven Engineering Business Process Modelling

5

Business Rule Community Approach

Example Enterprise Unified Process (EUP) COMBINE Project Architectures of Integrated Information Systems (ARIS) and SAP R/3 Dynamic Enterprise Modelling (DEM) and SSA ERP (BAAN) BP to Requirements and Task Roles (BP2R/TR) BP Modelling to BP/Service Execution, OMG Business Modelling Approach and others (BPMN, BPEL, BPMI/OMG) SBVR (Semantic Business Vocabulary Rules) from the OMG for Digital Ecosystems (DBE)

Ref. [4] [5] [6, 7] [8] [9] [10] [11]

2.1 From the Methodological Point of View Each approach has its methodology to follow and, therefore, they all have their own speciﬁc form and function. However, we have determinated certain features that could represent them, and which sometimes exist in more than one approach (see Table 2). These characteristics are as follows: • • • • • •

Iteration (ITE): this means that small cycles of iteration are promoted instead of performing everything just once (waterfall method). Prototypes (PRO): prototypes are developed during the progression of the application of the approach, and consequently before the ﬁnal version of the system. Dynamic (DYN): each adjustment can be performed easily during the process and it is, at the same time, ﬂexible. UML (UML): models make use of UML as the standard language to develop them. Standard Proposal (STD): whether the approach brings with it a language proposal to be followed as a standard during its application. Customisation (CUS): when the example provides tools to directly customise a speciﬁc system.

2.2 From the Enterprise Modelling Dimensions Point of View In this section, the approaches are analysed taking into account the diﬀerent enterprise dimensions that can be modelled at the CIM level (see Table 3); these dimensions are [12, 13]:

Analysing CIM2PIM Approaches to Improve Interoperability

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Table 2. Analysis from the methodological point of view Example

Phases

EUP

Inception, Elaboration, Construction, Transition, Production and Retirement Business and Requirements Model, Architecture & Design Model, Platform Specific Model, and Business Application Requirements, Design, and Implementation CIM, PIM, and PSM -

COMBINE ARIS DEM BP2R/TR BPM2BP/SE SBVR

• • • • •

ITE Yes

Methodology Features PRO DYN UML STD Yes Yes Yes No

CUS No

No

No

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No No No No No

No No No Yes No

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Yes Yes No Yes No

Organisation: this represents how the organisation is structured, arranged, administrated, and so forth. Process: this describes a sequence of operations or events (possibly taking up time, space, expertise or other resources), which produces some outcome. Product: the models in this dimension show all the information about the products used and provided by the enterprise. Decision: the models in this dimension represent how an enterprise performs the decisional processes. Infrastructure: this characterises the basic facilities, services and installations needed for the functioning of the enterprise.

Therefore, for each diﬀerent enterprise dimension, we identiﬁed the instrument that the approach utilises to achieve the respective model. In spite of SBVR has not been traditionally used for Enterprise Modelling, and thus it does not cover any Enterprise Modelling dimension, it has been considered useful like a CIM2PIM approach since the ontological support that it could oﬀer for model transformations. This is a characteristic that the other approaches analysed do not have. Table 3. Analysis from the Enterprise Modelling dimensions point of view Example EUP COMBINE

ARIS DEM

BP2R/TR BPM2BP/SE SBVR

Organisation Organisation Model Vision and Risk Statements, Goal Model Organisational View Business Organisation Model Requirements Model Business Process Modelling X

Enterprise Modelling Dimensions Process Product Decision Enterprise Busi- Portfolio Enterprise Business Process Model Management ness Process Model Business Process Business Resources X and Roles model Model Function View and Control View Business Process and Business Control Model Requirements Model Business Process Modelling X

Data View and Product View Business Function Model

X X

Infrastructure Organisation Model X

Organisational View Business Organisation Model

X

X

X

Business Process Modelling X

X

X

X

X

3 Conclusion The analysis of these approaches shows that the problem of transforming CIM models into PIM models is not still solved, since all of them produce this transformation manually or almost manually. However, from methodological point

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of view, some common features can be observable and they could become really valuable for MDI Methodology, as well as others that are speciﬁc for one or two approaches, but they have become useful in the context in which they are used, such as iterative and incremental process and the use of prototypes within EUP, or the possibility of customisation oﬀered by ARIS and DEM. Using ARIS or DEM when the targeted software is well identiﬁed (SAP/R2 or SSA ERP) is interesting because of their completely integrated vertical approaches, however the objective of MDI Methodology is to provide a more general method. The CIM to PIM transformation could be achieved through an iterative method, and by so doing prototypes could be generated. On the other hand, it would be a good idea to utilise the SBVR as a standard for semantic support towards horizontal interoperability, including them in Interoperability Model as semantic reference. Finally, from Enterprise Modelling dimensions, these approaches are complementary and cover all of them, in particular COMBINE Project seems to be interesting for its ’Vision and Risks Statements’, and ’Goal Model’, oﬀering a complementary view at the CIM level.

Acknowledgments This work was funded by the EC within the 6th FP, INTEROP NoE [1]. The authors are indebted to TG2. It was also partially supported by CICYT DPI2003-02515 and DPI2006-14708.

References 1. INTEROP (2007). Interoperability Research for Networked Enterprises Applications and Software NoE (IST-2003-508011). http://www.interop-noe.org. 2. OMG (2003) MDA Guide Version 1.0.1, document number: omg/2003-06-01 edition. Object Management Group. 3. Grangel, R., Bourey, J.-P., and Berre, A. (2006) Solving Problems in the Parametrisation of ERPs using a Model-Driven Approach. Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications Conference (I-ESA’06). 4. Ambler, S., Nalbone, J., and Vizdos, M. (2005) The Enterprise Uniﬁed Process: Extending the Rational Uniﬁed Process. Prentice Hall. 5. COMBINE (2007). Component-based Interoperable Enterprise System Development (IST-1999-20893). http://www.opengroup.org/combine/. 6. Scheer, A.-W. (1999) ARIS, Business Process Framework. 3rd edition-Berlin. 7. Scheer, A.-W. (1999) ARIS, Business Process Modelling. 3rd edition-Berlin. 8. Global, S. (2007). Technology Audit. http://www.ssaglobal.com/documents/. 9. Oldevik, J., Solberg, A., Elvesaeter, B., and Berre, A. (2002) Framework for model transformation and code generation. 6th EDOC 2002, Switzerland, IEEE Computer Society. 10. OMG (2007). Business Process Management Initiative. http://www.bpmi.org. 11. OMG (2007). Semantics of Business Vocabulary and Business Rules Speciﬁcation, ﬁrst Interim Speciﬁcation. http://www.omg.org/docs/dtc/06-03-02.pdf. 12. UEML (2007). Uniﬁed Enterprise Modelling Language Project (IST-200134229). http://www.ueml.org. 13. ATHENA (2007). Advanced Technologies for interoperability of Heterogeneous Enterprise Networks and their Applications IP (IST-2003-507849). http://www.athena-ip.org.

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An Ontology of Interoperability in Inter-Enterprise Communities Toni Ruokolainen1, Yannick Naudet2 , and Thibaud Latour2 1

2

Dept. of Computer Science P.O. Box 68 (Gustaf Hällströmin katu 2b) FI-00014 UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI, FINLAND Innovation Center by Information Technologies (CITI) Henri Tudor Public Research Center, LUXEMBOURG

Summary. The ability of a system to interoperate with another is a multi-dimensional concern which must be considered simultaneously from different perspectives and covering all the concerns relevant for different stakeholders. In this paper, we present a model of interoperability for service-based inter-enterprise computing environments which is based on the Ontology of Interoperability (OoI) developed under INTEROP-NoE and the Pilarcos framework for federated service communities. We propose a reﬁned version of the OoI, generalizing the originally considered scope of interoperability and adding concepts required to address dynamic aspects in interoperability. The ontology is then specialized to the domain of federated service-based communities and we illustrate with some concrete examples how interoperability problems and solutions in that domain could be related to it.

1 Introduction The ability of a system to interoperate with another is a multi-dimensional concern which must be considered simultaneously from technical, semantic and pragmatic perspectives and covering all the concerns relevant for different stakeholders. To grasp the problem of interoperability, one must have a clear deﬁnition of what interoperability comprises and what are the corresponding problems that can occur during operation of the system. Given this characterization of interoperation, mechanisms to identify interoperability problems can be constructed and corresponding solution methods provided. The FIG-OOI (Focused Interest Group on Ontology of Interoperability) group of the INTEROP-NoE [3] has provided a general framework for managing interoperability problems. The Ontology of Interoperability (OoI) [10], resulting from previous work of Rosener et al. [12, 13], provides a formal, domain-independent deﬁnition of the interoperability problem with a pragmatic, problem-solving view. To be usable as a decision aid, the OoI needs to be specialized to construct a domain-speciﬁc model of interoperability. In this paper, we present a model of

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Toni Ruokolainen, Yannick Naudet, and Thibaud Latour

interoperability for inter-enterprise computing environments in the Pilarcos framework [8, 16]. The later allows the establishment of federated collaborations between autonomically administered business services, by providing dedicated meta-models and middleware services. In this context, heterogeneity, autonomy, and dynamism are inherent properties of the operational environment which induce severe interoperability problems when collaborations involving several organizations should be established [14]. To address these kind of environments, the OoI has to be extended with additional concepts introduced in [15]. The structure of this paper is as follows. First, the Ontology of Interoperability is brieﬂy presented and reﬁned by generalizing the originally considered scope of interoperability and adding concepts required to address dynamic aspects [14]; the corresponding enhanced meta-model is discussed Section 2. Section 3 presents the different aspects deﬁning interoperability in dynamic service-oriented enterprise environments. After that, we propose a specialization of the OoI to this speciﬁc domain in Section 4 and illustrate in Section 5 with some concrete examples how interoperability problems and solutions in that domain could be related to the ontology. In particular, interoperability intra- and inter-aspects is addressed. Finally, we draw some conclusions about the applicability of the interoperability model in Section 6.

2 The interoperability meta-model Interoperability is a requirement inside a system for allowing interaction or composition of its components, but also for the system itself, when it needs to be sufﬁciently ﬂexible to exchange information with another system, or if it needs to be open to new components. As soon as this ability is not achieved when systems or system’s components need to operate together, interoperability becomes a problem that must be solved. Contrary to what can be found in most of the available deﬁnitions, interoperability is not only related to communication. Generally speaking, the components of a system do not necessary have to communicate, but might simply have to be composed together for a speciﬁc purpose. From a pure compositional point of view, this can be viewed as a structural interoperability need. When communication or other kinds of action deﬁne the relation between the system’s components, this concerns the behavioral aspect of interoperability. The point of view adopted for building the OoI [10] considers interoperability from a problem-solving perspective, not restricted to communication matters. This is illustrated by the following deﬁnition, ﬁrst proposed in [13]: Deﬁnition 1. An interoperability problem appears when two or more heterogeneous resources are put together. Interoperability per se is the paradigm where an interoperability problem occur. As can be seen in ﬁgure 1, the OoI is composed of three distinct meta-models, covering different aspects of deﬁnition 1: • The decisional model deﬁnes the relation existing between problems and their solutions and new problems they potentially induce. It covers the problem-solving position adopted

An Ontology of Interoperability in Inter-Enterprise Communities

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Fig. 1. Framework of the Ontology of Interoperability: origins, and instantiation for domain speciﬁc problem / solution description.

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in deﬁnition 1 and the fact that interoperability is deﬁned as a problem. This model aims at being the main support for a reasoner or a decision-aid system to propose solutions to identiﬁed problems. The resource composition model identiﬁes the resources, together with their objectives, their interfaces, and their composition relations. Quite logically, this model is needed as interoperability problems are deﬁned to appear when some heterogeneous resources are put in relation. In this model, resource heterogeneity concerns the resources’ interfaces, which are their "material" realisations, actually in contact when there exist a relation between resources. The systemic model deﬁnes more precisely the notion of resource by identifying it to a system. Because a general system theory [18] point of view has been adopted, the considered systems are not limited to IT ones. This is especially important to have this non restrictive approach when considering interoperability, which has different facets, like the organisational or conceptual aspects [1], the technological aspect being as important as these two others. According to this view, a resource is a system. It can thus be real or abstract and can belong to any part of another system. A software component, as well as a hardware component, a person, a business rule, etc., can all be resources of a system. The systemic part consists thus mainly on the concepts of system; the model that can describe the system or deﬁne a system that will be build, this model being also describable by a meta-model; the representation of the model which constitutes a perceivable symbolic description of this model; and the environment, which represents what is outside of the system.

The interoperability meta-model, formalized now as an ontology [10], uses the three upper models presented before, by deﬁning Interoperability as a problem, existing when there exist a relation between some heterogeneous resources and which can be solved using some speciﬁc solutions like bridging or homogenization. The OoI is not meant however to be used as-is in any application domain. For each domain, it will need to be specialized. Then it will be usable in a decision-aid system, us-

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ing descriptions of problems and solutions known in that domain. Such descriptions will refer to the concepts of the specialized OoI and potentially to domain-speciﬁc problem and solution ontologies allowing a richer formalization. 2.1 An enhanced version In ﬁgure 2, we propose a revisited version of the OoI, resulting of the work conducted for its use in the context of service-based inter-enterprise computing environments. The main enhancements concern: 1) a change in the considered scope of interoperability, leading to the introduction of the Incompatibility concept, which is wider than the previously considered ResourceHeterogeneity; 2) the introduction of dynamic aspects, revisited from [15].

Fig. 2. Conceptual graph of the enhanced version of the OoI.

According to deﬁnition 1, an interoperability problem occurs when some connected resources are heterogeneous. The heterogeneity we consider here can only occur between resources of a same nature, at a same holistic level in the system. The application of the OoI to the speciﬁc domain addressed in this paper rises the issue

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of considering conﬂicting relations existing between resource of different nature as a problem pertaining to interoperability. To tackle this issue, we replace the concept of ResourceHeterogeneity considered in previous work [10], by the more general concept of Incompatibility, which is then partitioned into two kinds: Heterogeneity and Misalignment. Incompatibility concerns resources of any nature. More speciﬁcally, heterogeneity relates then to resources of the same nature and concerns either their interfaces, their models (describing the system a resource is), or the representations of the models which is the aggregation of symbols used to materialize the systems. Differently, misalignment can be observed when one resource constraints the way another one will be build, structured or will behave. The two resources are in this case of different nature. Misalignment does not occur between the resources themselves, but at the level of the relations: between a resource and its model (e.g. constraint on the structure); between a resource and its representation (e.g. constraint on the syntax of the model); between a resource and its objective (e.g. constraint on the behavior). To tackle interoperability problems occurring in federated enterprise environments, concerned by autonomically administrated business services collaborations, additional concepts addressing dynamic aspects of interoperability have been proposed in [15]. These new concepts allow to more precisely address relational and environmental aspects in interoperation, introducing effects that cannot be dealt appropriately with or within static system models. As dynamically detecting problems is an important issue, the concept of Indicator has been introduced in the decisional model. Indicators deﬁne concrete (formalized) existence conditions for a problem. They are declined into anti-patterns and conformance points, which both can be checked at runtime to detect the occurrence of potential conﬂicts. Anti-patterns and conformance points are dual indicators: the veriﬁcation of the ﬁrst one indicates the existence of a problem, while the last one indicates a problem if it is veriﬁed as being false. Conformance points provide a description of checking points (e.g. in the form of a set of rule) that must be veriﬁed to test the correspondence between the expected behavior and actual operation of the system; while anti-patterns describe speciﬁc knowledge or bad solutions or habits leading to problems. What is interesting with anti-patterns is that they also provide a solution to avoid the problem they relate. Environmental conditions are also important as they will constrain not only the problem as was suggested in [15], but the whole system. According to this, the new OoI presented here possesses a concept Environment, linked to the system and representing all that is external to a system but can have an inﬂuence on it. This more general concept is coherent with the general system theory. As it inﬂuences both the existence of problems and the applicability of solutions, the concept is directly linked to ExistenceCondition and ApplicationCondition. Finally, two additional concepts related to solutions, have also been proposed in [15]: Negotiation and Compensation. They provide respectively a priori and a posteriori solutions to ﬁnd common agreements at the organizational level.

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3 Aspects of inter-enterprise interoperation Modern networked enterprises require ﬂexibility and openness of computing systems to tolerate changes in ever-changing technology and business domains, as well as to gain competitive edge. Dynamic and agile establishment of business collaborations comprised of loosely-coupled and autonomic services is currently considered as one of the best options to match these requirements. While in traditional software engineering approaches interoperability is typically enforced by requisition of aggressive integration or uniﬁcation over technology and modeling concepts, this is hardly possible or acceptable in the modern networked business environments; autonomy of administration is too important for enterprises as means to maintain their agility. Instead, a federated model of collaboration is needed for establishing interoperation in such a way that autonomy is preserved. In federated approaches, the model of collaboration is dynamically constructed within a controllable environment providing the necessary interoperability facilities. Federated collaboration is established via utilization of contractual relationships, an infrastructure providing a selection of interoperability service utilities, and shared meta-models providing the basis for negotiations toward shared understanding about the target concepts of the collaboration. The Pilarcos framework [7,8] provides such an environment for establishing federated collaborations between autonomous enterprises. Interoperation is based on utilization of shared meta-models, such as Business Network Models [8], service offers, and service types [17], and a set of interoperability service utilities consisting of meta-information repositories, populators [7] and network management agents. In the context of federated service-based communities and the Pilarcos framework, interoperability means effective capability of mutual communication of information and can be viewed from technical, semantic and pragmatic perspectives. Technical interoperability means that messages can be transported from one business service to another. Semantic interoperability asserts that actual content of collaboration is understood by the senders and the receivers; this means both correct interpretation of exchanged information elements and of business services’ behavior. Pragmatic interoperability captures the willingness of partners for the actions necessary for the collaboration. The willingness to participate involves both capability of performing a requested action, and policies dictating whether it is preferable for the enterprise to be involved in. The multi-dimensionality of interoperation must be managed by identifying and separating the different concerns into orthogonal aspects where each aspect grasps a different need or viewpoint of enterprise computing. Inter-enterprise interoperation is characterized in the Pilarcos framework as a layered collection of aspects [16] with four interoperation levels having increasing degree of abstraction: 1) technology, 2) service, 3) community, and 4) business level. Each abstraction level is orthogonal to the others and is further divided into orthogonal aspects. The layered view of interoperability concerns is illustrated in Figure 3. The three highest levels represent meta-information or knowledge that is needed to establish interoperability

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while in the lowest, technology level interoperability is achieved via integration of technological artifacts.

Fig. 3. Aspects of inter-enterprise interoperation.

4 The model of inter-enterprise interoperability The different levels of inter-enterprise interoperation presented in Section 3 can be used for partitioning a system of service-based federated communities into subsystems, where each one is concerned by one interoperation level. We start the specialization of the OoI from this hypothesis. Then, the different aspects of a level characterize its composing resources, by deﬁning categories (e.g. Business rules) or properties (Behavior, as a property of services) of resources, or more generally domains (e.g. Connectivity, Architecture, Communication). As they can not be formally considered as sub-systems of levels, aspects will be linked in the specialized ontology to an Aspect concept, which is linked to a system and can be used to locate more precisely where a problem occur (e.g. in which aspect of a system). Figure 4 shows these main links between the domain-speciﬁc concepts and the OoI.

5 Formalizing federated interoperability management Identiﬁcation of the orthogonal aspects of interoperation is a crucial step toward managing interoperability in federated environments. However, it is not sufﬁcient by itself and requires as a companion a characterization of how interoperation can be maintained within and between the distinct domains of concern. For this purpose, we introduce the concepts of intra-aspect and inter-aspect interoperability and discuss for each one solutions for achieving correct interoperation. By intra-aspect (or horizontal) interoperability we mean aspect-speciﬁc characterizations for relationships guaranteeing interoperation between resources in the

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Fig. 4. Specialized OoI for service-based inter-enterprises communities, using the aspects of inter-enterprise interoperation.

same domain of concern. As intra-aspect interoperability problems concern resources of the same kind, belonging to a same domain of concern in one interenterprise interoperation aspect, they are clearly related to heterogeneity as deﬁned now in the OoI. At the technology level, technical interoperability must be achieved between communication and computation platforms by addressing issues related with connectivity, communication and encoding. Connectivity is a problem linked with heterogeneity of interfaces, while encoding issues are rather related to the model representation. Communication is indeed a specialization of behavioral relation, and thus related issues can occur at any level in the OoI. Interoperability is established a priori at the technology level by integration and uniﬁcation of technologies and provides the foundation for interoperation at the higher levels. When a technology level interoperability problem is encountered during the operation of a community, a compensation action is needed to be performed outside the conﬂicting technology domain to fulﬁll the objectives of the community. This is an a posteriori solution. In the context of federated service communities, bridging is not applicable as a generic a posteriori solution at the technology level. If a technological incompatibility is found during operation, it might be too late (considering the commitments and contractual relationships) or impossible due to the autonomy of enterprises to try to homogenize the platforms and retry the failed activity. At the service level, both technical (compatibility between business service and document structures) and semantic interoperability (semantics of information and

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behavior of business services) between service end-points must be established. Related issues of both aspects can be located at the level of models, in the OoI. Considering the information exchanged between business services, technical and semantic interoperability can be established a priori with homogenization of the vocabulary; for this purpose frameworks such as XML [20], ebXML [5] and OWL [19] can be applied. The behavioral aspects of business services can be formalized using methods such as pi-calculus [9]; accompanying analysis methods and tools can be applied for a priori interoperability validation. Bridging which utilizes adapters, translation protocols and model transformations can be used as an a posteriori solution [10] for resolving service level incompatibilities during community establishment. Bridging is possible, since the semantics and structure of business services are explicitly available at this level. Using this information, appropriate bridging methods can be applied before the actual operation, and in this context, bridging at the service level provides also an a priori homogenization solution with respect to the operation of the community. At the community level, deciding about the interoperability management methods has to be a joint process, since the properties of all the participants must be taken into consideration. Negotiation mechanisms are used for this purpose and the mutual agreements about the properties concerning the aspects of interoperation are formalized into a collaboration contract. Negotiation is used in this scenario as an a priori solution for homogenizing the view on the collaboration among the participants; the resulting contract provides an a priori solution as a homogenized model of collaboration with respect to the community operation. Prescribed compensation procedures are used as a posteriori mechanisms for resolving incompatibilities encountered during the operation of the community. At the business level, pragmatic interoperability which considers business rules and organizational policies, is addressed. These rules comprise the autonomic intention and character of enterprises. Business rules are declarative statements that deﬁne or constraint some aspect of a business. Typical examples of business rules are different kinds of service pricing policies based on customer classiﬁcations. Organizational policies regulate the use of business functionality and knowledge provided by an enterprise. For example rules addressing accessibility, authorization, trust and privacy with respect to the provided business services and information are typical examples of organizational policies. As an a priori solution, constraint satisfaction algorithms [6] can be used for ﬁnding a compatible intersection of policy values between enterprises. Horizontal interoperability problems at the business level are instances of more general policy conﬂicts. They are related to heterogeneity at the level of resource models in the OoI. Policy conﬂicts can be resolved a posteriori if meta-policies which state modality precedences (ordering between negative and positive predicates) or priorities among business rules [2, 4] have been deﬁned. This prioritization approach can be applied to both business rules and organizational policies. The AntiPattern indicators (see Figure 2) identify intra-aspect problems by utilizing knowledge about best practices and practical experiences of the corresponding domain of concern and provide solution methods for well-known problems. An ex-

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ample anti-pattern considers non-determinism in the externally observed behavior of business processes exported by organizations towards their clientele. For protecting their business assets, enterprises do not want to publish their internal business processes at a detailed level: only a restricted view on the internal processes for establishing interoperation is available. Now, the behavior observed by a client may seem non-deterministic since all the criteria and information for making the choices in business process branching points are not available; non-deterministic behaviour leads to interoperability problems between service behaviors. As an a priori solution, the internal business processes can be refactored in such way that different branches encountered in the external view of the process can be distinguished based on the communicated information content. Inter-aspect (or vertical) interoperability concerns resources of different nature, when one imposes constraints that others need to respect. From this regard, interaspect interoperability is related to the misalignment concept introduced in section 2.1. Characterisation of inter-aspect interoperability is provided by a set of relationships, consistency rules, and conformance criterion between domains of concerns residing at different abstraction levels. The ConformancePoint indicators becomes very important when wanting to secure inter-aspect interoperability. Concretely, they could be formalized as rules that a monitoring system will use at runtime to check a whole system consistency. As soon as each requirement expressed within an aspect is correctly identiﬁed and formalized, conformance points allow to check that there are no predictable misalignments among different aspects, leading to interoperability problems. For example, when organizational policies are represented using deontic logic, conformance between a policy and service behavior can be validated using model checking [11].

6 Conclusions This paper introduced an extended version of the FIG-OOI Ontology of Interoperability and specialized it to the context of federated service communities. In the context of federated service communities, interoperability is characterized as a layered collection of interoperation aspects and corresponding intra- and inter-aspect relationships. A preliminary identiﬁcation of the methods for analyzing these relationships was conducted as part of this paper. These topics will be further utilized in the domain of Model-Driven Engineering (MDE). When formalized as models and transformations, the interoperability aspects and relationships become very valuable as facilities for managing and establishing interoperability during model-driven development processes. Joined with decision aid tools based on the OoI ontology, a platform for interoperable service development with automatic or semi-automatic identiﬁcation and validation of interoperability problems could possibly be attained. The joint work presented in this paper has lead to some modiﬁcations of the original OoI of [10]. In particular, the scope of interoperability as been extended to cope also with misalignments, which are essential to consider in a multi-level organization where resources in one level can potentially inﬂuence directly resources in another

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level. Moreover, the different categorization of problems concerning technical, semantic and pragmatic interoperability considered in federated service communities and the Pilarcos framework, which we did not address here will be the subject of further investigations relatively to those already started concerning the enterprise interoperability framework proposed in [1].

References [1] D. Chen. Enterprise Interoperability Framework. In Workshop on Enterprise Modelling and Ontologies for Interoperability (EMOI-INTEROP), Jan. 2006. [2] B. N. Grosof, Y. Labrou, and H. Y. Chan. A declarative approach to business rules in contracts: courteous logic programs in XML. In EC ’99: Proceedings of the 1st ACM conference on Electronic commerce, pages 68–77, New York, NY, USA, 1999. ACM Press. [3] INTEROP. European Network of Excellence, 2004. http://www.interop-noe. org. [4] L. Kagal and T. Finin. Modeling Communicative Behavior Using Permissions and Obligations. In International Workshop on Agent Communication, AC 2004, number 3396 in LNAI, pages 120–133. Springer-Verlag, 2005. [5] A. Kotok and D. R. R. Webber. ebXML: The New Global Standard for Doing Business Over the Internet. New Riders, Boston, 2001. [6] V. Kumar. Algorithms for constraint-satisfaction problems: a survey. AI Mag., 13(1):32– 44, 1992. [7] L. Kutvonen, J. Metso, and S. Ruohomaa. From trading to eCommunity population: Responding to social and contractual challenges. In EDOC 2006. IEEE, Oct. 2006. To appear. [8] L. Kutvonen, J. Metso, and T. Ruokolainen. Inter-enterprise collaboration management in dynamic business networks. In OTM Confederated International Conferences, CoopIS, DOA, and ODBASE, volume 3760 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Agia Napa, Cyprus, Nov. 2005. [9] R. Milner, J. Parrow, and D. Walker. A calculus of mobile processes, parts I and II. Information and Computation, 100:1–40 & 41–77, Sept. 1992. [10] Y. Naudet, T. Latour, K. Haussmann, S. Abels, A. Hahn, and P. Johannesonn. Describing Interoperability: the OoI Ontology. In Workshop on Enterprise Modelling and Ontologies for Interoperability (EMOI-INTEROP), Jan. 2006. [11] N. Osman, D. Robertson, and C. Walton. Run-time model checking of interaction and deontic models for multi-agent systems. In 5th International joint conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS’06), pages 238–240, New York, NY, USA, 2006. ACM Press. [12] V. Rosener, T. Latour, and E. Dubois. A Model-based Ontology of the Software Interoperability Problem: Preliminary Results. In M. Missikoff, editor, Workshop on Enterprise Modelling and Ontologies for Interoperability (EMOI-INTEROP). CEUR, 2004. [13] V. Rosener, Y. Naudet, and T. Latour. A Model Proposal of the Interoperability Problem. In M. Missikoff and A. D. Nicola, editors, Workshop on Enterprise Modelling and Ontologies for Interoperability (EMOI-INTEROP). CEUR, 2005. [14] T. Ruokolainen and L. Kutvonen. Addressing Autonomy and Interoperability in Breeding Environments. In L. Camarinho-Matos, H. Afsarmanesh, and M. Ollus, editors,

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Network-Centric Collaboration and Supporting Frameworks, volume 224 of IFIP International Federation for Information Processing, pages 481–488, Boston, Sept. 2006. Springer. [15] T. Ruokolainen and L. Kutvonen. Extending the Model of Interoperability. In Workshop on Enterprise Modelling and Ontologies for Interoperability (EMOI-INTEROP). CEUR, Jan. 2006. [16] T. Ruokolainen and L. Kutvonen. Interoperability in Service-Based Communities. In C. Bussler and A. Haller, editors, Business Process Management Workshops: BPM 2005 International Workshops, volume 3812 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 317– 328. Springer-Verlag, 2006. [17] T. Ruokolainen and L. Kutvonen. Service Typing in Collaborative Systems. In 2nd International Conference on Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications (I-ESA 2006). Springer-Verlag, Mar. 2006. To appear. [18] L. Von Bertalanffy. General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications. Georges Braziller, Inc., New York, USA, 1968. [19] W3C. OWL Web Ontology Language Guide, Feb. 2004. W3C Recommendation 10 February 2004. [20] W3C Working Groups. Extensible Markup Language (XML). W3C, 2005. http: //www.w3.org/XML/, valid 5th October 2005.

ICT interoperability challenges in decentral, cross-enterprise product engineering Patrick D. Stiefel1 and J¨ org P. M¨ uller2 Clausthal University of Technology, Julius-Albert-Str. 4, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany [email protected], [email protected] Summary. In this paper we present key elements of a peer to peer (P2P) based software architecture for integrated and collaborative product engineering. We argue that distributed and cross-enterprise product lifecycle management can beneﬁt from the availability of decentrally managed product model repositories.We present the overall system architecture of a platform called Peer-to-Peer Product Collaboration Platform (PCP). Our work, while driven from business level issues such as supporting the emergence of organizations, partnerships, and processes for collaborative and cross-enterprise PLM, focuses on aspects of ICT level interoperability. It aims at enabling loosely coupled interaction between changing partners in a decentral environment, where traditional hierarchical client-server based architecture may not be applicable.

1 Introduction In [1], Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) is deﬁned as a business activity to manage a company’s products all the way across their lifecycles in the mist eﬀective way. [. . .] PLM helps getting products to market faster, and enables better support of customers’ use of products. Starting from engineering and manufacturing processes, PLM extends product data management (PDM) into other areas like marketing, ﬁnance and after sale service, while addressing all the stakeholders of product throughout its lifecycle [2]. Before the background of globalization, global outsourcing, and market pressures for decreasing product time-to-market, PLM faces new challenges, most of which can be recognized as interoperability challenges. The conception, design, and manufacturing of products is becoming a largely distributed, cross-enterprise endeavor; large distributed product developer teams need to work together in devising new and advancing existing products. Companies that compete in certain market areas will co-operate in others to jointly create

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and market products. This creates the challenge of extending PLM functions across companies to allow all parties involved in PLM processes to create, publish, access, and update PLM-related knowledge, and to be able to do so in the presence of heterogeneous PLM solutions used in diﬀerence companies, of geographic distribution, of changing cooperation partners (especially at the lower tiers of the supply network, where Small and Medium Enterprises are concerned), and of conﬁdentiality and data protection requirements [3, 4]. In the IDEAS roadmap [5], three levels of interoperability were distinguished: the business level (enterprise and business process models), knowledge level (formats and semantics for representing business objects), and information and communication technology (ICT) interoperability. Our work, while driven from business level issues such as supporting the emergence of organizations, partnerships, and processes for collaborative and cross-enterprise PLM, focuses on aspects of ICT level interoperability. It aims at enabling loosely coupled interaction between changing partners in a decentral environment, where traditional hierarchical client-server based architecture may not be applicable. The ICT level interoperability aspects addressed are: 1. Dynamic discovery of product models, business services, and new business partners in a dynamic, distributed, and decentrally organized environment 2. Decentral sharing and scalable management of product models and other PLM-related data within and across organizations. 3. Providing support for existing standard, such as STEP [6] or PDX [7]. 4. Conﬁdential and secure communication and data exchange 5. Robust and secure machine-to-machine communication across corporate ﬁrewalls and NATs1 . In this paper we describe a platform for decentral management of PLMrelated artifacts: The Peer-to-Peer Product Collaboration Platform (PCP). Focusing on an application scenario from collaborative product design, we describe the underlying software architecture of PCP (see Section 3) and give a more detailed account of a core component of our work, the Decentral Product Model Metadata Repository (see Section 5). We present the prototypical implementation of a tool based on the Eclipse framework (see Section 6, which allows us to share, ﬁnd, and edit metadata records for dedicated product models, and ultimately share, access and process the product models (e.g. 3D-CAD models) themselves, by integrating with diﬀerent CAD / PDM systems and model repositories. We discuss the contribution to the above-mentioned interoperability issues in Section 7 1

Network Address Translation servers

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2 Background 2.1 Cross-enterprise product-related collaboration In [4], Scheer et al. propose a conceptual architecture for collaborative PLM/PDM, which is illustrated in Figure 1 using the example of an OEM– supplier relationship. The vision of collaborative PLM as illustrated in Figure 1 requires providing PLM processes and functions e.g. using techniques from Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW) with methods for CoViewing or Co-Modeling of technical drawings (2D/3D), including the need for communication and data exchange for eﬀective teamworking. Decisions and deﬁned work packages have to be documented; in addition, security mechanism are needed to provide conﬁdentiality and access control. Most importantly, collaborative PLM sets up a huge integration and interoperability challenge, i.e. integrating diﬀerent formats, models, and processes supported by diﬀerent PDM systems by means of a Collaboration Platform (see Figure 1).

Fig. 1. Conceptual architecture for collaborative PLM according to [4]

A core function of the platform is to provide a uniﬁed product model repository with the basic functions enabling creation, storage, sharing, and retrieval of product information across distributed teams and heterogeneous PDM systems. There are diﬀerent approaches possible to the actual organization of the Collaboration Platform [8, 3]. The most obvious (and most frequently used) architectural approach is to implement the collaboration platform by means of a central (possibly distributed) system including the required databases and PLM services. Such an architecture has a number of advantages, including fast, barrier-free communication, eﬃcient access and operation, and good manageability (e.g. in terms of a security architecture). However, in the remainder of this section we argue that in many cases this architecture is either not the best option, or not even applicable at all.

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2.2 Need for decentral collaboration support In a global market with rapidly changing partnerships and Virtual Enterprise ventures, there are trade-oﬀs associated with maintaining product models or individual components in central or decentral systems, which in some settings favors a decentral approach. First, central management may be technically infeasible or ineﬀective due to the huge set of product models to be maintained; second, the fact that these product models belong to (and are key assets to) individual companies makes the task of determining which partner is to host such a central system hard, and (depending on the market settings) politically infeasible to solve. Third, the dynamic structure of global PLM networks make administration and management of central platforms a very diﬃcult task. In particular at an early phase of product conception and partnership building, we believe that a more decentral architecture which enables loosely coupled interaction among autonomous peers and which provides tools and methods enabling companies to discover PLM-related artifacts (such as partners, skills, requests for quotation, product models) has huge beneﬁts over a centrally organized one. As cross-company development teams are being set up to devise a product and as product models become more concrete and elaborated during the process, this decentral architecture may migrate into a more centrally managed group collaboration architecture allowing more eﬃcient communication and data access / sharing. The work presented in this paper aims at enabling product development partners to design a new product or redevelop an existing one in a decentrally organized collaborative development environment. What we are looking for is a product information integration system to be used by (at least) the two groups of actors listed in Figure 1: product developers and suppliers. Users prefer working with the PDM and CAD applications they are familiar with [9, 8]. Also, from a point of security there are advantages in not having to oﬀer sensitive business knowledge in a centrally organized location [8]. 2.3 Peer-to-peer platforms for product collaboration Peer-to-peer (P2P) technology [10], [11] provides a number of features which make it attractive to implement communication, data handling, and collaboration in a decentral fashion. Centralized PDMS that serve many clients bear high system cost. A service-oriented P2P architecture can help reducing and sharing the cost (hardware and software licenses) across the participants. There is no central instance for handling communication in the development process, at normal case this results in less latency – unﬁltered messaging is enabled in real time. Supporting ad-hoc environments, where members join and leave the network dynamically, is an key feature of collaborative work. P2P satisﬁes this criterion considering changes in the group of participants [12]; it is appropriate in cases where users do not wish to rely on (or cannot

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agree on) any centralized or third-party service provider. P2P systems support this level of autonomy because they require local nodes to decide about resources published to other users in due time [13] [14].

3 PCP: Peer-to-Peer Product Collaboration Platform PCP is a middleware platform supporting a virtual community of product developers and part suppliers for collaborative engineering based on a decentral P2P Resource Management middleware. 3.1 Application scenario: Collaborative product development The following collaborative product development scenario is used to illustrate the PCP platform: Some of the needed components (parts or subassemblies) may already exist at PDM systems of the manufacturing company, while others do not. A (re-)development process relies on suppliers’ domain knowledge. Our use case allows the OEMs product developer to query suppliers’ product model databases for models by issuing requests for proposals to the virtual community.

Fig. 2. UML use case diagram for the application scenario.

In this application scenario we regard two actors: OEM product developers and suppliers. Assume a developer wants to design a LegoTM house, consisting of diﬀerent components (ultimately coming down to models of individual building bricks). The developer needs to identify appropriate components and query its suppliers. Thus he publishes requests for components in the P2P network. In the UML use case diagram in Figure 2 this action is generally shown in the use cases numbered 1–3. After having been informed about new

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existing requests in the network (use case 4), suppliers locally generate corresponding proposals (5) and publish them (6,7). The product developer is then able to view existing proposals (8,9) and to access the required 3D models. It is important to note that our approach is to manage product model metadata in the P2P network, whereas the product models themselves may be stored in any system or database outside the P2P network. 3.2 Overview of the architecture Figure 3 shows the top-level architecture of PCP. The core of the platform is the PCP middleware which provides a set of generic product related services, which can be used by collaborative PLM tools and applications, such as product engineering and product portfolio management. The envisaged services include collaborative product design, event management, the generation of product structures, and transparent access to external product models stored in CAD/PDM systems. These services access metadata describing productrelated artifacts through a decentral metadata repository, which maintains these metadata in a decentral, virtualized manner via a P2P resource management layer. In the following, we discuss the diﬀerent layers of the architecture.

Fig. 3. PCP top-level architecture

Decentral Resource Management The Siemens Resource Management Framework (RMF) [15, 16] provides decentral resource management based on a P2P platform. RMF oﬀers messagebased communication between all nodes in the P2P network, fault tolerant

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publishing, discovery and retrieval of XML resources and an additional publish/subscribe mechanism. RMF implements a Distributed Hash Table - referred to as the P2P information space - based on the Chord algorithm [11] that is collaboratively created using the aggregated resources of all peers in the network. Queries for XML resources stored in the RMF information space can be speciﬁed using XPath expressions. The set of XML resources on which such a query is applied is determined by a set of keywords associated with every resource. In our application context, resources are metadata describing PLM-related artifacts, such as product models. PCP Middleware The middleware provides core and supporting operations on product models to form a decentral organized metadata model repository. Using operations we are able to deﬁne generic product related services. The ﬁrst class of services is collaborative product design. These services support the handling of product models in the model repository (see e.g., use cases 2, 6, and 9 of Figure 2). New product models are formed and then published to the underlying network structure (use cases 3 and 7). Following the application scenario in section 3.1 the model is deﬁned using product collaboration tools and applications (use case 3) before suppliers can add their proposals (use case 7). Once a new model is available, product-related event management services are used to notify users. the resource management layer oﬀers a subscription service to notify interested users (see Section 5 and use cases 4 and 8 at Figure 2). This notiﬁcation is interpreted by middleware methods and forwarded to the relevant participants (use case 9). Metadata can be modiﬁed; this allows the incremental generation of product structures based on input of diﬀerent participants (e.g., use case 5). In addition, the repository oﬀers a search function (see section 5) to ﬁnd model metadata (and thus, the actual models). Further methods include synchronization, versioning, and history build up. To synchronize the information space, list resources are formed and handled through the RMF (see Section 4 – “list resource”). The list resource contains e.g. versioning information of product models. Access to the actual product models stored in PDM or CAD systems is provided by a product repository access services. Our current system supports only the connection of STEP 3D-CAD-Files into product models. Middleware methods access corresponding user ﬁle systems on demand. In the current implementation, the middleware services are accessed via a Graphical front-end implemented as an Eclipse plug-in (see Section 6).

4 Product Model Metadata Structure In our approach, the P2P resource management maintains product model metadata. In this section, we describe the corresponding metadata structure.

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Resources are the basic entities maintained by the RMF system. A resource is an XML element with RMF speciﬁc child elements. Two essential child elements are a unique ID as an identiﬁer and a list of keywords to enable a search for a published resource. We use two kind of resources: part and list resources. To deﬁne a resource means that methods implemented in the PCP middleware have to generate an XML document that complies with the requirements of RMF resources. Part resource The part resource implements a mapping from real part properties to the RMF metadata model. As described in Section 3.1 a part is an information object with related attributes. There are two part resource types: One for part requests (ﬁrst phase) and the other for proposals (second phase). Both are handled in one resource. The most important metadata property is a part number that consists of an IP address (139.174.100.169) followed by an in-house part identiﬁcation (3435), its version (1) and variant number (0): “139.174.100.169/3453-1.0”. The type classiﬁes the resource, e.g., in request for proposal which must precede a proposal. The structure tag speciﬁes if the part is an atomic ”component” or an ”assembly” composed of of multiple components. The last required value is a link to a local STEP-File (‘‘C:\MyCADProgram\TEST.STEP’’) containing conceptual 3D data associated to a request or ﬁnal 3D data describing a given proposal. Each part resource consists of up to ten part attributes listing the importance, description, minimum, maximum and actual value of the attribute. The importance classiﬁes the selected attribute as mandatory (example: height, length, width) or optional (example: color). List resource A list resource contains all existing versions and variants of a part. It represents a central document to register changes on components or assemblies administrated through the middleware. On every system change, this document is consulted for the latest version and variant using the back end RMF Information Space. This method is necessary because of the possibility that two or more users will create an new part version/variant at the same time: We could expect an inconsistency. This can be avoided by using the list resource.

5 The Decentral Product Model Metadata Repository In the previous section, we have deﬁned how product model components (parts) are represented as resources. Now we show how these resources are

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stored and managed in a Decentral Product Model Metadata Repository, addressing the requirements in Section 2. The product structure is kept in a hierarchically organized part model navigation tree at each participant. Document management functions are realized by the ability of connecting ﬁles (e.g., CAD ﬁles) to product resources and display them. In future research, we shall group similar parts on the aim of reuse and integrate additional viewers to display advanced product structures based on their usage.

