EXCAVATIONS AT TALL JAWA, JORDAN
CULTURE AND HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST EDITED BY
B. HALPERN, M. H. E. WEIPPER...
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EXCAVATIONS AT TALL JAWA, JORDAN
CULTURE AND HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST EDITED BY
B. HALPERN, M. H. E. WEIPPERT TH. P.J. VAN DEN HOUT, I. WINTER VOLUME 11/1
EXCAVATIONS AT TALL JAWA, JORDAN Volume I: The Iron Age Town BY
P.M. MICHÈLE DAVIAU WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY
PAUL–EUGÈNE DION, RONALD G.V. HANCOCK, DAVID HEMSWORTH, MARGARET A. JUDD & RYAN DEFONZO, DOUGLAS W. SCHNURRENBERGER
BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON 2003
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Daviau. P.M. Michèle. Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan / by P.M. Michèle Daviau ; with contributions by Paul-Eugène Dion ... [et al.]. p. cm.— (Culture and history of the ancient Near East, ISSN 1566-2055 ; v. 11/2) Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: — v.2. The Iron Age artefacts — ISBN 9004123636 (alk. paper) 1. Jawa, Tall (Amman, Jordan) 2. Excavations (Archaeology)—Jordan—Jawa, Tall (Amman) 3. Iron age—Jordan—Jawa, Tall (Amman) I. Dion, Paul-Eugène, 1934–II. Title. III. Series. DS159.9.J39 D39 2001 933—dc21
2001052810
Die Deutsche Bibliothek – CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Daviau. Paulette M. Michèle: Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan / by P.M. Michèle Daviau. With contributions by Paul-Eugène Dion ..... – Leiden ; Boston ; Köln : Brill Vol. 2 The iron age artefacts. – 2002 (Culture and history of the ancient Near East ; Vol. 11) ISBN 90-04-12363-6
ISSN 1566-2055 ISBN 90 04 13012 8 © Copyright 2003 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands
TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Excavation Team Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii List of Tables and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxxiii List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x. xxvii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Chapter 1. The Site and its Regional Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location and Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Previous Exploration in Central Transjordan . . . . . . . . . . . Recent Exploration by the Madaba Plains Project . . . . . . Site Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 3 5 8 8 9
Chapter 2. Excavation Project and Recording Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Tall Jawa Excavation Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excavation Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material Culture Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using this Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 13 14 15 16 17 19 19
Chapter 3. Preliminary Geological Overview of Tall Jawa (by Douglas W. Schnurrenberger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Local Bedrock Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quaternary Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 21 21 22 24 25
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Chapter 4. Evidence for an Iron Age I Settlement. Field A: The Deep Sounding (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum X – The Deep Sounding – Building 50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery and Artefacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Collared-rim Pithoi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cooking Pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kraters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bowls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storejars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Painted Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of the Iron I Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29 29 30 32 36 37 38 38 38 40 40 40 41
Chapter 5. The Fortification Walls and Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum IX – The Offset/Inset Solid Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Wall 3006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glacis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retaining Wall 3023 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passageway 309 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . West Wall 2023 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tower 2024 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guardroom 221 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passageway 219 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fields B–A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Wall 2009 + W1003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glacis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retaining Wall 1001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . End of Stratum IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45 45 46 47 49 49 49 53 53 55 57 57 59 60 61 62 62 63 64 65
Stratum VIIIB – The Casemate Wall System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Field E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Outer Wall 3006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Inner Casemate Wall 3000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Casemate Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Room 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Field B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Outer West Wall 3050 = 2023 + 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Drain B24:24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 The Western Casemate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Inner West Wall 2004 = 2029 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Inner South Wall 2001 + 2006 = 1030 + 1020 78 Channel 218 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Comparanda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Fields B–A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Inner Casemate Wall 2006 = 1030 + 1020 . . . . . . . . . 82 Casemate Room 121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Destruction of Stratum VIIIB—Fields E, B, and A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Stratum VIIIA Reconstruction of the Casemate System . . . . . 85 Field E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Room 301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Room 311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Room 310 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Field B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Inner Wall 2001 + 2000 and 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Casemate Room 210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Tower 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Field A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Inner Casemate Wall 1004 + 1010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Casemate Rooms 101, 200 and 201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Destruction of Stratum VIIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Stratum VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Field C-West and C-East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Fortification Walls in C-west . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Stratum IX Offset/inset Solid Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 The Lower Retaining Wall in Field C-east . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Flanking Walls 9007 + 9008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Inner Wall 9007 and Wall 9010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Pottery and Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary: Characteristics and Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Solid/Outer Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner Wall and Casemate Room Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Persian Burial (by Margaret A. Judd and Ryan Defonzo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Archaeological Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Adult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dental Inventory and Palaeopathology . . . . . . The Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taphonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Persian Burials in the Levant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References for the Excursus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 6. The Iron Age II Town. Fields A + B: Buildings 102, 113, 100, 200 and 204 (1989–1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Room 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 217 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Room 109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102 103 103 104 105 106 107 108 108 109 110 111 111 112 113 114 117 117 119 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 125 125 128 129 130 131 133 133 134 134 135
Room 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 216 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casemate Room 121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven A14:25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 107 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 202/222 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven B63:40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven B63:37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven B63:36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven B63:32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven B63:29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven B63:30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 225 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
136 137 139 139 140 140 141 141 141 142 143 143 143 144 145 145 145 148 149 150 150 151 152 154 155 157 157 160 161 161 165 165 168 168 169 169 170 170 173
Stratum VIIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 202 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The End of Iron Age Occupation in Field A–B . . . . . . . . . Strata VI–III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field B – Building 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction and Use of Building 200 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 212 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Casemate Room 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casemate Room 215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 209 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Room 220 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 208 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 207 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Work Area 211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 204 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excavation History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery and Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
173 173 174 176 176 178 178 178 179 180 181 182 182 182 183 185 189 189 190 192 193 194 194 195 196 198 199 199 200 201 204 204
Chapter 7. Field E: The Domestic Complex (1992–1995). Building 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Fortification System and earliest Occupation . . . . . .
205 205 207 208 208
Stratum VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Western Unit: Rooms 303, 304, 305, 315, 318 . . . . Room 303 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery and Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery and Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 315 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Central Unit: Rooms 302, 306, 320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 302 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 306 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 320 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Central Courtyard—R308 + 324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Courtyard 308/324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 326 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 321 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Eastern Unit: Rooms 312, 313, 314, 317, 327 . . . . . Room 312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 313 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 314 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 323 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Western Unit: Rooms 303, 304, 305, 315, 316, 318, 319 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 303 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 305 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 315 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 319 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
208 208 210 210 212 214 215 216 217 220 221 225 225 225 226 227 228 233 238 239 239 240 241 242 243 246 248 250 251 252 252 252 253 254 255 255 257 259 260
Room 318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey/Roof Room 322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Central Unit: Rooms 302, 306, 307, Cistern E64:13, Cistern Area 308 + 324, Room 326 . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 302 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 306 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cistern E64:13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Cistern Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 308 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 307 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pottery and Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 326 + 321 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Eastern Unit: Rooms 312 + 321, 313, 314 + 327 . . . Room 312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms 314 + 327, 325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
262 263 264 264 264 264 267 269 275 276 278 279 280 280 281 282 283 284 285 285 285 285
Chapter 8. Fields C-West And D: The Pillared Houses. Buildings 800 and 700 (1991–1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Staircases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIB–VIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction and Use of Building 800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Northern Unit: Rooms 811–812, 810, 808, 809 . . . Room 811–812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Destruction Debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
287 287 289 290 292 294 295 297 298 299 300 300 300 305 305
Room 808 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corridor 810 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 809—Stratum VIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 809—Stratum VIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Central Unit: Rooms 804, 806, 807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 807 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 804 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Twin Ovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . East Oven—C27:63 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . West Oven—C27:68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Storage Area West of Oven C27:68 . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Evidence for Final Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 806 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Southern Unit: Rooms 802, 803, 805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 805 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Evidence for Final Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 803 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Room 802 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specialized Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Final Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Formation of the Archaeological Record in Building 800 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lintels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
306 306 307 309 312 313 313 313 315 317 317 319 322 323 324 326 327 329 329 330 330 333 334 334 336 336 340 341 342 343 343 343 343 345 345 345 348 349
Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Staircase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms with Undisturbed Stratum VII Occupation . . . . Room 714 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms along the South Side . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 712 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Room 718 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 713 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Evidence for Iron Age Remains in the Remodelled Rooms of B700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 715 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 707 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 716 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cistern D15:2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9. Field C-East: Gate Building and Domestic Quarter (1992–1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 910–905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gate Building 910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction and Use of Building 910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Western Unit and Central Roadway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Central Roadway 915 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Western Unit: Rooms 906–908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 906 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 907 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . .
349 351 351 352 353 354 357 357 359 359 360 362 364 364 365 369 370 373 373 373 375 375 376 377 378 379 380 380 380 381 384 386 386 386 387 388 390
Excursus: TJ Burial 4—The Skeletal Remains (by Margaret A. Judd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 908 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Destruction in Building 905 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Central Unit: Rooms 909–913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Room 910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Working Platform—C75:10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hearth C75:9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 913 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 912 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building 900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doorways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction and use of Building 900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oven C54:18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room 902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey . . . . . . . . Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Excursus: TJ Burial 1—The Skeletal Remains (by Margaret A. Judd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References for the Excursus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
390 391 392 393 394 394 396 397 398 399 400 400 402 403 404 404 405 405 406 406 406 409 410 410 411 411 412 414 414 415 415 419
.
421
Chapter 10. Building Materials, Construction Techniques and Architectural Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limestone and Chert Boulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bedrock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mud Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Construction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boulder-and-Chink Wall Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Fortification Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . House Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pillared Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wall Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Surfacing Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Plans and Room Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room Size and Roofed Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Room Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Staircases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ceiling Material and Roof Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roof Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type A. Roof Rollers with Depressions . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Type B. Roof Rollers without Depressions . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Architectural Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Socket Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criteria and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lintels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
423 423 424 424 425 426 427 427 427 429 431 435 436 437 437 438 439 439 440 440 440 441 441 442 442 442 444 444 444 445 445 447 447 448 448
Pillar Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criteria and Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Benches/Shelves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic and Industrial Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stone Troughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large Shallow Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parallels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boulder Mortars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
448 448 449 449 450 450 450 452 452 452 452 453 454
Chapter 11. Elemental Analysis of Local Limestone and Prepared Plaster Samples (by Ronald G.V. Hancock) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roof Roller (TJ 381) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prepared Plasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
457 457 457 457 458 463
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Chapter 12. Settlement History at Tall Jawa: Chronological Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iron Age I (Stratum X) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iron Age II (Strata IX–VII) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Early Iron Age II (Stratum IX) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stratum VIIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
467 467 467 469 469 471 474 474 475 475 479
Chapter 13. The Ammonites: A Historical Sketch (by Paul-Eugène Dion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
“Ammonites”—The Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second Millennium Attestations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Ammonites” in Neo-Assyrian and Later Cuneiform Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Ammonites” in Ammonite Epigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Biblical Names for the Ammonites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #ammôn or #amm¯an?—The Greek Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ammonite Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximative Delimitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ammonite Territory According to the Literary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Archaeological Pointers to the Extent of the Ammonite Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Find Spots of Ammonite Inscriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Find Spots of Distinctive Aramaic Artefacts . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Character of the Ammonite Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chronological Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Late Bronze Age Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emergence of the b˘enê #Ammôn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The LaBianca-Younker Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Jephthah Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saul’s Rescue of Jabesh-Gilead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Israelite Domination? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Independent Ammonite Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . When Did the Children of Ammon Recover Their Independence? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ammonites and Their Neighbours before the Assyrian Takeover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ammonites under Assyrian Overlordship . . . . . . . . . . ˇ Sanipu, Servant of Tiglath-pileser III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assyrian Protection and Its Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ammonite Prosperity under Assyrian Rule . . . . . . . . The Ruling Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aramaization and Its Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Ammonites and Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “Baalis,” the Last King of the Ammonites . . . . . . . . .
481 481 482 482 483 483 484 485 485 485 486 486 488 489 490 491 491 493 493 494 496 497 498 500 500 502 504 504 505 507 507 508 509 509
Assyria Loses Its Grip on Palestine and Transjordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baalis Resists the Babylonian Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nebukadnezzar Puts an End to the Ammonite Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
510 511 513 514
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 Chapter 14. The Tall Jawa Multimedia Information System (by David Hemsworth) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Locus Summaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Multimedia System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Tall Jawa Information System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Database Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Record Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Artefact Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Full Image Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Searching the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uninstalling the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
521 521 522 522 522 523 524 524 526 526 527 528 529 529 530 531
Wall Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Geographic and Ethnic Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 CD-ROM—Iron Age Multimedia Programme including field photographs of the site, individual buildings, rooms, features, pottery and artefacts, and construction details, accompanied by a database of the photographs. Additional data consists of a list of loci and locus sheets.
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PREFACE In 1914, Frederick Kenyon expressed the intention of the Trustees of the British Museum to publish the first of several volumes concerning the finds and excavations initiated under their auspices at Carchemish in 1911. This promptly published report was not intended as a final synthesis but as a presentation of material for discussion and research on the part of scholars and students (Hogarth 1914: Preface). Although several important excavations in Palestine in subsequent years were quickly reported, such as #Ain Shems by Grant (1932), and Hazor by Yadin and his staff (1958 and 1960), this has hardly been the norm for more recent multi-disciplinary projects. The long delays in publication may be directly related to increasing complexity within the discipline itself and the trend toward quantitative analysis of data drawn from large samples. Somewhere in between the simple presentation of finds with meagre documentation and the sophisticated statistical analyses of comprehensive data sets, there should be room for a final excavation report that communicates detailed excavation information and complete documentation while allowing for further analyses in subsequent studies. Such a conception seems to be reflected in the reports of the excavations at Tel Michal and Gezer in Israel, and at Tall al-#Umayri in Jordan.1 The Madaba Plains Project, currently working at Tall al-#Umayri and Jalul, publishes seasonal reports that present the results of their excavation and of their documentation of new sites within the MPP Hinterland Survey Area. Each annual report is accompanied by extensive illustration of the architecture and of ceramic remains. Included in each volume are subsequent studies and reports by specialists involved in this interdisciplinary project. Because it was the good fortune of this writer to excavate at Tall al-#Umayri in 1987 and to serve as Field 1 For Tel Michal, see Herzog, Rapp and Negbi (1989). In the cases of Gezer and Tall al-#Umayri, the seasonal reports are part of multi-volume series, and only one from each site is listed here as an example of prompt publication: Dever, Lance and Wright (1974); and Geraty, Herr, LaBianca and Younker (1989).
Supervisor and then Director during the first two seasons of excavations at Tall Jawa (1989, 1991), under the auspices of the Madaba Plains Project, she is now committed to continuing their tradition of prompt publication. This book is one of five volumes, which present the results of all six seasons of excavation at Tall Jawa (1989, 1991–1995). Volume II consists of a functional and typological study of the Iron Age artefacts (Daviau 2002), Volume III includes the technological and typological analysis of the Iron Age pottery (Daviau, in preparation), and Volume IV is the report on the Umayyad house in Field D, including details of the architecture, decoration (painted plaster and mosaic floors), glass, early Islamic pottery and artefacts (Daviau and Tempest, in preparation). In Volume V, there will be a report on the results of the 1989 MPP Survey, along with survey and salvage work by the Tall Jawa team in subsequent years (Battenfield, in preparation). Additional analysis of faunal remains, the lithics and ethnographic studies will be in this same volume. In each volume, there are specialist reports, although these volumes are not intended to be exhaustive. The material presented in this volume is a complete description and illustration of the major Iron Age structures, their architectural features and stratigraphy, along with a synthesis of the settlement history and chronology. Initially begun as a Hinterland Excavation of the Madaba Plains Project under the direction of Randall Younker, the preliminary report of the first season of the excavation of Tall Jawa (1989) was included in the larger Madaba Plains Project report in the Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan (Herr et al. 1991), in the Andrews University Seminary Studies (Younker et al. 1990), and in Preliminary Excavation Reports: Sardis, Bir Umm Fawakhir, Tell el-#Umeiri, The Combined Caesarea Expeditions, and Tell Dothan (LaBianca 1995). Beginning with the 1991 season, preliminary reports appeared in Echos du monde classique / Classical Views (Daviau 1992a), as well as in the Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan (Daviau 1992b, 1993c, 1994, 1996), with the exception of the final 1995 field season.2 During the entire seven year period of research and excavation at Tall Jawa, the project was affiliated with the American Schools of Oriental Research, first as part of the Madaba Plains Project and then, following the 1992 season, as the Tall Jawa Excavation Project. The author wishes to express her deep appreciation for 2 Detailed annual reports prepared by Daviau for the 1991–1995 seasons were submitted to the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, along with a set of photographs.
the support and encouragement of the MPP directors, L. T. Geraty, L. G. Herr, Ø. S. LaBianca, D. R. Clark, and R. W. Younker, and for their expression of confidence in the continued success of the Tall Jawa Project. In addition, a special thanks is extended to Ø. S. LaBianca for his continued contribution to the Tall Jawa Project, especially with regard to the identification of faunal remains. It was also thanks to the support and encouragement of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, especially Dr. Safwan Tell, Director General of Antiquities in 1991–1994, that our excavation programme was able to become an independent research project working in Jordan, training both North American and Jordanian students in field techniques. A special thanks is extended to Nazmieh Rida Tawfiq, Department of Antiquities representative to the Tall Jawa Project, who generously shared her expertise and vast experience with the students and volunteers on our team, thus contributing enormously to the education of us all. The support of the Department of Antiquities was continued by Dr. Ghazi Bisheh, Director General of Antiquities in 1995, and by Adeeb Abu Shumais, representative of the Department of Antiquities during our final field season. Many people contributed to the exacting tasks of excavation, recording, registering and studying the material culture of Tall Jawa. I want to thank all of our team members for their generosity of spirit and hard work that enabled us to bring to light the Iron Age town at Tall Jawa. Each one made a significant contribution and shared many more tasks than is mentioned in the lists of participants (see below). Thanks are due also to L. Cowell for her work in experimental archaeology, replicating features related to ceramic technology and for the registration of potter’s marks and reworked sherds (1991–1995), to E. Cowell for years of service as camp manager, and to Prof. M. Lawrence, School of Social Work, Wilfrid Laurier University, for her care of a team member who was injured in an accident at Wadi Rumm. The Tall Jawa Excavation Project also benefited from the generous interest and scholarly opinions of numerous scholars in residence at the American Center of Oriental Research, Amman, where the team lived during the 1991–1995 seasons. Special thanks to the Director, Dr. Pierre Bikai, and to Dr. Patricia M. Bikai, for their support and scholarly advice. Support, housing, vehicles and dark room facilities were also provided by the British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History; a special thanks to the then director, William Lancaster, and to Felicity Lancaster. As a team, we want to thank the men who
served as Canadian Ambassador to Jordan, especially Michael Bell. He supported our work with great enthusiasm and offered his support in time of need. Necessary funding for three seasons of excavation and research (1992–1995) was provided by a Standard Research Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.3 Additional funding that supported overseas training of student volunteers and supervisors was provided on an annual basis by Wilfrid Laurier University. Generous internal grants provided a course remission during the 1993–1994 academic year to study the distribution of artefacts within the architectural space,4 and a Senior Research Fellowship and Short Term Grant5 to cover costs of specialists contributing to research on the Iron Age settlement at Tall Jawa. To assist with the creation and programming of the CD-ROM, which accompanies this volume, a WLU Book Preparation Grant was awarded in 2002. Gifts by P.E. Dion and R. Levesque facilitated our work in the field and supported the publication of this volume. The research presented here is the work of many team members, some of whom are contributors in their own right; Paul-E. Dion, David Hemsworth, Ronald G. V. Hancock, Margaret Judd, Ryan Defonzo, and Douglas Schnurrenberger. Other scholars have assisted the author by sharing their expertise; I would like to thank Piotr Bienkowski, Douglas Clark, Rudolph Dornemann, Lawrence T. Geraty, Seymour Gitin, Larry G. Herr, John S. Holladay, Jr., Jean-Baptiste Humbert, Paul Jacobs, Østein S. LaBianca, David McCreery, Mohammed Najjar, Larry A. Pavlish, Joe D. Seger, Udo Worschech, and Robert Boling (whose untimely death was a loss to us all). Thanks are also due to Pamela Schaus (Cartographer, Wilfrid Laurier University), who prepared the regional map, and to other colleagues in the Department of Geography, who provided information concerning geological samples and assisted our team with the loan of equipment.
3 Site Definition and Fortification Strategies of Iron Age Tell Jawa in Central Transjordan (Grant # 410–92–0134). 4 The course remission grant was awarded for the academic year September 1993– April 1994. 5 These grants were awarded concurrently from April 1993–December 1993. The author gratefully acknowledges the financial support for this research, which was partly funded by WLU Operating funds, and partly by the SSHRC General Research Grant awarded to WLU.
My deepest appreciation goes to the field supervisors and their square supervisors, who prepared written reports in the field describing and interpreting the archaeological record. Without their conscientious work, the material presented here would be only a skeleton of the remains uncovered during excavation. A special thanks in this regard to Robert Chadwick, Laurie Cowell, Brenda Silver, Dayle Elder, Susan Ellis-Lopez, Ryan Defonzo, Debra Foran, Robert Hutson, Margaret Judd, Stanley Klassen, Lynda Manktelow, Shawn Thompson, Tracy Wilson, Julie Witmer, and Michael Wood. Illustrations were drawn and inked by Laurie Cowell, Nigel Pereira, Adele Tempest, and the author. Training in scanning pottery drawings, plans and sections was provided by the members of the Gezer Gate Project under the direction of Prof. John S. Holladay, Jr. and his assistants, Taber James and Stanley Klassen, in the Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto. The labour intensive task of scanning the field photographs, was undertaken by Dr. Bernard Haberstroh, M.D., Helen Moore and Paul Bailey; the database that accompanies the photographs was compiled by Helen Moore and Paul Bailey, and locus summaries were completed by Shelena Schmidt, Robert Vingerhoets, and Michael Berry. For all of this work, Wilfrid Laurier University provided lab space, equipment, archival facilities for the storage of original field notebooks and drawings, storage space for pottery and objects, computer use, and Ontario Work Study funding to assist students working for the Tall Jawa Project. A special thanks for perseverance goes to Paul-E. Dion and Elaine Kirby who read the manuscript with great care, to Elaine Kirby for scanning and merging the plans and section drawings, to Paul Bailey for the final coordination of the database and the photographs, and to Brendon Paul and David Hemsworth for refining the multimedia programme. This report is dedicated, with respect and appreciation, to the men who were responsible for my introduction to and field training in the Wheeler-Kenyon method and its subsequent refinement, both in the classroom—H. Darrell Lance (Colgate Rochester Divinity School) and John S. Holladay, Jr. (University of Toronto)—and in the field, David Newlands (at Morganville, NY, and Fort York in Toronto), Lawrence E. Toombs, John Mathers†, and Jeffrey Blakely (at Tell el-Hesi), and Larry G. Herr (at Tall al-#Umayri). While their expertise contributed to my formation, the shortcomings in this work are my own.
The plans used in this book were scanned using Adobe Photoshop, they were then opened in Adobe Streamline and converted to a vector image. Room, Locus and Wall numbers were added in Adobe Illustrator. The plans were then inserted into a Word 2000 document. The database for the Multimedia Programme was prepared in MS Access.
EXCAVATION TEAM MEMBERS 1989 (June 19–August 8) Lawrence T. Geraty, Madaba Plains Project director, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI, USA Randall W. Younker, director, MPP Hinterland Excavations, Andrews University P. M. Michèle Daviau, field director, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON* Square supervisors: Nadine Brundrett, Baden ON Antonius Haakman, Waterloo, ON Bruce Routledge, Toronto, ON Brenda Silver, Stratford, ON Julie Witmer, Kitchener, ON Hakam Ziaddi, Amman, Jordan Volunteers: Isabelle Crépeau, Montréal, QC Nelsona Dundas, Etobicoke, ON Adele Tempest, Kitchener, ON Michael Wood, Cambridge, ON Computer entry: Nelsona Dundas
Pottery registrar: Flora McKay, Toronto, ON MPP Object registrar: Elizabeth Platt, Dubuque, IA, USA MPP Ceramic technologist: Gloria London, Seattle, WA, USA MPP Faunal Analyst: Østein S. LaBianca, Andrews University MPP Flotation: Romona Hubbard, Andrews University, Berrien Springs, MI MPP photographer: Thor Storfjell, Berrien Springs, MI, USA Land surveyors: Tim Woodard, Lethbridge, AB; Glenn Johnson, Berrien Springs, MI, USA * All team members were from Canada, unless otherwise indicated.
