Ethics Part 2

26

E T HICS

words, they all produce a maximum of pleasure. A characteristic which belongs to all voluntary actions, which ought to bedone or which it is our duty to do, and only to these, is, it says, the slightly difierlnt one: That they all cause rnore pleasure than any which the agent could have done instead; or, in other words, among all the possible alternatives, it is they which produce lZe maximum of pleasure. And finally, a characteristic which belongs to all voluntary actions which are wrong, or which ought not to be done, or which it is our duty not to do, and which belongs only to these, is, in all three casesthe same,namely: That they all cause /ess pleasure than some other action which the agent could have done instead. These three statementstogether constitute what I will call the first part of the theory; and, whether we agree with them or not, it must, I think, at least be admitted that they are propositions of a very fundamental nature and of a very wide range, so that it would be worth while to know, if possible,whether they are true. But this first part of the theory is by no means the whole of it. There are two other parts of it, which are at least equally important; and, before we go on to consider the objections which may be urged against it, it will, I think, be best to state these other parts. They may, however, conveniently form the subject of a new chapter.

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CHAPTER

UTILITARIANISM

II

(coruludcd)

In the last chapter I stated the first part of'an ethical theory, which I chose out for consideration, not becauseI agreed with it, but becauseit seemedto me to bring out particularly clearly the distinction between some of the most' fundamental subjects of ethical discussion. This first part consisted.in asserting that there is a certain characteristic which belongs to absolutely all voluntary actions which are right, and only to those which are right; another closely allied characteristic which belongs to aII voluntary actions which ought to be done or are duties, and only to these; a third characteristic which belongs to all voluntary actions which are wrongr ought not to be done, or which it is our duty not to do, ar'd only to those voluntary actions of which these things are true. And when the theory makes these asdertionsit means the words 'all' and 'only' to be understood quite strictly. That is to say, it means its propositions to apply to absolutely every voluntary actioS, which ever has been done, or ever will be done, no matter who did it, or when it was or will be done; and not only to those which actually have been or will be done, but also to all those which have been or will be possible,in a certain definite sense. The sense in which it means its propositions to apply to possible,as well as actual, voluntary actions, is, it must be remembered, only if we agree to give the name 'possible' to all those actions which an agent couldhave done, y'he had chosen,and to those which; in the future, any agent be able to do, y' he were 1i|

28 . ET H rc s to chooseto io them. Possible actions, irf'this sense, form a perfectly definite group; and we do, as a matter of fact, often make judgements as to whether they would have been or would be right, and as to whether thqy ought to have been done in the past, or ought to be done in the future. We say, , So-and-so ought to hdve done this on that occasion',or,It would have been perfectly right for him to have done this', although as a matter of fact, he did not do it; or we say, 'You ought to do this,, or , It will be quite right for you to do this', although it subsequentlyturns out, that the action in question is one which you do not actu-allyperform. Our theory says, then, with regard to al} actions, which were in this sensepossible in the pastnthat they anuld haoebeenright, if and only if they would have produced a maximum of pleasuie; just as it says that all actual past voluntary actions were right, if and only if they did produce a maximum of pleasure. And similarly, with regard to all voluntary actions which will be possible in the future, it sayi that they will be right, if and only if they would produce a maximum of pleasure; just as it says with regard to all that will actually be done, that they will be right, if and only if they do produce a maximum of pleasure. Our theory does, then, even in its first part, deal, in a sense,with possible actions, as well as actual ones. It professesto tell us, not only which among actual past voluntary actions were right, but also which among those which were possible ztould haoebeenright if they had been done; and not only which among /the voluntary actions which actually will be done in the future, willbe right, but also which among those which will be possible, ztould be right, if they were to be done. And in doing this, it does, of course, give us a criterion, or test, or standard, by means of which we