Fig. 4. Core functions of the repository resource

Registry RMF provides a Registrar service to manage resources in the Information Space. If a user creates a new request for proposal (e.g., a request for a 2x4 Lego brick model) as shown on the left side of Figure 4, the registrar has to be initialized ﬁrst, then the part resource is published. Simultaneously a list resource is generated, too. Later registered variants and versions are treated as new part proposal resources and have to be published separately. The list resource is only modiﬁed thereafter. Search The ﬁrst step in searching for a part (resource) is to determine the peer that hosts it. A user needs only to know a keyword of the resource he wants to retrieve, this may be a requested part for example. Afterwards all returned (request-) resources from the responsible peer are ﬁltered using an XPath

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search query, so that a request can result in only one concrete part resource if required. An example would be a search for a speciﬁc Lego brick model with the part number “139.174.100.169/3453”, version 1 and variant 0. This case occurs when a user selects a speciﬁc part from the part repository to display its details as shown on top right of ﬁgure 4. Modiﬁcation Resources that have been previously registered can be modiﬁed. This function is used, when a user reacts on a request and wants to publish a speciﬁc proposal. This means ﬁrst the creation of a new part variant (or even a new version that has to be registered by modifying the list resource). Only if the modiﬁcation process succeeds, a new part proposal can be registered in the Information Space. The new part resource contains values for the proposal ﬁelds, like “value-min-proposal” for example. Subscription By subscribing for certain resources (based on keywords), participants are able to handle communication events on publication of new models in the Information Space. All participating peers subscribe for the keywords “request” and “proposal”. Whenever a resource that matches one of the given keywords is added, modiﬁed, or removed, an event will be triggered to them.

6 Prototypical Implementation of a Metadata Repository Browsing and Editing Tool As proof-of-concept and vehicle for testing the PCP system, we did a prototypical implementation of a front-end tool for accessing the Decentral Product Model Metadata Repository. The tool has been built as a plug-in using the Eclipse platform. Figure 5 shows a screenshot of the tool. The screenshot illustrates three views which were so far implemented: (1) a part repository view to display requests and proposals hierarchically ordered by enterprise / departments / model developers involved. Dialogs are available to add new requests and to search for existing models. (2) an editor for displaying details of selected product model requests. The editor oﬀers the possibility for generate proposals. You can add new attributes or connect the proposals 3D-CAD ﬁles. (3) the ability to access (i.e., physically download) and display a selected 3D-CAD ﬁle of a product model.

7 Conclusion and Outlook The contribution of this paper is threefold. First, we made a case for the beneﬁts of decentral management functions for collaborative, cross-enterprise

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Fig. 5. Screenshot of the metadata browsing and editing tool

PLM, illustrated by an application scenario; second, we described the architecture of PCP, a decentral product collaboration platform adding decentral management functions to PDM solutions; third, we described a core component of the PCP: the Decentral Product Model Metadata Repository, and presented the prototype implementation of a repository browser and model editor tool. With respect to the ﬁve interoperability issues stated in Section 1, the contribution of the paper is as follows: Dynamic discovery (1) and decentral management (2) are supported by the decentral repository described in Section 5. The RMF mapping of parts described in Section 4 enables us to manage product models described by STEP or PDX source documents (3); an onion-based routing approach presented in [17] is used to achieve secure and conﬁdential communication in the P2P system (4), and the underlying P2P middleware provides the facilities for robust data management and communication across ﬁrewalls and NATS (5). This paper describes work-in-progress, its results lay the foundation for our future work on a collaborative PLM platform; there are numerous extensions of and challenges to our work. First, this paper has focused on the architecture and the repository. The remaining components need to be speciﬁed more thoroughly and implemented; a second ongoing activity is to integrate our work with an existing PLM system, the Agile PLM solution 2 . We hope to gain new insights from this and ﬁnd collaborative use cases that are not yet handled in our architecture and will create new requirements. In particular, we will investigate mechanisms for architecture evolution, enabling a transition from a peer-to-peer to a more centralized architecture during the lifecycle of virtual PLM organizations. 2

http://www.agile.com/

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References 1. Stark, J.: Product Lifecycle Management: 21st Century Paradigm for Product Realisation. Springer-Verlag (2005) 2. Ameri, F., Dutta, D.: Product lifecycle management: Needs, concepts and components. Technical report, Technical Report PLM-TR-2004, University of Michigan (2004) 3. Lindquist, A., Berglund, F., Johannesson, H., Claesson, A.: Information sharing in platform based collaborative product development. In: Proc.of 1st Nordic Conference on Product Lifecycle Management (NordPLM’06). (2006) 4. Scheer, A.W., Boczanski, M., Muth, M., Schmitz, W.G., Segelbacher, U.: Prozessorientiertes Product Lifecycle Management. Springer-Verlag (2006) 5. IDEAS Roadmap: Interoperability developments for enterprise application and software. IDEAS Project (IST-2001-37368) (2003) 6. Ungerer, M., Buchanan, K.: Usage Guide for the STEP PDM Schema, Release 4.3. (2002) 7. IPC: Generic Requirements for Electronics Manufacturing Supply Chain Communication Product Data eXchange (PDX). PDX Standard Group, IPC 3000 Lakeside Drive, Suite 309S Bannockburn, Illinois. (2001) 8. Eigner, M., Stelzer, R.: Ein Leitfaden fr Product Development und Life Cycle Management. Springer-Verlag (2001) 9. Ehrlenspiel, K.: Integrierte Produktentwicklung: Denkablufe – Methodeneinsatz – Zusammenarbeit. Carl Hanser Verlag, 2. berarbeitete Auﬂage (2003) 10. Wikipedia: Entry on Gnutella (2006) URL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnutella. 11. Stoica, I., Morris, R., Karger, D., Kaashoek, M.F., Balakrishnan, H.: Chord: A Scalable Peer-to-peer Lookup Service for Internet Applications. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGCOMM ’01 Conference. (2001) 12. Barkai, D.: Peer-to-peer computing: Technologies for Sharing and Collaboration on the Net. Intel Press (2001) 13. Miller, M.: Discovering P2P. Sybex, San Francisco (2001) 14. Friese, T., M¨ uller, J., Smith, M., Freisleben, B.: A robust business resource management framework based on a peer-to-peer infrastructure. In: Proc. 7th International IEEE Conference on E-Commerce Technology, IEEE Press (2005) 215–222 15. Friese, T., Freisleben, B., Rusitschka, S., Southall, A.: A Framework for Resource Management in Peer-to-Peer Networks. In: Proceedings of NetObjectDays 2002. Volume 2591 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science., Springer (2002) 4–21 16. Friese, T., M¨ uller, J.P., Freisleben, B.: Self-Healing Execution of Business Processes Based on a Peer-to-Peer Service Architecture. In: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Architecture of Computing Systems. Volume 3432 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science., Springer-Verlag (2005) 108–123 17. St¨ aber, F., Bartlang, U., M¨ uller, J.P.: Using Onion Routing to Secure Peer-toPeer Supported Business Collaboration. In Cunningham, P., Cunnigham, M., eds.: Exploiting the Knowledge Economy: Issues, Applications and Case Studies. Volume 3., IOS Press (2006) 181–188

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Interoperability through a Platform-Independent Model for Agents Christian Hahn, Cristi´ an Madrigal-Mora and Klaus Fischer German Research Center for Artiﬁcial Intelligence (DFKI) Stuhlsatzenhausweg 3 (Building D 3-2) D-66123 Saarbr¨ ucken, Germany Summary. Various agent-oriented methodologies and metamodels exist to describe multiagent systems (MAS) in an abstract manner. Frequently, these frameworks specialise on particular parts of the MAS and only few work has been invested to derive a common standardisation which limits the impact of agent-related systems in commercial applications. In this paper, we present a metamodel for agent systems that abstracts from existing agent-oriented platforms. Furthermore, we illustrate how an agent-oriented software development process in accordance to the model-driven development (MDD) approach could be formulated around the abstract view on agent systems and thus (i) further the development process of agent systems to increase the interoperability among agent platforms and (ii) facilitates the interoperability of agent platforms and potential areas of application.

1 Introduction In recent years, the agent paradigm has become more and more popular as practioneers recognised the advantages agents oﬀer when applied in software systems. Nevertheless, as described in [12], most of the agent-oriented methodologies do not provide a straightforward interface for implementation. Additionally, even if existing methodologies have diﬀerent advantages when applied to particular problems, it seems to be widely accepted that a unique methodology cannot be applied to each problem without some (minor) level of customisation. Consequently, a framework that (i) simpliﬁes the design and implementation of agent systems and (ii) allows to integrate already existing agent frameworks into a single tool box could increase the degree of utilisation in practice. In this paper, we show how model-driven development (MDD) improves the process of building agent systems and thus makes for industry them more attractive to adopt. MDD is emerging as the state of practice for developing modern enterprise applications and software systems. MDD frameworks deﬁne a model-driven approach to software development in which visual modelling languages are

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Christian Hahn, Cristi´ an Madrigal-Mora and Klaus Fischer

Fig. 1. The overall picture: From a PIM metamodel describing agents in an abstract manner to miscellaneous agent-oriented metamodels.

used to integrate the huge diversity of technologies used in the development of software systems. The current state of the art in MDD is much inﬂuenced by the ongoing standardisation activities around the OMG Model Driven Architecture (MDA) (cf. [13]). The MDA’s abstraction levels of a system that supports software development starts1 from a top-down perspective with a platformindependent model (PIM) which speciﬁes software services and required interfaces independent of concrete software technology platforms. The PIM is further reﬁned to a set of platform-speciﬁc models (PSMs2 ) which describes the realisation of the software systems with respect to the chosen software technology platforms. Due to diﬀerent abstraction levels, an important aspect of deﬁning a MDD framework is to develop metamodels and model transformations. A metamodel describes the concepts and their relationships for the purpose of building and interpreting models3 . Metamodels can be developed for describing diﬀerent business domains and diﬀerent software technology platforms. In contrast, a model transformation explains how the information of a source metamodel is mapped to the target metamodels. The MDD paradigm provides us with a better way of addressing and solving interoperability issues compared to earlier non-modelling approaches [7]. The development of a platform-independent model for agent systems (in the following PIM4Agents) is an important step towards the adoption of ModelDriven Architecture guidelines and standards proposed by the OMG (cf. [13]). This work presents a core metamodel that abstracts from existing agentoriented platforms and could thus be considered as platform-independent. This metamodel addresses the conceptual and technological interoperability 1 2 3

In this paper, we do not consider the computational independent model (CIM). For detailed information regarding the CIM, we refer to [11]. The terms PIM and PSM are relative to the deﬁned software platform. Models are considered as metamodels’ instances.

Interoperability through a Platform-Independent Model for Agents

197 3

barrier as it aims to deﬁne platform-independent modelling language constructs that can be used to design an agent system on a very abstract level and transfer the concepts to agent-based applications using a model-driven approach. Based on this transformation, automatically generated agent systems can ﬁnally be executed (see Figure 1). By developing a PIM4Agents, we pursuit the following goals: • • •

Bridging the gap between (i) the various existing agent-oriented modelling methods and thus improving the interoperability between agent platforms and (ii) potential application areas and agent systems. Clearly deﬁne a platform-independent abstraction that can be used to integrate and deﬁne mappings from particular applications to agents. Reusing vertical mappings to agent-related frameworks that could be shared for diﬀerent application-oriented metamodels. In this case, only the horizontal mappings—from PIM to PIM—need to be newly formulated.

This paper is structured as follows: In Section 2, we present related work, followed by Section 3 discussing the PIM4Agents and its concepts. In Section 4, we exemplarily describe how service-oriented architectures (SOAs) can be transformed to agent systems using the PIM4Agents. Conclusions are presented in Section 5.

2 Related Work Several frameworks—that can be called platform-speciﬁc—already exist to implement agent systems. In the following, we concentrate exemplarily on JACK4 and JADE5 . JACK Intelligent AgentsTM provides programming constructs and concepts for developing complex agent-oriented applications. It bases on the Beliefs, Desires and Intentions model [3] and previous practical implementations of such systems (see [10]). The BDI agent model is an event-driven execution model providing both reactive and proactive behaviour. In this model, an agent has certain beliefs about the environment, desires to achieve, and plans describing how to achieve certain activated goals. The BDI architecture is recognised as one of more successfully implemented architecture for developing complex systems in dynamic and error-prone environments (cf. [8]). JADE (Java Agent DEvelopment Framework) provides programming concepts that simpliﬁes the development of multiagent systems as it complies to the FIPA speciﬁcation by providing the necessary communication infrastructure. In contrast to JACK, it intentionally leaves open the internal agent architecture and necessary concepts. Instead, JADE focuses on communication which is performed through message passing where each agent is equipped 4 5

http://www.agentsoftware. com.au/ http://jade.tilab.com/

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Fig. 2. A platform-independent metamodel for agents.

with an incoming message box. Standard interaction protocols speciﬁed by FIPA can be used as templates to build agent conversations.

3 Platform-Independent Model for Agents One challenge in deﬁning the platform-independent model for agents—like for every metamodel on the PIM level—is to decide which concepts to include and abstract from the target execution platforms (PSMs) that support the architectural style of agent-based systems. In order to support an evolution of the PIM4Agents metamodel, it is structured around a small core that could be possibly enriched by adding smaller extensions, each focusing on a speciﬁc aspect of a agent system. Grouping modelling concepts in this manner allows the metamodel evolution by adding (i) new modelling concepts for particular aspects, (ii) extending existing modelling concepts, or (iii) deﬁning new modelling concepts for describing additional aspects of agent systems (e.g. security). The core of the PIM4Agents metamodel is shown in Figure 2. The metamodel is centered on the concept of Agent, the autonomous entity capable of acting in the environment. Each Agent has access to a set of Resources from its surrounding Environment. The Capability represents the set of Behaviours the Agent can possess. It allows to group Behaviours that, conceptually, have a correspondence with regard to what they allow the Agent to do. Each Behaviour can be simple or composed by subbehaviours, therefore a whole hierarchy of speciﬁc Behaviours

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can be created. Each Behaviour may also send or react to a Message according to a given Protocol. The Role is an abstraction of the social behaviour of the Agent in a given social context, usually a Cooperation. This Role speciﬁes the responsibilities of the Agent in that social context. Correspondingly, the Cooperation represents the interaction between the Agents performing the required set of Roles. The detailed realisation of this interaction is described by a Protocol that indicates what are the Messages to be expected from each of the Roles at which point in time. The execution of the Protocol is performed by a set of Behaviours, each of which sends and/or reacts to messages in accordance to its Role. Agents can take part in an Organisation, a special kind of Cooperation that also has the same characteristics as Agent. Therefore, the Organisation can perform roles and has Capabilities which can be performed by its members, be it Agents or suborganisations. The multiple inheritance of the Organisation, from Agent and Cooperation, also allows it to have its own internal protocol that speciﬁes how the Organisation coordinates its members.

4 From Application to Executable Agents The focus of this section is on the development of executable agent systems based on a particular application area. Therefore, we take a concrete application-based PIM metamodel and explain how its concepts can be transformed into agent systems according to the MDD standards. We take a so called PIM4SOA6 (cf. [2])—a metamodel for service-oriented architectures— as input example on the application-related PIM level and transform it to an agent model on the PIM layer that can ﬁnally be used—by applying further PIM-PSM transformations—to execute the SOA descriptions with JACK and JADE. The metamodel for SOA’s—developed by SINTEF, the European Software Institute, and IBM—puts us in the position to identify concepts that abstract from particular platforms and thus enables us to investigate how such concepts could be transformed to agent-related concepts in order to provide a foundation for how to incorporate autonomous agents into SOA using principles of MDD. The purpose of this section is ﬁrstly, to show how concepts that describe a particular application can be transfered to agent technology and secondly, to explain how a core metamodel can be used to deﬁne mappings to agent frameworks that focus on diﬀerent aspects (e.g. BDI behaviour like JACK and FIPA-compliance like JADE). The structure of this section is the following: Firstly, we illustrate the metamodels of the PIM4SOA, JACK (JackMM), and JADE (JadeMM). Basing on these descriptions, we secondly, describe how concepts of the PIM4SOA can be mapped to the PIM4Agents and how this could be transfered to the PSM-speciﬁc metamodels. 6

http://pim4soa.sourceforge.net/

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Fig. 3. Service concepts of the PIM4SOA metamodel.

4.1 Metamodels Metamodel for Service-oriented Architectures The current version of the metamodel for service-oriented architectures (PIM4SOA) deﬁnes modelling concepts that can be used to model four different aspects of SOAs: Services, information, processes and non-functional aspects. In this paper, we mainly concentrate on the service aspect (see Figure 3), where services are an abstraction and an encapsulation of the functionality provided by an autonomous entity. In general, SOAs are formed by components provided by a system or a set of systems to achieve a shared goal. The service aspect of the PIM4SOA presents services modelled as collaborations that specify a pattern of interaction between the participating roles. A subset of the metamodel for this aspect is presented in Figure 3. The Collaboration speciﬁes the involved roles and their responsibilities and could possibly be constrained by the speciﬁcation of a process. Additionally, a CollaborationUse speciﬁes the application of a Collaboration in a speciﬁc context and includes the RoleBindings to entities in that context. Collaborations are composable and the responsibilities of a role in a composite Collaboration are deﬁned through CollaborationUses by binding roles from the composite to roles of its subcollaborations. The simplest form of a Collaboration is the binary collaboration, which has no subcollaborations and only two roles, i.e., a requester that provides the input, and a provider that produces the output parameters. Therefore, a Role represents how a partner participates in the Collaboration by providing services and parameters and using services provided by other partners in its service collaboration. Messages specify which parameters are sent to which Role in a Collaboration. ServiceProvider represents a service speciﬁcation containing the speciﬁcation of other strategies. Like the Collaboration, a ServiceProvider is constrained by a Process and participates in a set of CollaborationUses. The attribute Role deﬁnes the roles that are involved at this level.

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Fig. 4. The metamodel (JackMM) reﬂecting the JACK framework.

Metamodel for JACK A vast number of frameworks and methodologies have been developed to foster the software-based development of BDI agent architectures [15] and MAS [1, 4–6, 14]. The partial metamodel of JackMM is presented in Figure 4. The most relevant concept in JackMM is the concept of a Team which speciﬁes the structure of one or more entities (teams/agents) that is formed to achieve a set of desired objectives. A Team could be either atomic, in which case we can refer to it simple as an Agent, or a set of required roles— subteams—that all together form the Team. The tasks a given Team is able to work on are deﬁned by the roles that it is able to fulﬁl. How a team actually reacts to an incoming request is speciﬁed by a set of TeamPlans, each specifying the behaviour of a team in reaction to a speciﬁc event. In general, a team plan is a set of steps specifying how a particular task is achieved by particular roles. Each team plan has an explicitly deﬁned objective (incoming message or internal event) for which this team plan is responsible. When the so-called triggering event is raised, a speciﬁc team plan is executed by creating an instance of this team plan. Role deﬁnitions are the second most important concept to deﬁne teams because a role speciﬁes which messages—in JACKTM those are rather events— the role ﬁllers are able to react to and which messages they are likely to send. Events preset the type of stimuli a team, role, or team plan reacts to or posts. Metamodel for JADE JadeMM, the partial metamodel of JADE, is given in Figure 5. As mentioned in Section 2, JADE aims at the development of MAS that comply with FIPA standards for intelligent agents. The most relevant concept of JadeMM is the concept of an Agent that is described by an aggregation of the concepts MessageQueue, AgentStates and Scheduler that is again an aggregation of diﬀerent types of Behaviour like CompositeBehaviour and SimpleBehaviour. The behaviour implements the agent tasks and intentions and is deﬁned by logical execution patterns that can be combined to achieve complex execution

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Fig. 5. The metamodel (JadeMM) reﬂecting the JADE framework.

patterns. JADE distinguishes two types of roles. The agent that starts a conversation takes the role of an Initiator, the role that engages in a conversation that has been initiated by the Initiator is called Responder. 4.2 Model Transformations In this section, we bring together the metamodel and its concepts described in the previous sections and relate them to one another in a transformation derived from it. Transforming PIM4SOA to PIM4Agents Comparing the PIM4SOA and PIM4Agents metamodels, we derive six basic transformations that are discussed in the following: Transformation 1: PIM4SOA:Collaboration → PIM4Agents:Organisation The organisational behaviour is generated by applying Transformation 3 for each of the collaboration’s constraints, the result of using Transformation 2 for each service provider that participates in one of the collaboration uses deﬁnes the organisational members. Applying Transformation 5 for each of the collaboration’s roles builds the required roles. The organisation requires a set of protocols that are derived by executing Transformation 6. Transformation 2: PIM4SOA:ServiceProvider → PIM4Agents:Agent The agent’s performed roles are generated by applying Transformation 5 for each of the service provider’s roles, the behaviour is again derived by executing Transformation 3 for each of the service provider’s behaviour.

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Transformation 3: PIM4SOA:Process → PIM4Agents:Behaviour At this stage, we do not specify the behaviour’s elements in all details. How the behaviour’s concrete concepts might look like is illustrated in [9]. Transformation 4: PIM4SOA:Message → PIM4Agents:Message The messages speciﬁed inside the collaboration uses and sent by the corresponding service provider’s roles are mapped to the messages deﬁning the PIM4Agents’ protocol. Transformation 5: PIM4SOA:Role → PIM4Agents:Role The collaboration’s and service provider’s roles are mapped to roles in the PIM4Agents. Transformation 6: PIM4SOA:Collaboration → PIM4Agents:Protocol A Protocol describes the message sequencing that is generated by combining messages that are sent in the collaboration’s collaboration uses. More precisely, the collaboration’s role types—requester and provider—are mapped to the protocol’s roles, the messages deﬁned in the collaboration uses are transformed to protocol’s messages. The order in which messages are sent is derived by examining the tasks that are speciﬁed in the service provider’s process. These tasks specify at which point of time messages are sent and received. A ﬂow deﬁnes the order in which tasks are executed. Consequently, the PIM4Agents’s protocols gives an overview how the provision of services is choreographed. Transforming PIM4Agents to JackMM We specify the PIM4Agents to JakeMM transformation independent of the PIM4SOA to PIM4Agents mappings. Thus, PIM-to-PSM transformations can be reused for diﬀerent applications. In particular, we deﬁne ﬁve basic transformations that are listed in the following: Transformation 1: PIM4Agents:Organisation → JackMM:Team The organisational behaviour is mapped to a team plan used by the team (see Transformation 3). Events a team sends or handles are illustrated in the organisational protocol. These are derived by executing Transformation 4 on the protocols’ messages that are required by the organisation. The team performs and requires roles that are generated by applying Transformation 5 on the organisational performed and required roles. Transformation 2: PIM4Agents:Agent → JackMM:Team At ﬁrst glance the concept Agent of JackMM seems to be the best match, but since an agent in the PIM4Agents references roles, it is recommended to assign PIM4Agents:Agent to a team in JackMM. The name of the

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agent in the PIM4Agents coincides with the name of the team, the team’s performed roles are generated by applying Transformation 5 on the roles the agent performs. Furthermore, the team requires roles speciﬁed in the PIM4Agents:Organisation, in which the agent participates (executing Transformation 5). Transformation 3: PIM4Agents:Behaviour → JackMM:TeamPlan The concept behaviour of the PIM4Agents is directly mapped to a team plan. We refer again to [9] to give insights in the team plan’s elements. The roles a team plan uses are extracted from the organisational required roles. Transformation 4: PIM4Agents:Message → JackMM:Event The messages speciﬁed by a Protocol:PIM4Agents are mapped to events in JackMM. Transformation 5: PIM4Agents:Role → JackMM:Role Any performed and required role deﬁned in the PIM4Agents is transformed to JACK-related roles a team requires or performs. Transforming PIM4Agents to JadeMM Again, PIM4Agent to JadeMM transformations are deﬁned independent to the application-related metamodel on the PIM level. To transform the PIM4Agents to JadeMM we deﬁned the following transformations: Transformation 1: PIM4Agents:Agent → JadeMM:Agent Agents in the PIM4SOA are mapped to a JadeMM:Agent class, given that PIM4Agents:Agent has a behaviour and performs roles. Transformation 2: PIM4Agents:Organisation → JadeMM:Agent This transformation is very similar to Transformation 1 deﬁned. The JadeMM:Agents that represent PIM4Agents:Organisations also need the corresponding behaviours to perform the coordination tasks with its suborganisations. Transformation 3: PIM4Agents:Message → JadeMM:ACLMessage Messages of the PIM4Agents can be transformed in a straightforward manner to JadeMM:ACLMessage. Nevertheless a specialisation of PIM4Agents:Message, such as PIM4Agents:FIPAMessage, could prove a better match in order to guarantee the FIPA compliance that JADE oﬀers. If such a concept does not exist, the transformation has to be extended to ensure this kind of specialisation.

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Transformation 4: PIM4Agents:Protocol → JadeMM:Behaviour PIM4Agents:Role → JadeMM:Behaviour PIM4Agents:Behaviour → JadeMM:Behaviour This is a more complex transformation in the sense that the PIM4Agents:Protocol, which provides a centralised view of the interaction, must be split into separate JadeMM:Behaviours according to the respective PIM4Agents:Roles. The transformation of PIM4Agents:Behaviour is simpler, but still requires careful matching of PIM4Agents:Behaviours that might implement segments of a given PIM4Agents:Protocol. It is very important to consider that the mapping of specialisations of PIM4Agents:Behaviour—in extension packages for PIM4Agents—might also require extension of the currently available JadeMM:Behaviours. There is no direct PIM4Agents:Capability support in the JadeMM, however it is not absolutely necessary for the correct realisation of transformation and a capability structure could be implemented in Java to be utilised by JADE.

5 Conclusions In this paper, we deﬁned a platform-independent metamodel for agents (called PIM4Agents) and illustrated how this metamodel could be used in a MDD scenario to simplify the implementation of agents systems and thus make them more attractive for commercial usage due interoperability. To concretise this approach, we described how to transfer service-oriented architectures—as one feasible application area—to executable agent systems, i.e. we illustrate (i) how the concepts of a platform-independent model for SOA (PIM4SOA) can be transformed to agent-oriented concepts described by the PIM4Agents and (ii) how these abstract agent-related concepts could be mapped to agent-oriented execution platforms. Thus, the PIM4Agents could be considered as link between commercial applications and agent systems.

6 Acknowledgements The work published in this paper is partly funded by the European Commission through the ATHENA IP (Advanced Technologies for interoperability of Heterogeneous Enterprise Networks and their Applications Integrated Project) (IST- 507849). The work does not represent the view of the European Commission or the ATHENA consortium, and the authors are solely responsible for the paper’s content.

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Conformance Test of Federated Choreographies J. Eder, M. Lehmann, A. Tahamtan University of Vienna, Dept. of Knowledge and Business Engineering, Rathausstrasse 19/9, A-1010 Vienna, Austria [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract Web Services technology is constantly gaining importance for automation of business processes. A major contribution of this technology is its integration capability, i.e. compositions allowing several autonomous but cooperating web services to implement a business process going beyond the boundaries of a single organization. Federated choreographies provide a framework for modular modeling complex collections of choreographies and orchestrations. In this paper we present a conformance test to check the structural conformance of the choreographies and orchestration of the proposed model in order to hold the model structurally consistent. We can formally check whether an orchestration realizing (one part of) a choreography, resp. two related choreographies ﬁt together.

1 Introduction Web services are seen as a key enabling technology for integrating applications in interorganizational business processes. Web services enable application development and integration over the web by supporting interactions within and across the boundaries of cooperating partner organizations. Web services technology oﬀers composition through choreographies and orchestrations. A web service choreography speciﬁes a communication protocol among involved partners. The outcome of the choreography is a virtual process deﬁnition viewed from the global perspective where all partners are treated equally [1]. On the other hand, web service orchestration refers to an executable process run by a single partner [2]. Each of the partners involved in a choreography realizes its own parts of this choreography by its internal orchestration. 1

Work partly supported by the Commission of the European Union within the project WS-Diamond in FP6.STREP

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Several partially overlapping and competing standards for Web Service composition like BPEL4WS [3], WS-CDL [4], WSCI [5] have been proposed. They address some aspects of both choreography and orchestration. There is still a big gap between choreography and orchestration models, i.e. it may be very diﬃcult to answer whether a given orchestration really realizes a given choreography. Moreover, a single partner may be involved in several diﬀerent choreographies and may have to implement all of its parts in one orchestration. Therefore, it is important to check whether these choreographies and orchestrations that implement them conform to each other. In [6] we have proposed a consistent and integrated view on both choreographies and orchestrations and their mutual relationships. Several choreographies may be combined into a more complex federated choreography. Our federated choreographies and orchestrations are more ﬂexible than typical compositional approaches used in proposals like WS-CDL. In this work we present a procedure to check the structural conformance of federated choreographies and orchestrations. The main contribution of this paper is introduction of an algorithm for checking the inter- and intra-layer conformance of the proposed model which ensures the structural conformance of choreographies and orchestrations. This paper is structured as follows. We start by presenting the metamodel we have proposed to model choreographies and orchestrations ( Section 2). We then discuss and explain the need for structural conformance of the model. After formal representation of the concepts, we propose an algorithm for checking the conformance (Section 3). Finally, we draw some conclusions.

2 Federated Choreographies A typical scenario for web service composition assumes one choreography shared among several partners and a set of private orchestrations (one for each partner) [1, 2, 7]. Each partner sees the same global choreography and no partner has control over the choreography which deﬁnes only the message exchange protocol. On the other hand, private orchestration of each partner realizes only those parts of the protocol which belong to this partner in the choreography. This picture misses an important facet that a partner involved in one choreography may also take part in other choreographies which is not visible to the other participants of the ﬁrst choreography, however essential for the overall process. For example, when shopping online we take part in a choreography where we know the following partners and steps: we order something at a seller, pay by a credit card and expect to receive the items from a shipper. At the same time the seller takes part in several other choreographies which are not visible to us, e.g. the seller and the credit card company are involved in a process of handling payment. Furthermore, the seller and the shipper realize another protocol they agreed upon containing other tasks like money

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Fig. 1. Federated choreographies

transfer from seller’s bank to the shipper for balancing shipment charges. All these choreographies overlap in some parts but cannot be composed into a single global choreography. Moreover, such choreographies must be realized by orchestrations of partners that take part in them. In the above example the seller implements an orchestration enacting diﬀerent interaction protocols with the buyer, shipper and the credit card company. We have proposed a new approach where existing choreographies can be combined into a federated choreography and extended according to the need. The idea of federated choreographies is presented in Fig. 1. It has two layers. The ﬁrst layer consists of federated choreographies shared between diﬀerent partners, e.g. a Purchase processing choreography shared between Buyer, Seller, and Shipper. A choreography may support another choreography. This means the former contributes to the latter and partially elaborates it. The second layer consists of orchestrations that realize the choreographies. Each partner provides its own internal realization of relevant parts of the according choreographies, e.g. the Seller has an orchestration which realizes its part in all three choreographies. We treat both choreographies and orchestrations as workﬂows. This is reﬂected in our metamodel in Fig. 2. Here we describe only the most important parts of the model. For the complete metamodel and a detailed discussion the reader is referred to [6, 8, 9]. The metamodel provides a coherent view on both choreographies and orchestrations and their mutual relationships, bridg-

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ing the gap between abstract and executable processes. The activities of one choreography are solely visible to the participatig partners of this choregraphy. Choreographies orchestrations can share the same activities. An activity visible in one choreography can be extended by its relationships with other activities in a federated choreography and have a complex implementation described in an orchestration. Thus, choreographies and orchestrations can be viewed on diﬀerent levels of detail and in context of diﬀerent relationships. Choreographies and orchestrations can be composed out of activities by means of typical workﬂow control structures like parallel or conditional complex activities. A complex activity is used to abstract and hide process strcutures. A choreography is realized by several , at least two, orchestrations owned by involved partners and a single orchestration realizes parts of one or more choreographies. Choreographies can be federated into more complex ones. An activity is represented in a given workﬂow deﬁnition by an activity step. Control steps represent control structures like parallel or conditional split/join. A control ﬂow of a workﬂow model can graphically be represented as a directed graph with two kinds of nodes corresponding to activity steps and control steps. Edges represent the transitions between steps. In the rest of this work Workﬂow-Nets (WF-nets) [10] as the modeling language for both

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choreographies and orchestrations are used. For a discussion on how a graph representation can be mapped to WF-net refer to [6]. The WF-Net of the Purchase processing choreography in Fig. 1 is depicted in Fig. 3. The Seller upon receiving a request quote from the Buyer answers if the requested item is deliverable. If the Buyer’s request is approved by the Seller, the Buyer places an order, the Seller processes the order and forwards the shipment details to the Shipper. The Shipper ships the products to the Buyer and informs the seller about the details. The Seller upon receipt of information sends the bill to the Buyer. When the Buyer has received both the bill and the ordered goods, makes the payment to the Seller. The process terminates upon receipt of the payment by the Seller. This choreography involves interactions between the Buyer and the Seller, the Seller and the Shipper and the Buyer and the Shipper. Each of them can be described by a separate choreography. Existing proposals allow to combine several choreographies only by means of composition [4, 11] where existing choreography deﬁnitions can be reused and recursively combined into more complex choreographies. But we claim that a relationship between choreographies can be more complex than that. In our example the interaction between the Seller and the Shipper includes not only the passing of shipment details from the Seller to the Shipper but also payment of shipment charges through the Seller’s bank. This is described by a separate choreography between Seller, Shipper and Bank. This choreography, illustrated in Fig. 4, has additional activities and partners which are not visible to the Buyer. This choreography supports the Purchase processing choreography and partially elaborates the interaction between the Seller and Shipper. The advantage of our approach is that each partner only knows those parts of the interaction which address this partner, hence avoiding unnecessary information. Besides partners can keep their interaction with other organizations private, invisible to other noninvolved partners, which improves protection of business secrecy.

3 Conformance Test The key requirement of the model is the inter- and intra-layer conformance and consistency. This requires conformance of realizing orchestrations with the choreographies (inter-layer), as well as conformance of supporting and supported choreographies with each other in the choreography layer (intralayer). Intuitively, the notion of conformance indicates that supporting choreographies and realizing orchestrations must violate none of the requirements of the choreographies they support or realize. Such choreographies and orchestrations are an extended subset of the supported choreography. This means they can not change the order of execution of the activities deﬁned in the supported choreography nor deﬁne any alternative for activities as at run time the alternative activity and not the originally deﬁned activity can be

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Fig. 3. The WF-Net of Purchase processing choreography in Fig. 1

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Fig. 4. The Shipment processing choreography between Seller, Bank and the Shipper

executed which is an obvious violation of the requirements of the supported choreography. For example as depicted in Fig. 1 the Shipment processing choreography supports the choreography responsible for Purchase processing. As illustrated in Fig. 3, the Seller orders the shipment after the Buyer has placed an order. The choreography between Buyer and Seller in the Shipment processing choreography (Fig. 4) and their orchestrations must be designed in such a way

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that their executions do not lead to skip of the tasks deﬁned in the Purchase processing choreography e.g. no shipment order or shipment details are sent to the Shipper after receipt of the order by the Seller. In the following subsection we formalize the notion of conformance using projection inheritance [12, 13] based on branching bisimulation [14, 15] as equivalence relation. 3.1 Basic Deﬁnitions Petri nets [10, 16, 17] and their subclasses are a convenient modeling language for workﬂows and workﬂow based applications and are widely used and vastly studied in the literature. It is supported by many tools and applications as a highly expressive language with a well-deﬁned structure. Deﬁnition 1. A WF-Net is a Petri Net N with the following additional properties: • • •

N has a special place i whose preset is empty. We call this place input place. N has a special place o whose postset is empty. We call this place output place. Any node x ∈ (P T ) is on a path from input place to output place, i.e. there is no dangling node. Where P is the set of places and T the set of transitions.

For comparison of behavior of two WF-Nets, we need an equivalence relation stating if two WF-Nets possess behavioral equivalence i.e. they exhibit the same observable behavior. For this aim we use branching bisimulation. The notion of branching bisimulation has been introduced in [14, 15]. Other equivalence relations, e.g. observational equivalence, are also deﬁned. For a detailed discussion on other notions of equivalence please refer to [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Branching bisimulation as a generalization of the theory of bisimulation has gained popularity in the computer science community. In process algebra the notion of abstraction [23] provides a mean for making actions unobservable or hiding them. The abstraction operator renames the label of actions to the label τ . A τ -labeled action is called a silent action or synonymously hidden action or internal action in the literature. A silent action is invisible from outside and cannot be recognized since it is hidden from the external observer and has no external eﬀect. All other actions are external actions and visible. Assume A is the set of actions, we deﬁne Aτ = A {τ } Before formalizing the branching bisimulation we need one auxiliary defa inition. The notation p −→q means that state p evolves to the state q by performing the action a. Deﬁnition 2. A binary relation ⊆ Π × Πis a branching bisimulation: ∀p, p, q, qα ∈ Π, α ∈ Aτ ⇔ α pq p−→p ⇒ ((α = τ pq) (∃q, q ∈ Π : q → q−→q pq pq), α α pq q−→ q ⇒ ((α = τ pq) (∃p, p ∈ Π : p → p −→p pq pq),

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Two processes p and q are branching bisimilar, denoted p ≈b q, iﬀ there exists a branching bisimulation relationship between p and q. In [24] has been shown that branching bisimulation is an equivalence relation. We use this equivalence relation to test if the diﬀerent layers of our federated choreographies comply and ﬁt together. Essentially the participating partners are autonomous organizations that may have existing workﬂows for their orchestrations as well as for their interactions with other organizations and they favor to use the existing workﬂows instead of designing new ones from scratch and integrate them in the organization. It is pivotal to ensure that utilization of these orchestrations and choreographies lead to no conﬂict with other choreographies and orchestrations. In order to check if two workﬂows, choreographies or orchestrations, are conformant we use the notion of projection inheritance. This concept and other notions of inheritance and the relationship among them and to branching bisimulation have been deﬁned in [12, 13]. Deﬁnition 3. Projection inheritance states that ”If it is not possible to distinguish the behaviors of x and y when arbitrary tasks of x are executed, but when only the eﬀects of tasks that are also present in y are considered, then x is a subclass of y.” Assume Wa and Wb are two choreographies, modeled as WF-Nets, and Wb has a link to Wa i.e. Wb supports or realizes Wa . Wb comprises a set of methods some of which are internal and not included in Wa and Wa includes actions that are not interesting for Wb . These actions can be made invisible using the abstraction operator. In order to decide which actions of Wa shall be made invisible we need to deﬁne the Greatest Common Divisor of Wa and Wb . Deﬁnition 4. The Greatest Common Divisor of two WF-Nets are parts of the nets that two nets have in common, denoted GCDWa ,Wb . We deﬁne W a = Wa − GCDWa ,Wb , this is the methods of Wa that are not included in GCDWa ,Wb . Let τ1 (W a ) be the corresponding net after application of abstraction operator on methods of W a . Wb is conformant with Wa , if and only if its visible behavior has a branching bisimulation relation to the τ1 (W a ) . Groote and Vaandrager in [25] have introduced an algorithm by which in polynomial time is decidable if two processes are branching bisimilar. This algorithm has time complexity O(n.(n + m)) and space complexity O(n + m), where n is the number of states and m the number of transitions. Conformance Algorithm Let Wa , Wb be two WF-Nets such that there is a link between Wa , Wb and Wb supports or realizes Wa . In order to decide if federated choreographies are

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conformant it must be checked that all choreographies and orchestrations that are linked to another choreography are conformant. 1: For all links in the model s.t. Wb supports or realizes Wa { 2: compute GCDWa ,Wb and subsequently W a 3: compute τ1 (W a ), i.e. apply abstraction operator to all methods of W a of Wa 4: compute if Wb is a subclass of τ1 (W a ) under projection inheritance. If such a relationship does not exist the federated choreographies are not conformant and the algorithm terminates otherwise it is conformant. 5: endfor } The algorithm iteratively takes two supporting and supported choreographies (Intra-layer conformance) or realizing orchestration and realized choreography (inter-layer conformance) and computes their GCD by comparing the name keys of the activities. It then computes the relevant parts of the supported or realized choreography by computing which of its activities are not contained in the GCD and applying the abstraction operator on them. Finally the algorithm decides the subclass relationship between the relevant parts of the supported or realized choreography with the supporting choreography or realizing orchestration. There are some tools that based on the algorithm in [25] by an enumerative approach can decide if a WF-Net is a subclass of another WF-net under projection inheritance among other inheritance deﬁnitions. For example Woﬂan [26] can be used for deciding the subclass relationship between two WF-Nets. Fig. 3 depicts the Purchase processing choreography and Fig. 4 the Shipment processing choreography. As illustrated in Fig. 1 the Shipment processing choreography supports the Purchase processing choreography. In order to check if Shipment processing choreography is conformant with the Purchase processing choreography the relevant parts of the Purchase processing choreography (the supported choreography) as described in the algorithm shall be extracted and be checked if the Shipment processing choreography (the supporting choreography) is its subclass under projection inheritance. Fig. 5 illustrates the relevant parts of the Purchase processing choreography for the Shipment processing choreography. The inter-layer conformance of the model, e.g. between the Purchase processing Choreography and the Seller’s orchestration can be done in the same manner. For this the relevant parts of the Purchase processing choreography this time for the Seller’s orchestration must be computed and checked if the subclass relationship under projection inheritance exists. Note that this algorithm checks the structural conformance of the model and other consistency issues e.g. data ﬂow consistency and messaging consistency are out of scope of this work.

Conformance Test of Federated Choreographies

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Fig. 5. Relevant parts of the Purchase processing choreography for the Shipment processing choreography

4 Conclusions Federated choreographies aim at modularizing web service choreographies. Federations can be built top-down - applying the famous ”divide and conquer” paradigm - or they can be built bottom-up, re-using existing choreographies for the construction or negotiation of larger choreographies. The metamodel we propose supports all these usages. The automated checking of conformance between choreographies and also orchestrations can be used for federations built top-down as well as for those built bottom-up. Design principles and processes for both ways of constructing choreographies which guarantee conformance are subject of ongoing research. The modular view is expected to care for the subtle visibility and information and process hiding vs. exposing needs characteristic for interoperability between enterprizes. The modeling concepts introduced are intended for an improved consideration of these complex distribution of information. The distributed (maybe even scattered) choreography models are diﬃcult to comprehend. Therefore, the automatic control of conformance between the modules should be a major enabler for practically using the proposed federated architecture.