1991 (June 18–August 6)
Lawrence T. Geraty, project director Østein S. LaBianca, director, Regional Survey P. M. Michèle Daviau, director, Tall Jawa
Volunteers: Laurie Cowell, Waterloo, ON Joanne Hasan, Waterloo, ON Shona Hunter, Toronto, ON Karen Kane, Toronto, ON Abdul Aziz, #Ammam, Jordan
Administrative assistant and architect: Robert Hutson, Listowel, ON
Pottery registrar: Brenda Silver, Stratford, ON
Land Surveyor: Abbas Khammash, #Amman, Jordan
Object Registrar: Margaret Judd, Kitchener, ON
Field supervisor: Michael Wood, Cambridge, ON
Illustrator: Sally Clara, Toronto, ON
Square supervisors: Margaret Judd, Kitchener, ON Joyce Palmer, Waterloo, ON Brenda Silver, Stratford, ON Shawn Standfast, Kitchener, ON
Ceramic technologist: Laurie Cowell, Waterloo, ON Photographers: Shona Hunter, Toronto, ON Mark Ziese, Berrien Springs, MI, USA
1992 (June 15–July 30) P. M. Michèle Daviau, director/chief archaeologist Administrative assistant and architect: Robert Hutson, Listowel, ON Land surveyor: Robert Force, Oakville, ON Faunal osteologist: Østein S. LaBianca, Berrien Springs, MI Camp Manager: Edward Cowell, Waterloo, ON Field supervisors: Margaret Judd, object registrar, Kitchener, ON Brenda Silver, pottery registrar, Stratford, ON Julie Witmer, Kitchener, ON Michael Wood, Cambridge, ON
Square supervisors: Janice Beaupré, Hilton Beach, ON Laurie Cowell, ceramic technology, Waterloo, ON Debra Foran, assistant registrar, Aylmer, QC Shona Hunter, photographer, Toronto, ON Karen Kane, assistant registrar, Toronto, ON Patricia Kenny, Shanty Bay, ON Brooke Ridsdale, Cambridge, ON Volunteers: Béatrice Bérubé, Vimont Laval, QC Jeffery Clare, Cambridge, ON Ryan Defonzo, North Bay, ON Silke Force, Oakville, ON Atena Ganea, Kitchener, ON Abdul Kareem, #Amman, Jordan Ann McLean, London, ON Joyce Palmer, camp assistant, Waterloo, ON Jason Radko, photographer, Midland, ON Miranda Semple, Toronto, ON Shawn Thompson, lithic registrar, Mt. Brydges, ON Teresa Van Nes, Ethel, ON Ken Whitford, Carlstadt, NJ, USA
1993 (May 20–July 1)
P. M. Michèle Daviau, project director and chief archaeologist Administrative assistant and architect: Robert Hutson, Listowel, ON Epigrapher: Paul E. Dion, Toronto, ON Photographer: Timothy Hellum, Toronto, ON Paleobotanist: Peter Warnoch, Columbia, MO, USA Camp Manager: Edward Cowell, Waterloo, ON Field supervisors: Margaret Judd, object registrar, Kitchener, ON Michael Wood, Montreal, QC
Square supervisors: Deborah Beal, Kitchener, ON Laurie Cowell, ceramic technology, Waterloo, ON Ryan Defonzo, assistant registrar, North Bay, ON Debra Foran, illustrator, Aylmer, QC Silke Force, Oakville, ON Karen Kane, assistant registrar, Toronto, ON Sanaa Khalileh, illustrator, Irbid, Jordan Stanley Klassen, Saskatoon, SK Brenda Silver, pottery registrar, Stratford, ON Shawn Thompson, lithic registrar, Mt. Brydges, ON Julie Witmer, illustrator, Kitchener, ON Supervisor in training Lynda Manktelow, Barrie, ON Susan Wakefield, London, ON Volunteers: Timothy Epp, Winnipeg, MAN Hani Jabsheh, #Amman, Jordan John Johannesen, Waterloo, ON Stephanie Lawrence, Halifax, NS Kathleen O’Grady, Puslinch, ON Marion Smith, Arthur, ON Serge Thibodeau, Montréal, QC Camp manager: Edward Cowell, Waterloo, ON
1994 (June 3–July 28) P. M. Michèle Daviau, project director and chief archaeologist Survey Director: James R. Battenfield, Long Beach, CA, USA Administrative assistant: Robert Hutson, field supervisor, Listowel, ON Epigrapher: Paul E. Dion, Toronto, ON Photographers: Karina Gerlach, Ayers Cliff, QC Timothy Hellum, Toronto, ON Field supervisors: Ryan Defonzo, North Bay, ON Stanley Klassen, Saskatoon, SK Shawn Thompson, lithic registrar, Mt. Brydges, ON Square supervisors: Lawrence Broadhurst, Toronto, ON Robert Chadwick, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QC Laurie Cowell, Waterloo, ON Dayle Elder, New Lowell, ON Lisa Knuttilla, Toronto, ON Lynda Manktelow, Barrie, ON Hamdan Mansur, Amman, Jordan Miranda Semple, Toronto, ON Susan Wakefield, London, ON
Deborah Beal, object registrar, Kitchener, ON Karen Kane, ceramic registrar, Toronto, ON Volunteers: Jennifer Alboim, Ottawa, ON Roberta Ainsworth, Toronto, ON Alison Barclay, Toronto, ON Jeremy Burke, Toronto, ON Vanessa Davies, South Bend, IN, USA An Devriese, Belgium Diane Flores, Toronto, ON Else Khoury, Midland, ON Leedine Lah, Mississauga, ON Maureen Lyall, Edmonton, AB Deborah Marquis-Lawley, Port Severn, ON Angela Robinson, Ottawa, ON Jane Saxton, Nanaimo, BC Pierrette Tardif-Alarie, Repentigny, QC Serge Thibodeau, Montréal, PQ Donald Webers, Elora, ON Tracy Wilson, Oakville, ON
1995 (June 5–July 27)
P. M. Michèle Daviau, project director and chief archaeologist Surveyor and technical assistant Romeo Levesque, Johnson, VT, USA Paleo-ethnobotanist, consultant: David McCreery, Willamette, OR, USA Photographers: Robert Mittelstaedt, Cleveland, OH, USA Philip Silver, Stratford, ON Field supervisors: Ryan Defonzo, object registrar, North Bay, ON Susan Ellis-Lopez, assistant pottery registrar, Mabton, WA, USA Lynda Manktelow, Barrie, ON Dayle Elder, New Lowell, ON Square supervisors: Jennifer Alboim, Ottawa, ON Janice Beaupré, Hilton Beach, ON Laurie Cowell, ceramic technologist, Waterloo, ON Patricia Kenny, Shanty Bay, ON Brenda Silver, ceramic registrar, Stratford, ON Donald Webers, Elora, ON Tracy Wilson, Oakville, ON
Volunteers: Celeste Barlow, Milton, ON Andrew Bradshaw, Antigonish, NS Kelly Diamond, Toronto, ON Catherine Duff, Toronto, ON Nectaria Grafos, Windsor, ON Samuel Klapman, Waterloo, ON Joann Laird, Gloucester, ON Walter McCall, Waterloo, ON John Purtill, Thornton, ON Evelyn Ruskin, Chicago, IL, USA Paul Sodtke, Toronto, ON Keli Watson, Waterloo, ON Camp manager: Edward Cowell, Waterloo, ON Department of Antiquities Representatives: Hanan Azar and Hefzi Haddad (1989) Nazmieh Rida Tawfiq (1991, 1992, 1993, 1994) Adeeb Abu Shumais (1995)
LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS Table 1A Table 1B
Size of Iron Age Fortified Residential Towns in Cisjordan (in hectares) Size of Iron Age Fortified Residential Towns in Transjordan (in hectares)
Table 2A Table 2B
Range of Room, Building, Wall, and Vessel Numbers Sizes of Stones in Iron Age Masonry
Table 3A
Stratigraphic position of the Upper Cretaceous carbonate formations underlying Tall Jawa
Table 4A
Strata for the Deep Sounding in Field A
Table 5A Table 5B Table 5C
Strata for the Fortification Walls Casemate Walls at Town Sites in Central Transjordan Casemate Walls at Palestinian Town Sites from Recent Excavations
Table 6A Table 6B Table 6C Table 6D Table 6E Table 6F Table 6G Table 6H Table 6I Table 6J Table 6K Table 6L Table 6M Table 6N Table 6P Table 6Q Table 6R Table 6S Table 6T Table 6U Table 6V
Strata for Field A Room Size and Proportion in Building 102 Location and Width of Doorways in Building 102 Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 102) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 120, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 110 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 214 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 214, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 104 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 204 Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 113) Strata for Field A—Building 113 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 123 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 126 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 126, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 106 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 108 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 107, late phase Pottery and Artefacts in Room 122, earlier phase Pottery and Artefacts in Room 122, later phase Pottery and Artefacts in Room 222, earlier phase
Table 6AA
Table 6BB Table 6CC Table 6DD Table 6EE Table 6FF Table 6GG Table 6HH Table 6JJ Table 6KK Table 6LL Table 6MM
Room Size and Proportion in Building 200, and Casemate Room 210 Location and Width of Doorways in Field B (west) Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 200) Strata for Field B—Building 200 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 212, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 215 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 209 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 209, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 208, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 207, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 207, roof level Pottery and Artefacts in Work Area 211
Table 6NN Table 6PP Table 6QQ Table 6RR
Room Size and Proportion in Building 204 Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 204) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 203 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 206
Table 7A Table 7B Table 7C Table 7D Table 7E Table 7F Table 7G Table 7H Table 7J Table 7K Table 7L Table 7M Table 7N Table 7P Table 7Q Table 7R Table 7S Table 7T Table 7U Table 7V Table 7W Table 7X Table 7Y Table 7Z
Room Size and Proportion Location and Width of Doorways Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 300 only) Strata for Field E Pottery and Artefacts in Room 303(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 305(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 318(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 302(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 306(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 312(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 312(B), upper storey/ceiling Pottery and Artefacts in Room 313(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 314(B) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 303(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 303(A), upper level Pottery and Artefacts in Room 305(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 319(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 318(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 318(A), upper level Pottery and Artefacts in Room 302(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 306(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Cistern Area, Stratum VIIIA Pottery and Artefacts in Room 307(A) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 312(A)
Table 8A Table 8B Table 8C
Room Size and Proportion Location and Width of Doorways Wall Thickness in centimetres
Table 8D Table 8E Table 8F Table 8G Table 8H Table 8J Table 8K Table 8L Table 8M Table 8N Table 8P Table 8Q Table 8R Table 8S Table 8T Table 8U Table 8V Table 8W Table 8X Table 8AA Table 8BB Table 8CC Table 8DD Table 8EE
Strata for Field C-West Pottery and Artefacts in Room 811 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 809, Stratum VIIB Pottery and Artefacts in Room 809, Stratum VIIA Pottery and Artefacts in Room 809, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 807 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 807, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Central Hall 804 Pottery and Artefacts at south end of Room 804 Grid for Soil Layer C27:48 with Pottery Pail and Artefact numbers Pottery and Artefacts in Room 804, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 806 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 805 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 805, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 803 Pottery and Artefacts west of Doorway E in Room 802 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 802 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 802, upper storey Classes of Pottery in Building 800
Table 8FF Table 8GG Table 8HH Table 8JJ Table 8KK
Room Size and Proportion in Building 700 Location and Width of Doorways Wall Thickness in centimetres Strata for Field D Harris Matrix of Soil Layers in Probe into Iron Age Room 714 Pottery and Artefacts from Room 714 Pottery and Artefacts from Room 712 Pottery and Artefacts from Room 712, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts from R713 Iron Age Pottery and Artefacts from R713, upper storey
Table 9A Table 9B Table 9C Table 9D Table 9E Table 9F Table 9G Table 9H Table 9J Table 9K Table 9L Table 9M Table 9N Table 9P
Room Size and Proportion (B905, B910) Location and Width of Doorways Wall Thickness in centimetres Strata for the Buildings on the Southeastern Terrace Pottery and Artefacts in Room 907, upper storey Pottery and Artefacts in Room 909 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 909, upper storey Room Size and Proportion (B900) Location and Width of Doorways (B900) Wall Thickness in centimetres (B900) Pottery and Artefacts in Room 901 Pottery and Artefacts in Room 901, upper surface Pottery and Artefacts in Room 903, upper surface Pottery and Artefacts in Room 904
Table 9Q
TJ- Burial 1: Child’s skeletal metrics (mm)
Table 10A
Thickness of Walls in Tall Jawa Structures in centimeters
Table 11A Table 11B Table 11C Table 11D Table 11E Graph 11.1 Graph 11.2
Roof Roller (TJ 381) analysis Plaster samples Plaster analyses Guestimate of the chemistry of the local sedimentary material mixed with lime to make plaster Plaster analyses, sorted by site location Al versus Ca Na versus Ca
Table 14A
List of Fields in each Record of the Database
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 1.1
Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4
Map of #Amman region, showing location of Tall Jawa (P. Schaus) Topographical Map, by G. Johnson; working grid showing Fields and Squares (R. Force) East-west profile, North-south profile, prepared by R. Force Tall Jawa in relation to Field M
Fig. 3.1 Fig. 3.2
Location map of Tall Jawa in central Jordan Bedrock and structural geology in the vicinity of Tall Jawa
Fig. 4.1 Fig. 4.2
Excavation Grid in Field A Field A at beginning of excavation in 1989, showing modern field walls and location of deep probe (A13:2) Building 50, with Walls 1015 and W1016 in deep probe Iron Age I Wall 1016 and Wall 1015 at right North balk, showing position of W1016 in relation to Stratum-VIII Wall 1009 West balk, showing the collapse of debris layers A13:33, 29, 35 in Building 50 Collared-rim pithoi, 1) V8 (A13/88.2), 2) V10 (A14/36.1), 3) V16 (E54/172.80), 4) V11 (A13/106.1); kraters, 5) V004, 6) V007 Cooking pot, 1) sherd A2.67.11; bowls, 2) V1, 3) V2, 4) V3; jug, 5) sherd TJA13.113.1
Fig. 1.2
Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4 Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8 Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3 Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5 Fig. 5.6 Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.8 Fig. 5.9 Fig. 5.10
Casemate Wall system in Field E to the north, Fields E and B to the west, Fields B and A to the southwest, and Field C to the southeast Stratum IX Solid Wall in Field E, with Passageway 309 on right North face of Wall 3006, with Offset E54–b North face of Outer Wall 3006 Retaining Wall 3023 on North slope in Fields F–G Passageway 309 between Outer Wall 3006 on right, and Wall 3018 on left Solid Wall 3050 in Fields E and B Wall 2023 looking north toward offset/inset B25–g Wall 2023 and Tower 2024, with Passageway 219 Guardroom 221, with Tower 2024 on left, and Outer Wall 2023 on the right
Fig. 5.11 Fig. 5.12 Fig. 5.13 Fig. 5.14 Fig. 5.15 Fig. 5.16 Fig. 5.17 Fig. 5.18 Fig. 5.19 Fig. 5.20 Fig. 5.21 Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Fig. 5.24 Fig. 5.25 Fig. 5.26 Fig. 5.27 Fig. 5.28 Fig. 5.29 Fig. 5.30 Fig. 5.31 Fig. 5.32 Fig. 5.33 Fig. 5.34 Fig. 6.1 Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3 Fig. 6.4 Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6 Fig. 6.7
South Wall 2009 + 1003, with Retaining Wall 1001 in Field A Outer Wall 1003 with Glacis A2:30, looking west Retaining Wall 1001, in Field A Stratum-VIIIB Casemate Walls in Field E South face of Inner Casemate Wall 3000 in Room 313; boulder-and-chink construction with mud mortar Corridor 328 leading to Passageway 309, looking North Casemate Room 301 on the left, with Inner Casemate Wall 3000 in the centre Stratum VIIIB–A Casemate System and Drain B24:24 in Field B Drain B24:24 looking east into Channel 218 Sump with Retaining Wall 2041 on right; cut through layers of Glacis B24:4 Inner Casemate Wall 2004 in foreground, and W2000 + 2001 in background, looking south Drain Channel 218, south side, with Doorway K (Stratum VIIIB) and Doorway A Stratum VIIIA, into Room 210 Drain Channel 218, north side, with excavation through sump at west (left) Casemate Rooms in Field A, with Doorway H connecting Casemate Room 121 with Building 113 Casemate Room 121 with Stratum-VIIIA Wall 1004 in background Tower 2013 in Casemate Wall System, South of Building 204 Basin B44:4 reused in Inner Casemate Wall 2007 Inner Casemate Room 201 + R200 and Room 101 in Stratum VIIIA Casemate Room 201 on right of Inner Casemate Wall 1004 Total Wall System in Field C (C-west and C-east) Casemate Room 801 with relevant locus numbers Casemate Room 801 with later phase Inner Casemate Wall 8004 over Wall 8005 Bastion 9007 with Buttress Wall 9008 and Retaining Wall 9015 Bastion 9007 with Buttress Wall 9008 on left Excavation Grid in Fields A–B Building 102 in Fields A and B Stratum IX loci in Room 120 Room 120 partially filled with upper-storey mud-brick collapse; stacked boulder pillars visible in Wall 1022 North end of Building 102; Room 214 in foreground leads into Rooms 217 and R111; Room110/120 is in the upper left Building 102, with relevant Stratum-VIII locus numbers Room 110, looking west at Wall 1023
Fig. 6.8 Fig. 6.9 Fig. 6.10 Fig. 6.11 Fig. 6.12 Fig. 6.13 Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.15 Fig. 6.16 Fig. 6.17 Fig. 6.18 Fig. 6.19 Fig. 6.20 Fig. 6.21 Fig. 6.22 Fig. 6.23 Fig. 6.24 Fig. 6.25 Fig. 6.26 Fig. 6.27 Fig. 6.28 Fig. 6.29 Fig. 6.30 Fig. 6.31 Fig. 6.32 Fig. 7.1 Fig. 7.2 Fig. 7.3 Fig. 7.4 Fig. 7.5 Fig. 7.6 Fig. 7.7 Fig. 7.8 Fig. 7.9
South side of Building 102, with Rooms 104 and R105 at the end of the 1989 season Building 102, looking east with Rooms 214, R215 and R204 (left to right) Building 113 in relation to Building 102 and the Casemate Wall System Building 113 with relevant locus numbers for Strata VIIIB–A Pithoi smashed on floor in Room 106, around Mortar A13:23 Pithos Oven A14:25 Building 100 in Fields A–B, showing position of ovens Building 100 with relevant locus numbers, Stratum VIII Room 122 with Wall 1012 above Surface A3:29. South half of Room 202 with ovens and Partition Wall 2019; Inner Casemate Wall 1004 on right Oven B63:29 on left; Hearth B63:32 on right Oven B63:30 with stones and plaster around upper edge; plaster seals against Wall 1004 Oven B63:30 with pithos body and rim exposed Building 200 in Field B Building 200, with relevant locus numbers Looking south into Room 212 in Building 200 Oven B34:54 at left and Pithos Oven B34:50 at right Pithos Oven B34:50, in situ Clay Oven B34:54, in situ Casemate Room 215 with Doorway C on left and Doorway B in upper left Building 204, Work Area 211, Room 207 and R208 Building 204 and Work Area 211 with relevant locus numbers Broken artefacts on surface in Work Area 211 Work Area 211 in relation to Building 204 Building 204 looking East Excavation Grid in Field E Building 300, Field E Building 300, western unit, Stratum VIIIB Building 300, Room 303 + 304, showing makeup (E44:12) under earliest surface (E44:11); row of cobbles (E44:13) at base of W3000 Building 300, Room 303, with pottery in situ on Surface E54:31 Room 303 in background, Room 305 in foreground; Room 302 on right. Building 300, Room 315, Oven E53:23 Building 300, Room 305, Mortar E53:54, and bench with loom weights in situ Building 300, central unit, Stratum VIIIB
Fig. 7.10 Fig. 7.11 Fig. 7.12 Fig. 7.13 Fig. 7.14 Fig. 7.15 Fig. 7.16 Fig. 7.17 Fig. 7.18 Fig. 7.19 Fig. 7.20 Fig. 7.21 Fig. 7.22 Fig. 7.23 Fig. 7.24 Fig. 7.25 Fig. 7.26 Fig. 8.1 Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.3 Fig. 8.4 Fig. 8.5 Fig. 8.6 Fig. 8.7 Fig. 8.8 Fig. 8.9 Fig. 8.10 Fig. 8.11 Fig. 8.12 Fig. 8.13 Fig. 8.14 Fig. 8.15 Fig. 8.16
Room 302, with Bench E54:24 on left, Bedrock work surface in center, Boulder Mortar E54:38 in between Room 306 on the right; Room 302 on left with Hearth E54:43 on upper left Building 300, eastern unit, with relevant locus numbers Room 312, pithos (V392) in situ Room 314, looking north, Wall 3027 on right Building 300, western unit, Stratum VIIIA Building 300, western unit, Room 319, 315, 305 (left to right), Corridor 316 with stairs in Doorway J (foreground) Building 300, Room 315, with cobblestone floor and pillared walls Room 319, Oven E63:10 Building 300, central unit, Stratum VIIIA Room 302, Bench E54:24 with broken pottery Room 306, pottery in situ Cistern area with Wall 3009 on left, and Wall 3008 on right of Cistern E64:13 Cistern E64:13, north-south section; drawn by J. R. Battenfield Cistern E64:13, plan and section drawings, showing location of drain holes and mouth; drawn by J. R. Battenfield Cistern E64:13 and its surroundings Building 300, eastern unit, with relevant locus numbers Excavation Grid in Field C Building 800 Building 800, with relevant locus numbers Deep probe in Room 811, showing Pier A84:6 with Doorway K at right, and upper storey flagstones East side of Building 800, with; Room 809 in the lower left, Room 808, Corridor 810, Doorway H, and Central Hall 804 on the right Room 809, Hearth A93:27 Room 807, looking east toward Doorway G Central Hall 804, with Room 803 on lower left Pottery and artefacts in collapsed debris on Staircase C27:43 Central Hall 804, looking south, with base rocks of twin ovens in front of Pillared Wall 8015 Oven C27:68, with packed plaster and stones, in front of Boulder C27:83 Room 805, with Basin C27:27 in southwest corner; Room 803 is on the right Room 802, looking south toward stacked-boulder Wall 8012 Room 802, loom weights in niche in Wall 8012 Excavation Grid in Field D Building 700 in Field D
Fig. 8.17 Fig. 8.18 Fig. 8.19 Fig. 8.20 Fig. 8.21 Fig. 8.22 Fig. 8.23 Fig. 8.24 Fig. 8.25 Fig. 9.1 Fig. 9.2 Fig. 9.3 Fig. 9.4 Fig. 9.5 Fig. 9.6 Fig. 9.7 Fig. 9.8 Fig. 9.9 Fig. 9.10 Fig. 9.11 Fig. 9.12 Fig. 9.13 Fig. 9.14 Fig. 9.15 Fig. 9.16 Fig. 9.17 Fig. 9.18 Fig. 9.19 Fig. 9.20 Fig. 9.21 Fig. 9.22 Fig. 9.23 Fig. 9.24
Building 700 with relevant locus numbers View of Wall 7031 in Room 714 below W6004, with Lintel D13:13 and later Umayyad Wall 6016 (D13:8) Probe in Room 714, looking north; Lintel D13:13 over Doorway E is on the left Room 718 on left, with Doorway D on left and Doorway C at north end of Pier Wall 7028 (during excavation) Pier Wall 7028 and fill in Doorway D Limestone basin below floor in Room 707 Staircase D23:43; Doorway B is on the left and Doorway A with Lintel D23:41 in place is on the right Looking east in Room 716 at Wall 7021 and Doorway A into Room 707 Cistern D15:2, north of Building 700; drawn by J. R. Battenfield. Excavation Grid in Field C-east (C41–C91/C47–C97) Plan of Building 910, Field C-east Construction of outer West Wall 9019 and South Wall 9018, showing diagonal linking stone (C65:38) Gate Building 910 with lower Bastion 9007 Plan of Building 905, Field C-east; Stratum VIIA North face of Partition Wall 9023 Room 907, with pillar bases (C65:29, 30, 32) Human remains in upper storey collapse of Room 907 Room 908 (left) and south end of R907; Partition Wall 9023, East Wall 9021 in foreground Plan of Building 905, Field C-east, with Locus numbers Room 909, looking east through Doorway J; Pavement C76:16 at left Building 905, looking east from R907 into R909 on left and R910 in middle distance Installation C75:10 in Room 910 Hearth C75:9, in Room 910 Building 905, with Room 908 in lower left, and R913 in upper left Room 712 Building 900, Field C-east Oven C54:18 with Windbreak Stone C54:19, in Room 901 North end of Room 901 with Corridor 903 and Doorway A at left Building 900, with relevant locus numbers Wall 9000 at south end of Room 904, with Doorway D Artefacts in place in Room 904, between Bin C53:17 and Doorway D Burial 1 Stone-lined cist grave C54:8
Fig. 10.1 Fig. 10.2 Fig. 10.3 Fig. 10.4 Fig. 10.5 Fig. 10.6 Fig. 10.7 Fig. 10.8 Fig. 12.1 Fig. 12.2 Fig. 12.3 Fig. 12.4 Fig. 12.5
Fig. 12.6 Fig. 14.1 Fig. 14.2 Fig. 14.3 Fig. 14.4 Fig. 14.5 Fig. 14.6 Fig. 14.7 Fig. 14.8 Fig. 14.9 Fig. 14.10
Boulder-and-chink wall with doorway; previously published (Daviau 1999: fig. 5.1), reprinted with permission Stacked boulder W3005; previously published (Daviau 1999: fig. 5.3c), reprinted with permission Stacked boulder and pillar W3027; previously published (Daviau 1999: fig. 5.3b), reprinted with permission 1) TJ 381, 2) TJ 814, 3) TJ 589 1) TJ 301, 2) TJ 960, 3) TJ 1480 Limestone Trough C27:27 in Room 805 Limestone trough from Room 715 in Building 700 Boulder Mortar A13.23; in Room 106 Typical Stratum-VIII pottery from Field A; 1) V125 (A14/29.4), 2) V118 (A14/29.1), 3) V189 (A13/53.4), 4) V101 (A13/87.1), 5) V145 (A13/39.2), 6) V147 (A13/29.3) Hippo style storejars from Fields A and E; 1), V126 (A14/59.1), 2) V497 (E55/52.1) Typical Stratum-VIII vessels from Field E; 1) V425 (E54/76.1), 2) V318 (E53/13.2), 3) V429 (E65/9.1), 4) V361 (E65/6.1), 6) V351 (E65/6.1), 7) V438 (E54/85.1) Typical Stratum-VIII vessels from Fields B and E; 1) V221 (B63/63.4), 2) V512 (E64/72.3), 3) V314 (E54/170.7), 4) V462 (E54/89.6) Typical Stratum-VII vessels; 1) V808 (C17/71.6), 2) V812 (C27/52.7), 3) V790 (C17/86.3), 4) V924 (C65/60.9), 5) V893 (A83/45.1), 6) V822 (C27/10.1), 7) V703 (D21/20.1), 8) V879 (A83/98.2) Typical Stratum-VII vessels; 1) V795 (C17/85.7), 2) V786 (C17/86.2) Main screen of the Tall Jawa information system File submenu Copy to ClipBoard submenu One field from the registration portion of the database Record control object Artefact Image control object Search controls area Accessing the Control Panel Accessing Add/Remove Programs Removing the Iron Age program
PART ONE OVERVIEW
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THE SITE AND ITS REGIONAL SETTING
Location and Identification ˇ Tall Jawa (Tell Gâwa; Palestine Grid, 238.2E/140.8N)1 is a small mound, located west northwest of the modern town of Jawa, 2.2 km northeast of al-Yadudah, and 10.9 km south of #Amman. The ancient site2 stands as a mound of ruins overlooking the plain of Madaba from the east (Fig. 1.1, see also Fig. 3.1). At an elevation of 928 masl,3 Tall Jawa dominates the skyline for several kilometres in every direction. To the south, one can see the fortified tower immediately north of Tall ar-Rufaisa (RS 22;4 Boling 1989:134; Franken and Abujaber 1989: fig. C23a). Visible to the northwest are Khirbat as-Suq and the outskirts of modern West #Amman (#Abdun). Coming from the south, Tall Jawa forms the eastern skyline of the Balqa hills, whereas coming from the eastern plain near Sahab, the tell has an even more imposing appear. ance, with the northeast scarp and standing casemate wall clearly visible (Boling 1989: fig. 5.58). In view of its proximity to the Iron Age capital city of RabbathAmmon, Tall Jawa was an excellent candidate for a research project designed to investigate the extent of the Ammonite kingdom and its cultural characteristics. This was confirmed by the recovery of Iron Age 1 The full reference in JADIS includes the following coordinates: UTME 7773; UTMN 35686; PGE 238.200; PGN 140.800; JADIS Site #2314.048 (Palumbo 1994:2.137). Changes in orthography for place names, established by the Royal Geographical Service since 1994, are gradually being adopted. When excavations began at Tall Jawa, this change had not yet taken place and the older orthography is reflected in published articles and preliminary reports. 2 In certain Madaba Plains Project reports (Younker and Daviau 1993; Younker 1999:17; Herr and Najjar 2001:334–336), the site is identified as “Tell Jawa (South),” or “Jawa South”, due to the better-known Early Bronze Age site of Jawa in Jordan’s eastern desert (Helms 1973; JADIS Site #3319.010; Palumbo 1994:2.189). However, this is not its official name, and probably derives from the discovery of Roman period statues in the area of the modern village of Jawa (JADIS Site #2314.135) 3 A Royal Geographical Service Control Monument is located 0.17 m north of the northeast corner of Square A69. 4 Madaba Plains Project Regional Survey site number.
Figure 1.1. Map of #Amman region, showing location of Tall Jawa (P. Schaus).
sherds dating primarily to the Iron Age II by the Madaba Plains Project Regional Survey in 1984 (Boling 1989:144). Already after the first excavation season, it was clear that the ceramic material shared much in common with that found at Tall al-#Umayri, which has produced numerous inscribed seals and a small number of ostraca that clearly demonstrate its Ammonite character (Younker 1985; Herr 1997).5 The value of Tall Jawa as a research project was enhanced by the fact that this ancient site was not excavated prior to our interest in it. As a result, the tell was well preserved, with only limited disruption of the archaeological record by modern agricultural use and by a certain amount of bulldozer activity on the eastern half of the upper surface and against the south slope. The lack of interest in the mound may, in part, be the result of the limited historical information available concerning the kingdom of Ammon. It appears that Ammon became a tributary state of Assyria after the expansionist campaigns of Tiglath-pileser III, but was never 5 Ammonite ostraca were also found at Hesban (Cross 1986; Cross and Geraty . 1994) and at Tall al-Mazar in the Jordan Valley (Yassine and Teixidor 1986). For the most recent studies of Ammonite inscriptions and their phonology, morphology and syntax, see Aufrecht (1989; 1999).
converted into an Assyrian province (Bienkowski 2000:45). Although references to the kingdom of Bît Ammana (Hübner 1992:183) appear in Assyrian texts (Millard 1992:35), few Ammonite sites have been located whose ancient names are known, apart from Rabbath-Ammon and Heshbon. The modern name (Tall Jawa) was that known to late . 19th and early 20th century explorers, whereas local people now call the site, “The Rock”. To date, its ancient name remains a mystery (Younker and Daviau 1993, pace Kallai 1993; Elitzur 1989). Previous Exploration in Central Transjordan The earliest 19th century references to Tall Jawa are found in Seetzen (Scháua; apud Brünnow and von Domaszewski 1904:179), and later in Warren (1870:291), and in Conder (Jâwah, s×n~; 1889:109), who says that this large ruin lies “on a prominent knoll beyond the "Adwan border”. In the report of their survey of Transjordan, Brünnow and von Domaszewski (1904:179) mention that they passed by the ˇ site of Gâwa in April 1897, on their way from al-Qast.al to #Amman. In 1900 and 1901, Alois Musil (1907:218) visited Tall Jawa, which he described as a fortress located 2 km northeast of al-Yaduda. Musil suggested that the name Khirbat N¯efa#a preserved the name of biblical Mepha#ath (Jos. 13:18, Jer. 48:21; Eusebius, Onomastica Sacra, Klostermann 1966:128–129), and that of the Roman camp known as Castron Mefaa (Notitia Dignitatum, Bocking 1839–1853:82, 362–363). Since no tell of that name was to be found at Khirbat N¯efa#a, he thought that Tall Jawa was the location of the biblical period site (Musil 1907:352).6 This suggestion was immediately accepted by Clermont-Ganneau (1901), who was engaged in a debate concerning the location of the Levitical city of Mepha#at,7 and by Alt (1933:28), following his visit to the site in 1932. Other scholars, including Glueck (1934:4), Simons (1959:207), Abel (1967:385),8 who refers to Alt, van Zyl (1960:94), and 6 The geography of the immediate vicinity of Tall Jawa, in relation to Khirbat N¯efa#a, is shown most clearly in the study of the Joshua texts by Mittmann (1995: abb. 2). However, its position does not correspond to Musil’s report that N¯efa#a is on the north slope of Tall Jawa; according to Mittmann, it lies to the northeast of Tall Jawa. 7 This debate continues to exercise scholars; see Dearman (1989b). 8 Abel (1967:70) referred to biblical texts in Jos 21:36 f., 1 Chron 6:63 f., Jos 21:38 f. and 1 Chron 6:65 f., which placed Mepha#ath in Reubenite territory, an area which encircled Ammonite territory along a line that ran from N¯epha#a, past al-Yadudah to Naur. However, Mittmann (1995:19) has shown that Tall Jawa is 10 km north of the northern boundary of Reuben, according to the oldest stratum of Josh 13:15–23.
Boling (Geraty et al. 1989:144), all accepted this designation. What was forgotten in this discussion is the evidence of Jerome who prepared a Latin translation of the Onamasticon in 390 AD, in which he mentions that there was a praesidium of Roman soldiers stationed at Mefaath, because of its isolated location (Klostermann 1966:129). After 6 seasons of excavation and investigation at Tall Jawa, there was no evidence for occupation between the Iron Age and the late Byzantine–early Islamic period. Nelson Glueck conducted the first archaeological survey of the tell in 1933.9 He approached the site from the direction of #Amman and identified “Jawah” as an oval tell, extending east-west, and measuring approximately 100 × 200 m (Glueck 1934:4; Jawah, Site 1 on his map, pl. 1). Glueck recognized the circuit of the city wall, which surrounds the summit of the mound, and the revetment evident on the north side. Ever conscious of the need for water near ancient sites, Glueck located several cisterns outside the city wall on the east side of the tell (Glueck 1934:4). However, no mention was made of the presslike installation and cave located on the east slopes of Tall Jawa, or of the numerous collapsed buildings still visible on the summit. Glueck collected surface pottery, which he dated to Early Bronze III,10 Iron Age I and II (1934:4). Of significance is the fact that Glueck did not identify any Roman or late Roman (Byzantine) period pottery,11 although he did see some glazed sherds that he called simply “Arabic”. Excavations at the site have confirmed Glueck’s observations to the extent that no Roman period remains have been recovered, with the exception of a handful of small sherds consisting of Nabataean painted pottery, one fragment of Eastern terra sigillata, and several early Roman undecorated sherds from the surface. The fortification wall visible to early travellers dates to the Iron Age, while Building 600, visible above ground level, was occupied during the Umayyad period, possibly as late as the early Abbasid period. Later material consists of one glazed “Ara9 For a review of 20th century surveys and excavations in the region of Ammon, see Younker (1999). 10 Although Glueck promised to publish the pottery from his survey sites (1934:4, n. 12), this material is still unpublished. As a result, it is not possible to see whether the inverted bowl rim that he identified as EB III does indeed date to that period. What is extremely common at Tall Jawa are inverted rim bowls, some with dark red slip, that date to Iron Age II. 11 Glueck made no mention of the visits of earlier explorers to the site of Tell Jawa, nor to Abel’s judgment that the building remains visible on the summit dated to the Roman period.
bic” sherd, the sherds of a brittle ware cooking pot (V658)12 recovered in an early Islamic house (Building 600), some “Arab geometric” sherds and fragments of clay smoking pipes, all of which may have been used and discarded at the site sometime after Building 600 went out of use (Daviau and Beckman, 2001:265–266). To date, no Roman or Byzantine period settlements have been found in the immediate area of the tell, let alone a Roman military camp. The closest site with Roman and Byzantine period remains is Yadudah (Franken and Abujaber 1989), where Roman milestones can be seen re-used as roof supports in caves (Boling 1989: figs. 8.38–40). Vaulted tombs, already cut open by quarrying activities and containing stone sarcophagi, were seen in Yadudah by Buckingham (1825, apud Brünnow and von Domaszewski 1904:179). Tombs and floors covered with mosaics are visible at Khan Zaman, on the north side of the #AmmanMadaba Road. Evidence for occupation somewhere in the area of the village during the early Roman period is represented by a group of ceramic statues of Venus in the National Museum in #Amman that come from “Jawa south”. The only known structure from the Roman period, excavated by the Tall Jawa Project in 1994 and 1995, is Tomb 1, located on the east side of the village of Jawa. This tomb had been robbed in antiquity and is currently being used for garbage disposal. Precise dating of the original use phase of the tomb is facilitated by the discovery of a Herodian style lamp, smashed on the bench in front of the loculi. From this limited evidence for settlement in the area during the Roman period, and the complete lack of any material remains for the 4th–6th centuries AD, it would probably be more productive if Tall Jawa were no longer considered in the quest for the location of the Roman fort, Castron Mefaa (Younker and Daviau 1993; Piccirillo 1990:527–41). The identification of Khirbat N¯efa#a as the bearer of the name of Roman period Mefaa has not yet been substantiated. The precise location of the Roman site is still under discussion (Mittmann 1995), as is the site of biblical Mepha#ath.13 In fact, the region of Umm ar-Rasas corresponds better with the biblical references to Mepha#ath, especially those in Jer. 28:41, which presents a list of towns located north of the Arnon (Wadi Mujib) in the region of Dibon. Such a location for biblical Mepha#ath would suggest that it was located in Moabite territory, rather than 40 km further north at Tall Jawa, a site 12 13
See discussion of vessel numbers in Table 2A. For the most recent discussion, see MacDonald (2000:136).
which appears to have been located securely in Ammonite territory. Indeed, this suggestion is supported by current excavations (Dearman 1989a:183; Schick 1991:63, n. 56). When all is said and done, only the archaeological record can provide evidence for the identification of Tall Jawa, and to date there is no firm evidence for its ancient name.14 Recent Exploration by the Madaba Plains Project In 1984, R. Boling conducted a surface survey at Tall Jawa for the Madaba Plains Project Regional Survey (RS Site #29). He estimated the accumulation of occupation debris to be 1.50–3.00 m above bedrock. The period of heaviest ceramic representation was Iron Age II (early and late), with lesser evidence for other periods, including Early Bronze, Iron Age I, Late Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad (Boling 1989:144). During six seasons of excavation, only a handful of sherds with a high organic content could be tentatively dated to the Early Bronze Age, and these sherds may in fact date to Iron Age I. This supports Glueck’s view (1937:21) that there are no real tells on the Transjordanian plateau in his survey area. Most sites dating to the Iron Age were new settlements, rather than a rebuilding on an artificial mound above earlier occupation. Site Size In 1989, G. Johnson (Madaba Plains Project Land Surveyor) prepared the initial topographical map of the tell.15 The area within the perimeter walls measures ca. 20,850 m2, 2.08 hectares, or approximately 5 acres. This puts Tall Jawa well within the range of Iron Age II residential towns, such as Bethel, Beth Shemesh, Tell en-Nas.beh, and Tall al-#Umayri.