) urr" rti i rA N l sM zg sould, theoretical)y at least, discover with regard to absolutely every voluntary action, whichever either has been or w-ill be either actual or possible,whether it was or will be right or not. If we want to discover with regard to a voluntary action which was actually done or was possible in the past, whether it was right or only to ask: CoJd the would have been iigtrtffiave agent, on the occasionin question, have done anything ' elseinstead,which would haveproduced more pleasure? If he could, then the action in question was,or would have been wrohg; if he could not, then it was or would have been right. And similarly, if we want to discover with regaril to an action, which we are contemplating -in the f11trge, whether it would be right for us to do it, we have only to ask: Could I do anything else instead which would produce more pleasure? If I could, it will be wrong to do the action; if I could not, it will be right. Our theory does thenq even in its first part, profess to give us an absolutely \ universal eriterion of right and wrong; and similarly also an absolutely universal criterion of what ought or ought not to be done. But though it does this, there is something else which it does not do. It only asserts,in this first part, that the producing of a maximum of pleasure is a characteristic,which did an{ will belong, as a matter of fact, to all right voluntary Cctions(actual or possible), and only to right ones; it does not, in its first part, go on to assert that it is becausethey possessthis characteristic that such actions are right. This second assertion is the first which it goes on to make in its. second part; and everybody can see, I think, that there is an important difference between the two assertions. Many people might be inclined to admit that, when-

30 .,1 . .E fH IC g ,r,:,,.,. , ever a man acts wrongly, his action always does, on the whole,,result in greater unhappiness ihan would have ensuedif he had acted differentiy; and that when he acts rightly this result *oo that, on the "n"io, right action always does in the end bring -":"r1ut{,, about at least as much happiness,on the whole, as th6 agent could-possibly have brought about by any other action which was in his power. The propisition that w_rongaction alryays does, and (considering how the unrverse rs constituted) always would, in the long run, lead to-less pleasurethan the agent could have brlught about by acting differently, and that right action never .is does and never would havl this effect, a proposition whicl gr.1! r","ll people might be inclinei to accept; .a and this is all which, in its firsi part, our theory asserts. But many of those who would te inclined to assentto this proposition, would feel great hesitation in going on to assertthat this is wlty actions are right or wrong r_espectively. There seems to be a v"iy i-port"rrt difrerence between the two positions. We may trota, for instance, that an act of murder, whenever it is Yrong, always does produce greatef--*rahappiness than would have followed if th; agent had chosen instead some one of the other alteniuiives, which he could have carried out, if he had so chosen; and we may hold that this is true of all other wrong actions, actual or possible, and never of any right olnLes:but it-seemsa very different thing to hold th"atmurder and all other wrong actions are wrong, when they are wrong, becausethey have this result-because thev produce less the possible maximum of plCasura -than We may hold, that is to say, that the fact that it does produce or would produce /ess than a maximum of pleasure is absolutely always a sign that a voluntary action is wrong, while the fact thai it does produce oi

/

U TILITA R IA N IS M

3r

would produce a maximum of pleasure is absolutely nlways a sign that it is right; but this does not seem to commit us to the very different proposition that these results, besides being .sig-rubf righi and wrong, arc also the rcasonswhy actions are right when they are right, and'ri'ibng when they are wrotrg. Everybody can see, I think, that the distinction is important; although I think it is often overlooked in ethical discussions. And it is precisely this distinction which separateswhat I have called the first part ofour theory, from the first of the assertions which it'goes on to make in its second part. In its first part it only asserts that the producing or not producing a maximum of pleasure are, absolutely universally, signsof right and wrong in voluntary actions; in its secondpart it goes on to assertthat it is because they produce these results that voluntary actions are right when they are right, and wrong when they are wrong. There is, then, plainly some important difference between the assertion, which our theory made in its first part, to the efect that all right voluntary actions, and only those which are right, do, in fact, produce a maximum of pleasure,and the assertion,which it now goes on to make, that this is why they are right. And if we ask why the difference is important, the answer is, so far as I can see, as follows. Namely, if we say that actions are right, becltuethey produce a maximum of pleasure,we imply that, provided they produced this result, they would be fight, no matter ashat other effects they might produce as well. We imply, in short, that their rightness does not depend at all upon their other effects, but only on the quantity of pleasure that they produce. And this is a very different thing from merely saying that the producing a maximum of pleasureis always,as a matter of fact, a slgz of rightness. I