References 1. Barros AP, Dumas M, Oaks P (2005) Standards for web service choreography and orchestration: Status and perspectives. Proc. of the 1st International Workshop on

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Web Service Choreography and Orchestration for Business Process Management, Nancy, France 2. Peltz C (2003) Web services orchestration and choreography. IEEE Computer. 36(10):46-52 3. Andrews T, et al (2003) Business process execution language for web services (bpel4ws). ver. 1.1, BEA, IBM, Microsoft, SAP, Siebel Systems 4. Kavantzas N, Burdett D, Ritzinger G (2004) Web services choreography description language (ws-cdl) 1.0. W3C Working Draft 5. Arkin A, et al (2002) Web Service Choreography Interface (wsci) 1.0. W3C 6. Eder J, Lehmann M, Tahamtan A (2006) Choreographies as Federations of Choreographies and Orchestrations. Proc. of CoSS, Tucson, AZ, USA 7. Dijkman RM, Dumas M (2004) Service-oriented design: A multi-viewpoint approach. Int. J. Cooperative Inf. Syst. 13(4):337-368 8. Eder J, Gruber W (2002) A meta model for structured workﬂows supporting workﬂow transformations. Proc. of ADBIS, Bratislava, Slovakia 9. Lehmann M (2006) Data Access in Workﬂow Management Systems. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Klagenfurt, Austria 10. Van der Aalst WMP (1998) The application of petri nets to workﬂow management. Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers. 8(1):21-66 11. Burdett D, Kavantzas N (2004) WS choreography model overview. W3C 12. Van der Aalst WMP, Basten T (2002) Inheritance of workﬂows: an approach to tackling problems related to change. Theor. Comput. Sci. 270(1-2):125-203 13. Basten T (1998) In Terms of Nets: System Design with Petri Nets and Process Algebra. Ph.D thesis, TU Eindhoven, The Netherlands 14. Van Glabbeek RJ, Weijland WP (1998) Branching time and abstraction in bisimulation semantics (extended abstract). Proc. of IFIP 11th World Comput. Congr. San Francisco, CA, USA 15. Van Glabbeek RJ, Weijland WP (1996) Branching time and abstraction in bisimulation semantics. J. ACM. 43(3):555-600 16. Murata T (1989) Petri nets: Properties, analysis and applications. Proc. of IEEE. 77(4):541-580 17. Peterson JL (1977) Petri nets. ACM Comput. Surv. 9(3):223-252 18. Graf S (1986) A complete inference system for an algebra or regular acceptance models. Proc. of MFCS, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia 19. Hennessy M (1985) Acceptance trees. J. ACM. 32(4):896-928 20. Kanellakis PC, Smolka SA (1983) Ccs expressions, ﬁnite state processes, and three problems of equivalence. Inf. Comput. 86(1):43-86 21. Milner R (1982) A Calculus of Communicating Systems. Springer, New York 22. Olderog ER (1985) Speciﬁcation-oriented programming in TCSP. In: Krzysztof R (ed) Logics and Models of Concurrent Systems, NATO ASI Series F, volume 13, Springer, New York 23. Bergstra JA, Klop JW (1985) Algebra of communicating processes with abstraction. Comput. Sci. 37:77-121 24. Basten T (1996) Branching bisimilarity is an equivalence indeed! Inf. Process. Lett. 58(3):141-147 25. Groote JF, Vaandrager FW (1990) An eﬃcient algorithm for branching bisimulation and stuttering equivalence. proc. of ICALP, Warwick, England 26. Verbeek HMW, Van der Aalst WMP (2000) Woﬂan 2.0: A petri-net-based workﬂow diagnosis tool. Proc. of ICATPN, Aarhus, Denmark

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Product Ontology Supporting Information Exchanging in Global Furniture Industry Carlos Alberto Costa1 , Valeria L. Salvador,1 Lara M. Meira,1 Germana Farina Rechden1 , and Cristian Koliver1 University of Caxias do Sul, 1130 Francisco Getulio Vargas, Caxias do Sul CEP 95070-560 − Brazil {cacosta, vlsalvad, lmeira, gfrechde, ckoliver }@ucs.br

1 Introduction The European Community, through the funSteps research group, started a project − Smart-fm − to deﬁne a clear, consistent and international standard to support information exchange for the furniture sector. It is expected that the standard adoption improves communication and international product commercialization [7], by facilitating the data interchange, avoiding misunderstandings, and speeding response to clients answers. The standard − ISO10303-AP236 − is based on an ontology, which provides a common language for describing a concept (products, in this in case) for all agents involved in the furniture chain. The ontology speciﬁes product components, characteristics and rules restricting on how a product can be deﬁned trhought Classes of Products. This article presents and discusses some results achieved by the Information Modeling to Support Product Development Research Group (MISDP − University of Caxias do Sul, Brazil) in applying ISO10303-AP236 standard in a large Brazilian furniture company.

2 ISO10303-AP236: a Case-Study Based on the ISO10303-AP236 deﬁnition, an initial study has been performed to check and evaluate the application of this standard in a Brazilian furniture company. The company makes oﬃce furniture, having several stores (franchisers) in Brazil and Latin America. Its main focus is on corporative market. A study of the company products (with their characteristics) has been performed in order to map them into Classes of Products. For each class, detailed information has been collected by interviewing the industry main staﬀ

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4 Discussions and conclusions This paper has presented the experience of modeling and testing the ISO10303AP236 standard in the context of a large Brazilian furniture manufacturer. Seven diﬀerent product pieces of information have been captured: benches, sofas, chairs, conference tables, work desks, central tables, and storage cabinets and bookcases. Prot´eg´e has been used to edit and model the ontology proposed, and a web application has been developed to test the ontology importation process. Further work is required to test the process of ontology exportation/importation with other commercial systems. Some diﬃculties could be identiﬁed during this work, as followed: (1) during the information modeling, it was possible to identify some fuzzy AP-236 ontology deﬁnitions; (2) the ontology allows some ﬂexibility in products modeling (on the one hand, this ﬂexibility eases AP-236 adoption for any furniture manufacturer; on the other hand, the diﬃculty of data exchanging may persist); and (3) AP-236 way to describe products and terminology are not always very clear to the members of furniture industry.

References 1. F. Freitas, H. Stuckenschimidt, and N. F. Noy Ontology Issues and Applications, Journal of Brazilian Computer Society. 11(2) November (2005). 2. A. Ginboin, F. Gandon, O. Corby, and R. Dieng Assesment of ontology-based tools: a step towards systemizing the scenario approach INRIA Sophia Antipolis, (2005) Acacia Project, France. 3. A. Gomes-Peres, and O. CORCHO Ontology Languages for the Semantic Web, IEEE Intelligent Systems (2002), 5460. 4. T. R. Gruber A translation approach to portable ontologies, Knowledge Acquisition, 5(2) (1993), 199220. 5. M. Gruninger, and J. KOPENA Semantic Integration through invariants, AI Magazine, 26(1) (2005), 11–20. 6. N. F. Noy, D. McGuiness Ontology Development 101: A Guide to Creating your First Ontology, available at protege.stanford.edu/downloads/ontologies. Access in June 2005. 7. Smart-fm. Available at: http://www.athena-ip.org:8081. Access in May 2005. 8. C. Schlenoﬀ, P. Denno, R. Ivester, D. Libes, and S. Szykman An analysis and approach to using ontological system for applications in manufacturing, Artiﬁcial Inteligence for Design, Analysis and Manufaturing 14 (2000), 257270. 9. L. Stojanovic, and B. Motik. Ontology evolution within ontology editors. In Proceedings of the OntoWeb-SIG3 Workshop at the 13th International Conference on Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management (EKAW) (2002), 53–62. 10. Protege The Prot´eg´e Ontology Editor and Knowledge Aquisition System, available at: http://protege.stanford.edu. Access in: June 2005.

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Transforming GRAI Extended Actigrams into UML Activity Diagrams: a First Step to Model Driven Interoperability Reyes Grangel1 , Ramzi Ben Salem2 , Jean-Pierre Bourey2 , Nicolas Daclin3 , and Yves Ducq3 1

2

3

Grupo en Integraci´ on y Re-Ingenier´ıa de Sistemas (IRIS), Dept. de Llenguatges i Sistemes Inform` atics, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castell´ o, Spain [email protected] Laboratoire de G´enie Industriel de Lille, Ecole Centrale de Lille, 59561 Villeneuve d’Ascq Cedex, France [email protected], [email protected] LAPS/GRAI, Universit´e Bordeaux 1, 33405 Talence Cedex, France {nicolas.daclin, yves.ducq}@laps.u-bordeaux1.fr

Summary. One of the main weaknesses of Enterprise Modeling is the diﬃculty involved in generating software from enterprise models. In this context, a modeldriven approach can be useful to improve this shortcoming by transforming these models at diﬀerent levels of abstraction down to achieve the generation of code. The main advantage of this kind of approach is that it attempts to automate this transformation process as much as possible. However, interoperability problems arise in networked enterprises when they attempt to apply them, and the main obstacles to achieving the objective appear at a conceptual level. In this paper, we present a general proposal, called Model Driven Interoperability (MDI), for transforming models at diﬀerent levels of abstraction focused on interoperability issues. At a conceptual level, this proposal provides a method for transforming GRAI Models into UML models, as a ﬁrst step to achieving interoperability following a model-driven approach. The paper also describes a practical example of transforming a GRAI Extended Actigram into a UML Activity Diagram using a software tool in order to show its feasibility.

1 Introduction Model-driven approaches are a good solution to try to put to rights the shortcomings of Enterprise Modeling for generating code from enterprise models. In particular, Model Driven Architecture (MDA), which was deﬁned and adopted by the OMG in 2001, aims to promote the use of models and their transformations as a fundamental way of designing and implementing diﬀerent kinds of

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R. Grangel, R. Ben Salem, J.-P. Bourey, N. Daclin and Y. Ducq

systems. This architecture thus deﬁnes a hierarchy of models from three levels of abstraction: the Computation Independent Model (CIM), the Platform Independent Model (PIM), and the Platform Speciﬁc Model (PSM) [1]. However, when networked enterprises, such as extended and virtual enterprises, attempt to apply these kinds of approaches, they encounter some diﬃculties and problems especially at a conceptual level. As the partners in a virtual enterprise usually use diﬀerent kinds of Enterprise Modeling Languages, it is diﬃcult to achieve a common software from diﬀerent types of enterprise models. This therefore becomes an interoperability problem. Interoperability problems arise among enterprises when it is diﬃcult to exchange information and use the exchanged information in an easy way [2]. However, the interoperability issue is not only focused on the data exchange level; instead, full interoperability is considered to be achieved if the interaction takes place on all layers of enterprises, that is, the business, knowledge and ICT levels, and semantics can also be used to accomplish a common understanding among collaborative enterprises [3, 4]. Model-driven approaches for generating software provide many advantages by improving portability, interoperability and reusability through the architectural separation of concerns. However, more research work is needed on how to apply this kind of approach in networked enterprises in order to solve interoperability problems especially at the CIM level. Thus, INTEROP NoE [5] is working in three main domains (Enterprise Modeling, Architectures & Platforms, and Ontologies) in order to provide solutions that can help enterprises to improve their interoperability at all these levels. In particular, within INTEROP, Model Driven Interoperability (MDI) research is focused on the diﬃculties that networked enterprises face when it comes to generating Enterprise Software Applications (ESA) from enterprise models, and how a model-driven approach could be a useful way to solve them, while at the same time achieving interoperability. The ultimate objective of this research is to provide a model-driven method that can guide enterprises in using enterprise models to generate ESA [6]. This paper presents the ﬁrst step of this method and shows how GRAI Extended Actigrams can be transformed into UML Activity Diagrams at the CIM level. The paper is organised as follows. Section 2 presents a brief revision of model transformations at the CIM level. The general MDI proposal, together with the model transformation framework used to solve these problems are shown in section 3. In section 4, the general proposal is applied to the particular case of transforming GRAI models into UML models using a software tool. Finally, section 5 outlines the main conclusions and future research.

2 Transforming Models at the CIM Level The objective of this section is to describe why Enterprise Modelling techniques used jointly with MDA approach are of interest, and the main problems involved in performing model transformations from CIM models. Enterprise

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Modeling aims to describe practices in enterprises from several perspectives, i.e. functional, physical, business process, decisions, information, etc. [7]. The prime goal of Enterprise Modeling is to support the analysis of an enterprise, and second to support any actor that has a design or development project concerning the enterprise [8]. Enterprise Modeling uses modeling languages which may be informal (such as natural languages), semi-formal (graphical languages) or formal (mathematical languages) [9]. Some of them could be considered to be traditional Enterprise Modeling Languages and good candidates for representing models at the CIM level [10], according to the new approaches promoted by the OMG at this level, i.e. within Business Enterprise Integration DTF, like the Business Process Deﬁnition Metamodel (BPDM), or the Organization Structure Metamodel (OSM) [11]. However, the main problem with modeling enterprises at the CIM level is how to deﬁne the various aspects that the actors want to take into account in a clear manner. The domain and purpose of modeling, and the aspects that must be highlighted should be deﬁned, and then the appropriate Enterprise Modeling Language should be chosen. Therefore, the number of issues that can be modeled at the CIM level increases the complexity of CIM models and their transformations. Diﬀerent approaches to model transformation can be found in the literature. Bearing in mind that a lot of research work is carried out in the domain of Model-Driven Engineering [12], promoted by the OMG [11] and other organisations and initiatives [13, 14, 15, 16]. In [12], several classiﬁcations of model transformation have been reported in the context of Model-Driven Engineering. According to what mechanism can be used for model transformation, basically only two kinds of approaches are explained, namely, declarative and operational (or imperative), in spite of claims that it is possible to specify and apply a transformation taking some ideas from the major programming paradigms. For instance, techniques from procedural, object-oriented, functional or logic paradigms could be used, or even a hybrid approach. However, the main distinction is made between declarative and operational (or imperative) techniques. The former is based on what aspect should be transformed by deﬁning the relation between the source and target metamodel. The latter is focused on how aspects, i.e. on the steps that must be performed to achieve the transformation. Several examples of each approach can be found in the current literature on this domain. However, the main problem with transforming models from the CIM level not only lies in the kind of mechanism that can be used to carry out the transformation, but is also related to the complexity of modeling at the CIM level and the great number of cases and exceptions that can be found to perform the modeling transformation. Moreover, the problem is that model transformations are usually almost always performed at the PIM and PSM levels, and thus more experiences and practical cases are needed to transform models at the CIM level with the ultimate aim of understanding how it is possible to follow a complete MDA approach that goes from enterprise models to the generation of code.

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3 Model Driven Interoperability Framework The Model Driven Interoperability (MDI) proposal attempts to provide solutions that, following the MDA approach, can help enterprises to transform models at diﬀerent levels of abstraction in order to generate ESA, and at the same time to become more interoperable. 3.1 General Approach The main principle of MDI is to provide three conceptual levels following the classical division provided by MDA: CIM, to collect enterprise requirements using enterprise models; PIM, to obtain computer science models from previous enterprise models; and PSM, to develop diﬀerent types of ESA that were interoperable from previous models. Thus, the end goal is to obtain interoperable software at the lower level which satisﬁes the requirements speciﬁed at the conceptual level. However, instead of solving this interoperability problem at the software level, the main idea is to start at the Enterprise Modeling level, and then use both horizontal transformations to establish interoperability links, using ontology models, and vertical transformations to go towards the lowest levels of abstraction down to the software level. With regard to the three classical levels of view in the MDA approach, due to the great complexity of this level, the CIM level has been broken down into two sublevels: •

top-level CIM: to represent a company from a ’holistic’ point of view, showing its domain, business, strategy, etc., at a high level of abstraction and without considering any software application features. At this level Enterprise Modeling Languages and Methodologies, such as GRAI [7, 17, 18] for instance, are the most appropriate tools for capturing this kind of knowledge. • bottom-level CIM: to represent the part of top-level CIM that needs to be implemented in a computer system, that is to say, to show the system requirements but without linking them to any speciﬁc kind of technology. At this level UML is a good candidate to bridge the gap between the top-level CIM and the PIM level. Therefore, one of the key factors of this proposal is to provide a general method that allows enterprises to transform models between two successive levels, at the same time automating this transformation process as much as possible. The objective of this paper is to show how it is possible to perform this kind of transformation at the CIM level by describing a proposal for transforming models and one example of its application. This example consists in transforming a GRAI Extended Actigram at the top-level CIM into a UML Activity Diagram at the bottom-level CIM, that is to say, it is an example of vertical transformation.

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3.2 Model Transformation Proposal Within the context of MDI, the key tools are model transformations. These transformations are developed and used at both vertical and horizontal levels. At the vertical level, the transformations consist in performing successive transformations of the top-level CIM model into bottom-level CIM, then bottom-level CIM into PIM, PIM into PSM, and ﬁnally PSM into code. At the horizontal level, these transformations enable us to make two models of two diﬀerent systems interoperable, whatever the abstraction level (top-level CIM, bottom-level CIM, PIM, PSM, and code). According to [1, 19], in order to deﬁne a transformation from one model into another, the preliminary step consists in deﬁning a mapping [20] between the metamodels, which each model must conform to. This mapping deﬁnes the correspondence between source and target metamodel elements and it is speciﬁed using a language that is capable of describing a transformation of one model into another. The description may be in natural language, algorithms in an action language, or in a model-mapping language [1]. Therefore, the mapping can be considered to be the speciﬁcation of the transformation performed to convert a source model into a target model. More detailed information on this model transformation pattern can be found in [19]. In the following, UML has been chosen as the metamodeling language and the metamodels will be expressed with Class Diagrams. In this way, the concepts of both the source and target metamodels are expressed with the basic constructs of Class Diagrams, i.e. classes, attributes and relations (generalisations and associations). For deﬁning the mapping between the constructs of the source metamodel and those of the target metamodel, four main cases can be encountered: • One-to-one mapping: this kind of mapping is the simplest case. One construct of the source metamodel has a unique corresponding construct in the target model without modiﬁcation. • One-to-many mapping: two kinds of one-to-many mappings have to be considered. The ﬁrst consists in making a correspondence between one construct in the source metamodel and a set of constructs in the target metamodel. In this case, the source construct is split into several target constructs (Split mapping). The second occurs when a source construct has many candidates for the target constructs. In this case, if the context can be used to determine the target construct, then this kind of mapping (Conditional mapping) can be transformed into a precondition (the context) followed by the application of another mapping (see example in section 4, Table 1). • Many-to-one mapping: for this mapping, several constructs in the source metamodel are aggregated to become one construct in the target metamodel. In this case, it is possible to deﬁne an automatic direct mapping between the source and the target models. But since it is an ’aggregation’ transformation, it will be impossible to perform a reverse transformation automatically. Therefore, information must be kept about

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the aggregation performed in order to be able to perform reverse transformation. This added information could be included in the target model by deﬁning, for example, a speciﬁc proﬁle or by semantic annotation support. Another possibility is to keep track of the applied transformation [21] in order to prevent overloading of the target model thus obtained. Although this information is not directly useful in the context of the target model, it is interesting and important to keep it so that it can be reused in the reverse transformation, and therefore ensure the traceability of the transformations that have been performed. • Many-to-many mapping: this represents the relationships between a collection of constructs in the source metamodel and a collection of constructs in the target metamodel. It consists in restructuring a group of source constructs.

4 Application In order to illustrate the model transformation proposal presented in section 3, in this section we describe a practical example to demonstrate its feasibility. It consists in transforming one GRAI Extended Actigram at the top-level CIM into a UML 2.0 Activity Diagram at the bottom-level CIM. This example includes the metamodels and models needed to perform the transformation, the proposed mapping between GRAI and UML, and the experiences carried out with a tool for implementing model transformations. 4.1 Metamodels and Models Performed The objective is to transform a GRAI Extended Actigram (source model) into a UML 2.0 Activity Diagram (target model), and thus two additional metamodels will be needed. These metamodels and models are explained in the sections that follow. Source Metamodel: GRAI Extended Actigram Metamodel GRAI Extended Actigram is one of the numerous formalisms that it is possible to use within the framework of the GRAI Methodology [7, 17, 18]. This formalism can be used to represent the processes of one enterprise, and it is an extension of IDEF0 Diagrams [22]. The main constructs of this formalism, which appear in the GRAI Extended Actigram Metamodel, are: • Process: a process is a set of extended activities that are logically linked to one another and triggered by ﬂows and eventually by using operators. • Activity: this represents a transformation and a production (output ﬂow). Due to the hierarchical structure of an Extended Actigram, an activity can be broken down into several activities. In this case, from here on, the activity will be called a ’Structured Activity’. An activity that has not been broken down will be called a ’Leaf Activity’.

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• Connector: this is used to represent the origin or the destination of a ﬂow when the origin or the destination is outside the current diagram. Possible roles: process connector, internal connector, external connector. • Flow: this is used to link Activities. Like in IDEF0, a ﬂow is directed and can be an input, output, control or resource of an activity. A ﬂow can also be used to link Connectors to other diagram elements. • Logical Operator: this represents the convergence or the divergence of multiple ﬂows and their timing. There are three diﬀerent kinds of process logical operators: synchronous AND (sAND), asynchronous AND (aAND) and OR. Source Model: GRAI Extended Actigram As an example, let us consider an excerpt from the Extended Actigram in Fig. 1. This ﬁgure depicts a part of a process dealing with a ’Sales Management Process’. When orders are received from franchisees, shops or dealers, then the ﬁrst activity of this process deals with stock control (’to check available quantity’). Then the ’OR’ logical operator is used to express the diﬀerent values or the result of this activity (’checked quantity’). If the quantity available is not high enough, then rules coming from another process (Telco connector) will be applied as a control of the activity ’to fulﬁll orders from shops and franchisees’. In the other case (’available quantity’), all the orders are fulﬁlled and the orders are sent to the ﬁnancial department to establish the credit and (’AND’ logical operator) the product is delivered.

Fig. 1. Excerpt from the GRAI Source Model

Target Metamodel: UML Activity Diagram Metamodel The target metamodel is the UML 2.0 Activity Diagram Metamodel. In order to be productive and due to the complexity of this metamodel, we only took its main constructs into account. More details and a complete description of this metamodel can be found in [23].

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Target Model: UML Activity Diagram Figure 2 depicts the UML Activity Diagram, which is the target model obtained from the source model by applying the mapping described in section 4.2.

Fig. 2. The UML Activity Diagram obtained

4.2 Mapping between GRAI Extended Actigram and UML Activity Diagram Taking into account the constructs and the semantics of the two metamodels, the following mapping can be proposed (see Table 1): 4.3 ATL Transformation In order to demonstrate the feasibility of these model transformations from GRAI into UML, a transformation language and its associated transformation tool were used, i.e. Atlas Transformation Language (ATL), which was developed by the ATLAS INRIA and LINA Research Group [24] to answer to the OMG MOF/QVT RFP. This is a model transformation language speciﬁed both as a metamodel and as a speciﬁc textual concrete syntax. It is a hybrid of declarative and imperative language based on OCL [25]. The preferred style of transformation writing is declarative, which means simple mappings can be expressed simply. However, imperative constructs are provided so that some mappings that are too complex to be handled declaratively can still be speciﬁed. Once complex mapping patterns are identiﬁed, declarative constructs can be added to ATL in order to simplify transformation writing. An ATL transformation program is composed of rules that deﬁne how source model elements are matched and navigated to create and initialise the elements in the target models [24]. For example, let us consider the oneto-many transformation shown in Fig. 3, for which:

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Table 1. Simple Mapping between GRAI Extended Actigram and UML Activity Diagram Source (GRAI) Process

Target (UML) Activity

Type of Mapping One-to-one

Leaf Activity Structured Activity

Action Activity and CallBehaviorAction

One-to-one One-to-many (Split)

Flow

ControlFlow

Many-to-one

’OR’ Logical Op.

DecisionNode or MergeNode

One-to-many (Conditional)

’sAND, aAND’ Logical Op.

ForkNode or JoinNode

One-tomany(Conditional)

Connector

ActivityParameterNode Many-to-one

Resource

ActivityParameterNode One-to-one

Observations Since a UML Activity specifies the coordination of executions of subordinate behaviors, using a control and data flow model [23], it corresponds exactly to the definition of a GRAI process. The GRAI Structured Activity is mapped onto a UML Activity which is called by a CallBehaviorAction. This CallBehaviorAction is placed in the UML Activity onto which the GRAI Activity containing the GRAI Structured Activity is mapped and it is also connected to the corresponding flows. All kinds of GRAI Flows are mapped onto a single UML construct: ControlFlow. The nature of the flow is therefore lost and the transformation is not reversible. Depends on the number of entering or exiting flows. If the number of outputs of the logical operator is equal to 1 then the target construct is a MergeNode, otherwise it is a DecisionNode. Depends on the number of entering or exiting flows. If the number of outputs of the logical operator is equal to 1 then the target construct is a JoinNode, otherwise it is a ForkNode. The exact nature of the source operator (Synchronous or Asynchronous) is lost and the transformation is not reversible. In this case the type of connector (Process, External, Internal) is lost and the transformation is not reversible. -

• A GRAI activity is transformed into a UML Action if it does not have subactivities, otherwise it is transformed into a UML CallBehaviorAction and its called Activity. • All GRAI input, control and resource ﬂows are transformed into UML incoming ﬂows. • All GRAI output ﬂows are transformed into UML outgoing ﬂows.

Fig. 3. The 2-step transformation of GRAI Structured Activity

To write this transformation with ATL, the ﬁrst step consists in deﬁning a helper to test whether a GRAI activity has subactivities or not (Structured or Leaf Activity). Helpers serve to deﬁne repetitive pieces of code in one place and can be used to deﬁne (global) variables and functions. Helper functions are OCL expressions. They can call each other or can be called from within rules. This helper is deﬁned in the context of an Activity of the GRAI Extended

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Actigram Metamodel. It looks to see whether the ’childActivity’ link end is empty or not and assigns the corresponding Boolean value to the result. helper context GraiExtendedActigramMetaModel!Activity def : hasChild() : Boolean = if self.childActivity -> notEmpty() then true else false endif;

This helper is then used as a precondition for the two rules creating a UML Action or CallBehaviorAction and its associated Activity from a GRAI Activity. The ﬁrst rule creates a UML Action and the second one generates both an Activity and a CallBehaviorAction calling this activity. The attributes ’name’ and output ﬂows are copied into the target element. The input ﬂows from the UML Action or CallBehaviorAction are built from the union of input, control and resource ﬂows from the GRAI Activity. Another helper was written to obtain a UML target activity from its name. This helper uses a parameter called ’p name’ and selects the corresponding activity from all the instances of the UML activities that are generated. helper def : getUmlActivityFromName (p_name : String) : UML2!Activity = UML2!Activity.allInstances()->select(a|a. name = p_name).first(); --transform a GRAI Activity with child Activities into a UML Activity and a CallBehaviorAction rule GraiActivity2UmlActivityAndCallBehaviorAction { from src : GraiActivityMetaModel!Activity( src.hasChild() --helper call as precondition )--end of ’from’ section to tgtActivity: UML2!Activity ( name <- src.name), --the name of the source is copied into the targetActivity tgtCallBehaviorAction : UML2!CallBehaviorAction ( name <- src.name, --the name of the source is copied into the targetActivity behavior <- tgtActivity, --definition of the call behavior (the UmlActivity just created) outgoing <- src.output, --outgoing UML flows are the output flows of a GRAI activity -- incoming UML flows of the CallBehaviorAction are the input flows of a GRAI activity -- union the control and resource flows incoming <- (src.input -> union (src.control -> union(src.resource))) )--end of ’to’ section do {--Add the generated CallBehaviorAction to the calling Activity --1) get the generated UML Activity from the name of the parent activity --2) add the generated CallBehaviorAction into the list of actions of this activity let v_CallingActivity : UML2!Activity = thisModule.getUmlActivityFromName (src.parentActivity.name) in v_CallingActivity.refSetValue(’action’,v_CallingActivity.action -> including(tgtCallBehaviorAction)); }--end of ’do’ section }--end of GraiActivity2UmlActivityAndCallBehaviorAction rule

5 Conclusion In this paper we have presented a proposal for model transformation within the framework of MDI. This proposal could be used either at a vertical level, to follow a model-driven approach in order to generate ESA from enterprise models, or at a horizontal level, to solve interoperability problems, or by combining the two. As an example of a speciﬁc application of this general proposal, the transformation of GRAI Extended Actigram into a UML Activity Diagram establishes a ﬁrst step toward providing a method that can help

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enterprises to achieve interoperability following a MDA approach. However, taking into account the experiments and the initial results obtained, the bulk of future research should be focused on: • Providing more complete examples with the ATL tool in order to demonstrate the feasibility of performing the GRAI-UML transformation as automatically as possible. • Identifying the kind of knowledge that has to be added to models in order to transform them between two levels, i.e., to combine the syntactic mappings described in this paper with more detailed semantic mappings. The objective is to conduct a precise analysis of the semantic gaps between GRAI Extended Actigrams and UML Activity Diagrams. One gap has been identiﬁed concerning the semantic loss in ﬂows which are more detailed in GRAI. To prevent this loss, extensions of the UML target metamodel are currently under development. Another issue deals with the control structure of ﬂows: UML has more control structures (Decision, Fusion, Fork, Join, and so forth) than GRAI. Therefore, knowledge must be added to ensure the reﬁnement of semantics during the transformation, which is also currently being investigated. • Developing transformation from other GRAI formalisms into UML, especially from GRAI Grid and GRAI Nets. These two formalisms are dedicated to the modeling of the decisional part of a system. The main objective is thus to determine which UML formalism is the best suited for use as a target for the transformation and then to perform the transformation.

Acknowledgments This work was funded by the EC within the 6th FP, INTEROP NoE [5]. The authors are indebted to TG2. It was also partially supported by CICYT DPI2003-02515 and DPI2006-14708.

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7. Doumeingts, G. and Ducq, Y. (2001) Enterprise modelling techniques to improve eﬃciency of enterprises. Production Planning & Control, 12, 146–163. 8. Vernadat, F. B. (1996) Enterprise Modeling and Integration: Principles and Applications. Chapman and Hall. 9. Chapurlat, V., Larnac, M., Lamine, E., and Magnier, J. (1999) Deﬁnition of a formal analysis framework for existing enterprise modelling approaches. Proceedings of ASI, Louvain, Belgium, 22-24 September. 10. Grangel, R., Chalmeta, R., Campos, C., and Coltell, O. (2005) Enterprise Modelling, an overview focused on software generation. In Panetto, H. (ed.), Interoperability of Enterprise Software and Applications Workshops of the INTEROPESA International Conference EI2N, WSI, ISIDI and IEHENA 2005. Hermes Science Publishing. 11. OMG (2006). Object Management Group. http://www.omg.org/. 12. Mens, T. and Corp, P. (2006) A Taxonomy of Model Transformation. Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science, 152, 125–142. 13. MODELWARE (2007). Modeling solution for software systems Project (IST2004-511731). http://www.modelware-ist.org/. 14. Ehrig, H. and Ehrig, K. (2006) Overview of Formal Concepts for Model Transformations Based on Typed Attributed Graph Transformation. Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science, 152, 3–22. 15. Kalnins, A., Celms, E., and Sostaks, A. (2006) Tool support for MOLA. Electronic Notes in Theoretical Computer Science, 152, 83–96. 16. Muller, P.-A., Fleurey, F., Vojtisek, D., Drey, Z., Pollet, D., Fondement, F., Studer, P., and Jzquel, J.-M. (2005) On Executable Meta-Languages applied to Model Transformations. Model Transformation in Practice (MTIP) Workshop held in conjunction with MODELS/UML 2005 Conference, Montego Bay, Jamaica. 17. Doumeingts, G., Vallespir, B., Zanittin, M., and Chen, D. (1992) GIM-GRAI Integrated Methodology, a Methodology for Designing CIM Systems, Version 1.0. LAP/GRAI, University Bordeaux 1, Bordeaux, France. 18. Doumeingts, G., Vallespir, B., and Chen, D. (1998) International Handbook on Information Systems. Springer-Verlag. 19. Allilaire, F., B´ezivin, J., Jouault, F., and Kurtev, I. (2006) ATL - Eclipse Support for Model Transformation. Proceedings of the Eclipse Technology eXchange Workshop (eTX) at the ECOOP 2006 Conference, Nantes, France. 20. ISO/TS 18876-1 (2003) Industrial automation systems and integration - Integration of industrial data for exchange, access and sharing - Part 1: Architecture overview and description. Technical report. International Organisation for Standardisation. 21. Czarnecki, K. and Helsen, S. (2003) Classiﬁcation of model transformation approaches. Proceedings of the 2nd OOPSLA Workshop on Generative Techniques in the Context of the Model Driven Architecture. 22. IDEF (2007). Integrated DEFinition Methods. http://www.idef.com/. 23. OMG (2005) Uniﬁed Modeling Language: Superstructure, version 2.0., version 2.0 formal/05-07-04 edition. Object Management Group. 24. ATLAS (2007). Atlas Transformation Language (ATL). http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/lina/atl/. 25. OMG (2005) OCL 2.0 Speciﬁcation, adopted speciﬁcation ptc/05-06-06 edition. Object Management Group.

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CCTS-based Business Information Modelling for Increasing Cross-Organizational Interoperability C. Schroth1, G. Pemptroad2 and T. Janner1 1

2

SAP Research CEC and the Institute for Media and Communications Management, University of St. Gallen, Blumenbergplatz 9, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland {christoph.schroth, till.janner}@{sap.com|unisg.ch} BOC Information Systems GmbH, Wipplingerstr. 1, 1010 Vienna, Austria [email protected]

Abstract. The dissemination of e-Business solutions among small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) is still very low due to various reasons. In the course of the GENESIS project, we aim at designing and deploying a novel e-Business platform that removes entry barriers for these SMEs. We present a living platform that grows over time and provides users with the possibility to seamlessly model and setup business relations with other users and execute these on the basis of a collaboratively designed standard. To achieve interoperability on both a business process and data level, we propose a novel, integrated modeling concept which is partly based on different existing standards such as the ISO 15000-5 CCTS specification (developed by UN/CEFACT). Our approach enables users to intuitively model and setup the unique processes and business documents they are willing to support while adhering to a common repository of data and process components. In this way, we ensurecross-organizational interoperability, facilitate reuse of existing components and leverage the emerging industry standard issued by UN/CEFACT.

1 Introduction Although the adoption rate of e-Business technology in enterprises has significantly increased during the last decade, recent surveys indicate a limited penetration of such technology among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) [1, 2]. These SMEs - defined as companies that employ fewer than 250 persons and have an annual turnover not exceeding 50 million euro and/ or an annual balance sheet total not exceeding 43 million euro [3] – are facing hurdles that they are not able to overcome by the use of current e-Business technology. IT landscapes of typical SMEs consist of heterogeneous systems, reaching from Enterprise Resource Planning Systems (ERP) to spreadsheet-based island applications. Processes that are carried out between these SMEs typically require significant manual input due

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to media breaks, thereby preventing from seamless, cross-organizational eBusiness interoperability. This, in turn, results in unnecessarily high costs and missed business opportunities. These circumstances are the motivation to develop an e-Business platform in the course of the EU-funded project GENESIS [4] to allow typical SMEs to conduct their business transactions over the Web. A key factor towards the success of such a platform is the adequate handling of varieties in both business processes and documents according to individual requirements. At the same time, the platform has to be easily accessible for SMEs by hiding any technical complexity from them. The envisioned solution builds upon two major cornerstones: First, a composite of standards issued by the UN/CEFACT [5], especially the ISO 15000-5 (formerly UN/CEFACT Core Component Technical Specification, CCTS) [6] form the technical basis of our e-Business platform. The effective support of the abovementioned technological foundation by means of an intuitive, flexible and business-oriented modelling method is the second major characteristic of our approach. In the course of the project, we designed a combined process and information modelling user interface that allows reuse of existing artefacts or components and enables their efficient customization according to current business needs. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. After presenting an overview of related research activities in Chapter 2 we proceed with a short overview of the EU-funded GENESIS project in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 will set the theoretical foundation in terms of providing a framework for business information modelling, which will to some extent be derived from literature and also from the requirements that arise from the experiences made during the GENESIS project. Chapter 5 presents in detail our integrated Business Information Modelling approach. A summary and outlook will be given in Chapter 6.

2 Related Work 2.1 Existing Projects During this work we refer to and have taken into account related work which references Business Information Modelling and which is originating from the following three areas: Researchers from the University of Vienna have been involved in defining and extending methodologies that amend the upcoming UN/CEFACT e-Business framework. An Add-In for the UMM specification, for example, realizes a tool support for modelling of collaborative and cross-enterprise business processes and data based on the Unified Modelling Language (UML). In the area of CCTS, we refer to the work of Stuhec [7] who describes the Context-Driver-Principle for the efficient use and customization of CCTS-based business information. Second, the European Integrated Project ATHENA [8] represents a related project dealing with the goal to establish a true collaboration between single businesses that are characterized by unique requirements both from the

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technological and from the business process perspective. The ATHENA project heads for contributing to interoperability by identifying and meeting a number of inter-related business, scientific & technical, and strategic objectives. The development of new technology components, applications and services, but also the demonstration and testing of the results are in the focus of this project. ATHENA has been initiating an open, neutral and independent Enterprise Interoperability Centre (EIC) [9] to which all stakeholders, in both private and public sectors are invited to participate and to promote enterprise interoperability. 2.2 Relevant Standards The work of the standardization bodies UN/CEFACT and OASIS is another major area our work is closely related to. To enhance business interoperability on a semantic level, we thoroughly investigated the ISO 15005-5 Core Component Technical Specification (CCTS) [6, 10] and numerous of closely affiliated standards issued by the UN/CEFACT. UBL [11] with its pre-defined business document description using Business Information Entities will be a further central part on which we refer to. CCL & CCTS. The Core Component Library (CCL) represents the repository for generic business data components, the so called Core Components. Based on the experiences gained in previous data standardization efforts, the CCL does not provide pre-determined, static or industry-specific data definitions, but comprises a huge set of context-agnostic, generally valid data templates (e.g. postal address, personal information) that are syntax-independent and represent the general business data entities which are commonly used in today's business processes. Major benefits of leveraging such a Core Component Repository include an increase of reuse of data elements during modelling and improved enterprise interoperability due to a common basis for business information description. UN/CEFACT envisions this library to grow and also change over time as users can either modify existing components or design and submit new Core Components in case the existing ones are not sufficient to fulfil the actual business requirements. The Core Component Technical Specification (CCTS) [6] is the associated method comprising meta-models and rules for the semantically unambiguous definition of business information on a syntax-independent level. This second building block of the UN/CEFACT stack provides users with guidelines for correctly naming and combining Core Components and introduces ways to apply context-specific restrictions on the generic data templates by adding semantic precision for a given business requirement. The generic data templates can thus be adapted and restricted to the individual requirements of users, thereby ensuring the scalability of the whole system. An example for the use of syntax-free Core Components is as follows: a business Party is a so-called Aggregate Core Component (ACC) that consists of numerous components for representing data at leaf-level, such as "ID Number" etc. These basic data items that cannot be further decomposed into other components are called Basic Core Components (BCCs). The generic Party template comprises all BCCs that could ever occur in an arbitrary user context and is stored as an unstructured, syntax-free list. In case a Greek user desires to model a business

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document that comprises a Party entry, he is able to access the CCL, apply his Greek context and is provided an aggregation of data components that features only those BCCs that are relevant for his specific situation. This contextualized subset of the generic template is then called Business Information Entity (BIE). To semantically enrich a BIE even more, it is also possible to add qualifiers and, for example, transform a "ID number" into a "TaxPayer_ ID" to allow for differentiation from other "ID Number" instances. An address that is part of the aggregated information about a business Party is called ASCC since this data item can be decomposed into other, lower-level entities such as Street Names, Zip Codes etc.. In this way, all users have a common understanding of how the different parts of a business party are named and are yet able to use arbitrary syntactical representations for their business documents. Please refer to Figure 1 for a comprehensive description of the different CCTS based meta-model entities:

Fig. 1. CCTS Meta Model Entities

CDM, BMA, SBDH, CDT and Business Terms. The Context-Driver Methodology (CDM), the Business Message Assembly (BMA), Standard Business Document Header (SBDH), the Core Data Type (CDT) specification and the Business Terms are additional specifications that support the efficient and scalable use of the Core Components mentioned above and can be studied in detail in [10]. After elaborating on the CCTS meta-model, we now present the Universal Business Language (UBL) [11], which represents the second building block of our e-Business architecture: A royalty-free library of standard electronic XML business documents, UBL is designed to provide a universally comprehensible and well recognized commercial syntax for legally binding business documents. Developed by the Organisation for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS), UBL’s purpose is to provide: first, a library of XML schemas for reusable data components, such as Address, Item and Payment, which are the

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common data elements of everyday business documents. Second, a set of XML schemas for common business documents such as Order, Despatch Advice and Invoice that are constructed from the UBL library components and can be used in generic procurement and transportation contexts. Third, a set of processes and business rules associated with the business documents that define a context for their use. UBL operates within a standard business framework such as ISO 15000-5 in order to provide a complete, standards-based infrastructure that can extend the benefits of existing EDI systems to businesses of all sizes. As the first standard implementation of UN/CEFACT CCTS, the UBL Library is based on a conceptual model of numerous information components known as Business Information Entities (the collection of which we refer to as UBL Common Library) . These components are assembled into specific document models such as Order and Invoice (UBL business documents), which are then transformed in accordance with UBL Naming and Design Rules into W3C XSD schema syntax.

3 The GENESIS project 3.1 Project Overview The EU-funded GENESIS project [4] aims at increasing the adoption of eBusiness specifically among SMEs. As the central composite to be designed and also implemented in the course of this project, an interoperable platform is developed that enables seamless and cross-organizational collaboration among business partners. We examine and model the processes and information entities exchanged by the SMEs with other enterprises (B2B), governmental institutions (B2G) or Intermediaries (B2I, eg. Banks). For detailed information on the major cornerstones of the GENESIS project we refer to [4]. 3.2 Architectural Overview Figure 2 depicts the overall system architecture. A central server provides the necessary functionality to connect the users to the system, to manage the communication between them and to provide an environment for business processes and document modelling and execution. Apart from that, it follows a store-and-forward approach that takes into account that SME users are not necessarily continuously connected to the Internet. The server is able to temporarily store business messages and forward them to other users as soon as they are connected. Following the paradigm of a Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) [12] in combination of the essentials of the ebXML approach [13], the required functionality is provided as a set of Web Services. The server also contains a registry and repository part (containing the GENESIS Common Library (CL)), which is devoted to storing templates for the supported processes and business

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documents of all registered SMEs and supporting the negotiation of business conditions among SMEs.

Fig. 2. GENESIS Overall architecture

When connecting to the system, clients are supposed to send their respective user context (formalized according to the existing guidelines of the CCTS) and the names of supported processes to the server. The server then passes back process definitions and XML schemas (representing the business documents) to the client that are appropriate for the individual context. Apart from that, clients are enabled to connect to the system in two different ways. A fat client, called adapter, will be implemented on the side of the users to connect legacy IT systems to the GENESIS system. This adapter realizes a machine-to-machine interface for an efficient automated transaction processing. In case users do not wish to leverage existing IT systems, a Web-based thin client will be provided as a machine-to-human interface to access the system. During design time, a new environment (GENESIS Process & Data Buildtime) supports users with modelling business information in a way that facilitates cross-organizational interoperability and re-use of existing information entities. The following sections concentrate on this modelling environment and thoroughly describe underlying technologies as well as use cases. 3.3 Basis of the GENESIS Modelling Method The first work packages of the GENESIS project highly involve SMEs to analyse their requirements related to business documents exchanged within different kind of business processes (B2B, B2G, or B2I). We decided to use graphical models for capturing this information because they allow optimal representation of process flows or document assemblies. It is important to mention that Business Information Modelling should encompass not only the description of the document content (information entities and their relationships) but also the context in which the document is used (activities, actors, rules).

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As a large effort had to be devoted to modelling activities, it was important to ensure efficient modelling activities. This can mainly be achieved using a wellsuited modelling method. We define below the four major components of a modelling method: A modelling framework indicates what is being modelled, providing the required modelling scope depending on the project goals. Description levels of the Enterprise Architecture, architectural views and granularity of framework elements have to be specified. A modelling technique defines how the framework elements have to be modelled. This defines a description language, a corresponding graphical notation, and a meta-model definition that contains modelling rules (e.g. how modelling constructs can be linked together). It can also be a combination of several techniques, each of them used for a specific part of the framework. The result is a set of modelling constructs (stereotypes) with attributes (tagged values) having a graphical representation (shape and visualized values), which are made available in one or more model types (diagrams). Model-related mechanisms are a set of tools that allow modellers to manipulate models and their content. This includes modelling rules checker, quality-assurance functions, productivity-enhancing features, simulation algorithms, transformation scripts, publishing solutions, or import/export mechanisms (e.g. XSD Schema Generation). A modelling approach (procedure, practice) can be both an input and output of the three previous elements. It specifies the procedure or practice for the modelling activities within a project, defining also roles and responsibilities. When does a modelling activity take place? Who is in charge of which modelling activity? Which models and constructs are being used for that modelling activity? The development of the GENESIS modelling method combined both state-ofthe-art and empirical studies. A critical success factor for the novel modelling method is taking into account the modellers’ heterogeneous modelling and analysis skills. This led us to the development of a project-specific modelling method that should enable the modellers to quickly become familiar with the modelling technique and to easily capture project-relevant information. Modellers’ feedback during test phases was the best way to guarantee a user-friendly modelling technique. Existing approaches were identified and analyzed; some of them were tested and integrated if they could provide a proper modelling solution and a real value for the project. In the following sections, we will further describe the modelling method chosen for the project.