14 A suggestion by Younker (personal communication, October 30, 1992) to reconsider Du Buit’s identification of Tall Jawa as Abel Keramim, a site mentioned in the itinerary of Thutmosis III (Redford 1982) is not supported by the results of our excavations. At least, no occupation remains dating to LB I–LB II are present in the excavated areas; most Iron Age II buildings at Tall Jawa are footed on bedrock. 15 Robert Force, Ontario Land Surveyor, prepared the final maps of the site, based on a new set of readings taken in 1992.
Table 1A. Size of Iron Age Fortified Residential Towns in Cisjordan (in hectares)16 Sites in Cisjordan
1
Beer-sheba Bethel Beth Shemesh Tel Beth Shean Tell Beit Mirsim Tel Halif (Lahav) Tell en-Nas.beh
1
1.5
2
1.4 + 1.4
2.5
3
2.6 3
1
3
Table 1B. Size of Iron Age Fortified Residential Towns in Transjordan (in hectares)17 Sites in Transjordan
1
Tall Dayr #Alla Dibon Lehun (Iron II) Safut Tall al-#Umayri Tall Jawa
0.6? 0.8 + 0.5?
1.5
2
2.5
3 3
2 2
The north slope of the tell may also have been part of the ancient settlement. However, only limited archaeological evidence was found here, because much of this area was destroyed by a road which cuts into bedrock, ca. 18.00 m from the encircling walls. Further north and east, extramural occupation has been obscured by the development in this century of the modern town of Jawa. Topography (Figs. 1.2, 1.3) The top of the tell is relatively flat (927–924 masl), with an official bench mark (928.00 masl) located on a mound of debris slightly west of centre. The site is surrounded by a double wall line made of large boulders, and includes, within the walls, the visible remains of approximately 20 collapsed buildings and one cistern,18 probably all in use in the Umayyad period contemporary with Building 600 in Field D.19 The most recent structures are a series of property walls constructed of limestone and chert boulders, many positioned above the ancient wall 16 Both Table 1A and 1B are adapted from Daviau 1997c: Table 1. The recent excavations of Mazar (2001:290) provide updated data for the size of Tel Beth Shean. 17 The size of several sites is only approximate, due to limited excavations or to damage in modern times that has reduced the extent of the Iron Age remains. 18 These remains are located in Fields D, F, G, and H. 19 The final report for Building 600 is in preparation.
Figure 1.2. Topographical Map, by G. Johnson; working grid showing Fields and Squares (R. Force).
lines. Within the field walls, limited areas of the tell have been plowed and used for growing grain. Apparently, this activity has been going on for some time, since Glueck observed during his visit in 1933 (1934:4) that the top of the tell had been plowed in preparation for planting.20 More recently, a certain amount of bulldozer activity on the tell, east of Field D, formed a scarp through the Iron Age remains. A second series of levelling activities related to road building and construction were carried out on the south side of the tell, adjacent to Fields A–B. On the south, this cut exposed, and partially destroyed the face of a retaining wall (Chapter 5, below), but did minimal damage to the tell itself. At the southwest corner in Field B, a bulldozer cut a path onto the tell; a second path running east was cut from the levelled area, along the south side, up onto the east end of the mound, through Field C. Both of these paths cut through the Iron Age fortification walls. South of the tell, 16.00 m from Field A, is the mouth of a cistern in Field S. Documentation and soundings were undertaken in this cave during 1992. On the west side two modern houses, which belong to the landowner and his relatives, were founded on bedrock; these properties are parallel to the casemate wall. In addition, the mouth of a cave in the bedrock is located between these modern houses, and is 20 Glueck did not mention the modern property walls, which severely restrict excavation. It is possible that these walls had not yet been built.
Figure 1.3. East-west profile, North-south profile, prepared by R. Force.
one of nine caves and/or cisterns documented by the Madaba Plains Project on the west side of Tall Jawa (MPP Regional survey site #127). In this area, there are also several stone troughs and a large reservoir. The proximity of the cisterns to the wall system indicates a considerable investment in time and energy devoted to water management in a region without a local spring (see Chapter 3). In 1989, the #Umayri Regional Survey team under the direction of J. R. Battenfield carried out limited documentation and photography of these installations. Due to the lack of soundings undertaken at MPP Site 127, the date of construction and use of these installations is not known, although Daviau (1992) observed one cistern in current use on private property. Beginning 100 m south of the tell, there are two tongues of exposed bedrock, each measuring approximately 50.00 × 200.00 m. Evidence of human activity is most clearly seen in the eastern tongue (MPP Regional Survey #118; Field M; Fig. 1.4), where numerous quarry marks, some forming rectangular installations, along with cisterns, caves, a possible animal herding area, sumps, channels, and a crushing stone are all visible. Two of these installations, designated Cave M13 and Wine Treading Floor M-2, were excavated in 1991. Further documentation of rock-cut installations in Field M was carried out by Battenfield in 1992. At the present time, the entire area south of the tell is surrounded by new roads and is being developed into a housing project. In view of the rapid changes in the area adjacent to the tell, excavation in 1995 was designed to reach floor level in every Iron
Figure 1.4. Tall Jawa in relation to Field M.
Age building under excavation, and with this goal accomplished, our research at Tall Jawa came to an end.
EXCAVATION PROJECT AND RECORDING DESIGN
Introduction Current archaeological research is designed with specific goals in mind, usually in the form of hypotheses concerning major cultural or societal change that are tested in long term field projects, or for information gathering in the case of short term salvage excavations or surface surveys. The decision to excavate the mound known at present as Tall Jawa falls into neither of these categories. This tell was known to exist from the surveys of travellers and explorers such as Musil (1898–1902) and Glueck (1933–1937), but no subsequent research project had been formulated that involved its excavation prior to 1989. Instead, it was part of the overall strategy of the Madaba Plains Project1 to document all sites lying in randomly chosen grid squares within a five kilometre radius around Tall al-#Umayri (Geraty et al. 1989:3) that brought Tall Jawa under the purview of Ø. S. LaBianca, director of survey and R. W. Younker, director of hinterland excavations. In 1987, LaBianca and Younker prepared a list of several sites that might add to our knowledge of the settlement patterns and subsistence strategies of the inhabitants of the Balqa hills bordering the Madaba Plains on the north. The sites approved by the Department of Antiquities of Jordan included al-Drayjat and Tall Jawa. In order to acquire additional information concerning Iron Age settlement patterns, the tell at Jawa was chosen as a possible excavation site in view of the results of the surface survey conducted by R. Boling in 1984. The writer, already a member of the Madaba Plains Project, was invited by the directors to supervise the first season of excavations in 1989, due to her previous experience with stratified settlement sites at Tell 1 The Madaba Plains Project was formed to expand the work begun at Tall Hesban . by Siegfried Horn of Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan. The Hesban . excavations (1968–1978) had been the training ground for many of the archaeologists who formed the core staff of the Madaba Plains Project in 1984 (Geraty et al. 1989:3– 4).
el-Hesi (Israel)2 and Tall al-#Umayri. The sounding conducted at Tall Jawa in 1989 was intended to identify various periods within the occupational sequence and confirm the ceramic chronology recovered by both Glueck and Boling.3 What followed the 1989 season was a change in strategy for work at the site, and a plan to expose areas of a site that should prove to be an enormous resource for a better understanding of the ancient Ammonites. The first factor that had an impact on the work at Tall Jawa was the Gulf War of 1990–1991. During that year, all Americans were discouraged from travelling to the Middle East and this travel ban included Jordan. While Canada had initially issued a travel restraint, that situation changed by March of 1991, allowing for tourist travel to Jordan during the summer of that year. As field director for the excavations at Tall Jawa, the writer was able to organize a team that would work at the site for six weeks and represent the Madaba Plains Project in Jordan for that season. L. T. Geraty, Senior Project Director, Ø. S. LaBianca, Survey Director, and D. R. Clark, Consortium Director provided much needed coordination and assistance. No excavations were carried out at Tall al-#Umayri, the principal site of the Madaba Plains Project, nor was the regional survey in the field, except for LaBianca’s assistance with the investigation of Field M at Tall Jawa.4 The Tall Jawa Excavation Project Following the 1991 season, it was apparent that the results of two seasons of excavation provided enough architectural and artefactual material for the writer to formulate a research design for continued excavation at the site with a focus on the Iron Age remains. Beginning in 1992, the Tall Jawa Excavation Project entered the field with its own funding and research design. The relationship with the Madaba Plains Project Consortium, which had contributed so much to the Tall Jawa excavations in terms of professional standing and specialist support, 2 Daviau was a member of the Joint Expedition to Tell el-Hesi in 1975 (under the name of Michèle Shuell), and in 1977 and 1981 (under her current name). 3 Preliminary reports were published as part of the Madaba Plains Project; see Younker et al. (1990), Herr (1993), and LaBianca (1995). 4 Rock cut installations (260–300 m south of Control Point 2), dating primarily to the Byzantine period, had been previously identified by the Madaba Plains Project Regional Survey (Site #118), although full documentation and limited excavations in Field M were undertaken only in 1991.
was changed into a cooperative agreement between two independent projects;5 this relationship allowed both teams to share information and the services of certain specialists. The recording system in use by the Madaba Plains Project, designed by L. G. Herr, continued to be used at Tall Jawa, with slight modification (for specific excavation procedures, see Herr 1989: 213–215). This choice represents a commitment to standardization in recording techniques among scholars working in central Transjordan.6 The tradition of running a field school as an integral part of a research programme was an important element in the Madaba Plains Project. So too, the Tall Jawa Project continued this tradition, one which the director had experienced first at Morganville, New York, and later at Tell el-Hesi and Tall al-#Umayri. Although the training of students may result in an occasional mistake in recording or drawing, the MPP system is such that all information in preserved through the detail required on the locus sheets and top plans. The overwhelming satisfaction of training students certainly outweighs any minor problems that may result from their initial lack of experience. Most gratifying was the growing competence of those students who returned to Tall Jawa year after year and contributed their expertise and enthusiasm. Excavation Areas At the outset of excavation, there was no large-scale regional grid in place at Tall Jawa, comparable to the grid at Tall al-#Umayri. Therefore, in 1989, a working grid was established that would serve for the initial season. The location chosen for Field A (see Fig. 1.2) was based on the topography of the tell, the visibility at ground level of three parallel wall lines, and the concern that imminent construction would further damage the tell. In a sense this was an arbitrary decision, because there was as yet no long-range research strategy for this site. Four 6.00 × 6.00 m squares (A1–A4) were laid out from south to north, beginning at the level of bedrock exposed by modern bulldozer activity 5 Daviau assumed sole responsibility as director of excavations at Tall Jawa and became responsible for the research design, organization, financial arrangements and execution of the field project, and for final publication. 6 The Tall Jawa recording system is now in use at Khirbat al-Mudayna on the Wadi ath-Thamad, a research project in Moab that is sponsored by Wilfrid Laurier University and directed by Daviau.
and running up and over the three parallel walls that were almost perpendicular to the line of squares. A fifth square (A13), east of Square A3, was also excavated during the first season.7 Research Design The scholarly objectives of the research programme at Tall Jawa, were 1) to define the basic characteristics of an Iron Age walled town in central Transjordan in terms of its defensive strategies, its town plan and its typical economic, political, religious and domestic structures, and 2) to determine the relationship of Tall Jawa to other nearby Ammonite settlements. These objectives were further refined in order to a) classify the particular style of casemate fortifications and gate structure at Tall Jawa, b) determine the types of domestic and public buildings located within the walled town, c) identify the typological and technological traditions manifest in various classes of artefacts and pottery, and determine their place in the processual sequence of cultural evolution during the Iron Age, and d) situate Tall Jawa in terms of its political, economic, and socio-technological integration within the cultural system of the Kingdom of Ammon. With the development of this research strategy, it was necessary to further expose and analyse the building plans, room arrangement and activity areas of the Iron Age II buildings. Already in 1991, Field A had been expanded to the east (Squares A14, A24), and to the west (as Field B) along the line of the fortification wall (Squares B63, B64; Figs. 1.2, 6.1). Two other fields were opened in the 1991 season; Field C (west; C5–C6, C16–C17; Figs. 1.2, 8.1), located at the point where a terrace extended south and east of the central town area, and seemed to mark the end of the outer defence wall, and Field D (D2, D12, D21, D22; Figs. 1.2, 8.15), where a well-preserved building (B600) was visible above ground level.8 7 Field A was laid out by Tim Woodard, a member of the MPP Survey Team, under the direction of J. R. Battenfield. 8 Control Point 2 (924.462 masl), which marks the western edge of Field C is located 3.80 m east of the west balk of A53 (in A63) and 2.30 m north of the northwest corner of C7; Control Point 3 (26.202 masl), marking the southwest corner of D1, is located due east of CP 2 and 3.33 m east of the east balk of C27. The south balk of Field D (Squares D1–D51) is located north of C37–C97, each of these squares measuring 8.30 m north-south). These points were linked to Field A by Control Point 1 (925.003 masl), located in A3 on the inner casemate wall. Abbas Khammash, Technical Survey Studies Office, #Amman, Jordan, established these control points in 1991.
Further testing of the fortification system was planned for the 1992– 1995 seasons as part of an attempt to identify further the defensive strategies of the ancient inhabitants, and to determine the characteristics of the town plan. In view of this goal, Field E (Figs. 1.2, 7.1) was opened in 1992 directly north of Field B and was expanded in subsequent seasons. The western squares of Field B, which ran along the line of the casemate wall were laid out and excavation began between the wall and the western tower. So too, the eastern squares in Field C were laid out over the gate area and designated C-east.9 Iron Age remains were present in each of these fields. Only in Field D was there evidence for the later reuse of part of this site during the Umayyad period. Field Recording Recording in the field made use of the locus sheets of the Madaba Plains Project, along with additional data sheets, which were designed by the Tall Jawa team as needed. Individual locus sheets are designed to record all data for a particular type of feature; these include soil loci, architectural elements, installations and burials (see CD ROM). The primary locator for a given locus was the Field + Square; each square was designated by a field letter and square number, beginning in the southwest corner of each field and running north (1–10) and east (1– 91).10 In certain instances, the grid at Tall Jawa was modified; at the east end of Field A, Field C-west cut into several squares along the east side of Field A (A61–A63). Locus numbers in this text are always identified with the full field + square designation, and an individual locus number, separated by a colon (A13:36).11 Because a certain feature could run through more than one square, that feature would initially have more than one locus number. At the time of analysis and description of such a locus, new numbers were assigned to streamline the system. 9 Robert T. Force, Ontario Land Surveyor, set the corners of squares in Fields B, E, and C-east. Field E was in line with Field B on the west, and began immediately north of B10–B70 + A10–A30. 10 This grid is similar to that used at Tell el-Hesi in that the squares were prenumbered and did not depend on the sequence of excavation. At Hesi, the fields were assigned Roman numerals and the squares were labelled “Area” 1, 2, etc. One difference is in direction, for example in Field I, Area 1 is located in the northeast corner and the squares run north to south and east to west (Worrell and Betlyon 1989: fig. 4). At both sites, topography was the primary factor in the layout of the field. 11 Beginning in 1991, a cleanup locus, assigned the siglum 0.5, was the first locus in each square. There is no real depth to this locus, so that topsoil is represented by Locus 1.
For example, each wall was assigned a wall number (e.g., A4:5 + B64:7 is labelled W1005).12 For the most part, these numbers are keyed to the room and building numbers assigned to architectural units in each field. Only a few numbers in the range assigned for each field were used; nevertheless, this numbering system of walls, rooms and buildings allowed for easier report writing during each field season. In this text, the siglum W, R, or B is attached to the number, unless the full word is used immediately before the number (Wall 1005, Room 103, Building 200). Table 2A. Range of Room, Building, Wall, and Vessel Numbers Field
Room Numbers
Building Numbers
Wall Numbers
Vessel Numbers
Sub-A A B C (west) C (east) D E
001–099 100–199 200–299 800–899 900–999 700–799 300–399
001–099 100–199 200–299 800–899 900–999 700–799 300–399
1000–1999 1000–1999 2000–2999 8000–8999 9000–9999 7000–7999 3000–3999
001–099 100–199 200–299 750–899 900–999 700–750 300–499
The descriptions of wall construction and of rockfall from the walls, both in the text and in the running list of loci, refer to the sizes of stones listed on the locus sheet. Because these sizes are so important to an understanding of the architecture, they are repeated here. Table 2B. Sizes of Stones in Iron Age Masonry Wall Stones
Cobble size Small boulder Medium boulder Large boulder Very large boulder
0.06–0.25 m 0.25–0.50 m 0.50–0.75 m 0.75–1.00 m 1.00 + m
Chinkstones
Pebble size Cobble size
0.002–0.06 m 0.06–0.25 m
Fill stones were given the same sizes as the wall stones. 12 For convenience, a complete list of loci and their descriptions is given on the CDROM; a list of wall numbers and their equivalent locus numbers is found in the Appendix. Data recording in the field was the responsibility of the square supervisor, usually a student with previous experience and training at Tall Jawa in the Field School Programme. As a precaution against supervisor error, and in order to record a maximum amount of data, a top plan was prepared for each locus, indicating its relation to other known loci, and its elevations, both top and bottom.
Material Culture Registration According to the Madaba Plains Project system, diagnostic ceramic sherds are registered according to Field + Square, Pail and Item number (A3.25.1), with each item separated by a period. Diagnostic sherds include rims, bases, handles, and sherds that are painted, incised or reflect special surface treatment. This system was in use during all subsequent seasons. In addition, after the first season, an attempt was made to save all red slipped and all black burnished sherds, as well as all body sherds that could be reconstructed. In order to indicate a specific vessel, each partially reconstructed pot was assigned a vessel number, which is linked in the pottery database to the individual sherds that went to make up that vessel (for example, V151 = A3.28.2 + A3.39:8; Daviau, in preparation).13 Objects were given running numbers (TJ 1–2238) with Field + Square, Pail, and Object number (E54.110.1119; Daviau 2002:20– 23).14 Since object numbers never repeat, an individual item is occasionally referred to by the last number in the sequence (e. g., Figurine TJ 1119). Reworked sherds are also numbered consecutively, but only in the range of 101–499, and are distinguished from objects by the addition of the year (92/108). Potter’s marks are numbered with their year in the range of 500–799 (93/508), and sherds that show evidence of technological change or unique aspects of the potter’s craft (mend holes, etc.) were registered in the range of 800–999 (94/814). In those cases where a sherd was also diagnostic, it received two registration numbers. Using this Report In this report, the stratigraphic history of the settlement at Tall Jawa is described, beginning with the evidence for an Iron Age I village (Chapter 4). Following the destruction of this village, a fortification system 13 Iron Age I collared-rim pithos sherds that represent a distinct vessel were assigned vessel numbers in the range 1–99 (Sub-A), even if they were found in fields where all the architecture dates to Iron Age II. 14 For the 1989 season, all Tall Jawa objects were entered in the MPP running object list, with a “U” prefix, indicating #Umayri. When these objects were turned over to the Tall Jawa project in 1992, they were re-numbered and assigned TJ numbers in the range 1–100. For the 1991 season, a new system was adopted for the Tall Jawa excavations (for details, see Daviau 2002:20–22), and object registration began with number TJ 101.
was constructed and in use during Strata VIII and VII (middle-late Iron Age II; Chapter 5). This is followed by a description of each major building, including details of construction, room arrangement, and artefact and pottery distribution within each room (Chapters 6–9). Additional analytical studies are also included which relate to architectural styles, building materials and built-in features or installations preserved in the Iron Age buildings, and an analysis of lime plaster in use on wall and floor surfaces (Chapters 10–11). A chronological synthesis of the settlement history and notes on the political history of the Ammonites attempt to place Tall Jawa in its cultural and historical context (Chapters 12–13).15 This volume concludes with a description of the design and utilization of the CD-ROM (Chapter 14), which includes a list of loci, photographs, top plans, and section drawings for the principal Iron Age buildings. Additional analysis has been reserved for Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan, Vol. V: Survey and Ethography. This will include studies of activity areas and artefact distribution, a typology of the lithics and an analysis of the faunal material from the Iron Age town, as well as a report on survey work and salvage excavations in the vicinity.
15 This volume is primarily a level III report with the inclusion of level IV synthesis; these “levels” of publication are those discussed in Steiner (2001:3), where she distinguishes Level III, “full illustration and description of all structural and stratigraphical relationships” from Level IV, “synthesized descriptions with supporting data.”
PRELIMINARY GEOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF TALL JAWA D W. S
Introduction Tall Jawa1 is situated at the crest of an east-west ridge approximately 928.00 m above sea level, at Palestine Grid coordinates of 238.2/140.8 (Fig. 3.1). The site overlooks the southerly draining Wadi al-Hinu/Wadi Umm al-Kudsh, to the west and the Wadi Hinu al-Marashida to the east. The low relief topography of the Madaba plains stretches off to the south and the southeast with Tall Jawa obtaining a commanding view of this region. The ridge on which Tall Jawa is located slopes steeply down into Wadi al-Hinu/Umm al Kudsh to the west. To the north, the slope is somewhat more gentle, leading down into the broad wadi bottom of Wadi Hinu al-Marashida. To the south and east the slope is very gentle comprising exposed bedrock ledges and thin soil mantles. Regional Geology Throughout the region investigated by the Madaba Plains Project, the bedrock exposed at the surface consists of Middle to Upper Cretaceous carbonates, phosphorites and cherts. Quenell (1951) divided this Upper Cretaceous succession into an upper part, termed the Balqa Series (now Balqa Group) and a lower portion, termed the Ajlun Series (now Ajlun Group). In general, the younger, Balqa Series, possessed a greater proportion of siliceous lithologies (cherts and siliceous limestones). Later authors have further subdivided these two stratigraphic units as discussed by Schnurrenberger (1991).
1 The editor has substituted certain changes in orthography and added certain information in order to update this chapter, which was first written in 1991.
Figure 3.1. Location Map of Tall Jawa in central Jordan.
Local Bedrock Geology Tall Jawa lies at the southeasterly contact between two upper Cretaceous carbonate units (Fig. 3.2). The lowermost carbonate unit (and oldest) is locally termed the Wadi Sir Formation (Masri 1963:Ktws). Bender (1968) and Grieger and Tuqan (1963) labelled the Wadi Sir formation, the Massive Limestone Member, for the Jordanian national map. The upper, largely carbonate unit, is the lowermost part of the Amman formation of Masri (1963:Kcaa). Bender (1968) split the rocks into the upper Massive limestone Member (comprising the Wadi alGhudran Formation) and the Silicified Limestone Member (Table 3A).
Figure 3.2. Bedrock and structural geology in the vicinity of Tall Jawa.
The upper portion of the Wadi Sir Formation is a somewhat thinly and occasionally thickly-bedded, chalky limestone, with nari partings, chalky limestone and occasional chert nodules. The lower limestone units are relatively resistant to weathering and form small cliffs, or steps, in the hillside, visible across the wadi from Tall Jawa. The relatively thin, overlying Wadi al-Ghudran formation consists predominantly of non-competent yellowish marls and chalks. Due to the ease with which this formation is eroded, the Wadi al-Ghudran formation is not visible in section, being always covered by colluvium. Overlying these rocks, the lower #Amman Formation consists of thin to thickly-bedded, brown, brecciated chert beds. The chert beds are readily apparent beneath the crest of the hill and serve as a marker bed for the lower #Amman Formation. Both the ridge on which Tall Jawa was constructed, as well as the small hilltop approximately 300 m to the northwest of the tell, owe their existence to a resistant capping of the chert beds at the base of the Amman Formation. The more gently sloping surface to the south of the site, the surface of which is pocked with rock cut features, marks the upper surface of the Wadi Sir formation. Here the overlying resis-
tant chert beds and marl beds have been previously removed by erosion. Across the surface of this unit are numerous intact and collapsed caverns. There features represent exposure through erosion of ancient karst systems. Quaternary Sediments The late Quaternary sedimentary fill of the tell was not subjected to intensive analysis. However, the preliminary examination of the initial squares (A1–A4 in 1989) makes possible the following comments concerning the derivation of the sediment making up the site. The late Quaternary fill consists of very poorly sorted, matrixsupported, silty clays with numerous angular to sub-angular limestone and chert gravel fragments. These sediments are primarily anthropogenic in origin, intermixed with probably considerable loess from the surrounding Madaba Plains. Table 3A. Stratigraphic position of the Upper Cretaceous carbonate formations underlying Tall Jawa2
2 Modified after Khalid (1985). Coloured portion indicates those formations underlying the site. Group names after Quenell (1951). Member names after various authors.
References Bender. F. 1974
Geology of Jordan. In Contributions to the Regional Geology of the Earth, ed. H. J. Marini. Supplementary Edition of Volume 7. Berlin: Gebruder Bortraeger. Grieger, J. and Z. Tuqan 1963 Geology and phosphorite possibilities in the area between Ruseifa and Jiza. Unpublished report of the Natural Resources Authority. Amman. Khalid, M. B. 1985 Sedimentology and microfacies of the Wadi Sir Formation in the AjlunIrbid area with a review of Turonian Lithostratigraphy in the Middle East. Unpublished Thesis, University of Jordan. Masri, M. R. 1963 Report on the Geology of the Amman-Zarqa area. Unpublished report of the Natural Resources Authority, Amman. Quenell, A. M. 1951 The Geology and Mineral Resources of (former) Transjordan. Colonial Geology and Mineral Resources 2:85–115. Schnurrenberger, D. W. 1991 Preliminary Comments on the Geology of the Tell el-#Umeiri Region. Pp. 370–376 in Madaba Plains Project 2. The 1987 Season at Tell el- #Umeiri and Vicinity and Subsequent Studies. eds. L. G. Herr, L. T. Geraty, Ø. S. LaBianca and R. W. Younker. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press.
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PART TWO STRATIGRAPHIC EXCAVATIONS AT TALL JAWA
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EVIDENCE FOR AN IRON AGE I SETTLEMENT FIELD A: THE DEEP SOUNDING (1989)
Introduction Several important Iron Age I settlements, including Sahab (Ibrahim . 1974, 1975) and Tall al-#Umayri (Clark 1996, 1997) provide evidence for occupation in the land of the B˘enê #Ammôn, south of Rabbat#Ammon.1 At these two sites, only limited areas of the Iron Age I settlements have been exposed, so that the character of these settlements is not fully known.2 Tall al-#Umayri was fortified with a casemate wall and contained one or more houses built up against the wall system. The most important finds here consist of a complete house that had standing pillars to support the roof and an adjoining storeroom between the inner and outer casemate walls, a room that was filled with storejars containing a variety of food stuffs (Clark 1997:64; figs. 4.11– 19). The ceramic forms, primarily the storejars with collared-rim, are the best indicator that this site was occupied during Iron Age I (Herr 2001:241–242; figs. 14.2, 14.3). Similar rim forms, found at Tall Jawa, are evidence that here, too, there was a settlement during Iron I. Finds at Sahab, 8 km to the east (Ibrahim 1978), and at Balu# in Moab . (Worschech 1992: fig. 2:1–3) confirm the widespread use of the distinctive collared-rim storejars, although these are short-necked forms, and probably date to the late Iron I or early Iron II period. The complete sequence of Iron Age occupational phases in Field A at Tall Jawa was identified only at the end of five seasons of excavation. While that sequence was further refined in the final season (1995), 1 This is not to say that there was not earlier occupation at these sites; clearly there was a significant Early Bronze Age settlement at Tall al-#Umayri, with some reuse of the site during the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze Ages (Geraty et al. 1989; Herr et al. 1991). However, occupation was hardly continuous. 2 At Sahab, this is due to the presence of a modern town above the ancient remains. . The location of the excavation areas is shown on the 1980 base maps (Ibrahim 1989: figs. 2, 3).
enough was then known to identify the phasing for the major Iron Age structures in Fields A–B (Chapter 6) and correlate them with finds from Field E (Chapter 7). In a deep probe in Field A (Square A13), sections of the earliest walls on the mound were uncovered below the level of the Stratum-IX fortification wall (Herr et al. 1991:170). So too, in Field C-east (Square C71), it became apparent that there were earlier walls (Stratum X) adjacent to and immediately under certain sections of the Stratum IX wall system, suggesting the presence of occupation from Iron Age I (Herr et al. 1991:170).3 Although no complete rooms or buildings from this occupation phase were exposed, a considerable amount of pottery in the fill layers and ceilings of later buildings (Strata IX, VIII), along with a small group of Late Bronze Age sherds (Bienkowski, personal communication), support the hypothesis of an Iron Age settlement. History of Excavation (Figs. 4.1, 2) In Field A, three squares north of the fortification system were opened in 1989 to investigate the architectural remains inside the ancient town. Squares A3 and A4 ran south to north, with an additional square (A13) located east of Square A3. The strategy for the first season was to explore the remains of settlement at the site and determine the construction history and function of various buildings adjacent to the wall system. At the same time, a deep sounding to determine the complete chronological history of the site was opened along the west side of Square A13. The sounding was not continued below Iron Age I levels due to the depth of the trench, and because other research strategies gained priority following the first season of excavation. The primary reason for this modification of excavation goals was the fact that Tall Jawa was a virgin site with no previous history of excavation, a fact that suggested good preservation of the town plan. Only evidence from previous surface surveys, incomplete by their very nature and hampered by the degree of preservation of the surrounding Iron Age II wall system, was available before excavation began (Chapter 1, above). Subsequent
3 Pottery recovered in the deep sounding has been re-examined in relation to the known wares and forms assigned to Iron Age II. Only one sherd (TJ A13.101.7), originally identified as Middle Bronze Age, is anomalous. All other sherds that are not Iron Age II or Umayyad (Stratum III) can, with a certain degree of certainty, be assigned to Stratum X, Iron Age I.
Figure 4.1. Excavation Grid in Field A.
to the 1989 season, it was apparent that horizontal exposure of structures inside the town was essential for understanding the plan of each building and the overall layout of this Ammonite town.