i1

3+

ET I{ ICS

To many persons it may seem clear tltat it utould 'be our duty to prefer some pleasuresto others,even if they did not entail a greaterquantity of pleasure; and hencethat though actionswhich produce a maximum of pleasure are perhaps, in fact, ahvaysright, they are not right because of this, but only becausethe producing of this result does in fact happen to coincide with the producing of other results. They would say that though perhaps, in fact, actual cases never occur in which it ls or would be wrong to do an action, which produces a maximum of pleasure,it is easy to imaginc casesin which it zlould be wrong. .I/, for instance, we had to choose between creating a lJniverse, in which all the inhabitants were capable only of the lowest sensual pleasures,and another in which they were capableof the highest intellectual and aestheticones, it would, they would say, plainly be our duty to create the latter rather than the former, eventhough the mere quantity of pleasureenjoyedin it were rather lessthan in the former, and still more so if the quantitieswere equal. Or, to put it shortly, they would say that a world of men is preferableto a world of pigs, even though the pigs might enjoy as much or more pleasure than a world of men. And this is what our theory goes on to deny, when it says that voluntary actions are right, because they produce a maximum of pleasure. It implies, by saying this, that actions which produced a maximum of pleasure would always be right, no matter what their effects, in other respects,might be. And hence that it would be right to create a world in which there was no intelligence and none of the higher emotions,rather than one in which thesewere present in the highest degree, provided only that the mere quantity of pleasure enjoyed in the former were ever so little greater than that enjoyed in the latter.

U T ILI

)l I

t

T A R IA N IS M

J)

()rrr tlrcory nsrscLts, then, in its second part, that vrrlrrrrtaryactionsare right when they are right, because llrcy lrrotlrrcca muxinrumof plcasure;and in asserting tlris it takcs a grcilt stcp beyond vl'hatit assertedin its lirst pnrt, sinc:cit now inrplics that an action which ;rrrrrfucctl n rnaxinrunr of plcasure always would be rililrt, no nurtt(.r h
36

\ ET HICS

as it is.,voluntary actions are right because they produce a maximum of pleasure,but alsothat this *or.rld b" .o, under any concehtablecircumstarues: that if any conceivablebeing, in any conceivableUniverse, were faced with a choice between an action which would cause more pleasure and one which would cause less, it would always be his duty to choosethe former rather than the latter, no matter what the respectsmight be in which his Universe differed from ours. It may, at first sight, seem unduly bold to assertthat any etlical truth can be absolutely unconditional in this sense. But many philosophers have held that some funda*.1?l ethical principles certainly are thus un_ conditional. And a little reflection will suffice to show that the view that they may be so is at all events not absurd. We have many instances of other truths, which seemquite plainly to be of this nature. It se"*s quite clear, for instance,that it is not only true that twice two do make four, iir the Universe as it actuallv is, but that they necessarilywould make four. in ani conceivable lJniverse, no matter how much it might differ from this one in other respects. And our theJry is only assertingthat the connexionwhich it believes to hold between rightness and the production of a maximum of pleasure is, in this respect, similar to the connexion asserted to hold betwein ihe number two and the number four, whgn.wc say that twice two are four. It assertsthat, if any being *h"t"u"r, in any circumstances whatever, had to ch6ose between two actions, one of which would produce more pleasure than the other, it alwayswould be his duty to choose the former rather than the latter: that this is absolutely unconditionally true. This assertion obviously goes very much further, both than the assertion *Li"t it made in its first part, to the efiect that the producing a