4 The GENESIS Integrated Approach In this paper, we propose novel techniques and approaches that significantly improve crosss-organizational interoperability. The establishment of a common repository of information modeling building blocks and an intuitive modeling approach that guides modelers along an unambiguous methodological path are the crucial factors facilitating business information interoperability. The following sections will highlight the cornerstones of our modelling method and will also explain its collaborative and evolutionary characteristic.

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4.1 Business Information Modelling Technique According to the modelling framework we retained for the project, a business document is the key element between processes, rules and information entities; the document is used by actors within activities of a business process and business/legal rules may impact the use or the content of a document, composed of business information entities. We managed to develop a modelling technique for the GENESIS project that offers an integrated modelling of all these elements. Object Class Qualifier and Object Class Term

CCTS-compliant description of BIEs with Property Qualifier, Property Term, and Representation Term (either CDT or ABIE).

Occurrence

Contexts: Country, IT system, Rule-based BIE (GENESIS uses 3 types of contexts so far)

Fig. 3. “ABIE” Modelling Construct in ADONIS®

Two existing notations (ADONIS BPMS 3.81 and BPMN 1.0) that already offer intuitive features for linking processes and documents have been leveraged as a foundation of our modelling technique. However, both notations do not provide CCTS-compliant decomposition of business documents into information entities, so that we needed to develop appropriate extensions. For the representation of CCTS compliant documents, UML Class Diagrams have turned out to be an inadequate choice: we identified two major weaknesses of the UML notation: the documentation of contexts is not possible and the graphical representation of ABIEs is not user-friendly. Thus, we developed a specific technique, which is rather close to CCTS, and provide a new model type called “Business Information Model”, which offers both intuitive and comprehensive description of business documents. We propose the use of mainly three modelling artefacts: The Specific Business Document (SBD) summarizes information about a complete and user-specific document and is referenced in user-specific process models. The Generic Business Document (GBD) can be considered as a consolidated version of several userspecific documents and features all data items that occur in any of the affiliated SBDs. The idea behind the establishment of GBDs was to create data templates that can be used by all clients and only need to be restricted according to user context to exactly match the respective users’ business requirements. GBDs are then referenced from harmonized collaboration process model. Finally, Business

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Information Entities (BIEs) are those components that are used to assemble both SBDs and GBDs. As shown in Figure 1, BBIEs, ABIEs and ASBIEs are used by the CCTS meta-model. Figure 3 visualizes the graphical representation of an ABIE: the Business Information Entities, their Occurrence and information about their usage in different contexts can be specified in an intuitive manner. The documentation of BIEs is supported by using an alternative, spreadsheet-like feature to enter all CCTS-compliant information (see Fig. 4). Information such as “Alternative business terms” or “Definition” are documented, but not displayed in this summarized graphical view. In compliance with the CCTS, the Representation Term of a BBIE has to be chosen among a pre-defined list of Core Data Types. For linking existing ABIEs, the modeller has to reference an ABIE from the UBL Common Library in order to specify an ASBIE.

Fig. 4. Extract of the BBIE Description Feature in ADONIS®

4.2 Integrated Modelling Approach The modelling approach we selected for this project identified three roles involved in describing documents: Business Users who daily deal with business documents can identify the documents, the context of use and provide a basic description of information entities. At this stage, we only expect to get the name of a BIE, to know if it is mandatory and to understand simple formatting rules if exist. CCTS concepts are not used so far. The corresponding document could also be attached to the model in order to share this example with other modellers. Business users are also supposed to provide some metrics about the utilization of the documents (e.g. size, processing time). A second group of users, the Business Analysts, further detail documents by using the CCTS compliant artefacts (BBIEs, ABIEs, ASBIEs, and CDTs). They should be skilled in Business Information Modelling according to the CCTS approach. During the adapter development phase, IT Specialists would refine CDTs into Business Data Types (BDTs) by applying restrictions according to the CCTS concepts. Restrictions usually depend on country-specific rules or ITsystem-specific configurations. The documentation of restrictions ensures the development of adapters for a proper exchange of data between diverse IT systems and the GENESIS platform. One of the challenges we wanted to respond to was to have one single modelling environment for all three types of modellers. In this way, there is one unique entry point for gathering information about a business document rather than

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having separated descriptions in different tools or different files formats, which would lead to redundancies or inconsistencies. Therefore, we developed a collaborative solution on the basis of ADONIS®, which can be seen as an Integrated Modelling Environment [14] that has been customized according to the GENESIS modelling method. It offers a repository of business document descriptions and can generate XSD schemas for each document. 4.3 Design Phase After elaborating on both the modelling technique and the approach of our novel modelling method we now present ways to design and setup a first basis of commonly comprehensible documents that adhere to the CCTS meta-model and are based on the UBL Common Library and its affiliated business documents. We refer to this basis of business documents that are designed by users as the GENESIS Common Library. The documents in scope of the first design phase are the ones used within a selection of frequently used collaboration processes stemming from three categories: B2B (e.g. Ordering), B2G (e.g. VAT Statement) and B2I (e.g. Statement of Account). After the selection of processes to be modelled for the project, a group of Business Users mapped these processes to identify the business documents and attachments – structured or not – that are exchanged during such a business process. The context of use of a document was thus clearly described. Then, Business Analysts modelled relevant structured business documents using BIEs. The integrated modelling environment contained a set of reference models with the UBL Business Documents (UBL BD) and the UBL Common Library (UBL CL), which were very important during the design phase of B2Brelated documents. Even if several countries and languages are represented through the business users involved in the project, the language that has been selected for modelling is English. This is the first reason why business analysts referred to the UBL reference models: they found reference terms in order to name documents and information entities with usual and correct English terms. UBL was also used for identifying the document structures and information entities. Having reference models definitely facilitated the analysis of business users’ documents (SBD) by comparing and mapping them with UBL documents. The CCTS-fields “Alternative Business Terms” and “Description” are particularly important to understand what a BIE stands for. A copy of the UBL CL was attributed to each Business User, renamed into USER Common Library (USER CL) that could be adapted to show user-specific description of BIEs. The Business Analysts had two options when working with BIEs from the UBL CL: to delete a BIE that is not relevant for the SBD or to refine a BIE by modifying some CCTS-fields like “Data Type” or “Occurrence”. If a BIE of the SBD could not be described by a BIE of the UBL CL, Business Analysts were describing the SBD with a new BBIE or a new ASBIE (in this case, inserting a new ABIE in the USER CL). It finally allowed us to make a gap analysis between users’ documents and UBL documents, and to move from the UBL CL to a GENESIS CL, after consolidation of all users’ Common Libraries. This step has been done by the GENESIS team and consisted in consolidating several SBDs into a single Generic

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Business Document (GBD) as a super-set of SBDs (see Fig. 5). In complement to the GENESIS CL with reusable ABIEs, we also get a list of GENESIS Business Documents (GENESIS BD), described according to the CCTS concepts.

Fig. 5. Example of Consolidation from SBDs to GBD (C1 = Country)

4.5 Operational Phase After presenting an exemplary use case of our modelling method, we now show the functionality during the operational phase of the GENESIS platform. First of all, our modelling environment features an XML generator that maps the mere semantic data models into UBL compliant XSD files. The Web Services that build the technical foundation of the GENESIS platform then reference these files and thus integrate them into the collaboration business processes established between trading partners. During the execution of processes, the modelling environment becomes inactive and is only used in case of change requests triggered by a user. The repository of semantic building blocks (GENESIS CL) for information modelling presented above is operated in a collaborative and evolutionary way. In case new users connect to the system, they might have different business requirements and thus desire to publish and use new components. The UN/CEFACT has issued a technical specification [15] that describes a way for building a registry and repository that allows users to upload new data modelling artifacts and make them publicly available. A UN/CEFACT-compliant registry also defines interfaces for stakeholders that are responsible for the maintenance of existing artefacts (including harmonization and identification of redundancies).

5 Conclusion In this work, we described our approach to improve enterprise application interoperability on the basis of the upcoming UN/CEFACT e-Business framework. We concentrated on evaluating the advantages of using a collaborative and extensible repository of Business Documents and their Information Entities as a basis for modelling shared business references. With the help of a use case

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scenario, we highlighted the benefits of this approach during both design and operational phases. Future publications will elaborate on the integration of the proposed business information modelling method and the modelling of collaborative business processes. The resulting comprehensive design environment that is currently being developed within the GENESIS project will have great potential to increase cross-organizational interoperability, to reduce modelling complexity and thus lowers the e-Business entry barriers for SMEs.

6 References [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[11] [12] [13] [14]

[15]

W. L. Lomerson, L. C. McGrath, and P. H. Schwager: An examination of the benefits of e-business to small and medium size businesses, in Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of the Southern Association for Information Systems, 2004. European Commission: The European e-Business Report 2005 edition - A portrait of e-business in 10 sectors of the EU economy, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/, 2006 European Commission: The new SME definition - user guide and model declaration, http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/, 2006 GENESIS project, http://www.genesis-ist.eu, 2006 The United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business, www.unece.org/cefact, 2006 UN/CEFACT: Core Component Technical Specification V2.01, http://www.untmg.org, 2006 G. Stuhec: How to solve the business standards dilemma - CCTS key model concepts, SAP Developer Network (SDN), http://sdn.sap.com, 2006 ATHENA: Athena Project, http://www.athena-ip.org/, October 2006 EIC Community: Enterprise Interoperability Centre. http://www.eic-community.org/, 2006 T. Janner, A. Schmidt, C. Schroth, and G. Stuhec: From EDI to UN/CEFACT: An evolutionary path towards a next generation e-business framework, Proceedings of The 5th International Conference on e-Business 2006 (NCEB2006), 2006 OASIS: Universal Business Language (UBL), http://www.oasis-open.org/, 2006 G. Alonso, F. Casati, H. Kuno and V. Machiraju: Web Services Concepts, Architectures and Applications. Springer Verlag, 2004 A. Kotok, D. R.R. Webber. ebXML: The new global standard for doing business over the web. New Riders, 2001 H. Kühn; F.Bayer; S.Junginger; D.Karagiannis: Enterprise Model Integration, Proceedings of the 4th International Conference EC-Web 2003, Dexa 2003, Prague, Czech Republic, September 2003, LNCS 2738, Springer Verlag, pp. 379-392 I. Bedini and F. Bourge: UN-CEFACT - Registry Specifications V1.0 Draft, http://www.untmg.org, 2006

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Business Level Service-Oriented Enterprise Application Integration 1 Stanislav Pokraev1, Dick A. C. Quartel2, Maarten W. A. Steen1, Andreas Wombacher2 and Manfred Reichert2 1

2

Telematica Instituut, P. O. Box 589, 7500 AN, Enschede, The Netherlands {stanislav.pokraev, maarten.steen}@telin.nl Center for Telematics and Information Technology (CTIT), University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands {D.A.C.Quartel, M.U.Reichert, A.Wombacher}@ewi.utwente.nl

Abstract. In this paper we propose a new approach for service-oriented enterprise application integration (EAI). Unlike current EAI solutions, which mainly focus on technological aspects, our approach allows business domain experts to get more involved in the integration process. First, we provide a technique for modeling application services at a sufficiently high level of abstraction for business experts to work with. Next, these business experts can model the orchestration as well as the information mappings that are required to achieve their integration goals. Our mediation framework then takes over and realizes the integration solution by transforming these models to existing service orchestration technology.

1 Introduction In the networked economy the success of companies is largely determined by the speed and effectiveness with which they integrate their services into new (crossorganizational) business processes. However, almost every company has unique business processes supported by legacy systems which are difficult to integrate. Solving integration problems with traditional enterprise application integration (EAI) approaches often leads to expensive and inflexible solutions which do not always meet business requirements. Part of the problem is that integration is done at a technical level by IT specialists; e.g., by building data transformation

1

The presented work has been done in the Freeband Communication project A-Muse (amuse.freeband.nl). Freeband Communication (www.freeband.nl) is sponsored by the Dutch government under contract BSIK 03025.

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components and customizing business process logic. Business domain experts are only consulted at the beginning, i.e., in the requirements elicitation phase. Service-oriented architectures (SOA) provide an approach which allows integration solutions to be specified only by means of service interactions; i.e., technical details can be hidden from business domain experts. In addition, SOA solutions show a high degree of flexibility. Both service providers and service consumers may change their software implementation; the solution will continue to work provided that both parties continue to adhere to the same service description. To support SOA a lot of effort is currently being invested in the standardization of service description languages and protocols for service interactions such as WSDL, BPEL and WS-CDL. Unfortunately, these standards are still too technical for business domain experts to understand and to use them. Moreover, even properly educated and provided with sophisticated tools, business domain experts do not always have all information required to build integration solutions based on these technologies (e.g., port types, message formats, protocol bindings, etc.). In this paper we describe a challenging integration scenario and show how it can be solved at a higher level of abstraction enabling the more active participation of business domain experts. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the integration scenario according to the Semantic Web Services (SWS) Challenge 2006 2 . Section 3 presents our integration approach. Section 4 sketches basic service modeling concepts needed for the further understanding of the paper. Section 5 shows how we deal with the given integration scenario in our approach. Section 6 relates our work to other research activities. Finally, Section 7 gives a summary and defines some future research directions.

2 Problem description In order to illustrate the problem of integrating business processes we present an integration scenario according to the SWS Challenge. SWS Challenge provides a standard set of problems, based on industrial specifications and requirements. A manufacturing company called Moon uses three backend systems to manage its order processing: a Customer Relation Management System, a Stock Management System, and a Production Management System. Moon has signed an agreement with a customer, called Blue, to exchange purchase order messages in RosettaNet PIP 3A4 format. Currently, the back-end systems of Moon use proprietary data models and interaction protocols that differ from those of RosettaNet. The objective is to build a system, called Mediator, that compensates these differences and facilitates the conversation between Moon’s and Blue’s systems. The complete scenario is depicted in Fig. 1. First, the Mediator receives a Purchase Order Request message from the customer Blue. Next, it communicates with the Customer Relation Management system to obtain Moon’s internal customer ID. Then, it requests to create a new order by communicating with the Stock Management system. Next, all line items are submitted one by one and then the order is closed. If an article is not available 2

http://sws-challenge.org/

Business Level Service-Oriented Enterprise Application Integration

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the Stock Management system will reply that the respective line item is rejected. In this case the Mediator communicates with the Production Management system to obtain relevant information about the date and the price to manufacture the article. If this information meets the initial expectations of customer Blue, as specified in the RosettaNet message, the article is ordered. Finally, the mediator sends a Purchase Order Confirmation message back to Blue. Blue (Customer)

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As one can see there are differences regarding data models and interaction protocols of Blue and Moon. We have classified respective problems into two groups – data mismatches and behavior mismatches – and have provided mediation patterns to cope with them (for details see [5][4]). This paper omits details of these mismatches and focuses on our overall integration methodology instead.

3 Integration framework The service concept plays a central role in our approach. A service is a set of related interactions between a system and its environment that establish some effect that has value for the entities in this environment. Service orientation typically leads to a layered enterprise architecture model, where the service concept is the main link between the systems at the different layers (see [6] for details). In our approach we distinguish between the business and the IT world, and we divide these two worlds into service layers as depicted in Fig. 2:

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Business environment Business

Business services

Business systems IT services Software systems ICT

Communication services

Hardware systems

Fig. 2. Business and IT services

As mentioned, very often, integration solutions built at IT level do not always meet the business requirements of the involved companies. Part of the problem is that business domain experts do not speak the language of IT experts; usually, they are only consulted at the beginning of the project to identify requirements. In our approach we “lift” IT service descriptions to a higher level of abstraction; i.e., closer to the business service layer, thus enabling the active participation of business domain experts. Once the integration solution is specified at the business service layer, it can be transformed (semi)automatically to an IT solution specification by applying a number of mapping rules. From this point on the IT experts can focus on the implementation of the missing parts of the integration solution. In addition, the formal link between the business and IT solution specifications enables reasoning tasks which, in turn, lead to more correct implementations of the solution. The approach is outlined in Fig. 3. Integration solution

Company A 2

Business services 1

Company B 2

3

1

IT services

Step 1: Lifting IT service descriptions to business service descriptions Step 2: Solving the integration problem at business service layer Step 3: Deriving an IT integration solution from the business integration solution

Fig. 3. Integration approach

4 Service modeling framework: basic concepts In order to realize the sketched integration approach we have developed a framework, which provides concepts for modeling both services and integration solutions at the business level. Our framework provides modeling concepts that can be used in different application domains and at different abstraction levels. This reduces the number of required modeling concepts and thus makes it easier for business experts to apply them. The core concept of our framework constitutes the interaction concept, which is also the core concept in SOA. Our interaction concept supports a constraint-oriented style of service specification. This facilitates reasoning about the interoperability of involved systems by modeling their participation as separate constraints and by reasoning about satisfiability of the logical conjunction of these constraints. Our framework has been presented in

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detail in [6]. This section summarizes the basic concepts needed for understanding the remainder of this paper. At a high level of abstraction a service can be modeled as a single interaction between two or more systems (e.g. companies). The interaction represents an activity in which the involved systems produce some common result in cooperation. An interaction is defined by a composition of two or more interaction contributions, which represent the participation (or responsibility) of each system involved in the interaction. Consequently, an interaction is considered an atomic activity that either occurs and establishes the same result for all involved systems, or does not occur for any of the systems and therefore does not establish a (partial) result. Fig. 4 models a sample procurement service as a single interaction between a customer and a retailer. Interaction contributions buy and sell represent the participation of the customer and retailer in this interaction, respectively. The associated text boxes define the constraints they each have on the interaction result. In this case, both the customer and the retailer want to establish an order as interaction result. The customer wants to order a notebook, whereas the retailer is willing to sell any article from its catalog. Furthermore, the customer wants the notebook to have certain properties, to be delivered within 5 days to a certain location, and to cost less than a maximum price in mind. The retailer has specified for each article a minimum price and delivery period. In addition, the retailer will only deliver articles in the region “Twente”.

Fig. 4. Procurement interaction

In general, a service cannot be implemented as a single interaction, and we have to refine the abstract interaction into a structure of multiple smaller more concrete interactions. For representing related activities, we have introduced the behavior concept (graphically represented as rounded rectangles). Fig. 5 depicts a possible refinement of the procurement service from Fig. 4 into a number of interactions: select represents the selection of an article, checkout the establishment of the order comprising the selected article, pay the payment of the order (by credit card), and deliver the order delivery. In addition, the retailer offers the possibility to pay by bank transfer through the interaction contribution pay2. The retailer will allow credit card payments only if some precondition is satisfied, i.e., the price of the selected article is greater than 500. Note that the contributions checkout, pay and pay2 refer to results established in the causally preceding contribution select (i.e., article and price of the article).

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Fig. 5. Refinement of the procurement example

The effect of a service refers to elements in the subject domain of the systems involved in its execution. The subject domain of a system comprises the entities and phenomena in the real world that are identifiable by the system. For capturing these entities we use an information model. It consists of individuals that represent the entities and phenomena from the subject domain, classes that represent the types of the entities and phenomena and properties that represent the possible relations between individuals (object properties) or between an individual and a data value (data properties) . Further, we allow classes and properties to be defined as logical conjunctions, disjunctions or negations involving other classes and properties.

5 Solving the integration scenario In this section we show how the approach described in Section 3 can be used to solve the integration problem described in Section 2. We assume the systems to be integrated all expose Web service interfaces and that we have a BPEL orchestration engine with XSLT support at our disposal to realize the integration at the IT level.

Fig. 6. Solving the integration problem from Section 2

First, we derive the information and behavior models of the Blue and Moon systems using the WSDL descriptions of their services. Next, we define mappings

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between the classes and properties from the information models, and we define the integrated process model (the Mediator system). Once we have done all this we transform the Mediator specification into an executable BPEL specification and deploy it onto the BPEL orchestration engine. The concrete steps to be taken are illustrated in Fig. 6 and described in more detail in the remainder of this section. The left picture in Fig. 6 concerns the information models, and the right picture concerns the behavior models of Blue’s and Moon’s system. 5.1 Step 1a: Lifting data models to information models In this step we use the XML schemas which define the message types of Blue’s and Moon’s services to derive information models. This is done by applying a number of rules including: x xsd:element with at least one sub-element or attribute is transformed into a x x x x

class xsd:element with neither sub-elements nor atributes is transformed into property xsd:complexType is transformed into a class and xsd:simpleType into property an XSD inheritance by extension is transformed to a subClassOf property an XSD inheritance by restriction is transformed to a class, defined restricting the range of some Properties to a particular set of values

x

xsd:sequence and xsd:all or more classes

x

xsd:choice

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by

are transformed into a logical conjunction of two

is transformed into a class defined as an expression containing logical conjunctions or disjunctions and negations of two or more classes Moon

Blue FinancialAmount

totalAmount

totalLineItemAmount

PurchaseOrder

requestedUnitPrice

productLineItem

lineNumber productIdentifier productUnitOfMeasureCode requestedQuantity isDropShip

contactInformation

ContactInformation contactName telephoneNumber emailAddress

lineItem LineItem item

orderId lineItemId quantity price availabilityDate

Item articleId

AcceptedLine

Partner businessName role

Order orderId

customerId contactName email telephone businessName postalCode city street countryCode

ProductLineItem

isDropShip purchaseOrderType shipTo

contact

Customer

currencyCode monetaryAmount

RejectedLine

requestedEvent physicalLocation PhysicalLocation

TransportationEvent Class

eventCode date

Data Property

physicalAddress Object Property

SubClassOf Property

PhysicalAddress addressLine cityName NationalPostalCode

Class

SubClass

Fig. 7. Information models of Blue and Moon

An XML schema defines only the syntax of the messages. Thus, some further work is required to define the semantics of their elements. For example, some hidden assumptions are made more explicit in the information models (e.g., by

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defining new classes and relations among them), or classes and properties are mapped to classes and properties from domain specific ontologies, thus defining their meaning. This is usually a manual process which requires domain specific knowledge. Fig. 7 shows part of the information models of Blue and Moon that are relevant to understand our approach. 5.2 Step 1b: Lifting interface descriptions to service behaviors In this step we transform the WSDL descriptions that define the possible message exchanges between Blue’s and Moon’s services into behavior models. These behavior models are constructed from the concepts explained in Section 4. A WSDL description defines the operations that can be invoked on some server that implements the service, and in this way, the types of messages that can be accepted and returned by the server. This description only concerns the involvement of the server. To model some service behavior completely we also want to model the involvement of the client, i.e., the sending of the request message and the acceptance of the reply message. We model a two-way operation as a sequence of two instances of the interaction concept. The first instance models the operation invocation, and consists of two interaction contributions: one modeling the sending of the request message by the client and the other modeling the reception of the message by the server. The second instance models the operation return, which similar to the first interaction models the exchange of the reply message. In case of a one-way operation, the second interaction is absent. A complete behavior model should also define the relationships between the executions of distinct operations. These relationships are not part of the WSDL descriptions, but have to be derived from informal textual descriptions as provided in Section 2. An example of how such relationships are modeled is given in Section 4. For the purpose of structuring, distinct service or interface descriptions can be modeled by distinct instances of the behavior concept 5.3 Step 2a: Mapping information models In this step we define mappings between classes, properties and individuals from Blue’s and Moon’s information models. We consider four types of mappings: equivalence - defines that two classes or properties have the same meaning; more general - defines that a class (or a property) has more general meaning than another class (or property); less general - defines that a class (or a property) has more specific meaning than another class (or property); disjointness - defines that two classes (or properties) have different meanings. Creating mappings requires understanding of the meaning of the classes and properties in the information models of the systems being integrated and cannot be fully automated. However, tools and techniques exist that use sophisticated heuristic algorithms to discover possible mappings and propose these to the business domain experts. A good survey of semi-automatic schema matching is

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presented in [7]. Fig. 8 shows the mappings between Blue’s and Moon’s information models. In the figure we only show the equivalence relations.

Fig. 8. Mapping Blue's and Moon's information models

5.4 Step 2b: Specifying the integrated behavior In this step we define a mediator, which compensates the mismatches between Blue’s and Moon’s behavior models. This step can be performed in a manual (e.g. using a modeling tool such as Grizzle 3 ) or automated way. The model of the mediator is shown in Fig. 9. The behavioral mismatches can be associated with specific solutions for each occurrence of a mismatch. Examples of such mismatches include different order of source and target messages, a source message that contains two or more target messages, etc. Based on these partial solutions the aim is to select only the relevant ones and compose them automatically to form the behavior of the mediator. In our approach we consider the partial solutions as little workflows and use them to compose more complex workflows. The composition is recursively applied until the composed workflow solves the mediation problem. We are currently implementing this approach based on annotated Finite State Automata [8]. The behavioral mismatches can be associated with specific solutions for each occurrence of a mismatch. Examples of such mismatches include different order of source and target messages, a source message that contains two or more target messages, etc. Based on these partial solutions the aim is to select only the relevant ones and compose them automatically to form the behavior of the mediator. In our approach we consider the partial solutions as little workflows and use them to

3

http://isdl.ctit.utwente.nl/tools/grizzle/index.php

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compose more complex workflows. The composition is recursively applied until the composed workflow solves the mediation problem. We are currently implementing this approach based on annotated Finite State Automata [8].

Fig. 9. The model of the mediator

Automated composition faces the challenge that the number of possible combinations is not constrained by a maximum number of possible compositions. Further, there is no constraint which enforces that a particular partial solution is applied only once. Therefore, the number of possible compositions of workflows explodes. Further, each composition of workflows increases the complexity of the resulting model significantly. 5.5 Step 3a: Transforming information mappings to XSLT In this step we use the information mapping defined in Section 5.3 to derive executable XSLT specifications for the exchanged messages. These XSLT specifications are applied at runtime to transform messages sent by one system (source) to messages accepted by another system (target). The derivation of message transformation specifications is done by searching for elements in the source message that can be used to produce each element of the target message. The simplest scenario is as follows: If an element ET from the target message corresponds to a property PT in the information model of the target system and an element ES from the source message corresponds to a property PS in the information model of the source system and the mapping PR {PS is defined, then the value of ES in the source message will be copied (using <xsl:copy>) as value of ET in the target message. In a more complex scenario, a number of properties can be composed to define a new, composite property. For instance, we can define a new property partnerCity

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in the information model of Blue as composition of the properties physicalLocation, physicalAddress and cityName and define a mapping partnerCity {city from the information model of Moon. This mapping is used at runtime to copy the value of cityName as value of city only when cityName has an indirect relation (i.e., via physicalLocation and physicalAddress) to an individual of class Partner. 5.6 Step 3b: Transforming the Mediator’s behavior to BPEL In this step the behavior model of the mediator is transformed into a BPEL specification. In [2] a mapping has been defined between the behavior concepts presented in Section 4 and the BPEL language concepts. However, before this mapping can be applied a preparatory step is needed in which the behavior model of the mediator is annotated with marks and possibly restructured. Marks are used to add implementation details, in this case BPEL specific information. For example, interaction contributions should be marked to indicate whether they have to be mapped onto an invoke, receive or reply activity in BPEL. Furthermore, information about partner links and invoked web services (e.g., namespace URI and endpoint address) may have to be provided. Restructuring of the behavior model may become necessary to enable its mapping onto structured activities. For this purpose, separate behavior blocks can be used and marked to represent, for example, flow, switch, while, pick, scope and handler activities.

6 Related work OWL-S[3] is an OWL ontology for describing services for the purpose of discovery, composition and delivery. In OWL-S a service is formally described by a Service Model that defines the steps required to execute a service. It describes a service in terms of its inputs, preconditions, outputs, effects, and, where appropriate, its components. The Service Model also describes the control flow in terms of the service’s state, including initial activation, execution and completion. The main difference between OWL-S and our work is that our conceptual framework allows for constraint-oriented service specifications while OWL-S enables only an imperative, and therefore prescriptive, specification style. In addition, OWL-S takes only the perspective of the service provider into consideration, whereas we treat both participants in a service interaction equally. Our approach allows service requestors and providers to explicitly specify their assumptions about the environment of their systems. This in turn allows business domain experts to check whether their integration solutions satisfy these constraints and meet the requirements of both the service requestors and providers. The Web Service Modeling Ontology (WSMO[1]) is a formal ontology for describing several aspects of Semantic Web Services. It consists of four main components – ontologies, goals, web services and mediators. Ontologies provide terminology and formal semantics of information that is used by the other components. A goal is a specification of the objectives of a service user. A web service is a specification of the functionality of the service provider. Mediators are used as connectors between ontologies, goals and web services.

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The main difference between WSMO and our work is that our framework has less concepts while providing comparable expressive power. This makes it easier for business domain experts to learn and use. Furthermore, we feel that the behavioral semantics of WSMO choreographies and orchestrations are rather weakly specified.

7 Conclusion and Future Work In this paper we presented a new approach for service oriented EAI. In our approach we used a novel service modeling framework that is domain-independent and provides concepts that can be applied at different abstraction levels enabling the more active participation of domain experts in designing the integration solution. The key concept in our framework (the interaction concept) supports constraint-oriented style of service specification. This makes our framework especially suitable for desiging integration solutions because the service requestors and providers can explicitly specify their assumptions about the environment of their systems as constraints and the system integrators can check if their solutions satisfy these constraints. Our forthcoming work will focus on further validation of our approach in practice. In addition, we want to investigate the possibilities to extend existing business process integration tools such as Microsoft BizTalk, Oracle BPEL manager, and the IBM WebSphere Process Server to support our approach.

8 References [1] [2]

[3] [4]

[5]

[6]

[7] [8]

de Bruijn J, et al. (2005) Web Service Modeling Ontology (WSMO), W3C Member Submission 3 June 2005, http://www.w3.org/Submission/WSMO. Dirgahayu T, (2005) Model-Driven Engineering of Web Service Compositions: A Transformation from ISDL to BPEL. M.Sc. thesis, University of Twente, The Netherlands, July, 2005. Martin D, et al. (2004) OWL-S: Semantic Markup for Web Services W3C Member Submission 22 November 2004, http://www.w3.org/Submission/OWL-S. Pokraev S, Reichert M, (2006) Mediation Patterns for Message Exchange Protocols. Open INTEROP-Workshop on Enterprise Modeling and Ontologies for Interoperability (EMOI06). In: Proc. CAiSE'06 Workshops, Luxembourg, June 2006, pp.659-663. Pokraev S, Reichert M, Steen MWA, Wieringa RJ, (2005). Semantic and Pragmatic Interoperability: A Model for Understanding. In: J. Castro, E. Teniente (Eds.) Proc. of the CAiSE'05 Workshops, Porto, Portugal, June 2005, pp. 377-382. Quartel D, Steen MWA, Pokraev S, van Sinderen MA, (2006) Conceptual Framework for Service Modelling. In Proceedings of the Tenth IEEE International EDOC Enterprise Computing Conference, Hong Kong, China, pp. 319-330. Rahm E, Bernstein PA, (2001) Survey of approaches to automatic schema matching. VLDB journal, (10(4)):334-350, 2001. Wombacher A, Fankhauser P, Mahleko B, Neuhold E, (2004) Matchmaking for Business Processes Based on Choreographies, Intl. Journal of Web Services, (1(4)): 14-32, 2004

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Interoperability in Collaborative Networks: An Innovative Approach for the Shoe Up-Stream Business Segment Claudia-Melania Chituc1,2, César Toscano2 and Américo Azevedo1,2 1 2

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Porto University, Portugal INESC Porto, Campus da FEUP, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias 378, 4200-Porto, Portugal {cmchituc, ala}@fe.up.pt ; [email protected]

Keywords: interoperability; shoe domain; collaborative networks; operational infrastructure

Abstract The development of information and communication technologies determined enterprises to adapt their way of undertaking business, from traditional practices to e-business. In this context, achieving seamless interoperability among heterogeneous entities becomes a critical issue. The goal of this article is to present an innovative two-layered operational infrastructure aiming at achieving seamless interoperability in shoe manufacturing up-stream segment, developed within the scope of CEC-made-shoe European Integrated Project.

1 Introduction The developments of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and turbulent market conditions determined SMEs to adapt their way of undertaking business, from traditional practices to e-business. Thus, new forms of collaboration emerged, such as Collaborative Networks (CNs) [Chituc & Azevedo, 2005a]. The automation of collaborative business processes (BPs) has proved to enhance their competitive advantage. In this context, integration and seamless interoperability are critical goals for SMEs participating in domain specific manufacturing CNs towards achieving their business objectives in a time, quality and cost effective manner. However, integration and interoperability failed to scale

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throughout communities. Major obstacles faced by SMEs as they engage in e-business are presented in [Nachira, 2002]: storage of knowledge, skill, entrepreneurship; lack of technological solutions and interoperability; investments/ costs; complexity of regulations; shortage of capital. Despite the variety of tools and infrastructures supporting (or claiming to support) seamless interoperability in a business networked environment, the scientific community and industry representatives agree this objective is not fully achieved [Camarinha-Matos & Afsarmanesh, 2003], [Pollock, 2001], and more work needs to be done. For the shoe manufacturing domain (SMD), concepts like ‘supply chain’ or ‘value chain’ are often used. However, they denote a very static structure. We consider that more appropriate should be the use of ‘collaborative networks’ concept, which portrays better the evolution and adoption of ICTs in this domain. Although SMD behaviour is determined by a dynamic season-driven product demand, its production chain follows a rigid and steady typology. Most relationships, at different chain levels, are quite stable and immutable. This situation presents several drawbacks concerning capacity offer and prevents companies to exploit new business relationships. Thus, CN approach for SMD overcomes these constraints, allowing an easy integration of new chain links, and the adaptation of the production chain to new business opportunities determined by instant market demands or technological innovations developed on their products and services. The goal of this article is to present a novel two-layered approach accomplished within the scope of CEC-made-shoe European Integrated Project (http://www.cec-made-shoe.com), aiming at achieving seamless interoperability in shoe manufacturing up-stream segment. Other relevant European initiatives supporting interoperability in this domain are also succinctly analyzed and compared, emphasizing the innovative aspects and advantages of this novel approach. An illustration of Order Dispatch BP is also described. This article has four main contributions. Firstly, it provides an up-to-date insight into shoe manufacturing initiatives related to business infrastructures. Secondly, it presents a two-layered novel interoperable infrastructure focusing on the shoe up-stream segment, which allows a more integrated and smooth collaboration and integration among its actors (e.g., producer, supplier, subcontractor). Thirdly, it introduces the concept of collaborative networked environment for shoe domain. Fourthly, by comparing different initiatives in this domain, it provides recommendations towards improving future industrial developments. This article is organized as follows. The next section briefly introduces the concept of interoperability in a collaborative business environment. The third section portrays main characteristics of SMD, and its major requirements towards achieving an interoperable operational infrastructure. Previous relevant European initiatives are also reported. Section four describes the two-layered interoperable infrastructure developed and implemented, considering different business

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scenarios. The paper concludes with a section addressing the needs for future research and development.

2 Interoperability in Collaborative Networks Collaborative Networks (CNs) represent a collection of heterogeneous organizations with different competences, but symbiotic interests that join and efficiently combine the most suitable set of skills and resources (e.g., knowledge, capital, assets) for a period of time in order to achieve a common objective, and make use of ICTs to coordinate, develop and support their activities. The term CN is used in this article, in a broad sense, for other emerging business collaborative forms with similar proprieties, such as virtual enterprises (VEs), virtual organizations (VOs), or extended enterprises. CNs represent a powerful mechanism to achieve competitiveness and agility in today’s turbulent market conditions by comprising various entities with complementary competences, but symbiotic interests. They include geographically distributed organizations, having different cultures, working methods or supporting technologies. Although CN partners aim at achieving a common business goal and at following a common business strategy, each member organization has its own goal and strategy, which makes CN coordination, management and inter- and intraorganizational BPs interoperability assume critical roles [Chituc & Azevedo, 2006]. Interoperability, in a broad sense, focuses on inter-enterprise distributed BPs and flows. According to IEEE definition [IEEE, 1990], interoperability represents “the ability of two or more systems or components to exchange information and to use the information that has been exchanged”. A brief presentation of other relevant definitions of interoperability and main results attained by EU research projects (e.g., ATHENA, INTEROP, CROSSWORK, ECOLEAD) is available in [Kosanke, 2006]. As illustrated in [Pollock, 2001], interoperability solutions consist of both application integration and information integration. Application integration (comprising message, process, transport and interface) represents the technology solution, while information integration refers to the linguistic, social and philosophical solution (comprising data, context, ontology and interpreter). Integration here refers to the cooperation of processes and applications at the event and message levels, multiple systems becoming one logical unit. A holistic approach (e.g., technological, semantic, business challenges) on CNs’ interoperability and business alignment is available in [Chituc & Azevedo, 2005b]. Major directions requiring further development are summarized in [Camarinha-Matos & Afsarmanesh, 2003], concerning mainly issues related to CN formalization, conceptual development and semantic integration (e.g., formal description of the domain or ontology). A roadmap of enablers and technologies supporting interoperability in a collaborative networked environment is available in [Chituc & Azevedo, 2005a]. An overview of the most relevant technologies and infrastructures for VEs can be found in [Camarinha-Matos & Afsarmanesh, 2003].

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Main requirements for interoperability in a collaborative networked environment are presented in [Li, 2000]. They refer mainly to technical (e.g., standards, implementation guidelines profiles), business (e.g., business agreements, working methods) and policy (e.g., compliance and governance) interoperability requirements. Aiming at attaining seamless interoperability in business collaborative environments, several tools and infrastructures have been developed. However, the goal of achieving collaborative environments of fully interoperable heterogeneous entities (e.g., people, applications) is still not achieved. As emphasized in [Pollock, 2001], according to a Standish Group report, 88% of integration projects fail. Causes are diverse: e.g., inadequate implementation, poorly managed risks and requirements, human errors. This is also due to the fact that research in the area of integration and interoperability is focusing mainly on technological, physical and syntactic aspects. Recent research approaches on semantic issues (e.g., [Sheth & Ramakrishan & Thomas, 2005], [Klein, 2001]) illustrate their potential and benefits for seamless connectivity. Considering also semantic aspects, interoperability refers to solutions (e.g., infrastructures, applications), which assure the exchange of minimal meaningful context-driven data and information between autonomous and heterogeneous systems. Among main barriers identified towards achieving full semantic interoperability are: the lack of guiding standards for interoperability; lack of an automatic way for mapping, aligning, integrating, merging of ontologies; difficulties to identify and solve ontology mismatches; no automated solution to resolve incompatible business and data vocabularies is available (e.g., currently these problems are solved by custom code).

3 Shoe Manufacturing Domain: Interoperability Requirements and Major Research Initiatives This section briefly portrays SMD particularities and main outcomes of relevant initiatives. 3.1 Shoe Manufacturing Business Environment SMD has several particularities; the most relevant ones are summarized in [Toscano, et. al., 2005]. Firstly, this domain is characterized by a season-driven product lifecycle. Marketing campaigns are linked to exhibitions and fairs, which are tied to two typical season collections: summer and winter. Secondly, the main product life-cycle activities are: collection creation, sample production, sale campaign, main production, finished product stock, shop sales monitoring, and reorders. For SMD, a make-to-stock production approach is suitable only for classic, non-fashionable shoes, which have stable and high volumes of order. Most other models follow a make-to-order approach. This implies lower and more frequent production changes and higher costs. Most of the stock handling is therefore related to products already ordered.

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Figure 1. Shoe Business Collaborative Environment: the up-stream and down-stream segments

This manufacturing domain is characterized by a centralized procurement. It is common that shoe producers contract different sub-contractors for most labourintensive production phases. However, even if these production phases are delegated to sub-contractors, tanneries’ leather procurement is usually carried out by the producer, in order to assure constant leather treatments when the same model is cut and stitched by different sub-contractors. A trend commonly identified in SMD is the increase of the number of models offered, with very low volumes. Competition forces traditional shoe producers to focus on high-quality, high-fashionable shoes, available in very small quantities in a make-to-order approach. The most relevant actors of this domain are: the Producer (P), which represents the company responsible for the production of the final product; Subcontracted company (SbC), which is the company sub-contracted by P to manufacture parts of a shoe or even the entire shoe; Supply company (SppC), which provides raw material or shoe components to P or SbC; Retailer (R) of the final products and Brand Retailer, similar to R, but representing a certain brand; End-user, the final user of the shoe; Agents, which are companies or persons who contact re-sellers or retailers, carrying out in this way the sale campaign after the fairs; Financial Institutions (e.g., Banks); Regulating institutions (e.g., ministries); and Other service providers (e.g., outsourcing companies). The main roles performed by the first three main actors are: buyer, seller, and delivery recipient. The buyer represents the company buying components, raw materials or the final product. Both P and SbC can perform this role, e.g., in P-SbC relationship, P is the buyer, and the SbC is the seller. The seller represents the company selling raw materials, components or even the final product; e.g., in PSppC relationship, P represents the buyer, and SppC is the seller. P is the delivery recipient in both cases.

562 C.-M. Chituc, C. Toscano and A. Azevedo

A simple illustrative example of a collaborative business environment for SMD is portrayed in Figure 1, comprising both up-stream and down-stream segments. 3.2 Main Findings The lack of information integration and interoperability, and the need for an appropriate infrastructure addressing the requirements of the actors involved in SMD were among the reasons that justified CEC-made-shoe EU Integrated Project (http://www.cec-made-shoe.com). A survey conducted among several SMEs performing different roles (e.g., Ps, SppCs, and SbCs) validated these needs. The most relevant results can be summarized as follows: SppCs mainly do business with Ps; no relationship with R has been reported; 85% of production is customized production; closer integration/ communication with P has been indicated as having a big impact on SppC profits; closer integration with own suppliers and end-product sellers have been indicated as having a low impact on SppCs’ profit; only one third of the SppCs answering this inquiry offer their products in an Internet-based B2B system; general cooperation between SppCs and Ps, and limitation of Ps’ clients systems were indicated as main bottlenecks for the shoe business collaborative environment. The most important objectives to be achieved with the use of ICTs in this domain, indicated by the respondents were: increased productivity and reduction of overall costs; enhanced customer service and responsiveness, faster time to market, reduction in total order fulfilment times, and increase in market share/ expand to new markets. The results gathered allowed us a better understanding of the requirements for shoe domain, and provided us a strong base in designing and implementing an interoperable operational infrastructure. Very important is the fact that the SMEs interviewed foreseen the use of Internet and XML-based technologies to undertake business. 3.3 Relevant Research Initiatives Few initiatives beyond relevant European pilot projects have been developed, focusing on shoe domain. EFNET project (European Footwear Network for Electronic Trading, http://www.efnetwork.org) aimed at building a common communication infrastructure ensuring information distribution along the Footwear Supply Chain. It ended in 2002. EFNET 1 has identified e-commerce initiatives, which have reached the stage of operational use, developed on national basis. They have not been designed with the ambition to be used with non-national trading partners. EFNET2 proposal covered data exchanged in the reselling phase, considering the standardization work of ebXML, while EFNET 3 proposal is on business data exchanged in the first ring of the footwear chain, referred as “design data”, containing XML schemas. ShoeML (Shoe Markup Language) represents an XML-based language used to store footwear design data, related to EFNET 2 and EFNET 3 schemas. It is actually a framework of XML schemas with a general structure modelled after the

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needs of design data storage and exchange. It consists of core sub-schemas used by specific data, which can be reused extensively in higher level containers to ensure a higher consistency, and allow easy integration/ splitting of sub-parts. SHOENET project (http://www.shoenet.info) had two main outcome: (1) a messaging platform able to integrate in the Internet existing corporate applications (e.g., ERP, CAD) of different SMEs participating in shoe value chain, allowing secure business documents exchange and traceability of operations performed; (2) a set of 17 XML-based business documents (BDocs): Order, Delivery Note, Order Change Request, Order Response; Order Status Request; Order Status Report, Claim, Dispatch Advice, Receiving advice, Request for Quotation, Quotation, Receiving Information, Invoice, Credit Note, Performed Invoice, Line Proposal, and Technical Specification Report.