Table 4A. Strata for the Deep Sounding in Field A STRATUM
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
IA–IB II III IV V VI VII VIIIA VIIIB IX X XI
1–2 no remains pottery only no remains no remains no remains no remains 3/reuse 4/casemate wall 5/solid Wall 6/destruction debris pottery only
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Early Iron II Iron I Late Bronze
STRATUM X – THE DEEP SOUNDING – BUILDING 50 The sounding in Square A13 extended along the west side of the square and measured 2.00 × 5.00 m long;4 this probe ended at the point where it ran up against the north face of Inner Casemate Wall W1010. Following the removal of a Stratum-VIII north-south wall (W1009), which was located along the east edge of the trench, the sounding was expanded in width to 2.50 m. Excavation below Wall 1009 made it possible to uncover the earliest architectural features. These features consist of burnt mud bricks and two stone foundation walls (W1015, W1016) forming the southeast corner of a structure (Building 50). Both walls are constructed of small and medium limestone boulders ranging in size from 0.25–0.70 m, with cobble chink stones.5 Although the limits of the sounding prevented complete exposure of these walls, it appears that north-south Wall 1016 extends 2.50 m from the north balk to the point where it abuts east-west Wall 1015 (Fig. 4.3). Four courses of Wall 1015 were exposed along its north face yielding a minimum height of 1.30 m and a thickness of 0.65 m. Wall 1016 runs parallel to a subsidiary balk along its eastern face, so that its true thickness could not be determined with certainty. The eastern edge of Wall 1016 is also obscured by wall stones that have slipped off of the remaining courses; 4 Initially, the probe was 4.32 m in length, due to the accumulation of field stones that covered the ancient wall along the crest of the mound. 5 The present tense is used wherever possible to give the impression that the reader sees the archaeological record in the same manner as the excavators.
Figure 4.2. Field A at beginning of excavation in 1989, showing modern field walls and location of deep probe (A13:2).
nevertheless, this wall appears to be in the range of 0.80–0.90 m thick. No surfaces in use with these walls were reached, nor have any other remains of Stratum X been exposed in other areas of the tell, apart from isolated ceramic sherds. As a result, the debris layers described here date to the final destruction phase of Stratum X, rather than to its period of construction or use.
Figure 4.3. Building 50, with Walls 1015 and W1016 in deep probe.
A series of superimposed debris layers associated with Walls 1015 and 1016 consist of soil and burned mud bricks. The collapsed mud brick superstructure was separated into several loci for better control (A13: 29, 33, 35; Figs. 4.5, 6). In the corner formed by the two foundation walls, the bricks within the lowest layer of debris (A13:35) are grey, suggesting that they had been smothered by the overlying collapse. Within this concentration of mud brick collapse, the largest complete brick measures 0.65 × 0.35 × 0.15 m thick.6 Where this brick superstructure underwent severe burning, it became bright red and stained the surrounding soil layers (A13:35). The bricks were sealed by a layer of mud brick and plaster material (A13:33), possibly ceiling material, and by fallen stones. These collapsed wall stones (A13:32), also present immediately above Walls 1015 and 6 D. Wimmer (personal communication, #Amman, 1991) showed the author a brick of comparable size from Tall Safut, that he dated to the Iron Age I. Photographs of individual features are illustrated on the CD-ROM, along with a database that provides detailed locus information and a caption (see Chapter 14).
Figure 4.4. Iron Age I Walls 1016 and W1015 at right.
1016, consist of small (0.25–0.50 m) and large (ca. 0.75 + m) boulders and cobble-size chink stones. This collapse probably represents the destruction of the topmost courses of Walls 1015 and 1016, which were disturbed by the collapse of the mud brick superstructure. Mud bricks and stones continue in the uppermost debris layer (A13:29), which serves as a fill layer below the succeeding Iron Age II building (B113). This Iron Age I destruction debris (A13:29) was sealed in turn by Stratum-VIIIB Debris Layer A13:26, a locus which was contemporary with Surfaces A3:30 and A3:31 (Room 123; see below, Chapter 6). The assemblage of ceramic sherds, artefacts and animal bones in this debris locus (A13:26) appears to be a continuation of the food preparation and/or consumption activities carried out in Room 123 (Building 113, Stratum VIII).
Figure 4.5. North balk, showing position of W1016 in relation to Stratum-VIII Wall 1009.
Figure 4.6. West balk, showing the collapse of debris layers A13:33, 29, 35 in Building 50.
Pottery and Artefacts Early Iron Age II pottery7 dominated the debris layers above the collapse of the Stratum X structure. However, it was in these layers also that large numbers of pottery sherds from Iron Age I were present.8 In Stratum X itself, the floors in use with Walls 1015 and 1016 were not 7 During the 1989 season, R. W. Younker read the pottery with the assistance of the author. L. G. Herr served as consultant for less well-known forms and wares. 8 The sherd material was present in floor surfaces and in overlying debris layers that may represent collapsed ceiling material. Because the Iron Age II buildings at Tall Jawa were not destroyed by fire, their ceilings decomposed over the centuries and were extremely difficult to separate from other debris layers.
reached, with the result that there are no intact or restorable vessels in the Iron I corpus. Also because of the nature of the loci involved (A13:32, 33, 35), few artefacts were recovered, with the exception of one spindle whorl (TJ 93) that came from the debris which was adjacent to the Stratum X walls. Collared-rim Pithoi By far, the most distinctive Iron Age I form is the collared-rim pithos. These vessels are well represented, with more than 15 examples in Field A,9 although only a small sample of the various types is presented here.10 Both the rim and the collar vary in shape from one vessel to another, similar to the variety of rim forms seen in the pithoi from Tall al-#Umayri (Herr 2001). Although not identical, these large jars appear to be the closest parallel to the Tall Jawa jars. In general, the rims are folded and are supported on a tall neck, some flaring out (V10, Fig. 4.7:2, V16, Fig. 4.7:3) and others standing more upright (V8, Fig. 4.7:1). These pithoi all have a thickened rim, with no clear break at the point where it joins the neck.11 In some examples, there is a mid-neck ridge, above the collar (V10; Fig. 4.7:2) and a large, sharply defined collar. The collar was pinched to form a sharp angle or was left rounded. Most unusual among the Tall Jawa jars is one pithos (V9) with a rounded collar, which is actually flattened in some places around the neck. The closest parallel, although not an exact one, is among the pithoi in the casemate room at Tall al-#Umayri (Clark 1997: fig. 4.17). Another close, but not exact, parallel comes from Shiloh (Bunimovitz and Finkelstein 1993: fig. 6.49:4), and a pithos from Hesban with a . rounded collar is dated by Sauer (1994:239) to Iron Age IB. In the examples of pithoi with more upright neck, the rim is folded in two with a clear break where it meets the neck (V11, Fig. 4.7:4; V12); at the base of the neck, the collar is small and neat. Good parallels for this form also appear at Shiloh (Bunimovitz and Finkelstein 1993: fig. 6.51:4; Buhl and Holm-Nielsen 1969: pl. 10:123), Bethel (Albright and Kelso 1968: pl. 56:15), and at Tall al-#Umayri, both in the 9 Additional sherds of collared-rim pithoi were recovered from debris layers in Fields C and E. 10 A complete study of all Iron Age I forms, their ware types and construction techniques will be included in a forthcoming study of the Iron Age pottery (Daviau, in preparation). 11 This style of rim was already in use at Beth Shan in Level VIII (13th century; James and McGovern 1993: fig. 32:4).
casemate room in Field B (Clark 1997: fig. 4.19:9), and in Field F (Low 1991: fig. 8.9). Although 25 pithoi have been published to date from Tall al-#Umayri, this corpus does not provide any parallels for several of the Tall Jawa forms.12 The most notable difference is the length of the neck between the rim and the collar. As well, the size and shape of the body should be an important feature for comparison, but this can only be inferred from the slope of the shoulder, since only rim sherds were recovered at Tall Jawa. Cooking Pots Another vessel type with a distinctive rim is the cooking pot. In early Iron Age I, this rim is usually triangular in shape and everted in stance, forming a wide mouthed pot (Rast 1978: fig. 2:2–6). At Tall Jawa, the stance of the upper body and rim differs from contemporary vessels in Israel and Judah. In this case, the rim stance is upright, rather than everted (sherd A2/67.11, Fig. 4.8:1), closer in style to the Type 1 cooking pots from Tall Dayr #Alla (Franken 1969: figs. 27; 46:1). A folded, rectangular rim form also appears, although this is more difficult to distinguish from the folded rim form used in Iron Age II, albeit with a very different stance because in Iron II the pot becomes a closed vessel. Kraters Several examples of kraters (V4, Fig. 4.7:5; V7, Fig. 4.7:6) are represented among the large bowl forms. Vessels with an everted rim, similar to Vessel 4, appear in the later phases at Tall Dayr #Alla (Phase L; mid 10th century; Franken 1969: fig. 75:93), while V7 has a parallel in Phase F (Franken 1969: fig. 62:25). Krater V7 also has a parallel at Tall al#Umayri (Clark 1991: fig. 4.7:20). Bowls Small bowls come in a variety of sizes and fabrics. Of note is a thin walled, cyma rim bowl (V1), similar to Franken’s Type 14, which he identifies as an early form (1969:151). At the same time, a second bowl with an everted rim (V3; Fig. 4.8:2) appears to be a shallow dish, rather than a deep bowl, with the result that the rim is somewhat more everted that the Tall Dayr #Alla examples. 12 It should be noted that the so-called Iron I pithoi from Edom (Finkelstein 1992: fig. 2) are very different in their formal features, and in fact may be later, since pithoi
Figure 4.7. Collared-rim pithoi, 1) V8 (A13/88.2), 2) V10 (A14/36.1), 3) V16 (E54/172.20), 4) V11 (A13/106.1); kraters, 5) V4 (A13/104.3), 6) V7 (A13/126.2).
Figure 4.8. Cooking pot, 1) sherd (A2/67.11); bowls, 2) V3 (A13/114.10), 3) V2 (A13/106.3), 4) V15 (A13/78.1); Jug, 5) sherd TJA13/113.1.
with grooves on the upper part of the shoulder continue in Transjordan throughout Iron Age II (Daviau 1995).
Bowls with an upright, thickened rim appear in both unpainted gray metallic ware (V2, Fig. 4.8:3), and white slipped with reddish-brown painted bands on the interior surface (V15, Fig. 4.8:4). White slip and painted decoration also appears on the exterior surface of a thin walled body sherd (A13/93.1). Other examples of painted decoration appear on unslipped body sherds (see below). Bowls with a “pink” slip and brown paint appear in the Iron Age I ceramic corpus at Tall al-#Umayri (Clark 2000: fig. 4.31:20). Storejars Due to the small amount of sherd material recovered from secure Iron I loci, it is difficult to identify storage jar sherds. In some instances, jar rims share the same shape as jug rims, although the fabric and surface colours are somewhat different. Rim forms are either simple rounded rims, or externally thickened rims. Jugs Iron Age I jugs are easily distinguished from Iron Age II material, due to their gray fabric and gray surface colour (2.5YR 6/0).13 However, only a small number of rim styles occur, represented primarily by a tall, externally thickened, triangular rim (V14; sherd A13/113.1, Fig. 4.8:5), or by a folded trefoil rim (V13). Examples of complete, biconical jugs with gray fabric are present in the Iron Age I pottery assemblage at Tall al-#Umayri (Clark 2000: fig. 2.30:16, 19). Painted Pottery Apart from the gray ware that is so distinctive in the class of small jugs, painted sherds also indicate Iron Age I occupation. At Tall Jawa, only a small number are present in the corpus. Nevertheless, several vessel types are represented, including shallow bowls, jugs, pyxides, and flasks. In the bowl forms, a white slip is sometimes present, along with a redbrown painted band (Fig. 4.8:4). Most common is the lattice design in red paint on an unslipped surface. Sauer (1986: figs. 11–12) illustrates sherds with similar design among the finds from Hesban; as well, two . 13 The sherds assigned to Iron Age I are very distinctive, in that the fabric is gray and not just the core. In addition, the colour of “gray” can vary, especially among the bowls and jars where a light gray fabric, with distinctive black and white inclusions, clearly separates these wares from Iron Age II wares. In the case of the latter, the fabric is penetrated by the heat at firing and appears pink, while only the inner core is gray.
pyxides with paint on the shoulder area are reported from Tall al#Umayri (Clark 2000: fig. 4.32:7, 8). The Nature of the Iron I Settlement With such limited exposure, it is not possible on the basis of the architectural remains to adequately characterize the settlement at Tall Jawa during Iron Age I. However, two hypotheses can be put forward; first, the settlement consisted of structures with stone foundations and mud brick walls, and secondly, the destruction of the Iron I buildings preceded the construction of the Inner Casemate Wall (W1010). This sequence is clearly seen in the position of the base of Wall 1010, which was marked by a row of cobble size stones (A13:38); these stones were located in the debris layer (A13:29) that covered the Iron I destruction. The soil (A13:40) under Wall 1010 remains unexcavated. The pottery is a better indicator of the nature of the settlement. The full range of domestic vessels appears to be represented, bowls, kraters, cooking pots, jugs, jars, pithoi, and lamps; in this corpus, only juglets seem to be under-represented. The well-balanced distribution of formal types associated with food preparation and consumption, along with the large number of storage vessels suggest a permanent settlement, in use for a period of time before the fire that destroyed Building 50. The contamination of Iron Age II surfaces and ceilings by Iron Age I pottery makes it impossible to determine the exact location of other buildings in use at the same time as Building 50, except to say that in Fields C-west, D, and E, the Iron Age II houses were founded on bedrock and there is no evidence for Iron I structures in these fields. In the southeast (Field C-east), Iron I pottery in the form of a collaredrim pithos (V921) was recovered from a probe below the flagstone pavement (C65:21) in Room 908 (Stratum VIIB).14 Since Building 910 was founded on bedrock along its north end, it is not clear whether the debris layer containing these Iron I sherds is the result of an extension of the Iron Age I settlement into Field C, or only a fill layer needed to level the south end of the gate building above the rapidly sloping bedrock. In Field E on the north, several Iron Age I sherds were present in debris layers (floor makeup, collapsed ceiling material), 14 Three sherds, clearly originating from an illicit probe in Room 908, mend with one registered sherd from inter-seasonal accumulation in Room 907 (V021). A second collared-rim pithos sherd (C65/51.4), similar to sherds with manganese burnishing from Field A, was present in a probe excavated in 1995 in Room 908 (C65:31).
including gray ware shallow bowls (E65/124.2) and collared-rim pithoi (E75/31.2, 32.7, 58.12, 74.0; and V016). In spite of this evidence for Iron I occupation, it was only in Field A that there was architectural evidence for this early settlement. The southern perimeter of the Iron Age I settlement can no longer be identified with certainty, due to the later construction of the fortification system and to modern bulldozer activity which removed the slope of the tell below the outermost retaining wall (W1001). Assuming that the slope continued gently to the south from the preserved top of Wall 1001, as it does in Field C to the east, one could imagine the Iron Age I settlement spreading over the entire southwestern side of the mound. Debris layers north of Retaining Wall 1001 contained a large number of Iron I sherds, although they were located primarily in the Iron II rooms north of the outer solid wall (W1003). Since Retaining Wall 1001 was founded on bedrock (A1:3), it may have served as a perimeter wall during Stratum X, although the necessary relationship to Iron Age I soil layers was not determined during excavation. In Field C, south of the three late Iron Age II buildings (B800, 900, 905 + 910) which were excavated in whole or in part (Chapters 8, 9), there is evidence for a retaining wall (8036), which runs east on the south slope of the mound (C2:2 = W8036). This wall is also visible in the scarp of the bulldozer cut that removed the slope of the mound further west (in Field A). Wall 8036 may be a continuation of Wall 1001 in Field A. If we assign Wall 8036 to the Iron Age II period, it appears that Tall Jawa was an unwalled settlement during Iron Age I. The establishment of an unfortified village is comparable to the Iron I settlements at Hazor and Lachish, following the destruction of the Late Bronze Age urban centres (Lemche 1985:390). Stratum XII at Hazor had little in the way of architecture, except for a few walls, pavements, ovens and pits (Yadin et al. 1989:25–28).15 The ovens are of special interest, because they consist of the upper part of an inverted pithos, a style that continues at Hazor into Iron II (Yadin et al. 1989:25), and is the dominant style at Tall Jawa in Stratum VIII. At Lachish, the development of an unwalled settlement in Stratum V appears to date to late Iron I, rather than earlier in that period. Houses were built along the crest of the tell, above the Late Bronze Age debris, in order to form a line of defence (Ussishkin 1983:116; fig. 9). The pottery from these 15 In 1972, Yadin characterized the Iron I settlement as a group of circular foundations, ovens and pits (Yadin 1972: 129).
houses is red slipped with vertical burnishing, closer in style to finds from Stratum IX rather than Stratum X at Tall Jawa. Closer in time to early Iron I is the final reuse of Stratum VI at Lachish, which has only been exposed in Area S (Ussishkin 1983:114; fig. 8). The best parallel for occupation during three distinct phases of Iron I is the unwalled site of #Izbet Sar . t.ah (Finkelstein 1986). Following the destruction of the earliest settlement (Stratum III), the site was resettled; a small number of houses and numerous pits constitute the Stratum II settlement. In the final phase, there were fewer pits; it is this stratum (I) that dates to the late 11th-early 10th century. Iron I at Tell Beit Mirsim is also characterized by a settlement in which the remains of architecture were minimal, but where pits or silos were numerous (Albright 1943:1; pl. 2). Of more relevance for Tall Jawa are the small, unprotected sites that appear throughout the central hill country, where groups of sites were located in the hinterland of large Late Bronze Age cities (Lemche 1985:393). Such settlements also appear in the Samaria area and are described in detail by Finkelstein, Lederman and Bunimovitz (1997). If Tall Jawa in Transjordan was also an unwalled village, it was considerably different from the site of Tall al-#Umayri, which was surrounded by a strong casemate wall with casemate rooms that were an integral part of the adjoining house (Clark 1997: fig. 4.8; 1996:241).16 This does not mean that these sites were not contemporary, only that these settlements were different in their function or in their need for fortification. In the end, both sites were destroyed in major conflagrations. Of these two sites, only Tall Jawa was rebuilt in early Iron Age II (Stratum IX).
16 The revised illustration of the pillared house with a roofed lower storey (BlochSmith and Nakhai 1999:113) is much more convincing in terms of construction techniques (Daviau 1999:122, n. 22; 128–129, n. 27) than the original drawing in Clark (1996).
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THE FORTIFICATION WALLS AND TOWERS
Introduction With few exceptions, no Iron Age fortification walls standing to their full height survive in the archaeological record.1 This fact has led archaeologists to assume that, in most cases, ancient walls were constructed of stone foundations with a mud brick superstructure. Although mud brick recovered in situ occurs primarily in Bronze Age occupation levels (Wright 1985:175), some evidence remains at Iron Age sites located in coastal or semi-arid regions.2 Our current knowledge of Iron Age defence systems is based, for the most part, on the partially preserved remains of the stone foundations used to support the superstructure of walls, gate rooms, and towers that are no longer preserved. Several phases of the Iron Age fortification system at Tall Jawa were uncovered in three excavation areas; Field E on the north (E44–E76), Fields B and A on the west and south (B16–B14 and B24–A13), and Field C on the southeast (C-west [C5–C7 and A73]; C-east [C43– 63 and C62–C81). Visible at ground level, the complete perimeter of the casemate system can be traced around the tell,3 with the inner wall along its crest (Fig. 5.1) and the outer wall lower down on the slope (except in Field B, see below). The defensive wall consists first of a solid wall with offsets and insets along its outer face (Stratum IX), followed by a casemate system with parallel walls joined by cross walls at intervals, forming interior rooms or compartments (Stratum VIII). 1 Wright (1985:175) notes that the stone wall at Tell en-Nasbeh, preserved to a . height of 14.00 m was probably very close to complete. 2 Examples of the extensive use of mud brick for defensive walls include both the Early Bronze Age wall and the Iron Age citadel wall at Tell el-Hesi (Rose and Toombs 1978: figs. 17a, 14/4, respectively), the Middle Bronze Age gate at Tel Dan (Biran 1981:104; pl. 19A), and the casemate wall system at Tell el-Kheleifeh (Pratico 1993:26– 27). 3 The casemate wall was not drawn east of Field E, although the topography indicates the position of the fortifications.
Figure 5.1. Casemate Wall system in Field E to the north, Fields E and B to the west, Fields B and A to the southwest, and Field C to the southeast.
The sloping soil layers below the outer wall are held in place by retaining walls visible on both the north and south sides of the tell. This chapter will present a detailed description and analysis of the fortification system and its associated features, based on the sampling strategy employed during six seasons of excavation. History of Excavation In the first season (1989), excavation in Field A on the southwest slope of the tell included three Squares (A1–A3), running south to north across the three parallel walls visible at ground level. At the base of the tell, the face of a boulder-and-chink wall (W1001) was completely exposed in Square A1. A second parallel wall (W1002), located midway on the slope, was visible at intervals. The innermost wall (W1004)
ran along the crest of the slope and was partly obscured by a modern property wall (W1031; Herr et al. 1991: pl. III.1).4 The strategy for the first season was to expose this defensive wall system, determine its characteristics, construction history and chronology relative to architectural remains inside the town (Daviau 1992b:145). Based on the results of the first season, additional exposure of the wall system was undertaken in 1991, both to the west of Field A (in Square B63), and at what appeared to be the east end of the casemates in Square C7 (Field C-west). The constraints on complete excavation of the wall system led to the further development of a research strategy that included the sampling of the fortifications at strategic points along its perimeter; in 1992, Field E on the north side of the tell and Field C-east were opened. For the following seasons, the specific areas of interest were located in Field B, where the wall formed a right angle in the southwest corner, in Field E where a second series of three parallel walls were visible on the north side of the tell, and in Field C-west at the point where there seemed to be an interruption in the wall system. Added to these areas was the investigation of a heavily built wall low on the slope of the southeastern terrace (Field C-east), and its connection to the wall system, and of a section on the west side of the tell in Field B, where it was possible to determine the association of the West Wall (W2023) with a flanking tower (W2024). Sampling of the casemate wall on the east side of the tell was restricted due to the wishes of the land owner. Stratigraphy Evidence for the stratigraphic sequences of construction, use and destruction of the fortifications varied from one excavation area to another. Although the fortification system around the entire perimeter of the tell appeared, at first glance, to be a single construction project, excavation revealed individual wall units and more than one construction phase, especially noticeable where house walls ran under the Inner Casemate Wall. In Fields A and E, construction and use of a single solid wall appears to coincide with Stratum-IX occupation. In Stratum VIII, there were clear signs of more than one phase in Field A, the earlier phase consisting of the construction of a parallel wall to form 4 The property walls that run across the tell, dividing the surface into small plots, appear to be the result of stone clearing activities, rather than actual wall construction.
casemate rooms (VIIIB), and a second phase of repairs to realign this inner wall (VIIIA). Here and in Field E, superimposed floors suggest more that one phase of occupation. Certain features suggest that the Casemate Wall may not have been in use during Stratum VII, when settlement was concentrated on the eastern half of the tell.5 A Persian period burial and an Athenian tetradrachm, with the face of Athena on the obverse and her owl with the letters ΑΘΗ on the reverse (TJ 111, Daviau 1992a: fig. 6), indicate later disturbance of the wall system and casemate Room 202 (both in Field B). While this coin seems to be comparable to other fifth century B.C. coins (449 B.C., Kleiner 1975:6–7; Beckmann 1994; Daviau 2002:89), no buildings dating to this period were recovered at Tall Jawa. Table 5A. Strata for the Fortification Walls STRATA
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI VIIA VIIB VIIIA VIIIB IX
1 objects pottery, etc. pottery? no remains 2/coin, burial 3/pottery 4/pottery 5/wall repairs 6/casemate wall 7/solid, offset/inset wall
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Early Iron II
In order to present the stratigraphic details of the fortification system, the outer wall will be described first as it appeared in Field E, because it is here that the archaeological record demonstrates most clearly a sequence of construction and use of a solid wall (W3006) with offsets and insets. Also assigned to Stratum IX is the retaining wall and glacis associated with the solid, offset/inset wall in Field E and a parallel construction in Field A. This will be followed by the evidence for the building of an Inner Wall (W3000) in Stratum VIIIB, and the formation of casemate rooms between it and the outer wall. Finally, discussion will turn to the special features of the fortification system including a flanking tower and a drain in Field B. 5 The phasing between the casemate wall and Building 800 is complicated, due in part to the limits of excavation.
This phasing sequence seems reasonable, although it cannot be proven definitively because there was no evidence seen in the balk sections or discerned while digging for foundation trenches associated with these walls, and secondly, the walls themselves appear to have been footed on bedrock. This was not surprising because only a handful of foundation trenches were seen in the entire excavation, suggesting a consistency in construction that applied to various types of architectural units. STRATUM IX – THE OFFSET/INSET SOLID WALL The Stratum-IX solid wall (W3006) in Field E curves gently around the north side of the tell, except on the west, where it turns at a sharp angle to continue as the western wall (W3050 in Field E, equal to W2023 in Field B). Only here on the west does the solid wall run along the crest of the hill rather than being footed on the slope, as it was in Field E. Within the area of the tell available for excavation, this solid wall extends 138.00 m from Square E76 on the north to Square A12 on the south. From this point on, and for an additional 32.60 m, it is covered in part by modern stone piles and appears only at intervals until it reaches Square C7 on the east.6 Field E North Wall 3006 (Fig. 5.2) A solid wall (W3006)7 is well preserved and clearly visible for a length of 30.00 + m in Field E (Squares E34–E76). Along its length, Wall 3006 consists of 3–4 rows of roughly hewn limestone boulders with a high percentage of stones (ca. 50 %) in the range of large boulders (0.75–1.00 m). Individual stones of >1.00 m in length serve to bond together two rows of smaller stones. The thickness of the wall varies from 1.90–2.60 m. As far as can be determined, Wall 3006 is dry laid in boulder-andchink construction with cobble size chink stones. Although excavation of Wall 3006 against its outer face extended from a top level of 923.42 (masl) to a bottom level of 919.42 (masl), the base of the wall was not reached (Fig. 5.3). In view of the levels
This entire wall line was drawn by R. Hutson during the 1992 season. Wall 3006 was given a locus number in each square where it was exposed; E34:1 = 45:1 = 55:13 = 56:2 = 66:1 = 76:12. 6 7
Figure 5.2. Stratum IX Solid Wall in Field E, with Passageway 309 on right.
of exposed bedrock (922.20 masl) in Room 302 of Building 300, south of the Stratum-VIII casemate walls, and in the modern road cut (ca. 918.00 masl) on the north, it seems likely that the builders positioned the foundation of the solid (outer) wall on bedrock. The greatest preserved height of Wall 3006 consists of 8–9 courses exposed in Square E56, where it measures 3.92 m.8 Within the excavated area of Field E, there are two offsets/insets (E56–b, E77–c)9 along the outer face of Wall 3006. In Square E56, the 8 A similar situation appears in the publication of the Stratum-XB outer casemate wall at Hazor (Yadin et al. 1989: Plan VIII), where the wall foundation in Room 148b was exposed for a maximum height of 1.17 m without reaching the base of the wall. Dever (1993:48) was more fortunate at Gezer when he located the base of the Outer Wall footed on bedrock and preserved for a height of 3.50–3.75 m. 9 Offset/inset is the terminology currently used in several publications for the
Figure 5.3. North face of Wall 3006, with Offset E54–b.
wall face has an inset of 90° with a maximum depth of 0.40–0.65 m reducing the total thickness of Wall 3006 from 2.60 m to 1.95–2.20 m (Figs. 5.3, 4). From this point on (inset E56–b), Wall 3006 continues east 12.65 m to a second offset (E77–c), which is ca. 0.50 m deep, and has an angle of 120°. This offset is associated with a clear break in the wall line (see Passageway 309 below). Along this stretch of wall, no offset/inset is located on the inner face to match those on the outer face.10 This was especially clear on the south face of Wall 3006 in Casemate Room 301 where 5 courses are exposed directly inside offset/inset E56–b. At the same time, Wall 3006 in Squares E34–E45 is only 2.00–2.20 m thick, suggesting that there is an offset close to the point where Wall 3006 enters Square E55 from Square E45, resulting in a thickening of the wall before it is again reduced in width by the inset (E56–b) on its outer face. The outer wall remains unexcavated in these western squares (E34–E45). change of location for segments of wall sections in both casemate and solid style curtain walls (e. g., Herzog 1992:265, 318; Dever 1993:43). Wright employs the more technical terms “salient and recess” (1985:182), which is probably more appropriate for the Tell Jawa curtain wall, since the recess or salient only affects the outer face. 10 A straight inner face is also seen at Hazor along the north and west walls of the Citadel (Area B; Yadin et al. 1960:48, pl. CCV) where deep (1.60 m) recesses or insets were present along the outer face. By contrast, no such offsets/insets were present in the casemate wall (Yadin et al. 1960: pl. CXCIX).
Figure 5.4. North face of Outer Wall 3006.
A third offset/inset (E24–a) is located 20.80 m west of offset/inset E56–b, at the point where the solid wall (W3006) turns sharply south at an obtuse angle of approximately 145°. The resulting inset (E24– a) is ca 0.45 m deep on the west face of West Wall 3050, where it is visible below the stones of a modern property wall (Fig. 5.2). From this point onward (E24–E21), Wall 3050 continues south for ca. 60.00 m, as far as Drain B24:24; within Field B (B21–B29), this is Wall 2023. The function of the offsets/insets may have been multi-purpose, including defensive11 and supportive, although it seems most likely that this style of construction was designed to enable the builders to adjust the wall to changes in the level of bedrock and to the curvature of the natural hill.12
11 Wright (1985:177) points out that the width of the superstructure must be sufficient for the defenders of the town to walk on the wall and to fight from its battlements. Although there is no remaining evidence at Tall Jawa for the brick superstructure, the stone sockle is certainly wide enough for one or two persons to walk on its topmost course. 12 Yadin (1989:173) had the same opinion regarding the irregularly spaced offsets/ insets along the city wall at Hazor in Area G. More recently, Herzog (1997:226) used the same explanation to account for the shallow (0.50–0.60 m deep) projections along the inner and outer faces of the solid wall at Megiddo (Stratum IVB).
Glacis A deep probe (2.35 m) against the north face of Solid Wall 3006, through a series of arbitrary loci (E56:15–26), exposed layers of packed soil (E56:12, 14), along with stones and plaster (E56:7, 10), that form a hard sloping surface extending north down the natural slope of the hill to the outer retaining wall (W3023). These packed earth layers do not show the sophisticated layering with tongues of soil and chalk typical of a Middle Bronze Age glacis (Dever, Lance and Wright 1970: pl. 5), but appear to serve a similar purpose, enhancing the steep slope of the mound between the major fortification wall and a lower retaining wall.13 Plaster Layer E56:10 seals against a single row (E56:8) of mediumsized cobbles (0.10–0.20 m) that appear to run parallel to the face of Wall 3006. A narrow strip (0.09–0.15 m) of sterile soil (E56:9) fills the small gap between the cobbles and the wall face, being widest (0.26 m) where the outer wall is inset. Two superimposed plaster layers (E56:7a and 7b) cover Cobbles E56:8 and Soil locus E56:9 to seal against Wall 3006. Together these layers are 0.08–0.20 m thick and extend approximately 1.14 m down the north slope. The outer edges of these plaster layers appear to have been destroyed by subsequent rock fall (E56:3, 5)14 that accumulated after the wall system went out of use. The north edge of Rockfall E56:5 was parallel to Wall 3006 suggesting that the stones had formed part of the superstructure of the wall itself, rather than the more common mud brick wall for which there is no remaining evidence in Field E. Retaining Wall 3023 (Fig. 5.5) An east-west wall (W3023), visible at several locations on the north side of the tell in Field E and extending further east into Field F, was not excavated in Square E57, although a line of small and medium boulders (E57:4) appears to continues its trajectory. Here, wall line E57:4 is in place above a soil layer, in contrast to Wall 3023 which is exposed 6 courses high, and is footed on bedrock. Exposed sections of Wall 3023 13 A rampart originally constructed during the Middle Bronze Age at Tall al-#Umayri was reused with glacis and retaining walls during Iron Age I (Clark 1997:62–63). 14 It is unlikely that these stones were related to the modern property wall (W3049) which consists of medium and large boulders piled along the inner casemate Wall (W3000). While a few random boulders were scattered on the surface of the northern slope, the consistent layer of rockfall (E56:3) sealed under modern topsoil represents a different episode in the archaeological record.