\

urrrrteR rA N rsM

37 rrurxirrrrrrn of plcasureis a signof rightnessin the case ll rrll r'olrrrrturyactions,that ever have been or will lrt' :rt'lrrrlor lxrssiblc,and alsothan the assertion,that irr tlrc IJrrivcrsc,:ls it is actuallyconstituted,actions rrrt: r'i1qlrt,wlrcn tlrcy arc right, ltecausethey produce rt trr:rxirnrrrr ol' plt:irsrrrc.Ilut llold as the assertionmay ut.r'rrr, it ir, rrt nll cv(,lrt.s, rrotiurpossible that we should krrowi t l o l rc l l rre. ()rrr llrt.ory ururolts,llrcrt:fort:,in its secondpart: ' l ' l rnt, i l ' w c l rl rrll o t' l rrxrscl rt:tw ccntw o actions,one oi l ' rvl ri l lrvurrl r rll ruvt' :rsi ts sol cor totalefl ccts,an ef f ect or sr,lol cl l i ' t' l r,w l ri t' l rw r: rrr:ryr:i rl lA , w hi l e t he ot her w ortl rll ruvcrtni ts H ol cor l ol rtlc{ l ccts,:rnc{I 'cctor set ol cl l ct' tn,w l ri cl i w c l rrl y t' :rl l l l , tl rcrr,y' A cont ained rrrorcpl t' l rsrrrt: l l r:rrrl l , i t al w uysw oul tl bc ou r dut y t o ('lro,rsc llr<;ucliorrwhir:hcausctlA rathcrthan that which t'rrrnt:tlll. 'l'lris, it nsscrts,would be absolutelyalways lrrr(:, r,., tttulttr uhat A and B might be like in other r(slru:!s. And to assertthis is (it now goes on to say) uluiuulent to asscrting that any effect or set of effects wlriclr corrtains more pleasure is always intrinsically ht'llu thrn one which containsless. fly calling one effect or set of efrects intrinsically lx,ltcr tlln another it meansthat it is better in itself, tlritc apart from any accompaniments or further effects which it may have. That is to say: To assertof any rrrrctlring, A, that itis intrinsicallybetter than another, l|, is to assert tl'rat if A existed quite alone, without ilny accompanimentsor elTectswhatever-if, in short, A constitutedthe whole Universe, it would be better that such a lJniverseshould exist, than that a Universe which consistedsolely of B should exist instead. In
38

E T HI CS

quite alorc than that the other should exist quite alone. No one thing or set of things, A, ever canbe intrircbally better than another,B, unlessit would be better that A should exist quite alone than that B should exist quite alone. Our theory asserts,therefore, that, wherever it is true that it would be our duty to chooseA rather than B, if A and B were to be the sole effects of a pair of actions between which we had to choose,there it is alwaysalso true that it would be betterthat A should exist quite alone than that B should exist quite alone. And it assertsalso, conversely,that wherever it is true that any one thing or set of things, A, is intrinsically better than another, B, there it would always also be our duty to choosean action of which A would be the sole effect rather than one of which B would be the sole effect, if we had to choosebetween them. But since, as we have seen,it holds that it never could be our duty to choose one action rather than another, unless the total effects of the one contained more pleasurethan that ofthe other, it followsthat, according tq it, no effect or set of effects, A, can possibly be intrinsically better than another, B, unlessit contains more pleasure. It holds, therefore,not only that any one effector setofeffects,which containsmore pleasure, is always intrinsically better than one which contains less, but also that no effect or set of effects can be intrinsically better than another unl,essit contains more pleasure. It is plain, then, that this theory assigns a quite unique position to pleasureand pain in two respects; or possibly only in one, since it is just possiblethat the two propositions which it makes about them are not merely equivalent, but absolutely identical-that is to say, are merely different ways of expressingexactly the same idea. The two propositions are these.