4 A Novel Interoperable Infrastructure: CEC-made-shoe Approach 4.1 Introduction The on-going CEC-made-shoe EU Integrated Project (http://www.cec-madeshoe.com) aims at achieving seamless interoperability in shoe sector. It continues the above mentioned European projects, making use of SHOENET messaging platform and the set of 17 XML-based BDocs specifically defined for this sector. One of its main expected outcomes is an operational interoperable platforms, called Strategic Collaborative Network (SCN), covering all BPs involved (from

Supply raw material

A

Business Process Layer

Components

B

D

Assemblying

E

Shoe Manufacturing BP

C

BP Integration and Coordination System

Subcontractor

ERP

Internet

XML BDoc

Supplier

Messaging Layer

Internet

ERP

XML BDoc XML BDoc

Secure System for BDocs Reception and Transmission

Producer Internet

ERP

Figure 2. Two-layer business infrastructure for shoe manufacturing domain (up-stream segment)

564 C.-M. Chituc, C. Toscano and A. Azevedo

collaborative design to final product delivery). The SCN has two levels of business integration (Figure 2): (a) the exchange of BDocs, and (b) the coordination and enactment of workflow-oriented activities, which ensures BP choreography [Toscano, 2005]. The common set of 17 XML-based BDocs previously defined assures semantic interoperability among SMEs in this domain. 4.2 Sample Business Scenarios Different BPs and business scenarios (BSs) to be supported by the operational infrastructure have been identified. Based on them, the specifications of the infrastructure have evolved, in order to prepare its implementation and automation. Four examples of general BSs are briefly presented below: BS1: P orders raw material and shoe components from SppCs. The complete shoe manufacturing process is performed by P. BS2: P orders raw material and shoe components from SppCs, and subcontracts SbCs for partial (or even complete) shoe manufacturing. Only P orders raw material and shoe components, which are delivered to P and/ or directly to the SbCs involved. Figure 3 presents a simplified instantiation of this BS. Supplier 1 @country A

Producer @country A

P orders raw material from predefined Suppliers. Supplier 1 is requested to make the delivery directly to SbC. P subcontracts SbC to manufacture uppers, informing SbC that the leather will come directly form Supplier 1. Suppliers 1 and 2 inform P and SbC that the material has been delivered. P queries SbC on order status. SbC informs P that the order has been concluded and the pieces manufactured have been dispatched. P performs assembly.

the

Supplier 2 @country B

Subcontractor @country C

Purchase Order (leather) Accept Order Purchase Order (sole) Accept Order Purchase Order (partial shoe)

Accept Order Despatch Advice (leather) Despatch Advice Despatch Advice (sole) Query Order Status Order Status Despatch Advice (uppers)

final

Figure 3. Simplified instantiation of Business Scenario 2

BS3: Variations of the previous scenario, where: (i) SbCs are allowed to choose some of their own SppCs and order directly from them; (ii) SbCs are allowed to place orders directly on a given set of SppCs, previously selected by P. BS4: P sends a forecast of future raw material and shoe components needs to a set of preferred SppCs, who receive these forecasts and prepare themselves for the best response times. Future purchase orders placed by Ps will refer previous forecast.

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4.3 Messaging Infrastructure Achieving interoperability requires a reliable and secure communication infrastructure. Several messaging platforms, major independent (e.g., ebXML) and domain initiatives (e.g., RosettaNet for high-tech and electronics industry; papiNet for paper and forest industry) have been analyzed, and after a though analysis, the research team has decided to adopt SHOENET platform as messaging layer. Main reasons for this decision are: it assures a reliable and secure communication; it has been previously tested and used in SHOENET project; it supports natively the SHOENET BDocs exchange, which have been defined specifically for the shoe industry, taking into account the following items, among others: differentiation between shoe models and components; identification of shoe models/ components packaging; identification of the allowed different shoe model sizes and respective quantities; specification of the actual manufacturing status of a certain shoe model. However, this choice presents a major drawback: it is a proprietary platform, not compliant with ebXML Messaging Service. The BDocs are stored in a repository. The envelops are opened, and external applications (e.g., ERP solutions) may use API to send/receive BDocs to/ from external partners. An additional element has been developed to assure reliable and secure BDocs transmission. This component, eBiss/ eGate, also integrates the SCN with other IT platforms. 4.4 Business Process Layer The BP layer is implemented by the Process Integration and Coordination System, PICShoe. This system used for BP coordination and integration is based on workflow technology and allows SMEs to design, control and monitor their intraand inter-BP workflows. BPs’ choreography and BDocs exchanged are globally specified and stored in a repository. The system allows the specification of individual and concrete workflow processes, which will be enacted locally in each partner’s environment. In Figure 2, boxes A, B, C and D represent workflow activities in a given workflow process. Workflow processes of different business partners are integrated through the invocation (and possibly composition) of external Web services, in the scope of a given workflow activity, assuring the integration with third-party application in the SME (e.g., ERP solution). PICShoe system invokes and coordinates a set of Web services exported by third-party applications. For Order Dispatcher BP, an Order Dispatcher system has been implemented by a distributed workflow management system (DWMS). This BP involves an Order Dispatcher (OD), a P, and a SppC. Figure 4 illustrates the design of the process executed by P. The Order Dispatch BP is organized as three separate subprocesses. The three top-level activities are executed by the OD entity. The first activity allows the OD to validate and dispatch an Order Oi. Next, Oi is split in its items and an automatic activity is executed for each item. Each of these multiinstance activities triggers the instantiation of a separate workflow process. All activities in this sub-process are executed by P. The Handle Supplier Order is an

566 C.-M. Chituc, C. Toscano and A. Azevedo

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. Order Dispatch BP: (a) conceptual design; (b) workflow process design (Source:[13])

automatic activity responsible for instantiating the sub-process to be executed by the SppC in order to respond to the requests of components necessary to build the shoe identified in Oi item. Apart from control flow activities, a data structure is passed from activity to activity, allowing the system to present context information to the entity executing a given activity. 4.5. Final Remarks Table I briefly summarizes major initiatives in SMD and their main outcomes, discussing and analyzing the advantages of the novel approach presented, compared to previous European projects. While EFNET and SHOENET projects refer to supply chain concept for SMD, CEC-made-shoe approach introduces the concept of collaborative networked business environment. EFNET and SHOENET projects contain only a single layer: the messaging layer, which does not answer SMEs’ current needs in SMD. Only CEC-made-shoe approach integrates two layers: (i) a messaging layer, based one SHOENET

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TABLE 1. MAJOR INITIATIVES FOR SHOE MANUFACTURING DOMAIN: BRIEF OVERVIEW Initiative EFNET

Main outcomes* - initiatives

Layers

Strengths

Weaknesses

1) M

identification

SHOENET

- SHOENET

1) M

- set of common

- proprietary messaging

messaging platform;

BDocs ensuring

platform not compliant with

- 17 XML-based

semantic

ebXML Messaging

BDocs

interoperability

Specifications

CEC-made-

- one operational

1) M

- integration between

- based on SHOENET

shoe

infrastructure for shoe

2) BP

messaging and

proprietary messaging

up- and down-stream

process-oriented

platform

segments

platforms

- needs further work to

- has identified main

integrate the two

interoperability needs

operational infrastructures

Note: * - Achieved or Expected; M-Messaging; BP-Business Process; BDocs – Business Documents

messaging platform, which uses the 17 XML-based BDocs previously defined for the shoe sector; (ii) a Business Process (BP) layer, aiming at BP coordination, orchestration and choreography, making use of workflow technology and Web services. Compared to its predecessors, CEC-made-shoe approach is the most advanced development towards deploying an interoperable collaborative business environment in shoe domain, and uses outcomes of previous research projects (e.g., the 17 XML-based BDocs, SHOENET messaging platform). The evolution of these projects illustrates the trend of adopting emerging Internet-based technologies.

5 Conclusions and Future Research Work Current market conditions, and the development and adoption of Internet-based technologies determined SMEs to adopt new ways of undertaking business. As consequence, new forms of collaboration emerged, such as collaborative networks [Chituc & Azevedo, 2005a]. Despite the high number of tools and infrastructures supporting (or claming to support) interoperability in a collaborative business environment, seamless connectivity is still unachieved [Camarinha-Matos & Afsarmanesh, 2003] [Pollock, 2001]. The approach described in this article attempts to solve interoperability problems for shoe manufacturing domain (SMD), considering its specific requirements. The novel approach presented has two main achievements for shoe domain. Firstly, it introduces the concept of collaborative network for shoe domain. CN paradigm allows an easy integration of new links among SMEs and production chain’s dynamic adjustment to new business opportunities determined by current market demands. Secondly, it proposes a two-layered operational infrastructure supporting seamless interoperability in a business networked environment: a messaging layer, which assures the communication among established business partners, and a BP layer, based on workflow technology and Web services, which

568 C.-M. Chituc, C. Toscano and A. Azevedo

assures BP coordination, enactment, and traceability. Semantic interoperability is attained by making use of a set of domain-specific business documents. Also, Semantic Web services could be used instead of Web services. This infrastructure has been evaluated through a set of real business scenarios and supports different BPs. However, it has one main drawback: it uses a proprietary messaging platform for communication among SMEs, not compliant with ebXML Messaging Specifications. Future development may however overcome this limitation. We are currently analyzing the feasibility to use an open-source based messaging platform for shoe domain, in order to avoid any proprietary lock-in. Further work will be also pursued to integrate the two operational infrastructures: for up-stream and down-stream segments. Real tests from industry will be also performed. Acknowledgements The first author acknowledges FCT for PhD scholarship BD/RH/19751/2004.

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Towards precise descriptions for programming language interoperability: a general approach based on operational semantics Gustavo A. Ospina and Baudouin Le Charlier D´epartement d’Ing´enierie Informatique, Universit´e catholique de Louvain. Place Sainte Barbe 2, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. {gos,blc}@info.ucl.ac.be

1 Introduction Program interoperability is a practical issue, which arises in many “real world” situations. For instance, two bank companies may wish to integrate their legacy software so that all the information about any customer of one company is available to the other company in the same format as for its own customers. Moreover, the two companies may wish that any authorized employee could access the new integrated software by means of a standard Web browser. Solving this kind of problem is conceptually very diﬃcult because of the unavoidable incompatibilies between the software components to be integrated, which arise at diﬀerent levels. At the application level, diﬀerent semantic models of the “real world” may be used by diﬀerent applications, making them largely incompatible. At the implementation level, the programs can be written in diﬀerent programming languages and be run on diﬀerent platforms. Both issues can be solved only by modifying existing programs: They must be made compatible at the speciﬁcation level and they must be extended to exchange data and to share software components. It is natural to modify programs at the source code level but making them exchange data and share components needs some additional mechanism, which should have the same clear semantics for all programming languages in which the programs are written. We call this programming language interoperability. Unfortunately, from a programming language theory viewpoint, programming language interoperability is not a well deﬁned problem because semantic deﬁnitions of programming languages are closed worlds, which do know nothing of each other. In practice, programs written in diﬀerent languages can nevertheless interoperate because they are translated to the same object language. Therefore, some “glue code” can be added to adapt object modules so that they can ﬁnally interoperate. Such a solution is always speciﬁc and opaque: it deals only with a particular implementation of both languages and it is understandable only in terms of the object language.

2 582

Gustavo A. Ospina and Baudouin Le Charlier

Since program interoperability is an important practical issue that cannot be elegantly solved without introducing some extra mechanisms at the programming language level, we propose to specify such mechanisms at a higher level than through a translation to object code. Speciﬁcally, we propose to use the mathematical language of operational semantics to describe general interoperability mechanisms such as interoperability by communication and interoperability through a foreign language interface. Specifying such mechanisms amounts to extend the operational semantics of the interoperating languages in a minimal way with a new interoperability mechanism. It is then possible to reason locally in the involved languages with unchanged standard semantics and to clearly understand what happens when interoperability takes place.

2 A taxonomy of program interoperability We focus on mechanisms for program interoperability that can be speciﬁed in a programming language, and we pinpoint some of their limitations in the current state-of-the-art. • Data exchange. A pragmatic approach for program interoperability consists of making programs exchange single data. Such data are usually encoded in formats such as XML [1]. Even though those approaches look straightforward, there are some issues that are often overlooked in current practice. For instance, the notion of ﬁle may be diﬀerently deﬁned in two diﬀerent programming languages and may not match exactly the ﬁle notion of the underlying operating systems. Encoding problems can arise. Finally, the actual mechanism to exchange data, either using physical ﬁles or virtual ﬁles such as sockets, needs a precise speciﬁcation. • Middlewares. Another approach for making programs interoperate is to connect them to a intermediate program, called a middleware, that allows the exchange of requests and object data between programs. Corba [2] is a general architecture for middleware-based applications, which is mainly devoted to distributed client/server applications. An Interface Description Language (IDL) is used to access objects in a uniform way, independently of their actual implementation language. A problem with IDL is that their semantics is partly undeﬁned, which makes it diﬃcult to build a distributed application that should be correct by construction. • Using an intermediate language It is sometimes believed that programming language interoperability can be solved by mapping the involved languages to a common target language. As an example, the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) has been used as a target language for implementing many other languages than Java[3]. In fact, implementing compilers towards the JVM does not provide a general solution to the interoperability problem at the programming language level since the class ﬁles generated by compilers are not able to interoperate unless a general interoperability model has

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been deﬁned between the involved languages or additional “glue” classes are provided to make the classes generated by diﬀerent compilers communicate. • Adapting languages to a unique model. Other proposals, such as FLINT [4], envision to adapt existing languages to a unique execution and data model, which would subsume all languages of practical interest. Hence interoperability would be solved by “embedding” all other programming languages in that model. This approach is also taken by the .NET framework [5], which provides a unique data model for all programming languages available on the .NET platform. This approach does not provide a solution to programming language interoperability in a true sense because, in order to be supported by the uniﬁed model, existing programming languages must be redeﬁned. Hence, reuse of existing software is not possible even at the price of recompiling all programs. • Foreign language interfaces. Almost all implementations of programming languages allow one to call algorithms written in other languages through a foreign language interface (FLI). Many FLI are deﬁned between the given language and the language in which its implementation is built (most often C). They give access to the internal implementation of the language and allow the programmer to extend the language with algorithms and libraries that are already implemented in C. Unfortunately, such FLI lack a precise semantics. Making programs interoperate in this way is thus very diﬃcult and error-prone. Another kind of FLI allows the interoperability of programming languages that have separate implementations. In this case, languages are considered “at the same abstraction level”. The semantics of the FLI must provide a “bridge” between the a priori unrelated semantics of the two languages. We propose a general approach where the precise semantics of the involved mechanisms are deﬁned at a higher level making it practically possible to make programs interoperate in an a priori correct way. Our approach is directly applicable to specify foreign interfaces for languages at the same abstraction level, but it can be also applied to foreign interfaces between a language and its implementation language[6].

3 Using operational semantics to describe programming language interoperability Operational semantics [7] is a well-known method to describe precisely the execution of programs written in a given language. In the “small-step” approach to operational semantics, execution is described as a system of transition rules between program conﬁgurations. Roughly speaking, a program conﬁguration contains the memory and the execution state of the program. The small-step

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approach is more adequate to describe the semantics of interoperability because each transition describes a bounded number of computation steps during which interoperation needs not to take place. The methodological framework we propose consists of combining and extending small-step operational semantics of two programming languages to support interoperability mechanisms between the two languages. Methodology The starting point is the deﬁnition of a small-step semantics for two programming languages A and B, and more precisely, the deﬁnition of program conﬁgurations clA , clB for both languages, in which their respective data models are well deﬁned. The second step is the extension of the syntax of both programming languages with interoperability constructs. Those constructs depend on the concrete mechanism and deﬁne the added language support to interoperability. The third step is the speciﬁcation of an exchange data structure (eds), that will be added to program conﬁgurations. That structure depends on the interoperability mechanism and specify the data exchanged between interoperating programs as well as the way those data are exchanged. Behaviour of existing programs is preserved since all transition rules cl → cl of the languages’ semantics do not modify the exchange data structure. The fourth step is to give the semantics of interoperability constructs, by deﬁning transition rules on extended program conﬁgurations cl, eds → cl , eds . Those rules specify how the exchange data structure is modiﬁed by the execution of an interoperability construct in one language. Finally, program conﬁgurations for both languages are combined into a bi-conﬁguration clA , eds, clB , in which the exchange data structure is shared. Transition rules on bi-conﬁgurations, clA , eds, clB → clA , eds , clB , are systematically deﬁned from rules on extended conﬁgurations in each language. Specifying interoperability mechanisms Our framework has been applied to the speciﬁcation of general mechanisms for program interoperability on two diﬀerent instances (e.g. implementations) of a simple imperative language. We present brieﬂy those mechanisms. More details are given in the extended version of this paper [8]. Program interoperability by data communication A simple way to make programs interoperate is the communication of single data between programs. It is straightforward to model this kind of interoperation. • Interoperability constructs: the commands send and recv, for sending and receiving data. • Exchange data structure: two FIFO sequences, containing respectively the sent and received data to/from an external program.

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Program interoperability through foreign interfaces In this kind of interoperation, programs are able to call procedures written in external programs. Two variants must be considered: • The ﬁrst variant is a foreign interface with partial memory copying. When a foreign procedure is called, the zone of memory containing the actual parameters is copied into the foreign memory. At the return of the foreign procedure, the memory zone is updated with the changes made in the copied foreign memory. – Interoperability constructs: the command fcall, for calling a foreign procedure. – Exchange data structure: two LIFO sequences, containing respectively the sent and received requests to/from an external program, and a trace of the partially copied memory zones at each foreign call. Memory copying implies converting data from one memory model to another. For languages considered at the same abstraction level, such a conversion can be diﬃcult to deﬁne and costly to implement. To the contrary, no conversion is needed when the calling language is implemented in the foreign language. Thus, a foreign interface between a language and its implementation language often uses a variant of partial memory copying. • The second variant is a foreign interface with reference encoding. The program handles references to foreign data in the foreign program, that are encoded as single local data. Those references must be explicitly created, deleted and dereferenced by the program. When calling a foreign procedure, actual parameters are just foreign references or single data, and no memory zones are copied. – Interoperability constructs: the commands fcall, fnew, fdelete and fderef, for calling a foreign procedure, asking for the creation and deletion of a foreign reference, and getting the value pointed by a foreign reference. – Exchange data structure: two LIFO sequences, containing respectively the sent and received requests to/from an external program. This variant is easier to implement in languages with independent implementations. An important aspect is the concrete encoding of foreign references. Usually that encoding is made on a numerical data type, but it is also possible, and more general, to use byte strings.

4 Conclusion and further work The main contribution of this paper is to propose the use of structural operational semantics to precisely specify program interoperability mechanisms. In the extended version of this paper[8], we presented the application of our

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framework for describing interoperability mechanisms on programming languages in the same abstraction level, with an ideal case study. We have also applied our framework to the speciﬁcation of a foreign interface between a speciﬁc language and its implementation language, C[6]. Further work includes the precise description of foreign interfaces for general purpose languages with C, like the JNI[9], as well as the interoperability of languages with independent implementations and belonging to diﬀerent programming paradigms.

References 1. Bray, T. et al. (2000) Extensible markup language (XML) 1.0 (second edition). W3C recommendation of the 6 october 2000. http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml 2. CORBA 2.5 speciﬁcation. http://www.omg.org/technology/documents/formal/corba iiop.htm 3. Engel, J. (1999) Programming for the Java Virtual Machine, Addison-Wesley, Boston, MA, USA 4. Trifonov, V. and Shao, Z. (1999) Safe and Principled Language Interoperation. In Proceedings of the European Symposium on Programming (ESOP’99), Amsterdam 5. Microsoft.NET home page. http://msdn.microsoft.com/net 6. Ospina, G. (2007) Un Cadre Conceptuel pour l’Interop´erabilit´e des Langages de Programmation. PhD thesis, D´epartement d’Ing´enierie Informatique, Universit´e catholique de Louvain, Belgium 7. Winskel, G. (1993) The Formal Semantics of Programming Languages, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, USA 8. Ospina, G. and Le Charlier, B. (2006) Towards precise descriptions for programming language interoperability: an ideal case study. Internal report, D´epartement INGI, UCL, Belgium 9. Liang, S. (1999) Java Native Interface: Programmer’s Guide and Speciﬁcation, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, USA

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Introducing the Common Non-Functional Ontology Vandana Kabilan1 , Paul Johannesson1 , Sini Ruohomaa2 , Pirjo Moen2 , Andrea Herrmann3 , Rose-Mharie ˚ Ahlfeldt4 , and Hans Weigand5 1 2 3 4 5

Department of Computer and Systems Sciences, Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm University [email protected],[email protected] Department of Computer Science, University of Helsinki [email protected],[email protected] University of Heidelberg [email protected] University of Sk¨ ovde [email protected] Tilburg University [email protected]

Enterprise systems interoperability is impeded by the lack of a cohesive, integrated perspective on non-functional aspects (NFA). We propose to respond to the fragmentation in NFA research by supporting a shared, common understanding. For this purpose:- ﬁrst, we propose a common NFA ontology, which generalizes and integrates the diﬀerent non-functional aspects under a common top-level ontology. Second, we introduce a series of specialized ontologies on speciﬁc non-functional aspects, such as trust, risk, privacy, threat and misuse. By fostering a consensual and shared view of the non-functional aspects domain, we aim to move closer to enhancing semantic enterprise interoperability. This shared perspective on what non-functional aspects are and how they relate to the other ’functional’ aspects of enterprise systems, is the key towards enterprise interoperability.

1 Introduction Non-functional aspects (NFAs) have a key role in establishing, conducting and maintaining inter-enterprise interoperability [1]. The ill-toned naming of these properties reﬂects well the neglect they have long suﬀered in software design and development. Issues related to such aspects like trust, security, privacy, contracts or quality of service are often left unaddressed till late in the software development process. However, in the context of enterprise interoperability, these aspects and the organisational policies that they form span across a wide range of business activities. Therefore, they must be considered and integrated into the enterprise system modeling,along with the other

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traditionally accepted ’functional aspects’. In this respect, some of the key research problems identiﬁed are: • Existence of a fragmented deﬁnition of what non-functional aspects are. • Unclear vision on how, when or where these aspects should be integrated into the enterprise system modelling. To resolve the above mentioned issues, we ﬁrst need to establish a shared understanding of what Non-Functional Aspects are, how they inﬂuence the business processes and how they should be connected to the business models. One such way would be to capture the aforementioned knowledge as an ontology. Gruber’s [2] deﬁnition of an ontology states: Ontology is a specialization of a conceptualisation. The fundamental objective behind the design of ontology is to conceptualise the domain of interest. Some other objectives for designing and using ontologies have been put forward by Noy and McGuinness [3] as: • • •

To make explicit implicit domain knowledge. To promote easy and shared understanding. To support reusability and interoperability.

Thus, the research problem addressed in this paper is on capturing and making explicit the implicit knowledge surrounding the non-functional aspects.We propose to capture and represent this shared conceptualisation as a set of ontologies. The researchers involved in this conceptualisation are experts from diﬀerent non-functional aspect domains. Thus, the proposed ontologies are in themselves a product of consensus. We discuss more on our research methodology in Section 2. In this paper, we propose a Common NFA Ontology as a top level generic ontology, to which a number of individual Non-Functional ontologies are related. Our research has led us to establish a number of individual Non-Functional ontologies like trust, privacy, threat and misuse, information security, quality of service, digital rights management, business contracting, contract-related risks and so on. However, due to limitation of space, we present an overview of only a selected number of these. The focus of this paper is to introduce the top level generic ontology - the Common NFA Ontology. We exemplify the utility of the proposed Common NFA ontology by describing how it is ”specialised” in the individual sub ontologies. Note that the description given for each of the sub ontoloy is neither complete or exhaustive, but only an illustrative extract of the main concepts from each of them. We begin by a short discussion on our research methodology including the ontology design strategy adopted in Section 2. We present the Common NFA Ontology in Section 3. We present the overview of the Trust Ontology in Section 3.1, Threat and Misuse Ontology in Section 3.2, Business Contract Risk Ontology in Section 4, and Privacy Ontology in Section 5. We discuss the results and utility of our work in Section 6 and conclude in Section 7.

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2 Research Methodology To the best of our knowledge, no previous research exists that captures and models the diﬀerent non-functional aspects within one common ontology. Our collective group of expert researchers carried out a state-of-the-art research survey for the diﬀerent non-functional aspects. Initial results were published in TG7 Roadmap [1]. To analyse and represent the gathered knowledge, we reviewed diﬀerent ontology design methodologies like those proposed by Gruninger and Uschold [4], Noy and McGuinness [3], Guarino [5] , Fernandez et al. [6] and Nicola and Missikoﬀ [7]. We found the UPON methodology, based on the Uniﬁed Software Developement Process [8], simple to adopt within the diverse group of researchers, most of whom were not ontology experts. A ﬁrst sketch of each of the non-functional aspects was carried out using the storyboard writing phase as proposed by the UPON. Next, a common template for capturing the main concepts, deﬁnitions and relationships to generate a glossary (again UPON) was suggested. A main instrument in the methodology of our work was a case study scenario of a typical enterprise system, which was carefully analysed from diﬀerent non-functional aspect perspectives. Based on intial results of this analysis and further discussions, a ﬁrst preliminary conceptual model for each individual sub ontology was proposed. After this ’glossary’ building phase, the work was again reviewed for duplicacy and redundancy. Building on the case study analysis, detailed conceptual models for each of the sub ontologies was constructed.

3 Introducing the Common NFA Ontology Our approach is to reuse existing ontologies as far as possible. Therefore, we chose to begin our work on the Common NFA Ontology by basing it on another accepted speciﬁcation, namely the Business Motivation Model(BMM) [9]. Some of our reasons for choosing this particular standard may be summarised as: • BMM identiﬁes factors that motivate and inﬂuence a business enterprise and its goals. • BMM identifes key business concepts like actors and business elements that are inﬂuenced by the above mentioned factors. • BMM relates the key relationships between the inﬂuencing factors and the business concepts. All the above reasons are useful in deﬁning how non-functional aspects (inﬂuencing factors) may have an impact on or be related to the identifed key business concepts. In Figure 1 we see the conceptual model of our Common NFA Ontology. As said before, the Common NFA Ontology extends the basic BMM.(The shaded

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Fig. 1. Common NFA Ontology- Conceptual Model

concepts are those that have been introduced by us). We begin by ﬁrst reviewing some of the existing concepts deﬁned in BMM and thereafter, proceed to the new additions. We use the type text font to denote concept classes. Stereotypes of the Common NFA used in the sub ontologies also include the parent class in paranthesis, wherever applicable, if not stated explicitly. 3.1 BMM Revisited A basic notion in BMM (Figure 1)is that of a goal, which expresses something a business seeks to accomplish, a desired future state of aﬀairs or condition. Examples of goals are being the market leader in an industry or having a proﬁt of more than one million euros. Furthermore, there are means , i.e. something that can be used to achieve a goal. Means can take diﬀerent forms, they can be instruments, devices, capabilities or methods. A means states what an organisation will do or use to achieve a goal, while a goal tells what the organisation views as desirable. There are two main kinds of means, course of action and directive such as business rules and policies. Then there are influencers, i.e. things that can impact an enterprise in its employment of means or achievement of goals. Note that an influencer expresses an objective state of aﬀairs, it just exists, and there is nothing the organisation can do about this. In contrast, a goal is something that an organisation decides about - it wants to accomplish the goal. Similarly, a means is something that the organisation chooses itself - it decides to use a means to achieve a goal. it is useful to distinguish between two types of inﬂuencers, external and internal. An external influencer exists outside the organisational boundaries of an enterprise, e.g. a competitor that is taking

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market shares from an enterprise. There are also internal influencers that exist within an enterprise. It could be a habit, i.e. a customary practice or use. Influencers can be positive or negative, they can make it easier or more diﬃcult to achieve a goal. In fact, the same influencer may make it easier to achieve one goal and at the same time make it more diﬃcult to achieve another goal. In order to tell how an influencer impacts a goal or a means, we use assessments. For example, we say that an inﬂuencer is a threat for achieving a certain goal, or an opportunity to employ a certain means. Other examples are strengths and weaknesses. 3.2 Common NFA Ontology We begin by introducing the concept of business object in the Common NFA. Business objects refer to any object or resource that is of some value to an organisation. For examples- goods or services that are being traded, purchase orders, contracts, customers and ERP systems. Business objects also include less tangible objects like data,information and digital rights. Business process acts on or utilises or consumes or produces these business objects. Therefore, these business objects undergo some change of state, which we can qualitatively or quantitatively measure, to result in a state of affairs. Some states of aﬀairs are planned and desired like goals, whereas other state of affairs are unplanned and even unwanted such as quality deﬁciencies and business damages. Business process are affected by internal as well as external influencers, therefore the business objects are also aﬀected. Non-Functional Aspects like trust, risk, quality of service are all kinds of influencers. These inﬂuencers act indirectly to produce undesireable eﬀects on the expected outcome of business processes, thereby aﬀecting the goals for an organisation. Hence, it is required to assess whether this state of affairs is desired or not. For this purpose, we introduce the notion of a valuation in the Common NFA ontology. A valuation is usually done by an organisation, but it may also be done by an outside (external) agent. The valuation is an evaluation done on a business object, its current state and its planned state to give a value result. For example, if the goal had been to increase sales by ten percent and the current monthly balance sheet indicates a loss of ﬁve percent, then the valuation would provide the evaluated value result that there is a net loss and no growth in sales. If the value result indicates that the current state of affairs is undesirable or unacceptable then appropriate measures need to be set in motion to counteract these ill-eﬀects. This is decided by a business decision. The business decision is a central concept in our Common NFA Ontology. The business decision is based on the valuation, the prescribed set of goals, available means and the expected state of affairs. The business decision result of such organisational decision making could involve a change in policy, directive, adoption of some new means. These are termed as countermeasures. The countermeasure

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has to realise the business decision result, that is, it imposes some modiﬁed requirements on the enterprise. We introduce a countermeasure option as a kind of means that an organisation unit may adopt to speciﬁcally address any negative potential impact that any internal or external influencer may produce on the deﬁned Objectives and Goals. Positive impacts, that is, potential awards are also incentives or factors that inﬂuence business goals and policies. In most non function aspect scenarios, it is the incentive of potential awards that motivate an enterprise, like improved customer satisfaction leading to more revenue is the potential award for implementing better quality of service(non-functional aspect). We see, thus, that the non-functional aspects often lead to qualitative performance indicators rather than quantitative aspects. We shall in the following sections, present some of the non-functional aspects as individual ontologies.

4 Trust Ontology

Fig. 2. Excerpt from Trust Ontology

The ﬁrst subontology describes the multifaceted phenomenon of trust between organisations. Trust has business relevance to an organisation in

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two diﬀerent contexts: as a trustor(agent) and as a trustee(agent). In the trustor’s role, an agent representing the organisation tries to determine whether it is beneﬁcial for the organisation to trust another organisation (or agent, as the case may be) in a particular context. In the trustee’s role, the organisation and its representatives try to encourage the trust of other organisations and agents by various means. In our trust ontology, we focus on describing the trustor role. Deﬁnitions of trust in the literature vary according to the context they are used in [10, 11, 12]. Some research eﬀorts focus on trust as a subjective belief about positive attributes of the trustee. From the management perspective, however, a more concrete approach is beneﬁcial. We deﬁne trust as- The extent to which the trustor is willing to participate in a given business action with a given trustee, considering the risks and incentives involved. This deﬁnition of trust includes the subjective belief as one motivator to trust, while other motivators may depend on the general context as well. The trust ontology built on this conceptual approach is depicted in Figure 2. Trust is a strong influencer between the Trustor and Trustee. It is the basis for Trust Decisions that concern the participation in certain Guarded Actions(business actions). The general trustworthiness of the trustee is built on Experience(influencer), which can be gained internally or reported by external sources. The body of experience is assessed in a Reputation Evaluation(assessment). For example, a number of experiences on the trustee delivering excellent quality products but the being late can be evaluated as a low trustworthiness on timeliness, but high on quality products. The context determines which of these attributes would be more important for a given Trust Decision. Participation in a Guarded Action also involves Probable Costs/Benefits (potential impact) depending on the behaviour of the trustee and the estimated cost or beneﬁts resulting from it. These are assessed in a tactical Risk Evaluation(assessment), which aims to determine what the probabilities and eﬀects of diﬀerent outcomes are. There are also some Known Outcomes(end) that depend only on the business decision. For example, following or violating a contract that governs the Guarded Action leads to— the cost of a contract violation may be lower than the predicted outcome of doing business with an ill-reputed trustee, but it must be evaluated as a part of the Trust Decision.

5 Business Contract Risk Ontology The primary goal for Enterprise systems is to conduct proﬁtable business with other enterprises. Such transactions are covered by legal contracts and other regulatory bodies. The Multi Tier Contract Ontology [13] is one of many contemporary researches in the ﬁeld of conceptualising the domain of business contracts from diﬀerent perspectives. We do not discuss those ”functional”

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Fig. 3. Excerpt from Business Contract Risk Ontology

aspects in this paper. Instead, we focus on one of the non- functional aspects related to the business contract and the enterprise— that of Business Risks undertaken in a given contract. Business contracts act to specify expected behavior, describes course of actions for possible non-conformance to agreement. But they also state explicitly the kinds of risks undertaken and determine the options available for resolving situations, in the event such a risk is actualised. Mechanisms for assessing and controling such risks has been discussed by Kabilan and Weigand [14]. We capture some of these concepts in our non-functional sub-ontology for Business Contract Risk. The contracts are aimed to split such ”risks” on who will bear it, how much, to what extent and so forth. Business Risk (Assessment) acts on a set of planned activities which utilizes or consumes and produces a set of Resources (business objects). This business risk is always borne by an actor(agent) who acts on behalf of the enterprise concerned. Every business process or action is expected to result in a certain outcome (State of Affairs). This outcome may be the expected result, in which case all is well, and we have predicted outcome(outcome). The outcome may be unexpected outcome in the eventuality of an undesired result. For example, in the case of a loss of revenue(unexpected outcome) due to currency ﬂuctuation (external influencer) the risk event is the change of currency rate. In short,the business risk is said to occur when there is a planned activity which does not produce the predicted outcome or Results. The outcome is inspected valuation by the actor to ascertain whether the unexpected outcome is an acceptable state of affairs or not. The business decision involved is the risk

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mitigation control. This requires that a countermeasure be adopted to limit the eﬀects of the risk.

6 Threat and Misuse Ontology

Fig. 4. Excerpt from Threat and Misuse Ontology

A central concept in the Threat and Misuse ontology[15, 16] is system, which is the entity that can be misused and threatened. A system does not include only software, hardware and networks, but also facilities, organisation, administrators, maintainers and users. A system can be decomposed into components that are themselves systems, thereby forming a hierarchy. Components of a system that need to be protected are called assets. In the ontology, we introduce a class system with a subclass system component. Three subclasses of system components are identiﬁed: asset, actor, misuser. There are two kinds of goals for a system, business goals and quality goals. A business goal is a goal on the business level and tells why a system is introduced and used. A quality goal describes a general non-functional requirement that a system has to satisfy, and it is composed of one asset and one quality attribute. Some high level examples of quality attributes

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are reliability, usability, portability and eﬃciency. Note that, in contrast to BMM, we here make explicit which system a particular goal is deﬁned for. It may be the case that a goal is not fulﬁlled for some reason; such a situation is called a quality deficiency if it concerns a quality goal and a business damage if it concerns a business goal. For example, if there is a quality goal of high availability of data, there may be quality deficiencies like corrupted data or manipulation of data and hardware. Business and quality goals may be directly threatened by certain business actions, which are called misuses.The actor(agent) who carries out this misuse is therefore a misuser. An example could be unauthorized access to classiﬁed data. Vulnerability(influencer) is a property of a component of a system that makes it vulnerable(weakness) to threats, e.g. a design ﬂaw or a ﬂaw in the software development process. Misuses, vulnerabilities, and quality deficiencies can be grouped together into misuse cases that describe entire scenarios of misuses. Such a scenario(called the misuse case includes a misuser who exploits some vulnerability of a system and carries out a misuse resulting in a quality deﬁciency. Misuses can be countered by means of countermeasures, which are requirements on a system, its development, maintenance or operation, which support quality goals. Countermeasures are aimed at detecting, preventing or mitigating misuse cases.

7 Privacy Ontology

Fig. 5. Excerpt from Privacy Ontology

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In this global age, when more and more enterprises are conducting business via the Internet and other electronic media, also privacy and information security come to the forefront. Of these two important non-functional aspects we consider in this section issues related to privacy of information and data that an enterprise processes. Every enterprise has to be aware of the governing privacy laws, privacy recommendations [17, 18] and its own policy on how it will handle requests for data/information. For example, if the enterprise is requested for some speciﬁc data regarding some person or enterprise, it is the onus of the enterprise owning this data to take a privacy-aware decision based on the background of who is sending the request, and for what purpose the request is being made. To give an example, if the enterprise is given a request for a photograph of one of its own employees, it is the duty of the enterprise to check (a) if it has a policy that it may give out such photographs to external agencies without the permission of the employee (whose photograph it is) or check if the employee has given her consent on an external access on the photograph, (b) check the credentials of the agency making such a request, and (c) assess the stated use (intent) of the requester. The privacy ontology in Figure 5 deals primarily with the non-functional aspect of how data in information systems are used in speciﬁc contexts. Every organisation should have a privacy policy that protects the data(business object) which is owned by the data owner(agent). Note that the business object and agent(actor) are the concepts identiﬁed from our Common NFA Ontology (Figure 1)- Another actor in this ontology is the Data Requester, who is the actor who wishes to procure the data and use it for a speciﬁc purpose. The data that is requested is usually about some actor, agent, or business enterprise. In our model, these are modeled as the Data Targets. The story begins with the Data Owner collecting the data about the data targets for a stated purpose(objective). The data target has to give its consent on how the data can be used, so that no privacy laws, regulations etc. are violated. The Consent may be stereotyped as a Business Object , and the process by which data target gives its consent as a business process. The Data owner has a privacy policy that it follows whenever a Data requester sends in a Request for Data. The Data requester sends a Request (stereotyped as a Business Object and also states his Intent for the use of the requested Data. The Intent is modelled as an Influencer. The Data owner, on receipt of the request makes a Privacy-aware decision, modelled as a business decision, processing the request based on the privacy policy, the Consent of the Data target, and the credentials and the stated intent of the Data requester. Also the Purpose the data was originally collected for can inﬂuence the privacy-aware decision. The Privacy-aware decision result, stereotyped as a business decision result, can be either request granted or denied. The Data requester is informed of the subsequent decision.

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8 Discussion of Results In this paper, we have discussed only the overview of the individual sub ontologies. Hence detailed description of all the concepts, their usage has not been in the scope. A detailed technical description of each individual NFA ontology will be discussed in separate papers. The Common NFA is still evolving and this process is visualized to be an iterative one. Some of the future work envisioned are: • To incorporate all non-functional aspects sub-ontologies. • To carry out ﬁeld studies and apply the proposed set of ontologies in other domains. • To align with business process modelling and other eﬀorts at enterprise interoperability.

9 Conclusion As stated in Section 1, our objective was to establish a shared explicit model for non-functional aspects. In this paper, we have elucidated on the top level generic ontology, Common Non-Functional Ontology. We have illustrated its utility by means of some individual non-functional ontologies. Our next step is to put forward speciﬁc details and descriptions of each sub- ontology along with instantiated facts from our ongoing case study analysis. The Common NFA and its related sub-ontologies, shall form a knowledge base which can be used for fostering interoperability, and resuse across enterprise systems.

References 1. INTEROP-NoE Task Group 7. Roadmap for tg7: Interoperability challenges of trust, conﬁdence, security and policies, 2005. URL http://interop-noe.org/ backoffice/deliv/DTG7.1/. 2. A. De Nicola and M. Missikoﬀ. A proposal for a uniﬁed process for ontology building: Upon. In Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 3588,Pages 655 – 664. Springer Verlag, 2005. 3. M. Fernandez, A. Gomez-Perez, and N. Juristo. Methontology: From ontological art towards ontological engineering. In Proceedings of Symposium on Ontological Engineering of AAAI Stanford, California, 1997. 4. Object Management Group. Business motivation model (bmm) speciﬁcation. draft adopted speciﬁcation 2006-07-01. http://www.omg.org/docs/dtc/06-0701.pdf, 2006. 5. TR. Gruber. Toward principles for the design of ontologies used for knowledge sharing. In Presented at the Padua workshop on Formal Ontology, March 1993, 1993. 6. N. Guarino. Formal ontology and information systems. In Proceedings of Formal Ontology and Information Systems(FOIS 1998), pp-3–15. IOS Press, 1998.

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7. A. Herrmann and B. Paech. Quality misuse. In Workshop on Requirements Engineering for Software Quality(RFSQ),Foundations of Software Quality,pp 193–199. Essener Informatik Berichte, 2005. 8. A. Herrmann, J. Rueckert, and B. Paech. Exploring the interoperability of web services using moqare. In Proceedings of First International Workshop on Interoperability Solutions to Trust, Security, Policies and QoS for Enhanced Enterprise Systems(IS-TSPQ), 2006. 9. I. Jacobson, G. Booch, and J. Rumbaugh. The Uniﬁed Software Development Process. Addison Wesley, USA, 1999. 10. V. Kabilan and P. Johanesson. Semantic representation of contract knowledge using multi-tier contract ontology. In Proceedings of Semantic Web and Databases workshop, (SWDB 2003), 2003. 11. V. Kabilan and H. Weigand. Value-model based risk assessment and contract drafting. In Proceedings of First International Workshop on Interoperability Solutions to Trust, Security, Policies and QoS for Enhanced Enterprise Systems(IS-TSPQ), 2006. 12. D. Harrison McKnight and Norman L. Chervany. Trust and distrust deﬁnitions: One bite at a time. In Trust in Cyber-societies: Integrating the human and artiﬁcial perspectives, volume LNCS 2246/2001, pages 27–54. Springer-Verlag, 2001. 13. N. Noy and DL. McGuiness. Ontology development 101: A guide to creating your ﬁrst ontology. Technical report, Stanford University, 2001. 14. Working Party on Information Security OECD and Privacy. Privacy online: policy and practical guidance. Technical report, OECD, 2003. 15. Sini Ruohomaa and Lea Kutvonen. Trust management survey. In Proceedings of the iTrust 3rd International Conference on Trust Management, 23–26, May, 2005, Rocquencourt, France, pages 77–92. Springer-Verlag, LNCS 3477/2005, May 2005. 16. European Union. Directive 95/46/ec. The Oﬃcial Journal of The European Communities, 1995. 17. M. Uschold and M. Gruninger. Ontologies principles, methods and applications. The Knowledge Engineering Re-view 11(2): 93–136, 1996. 18. Lea Viljanen. Towards an ontology of trust. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Trust, Privacy and Security in Digital Business (TrustBus’05), 2005.