Figure 5.5. Retaining Wall 3023 on North slope in Fields F–G.
show that it was built of boulder-and-chink construction, in horizontal courses. In its present condition, large parts of this northern wall are underground and there is no evidence for a mud brick superstructure or for collapsed wall stones. Such evidence strongly supports the interpretation of this structure as a retaining wall comparable to Wall 1001 in Field A on the south (see below). The case of wall line E57:4 is somewhat different. It runs east-west, exactly 9.00 m down slope from the Outer Casemate Wall, whereas one might expect Wall 3023 to begin to curve toward the south near the northwest corner of the wall system, given the changing topography in this area. The explanation for wall line E57:4 may be that it marks the position of the uppermost wall stones of North Wall 3006 where they fell north, down the slope. Further down slope to the north, the hill is cut through by a modern east-west road, which reveals the bedrock and the overlying soil layers.
Figure 5.6. Passageway 309 between Outer Wall 3006 on right, and Wall 3018 on left.
Passageway 309 (Fig. 5.6) In Field E, there is only a single break in the Casemate Wall, Passageway R309,15 located just west of offset/inset E77–c. This opening in the North Wall was carefully constructed with the lower courses of the Wall (E76:25) forming a pavement inside the entryway. On either side, the upper courses of Wall 3006 on the west, and its continuation as Wall 3018 on the east, form vertical faces, 0.75–0.90 m apart, for a distance of 2.25 m through the entire thickness of the wall.16 At the northeast 15 In 1993, before the full nature of the passageway was known, this area was given a room number, R309. It is retained here for ease of discussion. 16 The height of Outer Wall 3006 and W3018 is 2.00 m above Pavement E76:25,
corner of Passageway 309, Wall 3018 extends a further 0.50 m beyond the line of Wall 3006. This adjustment in the wall alignment (offset E77–c) enabled defenders to protect Passageway 309 and also has the effect of casting a shadow over the entrance. Although the evidence for occupation inside the town during Stratum IX is obscured by the construction of the inner casemate wall in Stratum VIIIB, and by subsequent collapse of North Wall 3006 at this vulnerable point, a few remnants of that early period were recovered. Most significant are two features located near the southern end of Passageway 309, a socket stone (E76:19) and an interior wall (W3022) that runs parallel to the North Wall. Wall 3022 consists of 2 rows of cobbles and small boulders that remain standing 6 courses. Exposed in a very limited area (2.20 m) beneath Stratum-VIII Casemate Room 310, and immediately north of Inner Casemate Wall 3000, Wall 3022 is located 1.40 m from the south face of North Wall 3006. The position of Wall 3022 forms an indirect access into the Stratum-IX settlement. The presence of Socket Stone E76:19 suggests that this entrance could be closed with a door providing additional security. Although other explanations for these features are possible, the function of Entryway 309 during Stratum IX appears to have been that of a postern, the only exit from the town on the northwest side. This would allow the inhabitants to have access to water collected in cisterns cut in the bedrock where they can still be seen at the foot of the tell.17 Due to the severe erosion through Passageway 309 during the succeeding millennia, the original ground level outside North Wall 3006 cannot now be determined. During its period of use as a postern, Passageway 309 may have been linked to a ramp or stairs that led down the slope. Evidence for the end of Stratum-IX occupation is not well preserved in Field E, due to the presence of the casemate rooms and the rooms of Building 300, which all date to Stratum VIIIB (Chapter 7). On the west side of Field E, another offset/inset (E24–a) is located at the point where North Wall 3006 turns southwest (as Wall 3050) and runs up to and along the crest of the hill. Along its length in Field E much of Wall 3050 is covered by a modern property wall, although its outer face is visible below these randomly piled boulders. When Solid possibly the full height of this postern in antiquity. 17 From the north side of the tell, it is possible to recognize numerous cisterns now in use as septic systems in the courtyards of houses located north of the modern road. These cisterns predate the current expansion of Jawa village into this area.
Figure 5.7. Solid Wall 3050 in Fields E and B.
Wall 3050 enters Square E12 (running south), it is no longer visible from the west, although both its inner and outer faces can be traced once it enters Field B (W2023). Field B West Wall 2023 (Figs. 5.7, 8) The principal Stratum-IX defensive wall exposed in Field B on the west side of the tell is a solid wall (W2023). Here the natural slope of the hill is less steep than on the other sides of the tell and to compensate for
Figure 5.8. Wall 2023 looking north toward offset/inset B25–g.
this fact Wall 2023 was built on the highest ridge rather than on the slope of the mound. Wall 2023 is 3–4 rows thick, and consists of small, medium and large boulders and cobble-size chink stones. In several places along its length (in Squares B28–29), Wall 2023 measures 2.00– 2.10 m thick. Changes in its width are only visible in Square B26 and B25 where a matching pair of offsets/insets (B26–e = B24:7, B25–f) are exposed on the inner wall face (Fig. 5.9). South of offset/inset B25–f, Wall 2023 reaches it greatest thickness (2.55 m), until an offset/inset (B25–g) on the outer wall face again reduces its width to 2.00 m. On its outer, western side, the boulders in Wall 2023 are coated with 0.03 m of plaster (B26:9a), and the crevices between them are packed to a depth of 0.08 m.18 Although covered in part by a modern wall (W2043) and its own collapse, excavation exposed Wall 2023 for a length of 13.00 m, to the point where a modern path cuts through its upper courses revealing the north jamb of Stratum-IX Passageway 219 (see below). The founding level of West Wall 2023, discovered in a small probe in Square B26, consists of soil and pebbles (B26:16) that are packed under the west 18 The chemical composition of plaster samples were analysed in the SLOWPOKE nuclear reactor at the University of Toronto, see Chapter 11.
Figure 5.9. Wall 2023 and Tower 2024, with Passageway 219.
edge of the wall. Comparable loci (B16:11, 12) are present under Tower 2024 that runs parallel to Wall 2023, at a distance of 1.65–1.75 m further west. Due to the nature of these loci, we can only assume that the soil and pebbles were packed into depressions in the bedrock to level the surface on which these massive stone structures are built.19 Tower 2024 (Fig. 5.9) Footed on the natural slope of the hill, West Tower 2024 is probably founded on bedrock, and on a consolidation layer of soil and pebbles 19 A similar construction technique is seen at Khirbat al-Mudayna under the piers of the six-chambered gate (B100; Chadwick, Daviau and Steiner 2000:260), which was itself founded on bedrock.
Figure 5.10. Guardroom 221, with Tower 2024 on left, and Outer Wall 2023 on the right.
(B16:11) filling the depressions in the rock. What appears to be the foundation of Tower 2024 is formed of medium, large and very large limestone boulders (0.80–1.25 m in length). For the most part, stones are laid in boulder-and-chink construction, with a few areas of header and stretcher formation. This tower measures 10.10 × 5.65–5.90 m and remains standing 4 courses in height (4.80 m). On the inner, eastern face, opposite Wall 2023, the boulders are coated with a greyish-white, hard, rough plaster (B16:5), and the gaps between the stones are filled to a depth of 0.10 m.20 Guardroom 221 (Fig. 5.10) The association of Tower 2024 with West Wall 2023 during Stratum IX is based on the similarity in construction techniques and masonry, and in the presence of soil layers that seal up against both wall faces. Within the excavated area, Tower 2024 does not appear to be attached to Wall 2023, although excavation did not continue north of Square B16. The 20 Although it is possible that this tower was replastered in modern times, due to its proximity to a modern house, the chemical makeup seems to coincide with other samples whose Iron Age date is without doubt (see samples 15, 16 in Chapter 11).
consolidation layer between the two wall faces yielded 1 iron point (TJ 536), several iron fragments (TJ 592) and a small amount of pottery.21 Between Tower 2024 and Wall 2023, there is sufficient space for a small guardroom (R221). Whether the guardroom was closed by a door, or whether this entire southwest corner of the tell was further fortified cannot now be known, due to the presence of modern housing and the work of a bulldozer that created a path onto the tell just south of the Tower. Debris layers within the Guardroom suggest that it continued in use during Stratum VIII. Passageway 219 (Fig: 5.9) The top of West Wall 2023 was damaged by modern farming activities at the point where Passageway 219 and a Stratum-VIII drain (B24:24) pass through the wall. However, the lower courses (B24:23) of the two flanking sections of the West Wall, Wall 2023 on the north and its southern continuation as Wall 2002, are well preserved. The lower courses of Wall 2023 form an offset/inset (B24–g), which is sealed against by the plaster layers of a glacis (B24:19).22 South of the Passageway, Wall 2002 corners sharply, forming an angle of 110o with South Wall 2009. What appears to be a continuation of the lower courses of the West Wall (W2027 = W2023 + 2002) forms the floor of Passageway 219 and of the Stratum-VIII Drain (B24:24), and extends slightly east of the wall line into the town. Evidence for a Stratum-IX passageway (R219) in this location is only partially preserved due to reconstruction during Stratum VIIIB. However, certain elements of the earlier construction are similar to those recovered in Passageway 309 in Field E. Primary among these is the continuation of the lower courses of the Solid Wall to form a pavement (B24:23), which is framed by vertical, perpendicular wall faces through its entire thickness. On the south side of Passageway 219, the vertical wall face or jamb is well preserved. Here, the distance between the two jambs measures 1.75–1.85 m wide, forming a passageway almost twice the width of Postern 309. The north jamb is seen most clearly where a coating of plaster (B24:27) is preserved on the vertical, south face of 21 Only a handful of sherds were recovered; these date to early Iron II. Without more examples, it is not possible to decide whether or not the single sherd of a ring base vessel (B26.27.1) was late Iron I. 22 Plaster B24:19 appears to have formed a glacis sloping away from the outer wall face. However, plaster put in place in Stratum VIIIB, after the construction of the drain, obscured the earlier slope.
Figure 5.11. South Wall 2009 + 1003, with Retaining Wall 1001 in Field A.
certain wall stones. In Stratum VIII, West Wall 2023 was inset a second time (B24–h) at just this point, reducing the outer entrance from 1.75 m to 1.45 m wide. The position of this inset (B24–h) is quite clear, in spite of modern disturbance, since the wall stub which forms it seals up against the plaster (B24:27) of the north jamb. This plaster wraps around and covers the western, outer face of Wall 2023. A passageway or gate at this point in the wall line would have provided access to cisterns cut in the bedrock to the west of the tell (MPP Regional Survey Site 127). In addition, its position on the west side of the corner makes the entry into the town less visible from the outside than a passageway opening on the southwest facing the plain of Madaba. Tower 2024 is also in position to protect this entrance from attack by an enemy. A mirror image of this pattern of protection is seen at Hazor, Stratum VIII (Area G), where Tower 10014 protected entryway 10067d, a passageway 1.50 m wide, through the city wall (Yadin et al. 1989:175; plan XXXII). Fields B–A South Wall 2009 + W1003 (Fig. 5.11) The west face of Wall 2002 is in line with that of Wall 2023 north of inset B24–h. This location suggests a matching offset (B24–j) to restore
the wall to its full 2.00 m thickness, beginning at the point where W2002 constitutes the south jamb of Passageway 219. From the north face of the jamb, Wall 2002 extends south 2.25 m (as W2027) to meet and bond with South Wall 2009. The sharp angle (110o) formed by this change of direction is even more acute than the angle at the north end of West Wall 3050, where it meets North Wall 3006. South Wall 2009 consists of large and very large boulders, up to 1.60 m in length. Although not excavated along its outer face in Field B, South Wall 2009 is partially exposed and is visible from the base of the tell; it stands 5 + courses high (ca. 2.00 m) and can by traced for 34.25 m in Squares B23–A12. Along its length, only one offset/inset is visible (B33–k). At this point the wall thickness increases from 2.00 m to 2.25 m, although the pile of collapsed wall stones along its outer face makes it difficult to determine the exact line of South Wall 2009 adjacent to this offset/inset. Further east in Field A, South Wall 1003 represents the earliest phase of construction (Stratum IX), with Wall 1002 rebuilt above it during Stratum VIIIB. The Stratum-IX wall (W1003) is formed of 2–3 rows of medium to large boulders (0.50–1.00 m), dry laid with cobble chink stones. In this area, Wall 1003 has a maximum width of 1.60 m, somewhat narrower than its continuation to the west (W2009) in Field B. Whether Wall 1003 was redesigned with the construction of the Stratum-VIIIB casemate system, or whether excavation has uncovered the South Wall at a point where it has been reduced in width by another offset/inset was not determined. South Wall 1003 (or its rebuild as W1002) is visible at soil level in Square A12, and can be projected to the east where it is exposed as Wall 8002 in C7 (Fig. 5.1). Here the wall again measures 2.00 m thick. Glacis (Fig. 5.12) A layer of plaster (A2:30) that seals up against the south face of Wall 1003 was the only continuous surface that appears to connect the South Wall with Retaining Wall 1001. However, since this surface was not excavated the full distance to the inner face of Wall 1001, its periods of use in the complete stratigraphic sequence remain unclear. Surface A2:30 consists of crushed nari and appears to be the earliest in a sequence of superimposed layers (A2:7, 18, and 30) that formed a glacis on this side of the tell. Other similarities that this glacis may have with the plaster glacis outside North Wall 3006 were not identified during excavation, because Square A2 was not reopened in subsequent
Figure 5.12. Outer Wall 1003 with Glacis A2:30, looking west.
Figure 5.13. Retaining Wall 1001, in Field A.
seasons. However, on both sides of the tell, the Stratum-IX wall is associated with a retaining wall. Retaining Wall 1001 (Fig. 5.13) Evidence for a retaining wall was first observed in 1989 on the south side of the tell in Field A. Here the outer face of Wall 1001 (A1:4) is visible for a height of 1.50–2.00 m above the modern surface (A1:1), and extends east-west beyond the excavated area for a total length of
11.10 m (A11–B61). It is assumed that the wall continues further east and west, but recent bulldozer activity has damaged the wall in both directions. Wall 1001 is made of limestone (80 %) and chert (20 %) field stones that range in size from small to large (0.25–0.80 m) boulders; these stones are dry laid in irregular courses and are supported with chink stones. Excavation demonstrates that the lowest course of masonry is laid on bedrock (A1:3) and on pockets of virgin soil which fill the shallow depressions in the rock. This soil (A1:5), composed of coarse sand and pebbles, is almost sterile with only 3 ceramic sherds and one piece of flint reported. Because this wall is still standing and is covered with soil (A1:6), the founding level of its inner face has not been exposed. This north face may in fact be founded on bedrock as well. Alternating soil and plaster layers (A1:2) seal against the bottom course of masonry on the south face of Wall 1001 and against protrusions of the bedrock (A1:3). These plaster layers were probably designed to prevent water from undermining the base of the retaining wall. Whether or not the uppermost plaster surface was exposed in antiquity remains unclear, although it is more likely that it was covered with additional soil layers and was not visible, as is the case further east in Field C-west.23 End of Stratum IX Apart from the subsequent construction of a Casemate Wall system, no evidence for the destruction of Stratum IX was seen in any of the excavation areas. No actual destruction debris along the fortification system can be assigned to Stratum IX, except for the presence of weapons embedded in the layers (A2:7, 18, 30) of the plaster glacis outside South Wall 1003, and along the West Wall in Guardroom 221 adjacent to Tower 2024. Many of these weapons show evidence of use; the tip was bent or broken indicating that they had been shot against a stone wall. Altogether, there were 15 iron arrowheads and javelin points outside of South Wall 1003 and an additional 31 points along with several fragments of iron recovered from the plaster layers outside West Wall 2023.24 However, the reuse of the Solid Wall as the Outer 23 A good example of the use of a retaining wall to support soil layers that cover the outer face of a parallel wall, located up slope, is seen at Tell el-Fûl (Lapp 1976: fig. 6). 24 Only those weapons located outside the wall system are included in this count; TJ 1, 16–21, 25, 26, 37, 38, 65, 67, 255, 266, 453–455, 518, 520–525, 527–541, 949, 1215–1217, 1229, 1239; 1454.
Casemate Wall makes it impossible to determine whether this attack was the event that brought Stratum IX to an end. It is more likely that the weapons are related to later events in the history of the town. STRATUM VIIIB – THE CASEMATE WALL SYSTEM One very common style of defensive system during several periods of the Iron Age (11th–10th, 9th–8th, and 7th centuries BC)25 was the casemate wall “built as two stone faces tied together by cross partitions” (Wright 1985:174). For our purposes, this definition for casemate walls is preferable to that of Reich and Katzenstein (1992:313) who describe the cross walls as “short partitions” that divide the space between the two parallel walls. While, in some cases, the cross walls may have been short wall sections, extending only part way from the outer to the inner wall, in other cases the cross walls extend the full width of the casemate room, as at Hazor, Str. X–IX (Yadin et al. 1960: pl. 199), and Tell Beit Mirsim (Albright 1943: pl. 3). In certain instances, these walls were bonded to the outer and inner parallel walls, actually tying them together. Such wall systems were used to surround villages, defend entire towns and protect distinct districts or building complexes within the town, such as temples, royal citadels or public buildings.26 At Tall Jawa, the fortification wall that can be traced along the crest of the tell at ground level on the north, east and south sides is the inner wall of a casemate system. On the west side, the inner wall line was difficult to locate because the western Outer Wall (W3050 = W2023) was itself in position on the crest, with the parallel wall located inside this perimeter. The construction of any fortification system was a major undertaking for the local inhabitants. When a new wall system was designed for Tall Jawa, the Stratum-IX offset/inset wall was reused as the outer casemate wall and an inner, parallel wall was built and linked to it for greater strength. Discussion of the wall system will begin in Field E, followed by a discussion of Stratum-VIIIB construction in Fields B, A and C. 25 Herzog (1992:269) limits the use of casemate walls to the middle Iron Age II (10th to end of the 8th century BC), although it is clear that Tall al-#Umayri had a true casemate system during Iron Age I (LaBianca et al. 1995: 102, 104). 26 A comprehensive list, current to 1976, is presented by Lapp (1981:50–53), who includes the “Solomonic” casemate systems from Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer along with those at rural border villages, in her comparison with the excavated remains from Tell el-Fûl (fig. 21).
Figure 5.14. Stratum-VIIIB Casemate Walls in Field E.
Field E Outer Wall 3006 (Fig. 5.14) North Wall 3006 was reused during Stratum VIII as the Outer Wall of the casemate system. Changes to the upper courses have left little trace, because subsequent abandonment of the town at the end of the Iron Age was accompanied by a collapse of the upper part of the wall system. This makes it practically impossible to identify Stratum-VIIIB reconstruction except in Passageway 309, where the east end of North Wall 3006 was rebuilt and linked to the new inner wall by Walls 3019 and W3020. Inner Casemate Wall 3000 (Fig. 5.14) The inner wall (W3000)27 of the casemate system runs east-west under a modern property wall (E55:1 = E76:1) on the crest of the mound. Within the excavated squares of Field E, W3000 runs west, parallel to the Outer Wall (W3006), from Square E76 on the east to Square E34. As it approaches West Wall 3050 (in Squares E24–E34), Inner Wall 3000 becomes somewhat difficult to trace and its position could not be determined along its entire length at ground level.28 Inner Casemate Wall 3000 consists of 3 rows of roughly hewn small and medium boulders, 90 % limestone and 10 % chert, in boulder-andchink construction (Fig. 5.15). For most of its length, Wall 3000 measures 1.25–1.55 m thick, and together with outer Wall 3006 constitutes 27 Loci E44:3 = E54:17/E55:2 = E65:2 = E76:2 all designate the inner casemate wall (W3000) within the excavated area. 28 The position of the inner wall on the west side was anomalous in that it was no longer on the crest of the mound (see below, Field B). Installation of a telephone pole also disrupted the wall line in this area.
Figure 5.15. South face of Inner Casemate Wall 3000 in Room 313; boulder-and-chink construction with mud mortar.
a fortification system 5.20–5.30 m thick. This thickness remains relatively constant even where an offset/inset adjusts the wall line. What appears to be a shallow offset (E65–d) on the north face of Inner Wall 3000 increases the thickness of the wall and reduces the size of Casemate Room 301. The space between the walls varies from 1.85–2.05 m with the narrowest width (ca. 1.25 m) located in Room 301, where both the Outer and Inner Walls are at their thickest. The Inner Wall was exposed on its north face in Casemate Rooms 301, R310, and R311 and on its south face in Rooms 302, R303, R306, R312 and R313 of Building 300 (see Chapter 7). In Room 302, this wall is preserved a maximum of 11 courses without our reaching its base. This continuous wall line does not bond with any of the walls of Building 300, which are built up against its south face. The Inner Wall runs east without an opening until it reaches a point south of Passageway 309. Here, the position of Wall 3000 is probably affected by the presence of Stratum-IX Wall 3022. This can be seen in a slight change of direction by which Inner Wall 3000 seals against the south face of the earlier wall, beginning at the west edge of cross Wall 3021. The southeast corner of Wall 3000 is marked by a large, well hewn, hammer dressed stone, at the point where it forms the same kind of
jamb for a passageway through the thickness of the wall as those semihewn stones in Outer Wall 3006. The limestone boulders of the upper courses on either side of the passageway were carefully dressed to form vertical faces at each end of the wall line (W3000 on the west, and W3015 on the east side of Passageway 309). Below these vertical jambs, the lower courses of the Inner Wall forms a Pavement (E76:33) that gives access to Passageway 309; from this point onward, the Inner Wall continues east as W3015. A pair of narrow walls (W3019, W3020) links the Inner and Outer Walls on either side of the Passageway. On the west, Wall 3019 appears to bond with the upper preserved course of Outer Wall 3006, although this may be a feature of modern stone piling activities. The uppermost course is formed of a single line of 0.50 m long, flat-topped boulders (E76:13) that may have supported a mud brick superstructure. The lower courses of this same wall (W3019) are built of larger boulders, making the space (0.75–0.80 m) in the Passageway somewhat narrower than the opening in the Inner Wall.29 Due to this rough construction, it is difficult to determine the exact sequence of building and repair that resulted when linking-Wall 3019 was built over the top of StratumIX Wall 3022. However, Wall 3019 is indeed secondary, since it abuts Inner Wall 3000. The mirror image of this construction is seen in north-south Wall 3020 that links Outer Wall 3018 with Inner Wall 3015 on the east. Along the west face of Wall 3020, certain of its wall stones jut out from the vertical, with the result that Wall 3020 appears to be inset along part of its length. This results in a narrowing of the passageway as it runs through the Outer Wall. Here, it is clear that the linking wall (W3020) does not bond with Outer Wall 3018. On the east face of Wall 3020, the details of wall construction were not documented, because excavation did not proceed below topsoil. The fact that these linking walls are some of the narrowest walls built in Field E does not mean that they could not support an upper storey room or roof. Their proximity across the narrow passage (0.60–0.85 m), and that of the major
29 By contrast with passageway 10067d at Hazor (Yadin et al. 1989:175), there is no clear evidence for a door at the north end of Passageway 309. The narrowness of the opening probably rendered a door unnecessary since the shadow of offset/inset E77–c would have obscured the entrance. There was a socket stone (E76:19) within the collapse (E76:25), immediately south of Outer Wall 3006, that may have fallen from above, or have been used in an earlier phase (see Stratum IX).
Figure 5.16. Corridor 328 leading to Passageway 309, looking North.
Casemate Walls (2.25 m), is enough together to bear the weight. Otherwise, the purpose of Linking Walls 3019 and W3020 remains unclear, although they may have framed entrances into the Casemate Rooms on either side or to the roof of the fortification system. It was apparent during excavation that the construction sequence of these Stratum-VIIIB walls is very complex. Most problematic is the location of Stones E76:23 immediately north of the opening through Inner Wall 3000; here these stone seal against the lower stones of Wall 3000 at the point where it forms Pavement E76:33. This pile of stones (E76:23; 0.50–0.60 m in height) appears to block the entryway; at the same time, its stones are so embedded into the linking walls on either side that they appear to bond with them. Stones E76:23 may have rested on the continuation of Stratum-IX Wall 3022. However, their current position points to a difference in function in Stratum VIII; either these stones are a deliberate blocking of the entryway30 or they are the part of the support for a staircase to the upper storey casemate rooms. Secondly, Wall W3022 from Stratum IX remains in place 30 The stones could be collapse of an upper storey wall sometime in Stratum VIII, but this does not explain why some of them appear embedded in Walls 3019 and W3020.
and is sealed against by Inner Wall 3000. In the final use phase (Stratum VIIIA), Wall 3022 is covered by a plaster floor in Casemate Room 310. On the southern, inner side of the Casemate system there is additional evidence that may indicate the function of Passageway 309 during Stratum VIIIB. Here, Wall 3016 on the west and Wall 3017 on the east abut the corners of Inner Walls 3000 = 3015 on either side of Passageway 309 (Fig. 5.16). These parallel walls form a Corridor (R328)31 which extends south a minimum of 7.00 m into the town, along the east side of Room 313, with a probable total length of 12.00 m to the south end of Room 317. Each of these walls is 2–row boulder-and-chink construction in the size range of 0.70–0.85 m thick. At the north end of Walls W3016 and W3017 is a double row of cobbles (E76:15), possibly a threshold, that runs across Corridor 328 and marks the entrance to Passageway 309 through Wall 3000.32 The level of these cobblestones is ca. 0.15 m above the Inner Wall Pavement (E76:33), which is itself sealed by a Soil layer (E76:24) as far as the inner edge of Stones E76:23. To the south of Cobbles E76:15 in Corridor 328, there was a series of superimposed soil layers (E76:31, 32, 35) that may have been a deliberate fill or the remains of a ramp leading up to the fortification system from inside the town, where floor levels in Rooms 313 and 314 were ca. 2.00 m lower. All the pottery sherds within these fill layers date to either Iron Age I33 or Iron Age II, which is what one would expect in view of the occupation history of the site. Casemate Rooms In Field E, the casemate system was excavated along a 24.00 m length, exposing several distinct rooms within the wall system. One complete room (R310) was excavated down to Stratum VIIIA levels, and two other rooms (R301, R311) were partially exposed.
31 The designation “Passageway 309” is reserved for the entry through the casemate system; the Corridor inside the town that continues the line of the passageway has the label “Corridor 328”. 32 Threshold stones mark both the inner and outer edge of the passage through the Bastion in Area G at Hazor. While Passageway 309 at Tall Jawa shares certain features with the fortifications at Hazor, passage 10067d in Area G is considerably wider (ca. 1.50 m, Yadin et al. 1989:175). 33 Sherds of collared-rim jars were present in several Iron Age II soil layers even though no architectural remains from Iron I were identified in Field E.
Figure 5.17. Casemate Room 301 on the left, with Inner Casemate Wall 3000 in the centre.
Room 301 (Fig. 5.17): The only evidence for Stratum VIIIB use of the casemate rooms was exposed in Room 301. Here the casemate walls were 1.25–1.50 m apart and Room 301 was excavated for a length of 5.50 m without reaching its cross walls. Below a Stratum-VIIIA flagstone floor, there was a group of smashed pithoi, sealed by collapsed wall stones and soil. Although the earliest floor level was not reached, the large number of sherds (almost 1100) from a great variety of vessels points to a compact storage area with ceiling collapse, which represents the use and destruction phases of Room 301. At the east end of this casemate unit, immediately west of Passageway 309, there are two rooms that were in use during Stratum VIIIA. Room 310 is a very small room, located between cross Wall 3021 and linking Wall 3019. The distance between these two walls is only ca. 1.00 m, while the space between the casemates is 2.20 m. In spite of its small size, it was carefully paved with a plaster surface (E76:22) that covered Stratum-IX Wall 3022. To the west, Room 311 remains mostly unexcavated, although clearance along Outer Wall 3006 suggests that it was, like Room 301, in the range of 5.00–6.00 m in length. Due to the pattern of collapse and erosion at this point along the wall system, the precise function of these rooms could not be determined.
Field B Outer West Wall 3050 = 2023 + 2002 (Figs. 5.7, 9) Investigation of West Wall 3050 in Field E made it clear that this wall served as the Stratum-VIII outer casemate wall. Although its inner face remains essentially unexcavated at its north end in Field E, West Wall 2023 in Field B is clearly associated with an inner wall (W2004 + 2009) that forms casemate rooms along its east side. Tower 2024 continued in use, and the outer wall was redesigned with the construction of a drain through Passageway 219. Tower 2024 seems to have continued in use throughout Stratum VIII, and the space between the tower and Wall 2023 was probably used as a guardroom (R221). Such a hypothesis would help to account for the buildup over time of a thick hard packed surface (B26:11 = B16:8)34 consisting of soil and plaster (B26:9b), which yielded 43 pieces of metal, including 18 arrowheads. Within B26:11 was an ash deposit (B26:13) with a maximum depth of 0.12 cm, that contained cooking pot sherds, burnt plaster, animal bones, an olive pit and seeds. This period of use is marked by large pieces of plaster, some of which sealed up against West Wall 2023, suggesting repeated repairs to the face of the wall and to the tower. This plaster was crushed beneath collapsed stones, which may mark the end of Stratum VIIIB, although assigning a date here is difficult. What is interesting is the presence of a single ashlar stone (B26:15) that measures 0.40 × 0.43 × 0.59 m.35 The position of this stone suggests that it was part of the superstructure or corner of Tower 2024. No other such stones were recovered, although the number of well dressed stones used in the construction of the early 19th century village of modern Jawa leaves little doubt as to their origin (Daviau and Tempest, in preparation). The principal change in Outer West Wall 2023 is the partial blocking of Passageway 219 and the formation of Drain B24:24 (Fig. 5.18). No other changes in construction are evident in the architectural remains of this wall, except the use of one course of chert boulders, which were 34 The balk line for Squares B16 and B26 ran between Solid Wall 2023 and Tower 2024 ( = B16:2). To simplify discussion, loci between these two structures will be identified using only their locus numbers in B26. Loci associated with Tower 2024 were assigned to Square B16; for further details, consult the Locus List on CD. 35 The fact that West Wall 2023 collapsed toward the east suggests that this may also have been the pattern for Tower 2024. If this were the case, it is more likely that ashlar stone B26:13 was part of the superstructure of the tower, and not of Wall 2023.
Figure 5.18. Stratum VIIIB–A Casemate System and Drain B24:24 in Field B.
preserved in several places along its inner edge. These stones may be related to the collapsed mud brick (B24:15) located in Casemate Room 215; this collapse is evidence of a Stratum-VIII mudbrick superstructure of Outer Casemate Wall 2023.36 The use of impermeable chert boulders between the limestone foundation and the mud brick upper storey wall protected both parts of the wall from dampness. Chert is also used at other strategic points, e.g. as a capstone for Drain B24:24. 36 Within Casemate Rooms 213 and 215, West Wall 2023 is built of stone to the second storey level, 2.25 m above the floor of Room 215; it was not just the foundation for a mud brick wall.