\

urrr-rraR rA N rsM

39

(r ) 'l'lrtt if any one had to choose between two actions, orrt' of which woukl, in its total effects, cause more pl<'lsrrrc tlurn tlrc othcr, it ahvays would be his d-uty Io t'lroost:tlrc frrrrttcr; and that it never could be any orrr:'urlrrly to clroosc one action rather than another, rrrrlc*s its tolitl c(l'ccts contained more pleasure. (.1) 'l'lrrt ;rny Urrivcrsc, or part of a Universe, which colrlirinx trurrc plt':tsttrc, is always intrinsically better llrrur orrc wlrit'lr cotrtrtinttlcss; ancl tl'rat nothing can be i r r l r i r n i t '; r l l yl r c l t c r t l u t n i r n y t h i r r gc l s c , u n l e s si t co n ta i n s rrrorr. plnrrrtle. lt rkxrn at:(:ntto bc jrrst possible that tficnc lwo lrtolroxiliotrs nt't: tttcrcly two diflerent ways rrl cxprtnairrg cx:rt'tly tltc srtntc idca. 'I'he question w l r r 'l l r c r l l r c y 'n l q H o ( , r n ( ) t s i r r t p l y c l c p e n d su p o n th e r;rrr.rrtionwlrcllrt'r, wlrctt wc siry, 'It would be better tlrrrt A slrorrlrl cxist rlrritc alonc than that B should cxist tlrritc rrlonc', we arc or are not saying exactly tlrt: s:rrrrcthirrg, as whcn we say, 'Supposing we had to t'lroosc bctrvccn an action of which A would be the aolt: cilcct, and one of which B would be the sole cllcct, it would be our duty to choose. the former rlthcr than the latter'. And it certainly does seem, at lirst sight, as if the two propositions were not identical; :rs iI wc should not be saying exactly the same thing in asscrting thc one, as in asserting the other. But, even if they are not identical, our theory asserts that they rrrc ccrtainly equfualent: that, whenever the one is true, thc other is certainly also true. And, if they are not idcntical, this assertion of equivalence amounts to the vcry important proposition that: An action is right, only if no action, which the agent could have done instcad, would have had intrinsically better results: while an action is wrong, only if the agent could have done some other action instead whose total resultg It certainlv better. would have been intrinsicallv

ET H Ic S if this proposition were not a mere tautology. 1""1o.3. And, if so, then we must admit that our theory assigis a unique.positionto pleasureand pain in two respects, and not in one only. It asserts,first of all, thaf they have a unique relation to right and wrong; "rri secnndly, that they have a unique relation to intrinsic ztalue. Our theory asserts, then, that any whole which contains a greater amount of pleasure, is always intrinsically better than one whici contains a smaller amount, no matter what the two may be like in other respects; and that no whole can be intrinsicallv better than another unless it contains more pleasure. But it must be remembered that throughoui this discussion, we have, for the sake of convenience,been using the phrase'containsmore pleasure'in an inaccuratesense. I explained that I should say of one whole, A, that it contained more pleasure than another, B, whenever A and B were related to one another in either of the five following ways: namely (r) when A and B both contain en excessof pleasureover pain, but A contains a greater excessthan B; (z) when A contains an excess of pleasureover pain, while B contains no excesseither of pleasureover pain or of pain over pleasure; (3) when A contains an excessof pleasure over pain, wtite S contains an excessof pain over pleasure, (4) when A contains no excesseither of pleasure over'pain or of pain over pleasure,while B does contain of "n'e*cess pain over pleasure; and (5) when both A and B contain an excess of pain over pleasure, but A contains a smaller excess than B. Whenever in stating this theory, I have spoken of one whole, or effect, or set of effects,A, as containing more pleasurethan another, B, I have always meant merely that A was related to Ii in onc or othcr of thesefioe ways. And so here, when +o

IJTILTTA R TA N TS M +r .l our the6ry says that every whole which contains a greater amount of pleasure is always intrinsically better than one which contains less, and that nothing can be intrinsically better than anything else unless it contains more pleasure, this must be understood to mean that any whole, A, which standsto another, B, in any onc of these five relations, is always intrinsically better than B, and that no one thing can be intrinsically better than another, unlessit stands to itin onc or other of these five relations. And it becomes important to remember this, when we go on to take account of another fact. It is plain that when we talk of one thing being 'better' than anoth,er we may mean any one of five different things. We may mean either (r) that while both are positively good, the first is better; or (z) that while the first is positively good, the second is neither good nor bad, but indifferent; or (3) that while the first is positively good, the second is positively bad; or (4) that while the first is indifferent, the second is positively bad; or (5) that while both are positively bad, the first is less bad than the second. We should, in common life, say that one thing was 'better' than another, whenever it stood to that other in any one of these five relations. Or, in other words, we hold that among things which stand to one anothei,in_Tfie relation of better and worse, some are positively good, others positively bad, and others neither good nor bad, but indiferent. And our theory holds that this is, in fact, the case, with things which have a place in the scale of intrinsic value: some of -them are intrinsically good, others intrinsically bad, and others indifferent. And it would say that a whole is intrinsically good, whenever and only when it contains an excessof pleasure over painl intrinsically bad, when-