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Part VIII

Cross-sector Interoperability Solutions

An Intelligent Test Methodology to Achieve Interoperability between Business-to-Business (B2B) Applications Buhwan Jeong1 , Hyunbo Cho1 , Taejong Yoo1 , and Jaegyong Chang2 1

2

Department of Industrial and Management Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), San 31 Hyoja Pohang 790-784 South Korea {bjeong, hcho, tju13}@postech.ac.kr Korea Institute for Electronic Commerce (KIEC), 6F Textile Center Daechi Kangnam Seoul 135-713 South Korea [email protected]

Lack of interoperability among enterprise applications has become the biggest impediment to their seamless integration. Although inter-enterprise applications are carefully designed and implemented, a close veriﬁcation on whether they interoperate should be performed before their deployment. Application developers must be able to effectively identify and correct the problem sources of non-interoperable applications, if any. The paper proposes a novel interoperability test framework necessary to support the veriﬁcation and correction activities. The proposed test framework provides the interoperability tests by performing a pair of output- and inputconformance tests for individual applications. New test case structures aligned with the proposed test framework are also addressed. An exemplary case study is demonstrated in the context of veriﬁcation of secure messaging between web service applications. Keywords: Application veriﬁcation, B2B applications integration, conformance test, interoperability test, test case, test effectiveness, test framework, testbed

1 Introduction The pluralistic business environment ironically forces us to more tightly integrate enterprises in a supply network, thereby requiring a seamless integration among enterprise applications. To this end, interoperability must be beforehand assured among such applications, which is the ability of applications to exchange information both within and outside the same enterprise. A noticeable effort on the interoperability assurance is to standardize speciﬁcations (or, at least make an agreement) in every application layer of messaging protocols (e.g., RosettaNet, ebMS, WS-I), business objects (e.g., OAGIS), and business processes (e.g., ebBPSS, BPEL4WS, WS-CDL).

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However, an agreement in the speciﬁcation level does not mean the assurance of interoperability in the implementation level. The implementation interoperability may be achieved through a thorough veriﬁcation of whether an application is interoperable with others as well as whether it is well conforming to its agreed-upon speciﬁcations. A generally accepted fallacy is that runs of interoperability tests require a huge amount of time and cost (i.e., up to one-third of the total project cost [1]). However, the interoperability test itself is not such a high-cost process as we thought. The fallacy may be true only when a postanalysis of test results fails to properly ﬁnd out which parts of applications cause an interoperability problem. Therefore, the urgency is to provide a practical test environment, in which an application developer can easily analyze his/her implementation and test results. This paper proposes a novel test framework that helps developers identify the causes of interoperability problems among applications, thereby maximizing the total utility of resources (i.e., time and cost) to develop and deploy applications. As part of the research, we also present new test case structures for the proposed interoperability test framework. The proposed test is demonstrated through veriﬁcation of secure messaging between web service applications. The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Sect. 2 gives a brief review of existing interoperability test frameworks. A novel interoperability test harness is outlined in Sect. 3, and Sect. 4 presents new test case structures. Sect. 5 describes a case study that illustrates how the proposed test works in verifying secure messaging between web service applications. Finally, conclusion remarks are given in Sect. 6.

2 Related Work 2.1 Interoperability Test Harnesses Two pioneer approaches to B2B applications’ interoperability test are Collaborative Test Environment [1] and IIC Test Framework [2]. The former is a private testing environment provided by Accordare Inc.3 , while the latter is an open and neutral one provided by OASIS4 IIC (ebXML Implementation, Interoperability, and Conformance) technical committee. Accordare’s Collaborative Test Environment. A collaborative test environment, placed at the middle of a collaboration process, intercepts all messages exchanged among enterprise applications and stores them in a message store as shown in Fig. 1. A message validator assures their interoperability by validating the stored messages, auditing XML message compatibility with partner applications, comparing the order of messages with an agreed-upon collaboration sequence, and then providing feedbacks to the initiating party to ﬁx non-interoperable 3 4

http://www.accordare.com http://www.oasis-open.org

Intelligent Interoperability Test Framework

6753

problems. WS-I (Web Service Interoperability Organization)5 adopts the same harness to ensure interoperability among web services [3]. This approach provides a scalable testing environment that can simultaneously verify up to hundreds or thousands of independent applications (requiring no modiﬁcations for the tests), thereby saving time and cost in massive veriﬁcation. However, this approach is passive, in other words, the test environment monitors only the message ﬂows; therefore, it is impossible to control the tests for a speciﬁc purpose. To be worse, the tests can become cumbersome when numerous transactions simultaneously occur among multiple applications. Collaboration scenario

App. A

App. B

Reflect

Message store

Message validator

Collaborative Testbed

Fig. 1. Accordare’s collaborative test environment, where a reﬂector captures and stores every message exchanged among applications

IIC Interoperability Test Harness. The IIC test framework supports both conformance and interoperability tests for ebXML6 -based implementations. As shown in Fig. 2, the interoperability test is performed in a cyclic manner as follows: the testbed initiates the test by sending a message to a driver application (e.g., App. A in Fig. 2), the driver application communicates with a partner application (e.g., App. B), the driver application reports the message received from the partner to the testbed, and ﬁnally the testbed validates the received message compared with the intended response. This transaction-based approach can easily facilitate tests for a speciﬁc purpose, e.g., reliable messaging and secure messaging. However, when the test fails, it is hard to detect which application 5 6

http://www.ws-i.org http://www.ebxml.org

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causes the failure and which part of the problem application is incorrectly implemented. Moreover, the pairwise test execution is less scalable for a few hundreds or thousands applications.

App. A

App. B

Notify Initiate

Test case Message store

Message validator

IIC Testbed Fig. 2. IIC interoperability test harness

2.2 IIC Test Framework The IIC test framework provides a robust test environment including test driver, test service, persistent message store, and test material. The test driver is responsible both for executing test cases according to test steps and for validating test messages returned. The test execution steps are mainly test case interpretation, test initiation by sending test messages to a target SUT (System Under Test), (returned) message retrieval, message validation, and ﬁnally test report generation. The test service implements a set of test operations (actions) that can be triggered by messages. The test service plays an application layer role for an SUT. Exemplary pre-deﬁned actions include reﬂecting a message, initiating a test by sending a new message, comparing payloads, and setting conﬁguration data. The IIC test framework also provides a set of deﬁnitions, metadata and speciﬁcations for test materials. Essential test materials include the test proﬁle, test requirements, test suites, test cases, and test message data. A test requirement is an aggregative description on the test scope and goal. It breaks down into several speciﬁc functional requirements, each of which is associated with one or more test assertions. The test assertion is the axiomatic assertion of expected behavior for given preconditions, so that it is veriﬁable by a test driver to be true or false. Each requirement is scripted to a test case, which is a sequence of executable test steps. Each test step deﬁnes an action executed by the test driver such as PutMessage,

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GetMessage, and VerifyContent, and also contains test message data and conﬁguration data necessary for test setup. A test suite is a container that groups related test cases. A test proﬁle is an upper level collection of test requirements for a speciﬁc purpose (e.g., requirements for a particular industry vertical). All the test cases in a test proﬁle may be fed into the test driver together.

3 The Proposed Interoperability Test Harness Some design propositions are given to devise an intelligent interoperability testbed, which makes up for the weak points in the existing testbeds discussed. First, the proposed testbed performs purpose-driven tests, that is, each test ensures one or more association functional requirements and corresponding test assertions. A test case should be more systematically augmented from implementation speciﬁcations and real business/transaction agreements. Second, the testbed provides a practical debugging capability to effectively and timely detect which application (and which part of the application) causes an interoperability problem. Third, the testbed offers repetitive tests, thereby making the tests scalable and cost-effective when multiple applications and transactions are involved. Fourth, the testbed reuses existing components (including test materials) embedded in testbeds without major modiﬁcations. With those design propositions, we propose a mediatory interoperability test harness, which is conceptually a combination of the collaborative test and the IIC interoperability test as shown in Fig. 3. The proposed test harness successively performs an output conformance test (for App.A in Fig. 3) and a corresponding input conformance test (for App.B) [4]. By doing so, every message between these applications passes through the testbed and, moreover, the testbed actively controls the message ﬂow. That makes the testbed resolve interoperability problems. The testbed (i.e., test driver) acts as a test initiator, a messages mediator, and an output message validator of interoperability tests. See the discussions in Sect. 6.1 for its characteristics. The basic test procedure (i.e., a one-cycle test7 as shown in Fig. 3) is as follows: 1. The testbed reads an interoperability test case and initiates it by invoking a driver-party application (e.g., App. A). 2. The testbed mediates messages between applications. The driver application sends an initiating message to the testbed (rather than to the responder-party application). Then, the testbed stores the initiating message and transfers it to the responder application (e.g., App.B). Consequently, the responder application replies to the testbed by sending a response message, and the testbed also stores it. 3. Finally, the testbed retrieves both the initiating and response messages from a persistent message store, and validates them according to test assertions speciﬁed in the test case. As shown in the procedure above, the message ﬂow between the testbed and a unit application (either App.A or App.B) is a conformance-like unit test. The ﬁrst loop 7

Conceptually, only a pair of message exchanges between applications occur.

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App. A

Initiate

App. B

Mediate (Notify & Transfer) Notify Test case Message store

Message validator

Proposed Testbed Fig. 3. The proposed mediatory interoperability test harness

of the output conformance test veriﬁes that the driver application complies with an agreed-upon speciﬁcation, while the second loop of the input conformance test veriﬁes that the responder application interoperates with the driver application (which is already veriﬁed as a correct implementation in the ﬁrst loop) as well as that it conforms to the speciﬁcation. Particularly, this harness is also able to test interoperability in one-way communication where a donor party broadcasts messages to multiple receiver parties that never replies. The one-way communication is veriﬁable neither by the collaborative test nor the IIC’s cyclic test. Note that to ensure both ways of interoperability, the testbed repeats the same test after switching their respective roles of driving and responding parties. Next, test case structures aligned with this test harness are presented.

4 Test Case Structure 4.1 Test Case Ingredients A test case basically consists of three test steps, i.e., PutMessage, GetMessage, and TestAssertion (which are from IIC test material [2]), each of which is executed by the test driver. PutMessage is the initiating step to make the testbed construct a message (including payloads) and send it to a designated application. GetMessage is a step that will wait for incoming messages, and select only those that satisfy a ﬁlter condition from a persistent message store. Finally, the TestAssertion operation veriﬁes that the messages retrieved via the GetMessage operation satisfy the conditions speciﬁed in the associated test requirements. The operation supports VerifyContent (compare message content to expected values), ValidateContent (validate the document structure), and VerifyTimeDifference (compare a computed time difference between two parameters against an expected value). Note that the use of IIC test

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steps in this Section is only for demonstration purpose, not implying they are tightly coupled with the proposed interoperability test. 4.2 Test Cases for the Proposed Interoperability Test We design two test case structures, i.e., connecting mode and debugging mode, for the proposed testbed. The connecting mode veriﬁes messages at their arrival, while the debugging mode veriﬁes all the messages after the test steps (i.e., PutMessage and GetMessage) are over. Therefore, the debugging mode has only one TestAssertion while the connecting mode has several ones. Connecting mode. The connecting mode ﬁrst veriﬁes that an application (i.e., the driver application) conforms to implementation speciﬁcations and, if passed, dynamically veriﬁes that the other application (i.e., the responder application) well interoperates with the driver application. This mode is desired when a tester (e.g., application developer) is not certain that the applications are implemented in accordance with speciﬁcations. In the other words, it defers the second loop of test until the driver application complies with the speciﬁcations. As shown in Fig. 4, a test case (of a one-cycle test) consists of two conformance cases. The second part is invoked only when the driver application passes, at least, the mandatory veriﬁcation conditions in the ﬁrst part. This mode is beneﬁcial in such a case that the driver application is correct and the responder application is suspicious, because the developer needs only to repeat the second part with the same output message A instead of repeating the whole test procedure.

PutMessage

Send a message to the driver application

GetMessage

Retrieve message A from the driver application

TestAssertion

Verify message A from the driver application

PutMessage

Send message A to the responder application

GetMessage

Retrieve message B from the responder application

TestAssertion

Verify message B from the responder application

Fig. 4. Test case structure for the connecting mode

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Debugging mode. For the one-cycle test, the debugging mode veriﬁes both applications after a test is over, so that it has only one TestAssertion step at the end as shown in Fig. 5. The purpose of this mode is to identify the causes of interoperability problems, if any, with speciﬁcation-compliant applications. That is, this test case is desired when both applications have already passed a set of conformance tests. This mode is likely to support a deferred test that veriﬁes messages after monitoring for a while.

PutMessage

Send a message to the driver application

GetMessage

Retrieve message A from the driver application

PutMessage

Send message A to the responder application

GetMessage

Retrieve message B from the responder application

TestAssertion

Verify messages A and B

Fig. 5. Test case structure for the debugging mode

5 Case Study An illustrative case study is to verify secure messaging between web service applications. For secure messaging, an enterprise never sends a message without encryption, so that counter enterprises must be able to decipher the message. We consider two web services for this case study: one service prepares a SOAP message containing an order (i.e., Fig 6.A) and encrypts the message body (i.e., Fig 6.B), and the other service receives and decrypts the message (i.e., Fig 6.C) to transfer it to its internal legacy system. For this test, both web services are conﬁgured according to the RAMP (Reliable Asynchronous Message Proﬁle) [5]. The test scenario is as follows: 1) the testbed sends an unsigned plain SOAP message to the encryption web service, 2) the encryption web service returns a signed and encrypted message (according to the WS-Security policy in Table 1) to the testbed, 3) the testbed veriﬁes the encrypted message and transmits it to the decryption web service, 4) the decryption web service decodes and returns it to the testbed, and ﬁnally, 5) the testbed compares the decoded message with the original SOAP message. Fig. 6 succinctly illustrates parts of SOAP messages. The original SOAP message (A) encapsulates an order element (as its body) to be encoded in EncryptedData (i.e., CipherValue) as shown in the message (B). In addition, the decrypted message (C) is

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Table 1. An example of WS-Security policy Use Canonicalization Signature Digest Encryption Key Encryption

Algorithm URI http://www.w3.org/2001/01/xml-exc-c14n# http://www.w3.org/2000/09/xmldsig#rsa-sha1 http://www.w3.org/2000/09/xmldsig#sha1 http://www.w3.org/2001/04/xmlenc#aes128-cbc http://www.w3.org/2001/04/xmlenc#rsa-1_5

same as the original message (A), except a list of namespaces. This shows the web services using the same security policy in Table. 1 are interoperable. If the encryption web service, for example, uses a different encryption algorithm, the testbed can neither identify http://www.w3.org/2001/04/xmlenc#aes128-cbc as the encryption algorithm in the message (B), nor correctly decode the encrypted message. On the other hand, if the decryption web service uses other algorithm, either the service fails to decode the message (B), or the returned message (C) is different from the original message (A). For these cases, the proposed testbed has correctly detected the problem sources, but IIC gives no clue about them. For the second case of incorrect encryption, a test case in the connecting mode can early detect the problem and prevent an interoperability problem from occurring before connecting two web services. However, this requires much more veriﬁcation capabilities than the debugging mode does. Therefore, easy augmentation of test cases, especially test assertions, is urgent.

6 Conclusion and Discussion The paper presented a novel interoperability test harness that makes up for the weak points in the existing test frameworks. The proposed test harness advances the IIC interoperability test harness for effective veriﬁcation and debugging of interoperability problems between B2B applications. For this purpose, the testbed successively executes separated output- and input-conformance tests. We also introduced two test case structures for the proposed testbed. Due to space limitation, we have to leave some practical issues as open discussions on how to utilize the proposed test framework and test cases, e.g., augmentation of veriﬁcation conditions, test case generation and execution, and deferred test. Although the paper describes the mediatory test harness and test case structures to be speciﬁc to ebXML/IIC, we think the concepts behind them are generic enough to be applicable to other B2B applications. 6.1 Characteristics The proposed test harness is advantageous to existing harnesses as follows:

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(A) Original SOAP message <soap:Envelope …> … <soap:Body wsu:Id="Id-e13ec37a-03ec-4041-a5ef-313f43af91d2">

(B) Encrypted SOAP message <soap:Envelope …> … <soap:Body wsu:Id="Id-e13ec37a-03ec-4041-a5ef-313f43af91d2"> <EncryptedData …> <EncryptionMethod Algorithm="http://www.w3.org/2001/04/xmlenc#aes128-cbc"/> /Mt2HoerdxgyZMrXYoQbV9KEoT0N+L4f0YSLqxI0xfyipmolYK9lT …

(C) Decrypted SOAP message <soap:Envelope …> … <soap:Body wsu:Id="Id-e13ec37a-03ec-4041-a5ef-313f43af91d2">

Fig. 6. Exemplary SOAP message encryption and decryption

• The testbed can correctly detect both which application has the cause of interoperability problems and which part of the application causes the problems. That makes the testbed cost-effective. • The testbed is scalable. If an application is connected to n applications, only n input-conformance tests are performed with the same output message from the application. • The testbed is universal because any types of enterprise applications can be tested, e.g., messaging service handler (MSH), BOD application, business service interface (BSI), etc [6]. • The testbed can perform a purpose-driven test, compared with the collaborative test environment. • The test is asynchronous and repetitive. In the proposed test environment, both driver and responder applications do not need to be connected at the same time. A user can exclusively verify the driver application ﬁrst, and after a while verify the other responder applications. Besides, he/she can repeat the input conformance test for any responder applications.

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Despite those advantages above, the test harness still has much room for improvement. First, a complex test scenario involving multiple applications and transactions may make developers cumbersome to augment a test case. To overcome this issue, we need to investigate an automated test generation, for example, using model-based testing [7], or to divide the scenario into several smaller ones and conquer them. Second, as described in Sect. 5, TestAssertion (i.e., VerifyContent) must be complete (at least, veriﬁable to mandatory requirements) to sufﬁciently verify applications 8 . Third, the testbed should desirably support for monitoring of daily transactions and data exchanges as well.

References 1. Accordare (2002) Corporate collaboration in XML-based trading partner connection: Paving the last mile. Technical report, Accordare Inc., MA 2. Kass M and Durand J (2004) ebXML test framework committee speciﬁcation, ver. 1.1. Technical report, OASIS, MA 3. Seely S and Lauzon D (2005) WS-I monitor tool functional speciﬁcation, ver. 1.1. Technical report, WS-I, NY 4. Kulvatunyou B, Ivezic N, and Jones A.T. (2005), Content-level conformance testing: An information mapping case study. In: Testing of Communicating Systems, LNCS 3502:349–364 5. Ferris C, Fowler T, and LeBlanc B (2005) Reliable asynchronous messaging proﬁle (RAMP), ver. 1.0. Technical report, IBM, NY 6. Kulvatunyou B, Ivezic N, Martin M, and Jones A.T. (2003), An business-to-business interoperability testbed: An overview. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Electronic Commerce 7. Apfelbaum L and Doyle J (1997) Model based testing. In: Proceedings of the Software Quality Week Conference

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There is an open discussion group, i.e., TAG (Test Assertion Guidelines), for user-friendly test assertion at http://www.oasis-open.org.

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UN/CEFACT Core Components as the basis for structured business communication by SMEs, employing auto-generated, user adjustable forms Fred van Blommestein1, Bertjan Broeksema2 University of Groningen, P.O. Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, the Netherlands 1 [email protected] 2 [email protected]

Abstract. In this paper a methodology is presented to generate webforms for business documents directly from XML schemas. XML Schemas that are based on the UN/CEFACT Naming and Design Rules may be maintained by industry organizations or negotiated bilaterally between trading partners. In details, schemas may differ per business partner and process implementation, and change over time. The usability of screen forms is very much dependent on their lay-out and on features like captions, pre-filled values, interactive integrity checks and element sequence. Business process characteristics, but also company policy and individual user preferences, determine the way features should be implemented. Present form implementations show a huge maintenance burden. It is shown in this paper that the hierarchical structuring of UN/CEFACT Core Components can be used to let users and companies annotate the forms, in such a way that annotations are preserved when the XML Schema changes. Maintenance is reduced and can fully be handled by end users. A prototype has been produced to proof this concept.

1 Introduction Business-to-Business (B2B) electronic messaging and webservices are often implemented as webforms, especially by small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) that do not deploy ERP systems. Today, message structures are defined by XML schemas. To represent the messages as webforms manual programming is required. Labor intensive and costly maintenance of these user interfaces is jeopardizing adoption of structured B2B communication solutions by SMEs. Automatic transformation of XML schema into webforms would be a solution, but

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the look-and-feel of the webforms should be adaptable and user preferences should be persistent, even when the schemas change. The standardization of B2B electronic communication has a history that goes further back than the worldwide adoption of the Internet. In the mid 1980s, the UN/ECE published the EDIFACT syntax rules which were soon adopted by ISO as ISO 9735 [1]. Since then, updates to the library of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) messages were published every half a year. EDI was intended to be used from back-office system to back-office system. Specialized software came on the market, so-called EDI translators, that perform the mapping between the standardized EDIFACT structures and internal databases. EDI can in practice only be used by large corporations with a well developed computing infrastructure. Small and medium sized companies were never able to use the technology and get its benefits. The Internet now provides an infrastructure that is low cost and can also be used by small companies. XML technology [2], as opposed to EDI, has low adoption thresholds as the technology is supported by all popular browser software. Provided with appropriate stylesheets, browsers can present XML messages as user friendly screen forms. The United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT) [3] is presently building a library of standard XML messages (schemas) for international trade. In preparation to this effort a joint project, called ebXML [4], was conducted with OASIS, a consortium that produced many XML related standards. The project lead to a set of specifications that describe how to send business related XML messages over the Internet, how to store their schemas in a registry and how to create a library of reusable semantic building blocks for those messages, among other. The latter specification is called the Core Component Technical Specification (CCTS) and has been adopted by ISO as ISO 15000-5 [5]. It must be emphasized that the scope of CCTS is wider than XML messaging. The building blocks are syntax neutral, they can be used for database design as well and are very suitable for semantic standardization of webservice. To standardize the semantics of world wide business is a huge task. Businesses are very dissimilar. The UN/CEFACT scope is not only agriculture, chemicals, retail, steel manufacturing, music, food, apparel, cars and electricity, but also medical services, insurance, governmental licensing, auditing and environmental reporting, among other. Within each of those sectors a large variety of trade procedures, processes and workflows exist. Ultimately, each individual company, to stay on its competitive edge, probably behaves (and therefore communicates) somewhat differently than its competitors. EDI is used by a small minority of businesses and only for their most general processes, so this variety did not surface. If ebXML is to be a success, it should contain mechanisms to manage the diversity. One such mechanism that is under development is the Context mechanism. CCTS defines two layers of building blocks: Core Components and Business Information Entities (BIEs). Aggregate Core Components represent very generic abstract business entities (real life objects), like “Party”, “Product” and “Delivery Event”. In a certain context (e.g. the Grocery wholesale business in Holland) these Aggregate Core Components are specialized to become Aggregate Business Information Entities (ABIEs) that may show up in electronic messages.

UN/CEFACT Core Components

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Specialization may be performed in a hierarchical fashion: World – Europe – Holland for instance, or Consumer articles – Food – Groceries. Context dependent specialization rules should be developed by (local) standardization committees, or negotiated among the trading partners involved. Another mechanism does not use Context drivers, but enables trading partners to directly negotiate on message and process meta information [6]. Whatever mechanism is deployed, application of CCTS principles will lead to millions of different message schemas. That large set of schemas will constantly be adapted and extended. Businesses will need to implement slightly different sets of schemas for each trading partner. This means that application interfaces cannot be hard wired, but must be flexible. The same is valid for human interfaces, which is the subject of this paper. Many EDI systems are only at one side integrated to a back end system. At the other side dedicated client software is used to produce the messages and to show the EDI messages as forms on a PC screen. This is only feasible if the relation between the small, not integrated, and the big integrated company is stable and if the small company does not have too many EDI customers, because for each different message type the client software must be programmatically adapted. With XML technology browsers can show messages directly, by means of a stylesheet, another XML construct. The major obstacle however is that whenever a message schema changes, the stylesheet must be adapted as well. Stylesheets are written in XSLT [7], which is a powerful, but complex, programming language. Local customization of schemas and forms are not possible without reprogramming. In fact not only content of XML messages must be shown, but fillin forms must be presented to the user for creating messages. This further complicates stylesheet maintenance. Moreover, form behavior and lay-out is very much depending on the local business process and on individual user preferences. In fact trading partners should completely be independent from each other in shaping their user interfaces. Tight coupling between schema and stylesheet violates this requirement.

2 Related work To extend the ebXML applicability to small companies and underdeveloped countries, the UN has started a project, called E-Docs [8]. The E-Docs project is to produce a set of electronic document schemas to be used in international trade, together with the stylesheets that allow companies to print the standardized electronic documents or to show them as electronic forms in a browser. Stylesheets however are programmed one-to-one based on the message schemas. It is to be expected that when the E-Docs library grows and specific documents are to support specific local regulations, maintenance of the stylesheets will become too burdensome. Similar projects to produce standard stylesheets with standardized message schemas have been started in many governmental and business environments. Crane Softwrights Ltd [9] has produced a set of stylesheets to show OASIS UBL messages on screen or to print them as PDF documents. Bals [10] proposes to use

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XSL-FO to present UBL messages. In Holland, GS1 has introduced an architecture with XML-stylesheets to show webforms in the electrotechnical and plumbing sector [11]. In Holland and Denmark governmental bodies design stylesheets for forms to support electronic government services. In these projects advanced tools are used to produce the XSLT code [12], but again a produced stylesheet fits one schema and a schema leads to one stylesheet. Local preferences that would lead to different form lay-out or behavior for the same schema are not supported. In Italy the Arianna project [13] does not take message schema as a basis, but a harmonized data model. From the model schemas and stylesheets are generated. The project generates e-government solutions for local Italian municipalities and other autonomous governmental agencies. Again, although programming burden is released, stylesheets cannot be adapted to user needs, but are imposed on the user by the governmental service. In the Efficient project [14] a similar architecture is employed, but for B2B rather than for governmental processes. The generation of forms within the Efficient project is however only used for demonstration and prototyping, not for run time use. Bizdex [15] and Govdex in Australia are projects to facilitate structured communication among companies and with Governmental services, respectively. The projects concentrate on the architecture for registering and employing models, rather than on the user interfaces and their flexibility. To our knowledge, no attempt has been made to support Business-to Business or Business-to-Government (B2G) communication with flexible user interfaces that can independently be managed by one of the peers and that is tolerant for (small) changes in the message schemas.

3 Webform solutions HTML includes a set of form controls. This set however induces a few problems [16]. First of all, the behavior of the controls is governed by scripts, which makes the HTML code complex and hard to maintain. Second, initialization is different per control, so the processing of default or standard data is complex. Third, HTML forms do not have a deep hierarchical structure, which is common in B2B or B2G documents. Fourth, HTML forms rely on certain processing at the server side. In a peer-to-peer environment the only communication with the server is by means of the XML message as defined in the schema. No ‘form related’ processing may be expected from a trading partner. W3C has published another specification for forms, called XForms. XForms is a set of controls and mechanisms to bind the controls to elements in an XML message. XForms has a number of advantages over HTML forms. An XForms document (which is represented in XHTML) defines the function of the form controls, not their actual appearance. This means that the same XForms document could be sent to a browser, a mobile phone or even a voice response system. The controls would be presented differently, but behave similarly. XForms make native use of XML and of the XML schema, which makes the binding to the message to be sent straightforward. XForms can completely be

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processed at the client side, although tools exist to translate an XForms document in a webserver to plain HTML which then is presented to the browser. Unfortunately XForms is not (yet) supported by all browsers, notably not by Microsoft Internet Exporer (IE). On the market and in Open Source however a number of ‘plug-ins’ are offered to enable IE users to use XForms [17]. For users in small and medium sized companies (and in larger companies that have not yet enabled their ERP system for electronic messaging), it is of utmost importance that forms that they may use daily are easy to handle. Data that is not changing should be pre-filled and trivial data (like the system date) should even not be shown as it only clutters the screen. All or most forms within the company should be styled in a similar way. Behavior of controls, the use of colors, tabsequences, paging, etc. must be ergonomic. In addition to user friendly presentation, many companies require business rules and integrity checks to be build in into the form controls, such as maximum amounts, calculations, subsetting of code lists, etc. These are private rules, not constraints that (may) appear in the schema.

4 Proposed architecture XSLT is a language, supported by most browsers, to transform an XML message into another XML message, HTML or any other structure. As an XForms construct is an XML (XHTML) message, it should be possible to transform any XML message into such construct. An XML schema (XSD) is also an XML message. So any XML schema, if it conforms to some more specific rules, can be converted into a screen form by means of XSLT. The more specific rules are offered by the UN/CEFACT XML Naming and Design Rules (NDR) [18] and CCTS [5].

XML-Schema (conform UN/CEFACT NDR)

(private)

XML annotation file

Browser (supporting XForms)

Name: Address: Telephone: Send

ebXML message

(generic)

XSLT-file

Fig. 1. Architecture To prove the concept to transform an XSD into an XForms XHTML file, we have constructed an XSLT that does this job. It must be stressed that we have constructed one generic XSLT file that converts any (NDR compliant) XSD into an XForms form. Doing so we have gratefully used concepts developed by Gropp [19], Brazier [20] and Garvey c.s. [21]. As noted, the user friendliness of screen forms is important. Automatic conversion of an XML schema into a form is expected to lack friendliness. So it is necessary to introduce a mechanism for users to enhance the presentation features

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of the form. On the other hand, one cannot expect users to redesign a form, each time when a new (or slightly modified) XML message structure is agreed with a trading partner. The solution we propose is to make use of the hierarchical nature of CCTS Business Information Entities (BIEs), which are represented in the schema. We propose to let the user (/superuser/systems manager) maintain a simple XML file in which the presentation options are annotated of Business Information Entities that may appear in messages. Presentation options may include the lookand-feel of form controls, but also text of captions, default values, code enumerations and integrity checks. Whenever a more specialized Business Information Entity is agreed or imposed in a new message or a message to/from a new trading partner, the more specialized BIE inherits the presentation options of its parent. Users may then adapt the presentation of the new BIE by adding those options to the annotation file using some (e.g. WYSIWYG) editing tool. For our proof of concept we have kept the structure of the annotation file as simple and straightforward as possible (see figure 2). Many studies have given suggestions how to specify user interfaces in XML messages, e.g. USIXML [22] or UIML [23]. It is very feasible to use one of those proposed structures as the definition of the form presentation. The only prerequisite is that the Dictionary Entry Names of the Business Information Entities are used as a key to the presentation definitions.

<document-settings>

Fig. 2. Annotation file Presentation is controlled conform the specialization hierarchy of Business Information Entities. Some Association Business Information Entity (ASBIEs, associations between or roles of ABIEs) could for example be named Fresh_ Food_ Product. Urban_ Reseller_ Customer. Franchise_ Retail_ Party

(see figure 3 for an illustrative UML Class diagram of this case). The form presentation engine, as coded in the XSLT file, first searches the annotation file if presentation annotations exist for this ASBIE. If for some features (e.g. caption, tab-sequence) no annotation is found, the engine searches for annotations for the ABIE Franchise_ Retail_ Party. Details. Note that the ASBIE is the specific

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use or role of the (child) ABIE within the Fresh_ Food_ Product (parent) ABIE. Features that are not found in the ABIE are then looked up in Food_ Product. Reseller_ Customer. Retail_ Party, which is the ASBIE Fresh_ Food_ Product. Urban_ Reseller_ Customer. Franchise_ Retail_ Party is based on. Still missing features are taken from respectively the ABIE Retail_ Party. Details, the ASBIE Product. Customer. Party and the ABIE Party. Details. If by then still presentation features have not been defined, defaults that were built in the XSLT are used to lay-out the form. In figure 3 the defined presentation hierarchy is illustrated in a UML Class diagram. The main advantage of this approach is that whenever a more generic form has been designed (say, including information of a Retail_ Party), a new, more specialized form (which includes Franchise_ Retail_ Party information) inherits such design. Only if the new form needs enhancement (e.g. a new caption for Franchise_ Retail_ Party), the user or his system manager may change that particular caption on that level. No other presentation options need to be redefined 7

Default <>

5

Product

Based On

Based On <>

3

Food_ Product

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6

Party

Based On <>

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4

Reseller_ Customer

Retail_ Party

Based On

Based On

Based On Fresh_ Food_ Product

<>

Customer

1

<>

2

Franchise_ Urban_ Reseller_ Customer Retail_ Party <>

Fig. 3. Presentation hierarchy Some presentation options depend on the form document itself rather than on the BIE hierarchy. Colors, character fonts and border styles for instance need to be consistent throughout the form. Therefore these features have been split: the feature function (e.g. ‘normal’, ‘emphasis’, ‘alert’) is defined at BIE level, the actual styling (e.g. ‘alert color’ = ‘red’) is defined at document level.

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5 Transformation file The XHTML file that is shown by the browser as a screen form has a structure as in figure 4. XForms structures consist of three parts: x XForms Instances, that contain a template of the XML message that must be sent x XForms Bindings, that bind the contents of the message elements to the form controls x XForms GUI Elements, that define the form structure and the form controls.

Fig. 4. XForms XHTML structure The structure of the XML instance message is defined by the same XML Schema that is input to the transformation process. The schema may refer to external codelists. The form is styled by means of a Cascading Stylesheet (CSS). The CSS is generated by the transformation process by matching the Business Information Entities as defined in the Schema to the style definitions in the annotation file by means of the following XSLT code:

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<xsl:template match="xsd:element" mode="style"> <xsl:call-template name="generate-style" > <xsl:with-param name="element.root" select="@name" /> <xsl:with-param name="element.root.type" select="@type" />

Fig. 5. Template to generate CSS-file A UN/CEFACT NDR [18] compliant schema has a modular structure. ABIEs and datatypes are globally declared. Each BIE or datatype definition has an annotation with all metadata of the element, including its Dictionary Entry Name. The transformation process uses this metadata to generate the right form controls and parameters. For example, the defined Business term is used as a default caption. <xsd:element name="BasePrice" type="qdt:EuroAmountType"> <xsd:annotation> <xsd:documentation xml:lang="en"> UN00000012 BBIE Consumables_ Order Item. Base Price. Amount Basisprijs ...

Fig. 6. Schema structure CCTS defines ten basic Core Component Types or CCTs like "Amount", "Text", "Measurement", etc. Datatypes are derived from these CCTs by restricting the values of the CCT components. CCTs are complex structures: the Amount CCT for instance includes the Currency Code. For each CCT a separate transformation module is included in the XSLT, that is activated when a datatype is met which is based on that CCT. The modular structure of the XSLT makes it easy to extend the functionality by adding more presentation features, like paging, calculations, control behavior, etc. The proof of concept that has been produced to date only contains the most elementary features.

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6 Application TraSer [24] is an EU-funded project to develop an open infrastructure for tracking and tracing of products. In the TraSer concept products are tagged with automatically readable identifiers that include the location (URI) where information of the product is to be stored. The TraSer architecture allows small and medium sized enterprises to acquire information of the final destinations of their products, and of the sources of product components and raw materials. Raw scanning information collection is complemented within TraSer with a set of web services that assemble relevant product information and make it available. Tracked and traced product information can (to date) rarely be processed in offthe-shelf business information systems that are used by SMEs. It is therefore expected that most TraSer users will access the information on-screen. The semantics of TraSer services and (request and response) messages will be defined using UN/CEFACT Core Components. The messages will be defined in XML Schemas using the UN/CEFACT Naming and Design Rules. The form generating mechanism that is presented in this paper will be used to present the TraSer queries and responses as webforms in user browsers. In many companies, the daily monitoring of product flows is a routine operation. It is therefore of utmost importance that the forms are user friendly and fit for the (in most cases primary) enterprise processes. Another main application of the mechanism is business to business communication, where the integration with back-end systems cannot immediately or totally be established. Back-end integration often requires major investment and allocation of resources. Such effort can seldom be synchronized among trading partners. In most cases one of the partners is not ready, when the other partner is. The proposed solution enables the partners to start exchanging structured information, without forcing both partners to invest in back-end integration right away. The proposed solution does in fact only require a simple tool to edit the presentation annotation file. We have already prepared a simple editor that will be made available under Open Source licensing.

7 Conclusion and future research Present work concentrates on the usability of the solution, like completing the set of presentation options and to enhance the tool to edit the annotation file in a user friendly way. Future research will embed the solution in a total B2B process environment. The presented version generates a screen form from an XML schema. It does not take into account information that was received previously from trading partners in other XML messages. The XSLT should be extended to present such information with the form, if it is relevant for filling the form.

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Another (or additional) option is to extract such information from a database or business information system. Process monitoring can be included in the presented architecture by enhancing the message Schema with pre- and post conditions. Such conditions, which control the sequence of messages to be sent and received and monitor the lifecycles of the business entities represented in the messages can be embedded in the schema using a language like Schematron [25]. In a separate proof of concept we have extended the XSLT to validate Schematron statements. By introducing flexible, form based B2B communication, the threshold for SMEs to connect to (ERP-) systems of larger trading partners (or to each other in exactly the same way) is lowered dramatically. The presented architecture and methodology is based on open standards and can be deployed for this purpose. Its concept has been proofed. Form-based B2B communication may also be used as a first implementation phase for larger companies, decoupling the application integration projects of trading partners. The methodology therefore may give a boost to the adoption of structured B2B and B2G business communication.

8 References [1]

[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[11] [12]

[13] [14] [15]

International Organization for Standardization (ISO): ISO 9735, Electronic data interchange for administration, commerce and transport (EDIFACT), Application level syntax rules, 1988. W3C: XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.0 (Third Edition), www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml/, Last accessed 30 Oct 2006. www.unece.org/cefact/, Last accessed 30 Oct 2006. F. van Blommestein, c.s.: ebXML for Managers, ECP.NL, Leidschendam, The Netherlands UN/CEFACT: Core Components Technical Specification – Part 8 of the ebXML Framework. Version 2.01. Adopted by ISO as ISO 15000-5. (November 2003) Krukkert, D.: Matching of ebXML Business Processes; Report Project number IST 2001-28548 OpenXchange W3C: XSL Transformations (XSLT) Version 1.0, W3C Recommendation 16 November 1999, www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml/, Last accessed 30 Oct 2006 www.unece.org/etrades/unedocs/, Last accessed 30 Oct 2006 UBL/Crane stylesheets: www.cranesoftwrights.com/resources/ublss/ (accessed on 30 Oct 2006) Bals, K.: Using XSL, XForms and UBL together to create complex forms with visual fidelity, XML2005 Conference Proceedings, www.idealliance.org/proceedings/ xml05/ship/1/ 04-02-01-new.PDF (accessed on 17 Oct 2006) www.instalnet.nl (accessed on 30 Oct 2006) CapGemini: De e-formulierenmachine in de Nederlandse context (in Dutch), www.eoverheid.nl/data/files/eFormulieren/eindrapportformulierenmachine200504.pdf (accessed on 30 Oct 2006) Barone c.s.: Semantic of eGovernment Processes: a Formal Approach to Service Definition, I-ESA 2006 proceedings, Springer Verlag. Eshuis, R.: c.s. Animating ebXML Transactions with a Workflow Engine (Efficient), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 2888/2003, Springer Verlag. www.bizdex.com.au/ (accessed on 30 Oct 2006)

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[16] Dubinko, M: XForms Essentials, O’Reilly, 2003 [17] www.w3.org/MarkUp/Forms/ [18] UN/CEFACT: XML Naming and Design Rules for Core Components. To be downloaded from www.disa.org/cefact-groups/atg/downloads/index.cfm. Last accessed 30 Oct 2005 [19] Gropp, E.: Transforming XML Schemas, XML.COM, 2003, www.xml.com/lpt/a/1092 (accessed on 17 Oct 2006). [20] Brazier, D.: Stylesheet for NHSiS Schemas, private mail to H. S. Thompson, www.stylusstudio.com/xmldev/200012/post30080.html (accessed on 17 Oct 2006). [21] Garvey, P.: c.s. Generating User Interfaces from Composite Schemas, XML2003 Conference Proceedings, www.idealliance.org/papers/dx_xml03/papers/03-03-04/0303-04.pdf (accessed on 17 Oct 2006) [22] Limbourg, Q.: c.s.: USIXML: A Language Supporting Multi-path Development of User Interfaces. EHCI/DS-VIS 2004: 200-220 [23] UIML: www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/5937/uiml-core-3.1-draft-0120040311.pdf (accessed on 30 Oct 2006) [24] www.traser-project.eu, (accessed on 30 Oct 2006) [25] www.schematron.com/, (accessed on 30 Oct 2006)

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SAMBA – An Agent architecture for Ambient Intelligence Elements Interoperability Arne-Jørgen Berre1, Giovanna Di Marzo Serugendo2, Djamel Khadraoui3, François Charoy4, George Athanasopoulos5, Michael Pantazoglou5, Jean-Henry Morin6, Pavlos Moraitis7, Nikolaos Spanoudakis8 1

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SINTEF, Forskningsveien 1, Blindern, 0314 OSLO, Norway [email protected] Birkbeck College,University of London, UK [email protected] Centre de Recherche Henri Tudor, Luxembourg [email protected] University Henri Poincaré, France [email protected] National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece [email protected], [email protected] Korea University Business School, Seoul, Korea [email protected] René Descartes University, Paris, France [email protected] Singular Logic SA, Greece [email protected]

Abstract. The SAMBA (Systems for AMBient intelligence enabled by Agents) architecture reported here is a conceptual service-oriented architecture supporting the interaction and interoperability of systems, applications and actors by the notion of an “Ambient Intelligence Element Society”. The objective is to provide an ecosystem infrastructure supporting the interaction and interoperability of various elements by encapsulating and representing them through agents acting as members of an Ambient Intelligence Elements Society, and by using executable models at run-time in support of interoperability.

1 Introduction The vision for Ambient intelligence (AmI) envisages that devices (e.g. nodes, routers, PDAs) and software agents running on those devices, organise themselves

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for the benefit of their respective users. Ambient Intelligence builds on three recent key technologies: Ubiquitous Computing, Ubiquitous Communication and Intelligent User Interfaces. Ubiquitous Computing refers to integration of microprocessors into everyday objects like furniture, clothing, white goods, toys, even paint. Ubiquitous Communication enables these objects to communicate with each other and with the user by means of ad-hoc and wireless networking. An Intelligent User Interface enables the inhabitants of the Ambient Intelligence environment to control and interact with the environment in a natural (voice, gestures) and personalised way (preferences, context). In this paper, we will refer to those inhabitants (i.e. devices and software agents) as AmI elements (AmIE). Such AmI elements interoperate and share knowledge or experiences, they gather information (e.g., about road traffic), and they automatically pay amounts of money from e-purses, customise room lighting and temperature, request for references, or build user profiles in loosely coupled environments. Other AmI elements at the same time serve managerial purposes dealing with corporate data in B2B or B2A interactions. These applications are supported by unobtrusive and invisible technology, which is able to take decisions and initiatives, make proposals to the user, and negotiate with others. In addition, in order to support human beings fully without overloading them with requests and information, the underlying technology needs advanced means to let the AmI elements interact and coordinate their work as autonomously as possible. This can only be achieved if AmI elements can interoperate with each other from business point of view as well as from technical and semantic point of view. More specifically, business interoperability concerns issues related to interorganisational business processes. Technical interoperability refers at the knowledge level (e.g. different formats, schemas, and ontology), and at the level of the underlying information and communication technologies (ICT) and systems. Semantic interoperability is crucial for interactions among AmI elements that do not know each other, and that have no common design time compliance. Semantic interoperability avoids pre-established (at design-time) agreements on information formats or communication schemas, allowing the discovery and understanding onthe-fly of relevant information needed for allowing interactions to take place. Furthermore, the AmI vision combined with the vision of future Networked Businesses and eGovernment –the ability of doing “Plug-and-Play” of services by 2010 - has a common need for addressing the problem of semantic interoperability. In this paper, we present a framework called SAMBA (Systems for AMBient intelligence enabled by Agents) that provides a solution to the aforementioned interoperability issues. Section 2 describes the AmIE Society requirements addressed by SAMBA, while Sections 3, 4 and 5 describe respectively the SAMBA Architecture and SAMBA Interoperability Infrastructures. Section 6 highlights the use of the Model Driven approach in the context of SAMBA. Section 7 discusses related works, while Section 8 provides conclusions and a description of future work.