Figure 5.19. Drain B24:24 looking east into Channel 218.
Drain B24:24 (Figs. 5.18, 19) Passageway 219 from Stratum IX was transformed by the construction of a 1.75 m long blocking wall (W2036) that was attached to the south end of Wall 2023. This additional wall unit left only a narrow space between its south end and the north end of Outer Wall 2002, which remained unchanged from Stratum IX when it served as the south jamb of Passageway 219. Now, the opening between these two sections of the outer wall is widest at it eastern mouth (ca. 0.50 m); from here it tapers on an angle to 0.20 m at its exit on the west. The lower courses (W2027; B24:23) of West Wall 2023, which served as the floor of Passageway 219, now serve as the floor of a Drain (B24:24) with a slope of ca. 10°.37 Along the west face of Wall Unit 2036, the outer row of stones has been badly damaged during modern times, giving the appearance of an inset. Nevertheless, several features associated with the construction and use of the drain are preserved below ground level. These features 37 A similar construction appears in the Late Bronze Age drain at Bethel (Albright 1934: fig. 5).
Figure 5.20. Sump with Retaining Wall 2041 on right; cut through layers of Glacis B24:4.
include two flagstones set on their narrow edge that are part of Wall 2036; these stones constitute the north lip of the drain exit along the south face of Wall 2036, directing the water further to the west. In addition, there is a 2–row cobblestone wall (Wall 2041) that seals up against these flagstones and runs west from the exit of Drain B24:24 for ca. 3.65 m. Exposed only along its south face for 4 + courses (Figs. 5.20, 23), Wall 2041 probably cut through several layers of the Stratum-IX plaster glacis (B24:19 = B14:5) seen outside Wall 2023 further north.38 A second line of stones (B14:16), positioned outside the south lip of the drain’s exit, extends west and then south from a single large boulder. Thus a channel was created to prevent the water flowing out of the drain from accumulating against the west faces of Outer Wall 2023 + 2002. At the west end of this channel, only a portion of a sump was excavated. Here a series of soil layers witness to the passage of water and waste through this drainage system. The lowest exposed layer of soil (B14:17) is brown; above it is a black layer (B14:15) stained with 38 Modern bulldozer activity in this area destroyed some of the connections between the glacis and the features leading away from the drain.
ash. This is succeeded by two additional brown layers, the lower one (B14:14) being somewhat moist by comparison with the upper layer (B14:13 = 11). These soil layers are covered by a layer of flagstones (B24:35) which extend the floor (B24:23) of the drain beyond its exit on the west, and drop down gradually (as B14:9) to follow the base of Wall 2041. This drainage system was covered in turn by thick layers of plaster and soil (B14:3, 7), packed in place on the southwest slope and sealing against the west face of Blocking Wall 2036. Within the thickness of the outer wall, only one capstone (B24:12) remains in place spanning the drain. This feature consists of a single chert boulder measuring 0.40–0.53 × 1.40 m long, and 0.26–0.31 m thick. The capstone is in position above the east mouth (Fig. 5.19) of the drain, and rests on the flanking sections of West Wall 2002 and Blocking Wall 2036 at a height of 0.55 m above the floor. A second feature designed to protect the wall system from moisture is a plaster coating (B24:26), preserved on the south face of Blocking Wall 2036. In view of the repeated plastering of the drain’s channel further east (Fig. 5.19), one might suspect that the stone floor (B24:23) of the drain was also plastered, although it has worn away over time. The Western Casemate The evidence for the simultaneous construction of the drain and of Inner Casemate Wall 2004 is seen clearly in the southeast corner, where Wall 2004 bonds with Wall 2003, the south wall of Casemate Room 215. Wall 2003 abuts the east face of Blocking Wall 2036, effectively ending the casemates along the west side. At the same time, Wall 2003 forms part of the north wall of Drain Channel 218, making it clear that the closing of Passageway 219 coincided with the construction of the casemate system in the southwest corner of the town and of Drain B24:24. Inner West Wall 2004 = 2029 (Fig. 5.18): With the outer wall on the crest of the natural hill, the inner casemate wall (W2004 + 2029) is located inside the town. Due to its position and the impact of modern farming on the tell, Wall 2029 is not visible above topsoil north of the excavated area in Field B. Where it is exposed in Squares B24 and B25, two sections of wall on either side of Doorway B form the east wall of two casemate rooms (R213, R215). Wall 2029, north of Doorway B, is 1.05–1.13 m thick, and Wall 2004, south of the doorway, is 1.10–1.20 m. Both wall sections are built of small and medium
Figure 5.21. Inner Casemate Wall 2004 in foreground, and W2000 + 2001 in background, looking south
limestone boulders in typical boulder-and-chink construction, except where two large boulders mark the south end of Wall 2004. At this point, Wall 2004 bonds with Wall 2003, a short (1.60 m) wall of similar construction, measuring 1.25 m thick, that forms the south end of Casemate Room 215. The construction style of the inner wall, with two wall units framing a central doorway, is considerably different from what we saw in Field E, where the inner wall ran parallel to the outer wall without any doorways piercing its length. Here in the southwest corner, the casemate rooms are joined to a structure inside the town and are themselves the back rooms of an adjacent building (B200; see Chapter 6).39 Inner South Wall 2001 + 2006 = 1030 + 1020 (Figs. 5.18, 21–22): Along the south side of the tell, the inner casemate wall (W2001 + 2006 = 1030 + 1020) is cut by two doorways, one in the southwest corner (Doorway K) and another (Doorway H) located 28.25 m further east 39 Such a system of back rooms serving as integral parts of the casemate fortifications was fairly common in Cisjordan, for example at Beer-sheba (Herzog 1984: figs. 6, 7), although in this case the outer wall was not constructed as a separate entity but was built in units as the outer wall of a given house. By contrast, the Stratum-X casemate wall at Hazor, with doorways in the corner of almost every room, opened onto a street (Yadin et al. 1989: Plan VIII).
Figure 5.22. Drain Channel 218, south side, with Doorway K (Stratum VIIIB) and Doorway A Stratum VIIIA, into Room 210.
in Building 113. Evidence for the first phase of construction (Stratum VIIIB) is most clearly seen adjacent to the southern lip of Drain B24:24, where Inner Wall 2001 abuts Outer West Wall 2002. Like Wall 2003 on the north side of the drain, Wall 2001 on the south is an east-west wall consisting of 3 rows of small and medium boulders that appears to be founded at the level of the pavement (B24:23) formed by the lower courses of Outer Wall 2023 + 2002; this pavement extends slightly east of the wall face. Wall 2001 itself extends east for only 2.00 m, where it forms a vertical face as the west jamb of Doorway K. The full size of this doorway appears to be 1.90 m wide and 1.25– 1.35 m deep (Fig. 5.22). Doorway K is not completely exposed to the Stratum VIIIB level, due to the presence of Stratum-VIIIA Threshold Stone B34:60 and Wall Unit 2000, which seals against the east edge of Wall 2001. At least five courses of large, semi-hewn boulders at the west end of Wall 2006 form a jamb on the east side of Doorway K, which serves as the entrance into Casemate Room 210 during both phases of Stratum VIII (B–A). Wall 2006 consists of 2–3 rows of medium and large boulders and is 6 + courses in height, serving also as the south wall of Drain Channel 218. Although obscured along much of its length, the Stratum-VIIIB inner wall is present under the Stratum-VIIIA wall (W2007 = 1004) build above it (see below). Channel 218 (Fig. 5.23) Leading up to Drain B24:24 is a channel 8.35 m long. Channel 218 runs between two distinct wall units, one on the south (W2001, Doorway K, and W2006), and an unbroken wall face on the north (W2003 + W2005). This northern wall is in fact composed of two wall units; the south wall (W2003) of Casemate Room 215, and the south wall (W2005) of Room 209, which abuts Inner Casemate Wall 2004 at the southeast, outer corner of Casemate Room 215. From this point
Figure 5.23. Drain Channel 218, north side, with excavation through sump at west (left).
onward, Wall 2005 extends the south face of Wall 2003 to the east. The remains of drain Channel 218 were difficult to understand during excavation because they reflect several phases of repair that could not be directly associated with architectural construction phases. For this reason, both Stratum VIIIB and VIIIA phases of the drain channel will be described here. Channel 218 appears to consist of the entire space (0.90–1.10 m wide) between the inner casemate walls on the south (W2001, W2006) and Wall 2003 + 2005 on the north. A layer of soil (B34:22) serves as make-up in the channel and seals against the walls on either side. Although this channel probably served also as a passageway leading to Casemate Room 210, what is of greatest interest are the superimposed layers of plaster (B24:17a + b = B34:7) which cover the bottom of the channel and seal up against the north wall (W2003 + 2005). The plaster is not well preserved on the vertical wall face at the west end of Channel 218, where it enters Drain B24:24, but begins 0.80 m east of the drain’s mouth and continues eastward. So too, the plaster coating is poorly preserved on the north face of Wall 2006, east of Doorway K. Above the plaster within the central and northern side of the channel is a layer of mud brick material (B34:18 + 47) that can be traced east to the beginning of Channel 218, outside the southeast corner of Room 209. Within this lens of mud brick material (B34:47) is a seam of chert gravel (B34:21), traced for 2.50 m along the south face of Wall 2005. The chert seam and the brick material are sealed in turn by another plaster layer (B34:19 = 44, probably Stratum VIIIA). Above plaster layer B34:19 is a layer of soil and cobblestones (B34:17 + 42) with a large accumulation of broken pottery (1005 sherds), fallen wall stones, 17 pieces of chert, charcoal, burnt animal bones, and 7 iron points (TJ 1213, 1225, 1230, 1258–1259, 1311, 1906). At this
level, the plaster (B34:46) along the south face of Wall 2005 is badly worn, indicative of the extensive use of the drain during several phases of occupation. The eastern end of Channel 218 is marked by a low mud brick fender (B34:45) that runs east ca. 0.85 m from the east end of Wall 2005 to a line of cobbles (B34:39) which extends south from Partition Wall 2040 as far as the north face of Wall 2006. These cobbles are backed on the east by several large boulders (B44:22) set on an angle to form a spillway separating Channel 218 from Room 207. In Stratum VIIIA, the source of water that flowed from the head of the channel to the drain may have come in part from the roofs of the surrounding rooms. This hypothesis is supported by the presence of a holemouth jar (V206), with a diameter of 17.4 cm, that may have served as a drainpipe; it appears to have fallen with wall stones into the channel, although it could have been in place in front of Doorway A.40 Such a pipe could have conducted water from the roof into the channel rather than served as a conduit within the channel itself.41 Comparanda: In order to better understand this architectural feature at Tall Jawa, it helps to compare it with contemporary drains at Palestinian sites, although this is not the place for a complete study; a few examples will suffice. For instance, the Stratum-VIII stone-lined drain (10507) at Hazor, dated to the 9th century BC, is located in the west corner of Tower 10029 (Area G), where it extends ca. 7.20 m through 40 The exit from Room 210, through Doorway A, led directly into the drain channel. Clearly, this was a place where extra support was needed to assure the flow of water through the drain. 41 Two drainpipes (F 480/1, 480/2) recovered from Late Bronze Age levels at Hazor (Area F, Locus 8071) were described as “thrown” into Room 8066 (Yadin et al. 1960:138), while a third (F 685) was recovered in the Cultic Area (Yadin et al. 1960:131). Additional fragments of drainpipes found in Cistern 9017 (Area D) were also in secondary context (Yadin et al. 1958: pl. CX: 3, 4), as were those in Area A, Trench 500, which date to Middle Bronze Age II (Yadin et al. 1989:56). In contrast, at Tell Halaf several drainpipes were in situ in a channel that led directly to a catchment area (von Oppenheim 1950: pl. 87; thanks to P. E. Dion for this reference). The use of pipes within a drain is also seen at Lachish in Stratum II (Tufnell 1953:96; fig. 8), where the drain through the gateway measures 0.40–0.60 m (Ussishkin 1978: fig. 18). Certain drain pipes had handles, as did the three in Drain 3010 at Megiddo (Stratum VIII; Loud 1948:104; pl. 256:2). Drainpipes without handles were very common in the Late Bronze Age (e.g., Hazor, Area F; Yadin et al. 1960: pl. CXLVII:7–9); similar pipes appeared in situ in Iron Age levels between Rooms A and B at Lachish (Tufnell 1953: pls. 23:1; 90:390).
the masonry. On either side of the drain, basalt stones, possibly in secondary use, are built into the tower to facilitate the flow of water (Yadin 1989:178–179). The inner mouth of the channel is 0.70 m wide and 1.50 m high, whereas the outlet on the north face of Tower 10029 is ca. 0.30 m wide. By contrast with Drain B24:24 at Tall Jawa, the drain at Hazor had 5 large capping stones preserved along its length through Tower 10029 (Yadin 1989: plan XXXI). At Tel Yoqne#am, two drains which pass through the Stratum 11 (10th century BC) and Stratum 10 (9th?–8th century BC) walls are preserved. During both strata, the walls are casemate style42 and the drains extend beyond the full thickness of the walls (Ben-Tor, Portugali and Avissar 1983: figs. 2, 6). In Stratum 11, a stone-lined channel inside the town directed water toward the drain. The source of the water is uncertain, although the excavators suggest the possibility of a nearby water reservoir (Ben-Tor, Portugali and Avissar 1983:40). No construction details are provided with the exception of an illustration of a section of the drain floor (Ben-Tor, Portugali and Avissar 1983: fig. 6).43 The same is true of Drain 1723 in Stratum 10 that is located 5.00 m southwest of the earlier conduit. In this case, the drain extends beyond the outer wall face for a distance of ca. 6.00 m (Ben-Tor, Portugali and Avissar 1983:37). Fields B–A Inner Casemate Wall 2006 = 1030 + 1020 Beginning at the east end of Drain Channel 218, the Stratum-VIIIB inner wall (W2006) extended east gradually changing its alignment, with the result that it was subsequently covered over by Stratum VIIIA repairs. This is seen quite clearly along the eastern stretch of Wall 1030 in Squares B63–A3, where the line of its north face is ca. 0.20 m further south than Stratum-VIIIA Wall W1004. The offset of the inner wall is even more apparent east of Doorway H, where Wall 1020 is ca. 0.40 m further south than Stratum-VIIIA Wall 1010. 42 The excavators note that the cross walls within the double wall system (W200 and 212) of Stratum 10 are only finished on one face. It is their judgment that these walls were not “the free-standing cross walls of a casemate wall” (Ben-Tor, Portugali and Avissar 1983:35; fig. 2). 43 The drain, illustrated by Ben-Tor, Portugali and Avissar (1983: pl. 1B) as Stratum 11, appears instead to be a section of Stratum-10 Drain 1723 at the point where a support wall appears under the capping stones (1983: fig. 2).
Figure 5.24. Casemate Rooms in Field A, with Doorway H connecting Casemate Room 121 with Building 113.
The west end of Wall 1020 consists of large and very large, well hewn boulders that form the east jamb of Doorway H. Here, there is one semi-dressed stretcher (A13:42) that measures 0.45 × 1.15 m, and is covered with a thin layer of plaster. Such careful construction is strong evidence that this entrance into Casemate Room 101 was in use during both phases of Stratum VIII. Although Wall 1020 was uncovered only in Square A2 east balk and lies unexcavated in Square A12, it seems apparent that it was the earliest phase of the inner wall, which was in use with Outer Casemate Wall 1003. The eastern extension of Wall 1020 is not exposed in Field A (A12–A63), but it continues eastward under a modern stone pile (W1031). In Field C-west, Inner Wall 8005 appears to be its continuation. Casemate Room 121 (Figs. 5.24, 25): The Stratum-VIIIB use phase of a casemate room along the south side of the town was uncovered only in Room 121. Exposed in the eastern half of Square A2, a hard-packed beaten earth surface (A2:31) with flat-lying pottery was well preserved. This surface extends into Doorway H that leads into the rooms adjacent to the wall system (Chapter 6). Surface A2:31 was subsequently covered by a deep (ca. 0.75 m) layer of collapse (A2:13 + 11), probably
Figure 5.25. Casemate Room 121 with Stratum- VIIIA Wall 1004 in background.
ceiling material. Within these layers were 2000 + sherds and 4 broken spindle whorls, evidence of extensive domestic use or storage. Soil locus A2:13 sealed against the lower stones of Wall 1020 on the east and around the south end of Wall 1012 which runs through the inner casemate wall (W1030). North-south Wall 1012 may have been a StratumIX wall that was truncated during the construction of Inner Casemate wall 1030 and the establishment of the Stratum VIIIB-surface (A2:31), although this remains tentative. At the same time, the resulting wall stub may have served as a room divider between 2 casemate rooms (see Doorway G, below). At its greatest width, Room 121 was 1.50–1.65 m and its length within the excavated area was 3.70 m. Destruction of Stratum VIIIB—Fields E, B, and A Evidence for the end of Stratum VIIIB in Field E did not appear to affect the casemate wall system, but could be seen in collapsed ceilings within the rooms built up against the inner wall (see Chapter 7) and by the destruction in Casemate Room 301. In contrast, the most serious disturbance of the fortification system was seen along the south side of the town, especially in the collapse and reconstruction of the inner casemate wall and the redesign of the casemate rooms. Although the stone architecture makes it difficult to trace this destruction in the archaeological record, probably due to the reuse of many of the collapsed boulders, the raising of floor levels is apparent, especially in Casemate Room 101 (R121 of Stratum VIIIB).
STRATUM VIIIA RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CASEMATE SYSTEM Field E No massive collapse of the casemate walls in Field E could be assigned with certainty to the end of Stratum VIIIB, although the excavation of Cistern E64:13 within Building 300 suggests the complete blockage of Passageway 309, at least as an access to cisterns outside the walls. From now on, this passageway could only be used as an entrance to the casemate rooms which were furnished with new floors above the smashed debris that was left in situ. Room 301 (Figs. 5.14, 17) Casemate Room 301 extends 6.00 m without evidence for a cross wall. Located south of inset E56–b, where the distance between the inner (W3000) and outer (W3006) walls was ca. 1.25–1.43 m, Room 301 is somewhat narrower than Rooms 310 and R311, which are 2.25 m in width. The principal surface (E55:17) in the western half of Room 301 is paved with flagstones, while the eastern half has a beaten earth floor (E55: 16). The soil layer (E55:12) immediately above the flagstone and beaten earth surfaces (E55:16 + 17) contained 11 sheep/goat bone fragments, 2 basalt grinders (TJ 421, TJ 448), 1 stopper (TJ 450), small pieces of charcoal and ceramic sherds. Although such an assemblage is not evidence for room function (see Daviau 1993a:31), it clearly suggests domestic rather than military activities. Room 311 (Figs. 5.14, 17) Casemate Rooms 311 and R310 are located at the east end of the wall system immediately west of Passageway R309. Only the east end (1.50 m) of Room 311 was exposed in order to clarify the construction and association of Cross Wall 3021 with Inner Wall 3000 and Outer Wall 3006. Although only the upper four courses were excavated, it is clear that Cross Wall 3021 consists of 2 rows of small and medium boulders, a full 1.00 m thick. While it is probable that it bonded with the Inner Casemate Wall 3000, the join of Wall 3021 with Outer Wall 3006 was less clear; it appears to abut. At this point in the casemate wall, the distance between the inner and outer walls is 2.25 m. The debris layers (E76:4, 19) that fill the room consist of soil and scattered boulders, apparent rockfall that marks the final collapse of the wall system.
Room 310 East of Room 311 is the smallest casemate room identified during excavation, Room 310. Framed by a sturdy wall (W3021) on the west, this small room is bounded on the east by Wall 3019, a single row (0.50 m thick) of small and medium limestone boulders linking the inner and outer walls. Parallel Walls 3019 and W3021 form a room of only 1.60 m long (east-west). A plaster surface (E76:22) extending the full width of Room 310 slopes toward the north. No finds indicative of room function were recovered in the overlying debris layer (E76:18), and no doorway into Room 311 was evident. In spite of these factors, Room 310 was clearly in use in Stratum VIIIA. Of interest is the fact that the absolute level of Plaster Surface E76:22 is 922.93–922.75 masl, in the same range as the flagstone floor in Room 301 (922.98–922.82 masl), even though the floor levels immediately south of Wall 3000 in R313 (Building 300) is 1.00 m lower than those in Room 302, adjacent to Casemate Room 301. Secondly, no doorways connecting the casemate rooms to Building 300 were discovered anywhere in the 24.00 m length of inner Wall 3000 exposed during excavation. At the same time, finds within Room 301 strongly suggest that the casemate rooms were roofed and used for storage (see above). One can only suppose that the ancient inhabitants gained access to these rooms from Passageway 309, or from above. Field B Inner Wall 2001 + 2000 and 2007 (Figl 5.18, 21) In the southwest corner of the town, Drain B24:24 shows no signs of reconstruction in Stratum VIIIA, although Channel 218 received a second coat of plaster (B24:17a) and continued in use. The clearest evidence for a second construction phase is seen in Doorway K, where Blocking Wall 2000 reduced the width of the doorway from 2.00 m to 0.95 m, forming Doorway A. Blocking Wall 2000 consists of dressed limestone boulders, several in the range of large boulders. Within Doorway A is a carefully dressed threshold stone (B34:60) in situ at the northern lip of the entrance. Doorway A suggests that Channel 218 continued to serve as a pathway to Casemate Room 210. Casemate Room 210 (Fig. 5.18) In the southwest corner of the fortification system, a single narrow room (R210) fills the space between the outer (W2002 + 2009) and
Figure 5.26. Tower 2013 in Casemate Wall System, South of Building 204.
inner (W2001 + 2006) casemate walls. Casemate Room 210 is trapezoidal in shape and measures 1.15 m wide at the west end, 2.20 m wide on the east, and 8.50 m long. Because the soil and rockfall layers (B24:25 = B34:6) that fill Room 210 were not excavated to floor level, its specific function could not be determined. However, the presence of a single, well-built entrance (Doorway A) which leads into Drain Channel 218 clearly indicates that Room 210 was used, and not just as a space filled with debris to strengthen the wall system. In addition, we have strong evidence that Channel 218 was used as both a drain and a passageway to Doorway K, since it was important enough to be remodelled in Stratum VIIIA. Tower 2013 (Fig. 5.26) The most perplexing construction sequence was seen in Squares B43– B53, where only the outer face of South Wall 2009 appears to continue along the exposed length of the outer wall. The inner face is only visible where Casemate Room R210 on the west and Rooms 201 and R101 on the east were rebuilt. For a stretch of ca. 10.00 m, beginning at the east end or head of Drain Channel 218, there are no rooms between the inner and outer walls. Instead, the inner wall is part of a large unit (Tower 2013), distinct from the system of casemate rooms. Much of
Figure 5.27. Basin B44:4 reused in Inner Casemate Wall 2007.
the construction within this unit was probably built in Stratum VIIIA, along with the re-alignment of the upper courses (W2007) of Wall 2006. Beginning immediately south of the head of Drain Channel 218, there is a north-south cross wall (W2008) built of one row of large flat-topped boulders that links the inner and outer casemate walls and serves as the east wall of Casemate Room 210. This construction is matched at the east end by Cross Wall 2012, which is also formed of large, flat-topped boulders and is the west wall of Casemate Room 201. The Stratum VIIIA rebuild (W2007) of Inner Casemate Wall 2006 consists of large boulders positioned along its north face that cover several courses of smaller boulders. Within the unit formed by these cross walls is an east-west line of large boulders (B43:12 = B53:17) running parallel to Inner Wall 2007. North of these boulders, the south face of Inner Casemate Wall 2007 is increasingly difficult to delineate and appears to consist only of large cobbles. Appearing to link boulders B43:12 = B53:17 on the south with Outer Wall 2009 was a clear, north-south line of small boulders (W2013) several courses high, that serves to stabilize two pockets filled with cobbles and small boulders (B53:12, B53:15). It is not possible to separate these elements into Stratum-VIIIB and Stratum-VIIIA con-
struction phases, with the result that the nature of the earlier use of this area remains unclear. At the same time, severe collapse along the south face of Outer Wall 2009 allowed for erosion and additional destruction during the ensuing millennia. The function of this unit (Tower 2013) is not immediately apparent, although it may have served as the foundation for a tower designed to give extra strength to the fortification system near the southwest corner. If this were the case, such a tower could have stood higher than the adjacent casemate rooms providing extra visibility and a defensive advantage to the protectors of the town. However, this may not be the only viable interpretation. Of special note are two shallow round basins (B44:4 and B53:11) built into the north face of Inner Wall 2007; both are of limestone. Basin B44:4 is located immediately above the point where the west wall (W2011) of Room 206 (Chapter 6) abuts the inner casemate wall, while Basin B53:11 is part of a more complex construction that marks the east end of Inner Wall 2007.44 At this point, Wall 2014, the east wall of Room 203, cuts through the inner wall until it reaches the north end of north-south Cross Wall 2012. Basin B53:11 appears to serve as a capstone where Wall 2014 enters the inner wall line (Fig. 5.27). On either side of Wall 2014 is a single row of cobble size chert, several courses deep, that extends through the thickness of the Inner Wall, marking the end of Wall 2007 to the west and the beginning of Stratum-VIIIA Wall 1004 on the east.45 Field A Inner Casemate Wall 1004 + 1010 (Fig. 5.28) Evidence for the construction of a new Wall (W1004) slightly north of the earlier inner casemate wall (W1030) increases toward the wall’s east end. Before construction of this inner wall segment, the builders laid a plastered surface (A3:10), covering part of Surface A3:15 in Room 103. Plaster Surface A3:10 continues through Doorway H into Casemate 44 A comparable round shallow basin was located to the east of Building F607 at Tel Batash (Mazar 1997: P/S 102; Photo 248). 45 What remains unclear is the state of the casemate walls during Stratum VII. It is possible that the wall in Field B was refashioned, and that the basins were part of an industrial area created above the Stratum VIIIA destruction debris. This would help to explain the presence of a large limestone olive crushing stone (B44:20; ca. 0.75 in diameter, and 0.25 m thick) embedded in the topsoil nearby.
Figure 5.28. Inner Casemate Room 201 + R200 and Room 101 in Stratum VIIIA.
Room 101. This surface (A2:10) covers Debris Layer A2:11 that had accumulated in Stratum-VIIIB Casemate Room 121, subsequent to the partial collapse of Wall 1003 along its southern perimeter. Founded on this Surface, Wall 1004 runs west for 12.45 m, where it abuts the chert courses that seal Wall 2014 + 2012 and Inner Wall 2007 in Square B53. A partial foundation trench (A3:14), dug to receive Wall 1004, cuts through the south end of Wall 1012 (Stratum IX); this is visible on the north side of Inner Wall 1004. This trench (A3:13) is also visible in the east balk and consists of an area of soft soil, ca. 0.30 m in width, along the north face of Wall 1004. In Square A3, Wall 1004 is a 3– row, boulder-and-chink wall built of small to medium size limestone and chert boulders (0.25–0.75 m). It is preserved to a height of 3–4 courses (0.90 m) and measures 1.40–1.50 m in width. The fact that the alignment of this wall varies slightly several times along its length, and that it is not in perfect alignment with Wall 1010, east of Doorway H in Building 113, may indicate haste on the part of the builders. Casemate Rooms 101, 200 and 201 (Fig. 5.28) Evidence for use and reuse of Casemate Room 101 is seen in the presence of a foundation trench (A2:27), which cuts through Plaster
Figure 5.29. Casemate Room 201 on right of Inner Casemate Wall 1004.
Layer A2:10. The trench runs along the south face of Inner Wall 1004, beginning west of Doorway H, and extends as far as the east side of Wall Stub 1012. This trench is filled with moderately loose soil (A2:25) that extends into Doorway H (A2:26). Within the trench was the neck and shoulder of an inverted storejar (V174) that shows signs of burning and appears to have been used as an oven.46 The oven (A2:17) was subsequently sealed by a beaten earth surface (A2:23) that covers the trench to the level of Plaster Layer A2:10. The final surface (A2:29) in use in Room 101 may be a continuation of the plaster surface (B63:14) exposed further west in Rooms 200 + 201. Additional evidence for the reconstruction and final use of the casemate system during Stratum VIIIA was uncovered west of Room 101 in Room 201 (Fig. 5.29). Although it is apparent that the earlier, inner wall (W1030) continues to run below Wall 1004, its southern face is not visible in Room 201. In this casemate room, a Stratum-VIIIA floor, consisting of a flagstone surface (B63:14 = 15) coated with plaster, seals
46 Comparable ovens formed of inverted storejars are reported from houses 14a and 14 at Hazor in Stratum VI, Room 14a, and in Stratum V, Room 16 (Yadin et al. 1960: pl. VII 3, 5); Chapter 6 below.
against both inner (W1004) and outer casemate walls (W1003). A single cross wall (W2017) dividing these surfaces is only a short partition wall that leaves barely enough space (0.70 m) for Doorway G, between adjoining rooms. Wall 2017 is formed of 2 rows of small and medium boulders that appear to be only one course high, although the bottom of this partition wall was not exposed beneath Plaster Surface B63:14 = B63:15. Casemate Room 201 measures 1.60 m wide and 4.00 m in length. East of Partition Wall 2017, the dimensions of Room 200 (= R101) could not be determined, because its eastern end remains unexcavated in the west half of Square A2. Based on the relative elevations of the floors in Rooms 200 and R101 and their relationship to Inner Wall 1004, it is clear that these rooms were contemporary, and may even be two sections of the same room. Destruction of Stratum VIIIA Evidence for the collapse of the Stratum-VIIIA fortification system was seen in all excavation areas on the north, west and southwest sides of the tell (Fields E, B, and A). At the end of Stratum VIIIA, the StratumVIIIA debris layer (E55:12) in Casemate Room 301 was covered with a series of soil and rockfall layers (E55:9, 7 = 5), probably collapse from the casemate ceiling and superstructure. In the midst of the rockfall located at the foot of Outer Wall 3006 was a well-preserved limestone roof roller (TJ 381; Chapter 10) and several ground stone tools, objects which could have been in use on the roof of Casemate Room 301. Recent soil accumulation and rockfall (E55:4) from modern Wall 3049 sealed the ancient remains. In Field B, Guardroom 221, north of Drain B24:24, was filled by a series of rockfall layers that included large fragments of wall plaster which sealed the final use surface. While it may not be possible to locate chronologically the various phases of destruction or abandonment of the wall system, a destruction level in Field A was evident in the rock tumble (A3:19, 2:4 = 8) that extended between the outer (W1002) and inner (W1004) casemate walls. This tumble fell onto Plaster Surface A2:29 filling Room 101. What was most distinctive about this collapse was that Outer Wall 1002 slipped to the north or uphill rather than down the south slope. Additional rock tumble (A2:5 = 9), probably from the last use phase of Wall 1002 itself, continued down the slope (as Locus A1:6) to the edge of the bulldozer cut along the front edge of Wall 1001.