ETHTCS 42 ever and only when it contains an excessof pain over pleasure; and intrinsically indifferent, whenever and only when it contains neither. In addition, therefore, to laying down precise rules as to what things are intrinsically better or utorsethan others, our theory also lays down equally preciseones as to what things are intrinsically good and. bad and 'indifferent. By saying that a thing is intrinsically good it means that it would be a good thing that thi thing in question should exist, even if it existed quite alone, without any further accompanimentsor effects whatever. By saying that it is intrinsically bad, it means that it would be a bad thing or an evil that it should exist, even ifit existed quite alone, without any further accompanimentsor effects whatever. And bv saying that it is intrinsically indiferent, it means that, if ii existed quite alone, its existence would be neither a good nor an evil in any degree whatever. And just as the conceptions'intrinsically better' and,intrinsically worse' are connected in a perfectly precise manner with the conceptions 'right' and 'wrong', so, it maintains, are these other conceptions also. To say of anything, A, that it is 'intrinsically good', is_eggjyalent to saying that, if we had to choose between an ZEtibn of which A would be the sole or total effect, and an action, which would have absolutelv no effects at all, it would alwaysbe our duty to chooseihe former, and wrong to choosethe. latter. And similarly ro sav of anything,A, that it is 'intrinsically bad ', is equivaleni to saying that, if we had to choosebetween an action of which A would be the sole efect, and an action which would have absolutely no effects at all, it would a]ways be our duty to choosethe latter and wrong to choosethe former. And finally, to say of anything, A, that it is 'intrinsically indifferent', is equivalent to

/ .lt

U TILITA R IA N TS M

43

enying that, if we had to choosebetween an action, of which A would be the sole effect, and an action rvhich would have absolutely no effects at all, it would not matter which we chose: either choice would be cqually right. 'I'o sum up, then, we may say that, in its -second t).lrt, our theory lays down three principles. It asserts (r) that anything whatever, whether it be a single cll'ect,or a whole set of effects,or a whole Universe,is intrinsically goodl wherever and only when it either is or contains an excessof pleasureover pain; that anything whatever is intrinsically bad, whenever and only when it either is or contains an excessof pain over pleasure; and that all other things, no matter what their nature may be, are intrinsically indiflerent. It asscrts (z) that any one thing, whether it be a single effcct, or a whole set of effects, or a whole lJniverse, is intrinsically better than another, whenever and only when the two are related to one another in one or other of the five following ways: namely, when either (a) while both are intrinsically good, the second is not so good as the first; or (D) while the first is intrinsically good, the secondis intrinsically indifferent; or (c) while the first is intrinsicalll Bood,the secondis intrinsically bad; or (d) while the first is intrinsically indifferent, the secondis intrinsically bad; or (e) while both are intrinsically bad, the first is not so bad as the second. And it asserts(3) that, if we had to choosebetweentwo actions one of which would have intrinsically better total effects than the other, it always would be our duty to choose the former, and wrong to choose the latter; and that no action ever can be right z/we coulcl have done anything else instead which would have had intrinsically better total effects, nor wrong, unlesswe could have done something else instead which would