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2 AmIE Society Requirements addressed by SAMBA The AmIE society contains a set of interacting and interoperating AmI elements, represented by agents. The SAMBA infrastructure will support the agents' reasoning mechanism, agents’ individual strategies and dialogues and will provide a run-time service-oriented infrastructure supporting the execution and social semantic interactions of AmI elements. This infrastructure integrates in a modular way the notions of services, autonomous agents, mobile agents and mobile devices by addressing the following main interoperability requirements between AmI elements. Semantic interactions. AmI elements participating in ambient intelligence application, or simply working on behalf of some user, need to interact with each other and with their environment in order to realise their individual or collective goals. This interaction implies an understanding of peers’ behaviour, functionality, and offered services or requested tasks. These interactions also happen with unknown peers, or with peers with no pre-established agreement at design time. Autonomous behaviour. Elements situated in an ambient intelligence environment interact autonomously with each other. They are each dedicated to a particular user, but need to interact with other elements in order to realise their functionality. Designing and developing autonomous embedded systems requires careful management of autonomy issues. Social interactions. Elements participating in an ambient intelligence environment constitute an ecosystem, i.e. a society of autonomous AmI elements that perform activities similar to human behaviour: collaborations, competitions, transactions, negotiations, and contracting. In addition, for security purposes, such elements may gather and share knowledge, information and experience amongst themselves, building a trust-based system. This kind of social behaviour requires that AmI elements are equipped with extra functionalities that go beyond their basic goals. They need to exchange semantic (meaningful) information of different types: functionality, non-functional aspects, quality of service, current state, recommendations, and negotiations. Discovery and Composition of services. Independently of the underlying actual technology, the interaction model for AmI elements is based on a service-oriented architecture. AmI elements both offer services to and request services from other elements. Such services, which may have a heterogeneous format, require an infrastructure for dynamic advertisement, discovery, retrieval, access and combination to obtain additional functionality irrespectively of the underlying protocols and standards as well as platforms used for their provision and usage. Security. Security issues are intimately linked to the AmI elements’ autonomy and the fact that they reside in a shared environment over which none of the elements have complete control, and of which each element has only a local perception. Nevertheless, AmI elements have to ensure their survival, and reach their goal. Security issues relate to data integrity, confidentiality, authentication, non-repudiation, access control and resources management, and also include trust, risk issues and digital rights and policy management (persistent protection). Electronic legal transactions. For many domains, not limited just to e-Business, AmI elements may need to engage in legal transactions for accessing, validating, or

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authenticating services provided by other elements, or by the environment. These transactions cover aspects related to electronic contracting, rights and policy management, transfer of electronic currency, and validation of such transactions. SAMBA provides an integrated computing infrastructure enabling semantic interoperability and social interaction among autonomous AmI elements. This infrastructure addresses the above requirements in an intertwined way (mutual understanding, knowledge sharing for handling interoperability, security support, resource management, and electronic transactions).

3 SAMBA Architecture Context. The SAMBA architecture is currently being discussed in the context of the domain of “Architecture & Platform interoperability” in the INTEROP Network of Excellence [3] project. The vision is to support the interaction and interoperability of various systems, applications and actors by encapsulating and representing them through agents acting as AmI elements in an AmI society. In the Agent group of the aforementioned domain we have worked on how to provide support for semantic interoperability and trust, in the context of Ubiquitous Communication, for personal, business and governmental interactions. Approach. The key point in the SAMBA approach resides in the separation of concern between the code of an AmI element, and the description of its functional behaviour, its non-functional constraints and requirements (e.g. for low-power devices, reputation, contracting) and run-time policies. This description (expressed under the form of a formal specification, active model, or ontology) is available and used at run-time for publishing AmIE capabilities under the form of services, for AmIE to request services, and for describing non-functional requirements and policies. The ecosystem of AmI elements (AmIE society) is supported by the SAMBA architecture depicted in Figure 1. Under the generic term of AmI elements, the SAMBA architecture intends to support the following different kinds of autonomous software: intelligent agents, mobile agents, mobile devices, and Web services. All the services used are specified in models before they become AmI elements of the AmIE Society having their intrinsic discovery and interaction capabilities based on context, semantic and security interoperability. The SAMBA architecture is composed of 2 interoperability layers bound together by the notion of models used at run-time: x

x

AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure. This upper layer deals exclusively with models and provides high-level interoperability among AmI elements by dealing with contextual, semantic and non-functional aspects. It thus provides AmI elements with capabilities to discover each other, to interact with each other (either directly or not) and to enforce policies. AmIE Technical Interoperability Infrastructure. This layer is the execution environment of the different AmI software. It is responsible for supporting the models by providing the link between the code and the

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corresponding model. This layer provides technical interoperability among different technologies involved in the AmIE society, essentially through the agents’ abstraction paradigm. The key idea for linking the two infrastructure layers and for clearly handling the different aspects of separation of concerns resides in the use of formal descriptions or models of the different concerns at run-time. These models describe: functional behaviour of AmI components, non-functional execution constraints (particularly for mobile devices), service requests from AmI elements, services provided by AmI elements, and different security policies needed throughout an AmI application. These models may be of different nature: active models, formal specifications, or ontology. In the following we describe in more detail the two infrastructure layers of the SAMBA architecture.

Figure 1: SAMBA Architecture

4 AmIE Technical Interoperability Infrastructures The AmIE Technical Interoperability Infrastructure (lower layer of Figure 1) views all AmIE as agents, equipped with some reasoning and dialogue capabilities, providing individual strategies selection. This infrastructure integrates in a modular

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way the service-oriented components available from the AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure (upper layer of Figure 1) and any identified autonomous agent platform. Agents. AmI elements are represented as agents. Possible platforms that will support agents’ development will be identified along with the technical issues referring to the needs for message exchanging between agents residing in different platforms. The JADE platform with the LEAP lightweight extension is an example that could satisfy our requirements, since they are open-source, widely used and compliant with the FIPA standard. The message delivery mechanism will be FIPA compliant and also support lightweight devices and mobile agents. Being FIPA compliant gives the possibility to integrate other modules or agents developed in different contexts or to easily increase the system functionality. Agents’ reasoning. An emerging area of the agent technology is the use of argumentation for the decision making of agents. Argumentation can be abstractly defined as the principled interaction of different, potentially conflicting arguments, for the sake of arriving at a consistent conclusion (see e.g. [21]). The nature of the “conclusion” can be anything, ranging from a proposition to believe, to a goal to try to achieve, to a value to try to promote. A single agent may use argumentation techniques to perform its individual reasoning because it needs to make decisions under complex preferences policies, in a highly dynamic environment (see e.g. [13]). The Gorgias open source tool offers the possibility of using argumentation for the decision making process of our agents. Social Interactions / Autonomous Agent Dialogues. The task of modelling agent dialogues has proved to be of great importance in representing complex agent interactions. Since the work of Walton and Krabbe [23] proposing a classification of possible atomic dialogue types (i.e. deliberation, negotiation, persuasion, information-inquiry, information-seeking, eristic) a lot of works have been devoted to modelling the first five of them, the sixth being considered inappropriate in a multi-agent context. Recently, some of this work has adopted an argumentation-based approach for such dialogue modelling as can be found for example in [19, 14]. However, there exist only a few cases (see e.g. [19, 17]) of study of the combination of atomic dialogues and of the particular combination of embedded dialogues [11]. The innovation of SAMBA, in this field, is the realisation of the different dialogue types (i.e. negotiation, persuasion, deliberation, info-seeking, info-inquiry) identified in the literature using the two-level rules scheme [15] and enabling the agents that are involved in a conversation to change the type of the dialogue dynamically depending on their goals and the context the dialogue is taking place. AmIE Technical Interoperability Infrastructure. This infrastructure will support agent’s actions and decisions, and mechanisms favouring the use of service-oriented components by agents. The link with services available from the AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure is provided by a series of executable models used at run-time to invoke the needed services, thus supporting multitechnology integrations (Web services, mobile agents, MAS).

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5 AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure The goal of the AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure is to facilitate interoperability and interactions/communication among the diverse AmI elements. The resulting layer will span across the various heterogeneous, existing and emerging, service- and agent- related technologies and standards (WSDL, OWL-S, WSMO, UDDI, JXTA, FIPA, LARKS, etc.) and will provide a means for the enactment of functional and semantic interoperability among the AmI elements. AmI elements in SAMBA (being either agents or heterogeneous services,) expose their functionality and semantics through the use of appropriate description documents and interfaces. The provided layer will specify what these descriptions and interfaces comprise, and how they are used for the purposes of publication, discovery and invocation of the respective agents/services. Models and Languages. This infrastructure will rely on the definition of the three following elements: 1. a generic AmI element model supporting all concepts needed for the description of the functional and non-functional behaviour of AmI elements within a service-oriented context; 2. an Ambient Intelligence Element Description Language for the AmI elements to publish their specifications or requests; 2. an Ambient Intelligence Element Query Language supporting the unified formulation of requests used by AmI elements for discovering each other, based on their published descriptions. AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure. Each AmI element in SAMBA must be able to perform the following: 1. advertise its functionality; 2.discover other AmI elements that implement/offer a specific functionality; 3. interact with other AmI elements, in terms of accessing and invoking their offered functionality. The AmIE Semantic Interoperability Infrastructure, acting as a service-oriented middleware, will provide the seamless, transparent accomplishment of the above tasks at runtime. This engine will implement the AmIEQL language and will be used by AmI elements for the purposes of agent and service discovery. It will employ ontology-based techniques and mechanisms to enhance the discovery process, while the implementation of a matchmaking algorithm will ensure the compliance of query results with the initial requirements. Moreover, interactions with external registries and networks will take place in a seamless, transparent manner. Thus, a wide number of existing and emerging registry types (e.g. UDDI, LDAP, ebXML, etc.) will be accessible for discovering existing, registered SAMBA AmI elements. This infrastructure will also provide the necessary mechanisms, in order to allow the publication of service descriptions to a registry of choice, as well as the invocation of heterogeneous services (Web, P2P services), as part of the interaction among AmI elements. Invocation of agents will be catered by the underlying AmI Technical Interoperability Infrastructure. Like discovery, both publication and service invocation will take place in a unified, transparent manner. Thus, the overall platform will retain interoperability among heterogeneous AmI elements. This infrastructure will be open and extensible; it will cater for the integration of many diverse and heterogeneous service and agent technologies. Thus, the offered platform will render feasible their interoperability and seamless interaction.

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6 AmIE MDE Executable Models Besides the technological infrastructure supporting AmI systems, it is important as well to investigate development techniques supporting semantic interoperability of AmI elements. Semantic interoperability for autonomous elements implies independence of communication, independence of business flow, and independence of information format, or APIs descriptions. The Model Driven Architecture (MDA) is a promising approach for the support of semantic interoperability due to its promise of providing consistent models at different abstraction layers with well-defined mappings in between these layers. MDA is the OMG’s instance of an approach to software development coming to be known as Model Driven Engineering (MDE) or Model Driven Development (MDD). MDE focuses on the Model as the primary artefact in the development process, with transformations as the primary activity mechanism, which is used to map information from one model to another. The model-driven approach in the SAMBA architecture will provide the following benefits: x x x

AmI models describing at different abstraction levels the AmI elements and interactions; Modelling language for expressing models used at run-time; Executable models and appropriate transformations.

Model-Driven Engineering Approach. The high-level models shall provide a framework that makes it easier for the designer to specify the AmI elements and their interactions than working with low-level specifications. We will specify and implement automated transformations from the AmI models to the AmI run-time environment. The modelling language will logically be separated into different parts which represent different views of AmI elements, such as component description, interface description, static information and behavioural/executable specifications. Furthermore the modelling language needs to support the semantic, functional, non-functional and security aspects of the SAMBA platform. Transformation from AmI-models to AmI executable run-time specifications. A series of transformations starting from high-level models, via detailed models, and ending at AmI executable specifications will be provided. Orthogonal to these high-level-to-low-level transformations, we will also aim to define transformations for the different parts of the AmI modelling language (component, interface, static, behavioural) into the equivalent parts within the AmI run-time environment.

7 Related Work AmI Supporting Infrastructures and Technology. Current existing techniques for realising AmI systems focus on isolated requirements, such as electronic device technology, user requirements, or specific aspects of the supporting infrastructure. At the infrastructure level, some approaches, which are essentially user/consumercentred, are targeted towards offering relevant information and services to the

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individual. Some rely on an underlying infrastructure that allows service discovery to be built through a component based engineering approach, or by using mobile agents for connecting AmI elements. Other approaches concentrate on the use of context tags, which capture and communicate information about the environment. At the application level, some other approaches take a socio-economic view, where business models underpin the AmI vision that devices have roles and identities. They are usually built on top of existing underlying technologies. Finally, yet other approaches focus on virtual organisations, co-operative workplaces in support of AmI, or on delivering particular portable audio-visual devices providing location information to disabled users. Although there are some research initiatives in the field of ambient intelligence, only a few of them focus on providing a computing infrastructure to the AmI elements seen as an ecosystem. In addition, it seems that there is no attempt at providing an integrated or systematic solution to problems such as semantic interoperability of AmI elements, service discovery and composition, and application development. The SAMBA approach is not centred on providing specific services to users; it is centred on providing an infrastructure for the AmI elements to enable their interactions. It intends to investigate and derive an integrated computing infrastructure for AmI elements, allowing them to carry out their own tasks autonomously, while interacting socially and semantically with each other. Semantic Interoperability. Formal specifications and models are more and more being used at run-time in conjunction with executing code in order to address semantic interoperability and adaptability issues. Self-configuring systems, specification-carrying code are attempts to replace traditional well-agreed (in advance) APIs with formal specifications understood at run-time by some middleware infrastructure [18]. This avoids the need of having shared ontologies, or agreed contracts, thus favouring a high-degree of interaction among heterogeneously designed components. Following the same ideas, but a larger level of granularity, B2B middleware for interoperable business applications, are addressing similar concerns: allowing interaction and run-time evolution of independently developed business applications [16]. Dynamic self-organising software architectures are also being defined in order to provide infrastructures where “components automatically configure their interactions in a way compatible with an overall architectural specification” [12]. Open issues related to semantic interoperability through the use of formal models or specifications encompass: the definition of specific languages for expressing the different functional and nonfunctional aspects; reasoning tool for processing specifications at run-time; and run-time infrastructure supporting the processing of these specifications and the execution of the corresponding code. The SAMBA infrastructure addresses these issues and enhances the state of the art, by providing: active models for specifying different concerns at run-time (from functional to non-functional, to policies); run-time reasoning tools for processing those models, and a technical infrastructure supporting the execution of the underlying components. Service-Oriented Architectures. The current state of the art in service-oriented technology is characterized by a large number of heterogeneous services (e.g. Web services and P2P services), of different scope, origins and architecture models. All

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these types of services employ different/incompatible architectural models, protocols, and standards for service description, discovery, publication and invocation. More specifically: x

x

Web services are modular, self-described applications that can be described and discovered as XML artefacts. They mainly offer coarse-grained business functionality and abide by the client-server model with the Web service being the server and with its users being the clients. They are accessible through the Web using established protocols namely SOAP, WSDL and UDDI. Despite the early standardization efforts for the core set of protocols, which facilitate the description, discovery and invocation of Web services, the supporting tools that are provided by vendors (e.g. IBM, SUN, Microsoft) have brought up many interoperability problems. WS-I [8] has tackled these issues with the Basic Profile v1.1 [9], which describes what web service developers should avoid in order to achieve interoperability among different web service implementations. Peer-to-peer (p2p) services follow the P2P architectural model. Currently there is neither any widely accepted definition of what constitutes a P2P service nor any accepted standard for their description and discovery. P2P services vary from fine-grained ones offering basic functionalities, e.g. discovery of the nodes and data in a P2P network, message exchange or network structure, to more coarse-grained ones offering high level business functionality, e.g. file sharing or instant messaging. Thus, P2P services offer useful functionality which may also be reused and contribute in service-oriented development. All protocols used for the discovery and invocation of P2P services are proprietary, e.g. JXTA, GNUTELLA.

Agents on the other hand may be regarded as autonomous, proactive and adaptive software systems that are able to collaboratively perform tasks that are assigned to them. A wide list of platforms exists today that may be used for the development of agents. FIPA [2] has provided a set of standards that promote the agent-based technology and the interoperability among heterogeneous agents. With respect to the aforementioned technologies there are many research efforts trying to integrate them. Most of these efforts use agents as a mean to facilitate the orchestration, discovery or mediation of services. Whereas, others use agents as service providers (e.g Web service providers). SAMBA employs an approach where services and agents are regarded as distinct elements that may interoperate so as to achieve some objectives. The same approach has been applied in SODIUM [6], an EU IST project aiming to provide a platform that facilitates the unified discovery and composition of heterogeneous services. SODIUM has established a generic service model (GeSMO) [10], which incorporates the characteristics of Web, Grid and P2P services, a unified service query language (USQL) [22], which facilitates the discovery of services over heterogeneous registries and networks, as well as a unified service composition language (USCL) [20], which supports the composition of heterogeneous services. Model Driven Engineering. The current state of the art in Model Driven Engineering (MDE) is much influenced by the ongoing standardisation activities around the OMG MDA (Model Driven Architecture) concept [5]. The approach

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separates related abstraction models for the CIM (Computational Independent/Context), PIM (Platform Independent Model) and PSM (Platform Specific Model) levels. The metamodels that will be supported are supposed to be specified in the Meta Object Facility (MOF), and transformations between models will be supported by the Query View Transformation (QVT) standard language emerging from OMG. Furthermore the transformation from models to code will be supported by the MOF Model to Text (M2T) transformation language also emerging from OMG. The MODELWARE IST project is working on the creation of an environment for this [4], which is being further extended in the open source project Model Driven Development Integration, MDDI. This project is dedicated to integrate modelling tools, languages and methodologies to create fully customizable MDD environments. Lately Microsoft has also started to support the approach through their toolset for DSL – Domain Specific Languages in Visual Studio 2006. Support for mappings between different models is typically here also supported by a transformation and mapping programming, similar to the QVT standard language emerging from OMG. The SAMBA architecture extends the model-driven approach to handle the modelling of AmI elements through a manifestation of the relevant concepts in a MOF-based meta-model.

8 Conclusions and Future Work The SAMBA conceptual architecture offers a vision of the AmIE Society where AmIE are represented as agents and services interacting through a service-oriented middleware offering both technical and semantic interoperability based on the use of executable models. The authors have already provided some parts of the architecture: the SODIUM infrastructure [6] provides a unified approach for composition, discovery and execution of heterogeneous services (i.e. Web, P2P, and Grid services), and the Specification-Carrying code infrastructure [18] allows interaction among components through the exclusive use of specifications. In addition, the INTEROP NoE [3] has a number of task groups investigating the model-driven approach to interoperability, with various studies of technologies for model-driven interoperability and morphosis/transformation. The INTEROP domain group for Architecture&Platforms is investigating the possibilities for a platform independent interaction model across various heterogeneous platforms, including agents, web services, grids and P2P. A group on NFA, Trust, Policies and Security is looking into interoperability of non functional aspects. The ATHENA IP [1] is realizing various model-driven tools for both semantic interoperability and integration of agents in a SOA platform. The MODELWARE IP project [4] is developing model driven tools to support an underlying open source toolset. Upcoming projects, such as SWING [7] and MODELPLEX [4] will extend the work around semantic services and model-driven interoperability, and we hope to be in a position to later bring the various solution elements together, for a more complete realization of the SAMBA vision and architecture.

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3 References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19] [20] [21]

[22]

[23]

ATHENA project: www.athena-ip,net FIPA – Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents, http://www.fipa.org/ INTEROP project: www.interop-noe.net MODELWARE and MODELPLEX projects: http://www.modelbased.net OMG MDA, www.omg.org/mda SODIUM: http://www.atc.gr/sodium SWING: http://www.sintef.no/content/page1883.aspx Web Services Interoperability Organization: http://www.ws-i.org WS-I Basic Profile v1.1, http://www.ws-i.org/Profiles/BasicProfile-1.1-2004-0824.html Athanasopoulos G, Tsalgatidou A, Pantazoglou M (2006) Interoperability among Heterogeneous Services. In: Proc. of IEEE International Conference on Services Computing (SCC ’06): 174-181. Dimopoulos Y, Kakas A, Moraitis, P (2005) Argumentation Based Modeling of Embedded Agent Dialogues. In: Proc. of 2nd International Workshop on Argumentation in Multi-Agent Systems, (ArgMAS'05). Georgiadis I, Magee J, Kramer J (2003) Self-organising software architectures for distributed systems. In: Wolf A, Garlan D, Kramer, J (eds) Proc. of the 1st ACM SIGSOFT Workshop on Self-Healing Systems (WOSS'02): 33-38. Kakas A, Moraitis P (2003) Argumentation Based Decision Making for Autonomous Agents. In: Proc. of 2nd International Joint Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (AAMAS'03): 883-890. Kakas A, Maudet N, Moraitis, P (2004) Layered strategies and protocols for argumentation-based agent interaction. In: Proc. of 1st International Workshop on Argumentation in Multi-Agent Systems (ArgMAS'04). Kakas A, Maudet N, Moraitis, P (2005) Modular Representation of Agent Interaction Rules through Argumentation. In: Journal of Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems, (JAAMAS), Springer US, 11(2): 189-206. Kutvonen L, Ruokolainen T, Metso J, Haataja J (2005) Interoperability middleware for federated enterprise applications in Web-Pilarcos. In: Konstantas D, Bourrières JP, Léonard M, Boudjlida N (eds) Proc. of 1st International Conference on Interoperability for Enterprise Software and Applications (I-ESA’05): 185-196. McBurney P, Parsons S (2002) Games that agents play: a formal framework for dialogues between autonomous agents. In: Journal of Logic, Language and Information, 11(3): 315-334. Oriol M, Di Marzo Serugendo G (2004) A disconnected service architecture for unanticipated run-time evolution of code. In: IEE Proceedings-Software, 151(2): 95108. Parsons S, McBurney P, Wooldridge M (2003) The mechanics of some formal interagent dialogue. In: Proc. of Workshop on Agent Communication Languages: 329-348. Pautasso C, Heinis T, Alonso G (2005) D6-SODIUM Unified Service Composition Language (USCL), SODIUM project IST-FP6-004559 deliverable, June 2005. Rahwan I, Moraitis P, Reed C (eds.) (2005) Argumentation in Multi-Agent Systems: Proceedings of the First International Workshop (ArgMAS'04) LNAI, Volume 3366, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Tsalgatidou A, Pantazoglou M, Athanasopoulos, G (2005) D8-Specification of the Unified Service Query Language (USQL), SODIUM project IST-FP6-004559 deliverable, June 2005. Walton DN, Krabbe ECW (1995) Commitment in dialogue: basic concepts of interpersonal reasoning, State University of New York Press.

Determining Runtime Properties of Mobile Software Architectures Volker Gruhn and Clemens Sch¨ afer Chair for Applied Telematics / e-Business University of Leipzig, Germany {gruhn,schaefer}@ebus.informatik.uni-leipzig.de

1 Introduction Interaction of mobile communication networks (network coverage, bandwidth, communication drop-outs) with software distribution aspects challenges developers of mobile systems. On the one hand they are requested to design mobile systems such that these meet certain quality-of-service properties, on the other hand the realization of such systems should be as technically eﬃcient as possible, requiring early system analysis during the design stage. Developers’ needs imply that analysis results usually delivered by formal methods, like that for example a system is deadlock-free, are not fully appropriate. An appropriate solution has to strive more for assertions like that for example a transaction in the system takes less than two seconds to complete in 98 percent of all cases. Stochastic methods like Markov Chains, which can provide such results, are not handy in supporting mobility, so that as a ﬁnal consequence we decided to apply a simulation approach in order to determine the desired properties of a mobile system.

2 Related Work Architecture Description Languages (ADLs) in general have been a topic of research in previous years. The classiﬁcation work of Medvidovic and Taylor [5] presents a sound compilation of properties of existing ADLs. In the past mobile ADLs have recently been presented [6, 3] and are able to model the dynamics of mobile systems. Although they vary in terms of elaboration and tool support, the fundamental diﬀerence—from the perspective of this paper—is the treatment of non-functional properties, which is absent or not very distinct. Other approaches based on Lamport’s TLA+ language (e.g. [4]

The chair for Applied Telematics / e-Business is endowed by Deutsche Telekom AG.

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or [8]) or Markov Chains and process algebras (e.g. the work of Hermanns and Katoen [2]) are not promising for our purposes, since they fall short for the support for mobility. Closely related to our approach are the works of Bracchi and Cortellezza [1], which map mobile systems on Stochastic Activity Networks. In their approach however, there is no explicit diﬀerentiation between physical and logical connectors, which reduces the expressive power with respect to the evaluation results we are striving for.

3 Con Moto at a Glance Architecture descriptions in our ADL Con Moto consist of a behavioral and a structural speciﬁcation of the system. Together with instantiation information, the simulator can create instances of the architectural model for simulation purposes. During simulation, communication network structures will be provided by a so-called Network Model. By applying user interactions by instantiating the so-called Usage Patterns, the modeled system can evolve in the simulator and the evaluation results can be calculated. We build Con Moto’s behavioral model on Milner’s π-calculus, a process algebra with explicit support for mobility, where processes communicate over so-called names. We use a reduced subset of π-calculus to avoid the accidental modeling of nondeterminisms. Messages that are communicated between the processes can have an annotation of a simulated packet size, which is used to determine transportation times of the message packets. Structural aspects have been considered in all ADLs so far. It is commonly accepted that a structural model comprises components, connectors and conﬁgurations. Components are the place where the actual calculations are preformed. In Con Moto we distinguish between physical components and logical components. Physical components are resource-constrained devices like PDAs or servers and act as execution environments for logical components. Logical components model software components with unconstrained resources. They can occur as stateless components and as stateful component instances. Connectors model the communication relationships among components. In Con Moto there are physical connectors and logical connectors. Logical connectors are used for communication between logical components and are ideal (unbounded bandwidth, null latency). In contrast, physical connectors connect physical components. They are not ideal (limited bandwidth, latency time greater zero). Logical connectors can be embedded in physical connectors.

4 Simulation Approach We use time-continuous state-discrete models for simulating our mobile software architectures. A system being simulated can be represented using three

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layers as shown in ﬁgure 1. From the architecture description we create the so-called deﬁnition layer. This layer models all architectural information and can be instantiated within the simulator. Hence the instance layer contains the logical architecture at the system’s runtime. During the simulation there is an additional communication layer, where the actual message exchanges between the component instances of an architecture are performed.

Fig. 1. Layers during simulation

The initial architecture model is created in the deﬁnition layer, comprising the structural description of the system (components) as well as the description of the dynamic parts (processes on the components). From the description of the network model an initial network structure in the communication layer can be created together with the globally available infrastructure component ‘Network Manager’, which provides infrastructure services like routing through the network or component discovery. The instance layer models the logical state of a system during runtime. Therefore, component instances for all components in the deﬁnition layer will be created here. Only these instances can actively participate in the simulation. The communication layer consists of nodes which follow an approach of generalized cellular automata as described in [7]. In each simulation step these nodes use their internal state and the data available at their connection points with nodes in their neighborhood to determine their updated state and possible output data. In contrary to conventional cellular automata, where the communication relationships between nodes are deﬁned by their spatial order on a grid, our system allows arbitrary connections among any nodes, which are variable at runtime.

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For the actual simulation, a simulation node is created for every physical component instance, which can be connected to a network node. Logical component instances are also mapped on simulation nodes, which are connected to the simulation nodes of physical component instances.

5 Discussion and Further Work In this paper we have described how mobile systems can be modeled using the Con Moto approach with the goal of determining quality-of-service parameters during design time by means of an simulation approach. By basing an architectural description on π-calculus and making a clear distinction between logical and physical components and connectors, modeling of mobile systems on a quite high level is possible with feasible eﬀort. Areas of further work are the elaboration of more detailed models for physical communication channels and for user interaction with a mobile system. Finally, evaluation of the approach by comparing simulation results to real-world measurements is a future task.

References 1. P. Bracchi and V. Cortellessa. A framework to model and analyze the performability of mobile software systems. In WOSP ’04: Proceedings of the 4th international workshop on Software and performance, pages 243–248, New York, NY, USA, 2004. ACM Press. 2. H. Hermanns and J.-P. Katoen. Performance Evaluation := (Process Algebra + Model Checking) × Markov Chains. In Proceedings of CONCUR 2001, LNCS 2154, pages 59–81. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2001. 3. V. Issarny, F. Tartanoglu, J. Liu, and F. Sailhan. Software Architecture for Mobile Distributed Computing. In Proceedings of the Fourth Working IEEE/IFIP Conference on Software Architecture (WICSA’04), pages 201–210. IEEE, 2004. 4. L. Lamport. Specifying Systems: The TLA+ Language and Tools for Hardware and Software Engineers. Addison-Wesley, 2002. 5. N. Medvidovic and R. N. Taylor. A Classiﬁcation and Comparison Framework for Software Architecture Description Languages. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 26(1):70–93, 2000. 6. F. Oquendo. π-ADL: An Architecture Description Language based on the HigherOrder Typed π-Calculus for Specifying Dynamic and Mobile Software Architectures. ACM Software Engineering Notes, 29, May 2004. 7. P. Tosic. Cellular automata for distributed computing: Models of agent interaction and their implications. In IEEE Int’l Conf. on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 2005. 8. S. Zschaler. Formal speciﬁcation of non-functional properties of component-based software. In J.-M. Bruel, G. Georg, H. Hussmann, I. Ober, C. Pohl, J. Whittle, and S. Zschaler, editors, Workshop on Models for Non-functional Aspects of Component-Based Software (NfC’04) at UML conference 2004, September 2004.

Part IX

Applications, Case Studies, Best Practice and Standards

Enabling Interoperability in the Area of Multi-Brand Vehicle Conﬁguration∗ urgen Kuhn1 , and Michael Klein1 , Ulrike Greiner2 , Thomas Genßler1 , J¨ 2 Matthias Born 1 2

CAS Software AG, Karlsruhe (Germany) {michael.klein, thomas.genssler, juergen.kuhn}@cas.de SAP Research, Karlsruhe (Germany) {ulrike.greiner, mat.born}@sap.com

Summary. With the change of EU regulations in the automotive market in 2002, multi-brand car dealers became possible. Despite the high economical expectations connected with them, the existing IT infrastructure does not provide satisfying support for these changes as it had been developed independently by each brand for many years. Thus in this paper, we sketch solutions for two of their most important problems: (1) the systems of the manufacturers have to be accessed separately and in a proprietary manner which aggravates a product ﬁnding process across brands and (2) the status of the customer is not explicit because of a technological gap between car conﬁguration and CRM system. Our solution is based on research results and tools from the EU project ATHENA3 , especially the SAP tool suite for crossorganizational business processes which is presented in more detail. We conclude the paper by explaining the lessons we learned from a technical and research transfer point of view.

1 Introduction In 2002, around 100,000 main dealers4 were involved in the distribution of 14 million newly registered passenger cars5 throughout the European Union. The European car industry is described as a ”national champion” among EU ∗

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The work published in this paper is (partly) funded by the E.C. through the ATHENA IP. It does not represent the view of E.C. or the ATHENA consortium, and authors are solely responsible for the paper’s content. http://www.athena-ip.org European Commission Report, 15 November 2000, Document COM (2000)743 ﬁnal ”Report on the evaluation of Regulation (EC) No 1475/95 on the application of Article 85(3) of the Treaty to certain categories of motor vehicle distribution and servicing agreements”. Source: European Manufacturers Association (ACEA), Market Data http://www.acea.be

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competition law experts. However, even the best industry is nothing without an eﬃcient distribution system. Distribution of motor cars in the EU has been governed for nearly 20 years by a set of legal devices called block exemption regulations. In 2002, a change in EU legislation brought some fundamental changes to the distribution of motor cars. Instead of being limited to selling only one brand of cars, it has become much easier for dealers to sell diﬀerent car brands from diﬀerent manufactures under one roof, thus reaching a broader audience and improving their business relations for more competitiveness. As a consequence, many so-called multi-brand dealers, such as the German AVAG6 , have appeared. Multi-brand dealers are faced with a whole set of interoperability problems. Rather than having to use the IT system of one speciﬁc car manufacturer, multi-brand dealers are now faced with a number of diﬀerent IT systems from diﬀerent manufacturers. A speciﬁc interoperability problem is the integration of conﬁguration, customization and ordering functionality for a variety of brands into the IT landscape of a multi-brand dealer. Interoperability problems reach from the data level up to the level of business processes. The European project ATHENA (Advanced Technologies for interoperability of Heterogeneous Enterprise Networks and their Applications) provides a comprehensive set of methodologies and tools to address interoperability problems of enterprise applications in order to realize seamless business interaction across organizational boundaries. In this paper, we present the results of a pilot application of the ATHENA approach to interoperability and the supporting technology in a real-word scenario of a multi-brand vehicle dealer. The pilot consortium consists of AVAG, one of the leading German multi-brand car dealers, CAS Software AG7 , a leading German CRM software company and maker of car conﬁguration software and SMC IT8 , a consultant for AVAG among other businesses. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we will sketch the business case of our pilot application and discuss the current and the to-be scenario for multi-brand vehicle dealers. Section 3 is devoted to our technical approach. Here, we also present a tool set developed in ATHENA by SAP and used within our pilot for the integration of cross-organizational processes. We conclude the paper with taking a look on the lessons learned in Section 5.

2 Scenario Before the 1st of October 2002, the block exemption regulations governing the distribution of motor cars allowed car manufacturers to select their car dealers and to let them beneﬁt from a system of exclusivity on their sales territory. In fact, such a speciﬁc distribution organization was typically combining 6 7 8

http://www.avag.de http://www.cas.de http://www.smc-it.de

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”selectivity criteria” with ”exclusivity criteria”. As a consequence of the enactment of the Directive 1400/2002, the car manufacturers have no longer had the possibility to combine the two criteria. From now on, they are rather forced by the European rules to make an exclusive choice between these two options. Under such new circumstances, the distribution system based on a ”selective” approach has probably the preference of the car manufacturers, as this allows them to select the elements of their distribution chain according to their own quality and quantity criteria. With the selective distribution model, each car manufacturer will have to deﬁne its respective quantitative criteria beforehand, e.g. sales quota, as well as qualitative criteria, e.g. size, showrooms, which will be used to objectively and neutrally select its dealers. As a result, the competition will be enhanced between the dealers of the same single car brand whereas dealers selling more than one car brand will have a real opportunity to gain new market shares. The business case we are looking at are these multi-brand dealers, more speciﬁcally the situation at AVAG. Multi-branding seamlessly oﬀers products of diﬀerent brands in one coherent sales process. This establishes a certain level of comparability among products of diﬀerent brands and provides added value to the customers, thus strengthens the competitiveness of multi-brand dealers. However, multi-branding calls for an increased level of interoperability among the dealer on one side and the diﬀerent manufacturers on the other side. Todays multi-brand dealers are, however, faced with a simple multiplication of IT systems to support their pre-sales, sales and after-sales processes. This includes a set of typically isolated systems for car conﬁguration and order processing provided by the diﬀerent car manufacturers together with a dealer speciﬁc IT landscape such as dealer management systems and CRM9 systems. As a consequence, one of the desired advantages of multi-branding, namely to seamlessly oﬀer cars of diﬀerent car manufactures and to establish comparability among the diﬀerent products is seriously put at stake. We rather observe the phenomenon of ”early brand selection” that is, a customer has to choose one brand very early and than go all the way through the brandspeciﬁc product conﬁguration and order process. Changing the brand later means starting the process all over from the beginning. Furthermore, in order to reﬂect the state of the sales process of a customer (e.g., what cars have been conﬁgured already for, or by, this certain customer? what oﬀers have been made? . . . ), the dealer has to maintain data redundantly in both the manufacturer systems and the dealer management system. Interoperability then often reduces to storing PDF ﬁles of car conﬁguration and oﬀers, produced by the car manufacturer system, in the dealer management system. Changing an oﬀer later in the process often means entering the whole data again.

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Customer Relationship Management

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Even worse, there is virtually no interoperability to speak of between the diﬀerent manufacturer systems on one hand and CRM functionality on the other. This causes considerable gaps in the support of pre-sales, sales and after-sales processes. There is basically no meaningful connection between customer data (e.g. a customer history as represented in a CRM system) and product data as represented by the manufacturer systems, e.g., a product conﬁguration. CRM, esp. for ﬂeet customers (”How are the cars within this ﬂeet equipped?”, ”What have been important features to a speciﬁc customer in the past?”) or marketing campaigns (such as ”Inform all customers that have bought a middle-class car with a certain feature in the past ﬁve years about a new special oﬀer”) become very diﬃcult. Using ATHENA methodologies and tools, we propose an integrated scenario, where multi-brand dealers use inter-operable services provided by the diﬀerent car manufactures and plug them into an integrated dealer system. In the following section, we will describe our solution in more detail.

3 Our Solution

Fig. 1. Overview over the architecture of the solution.

The desired to-be-scenario with its general architecture is depicted in Figure 1. The solution consists of two parts which are necessary to provide an integrated solution for a multi-brand dealer: •

An integration of the manufacturers (lower part of the ﬁgure). The systems of the diﬀerent manufacturers are integrated via an integrator component. This integrator enables the dealer to access the software of the manufacturers in a uniform manner. For the sake of the pilot application, the car

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conﬁgurator XPS Merlin Enterprise, made by CAS and currently used for order processing and sales support applications by a leading German car manufacturer was used. An integration of the customers (upper part of the ﬁgure). The interaction of customers and the dealer is harmonized by integrating their diﬀerent processes within a CRM system. In the pilot setting at AVAG, their existing CRM system CAS genesisWorld was used.

In the following, we present our approaches in the two parts and describe which solutions from the EU project ATHENA they are built upon. For reasons of brevity, we describe the manufacturer integration only brieﬂy (Section 3.1) and focus on the details of the customer integration (Section 3.2). Within that part, we also present a tool set for cross-organizational process modeling that has been developed by SAP within ATHENA and that was used to implement our pilot. 3.1 Manufacturer Integration When integrating the systems of the diﬀerent manufacturers, not only technical issues have to be taken into account. Although a solution integrating on a rather low data level would be highly desirable, it is not feasible as manufacturers are typically very sensitive about their product data and the algorithms that process it10 . Thus, a service oriented architecture (SOA) as a second-best solution is the most appropriate approach: with it, the manufacturers are able to oﬀer the functionality of their systems (like conﬁguration or ordering) via a public service interface and hide the sensitive parts behind it. As usual in a SOA, the communication and remote function invocation is performed by the exchange of messages between the partners. Therefore, the integrator in the overall architecture in Figure 1 can be seen as a service integrator performing message transformations. Another advantage arises from the loose coupling of manufacturers and the dealer in this SOA: new manufacturers can enter the system with little eﬀort whereas obsolete partners are able to leave it easily. Despite the advantages of a SOA, several diﬃculties arise from the fact that the systems of the manufacturer have evolved independently for several years: •

10

The diﬀerent systems are based on diﬀerent philosophies, e.g. one conﬁguration service uses a strict sequential run through the product space whereas another conﬁguration service allows to randomly browse through the products and product features. Alternatively, product data provided by so-called data brokers could be used. These data brokers typically collect product data from product catalogues or product brochures. However, as these product data are not certiﬁed by the manufacturer, a whole set of legal diﬃculties – especially in pricing and order processing – have to be dealt with.

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The granularity of the operations of the various conﬁguration services is diﬀerent. The functionality of the conﬁguration service is superseded by additional aspects such as exception handling, session management, transactional demarcation etc. that diﬀer from manufacturer to manufacturer. Structural diﬀerences in the payload data of the exchanged messages stemming from diﬀerent data models used the diﬀerent manufacturers’ sites are present. Semantical misunderstandings within the exchanged messages may arise due to diﬀerent tagging of business data, diﬀerent conventions etc.

Fig. 2. Integration of the manufacturers.