While this same pattern was not as obvious in Rooms 200 and 201 to the west, these rooms as well were filled with fallen wall stones marking the end of occupation on this side of the tell. Additional collapse was especially evident along the length of Outer Wall 1002, where the uppermost preserved course of wall stones was at the same level as the latest floor in Casemate Room 201. In the southwest corner of Room 201, the Plaster floor (B63:15) itself had been exposed and its surface was damaged before it was sealed by wind blown soil (B63:4, 10). Finally, the inner wall (W1004 + W1010) was covered in modern times by a property wall (W1031; A3:2 + A13:6), formed of boulders which were piled up along the ancient wall line by farmers. STRATUM VI Only very limited evidence was recovered that may point to activity on the tell during the Persian period. A single Athenian coin, recovered from the floor in Room 200, may have been lost accidentally by a traveller and may not represent any use of the tell itself. More perplexing is Burial 3 (B34:10), which was uncovered above Casemate Room 210, near the southwest corner of the wall system. The grave was located among the wall stones of the south face of Inner Casemate Wall 2007. The skeleton had been laid on a lower course of wall stones and covered with 3 rows and several courses of cobblestones, in an area 0.50 × 1.00 × 0.50 m in depth. When found, the bones were disarticulated and in very poor condition. Only the identification of the bones as human and the presence of jewellery confirmed that this was indeed a burial and not just debris associated with a repair to the wall. The jewellery consisted of 32 beads (TJ 1015/1–32) made of stone, glass47 and faience, a lapis lazuli cylinder seal (TJ 965), and a bronze fibula (TJ 995; Daviau 2002:35–37, 45). Most distinctive is the fibula, which was a plain semicircular bow with a rectangular section and a hole for rivet attachment, similar to Stronach’s Type I 2 (1959: fig. 3.1). Stronach (1959:187) dated this type of fibula to the 6th–4th century BC. Muhly and Muhly (1989: fig. 25.13:260, 263) compare similar fibulae from Tel Michal to one from the Iron Age at Lachish (Muhly and Muhly 1989:288). Such finds suggest a date in the late Iron Age or early 47 The glass beads were identified by W. Nassau, Professor Emeritus, Wilfrid Laurier University.
Figure 5.30. Total Wall System in Field C (C-west and C-east).
Persian period, rather than one in the Christian or Islamic periods. This evidence is helpful in view of the extremely poor preservation of the human remains and the lack of a proper grave (see Excursus below, this chapter). FIELD C-WEST and C-EAST Fortification Walls in C-west The only significant break (ca. 48.00 m wide) in the east-west trajectory of the casemate fortification system is located between Squares C17 and C86. These squares are on the south side of the tell, east of Field A (Fig. 5.1), at a point where the southeastern terrace extends south of the wall line (Daviau 1992b:152). In Squares C6–C7, excavation exposed a casemate room (R801) in which it was clear that the casemate walls had at least two phases of use. We can only assume that these phases were both in Stratum VIII, although some evidence for repair suggests that the wall system may have been in use during Stratum VII. However,
Figure 5.31. Casemate Room 801 with relevant locus numbers.
the exact stratigraphic relationship of Casemate Room 801 to Stratum VII Building 800 remains unclear.48 Stratum IX Offset/inset Solid Wall (Figs. 5.30–32) The evidence for the presence of a Stratum-IX offset/inset wall in Field C-west is limited to Outer Casemate Wall 8002. This wall continues the trajectory of Outer Wall 1003 in Field A. In Field C, its phasing 48 The small number of late Iron II ceramic sherds found in Fields A, B, and E suggests that the wall system went out of use at the same time as the buildings of Stratum VIIIA. However, this is not definitive; the wall may have been refashioned and continued in use during Stratum VII.
Figure 5.32. Casemate Room 801 with later phase Inner Casemate Wall 8004 over Wall 8005.
and founding level were not exposed; however it appears that Outer Casemate Wall 8002 was reused in Stratum VIIIB, covering an earlier wall. Wall 8002 appears to end where north-south Wall 8001 abuts it on the south. Both walls are formed of 3 rows of limestone boulders, with a core of smaller stones. Wall 8001 runs south through Squares C6–C5 into Square C4, where a modern path cuts through the upper courses, damaging the wall line. An east-west wall line, visible at intervals on the south crest of the terrace (W8035), may have served as the southern wall line in this area. Also due to the location of the modern path, Wall 8035 could not be connected either to Wall 8001 or to Solid Wall 9000 excavated in Squares C43–C63.49 On the slope of the terrace, another wall (W8036) that is visible at ground level in Squares C2–C12, soon runs completely underground, in contrast to the wall lines (W9000 and W9009) on the crest of the slope in Field C-east, which remain above ground. Wall 8036 was also visible in a scarp at the east end of the bulldozer cut that exposed retaining Wall 1001 in Field A. Although Wall 8036 appears to be in line with Wall 1001,50 49 Further excavation in this area would be indicated in order to explore this sequence and determine the earliest occupation on the terrace. 50 When these walls (W8035, W8036) were first documented in 1991, they were identified as part of a casemate system (Daviau 1992b:152), although other explanations for the rockfall patterns on the south slope were just as likely. If lower Wall 8036 were indeed a continuation of Wall 1001, then it would have functioned as a retaining wall in Stratum IX, in association with a solid wall higher up on the crest of the hill.
Figure 5.33. Bastion 9007 with Buttress Wall 9008 and Retaining Wall 9015.
the connection between these walls is missing. So too, the connection of Wall 8036 with Retaining Wall 9015 in Field C-east was not determined during excavation. The Lower Retaining Wall in Field C-east (Fig. 5.33) The earliest wall (W9015) on the southeastern terrace was revealed in a deep probe against the south face of Buttress Wall 9008. Founded on bedrock (C71:20), Wall 9015 was only partially exposed (0.75– 1.30 m wide over a length of 3.00 m), due to the presence of the overlying wall system. The uppermost course appears to lean upslope, although that may have been an accident of preservation. Where it is visible, Wall 9015 stands 3 courses in height (ca. 0.85–0.90 m), is formed of small and medium limestone and chert boulders, and is at least 2 rows wide. The large amount of chert (ca. 60 %) is unusual in
that the typical defensive wall (e.g. W1002) consisted predominantly of limestone boulders (90 %). The composition and position of Wall 9015 suggests that it was a retaining wall, similar to Wall 1001 in Field A. Although the face of such a wall is visible on the north slope (see Field E, above), the extension of Wall 9015 around the east end of the tell could not be demonstrated due to heavy overburden and to the presence of a modern cemetery, adjacent to Field C in Squares C91– C92, and to a fig orchard on the northeast. Two soil layers (C71:19, 18) which seal up against Wall 9015 contain organically stained patches and ash pockets, along with one fragment of Quercus libani,51 and a concentration of small, medium and large boulders. Sealing these layers and covering Wall 9015 was a deep (ca. 0.30 m) destruction layer (C71:15) of ash stained soil, burnt pottery and large boulders, especially one, trapezoidal chert slab (C71:16) measuring ca. 1.80 m in length. Pottery associated with retaining Wall 9015 and the destruction debris is predominantly Iron Age II, with a single red slipped and burnished rim sherd from a vertical rim bowl (C71.55.1) resting on the preserved top of Wall 9015.52 The debris layers (C71:15 + 18) that sealed Wall 9015 also contained pottery dating to Iron Age I, most characteristic were triangular rim cooking pot sherds (C71.52.3; C71.54.2), crude bowl rims (C71.52.4), a heavy ring base covered in white slip (C71.13.10), and a painted body sherd (C71.50.1). Flanking Walls 9007 + 9008 (Figs. 5.33, 34) Following the destruction associated with Wall 9015, a defensive wall, constructed in two units (Wall 9007 + Buttress Wall 9008), was built into the slope for a length of 15.30 m. Originally thought to be the foundation for a tower (Daviau 1993c:333), comparable to Tower 2024 outside West Wall 2023 (Field B), Flanking Wall 9007 + 9008 can only be identified with certainty as a solid wall, 3.40 m thick. Each component in this east-west wall line consists of 2 rows of boulders that range in size from large to very large (0.75–1.50 m); these stones are vertically dressed on their outer faces and packed with cobble size chink stones (Daviau 1993c: fig. 7).53 The southern buttress wall (W9008) has a batIdentification was provided by Pierre Bikai, Director of ACOR, #Amman, Jordan. Carinated bowls with a vertical rim rising directly from the shoulder (vertical rim bowls) are present in both Stratum VIII and VII, although they are in decline in Stratum VII. 53 In this drawing, Locus C61:16 is Buttress Wall 9008, C61:3 is Wall 9007, and C61:7 is the wall plaster. 51
52
Figure 5.34. Bastion 9007 with Buttress Wall 9008 on left.
tered outer face, designed to exert pressure against Inner Wall 9007 and support this wall on the steep slope of the underlying bedrock and debris layers. This battered south face of Buttress 9008 was exposed in a deep probe in Square C71 that reveals the sequence of its founding layers. The presence of a fire pit (C71:14) within a circle of stones above destruction Debris C71:15 suggests a period of time between the collapse of Stratum-IX Wall 9015 and the construction of Flanking Wall 9007 and Buttress 9008. How long that period was cannot be determined on the basis of the pottery, since other walls on the crest of the terrace may have been constructed during the interval. When construction was undertaken, a sequence of superimposed soil and stone layers were installed to provide support for Buttress 9008. The debris (C71:15) is covered by a soil layer (C71:13) packed with cobbles and small boulders. Uppermost is a clean layer of soil (C71:11) with a heavy concentration of chalky pebbles, well scattered, and little in the way of pottery. Soil Layer C71:11 serves as the founding level for the boulders of Buttress 9008, which consists of an outer row of large to very large boulders and 1–2 rows of medium boulders. Plaster (C71:5) seals the entire lower course of boulders, filling gaps between the stones to a depth of 0.08 m, and extending up the face of the wall. This lime plaster, comparable in composition to that from West Wall 2023 and
Tower 2024, served as a protection against water damage to the wall face, and was able to stand up to a winter season (1993–1994) of rain even after so many centuries. Preserved to a height of 1.78 m (usually 3 courses), the buttress runs east, extending the full length of Wall 9007. The east end of both walls is built of very large limestone boulders, hewn to form well dressed edges.54 At its base, the buttress ranges in thickness from 1.69–1.74 m, and at the top, it is 1.30–1.41 m thick. The degree of slope for the outer, south face of Buttress Wall 9008 is 26°. At the southwest corner of Buttress 9008, a similar sequence of make-up layers is present, beginning with a flagstone pavement (C61:10) that extends north along the west face of Wall 9008 and Wall 9010. On this support is a layer of cobbles (C61:15), followed by a soil layer (C61:14) containing pottery sherds that is sealed in turn by two layers of cobbles (C61:12 = 8, + C61:13 = 9). These layers seal around one very large (0.50 × 0.95 m) boulder (C61:17) that extends beyond the outer edge of Buttress Wall 9008 and supports the southwest corner. The preserved height of Buttress 9008 is one course lower than Inner Wall 9007. Whether this is a feature of these walls, that served as a method for supporting the superstructure, or whether it is due to the pattern of collapse, could not be determined because no evidence for the superstructure is preserved. Preserved in place against the north face of Buttress Wall 9008 is Inner Wall 9007. Along its north face, the upper course of Wall 9007 is formed of large and very large boulders (1.00–1.50 m in length) that were hewn along the outer wall face. The stones at the west end of Inner Wall 9007, where it bonds with north-south Wall 9010, are less well hewn than the stones at the east end, suggesting that more of the wall was below ground level at this point. There is no evidence to show that Wall 9007 bonds with the outer Buttress Wall (W9008). Instead, one row of chink stones appear to separate the inner wall (W9007) from Buttress Wall 9008, suggesting that Wall 9007 and West Wall 9010 were constructed first, and the battered buttress wall (W9008) was added later as a support.55 54 Fallen stones adjacent to these boulders indicate the importance of these walls; however, excavation was not possible since Walls 9007 and W9008 ended on the east in the modern cemetery. 55 The 3–zone wall at Tell el-Hesi provides a comparable construction sequence (Daviau 1993c:334, n. 7).
Excavation north of inner Wall 9007 was extremely limited. Only a sequence of soil loci (C71:7,3 = C72:3) representing final collapse, soil accumulation and the construction of an Umayyad(?) period field wall (W9009) were identified. However, what is visible in the north-south trench (C61–62) is the full construction sequence of Wall 9010 along its west face, demonstrating that it is sealed against at its south end by Buttress Wall 9008.56 Inner Wall 9007 and Wall 9010 Wall 9010 runs up the slope of the hill beginning at its meeting with inner Wall 9007, immediately north of Buttress 9008. Evidence for the founding of Wall 9010 is preserved in a line of boulders (C61:22, 23) that jut out below the west wall face. These stones follow the slope of the underlying debris or bedrock, so that Wall 9010 climbs at an even rate. Sealing up against these boulders from the west is a layer of firm moist soil (C61:20) that contains additional boulders and cobblestones and pieces of lime/nari (C61:19). This accumulation is covered in turn by a layer of loose soil (C61:18) that is the bedding layer for a plaster glacis (C61:6). The glacis, or plaster surface, consists of lime plaster with pebbles, small cobbles and ceramic sherds embedded in it. Damaged by fallen stones (C61:11) to which a fine plaster coating still adheres, Glacis C61:6 is rough and irregular in thickness in the areas where it is preserved. Wall 9010 is itself coated with lime plaster (C61:7) which covers the west face of the wall stones, sealing crevices filled with chinkstones. This plaster appears to continue to the level of plaster surface C61:6, although its composition becomes increasingly composite the further west it is from the wall face (Chapter 14). Further upslope, Wall 9010 continues (Square C62), but is damaged by collapse (C62:10) and modern earth moving activity. An eastwest line of stones (W9009), probably boulders from the gate complex located on the terrace (C64–67), has tumbled over the crest line and become embedded in debris. Along with these boulders is a heavy accumulation of pebbles (C62:6) that forms a pavement on the slope west of Wall 9010. Cut by a pit (C62:18), these features may date anytime after Iron Age occupation ended at Tall Jawa. Wall 9010 ends south 56 The slope of support stones underlying Wall 9010 indicates the rise of the underlying bedrock, leading one to suspect that Wall 9007 itself could have been founded on, or just above, bedrock.
of the point where it was expected to join Wall 9000, a solid wall that forms the southern perimeter of a group of rooms (R901, R902) which yielded evidence for domestic activity. Nor does Wall 9010 join with the gate structure (B910; Chapter 9) further north. On the east, a modern property wall (W9043), formed of boulders and socket stones57 from the ancient structures, extends 40.03 m north-south in Squares C81–C86. This wall limited excavation so that we could not investigate the relationship of the L-shaped formation of Walls 9007 and W9010 with a possible roadway into the Iron Age town. In spite of this limitation, the southern terrace appears to be the most likely place for a road, since the casemate wall system can be clearly identified in Squares C86–C96, at the northeastern corner of the terrace. Pottery and Chronology Soil layers that seal up against Inner Wall 9007 contain predominantly late Iron Age II pottery forms. Four very characteristic types consist of saucers, black burnished bowls, mortar bowls and an incised “grater” (Daviau 1997b: fig. 8). Most distinctive were the black burnished bowl rims.58 While there is only one instance where sherds mended, several sherds were probably from the same vessel. In addition there is a thick black-slipped bowl base. Red slipped saucers, already beginning to appear in Stratum VIIIA become much more common in Stratum VII.59 The ceramic mortar bowl (C72.4.2) with external ridges and tripod feet appears during both Strata VIII and VII. Such bowls with white exterior slip and pink interior surface are also known in Building 800 in Field C-west. However, the grater with impressions on its interior is definitely a seventh century form. In the case of C71.15.9, the bowl is not an imitation of basalt bowls with ring base, but is a somewhat deeper bowl with a disk base. This bowl style was the common bowl modified by wedges or small round depressions in the interior, just above the base; examples are reported by Chambon (1984: pl. 56:21, 22) from Tell el-Far#ah (N) and by Lapp from Tell el-Fûl (Lapp 1981: pls. 64:19; 65:20).60 At Tall Jawa, only the shallow bowls which imitated 57 A comparable stone socket was reported from Tell en-Nasbeh (McCown 1947: . pl. 92.1). 58 Black burnished forms include C71.13.18 + 15.11; C71.7.6; C71.10.6, 7; C72.2.7. 59 Several sherds mended to form V910, a red slipped and burnished saucer with the splayed rim indicative of its development during Stratum VII; additional random sherds of the same vessel type were also recovered (e.g. C71.18.1). 60 This type has been studied by Zertal (1989), Worschech (1991), London (1992),
basalt mortars had true wedge impressions; Bowl C71.15.9 had impressions made after firing with a tool that left a cup-shaped hollow. This style may have preceded the shallow wedge impressed bowls. The stratigraphic sequence of the fortification system in Field C is not linked to that in Field A to the west. Nevertheless, it is clear that the walls were all in use during Stratum VII, when the buildings in Field C were constructed and in use. Whether the wall system in Field C-east was already in use in Strata IX is less certain. In Fields A, B, and E, the casemate wall system appeared to collapse at the end of Stratum VIIIA, possibly due to earthquake activity or to an attack on the town. It cannot be determined with certainty whether a new superstructure was constructed in Stratum VII, or whether the walls served merely as integral components of the Field C buildings. Summary: Characteristics and Parallels The Solid/Outer Wall The solid wall with offsets/insets is similar to walls systems at several sites in Cisjordan, such as Megiddo, Gezer, Lachish, and Hazor (Herzog 1992:270–71). The spacing of the offsets/insets and the thickness of these walls varies from site to site. Nevertheless, in some cases, these walls include offsets/insets which are only ca. 0.40–0.60 m in depth, that do not allow for their full exploitation as shooting platforms. Examples of shallow offsets/insets include the walls at Megiddo (Stratum IVB) with salients of 0.50–0.60 m in size; Beer-sheba, where the recess is 0.55 m deep (Aharoni 1973:9); at Hazor (Area B), near Room 3103c, where two insets are 0.30 m and 0.60 m deep respectively, while the offset/inset in Casemate Walls 3608 and 3708 are 0.50 m deep (Yadin et al. 1989: plan XX); and at Tell el-Kheleifeh in the Period II settlement, where the depth was 0.37 m (Pratico 1993:26). This use of shallow offsets/insets is the same construction technique employed at Tall Jawa, where the offsets/insets appear to facilitate slight changes in wall direction to accommodate the foundations to the underlying slope of the natural hill.61 Such protrusions of the wall face do not by themselves allow for the proper angle of defensive shooting along the wall
and Daviau (1997b). 61 Herzog (1992:271) identifies certain walls as “saw tooth” in style, where the pattern of offset and inset is not regular, or where all the adjustments to the wall face are in the same direction; see also Wright (1985:190).
face. Herzog (1992:271) suggests that such offsets/insets would allow for balconies that projected beyond the face of the wall in order to protect the outer wall face. Whether such features were known in ancient Ammon cannot be determined from the evidence available at this time. The thickness of the Stratum-IX Solid Wall at Tall Jawa is in the range of 2.00–2.50 m, somewhat thinner than the Stratum-V wall at Beer-sheba (ca. 4.00 m; Aharoni 1973:9, pl. 87), and the massive mud brick walls at sites such as Ashdod (4.50–5.60 m thick).62 On the other hand, as an Outer Wall in the Stratum-VIII casemate system, the wall at Tall Jawa is somewhat thicker than outer walls at contemporary sites in Israel and Judah, where the average is 1.45 m thick.63 Inner Wall and Casemate Room Size For long stretches of the Inner Wall (W3000–W1004) on both the north and south crests of the tell, the upper course of stones in the inner wall was preserved at approximately the same level. This phenomenon may represent the surface on which a mud brick superstructure was positioned, although the floor levels of the casemate rooms (101, 200, 201) in Field A–B were at various levels below the tops of the walls. Much of the collapse in the rooms on the south side consists exclusively of rockfall with no remains of mud brick. A somewhat different deposition history can be seen on the west side (Chapter 6), where the stone walls were standing to the second storey level, although in the case of Casemate Room 215 mud brick did fall into the room. Here also, the outer west wall on the crest has a course of chert as its uppermost preserved wall stones suggesting a moisture barrier immediately below the mud brick superstructure. A Transjordanian parallel for such construction techniques can be seen in the Iron Age I remains at Tall al-#Umayri. Evidence for a mud brick superstructure (7J89:29, 30, 21), that had collapsed into the casemate rooms, indicates that mud brick was only used for the upper storey walls since the stone walls of the lower room are still standing 62 Another type of solid wall with towers instead of offsets/insets, called “massive” by Herzog (1992:270), was considerably thicker (4.50–8.90 m) than the Solid Wall at Tall Jawa. Examples include Hazor Area G and Tell en-Nas.beh. 63 Outer wall thicknesses were taken from Lapp (1976: fig. 2); examples of town sites include Hazor (Area A), 1.50–1.60 m; Shechem (Area G), 1.55 m; Tell Beit Mirsim, 1.50 m; Beth Shemesh, 1.40–1.60 m; Megiddo (VA–IVB), 1.00 m; Arad (VI), 3.00– 4.00 m; Tell el-Kheleifeh, 1.00 m; Samaria, 2.00; Beer-sheba, 1.60 m; and Tell el-Fûl (IIIA), 1.10–1.50 m.
2.30 m above the latest floor (7J89:33; Clark 1997:63). Unfortunately, at Tall Jawa, the presence of modern field walls immediately above the remaining upper course of the ancient walls suggests that whatever mud brick wall material might have existed was removed by erosion in antiquity. The inner casemate wall at Tall Jawa is considerably thicker (1.30– 1.50 m) than the average of 1.12 m documented at sites in western Palestine.64 On the other hand, the space between the walls is not quite as great, measuring only 1.50–2.25 m versus 2.28 m on average.65 These variations may be related to building materials or to room arrangement at certain sites where the casemates were integrated into houses built up against the wall system. This pattern was seen only in two areas at Tall Jawa (Building 200 in Field B; Building 113 in Field A), since the inner wall lacks doorways along most of its excavated length on the north and south. Whether this style was a local tradition cannot be determined due to the stage of excavations in Jordan, especially in the area of #Amman. Certain differences are, of course, due to the availability of building materials, their quality and the manpower needed for the task. Nevertheless, it is clear that the tradition of casemate wall construction was already known in Transjordan before it was adapted to the needs of Tall Jawa. Total Thickness: In spite of the variations in the thickness of the outer and inner walls and the size of casemate rooms, the total thickness of the fortification system (5.50 m on average) is quite consistent with defensive walls at contemporary sites (4.80 m). This consistency speaks of a shared awareness of the strength needed for defence against weapons of the day. This means that the site of Tall Jawa was protected to the same degree as sectors of Hazor, Megiddo, Shechem, Tell Beit Mirsim and Beer-sheba. Clearly the Ammonite kingdom had building traditions similar to those of its neighbours to the west.
64 Inner Wall thicknesses from a sample of town sites include Hazor (Area A), 1.10 m; Shechem (Area G), 1.50 m; Tell Beit Mirsim, 1.10 m; Beth-Shemesh, 1.10 m; Megiddo (VA–IVB), 1.00 m; Arad (VI), 1.30 m; Tell el-Kheleifeh, 1.00 m; Samaria, 1.00; Beer-sheba, 1.00 m; and Tell el-Fûl (IIIA), 1.10 m (Lapp 1976: fig. 2). 65 The reported sizes of casemate rooms at Megiddo (2.00–4.00 m) and at Arad (Stratum VI, 3.50 m wide) are comparable to the width of rooms in domestic structures. In these cases, the differences in construction and room arrangement must be taken into account.
Parallels Lapp (1981) and Pratico (1993) have both published studies of the distribution of casemate walls at Palestinian sites during the Iron Age and in earlier periods. Among the 35 sites studied by Lapp (1976: fig. 2), only the ashlar, outer casemate wall at Samaria is 2.00 m thick, whereas at all other sites the outer wall was in the range of 1.00–1.60 m thick.66 This is true even of Hazor, which is in many respects a close parallel to Tall Jawa in its stone masonry and construction techniques. In the recent excavations at Tel #En Gev, two parallel walls described as “a city-wall, an adjacent built moat and a counterpart wall” seem to fall within the parameters of typical casemate wall systems of the Iron Age. Here the outer wall was ca. 1.70 m thick, the inner wall was 1.50 m and the intervening space was ca. 2.00 m (Kochavi 1993:188). The total width of this wall system is ca. 5.20 m, very close to the Tall Jawa specifications. Secondly, the outer wall at #En Gev appears to have had an offset along its outer face, but not on its inner face (Kochavi 1993: fig. 3). This is also a characteristic of the Tall Jawa outer wall, although it is a feature which is not common at other Palestinian sites; another exception is the casemate wall at Tell el-Kheleifeh (Pratico 1993: pl. 4). For the most part, excavators are not consistent in presenting detailed architectural information that would allow for accurate comparison. Tables 5B and 5C include measurements compiled from published reports and measurements made by the author for sites recently excavated in Transjordan and Palestine. Table 5B. Casemate Walls at Town Sites in Central Transjordan67 Site Name
Outer Wall
Inner Wall
Room Width
Total Width
Reference
Tall Jawa Tall al-#Umayri Khirbat al-Mudayna (Wadi ath-Thamad) Khirbat al-Mudayna (al-Ma#arradjeh)
2.00–2.25 2.00–2.5068 2.00–2.25
1.50 1.00 1.30–1.60
1.50–2.10 2.75 1.50 -1.85
5.00–5.85 m 4.75–6.25 m 4.80–5.70 m
Daviau 1993c Clark 1997 Chadwick et al. 2000
1.00
1.00
1.70–2.00
3.70–4.00 m
Olávarri 1983
66 These measurements take into account only the Iron Age walls and not the Middle Bronze Age examples of casemate construction. Certain Iron Age forts and farming settlements in the Negev have walls that are even thinner, as at Qasr erRuheibeh, where both inner and outer walls measure 0.70 m. 67 Data from Wilfrid Laurier University sponsored excavations have been culled from original field notes; Tall Jawa, 1989–1995 field reports, Fields A, B, C, E; Khirbat al-Mudayna (on Wadi ath-Thamad), Square A26 field report (1999), as well as based on information in published reports. 68 Herr (2000:172) gives the size of the Iron Age I outer wall as 1.60–2.00 m.
Site Name
Outer Wall
Inner Wall
Room Width
Total Width
Reference
Khirbat al-Mudayna (al-#Aliya) Balu# Lehun Dh¯ıbân
1.10–1.20
0.80–1.00
2.00–2.40
3.90–4.60 m
Routledge 2000
1.20 0.70–0.80 1.10
200 0.75 1.10
3.00–3.50 2.50 2.20
6.20–6.70 m 4.00 m 4.50 m
Worschech and Ninow 1992 Homès-Fredericq 1997 Tushingham 1972
Table 5C. Casemate Walls at Palestinian Town Sites from Recent Excavations69 Site Name
Outer Wall
Inner Wall
Room Width
Total Width
Reference
#En Gev #En Ha . s.eva Rehov . Yoqne#am
1.70 2.50–3.00 1.25 2.00–2.20
1.50 2.00 0.75 1.60–1.70
2.00
5.20 m
1.50–1.60
5.00–5.50 m
Kochavi 1993 Cohen 1994 Mazar and Camp 2000 Ben-Tor et al. 1983
Function The term “casemate,” frequently understood to be derived from “false room”, implies that the primary purpose of the space between the two parallel walls was military or strategic. The space was not intended to be used as a true room within an adjoining structure. In his discussion of the casemate wall systems in ancient Israel, Yadin (1963:370) suggested that the casemate rooms constituted storage space or barracks and that this system was strong enough to withstand the battering ram in use during the reign of Solomon, although this was not the case later in the Iron II period. During the 9th century BC, the space was filled with rubble to strengthen the fortifications or support a walkway for defenders of the town. Current scholarly discussion is divided on the function of such walls, interpreting the fill as a necessary feature of construction.70 At Tall Jawa, there were only two cases where casemate rooms could be interpreted as integral components in adjoining buildings, Room 213 and R215 in Building 200 and Room 103/123 in Building 113 (Chapter 6). In all other cases, the casemate rooms were cut off from the adjoining structures. At the same time, their use as storerooms 69 Since Lapp’s treatment (1976) of casemate walls at Palestinian sites, several new sites have been excavated that contain casemate walls. Certain of these sites are included here, along with the fortress at #En Ha . s.eva. 70 Herzog does not accept Yadin’s view that the purpose of rubble fill in casemate rooms is to strengthen the walls in time of attack. Rather, he sees this construction technique as necessary when a strong foundation is needed to support very high walls (Herzog 1992:270).