E rrrrc s 4+ have had intrinsically better total effgcts. From these three principles taken together, the whole theory follows. And whether.it be true or false, it is, I think, at least a perfectly clear and intelligible theory. Whether it is or is not of any practical importance is, indeed, another question. But, even if lt wbre of none whatever, it certainly lays down propositipns of so fundamental and so far-reaching i charac/er, that it seems worth while to consider whether thev are true or false. There remain, I think, only two points which should be noticed with regard to it, before we go on ro consider the prinoipal objections which may be urged against it. It should be noticed, first, that, though this theory asserts that nothing is intrinsirally good, unless it is or contains an excessof pleasure over pain, it is very far from assertingthat nothing is good, untess it futns this-condition. By saying that a thing is intrinsbally good,it means,as has been explained,that the existence of the thing in question tt)ould be a good, even if it existed quite alone, without any accompaniments or effects whateverI and it is quite plain thai when w.e call things 'good' we by no means alwaysmean this: we by no means always mean that they would be good, even if they existed -quite alone. Very often, for instance, when we say that a thing is 'good,, we mean that it is good beeause of ix fficts; and we should not for a moment maintain that it a:ould be good, even if it had no effects at all. We are, for instance, familiar with the idea that it is sometimes a good thing for people to suffer pain; and yet we should be very loth to maintain that in all such casestheir sttfiering arculd !-e a good thing, even if nothing were gained by itif it had no further effects. We do, in general,maintain that suffering is good, only aiure and, becauseit has,

U TILITA R IA N IS M

45

further good effects. And similarly with many other things. Many things, therefore, which are nol 'intrinsically' good, may neverthelessbe 'good' in some one or other of the sensesin which we use that highly.ambiguous word. And hence our theory can and would quite consistently maintain that, while nothing is intrinsically good except pleasure or wholes which contain pleasure, many other things really are 'good'; and similarly that, while nothing is intrinsbally bad except pain or wholes which contain it, yet many other'things are really 'bad'. It would, for instance, maintain that it is always a good thing to act rightly, and a bad thing to act wrongly; although it would say at the same time that, since actions, strictly speaking, .4g-npt contain either pleasure or pain, but are only accompanied by or causes of them, a right action is ncaer intrhuically good, nor a wrong one intrinsfually bad. And similarly it would maintain that it is perfectly tbad', and true that some men are tgood', and others man strictly than although no can some better othersI be said to contain either pleasure or pain, and hence none can be either intrinsically good or intrinsically bad or intrinsically better than any other. It would evenmaintain (andihis alsoit cail do quite consistently), that events which are inninsically good are nevertheless very often bad, and intrinsically bad ones good. It would, for instance,say that it is often a very bad thing for a man to enjoy a particular pleasureon a particular occasion, although the event, which consists in his enjoying it, may be intrinsically good, since it contains an excessof pleasureover pain. It may often be a very bad thing that such an event should happen, because it causesthe man himself or other beings to have less pleasure or more pain in the future, than they would otherwise have had. And for similar reasons it may

ET H T C S 46 often be a very good thing that an intrinsically bad event should happen. It is important to rememberall this, becauseotherwise the theory may appear much more paradoxical than it really is. It may, for instance, appear, at first sight, asifit denied all value to anything except pleasure and wholes which contain it-a view which would be extremely paradoxical if it were held. But it doestmt do this. It does not deny all value to other things, but only all intrinsic value-a very different thing. It only says that none of them would haye any value if they existed quite alope. But, of course,as a matter of fact, none of them do exist quite alone, and hence it may quite consistently allow that, as it is, many of them do have very great value. Concerning kinds of value, other than intrinsic value, it does not profess to lay down any general rules at all. And its reasonfor confining itself to intrinsic value is because.it holds that this and this alone is related to right and wrong in the perfectly definite manner explained above. Whenever an action is right, it is right only if and becausethe total effecb of no action, *hi"h t-he "gerrt could have done instead, would have had more intrinsh value I and whenever an action is wrong, it is wrong only if and because the total effects of some other action, which the agent could have done instead, would have had more inttinsic value. This proposition, which is true of intrinsic value, is not, it holds, true of value of anv other kirid. And a second point which should be noticed about this theory is the following. It is often representedas asserting that pleasure is the only thing which is ultimately good or desirable, and pain the only thing which is ultimately bad or undesirable; or as asserting that pleasure is the only thing which is good for its