To address these diﬃculties, in our pilot, the messages that are exchanged between the dealer and the manufacturers are transformed in three steps. The resulting three layers of the architecture of our service integrator are shown in Figure 2 (left hand side). In the top most component, a message entering the component from the dealer, is analyzed by the CAS Instance Distributor and routed to the set of manufacturers that need to process this request. If the dealer e.g. wants to ﬁnd a suitable family car for his customer, typically all (or many) of the manufacturers will receive the message. If the dealer however wants to conﬁgure and order a car of a certain brand, only this speciﬁc system will be addressed. In the inverse direction, i.e. when the results of the diﬀerent manufacturers reach the component, the CAS Instance Aggregator comes into play: by applying metrics of equality, similarity and equivalence, it tries to combine the diﬀerent partial results to one meaningful integrated result. The middle layer is responsible for harmonizing the data models of the diﬀerent manufacturers with the common data model of the dealer. Thus, the

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business objects extracted from the incoming messages are remodeled and put into the outgoing messages. It is important to mention that for this step in certain cases several messages must be processed together in order to be able to rebuild an business object and its dependent objects. The task of the lower layer is to adapt the sequence of messages that is expected by a manufacturer system with the sequence that is sent out by the dealer. Thus, the processes of dealer and manufacturer will be harmonized. All three components have been developed with a model driven approach (MDA). In a ﬁrst step during design time, platform independent models have been created for each component. E.g., for the process adaptor, the ATHENA metamodel PIM4SOA (Platform Independent Model for Service Oriented Architectures) [?] was used to deﬁne a connection between the processes of the dealer and manufacturer; for the schema adaptor, the ATHENA tool Semaphore11 was used to graphically map the entities and attributes of one data model to the corresponding entities and attributes in the other model. From these models, executables were generated, which have been applied in a second step during run time to process the data on a concrete platform. E.g., for the process adaptor, the generated process transformations are executed as software agent on Jack, an agent platform. 3.2 Customer Integration General Architecture With the upper part of the architecture depicted in Figure 1 the customers are integrated in the vending process of the dealer. This is very important as the customers can interact with the dealer in diﬀerent ways, e.g. by using their own applications (especially business customers) or by using a special web application (especially private customers). Thus the process between dealer and manufacturers that has been harmonized in the previous section, is also relevant for the interaction between dealer and customers. However, as this process also contains private parts that are not relevant for the customers, in a ﬁrst step, the process is restricted to a public part which is published. In a model driven manner, customers then deﬁne a mapping from their own processes to this uniﬁed and public process during run time. These process models can be used to steer the message ﬂow between customer and dealer. Moreover, the dealer is enabled to inspect the process status of a certain customer and enter this information into the CRM system. For both, dealer and customer, a graphical visualization of the process steps helps to quickly grasp the progress of the selling. Furthermore, in the used CRM system CAS genesisWorld, the dealer can already attach further information objects to single steps of the process, such as appointments, telephone calls or oﬀer documents. Especially storing car conﬁgurations directly within 11

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Fig. 3. Integration of the customers via a CRM system.

the CRM system can be very helpful: it allows to re-enter the conﬁguration process at any step, at any time (i.e. now or after a break) and by any party (i.e. by customer or dealer). Figure 3 shows the architecture of the solution together with the tools used. Again, it is based on a model driven approach relying on a set of ATHENA tools for dealing with cross-organizational business processes (CBP): the SAP tool set that is presented in the following subsection. Tool Set for Cross-Organizational Business Processes The customer integration is realized leveraging a tool set for modeling and enacting cross-organizational business processes (CBPs) in a service-oriented environment [2]. This tool set has been developed in the context of the ATHENA project. It comprises tools for modeling CBPs and linking them to Web services as well as a runtime infrastructure for enacting CBPs. Figure 5 gives an overview of the diﬀerent tools and their relationships. In the following we brieﬂy describe the functionality of each of the tools. Maestro allows to model CBPs. It implements the process abstraction concept as described in [3] and provides an inside-out modeling procedure (see [1]). That means all partners in the CBP start with deﬁning their internal private processes. By deﬁning a so called view process they can deﬁne which process steps will be exposed to the business partners in a processoriented interface, and which business-critical process steps will be hidden. In the last step the view processes of the partners are linked to the common CBP by deﬁning when which message is exchanged between which partners. To make the private processes and the CBP executable, Web services are assigned to the activities in the private processes and to the interfaces between

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Fig. 4. ATHENA CBP tool set

two partners exchanging information in the CBP. The Web service deﬁnitions are made available to Maestro through the task repository of Gabriel. Gabriel links the business process world to a service-oriented architecture as execution infrastructure via tasks. By introducing tasks it is possible to enrich the pure web service calls with functionality such as access control or dynamic service selection. However, this functionality is not used in the presented scenario. The Web service deﬁnitions are maintained in the service repository that is ﬁlled by uploading Web Services Deﬁnition Language (WSDL) ﬁles and the accompanying XML Schema Description (XSD) ﬁles in the design time part of Johnson. During CBP design time the process modeler chooses which Web service operations are assigned to activities in the private process and to the interfaces with the partner. This is supported by Gabriel. To enact the private processes and the CBP the process models are deployed to the CBP runtime engine Nehemiah. Nehemiah is a process enactment engine that allows the execution of business processes modeled in Maestro. Nehemiah provides a browser-based interface for process execution monitoring. To execute the activities in the private process of a partner Nehemiah calls the runtime part of Gabriel. Gabriel determines whether the current task is an automated or a manual one. In case of an automated task, Gabriel distinguishes between service tasks and user tasks. User tasks are assigned to a workﬂow participant, and depending on diﬀerent routing rules those tasks are placed into the work list of the responsible person. Service tasks, on the other hand, will invoke a Web service assigned to them. In this paper we focus on the latter functionality of Gabriel. The service calls are executed through the runtime part of Johnson which supports sending and receiving SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) messages. To support message exchange between partners, Johnson can either play the role of a service consumer (i.e. Johnson calls a Web service provided by

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[Dealer]

[Customer] Fig. 5. Excerpt from a coalition process between the dealer and a customer.

the partner) or of a service provider (i.e. Johnson waits for incoming service calls). The former behavior is used when one partner wants to send a message to the partner. The latter is used when a partner waits for a message from the partner before he can execute process execution. Application of the Tool Set for the Solution With the tools presented in the previous section, large parts of our solution can be realized. During design time, Maestro is used to model the private vending processes of dealer and customer. After that, the public parts from both of them are extracted and combined into one CBP. Moreover, it is indicated what data is transfered between both parties, i.e. which messages have to be exchanged, and how this data corresponds to the local data model. An excerpt from such a CBP is shown in Figure 4: a customer (shown in the lower part of the ﬁgure) works with a web based conﬁgurator. He enters this process by logging into his user account and storing his desired car conﬁguration, which is then transferred to the dealer. He then has the possibility to locate a dealer nearby and ask for an appointment, which can be a sales talk (upper path in both processes) or a test drive (lower path). In the following steps, both parties agree upon a date and place and perform the meeting. During run time, Gabriel and Johnson execute the processes, i.e. they keep track of the current state of each process instance, handle incoming and outgoing messages and integrate their payload data into the local data stores. Nehemiah executes the CPS and provides a graphical visualization of these processes by showing the status of their steps in diﬀerent colors. This view is integrated into the CRM system so that the dealer can directly keep track of the vending status of his various customers. This approach has several advantages:

Enabling Interoperability in Vehicle Conﬁguration

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11 769

The CRM system is an integral part of the system, i.e. their is no breach between the conﬁguration data and other data concerning the vending process of a customer. Conﬁgurations are directly visible and changeable by the dealer. With this, he is also able to automatically generate reports on his possible and actual car vendings. A customer has the possibility to switch (without a loss of his conﬁguration data) between an autonomous phase where he can work on his conﬁguration independently and a cooperative phase where he interacts with a human dealer. A customer can enter the vending process via the standard web application or via an own specialized application as the processes between customer and dealer are mediated individually and graphically during design time.

4 Lessons Learned and Summary 4.1 Lessons Learned from Technical Point of View From a research transfer point of view, the following lessons could be learned: •

•

•

It is very important to specify where exactly the integration problem lies. Often the paradigm of service orientation sounds very promising, but one has to keep in mind that a mere encapsulation of functionality behind a service interface does not solve integration problems on other levels along the way, e.g. instance, schema or process integration tasks. Rather, their harmonization can become very hard and needs additional special attention e.g. additional layers in the resulting architecture. Evidently, a model based approach is a step in the right direction as design time tasks are separated from run time tasks which allows to perform them graphically. Moreover, it it easier to react to changes of the diﬀerent interacting partners as only the models have to be adapted but not the runtime environment. However, in order to automate more of the tasks, more semantic (i.e. computer understandable) information should be put into the models – a research area that is still not supported suﬃciently from our point of view. Interoperability of diﬀerent enterprises is not only a technical but also (and at least equally important) a political problem. E.g., car manufacturers are very sensitive about their vehicle data as well as their product ﬁnding and ordering functionality which allows only for solutions basing on a loose integration. Moreover, especially in the automotive area, manufacturers are typically not directly interested in improving the comparability between their and other brands.

4.2 Lessons Learned from a Research Transfer Point of View From a technical point of view, the following lessons have been learned:

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The research solutions stemming from the Athena EU project are important ﬁrst steps. They solve many of the integration problems, especially in the area of data model and process integration. However, there are still open research issues, especially when aggregating results from diﬀerent partners in a semantically correct manner or when automating parts of the modeling process. Despite their beneﬁts, the results stemming from research often do not directly ﬁt to the practical problems. They are typically very generic and act on the assumption of a ”perfect world”. Therefore, as a ﬁrst step, it must be analyzed in detail which parts of the results ﬁt, what parts must be adapted and what parts have to be implemented additionally. The tools stemming from the project partners are very helpful to make the concepts of their research understandable and usable. However, their stability cannot be compared with enterprise-level applications. Thus, for a usage within a industry-strength application a re-implementation of the concepts will be necessary.

4.3 Summary In this paper, we presented a pilot that we developed within the EU project ATHENA in the area of multi-brand automotive dealers. For its realization, several integration problem on diﬀerent levels had to be solved. On the one hand, the various systems of the car manufacturers had to be integrated. We chose a service oriented approach for that and developed a service integrator transforming the exchanged messages in three steps in model driven manner. On the other hand, the processes of the customers and the dealer had to the harmonized. For this, we used a tool set of SAP that had also been developed in ATHENA for cross-organizational business process modeling and integrated a visualization of the resulting process into the CRM system of the multibrand dealer. The pilot will be implemented and evaluated at AVAG in the following weeks.

References 1. Greiner, U. et al. (2006): Designing and Implementing Cross-Organizational Business Processes - Description and Application of a Modelling Framework. Proceedings of I-ESA 2006. 2. SAP Research (2006): SAP Research Tool Set. ATHENA Deliverable 3. Christian Hahn, Cristian Madrigal-Mora, Klaus Fischer, Brian Elvesaeter, Arne-Jorgen Berre (2006): Meta-models, Models, and Model Transformations: Towards Interoperable Agents. Proceedings of MATES 2006. 4. Schulz K. and Orlowska A. (2004): Facilitating cross-organisational workﬂows with a workﬂow view approach. Data and Knowledge Engineering 51(1): 109– 147

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Business Interoperability Profiles: Relating Business Interoperability Issues To Technical Interoperability Solutions Ulrike Greiner1, Christine Legner2, Sonia Lippe1, Kristin Wende2 1

2

SAP Research, Karlsruhe (Germany) / Brisbane (Australia) {ulrike.greiner, sonia.lippe}@sap.com IWI, University of St. Gallen, St. Gallen (Switzerland) {christine.legner, kristin.wende}@unisg.ch

Keywords: Value chain collaboration, business interoperability, technical interoperability, business processes, B2B integration, enterprise modelling

1 Introduction In today’s economy, enterprises realise networked business models with the goal to better serve their customers and to produce products and services more efficiently. They form temporary or permanent collaborations and pool resources, capabilities, and information. However, the vision of independent enterprises working together as an entirely virtual organisation has not yet become reality. Companies find it very time-consuming and costly to establish electronic business relationships with a larger number of business partners. Insufficient interoperability is a major impediment: Cross-organisational business processes are not aligned, a common terminology and understanding of basic business objects are missing, message formats for B2B integration are not sufficiently defined and implementation requires significant bilateral refinements. In order to address these issues, the emerging field of interoperability research has come up with a vast number of concepts and technical solutions. Among them are model-driven design of crossorganisational integration, ontology building and semantic reconciliation. However, until today, those technical interoperability solutions are not yet sufficiently linked to the business problems they address.

2866

Greiner, U.; Legner, C.; Lippe, S.; Wende, K.

The aim of this paper is 1. to systemise typical interoperability issues from a business perspective (described by Business Interoperability Profiles, BIP) and 2. to relate them to the appropriate interoperability solutions which may solve these issues. This work extends previous interoperability research by linking the technical view on interoperability to business drivers and needs. The paper thereby suggests a business-oriented categorisation of interoperability solutions. We start with the definition of interoperability from a technical and a business perspective in Section 2, followed by an overview of business interoperability issues as well as interoperability solutions in Section 3. We then present the categorisation of typical business interoperability issues into Business Interoperability Profiles (BIP). Finally, we present the mapping of the BIP to specific interoperability solutions which research has recently been suggesting. The categorisation and the interoperability solutions have been derived from our work in the ATHENA research project (http://www.athena-ip.org) and have been verified through additional projects carried out by the authors. We do not claim that the list of BIP or the technical solutions are complete. However, based on our experience from several industrial interoperability projects we believe that it covers a fairly large portion of issues and solutions.

2 Underlying concepts 2.1 Defining Interoperability The definition of interoperability that underlies the ATHENA project is “the ability of two or more systems or components to exchange information and to use the information that has been exchanged” [1]. This definition relates to the technical aspects of interoperability by suggesting standards and solutions for presenting, collecting, exchanging, processing and transporting data. From a business perspective, technical interoperability allows for seamlessly propagating and sharing information between partners. [15] define business interoperability as “the organisational and operational ability of an enterprise to cooperate with its business partners and to efficiently establish, conduct and develop IT-supported business relationships with the objective to create value.” As such, business interoperability extends the more technically focused notion of interoperability to cover organisational and operational aspects of setting up and running IT-supported relationships. It builds on the concept of networkability [17] which is a continuation of coordination theory and sees coordination as the management of relationships of dependence [12][20]. Among different issues which may arise on business level are the following: x

defining and formalising cooperation goals with business partners (e.g. by contracts and service level agreements),

BusinessInteroperability Profiles

x x

8673

streamlining business processes across organisations in order to eliminate redundancies, and deciding on the desired level of electronic interaction and the use of industry standards with business partners.

2.2 Business Interoperability Issues Organisations which seek to electronically interact with their business partners typically need to establish higher levels of external coordination [13]. The “Business Interoperability Framework” [15] classifies the resulting interoperability issues into four categories and describes different interoperability levels (Fig. 1): x

x x

x

Management of External Relationships: Increasing levels of external collaboration require companies to systematically plan, implement and monitor their cooperation with external partners and to co-define cooperation targets (“cooperation management and targets”). Employee & Culture: Tighter process integration requires business partners to cooperate in a climate of trust and confidence (“trust”). Collaborative Business Processes: In B2B relationships, responsibilities of each partner are often unclear and activities are performed ad-hoc, which results in resource conflicts as well as coordination effort. Organisations become more interoperable if they collaborate based on a clear and well documented cross-organisational business process that is practical and reflects industry standards (“public process”). A key issue in aligning business processes lies in a mismatch of terminologies between different organisations (“business semantics”). Information systems: Electronic connections with business partners may facilitate the exchange of data or knowledge (“data integration”) as well as automated coupling of processes (“process integration”). For both, interoperability is depending on the interaction types (human-machine, machine-machine). When setting up electronic links with business partners, companies often struggle with bilateral agreements e.g. on data formats and communication protocols. The lack of scalability to a broader number of business partners has so far hindered the diffusion of inter-organisational systems. A high connectivity is achieved by replacing individual connections (1:1) with m:n connections (“connectivity”).

When comparing different industries, it becomes evident that they are characterised by different levels of business interoperability (cf. Fig. 1). In the high-tech industry, the supply chain between Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEM), contractors and component manufacturers is tightly integrated. Companies like Cisco or HP adhere to process standards (e.g. RosettaNet) and use collaboration platforms (e.g. Viacore) which ease electronic collaboration with their business partners. In many other areas, e.g. in facility management, the fragmentation of the value chain and the size of the companies make it more difficult to establish similar IT-supported business relationships. These examples illustrate that the achievable level of business interoperability, i.e. the level with

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maximum value creation, depends on environmental factors as well as on the chosen cooperation strategy. As a consequence, we base our argumentation on Contingency Theory [9] and assume that the appropriate level of business interoperability has to “fit” external and internal factors, so-called contingencies. We derive the following contingencies as being relevant to business interoperability (cf. [15]): x

x

Cooperation model (internal contingency): The cooperation model includes a description and the number of cooperation partners, their relationships (e.g. competitors, supplier-buyer), the power distribution, roles and activities within the cooperation as well as the information, product and service flow between partners (i.e. the cooperation scenario). Industry environment (external contingency): The specific (industry) environment and its dynamics (cf. [8]) as well as its e-business maturity [10] highly influence the achievable level of business interoperability.

Level of Business Interoperability 5 4 3 2 1 (fully inter- (qualified) (moderate) (minimum) (none) operable) Management of External Relationships conscious partner Business relationships are Cooperation management selection, co-defined formed ad-hoc, partners and targets cooperation targets pursue individual targets Employes & Culture mutual sense of trust and Low awareness of trust, Trust confidence "them and us" attitude Collaborative Business Process commonly accepted public no awareness of the crossPublic process processes reflecting organizational business industry or domain process standards commonly accepted proprietary semantics Business semantics business terminology reflecting industry or domain standards Information Systems human-to-human machine-machine Interaction type interaction integration (process / data integration) B2B architecture with m:nno electronic connections Connectivity connectivity established Interoperability issue

Fig. 1. Categories of Business Interoperability and their Levels

2.3 Technical Interoperability Solutions Recent research and technology development has led to a number of new technical solutions addressing interoperability problems. Major interoperability research streams come from enterprise modelling and model-driven development [16], semantic technologies such as ontology management systems or semantic reconciliation (e.g. [3]), service-oriented architectures (e.g. [2]) and a semiautomated support for modelling and executing cross-organisational business

BusinessInteroperability Profiles

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processes (e.g. [11]). These research streams address different aspects of interoperability and consequently can be distinguished according to the artefacts they are focussing on: business processes, services, information / data, and other aspects such as security, service-level agreements and contract handling. New concepts and technical solutions are emerging for solving interoperability issues related to these artefacts. Recent approaches to cross-organisational business process definition and implementation separate public and private views of the business processes spanning multiple organisations. Service-oriented solutions suggest the realisation of a service-oriented architecture combined with the use of Web Services as the technical basis for integrating heterogeneous software application. In the area of information/data concepts such as semantic reconciliation address aspects related to modelling and detailed specification of information that is exchanged between collaborating organisations. For the other aspects technical solutions come for instance from projects in the security and trust area or from research on virtual organisations (e.g. [19]). Orthogonal to these artefacts, model-driven development [16] suggests that the building of an interoperability solution can be organised around a set of models, ranging from the overall enterprise perspective to the execution or code level. A formal underpinning for describing models in a set of meta-models facilitates meaningful integration and transformation among models, and is the basis for automation through tools: x

x

x

Business Level (Computational Independent Model, CIM): This level represents the business view on a business relationship, reflecting strategic decisions on the competitive positioning of an enterprise as well as the organizational and process design. Technical Level (Platform Independent Model, PIM): To achieve an executable interoperability solution, the business level models first have to be transformed into platform-independent models. Optimally, business level models are transformed into technical level models and enriched with more detailed information. However, the models on this level still abstract from the implementation platform. Execution Level (Platform Specific Model, PSM): With the second transformation the technical level models are transformed to platformspecific execution level models. Platform-specific models are indispensable for the actual implementation of a system. These models are executed and make the interoperability solutions work.

3 Deriving Business Interoperability Profiles (BIP) 3.1 Method of Work It is the aim of this paper to accomplish a business-oriented approach towards the implementation of technical interoperability solutions. We therefore identify

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typical, recurring Business Interoperability Issues and systemise them into a set of Business Interoperability Profiles (cf. Fig. 2, Step 2). This is based on various case studies that were conducted within and outside the ATHENA project (Step 1). At this stage we have identified seven Business Interoperability Profiles which we believe to cover a fairly large portion of issues. This grouping of Interoperability Issues leads us to the identification of a dedicated technical approach that is required to implement the desired level of business interoperability (Step 3). By knowing what needs to be done on a technical level, we can now determine general technical Interoperability Solutions that are applicable (Step 4).

Fig. 2. Method of Work

All Business Interoperability Profiles and the related Interoperability Issues are explained in more detail in the next Section. For each profile we first describe the internal and external contingencies (cf. Fig. 3, column 3-4) before detailing the Interoperability Issues related to Management of External Relationships, Employee and Culture, Collaborative Business Processes and Information Systems (column 5-8). The textual descriptions are complemented by colours that depict the levels of business interoperability for each profile (cf. Section 2.2). The arrows provide an indication of possible improvements of interoperability levels when implementing the proposed solution. Column 9 (“Approach”) explains the design and implementation approach that is required to solve the related Interoperability Issues. The next columns then list the applicable interoperability solutions, the modelling levels involved and the artefacts to be considered. The classification of solutions into the above defined artefacts and modelling levels, help us to specify more precisely which interoperability solutions have to be implemented and which type of models have to be generated during design and development. 3.2 Business Interoperability Profiles - Description In the following, we provide a detailed description of each Business Interoperability Profile (BIP). These profiles represent clusters of typical business interoperability issues and the associated solutions. Fig. 3 provides the consolidated overview of all BIP.

BusinessInteroperability Profiles

No

Business Cooperation InteroperModel (Internal ability Profile Contingency) (BIP)

1 Ecosystem design & cooperation strategy

External Contingencies

Management of External Relationships

Low to medium e- Business Cooperation model not defined business maturity, relationships are usually fragmented formed ad-hoc industries

Cooperation 2 Design of public process scenario and targets defined

3 Coupling with Cooperation existing public scenario and process targets defined

Low e-business maturity, usually fragmented industries

Existence of public process and business semantics, medium e-business maturity

Employee & Culture Low awareness of external partners

Cooperation is managed, cooperation targets are defined individually by partners

Basic level of trust between partners

Cooperation is actively managed, cooperation targets are shared

Partners trust each other and invest in good working relationships

8717

Collaborative Business Information Systems Process Public process: No awareness of collaborative business processes

Human-to-human interaction

Proprietery business semantics

No electronic connectivity

Public process: No awareness of collaborative business processes

not relevant, usually human-to-human interaction

Proprietery business semantics

Connectivity: not relevant, usually 1:1 relationships

Public process: individual business processes are not aligned

Not relevant, usually human-to-human interaction

Business semantics are Connectivity: not defined on a proprietary relevant, usually 1:1 base or bilaterally relationships

4 Definition of business semantics

5 Design of services and business documents

6 Implementation of process integration

7 Implementation of data integration

Cooperation scenario and targets defined, high cooperation specificity

Cooperation scenario and targets defined

Cooperation scenario and targets defined

Cooperation scenario and targets defined

Cooperation is managed, cooperation targets are defined individually by partners

Basic level of trust between partners

Cooperation is managed, cooperation targets are defined individually by partners

Basic level of trust between partners

Public process, business semantics, services and business documents defined, medium to high e-business maturity

Cooperation is actively managed, cooperation targets are shared

Partners trust each other and invest in good working relationships

Existence of services and business documents, medium to high e-business maturity

Cooperation is managed, cooperation targets are defined individually by partners

Low e-business maturity, usually fragmented industries

Public process and business semantics defined, medium ebusiness maturity

not relevant, usually Public process is not relevant (usually low to human-to-human medium levels) interaction

Proprietery business semantics

Human-to-machine Individual business processes are aligned by interaction a public process Commonly accepted business semantics employed

Connectivity: 1:1 or 1:n relationships

Individual business Human-to-machine processes are aligned by interaction, process a public process integration Commonly accepted business semantics employed

Basic level of trust between partners

Connectivity: not relevant, usually 1:1 relationships

Connectivity: 1:1 or 1:n relationships

Public process is not Human-to-machine interrelevant (usually low to ti n, data integration medium levels)

Commonly accepted business semantics employed

Connectivity: 1:1 or 1:n relationships

Fig. 3. Business Interoperability Profiles - Table Overview (Part I)

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Business Interoperability Profile (BIP)

1 Ecosystem design & cooperation strategy

Approach

Technical Interoperability Solution

Modelling and specification level

Main artefacts

Business level Methods and tools for enterprise modelling that support modelling of value (Strategy) network and business model (e.g. ARIS, GraiTools, Mo2Go, METIS), exchange of enterprise models (e.g. using POP* metamodel)

Organizations and roles, input-output relationships (information, physical goods, …)

Commonly define public process 2 Design of public process

Business level Process modelling methods and Tools specificly targeted at cross-organisational (Organization and Processes) processes (e.g. ARIS EPC, BPMN, GraiTools, Maestro, METIS, MoGo); Exchange of business process models

Public processes / activities

3 Coupling with Link private process to public existing public processes: Model private and view processes, map private process to process public process; if necessary re-organise private processes

Process modelling methods and tools that Business level (Organization and are capable of supporting the view Processes) approach and allow for a linkage of private, view and public processes (ARIS EPC, Mo2Go NG, BPMN, Maestro, …); Model-transformation of business process modelling tools; Global modelling solution

Public and private processes (views) / activities

Design ecosystem, define and document cooperation strategy, exchange documentation between partners

4 Definition of business semantics

Describe common vocabulary, Define Ontology definition methods and ontology Business level ontology authoring tools (e.g. ATHOS, Protégé); (Information and Semantic annotation (e.g. A*) Knowledge)

5 Design of services and business documents

Model business documents (high-level Methods and tools for service and components), define services and specification (e.g. XMLSpy, Johnson); Methods and tools that support a service interfaces definition and mapping of business documents (e.g. Maestro, XML Editing Tools)

6 Implementation of process integration

Model private and view processes on technical level; map private process to public process on technical level; create services; connect processes with services; create message exchange; define and deploy on execution infrastructure

Technical and Methods and tools for model-driven developement e.g. PIM4SOA); Methods execution level and tools for technical speficification of services and workflows (e.g. Maestro, Gabriel); Respective execution infrastructure: SOA (e.g. Johnson), agents (e.g. JACK), peer-to-peer (e.g. WS Execution Engine)

Workflows, services, information / data

7 Implementation of data integration

Define source and target data format; define data transformation and mapping; define and deploy on execution infrastructure

Technical and Mapping methods and tools (e.g. STEP execution level Mapper); Semantic annotation and runtime reconciliation (e.g. A*, ARGOS, ATHOS, Semaphore)

Services, information / data

Technical level

Information / knowledge

Services, information / data

Fig. 3. Business Interoperability Profiles - Table Overview (Part II)

BusinessInteroperability Profiles

8739

BIP 1: Ecosystem Design & Cooperation Strategy BIP 1 characterises organisations which do not systematically manage their external relationships. Since they typically have not defined their cooperation model, they are unaware of collaborative business processes and have not yet invested in electronic connectivity with business partners. This business interoperability profile is more frequent in industries which are highly fragmented and are characterised by low e-business maturity, e.g. facility management. In order to become more interoperable, companies have to identify relevant partners, i.e. their ecosystem, and define their cooperation strategy. Enterprise modelling supports stakeholders such as business and strategy experts in describing and visualising their value network and their business model. Main modelling elements are organisations with their input and output relationships (physical goods, financial and information flows). Popular modelling tools are for example ARIS [7], GraiTools, Mo2Go [14] or METIS. Since different organisations may use different tools and techniques for enterprise modelling, meta-model based transformation and exchange of models facilitates interoperability. The translation of the top-level (strategic) cooperation strategy into specific collaborative processes and system architectures is subject of subsequent project phases. BIP 2: Design of “Public Process” BIP 2 characterises organisations which have defined their cooperation model, and as a consequence need to re-organise the way they are collaborating with their business partners. They need to identify the affected cross-organisational business processes and have to clarify the public process. The latter can be defined either by starting a consensus building approach with business partners or by one partner defining the process for all partners. In industries with equal power distribution the first approach is prevailing, whereas in hierarchical business relationships the focal partner (or network orchestrator) will more likely define the process. The definition of and the consensus building on public processes is supported by enterprise modelling tools (similar to the tools mentioned in BIP 1) as well as specific business process modelling languages, concepts and tools, such as ARIS Event-driven Process Chains, UML activity diagrams or BPMN. Business experts use them to detail the interaction between business partners and to agree on a common public business process. Furthermore global modelling languages should be used to define high level service interaction models. The design of further artefacts such as detailed service descriptions and information/data is not subject of this BIP, but will be covered later (BIP 4 and 5). BIP 3: Coupling with Existing "Public Process" BIP 3 characterises organisations which have defined their cooperation model and seek to adhere to an already existing public process. A high-tech company which seeks to interact with their business partners using RosettaNet PIPs may serve as an example. BIP 3 requires the existence of a documented public process which may have either been defined by other organisation(s), acting as focal companies or network orchestrators, or a standardisation body. It is consequently more frequent in an environment with a medium e-business maturity. To adhere to the public process, companies may have to re-organise and change their internal processes. Technical solutions to support these changes can be from

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the area of enterprise and business process modelling [16]. Recent extensions of business process modelling provide concepts for modelling public and view processes and map them to internal processes. Tool support for public-viewinternal process mapping is for example offered in Maestro and Mo2Go NG. To design internal processes and to link them with a public process, it is sufficient to consider the business process models on a business level without consideration of technical details such as message exchange or service interfaces. Involved stakeholders are business experts that translate cooperation strategy and business model into a process design. BIP 4: Definition of Business Semantics BIP 4 addresses the issue of defining a common terminology and understanding of the information to be exchanged between business partners. Whereas standardisation initiatives have produced data dictionaries and information models for specific domains (e.g. supply chain management), a comparable level of shared business semantics is still lacking across different industries or for more complex collaboration scenarios (e.g. in the area of product development and post-sales). Common business semantics are a prerequisite to implement data-based as well as process-based connectivity and can be achieved through information modelling. BIP 4 typically focuses on the terminology and meaning of the information exchanged in the specific context and does not yet take into account the data structures which have been implemented in different information systems. Business experts and IT architects are involved in defining a common ontology or a common vocabulary for the specific domain. They are supported by respective methodologies for ontology definition as well as ontology authoring tools (e.g. ATHOS [6] or Protégé). Semantic annotation can be used for formal knowledge representation. BIP 5: Design of Services and Business Documents BIP 5 relates to the design of services and business documents which are the basis for electronic integration. Depending on the focus on either process or data integration, it requires that a public process and/or common business semantics have been established. This situation is frequent in industries which are increasingly moving towards networked business models and have a high ebusiness maturity. Alike the design of a public process, design of services and business documents can either emerge as result of a consensus building activity or be defined by the focal company or network orchestrator. Definition of business documents is supported by modelling tools that support e.g. a component-based modelling of business documents. To define services and service interfaces, technical specifications such as WSDL (Web Service Definition Language) can be used. Technical staff such as IT architects is necessary to actually create the services and data models using methods and tools for service specification (XMLSpy, Johnson [5], etc.) and tools that support a definition and mapping of business documents (Maestro, XML Editing Tools, etc.). The transformation to models for a particular execution platform is subject to later project phases.

BusinessInteroperability Profiles

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BIP 6: Implementation of Process Integration This BIP focuses on the electronic coupling of business processes with the target to move from human-human or human-machine interaction to machinemachine integration. Basis for achieving higher levels of electronic process integration is a common understanding of the public process, the availability of service definitions as well as the existence of common business semantics. This business interoperability profile typically is found in business environments with high e-business maturity, e.g. the retail or the automotive industry. To achieve the coupling of the processes, IT architects first transform the business level models of processes to a platform-independent technical representation. On this level they enrich the models of private and view processes with more detailed information about the services to call and the messages to exchange. They also link the private process models of the partners to a technical level model of the public process. Model-driven development (e.g. supported by PIM4SOA [18]) and tools for technical specification of services and workflows (such as Maestro or Gabriel [4]) increase interoperability at this stage. To actually enact the processes, IT architects and IT administrators have to define the desired execution infrastructure, e.g. service-oriented architectures, agents or peer-to-peer. They then transform the technical level model to execution level models and deploy them on the selected execution infrastructure. BIP 7: Implementation of Data Integration BIP 7 relates to the electronic exchange of data in a machine-readable format. It requires common business semantics to be in place. A public process is not a prerequisite since this business interoperability profile may also relate to knowledge-oriented scenarios with an unstructured interaction. To achieve machine-readable data exchange, IT architects define source and target data formats as well as the transformations between them (using e.g. STEP Mapper). To implement the transformation, an execution infrastructure is identified and the transformations are deployed. This can be supported for instance by functionality to export component-based document models to XML. Semantic annotation and runtime reconciliation facilitate model-based (instead of implementation) transformation. If the data transformation relates to message exchange in a common business process, the respective links between data and process steps have to be maintained by the process execution platform.

4 Summary and Future Research In order to systemise the broad range of emerging interoperability concepts and tools, this paper shows that the interoperability solutions address different business issues and stakeholders. It suggests a more differentiated view on interoperability by identifying business interoperability issues and linking them to technical interoperability solutions. Fig. 3 summarises the business interoperability profiles and the associated interoperability solutions. In addition, it lists the approach that should be taken, the stakeholders involved and the artefacts that have to be considered. Mapping the Business Interoperability Profiles to the interoperability

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solution schema allows organisations to select the interoperability solutions which best fit their interoperability issues. The Profiles also help researchers to position their research results in a broader context. So far, Business Interoperability Profiles and their mapping to the interoperability concepts and solutions have been tested in a limited number of case studies. Depending on the existing level of business interoperability, these cases started with different BIPs and consecutively applied a set of three to five BIPs. Further evaluation and completion of categorisation of business interoperability issues and BIP is subject to future research. Given the background from the ATHENA project, the BIPs defined in this paper have a strong focus on the modelling and implementation of business processes at different levels of abstraction. Business Processes usually imply an information exchange via messages as well as a mostly sequential order of process steps. In addition, we can imagine collaboration scenarios that consist of a concurrent set of operations (for instance, performed by different actors or software applications) each performing on the same object. The BIP should be extended by so called knowledge based interactions.

Acknowledgements The work published in this paper is (partly) funded by the E.C. through the ATHENA IP. It does not represent the view of E.C. or the ATHENA consortium, and authors are solely responsible for the paper's content.

References [1] ATHENA, (2005) ATHENA European Integrated Project, 23.09.2005, www.athenaip.org [2] ATHENA, (2006) Deliverables from project A5. http://www.athena-ip.org [3] ATHENA, (2006) Deliverables from project A3. http://www.athena-ip.org [4] ATHENA, (2006) Gabriel, ATHENA Deliverable. http://www.athena-ip.org [5] ATHENA, (2006) Johnson, ATHENA Deliverable. http://www.athena-ip.org [6] ATHENA, (2006) ATHOS, ATHENA Deliverable. http://www.athena-ip.org [7] IDS Scheer AG, (2006) ARIS Plattform... http://www.ids-scheer.com/international/english/products/53961 [8] Daft RL, (2004) Organization Theory and Design, Thomson South-Western, Manson, Ohio [9] Donaldson L, (2001) The Contingency Theory of Organizations, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA [10] e-Business Watch, (2005) The European e-Business Report - 2005 edition. Available at http://www.ebusiness-watch.org/resources/documents/eBusiness-Report-2005.pdf [11] Greiner U, Lippe S, Kahl T, Ziemann J, Jäkel FW, (2006) Designing and Implementing Cross-Organizational Business Processes – Description and Application of a Modelling Framework. Proc. of I-ESA 2006 [12] Malone, T. W., Crowston, K., (1994) The Interdisciplinary Study of Coordination. ACM Computing, Surveys 26 (1):87-119

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[13] McAfee, A., (2005) Will Web Services Really Transform Collaboration? MIT Sloan Management, Review 46(2):78-84 [14] MooGo. Fraunhofer AG. http://www.moogo.de/ [15] Legner C, Wende K, (2006) Towards an Excellence Framework for Business Interoperability. 19th Bled eConference eValues [16] OMG, MDA Guide Version 1.0.1, (2003) Available at http://www.omg.org/docs/omg/03-06-01 [17] Österle H, Fleisch E, Alt R, (2001) Business Networking: Shaping Collaboration Between Enterprises, Springer, Berlin et al. [18] ATHENA consortium (2006) PIM4SOA , Available at http://pim4soa.sourceforge.net/index.html [19] TrustCom project, (2006) http://www.eu-trustcom.com [20] Wigand RT, Picot A, Reichwald R, (1997) Information, Organization and Management: Expanding Markets and Corporate Boundaries, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England

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Index of Contributors

Agostinho, C......................... 479, 817 Åhlfeldt, R.-M. ............................. 633 Álvarez, J.A.................................. 519 Anastasiou, M............................... 771 Anaya, V....................................... 237 Anicic, N. ..................................... 721 Arezza, A.............................. 415, 553 Askounis, D. ......................... 361, 517 Athanasopoulos, G. ...................... 741 Azevedo, A................................... 557 Bacetic, M. ................................... 721 Backlund, P. ................................. 315 Barkmeyer, E.J. ............................ 365 Bartlang, U. .................................. 709 Bastida, L. .................................... 427 Bauer, B........................................ 139 Bazijanec, B. ................................ 783 Beardsmore, A.............................. 829 Ben Salem, R................................ 447 Bénaben, F.................................... 257 Benamar, C................................... 495 Benkő, T. ...................................... 795 Berio, G. ....................................... 237 Berre, A.-J. ................... 115, 569, 741 Biennier, F. ................................... 495 Blanc, S. ....................................... 273 Boell, D. ....................................... 771 Bogdan, C. ................................... 329 Born, M. ....................................... 759 Boudjlida, N. ................................ 357 Boufaida, M.................................. 357 Bourey, J.-P. ................. 115, 447, 587

Broeksema, B. .............................. 697 Burlat, P........................................ 878 Cardoso, J. .................................... 333 Carnahan, L. ................................. 659 Casals, M...................................... 617 Chaari, S. ...................................... 495 Chang, J........................................ 673 Chapko, A..................................... 621 Chapurlat, V. ................................ 261 Charalabidis, Y..................... 361, 525 Charlier, B. ................................... 581 Charoy, F. ..................................... 741 Chituc, C.-M................................. 557 Cho, H. ......................................... 673 Correa, K. ..................................... 115 Costa, C.A. ................................... 277 Costa, R. ......................................... 89 Cuberos, F.J.................................. 519 Cui, D. .......................................... 219 Cutting-Decelle, A.F. ................... 587 D’Antonio, F. ............... 115, 345, 817 Daclin, N. ..................................... 447 Denno, P. ...................................... 365 Di Marzo Serugendo, G................ 741 Diep, D. ........................................ 261 Dorn, J. ......................................... 401 Doumeingts, G.............................. 119 Dubois, E........................................ 15 Ducq, Y. ............................... 273, 447 Durand, J. ..................................... 685 Eder, J........................................... 223 Elvesæter, B. ........................ 569, 771

892

Index of Contributors

Espadas, J. .................................... 431 Favrel, J. ....................................... 495 Feltus, C. ........................................ 27 Feurstein, B.K............................... 281 Figay, N........................................ 569 Finet, T. ................................ 119, 621 Fischer, K. ............................ 195, 207 Forcada, N. ................................... 617 Friese, T........................................ 709 Fuertes, A. .................................... 617 Gangolells, M. .............................. 617 Garcia, O. ....................................... 89 Gausmann, O. ............................... 783 Gebase, L...................................... 659 Genßler, T..................................... 759 Gialelis, J...................................... 261 Gionis, G. ............................. 361, 525 Goedicke, M. ................................ 463 González, L. ................................. 519 Grandin-Dubost, M. ..................... 119 Grangel, R. ........................... 115, 447 Greiner, U............................. 751, 865 Gruhn, V....................................... 753 Guglielmina, C. ............ 415, 553, 569 Gunendran, A.G. .......................... 587 Hahn, C................................. 195, 207 Hamri, S. ...................................... 357 Harzallah, M................................. 377 Hauge, J.B. .................................. 245 Heinonen, S. ................................. 529 Herrmann, A................................. 633 Heymans, P..................................... 77 Hofbauer, P................................... 155 Hrastnik, P.................................... 811 Huza, M. ....................................... 377 Iacob, M.-E................................... 463 İlal, M.E........................................ 807 Imtiaz, A....................................... 245 Ivezic, N. ...................... 483, 541, 721 Izza, S. .......................................... 879 Jäkel, F.-W. .................................. 303 Jakovljevic, N............................... 721 Jankovic, M. ................................. 541 Janner, T. ...................... 241, 467, 525 Jardim-Gonçalves, R. ..... 89, 479, 817 Jeong, B........................................ 673 Jeusfeld, M.A. ........................ 63, 315

Jiménez, G. ................................... 431 Jochem, R. ...................................... 39 Johannesson, P.............................. 633 Johnsen, S.G. ................................ 569 Johnson, P..................................... 599 Jonkers, H..................................... 463 Jørgensen, H. ................................ 771 Jun, H.B........................................ 729 Justinaviciene, K. ......................... 553 Kääriänen, J. ................................. 529 Kabilan, V. ................................... 633 Kahl, T.................................. 151, 207 Kallinikos, J.................................. 625 Kalogeras, A................................. 261 Karlsen, D..................................... 569 Katasonov, A. ............................... 183 Khadraoui, D. ............................... 741 Kiauleikis, V................................. 553 Kim, J. .......................................... 647 Kiritsis, D. .................................... 729 Klein, M. ...................................... 759 Knoll, G........................................ 553 Knothe, T...... 39, 303, 541, 5691, 771 Kokovic, Z.................................... 721 Koliver, C. .................................... 277 Köllmann, C. ................................ 463 Koussouris, S................................ 525 Kovács, L. .................................... 415 Kuhn, J. ........................................ 759 Kulvatunyou, S..................... 647, 685 Kürschner, A.C............................. 605 Kutvonen, L.................................. 629 Lagerström, R............................... 599 Lampathaki, F............................... 241 Lange, M. ..................................... 101 Latour, T....................................... 159 Lebreton, B................... 119, 621, 725 Legner, C. ............................. 725, 865 Lehmann, M. ................................ 223 Lippe, S. ............................... 569, 865 Ljubicic, V.................................... 721 Loos, P............................................ 51 Lorré, J.P. ..................................... 257 Lukácsy, G. .................................. 795 Luzi, D.......................................... 329 Macit, S. ....................................... 807 Madrigal-Mora, C......................... 195

Index of Contributors 893 893

Maló, P. .......................................... 89 Mariategui, J.-C............................ 625 Marjanovic, Z. ............ 483, 5413, 721 Martin, M.J................................... 685 Matulevičius, R.S. .......................... 77 Mayer, N......................................... 15 Meier, F. ....................................... 389 Meira, L.M. .................................. 277 Meng, F.C..................................... 459 Mertins, K..................................... 303 Miletic, I. ...................................... 483 Missikoff, M................................. 345 Mo, T............................................ 291 Moen, P. ....................................... 633 Moraitis, P. ................................... 741 Morin, J.-H. .................................. 741 Mouzakitis, S................................ 241 Müller, J.L. ................................... 151 Müller, J.P. ................... 171, 207, 709 Müller, P....................................... 151 Närman, P..................................... 599 Naudet, Y. .................................... 159 Naumenko, A................................ 183 Naz, T........................................... 401 Negretto, U. .................................. 155 Nieto, F.J. ..................................... 427 Novicic, I...................................... 721 Nuñez, M.J. .................................... 89 Nurcan, S. ..................................... 111 Oancea, M. ................................... 841 Ondracek, N. ................................ 841 Onofre, S. ..................................... 479 Opdahl, A.L.................................... 77 Ortega, J.A.................................... 518 Ospina, G.A.................................. 581 Pamptroad, G................................ 467 Pantazoglou, M............................. 741 Pataki, B. ...................................... 415 Pingaud, H.................................... 257 Pokraev, S..................................... 507 Pronios, C. .................................... 771 Quartel, D.A.C.............................. 507 Radoiu, D. .................................... 853 Rajsiri, V. ..................................... 257 Ralyté, J........................................ 315 Rechden, G.F................................ 277 Reichert, M................................... 507

Ricci, F.L...................................... 329 Rifaut, A. .................................. 15, 27 Roca, X......................................... 617 Rolfsen, R.K. ................................ 771 Rontey, P. ..................................... 659 Roser, S. ............................... 139, 207 Ruohomaa, S. ............................... 633 Ruokolainen, T. ............................ 159 Rüppel, U. .................................... 101 Salvador, V.L. .............................. 277 Samsonowa, T. ............................. 127 Sarraipa, J. .................................... 817 Schäfer, C. .................................... 753 Scheper, U. .................................. 241 Schreiner, W................................. 811 Schroth, C............. 127, 241, 467, 525 Schumacher, A.J........................... 281 Sclano, F....................................... 287 Seiceanu, M. ................................. 841 Serbanati, L.D............................... 329 Snack, P........................................ 541 Snelick, R. .................................... 659 Sobrito, G. .................................... 709 Söderström, E. .............................. 389 Song, L. ........................................ 219 Sourouni, K. ................................. 361 Spanoudakis, N............................. 741 Stäber, F. ...................................... 709 Steen, M.W.A............................... 507 Steiger-Garção, A. ........................ 479 Stevens, R..................................... 245 Stiefel, P.D. .................................. 171 Szeredi, P...................................... 795 Taglino, F. .................................... 345 Tahamtan, A. ................................ 223 Takalo, J. ...................................... 529 Terziyan, V................................... 183 Thiesse, B.F.................................. 605 Tolle, K......................................... 553 Toscano, C.................................... 557 Trichet, F. ..................................... 369 Turowski, K.................................. 783 Vallespir, B................................... 273 van Blommestein, F...................... 697 van den Heuvel, W.-J. .................... 63 Velardi, P...................................... 287 Velasco, F..................................... 519

894

Index of Contributors

Verdecho, M.J. ............................. 237 Vincent, L..................................... 879 Vujasinovic, M. ............................ 483 Walter, P......................................... 51 Wang, Z.J. ............................ 291, 459 Weber, I............................................ 3 Weigand, H................................... 633 Wende, K...................................... 865 Werth, D. ........................................ 51 Wilkes, W..................................... 841

Wombacher, A.............................. 507 Woo, J........................................... 685 Xirouchakis, P. ............................. 729 Xu, X.F................................. 291, 459 Yoo, T........................................... 673 Young, R.I.M................................ 587 Zhan, D.C. .................................... 459 Zhang, G....................................... 151 Ziemann, J. ................................... 207 Zinnikus, I. ................................... 207