U TILI TA R IA N I S M

I

+t

mo)tsahe,and pain the only thing which is bad for its mtn sahe. And there is, I think, a sense in which it rloes assert this. But these expressions are not tummonly carefully defined; and it is worth noticing thut, if our theory does assertthese propositions,the t:xlrressions' ultimately good' or ' goodfor its own sahe' rrrtrst be understood in a different sense from that which has been assigned abol'e to the expression 'intrinsically good'. We must not take 'ultimately good' or 'good for its ozttnsake' to be synonyms for ' intrinsically good'. For\ur theory moat emphatically docszol assertthat pleasureis the only thingintrinsically good, and pain the only thing intrinsically evil. On llre contrary, it assertsthat any whole which contairc an excessof pleasure over pain is intrinsically good, no matter how much else it may contain besides; and eimilarly that any whole which contains an excessof pain over pleasureis intrinsically bad. This distinction lretweenthe conception expressedby 'ultimately good' or'good for its ou)nsake', on the one hand, and that cxpressedby'intrinsiralllt good', on the other, is not commonly made; and yet obviously we must make it, if we are to say that our theory does assertthat pleasure is the only ultimate good, and pain the only ultimate evil. The two conceptions, if used in this way, have one important point in common, namely, that both of them will only apply to things whose existencewould be good, even if they existed quite alone. Whether we assertthat a thing is'ultimately good'or'good for its own sake' or 'intrinsically good', we are always assertingthat it would be good, even if it existed quite alone. But the two conceptions differ in respect of the frct that, whereasa whole which is 'intrinsically good' rrray contain parts which are not intrinsically good, i.e. wouldnotbe good, if they existed quite alone; anything

48 E T H rc s which is 'ultimately good, or .good for its own sake' can contain no such parts. This, I think, is the meaning which we must assign to the expressions 'ultimatelygood'or'good for it, own sake,,if we are tg.say.that our-theory assertspleasureto be the only thing 'ultimately good' or .good for its own sakei. We may, in short, divide intrinsically good things into two classes: namely (r) those which, wfrile us wholes they are intrinsically good, neverthelesscontain some parts which are not intrinsically good; and (z) those, which either have no parts at all, or, if they huu" "ry, have none but what are themselvesintrinsically gooi. And we may thus, if we please, confine the terms 'ultimately good' or 'good for their own sakes' to things which belong to the secondof these two classes. We may, of course,make a precisely similar distinction between two classesof intrinsically bad things. And it is only if we do this that o.r. ih"ory can Le trulv said to assert that nothing is ,ultimately good, o'r 'good for its own sake', except pleasure; anjnothing 'ultimately bad ' or 'bad for its own sake', exceptpainl Such is the ethical theory which I have chosen to state, becauseit seemsto me particularly simple, and hence to bring out particularly clearly some of the main questionswhich haveformed the subject of ethical discussion. What is specially important is to distinguish the question, which_it professesto answer in its-first part, from the much more radical questions, which it professesto answer in its second. In its first part, it only professesto answerthe question: What character_ istic is there which does actually, as a matter of fact, belong to all right voluntary actions, which ever have beenor will be done in this world ? While, in its second part, it professesto answerthe much more fundamental

TJT|T.TTARIANISM

49 rlrrcrrl i ltolh. Wlrctlr<'t'llrin lhcory has cvcr been held in exactly llrc lirt'nr irr wlritlr I huvc statccl it, I should not like lo nuy. lirl trrirrrypcoplc lravc ccrtainly hcld something v e l y f i h c i t ; n r r t l i t n c t r r r st o b c w h a t . i s o f t e nm e a n tb y l l r e l i r r r r i l i u l n r l u <: 'I J t i l i t u r i l n i s m ', w h i c h i s th e r e a so n wlry I lrnvc t'lrorcrr llris rrlrrncas thc title of these two r'ltuptcrr, lt rrrrrstrrot, lurrvcvt:r,bc assumed that anyf rtrrfy wlr