is supported by the presence of storejars and pithoi (R301), and of specially prepared floor surfaces (R200, R201), which were plastered or partially stone paved. The method of access to such rooms was not determined during excavation, although the operating assumption is that access was gained from upper storey rooms via ladders or stairs. Excursus: The Persian Burial [by Margaret A. Judd and Ryan Defonzo] The Archaeological Context One intentional burial (B34:B3) was detected in Field B, Square 34, located in the southwestern corner of the casemate system at Tall Jawa. The installation was cut into the inner fortification wall (W 2006), which was built in boulder and chink style. This inner wall, composed of boulders (0.30–1.10 m) and smaller stones (0.10–0.15 m), varied from 1.50–2.00 m in thickness. The burial was cut into the south side of the wall where two rows of stone were removed for an area of 1.00 m (east-west axis) and 0.50 m north-south, leaving a single row of stones to form the north edge of the wall (Fig. 5.18). The grave was originally contained in an area of three rows of six cobblestones that were three courses deep. The burial feature contained poorly preserved osteological remains. Many small bone fragments were also present in the casemate room, immediately south of the burial. It was this sample that led archaeologists to remove a few of the inner wall stones of Wall 2006, thus recovering the primary burial area. Artefacts associated with the cobbles underlying the skeletal remains consist of a broken millstone (TJ 1749) and a mortar fragment (TJ 2035; Daviau 2002:CD database), in addition to a worn, pale red cylinder seal (Daviau 2002:89; fig. 2.46.1), 32 beads of glass and stone (Daviau 2002:36–37), and a bronze fibula (Daviau 2002:45, fig. 2.23.1). The fibula was dated to the Persian Period (500–400 BC); the only other contemporary find at Tall Jawa was an Athenian tetradrachm coin dating to 449 BC (Beckmann 1994, Daviau, 2002:89). The bones were extremely fragmentary and, as a result, were sorted by bone type and conjoined where possible. The ‘minimum number of individuals’ (MNI) for the humans was established by inventorying each bone or diagnostic landmark by the left or right side and the
developmental stage of growth in order to determine the number of humans that contributed to this sample (White 1992:84–89). One adult and one child were identified. The Adult Adult cranial fragments were clustered in situ at the east end of the burial and when conjoined formed the posterior half of the left parietal and an adjoining portion of the right parietal; the parietal eminence was distinctly bossed. Though metric measurements were not possible, the size of bone and the fusion of the posterior sagittal sutures at lambda and obelion indicates that the bones were those of an older adult. Some of the conjoined long bone fragments formed recognisable portions of long bones. Portions of lateral segments of two clavicles were identitified as the left and right from one individual. The left and right tibial shafts were identified and sided based on the presence and orientation of the popliteal lines and nutrient foramina. The distal left femur was identified by the linea aspera and nutrient foramen. In all cases, the muscle insertion markings were robust. Other long bone fragments included the left distal humeral shaft; a proximal and midshaft portion of the left radius with the nutrient foramen and radial tuberosity preserved; a distal radial fragment; and two ulna shaft fragments. Small fragments of flat bones included four rib body fragments and fragments of the left scapula from the spine and border. Bones of the extremities were also identifiable. The hands are represented by the left fifth metacarpal, the right second and third metacarpals, and four proximal phalanges. The left foot is composed of the navicular, first cuneiform, and the fourth and fifth metatarsals. The first and third metatarsal were recovered from the right foot, in addition to the first proximal phalange; four unsided proximal phalanges were also recovered. One cervical vertebra is the only bone recovered from the spinal column and could only be identified as one of the third to sixth elements. This lone cervical vertebra has a low bone mass, projecting bone extensions on the vertebral body (osteophytosis) and some bone growth on the joint margins of the articular facets (osteoarthritis). The fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae are commonly affected by these two disease processes, which are multifactorial in aetiology—the aging process, weight bearing, locomotion, and upright posture, while specific activ-
ity is regarded as a secondary cause (Bridges 1994, Jurmain 1999:119, Jurmain and Kilgore 1995). Excessive cervical osteophytosis and osteoarthritis has been noted in past populations and attributed to carrying loads on the head or using a tumpline (Bridges 1994, Judd 2001:472– 476, Lovell 1994). Clinical studies of the modification to the cervical vertebrae due to habitual activity are few and support for this aetiology varies between investigators (Jager, et al. 1997, Scher 1978). Dental Inventory and Palaeopathology: Six permanent teeth were recovered and most are heavily worn to Stage 4 of Smith’s scale (1984: 45–46) and nearly all exhibit some type of trauma: 1. Right maxillary canine: one tooth fracture on the distal-buccal occlusal edge; Smith’s scale = 4. 2. Right maxillary second incisor: no damage; Smith’s scale = 4. 3. Right mandibular premolar 1: peri- or post-mortem tooth fracture of the mesial buccal surface resulting in a linear fracture; Smith’s scale = 4. 4. Right mandibular first molar: one large chip on the occlusal edge of each of the tooth’s sides; Smith’s scale = 4. 5. Right mandibular second molar: gross fracture of the enamel crown and root on buccal surface with heavy cupped wear on all quadrants; the enamel of the mesial-lingual crown is not as extensively worn as the other sides, although chipping occurs; Smith’s scale = 7. 6. Right mandibular M3: complete enamel fracture of buccal side of crown, particularly on the distal-buccal quadrant; Smith’s scale = 4. Turner and Cadien (1969:307) reported ‘pressure chipping’ of tooth crowns among the dentitions of 324 prehistoric and protohistoric Aleuts, Eskimos and northern Indians that they attributed to the use of teeth as tools and as marrow extractors. This crushing or flaking of the tooth crown also characterised the molars of the adult from this burial context, and even though there is a vast environmental difference between these New World populations and the Jordanian adult, the occurrence of fractures and chipping indicate that the teeth were used as a tool. The heavy and cupped dental wear is associated with tough foods or coarse particle inclusions introduced to the diet, which is most typical of an agricultural subsistence pattern (Larsen 1997:254–255). Basalt
processing tools were indeed common at Tall Jawa (Daviau 2002:102– 105, 122–161) and may well have been the culprits that introduced grit into the diet during food preparation. However, other sources of hard granules should not be excluded, such as sand, soil introduced during cleaning, shells, husks, and insects (Leek 1972, 1973). The Child The inventory of non-adult remains consists of one fibular diaphysis, one portion of a proximal tibia epiphysis, a cranial vault fragment, one proximal hand phalange, three metatarsal shafts and the first proximal phalange of the right foot. The deciduous dentition includes three complete teeth and one fragment. The right maxillary first incisor was completely formed, while the root of the canine was incomplete and partially diverged; the roots of the left lower canine were broken, but divergence into two roots was visible. The developmental stage of these three deciduous teeth placed the child at 3 years +/- 12 months (Ubelaker 1978:47). Although the fibula was not complete, the diaphysis was measured in order to get some lower limit of the individual’s age. A length of 152.9 mm placed the child at being at least 2.5 years (Scheuer and Black 2000:Table 11–17). Taphonomy: Taphonomy is the study of processes affecting the bone after death has occurred (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:182). Both individuals were extremely fragmentary and the fragments poorly preserved, both factors that limit the biocultural data obtainable from the sample. The fragments can best be identified as Stage 4 on the Behrensmeyer scale (1978). Bone in this stage is described as fibrous and rough in texture, with some splintering; cracks are open and may have splintered or rounded edges. A few factors may explain the poor preservation of this burial. Firstly, the grave was quite shallow and located in an area, which experienced much of the site’s water runoff. Water movement and micro-organisms enhance natural bone decay. Secondly, the land was also used in modern times for animal husbandry; tooth gnawing marks were identified on the bone material in two long bone fragments. Brothwell (1981:2) cautions that loose, fragmented remains may not reflect the original burial type. This particular taphonomic alteration was also mentioned by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994:106). Indeed, in this instance the carnivore tooth marks may provide the proof needed to understand the cause of the skeletal material’s extension southward,
outside of the burial boundaries within Wall 2006, in addition to the absence of most of the child’s bones. The destruction of this burial was likely due to some combination of water runoff, faunal turbation and perhaps tomb robbing. Persian Burials in the Levant The majority of Persian cemeteries that could provide an adequate parallel for this burial are located in Israel rather than Jordan and were excavated during the second half of the 20th century. Persian burials were found at #En Ha-Nas.iv located approximately 1.3 km south of Beth Shean. The burials were typically a side niche cut into a vertical pit, which was closed by stone slabs (Porath 1973). At #Atlit shaft burials with stone slabs protecting the inhumation were excavated by Johns (1933:58–59). Although no osteological data was presented, as the skeletons were deemed to be too fragmentary, many of the tomb shafts and artefacts provide a good basis for comparison with other sites; dates, however, were not supplied. The author described the graves in sequence from the Hellenistic Period back to 1000 BC without specifically dating any of the interments. From the selection of the graves it was possible to observe that most of the individuals buried at #Atlit were laid with the head to the east and aligned in an eastwest orientation, as was the case of the Field B burial at Tall Jawa. Of the few bronze fibulae found, one was ‘definitely with a man’s burial’ (Burial 859), although females, such as Burial 994, were also interred with bronze fibulae (Johns 1933:55). It is important to note, however, that the sexing of skeletal material was determined by the artefacts associated with the skeletons. Eighty-four burials were excavated at Tall al Mazar in Jordan, a cemetery dating to the Iron Age IIC, Persian and Late Ammonite periods (Yassine 1984). Although the majority of the graves were simple pits, brick or stone lined pits were also observed. A distinct pattern occurred in the burial attitude and grave good assemblages: the males were in an extended position and accompanied by weapons, while the females were in a flexed position and were buried with cosmetics and jewellery, including fibulae (Yassine 1984:97); nearly all of the skeletons were on an east/west axis with the head to the east. A Persian cemetery of more than 40 graves was excavated at the base of the southeastern slope of Tell el-Hesi, located in southwestern Israel. Twelve of the interments held grave goods which included juglets, copper anklets, iron rings, a copper toggle pin, bead, iron dagger, seal,
and assorted potsherds (Coogan 1975, Coogan and Blakely 1989:328– 334). Coogan and Blakely’s (1989:326) comparison of the Hesi burials with those from Atlit, Gezer, and Lachish found that the east-west orientation, though most common, was not consistent. In addition, most of the skeletons were on their backs with the arms either at their sides as at #Atlit, or with the right hand over the pelvis as seen at Lachish. In most cases, the skull faced north. The location of the Hesi cemetery was responsible for the poor preservation of most of the bones, which lay in shallow graves often only a few centimetres below the surface and were, therefore, exposed to water run-off (Coogan 1975:37). Other similarities exist between the burials at Tell el-Hesi and at Tall Jawa. 1. Some of the graves were dug into existing mud-brick walls and 75 % were oriented east-west with the head to the east. 2. Burials 5.008 and 13.013 contained a mixture of immature and mature skeletal fragments and the cists were refilled with the original grave soil over top of the bodies. 3. Eleven of the Hesi graves were capped with limestone slabs of local, unworked limestone, some of which became displaced due to tomb robbers or environmental elements. 4. Coogan (1975:46) concluded from the number of graves and the sparseness of grave furnishings that the community buried at Hesi was not wealthy, but likely represented a small agricultural community. Tell el-Hesi is probably the best site with which parallels can be drawn with the interment at Tall Jawa. Summary and Conclusions The fragmentary nature of the skeletal remains from the Field B interment leaves little material for a macroscopic osteological analysis. The burial itself, though a lone specimen, can be compared to surrounding Persian period burials and some similarities are apparent: isolated burials were frequently placed in standing walls built by preceding communities; children were often interred with adults; stone slabs were popular as a lining or cover for the grave; and fibulae were often included with the inhumation for both sexes. What may have once been considered a haphazard, unplanned interment within Wall 2006 can now be better understood as a common mode of interment utilised throughout the Levant during the Persian Period.
References for the Excursus
Beckmann, M. 1994 Fraternizing with the enemy: an Athenian coin from Persian Palestine. The Picus:28–38. Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1978 Taphonomic and Ecologic information on bone weathering. Paleobiology 4:150–162. Bridges, P. S. 1994 Vertebral arthritis and physical activities in the prehistoric Southeastern United States. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 93:83–93. Brothwell, D. R. 1981 Digging Up Bones. 3rd ed. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Buikstra, J. E. and D. H. Ubelaker (eds) 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, Vol. 44. Coogan, M. D. 1975 A cemetery from the Persian Period at Tell el-Hesi. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 220:37–46. Coogan, M. D. and J. A. Blakely 1989 A cemetery of the Persian Period. In Tell el-Hesi: The Persian Period (Stratum V), edited by W. J. Bennett and J. A. Blakely, pp. 325–334. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. Daviau, P. M. M. 2002 Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan: Volume 2: The Iron Age Artefacts. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, 11/2. Leiden: Brill. Jager, H. J., L. Gordon-Harris, U. M. Mehring, G. F. Goetz and K. D. Mathias 1997 Degenerative change in the cervical spine and load-carrying on the head. Skeletal Radiology 26:475–81. Johns, C. N. 1933 Excavations at #Atlit (1930–31): The South Eastern Cemetery. Quarterly of the Department of Antiquties in Palestine 2:41–104. Judd, M. A. 2001 The Human Remains. Pp. 458–543 in Life on the Desert Edge. Seven thousand years of settlement in the Northern Dongola Reach, Sudan, by D. Welsby. London: Sudan Archaeological Research Society Publication Number 7. Jurmain, R. 1999 Stories from the Skeleton. Behavioral Reconstruction in Human Osteology. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach. Jurmain, R. D. and L. Kilgore 1995 Skeletal evidence of osteoarthritis: a palaeopathological perspective. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 54:443–450. Larsen, C. 1997 Bioarchaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leek, F. F. 1972 Teeth and bread in ancient Egypt. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 58:126– 132. 1973 Further studies concerning ancient Egyptian bread. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 59:199–204. Lovell, N. C. 1994 Spinal arthritis and physical stress at Bronze Age Harrapa. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 93:149–164.
Porath, E. 1973 #En Ha-Nas.iv. Israel Exploration Journal 23:259–260. Scher, A. T. 1978 Injuries to the cervical spine sustained while carrying loads on the head. Paraplegia 16:94–101. Scheuer, L. and S. Black 2000 Developmental Juvenile Osteology. London: Academic Press. Smith, B. 1984 Patterns of molar wear in hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 63:39–56. Turner, C. G. and J. D. Cadien 1969 Dental chipping in Aleuts, Eskimos and Indians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 31:303–310. Ubelaker, D. H. 1978 Human Skeletal Remains. Chicago: Aldine. White, T. 1992 Prehistoric Cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Yassine, K. 1984 Tell el Mazar I: Cemetery A. Amman: University of Jordan.
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THE IRON AGE II TOWN FIELDS A–B: BUILDINGS 102, 113, 100, 200 AND 204 (1989–1995)
Introduction The principal occupation levels in Fields A–B (Strata IX–VIIIA) represent the full span of Iron Age II, prior to the large scale introduction of Assyrian elements in Stratum VII. Three phases represent early and middle Iron Age II occupation in Field A, where both the Solid Wall (Stratum IX) and the Casemate Wall system (VIIIB, VIIIA) are associated with structures inside the town. One complete building (B102) and sectors of several other houses and work areas filled the entire excavation area in the southwest corner of the town. Surprisingly, no two structures were alike, each one having its own unique plan, although features within these structures, such as ovens and wall construction, show a common tradition. The pottery corpus is heavily contaminated by Iron Age I sherd material that was present in the ceiling makeup. Nevertheless, the beginnings of certain ceramic styles can be documented, especially the introduction of red slipped pottery and the transition from Iron Age I collared-rim pithoi to later Iron Age II forms. Excavation in Fields A–B was located in a trapezoidal area that measures 51 m east-west, 18 m north-south along Outer West Wall 2023 + 2002 in Squares B14–B16, and 30 m north-south on the east in Squares A1–A15 (Fig. 6.1). A modern field wall (W1018) runs eastwest just north of the outer north wall of Building 102, and then curves to the southeast limiting the exposure of Building 113. Within these parameters, excavation was undertaken each season in order to investigate the Iron Age town and understand its architectural and cultural traditions. In this chapter, the major structures and work areas are presented, along with the artefactual and ceramic evidence for various types of domestic and industrial activities. Special attention is given to the functional analysis of artefact and pottery assemblages related to the preparation, consumption, storage, and disposal of food,
Figure 6.1. Excavation Grid in Fields A–B.
a focus which derives in part from the overall Madaba Plains Project food system methodology (LaBianca 1990: 1–21), and from the special interests of the author.1 Discussion of individual buildings will begin in Field A, with B102, and will continue with B113 on the east, and 1 For a discussion of the theoretical framework concerning functional activity sets, see Daviau 1993: 34–68, 437–448; this framework has been utilized in the analysis of Tall Jawa artefacts (Daviau 2002).
–
B100 on the south. This last building or work area extends into Field B, where two other structures, B200 and B204 are associated with Work Area 211. Of these, Building 102 appears to be the earliest structure and is here assigned to early Iron Age II (Stratum IX, 9th century) with occupation continuing into the late 8th century (Stratum VIIIB– VIIIA). Table 6A. Strata for Field A STRATUM
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
IA–IB II III IV V VI VII VIIIA VIIIB IX X XI
1–2 no remains pottery only no remains pottery only burial/coin pottery, work area 3/repairs 4/casemate wall 5/solid wall, B102 6/deep probe pottery only
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Early Iron II Iron I Late Bronze (?)
BUILDING 102 Introduction During six seasons of excavation, only one complete structure (Building 102) was delineated in Fields A and B. This structure2 is located 1.00 m west of Building 50, which was uncovered in a deep probe (Chapter 4), and 3.00 m north of the Stratum-VIII Inner Casemate Wall 1004/1030. The northern wall (W1024 = 2034) of Building 102 is in close proximity to a modern property wall (W1018) that restricts excavation to the north and east. Fortunately, the upper courses of the outer walls3 of B102 could all be uncovered within the excavation area. Although excavation reached the lower floor level only in Room 120, the overall plan and several features of the building could be identified. In an earlier report, this structure was labeled Building 101 (Daviau 1994:178). Each of the outer walls of Building 102 was given a single number, except where the continuity of the wall or the contemporaneity of its construction was not apparent; W1006 (east wall, south of Doorway F), W1011 = 2020 (south wall), W2032 (west wall), W1024 = 2034 (north wall), W1026 (east wall, north of Doorway F). 2 3
When first exposed in Field A, it was not immediately apparent that more than half of Building 102 was located in Field B. Following the 1989 season, the excavation area was expanded of to the west of Field A as the result of a change in research strategy that developed when the importance of Tall Jawa for Ammonite history and culture became clear. In 1991, Squares B61–B70 were laid out along the west side of Squares A1–A10, with Squares B1–B10 running south to north, adjacent to two modern houses located on the west slope of the tell. The addition of Field B made it possible to complete the excavation of Building 102. History of Excavation (Fig. 6.2) When excavation began in 1989, two rooms (R104, R105)4 in the southeast corner of Building 102 were exposed in Field A. As horizontal exposure expanded in succeeding seasons, additional rooms were revealed to the north (Squares A5) and to the west (Squares B64). Only during the final season (1995) were all four outer walls uncovered (in A15 and B65), and the plan of the structure fully revealed. The construction of the outer walls, formed of 2–3 rows of limestone boulders in boulder-and-chink formation, is in contrast to the inner walls, such as Wall 1005 and W1008, which consist of only one row of flat topped boulders. It was not known during the first two seasons whether these walls were ground floor walls or were supports for upper storey masonry. The presence of several stone pillars, fallen in the debris, suggested a complicated construction history that was not clarified until the final season (1995), when lower storey floor levels were reached in Room 120, below Room 110. The construction history of Building 102 is still tentative in that secure stratigraphic links were never established between it and the adjoining buildings and work areas. Evidence from changes in ceramic morphology over time suggests that Building 102 was in use both before and after the construction of the Inner Casemate Wall (W1004). Thus, Building 102 was a major structure in the southwest sector of the town and, in its final phase, it opened onto an alley (R107) leading to one of the few entrances (Doorway H) into the casemate room system.5 4 These rooms were originally numbered Room 4 and Room 5 respectively (Daviau and Dion 1994:158; fig. 1). 5 P. M. M. Daviau (1989, 1991), B. Silver (1992), and R. Defonzo (1993–1995) were field supervisors.
–
Figure 6.2. Building 102 in Fields A and B.
Building Plan (Fig. 6.2) Already in 1989, the plan of Building 102 suggested an original design with long, narrow rooms running from east to west (Daviau 1992: fig. 3). Only one Doorway (F) to the outside from long Room 109 was located in the east wall (W1006 + 1026). In shape, Building 102 is almost square (ca. 12.00–12.20 × 12.60 m; ca. 152.46 m2). The arrangement of rooms is surprisingly regular with a major division down the middle from east to west (W1008). On both sides of this central divide is a long room (R105 and R109) flanked on the outer side by a somewhat broader but shorter room, namely Room 104 south of Room 105, and Room 110 north of Room 109. The remaining space is L-shaped, surrounding the long rooms along the outside and wrapping around to serve as the back or western rooms. Each of these rooms is further sub-
divided by a wall stub that continues the wall line of the narrow rooms; Room 204 on the south is partially separated from Room 216 on the west, while Room 217 on the north is partially separated from Room 214. Room 217 is an anomaly in that it is further divided by Wall 1025, which forms a small alcove (Room 111). This regular plan has no parallel at Tall Jawa among the houses from Stratum VIII (Building 200, see below, and Building 300, Chapter 7), or among the residences of Stratum VII (Building 800 and B700, Chapter 8). Building 102 is clearly an orthogonal structure, constructed independent of the fortification system and standing alone in relation to other structures built nearby. At the same time, the typical building techniques seen in other structures at Tall Jawa also appear in Building 102, including boulder-and-chink walls standing full height, stacked-boulder pillars, doorways located in the corners of rooms and positioned between the end of one wall and the vertical face of a perpendicular wall. Few parallels are known from other Iron Age sites in greater SyriaPalestine. One might see a certain similarity with Palace 418 at Tell elFar#ah (N), which is close in size (12.00 × 17.00 m) and also has a fourpart regular plan (Chambon 1984: Pl. 19). At the same time, Building 102 does not resemble the typical four-room style house (Braemer 1982), especially in overall size (ca. 152.46 m2 vs. 75.00 m2 on average).6 Rooms During the final phase, there were nine rooms in Building 102. Table 6B. Room Size and Proportion in Building 102 Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
104 105 109 110/120 111 204 214 216 217
2.50 1.75 1.70 2.50 0.80 2.80 2.50 1.80 1.50
4.50 8.10 8.00 4.35 2.50 6.50 4.80 2.50 2.50
.55 .21 .21 .57 .32 .43 .52 .72 .60
1005, 1006, 1011, 1027 1006, 1005, 1008, 2026 1006, 1008, 1022, 2026 1022, 1023, 1024, 1026 1022, 1023, 1024, 1025 1027, 2020, 2021, 2032 2025, 2026, 2032, 2034 2021, 2025, 2026, 2032 1025, 2033, 2026, 2034
6 Houses at Tell el-Far#ah (N) are on average 75 m2 with the exception of Building 355 (Chambon 1984: from Tableau 1).
–
Range of sizes (omitting Room 111) Width Length
1.50 → 2.80 2.50 → 8.10
average – 1.88 m average – 5.15 m
(including the width of Room 111 with that of Room 217) Width
1.50 → 2.80
average – 2.30 m
The average width of these rooms is comparable to that of rooms in Building 200 (1.96 m) but considerably narrower (1.88 m on average) than the rooms in Building 300 (2.32–2.46 m). The contrast is even greater with Stratum VII Building 800 where the average room width is 2.43–2.73 m. All rooms in Building 102, except for Room 110/120, were assigned only one number even though there may have been additional rooms on an upper storey. More likely is the case that the Stratum VIII Building had rooms comparable in size and shape to those in the Stratum IX building. Since no other wall lines belonging exclusively to Stratum VIII were identified, we can only assume that these rooms had similar measurements to those found on the ground floor. The regularity of plan is also apparent in the measurements of rooms with only Rooms 105 and R109 out of range in terms of their length. Even in this case, the rooms were well paired, with only the southwest corner of Room 109 out of alignment due to the presence of a blocked Doorway (J). Doorways Doorway (F) on the lower floor is the only entrance into Building 102 from the outside, suggesting a considerable amount of security. This entrance is also one of the smaller openings by comparison with doorways between interior rooms. Table 6C. Location and Width of Doorways in Building 102 Doorway
Room
Width (m)
D E F G J L
214, 217 111, 217 107, 109 204, 216 105, 109 109, 217
1.40 0.75 0.90 1.75 1.15 (blocked) 1.40 (blocked)
Average width – 1.22 m (all doorways) Average width – 1.42 m (without Doorways E and F)
The average width of interior doorways is considerably wider (1.42 m) than the average width of doorways in Building 200, which are 0.78 m wide, and in Building 300 (Field E), where the average is 0.84 m. Whether this difference is related to the function of individual rooms or to the construction techniques of the building as a whole remains unclear. These wide doorways certainly allow for easy movement of persons and equipment from one room to another. Walls The exterior walls of Building 102 were all of boulder-and-chink construction with a coating of plaster (A14:33) visible on the east face of Wall 1006, adjacent to Doorway F, and with a crumbly plaster (B54:12) on both sides of the walls forming the southwest corner (W2020 + 2032). Whether plaster was present on the remaining walls was not determined due to the limits of excavation outside this structure. Table 6D. Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 102) Wall 1005 1006 1008 1011 1022 1023 1024 = 2034 1025 1026 1027 2020 2021 2025 2026 2032 2033 2035
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75 ×
× × × × ×
80
90
100
× ×+ ×+ ×+ × ×
× × × ×
×
Like the plan of the building itself, the walls show unusual consistency in thickness. All of the exterior walls were in the range of 0.80–0.85 m thick except for the west end of south Wall W2020, which was 1.00 m thick. This anomaly may be due to repairs to the upper courses of this wall at the end of Stratum VIIIB. Interior walls also clustered together in the range of 0.60–0.65 m thick. The rare exceptions
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were the blocking walls (W2033 and 2035) that were somewhat thicker (0.70 m). The most apparent difference between the inner and outer walls is in their construction techniques. Whereas all of the exterior walls consist of 2–3 rows of small and medium limestone boulders with an occasional large boulder, especially at the outside corners, all interior walls are formed of one row of medium to large flat-topped boulders. In contrast to the outer boulder-and-chink walls, which were all bonded at the four corners of the building, the interior walls abut the exterior walls and one another, with the possible exception of the join between Walls 2025 and W2026. Clearly, Building 102 was built according to a preconceived plan whereby the outer walls were built first and the interior space was subsequently divided. Stratigraphy (Table 6A) At least two phases of occupation (Stratum IX–VIIIB) are apparent in the architecture, especially where the lower storey walls show signs of repair. Since this evidence was restricted to Room 120, the only room where ground floor levels were reached, discussion will focus first on the northern rooms and then discuss the remains of Stratum VIII from north to south within the building. While the stratigraphic deposition within Building 102 was fairly clear, less well known is the association of this structure with adjoining buildings on the east, south and west. Stratum IX Room 120 (Fig. 6.3) Room 120 is located in the northeast corner of Building 102 and is surrounded on the east and north by the outer walls (W1026 and W1024 respectively). Wall 1024 remains standing 1.83 m above the floor (A15:40), the lowest level reached in Building 102 during excavation.7 A boulder-and-chink wall (W1023), 0.65 m thick, formed of 1 row of medium and large size boulders marks the western limit of Room 120. This wall (W1023) abuts both Outer Wall 1024 and Wall 7 The Stratum-IX floor levels in Square A15 are at an absolute elevation of 921.59– 921.87 masl, whereas the Iron I Walls (W1015, W1016) and debris under Room 107 are at 923.30–922.00 masl. While this does not represent Iron Age I floor levels, it does suggest that either Building 102 was cut into Iron I remains, or that the level of the underlying bedrock was sloping from east to west. Of course, both factors may have been involved.
Figure 6.3. Stratum IX loci in Room 120.
1022, which forms the southern limit of both Rooms 120 and Room 111. Wall 1022 consists of three stacked-boulder pillars (A15:37, 38, 39, east to west), each formed of medium to large size boulders standing three courses high (ca. 1.50 m). The pillars were connected to one another at the top by one or two courses of flat boulders (A15:9), which were wedged in place, with a roughly corbelled construction, giving Wall 1022 a maximum preserved height of 1.70–1.80 m (Fig. 6.4). The western pillar (A15:39) is supported on a base of flagstones (A15:44) which are set in position on Surface A15:40. The pillars appear to be free standing, with open spaces measuring 0.40–0.50 m between them. These spaces probably served for air circulation rather than as doorways, although this cannot be ruled out. The largest space
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Figure 6.4. Room 120 partially filled with upper-storey mud-brick collapse; stacked boulder pillars visible in Wall 1022.
(ca. 0.70 m) is located to the west of Pillar A15:39, just east of the south end of north-south Wall 1023. This space would have served as the most convenient doorway from Room 120 into Room 109(b).8 Beaten earth surface A15:40, exposed in the western half of Room 120, seals up against the base of the walls. This surface is stained with ash, charcoal flecks, nari, and brick material indicating extensive use. Immediately above Surface A15:40 was a superimposed surface (A15:36) with a small assemblage of pottery and artefacts that included a saddle quern (TJ 2161) and a ceramic spindle whorl (TJ 2183). Due to the limited exposure within Room 120, we can only assume that these very typical finds suggest domestic activities. The 133 ceramic sherds represent bowls, juglets, jugs, storejars and a pithos with a collared-rim (see Chronology below), although it is difficult to separate these sherds from vessels that broke when they fell from the upper storey.
8 In order to discuss lower storey rooms which were not fully exposed, these areas will be designated with the same number as the upper storey room but will have the suffix (b).
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Fallen onto Surface A15:36 was an oak beam,9 probably part of the ceiling which collapsed into Room 120. A succession of soil and rockfall layers (A15:35, 34, 33) filled with mud bricks, pieces of charcoal and lumps of plaster covered the beam. These debris layers also contained food processing and textile manufacturing tools and mendable ceramic sherds. The presence of these finds is evidence of a second storey above Room 120 that was also in use during the earlier phase of occupation. This upper storey room may have had a somewhat different layout than Room 120 since a heavy concentration of fallen mud brick (A15:11), in position midway along the length of the room, points to a possible cross wall on the upper storey. Table 6E. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 120, upper storey10 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A15:33, 34 15:35 + 36
3 bowls cup cooking pot krater decanter lamp 590 ceramic sherds11 stone tool 2 pestles grinder millstone point spindle whorl
V120, V181, V182 V161 V178 V179 V142 V160
red slip one handle
TJ 2092 TJ 2095, 2096 TJ 2050 TJ 2097 TJ 2090 TJ 2051
inverted rim, smudged crisp ware
basalt basalt basalt iron ceramic
The destruction of Building 102 appears to have caused the central pillar (A15:38) in Wall 1022 to shift northward against the collapsed mud brick, since it is not in line with Pillars A15:37 and A15:39. At the same time, a clear plaster line, visible in the soil between the pillars suggests the level at which Building 102 was reconstructed. 9 The wood of this beam was identified in 1995 by P. Bikai, Director of the American Center of Oriental Research in #Amman. 10 The list of ceramic vessels represents a minimum number of vessels, namely those that have been reconstructed to date. The purpose of the list is to indicate the range of vessel types and artefacts in use in a given room. 11 Total numbers of ceramic sherds are listed, even though several of these sherds may be partially restored in vessels with vessel numbers. This listing provides a means of comparison among loci.
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Figure 6.5. North end of Building 102; Room 214 in foreground leads into Rooms 217 and R111; Room110/120 is in the upper left.
Room 214 (Fig. 6.5) Only one other room was excavated to Stratum IX levels. Room 214 is a rectangular space that extends north-south within the northwest corner formed by exterior Walls 2034 and W2032. Exterior west Wall 2032 appears to have lost a course of stone for a distance of 2.00 m beginning north of its meeting with Wall 2025, the southern wall of Room 214. Interior Wall 2025 is constructed of one row of medium boulders with cobble chink stones; it abuts exterior Wall 2032 on the west and appears to bond with interior Wall 2026 on the east. Even though excavation exposed only the uppermost boulders of Wall 2025, there is no evidence of damage to this wall, even at the point where it is adjacent to the damaged area of Wall 2032.12 A single doorway (D) in the northeast corner of Room 214, apparently in use during both Strata IX and VIII, provides a bent-axis entry from Room 217. The south jamb of the doorway consists of semi-dressed medium boulders, which also form the north end of east Wall 2026. This Stratum IX wall consists of stacked-boulder pillars on 12 It was not determined during excavation whether this damage is due to modern agriculture, or whether it marks the position of a Stratum VIII doorway into Building 102 on the west.
Figure 6.6. Building 102, with relevant Stratum-VIII locus numbers.
the lower level with capping stones forming the support for the upper storey wall, comparable to Wall 1022 in Room 120. The earliest exposed surface in Room 214 (B65:32) and in Doorway D (B65:33) was in a probe (1.50 × 2.50 m). The irregularity of these surfaces suggests an underlying fill that was left in place when the building was re-designed for use in Stratum VIII. While no other rooms within Building 102 were excavated to Stratum IX levels, all rooms did yield evidence for Stratum VIII occupation above Stratum IX debris. Stratum VIII (Fig. 6.6) Building 102 continued in use after the collapse of the Stratum IX ceilings. From the appearance of the outer walls, only exterior Wall 1011 = 2020 on the south was rebuilt, at least in its uppermost courses where smaller boulders and chink stones were used (Fig. 6.6). Limited evidence for the rebuilding of interior walls is seen on the south sides of Rooms 217 and R209, where two Doorways (J and L) were blocked
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Figure 6.7. Room 110, looking west at Wall 1023.
(in W2035 and W2033 respectively) in order to extend Walls 1022 and W1008 as far west as Wall 2026. Evidence for renewed occupation was uncovered in almost every room, although disturbance of the ancient remains by modern agriculture is extensive. As a result, it is extremely difficult to determine the location of activity areas within the architectural space. Room 110 (Figs. 6.6, 7) Above the collapsed debris (A15:32 + 33) and mud brick (A15:11) of Stratum-IX Room 120, the pillars in Wall 1022 appear to have been modified with the use of a large boulder put in place at the top of each pillar (A15:37–38–39), and the capping stones put back in position between the pillars to consolidate stone ceiling supports/pillars for the new structure. One such monolithic pillar (A15:14; 0.25 × 0.50 × 0.70 m tall) had fallen north into Room 110. This pillar and the stones capping the pillars would have raised the ceiling 1.87 m above the Stratum VIII floor.13 Whether this ceiling (A5:18 + A15:12) was also the 13 This height does not include the space of wooden beams put in place to support the packed mud ceiling. With the beams in place, the actual ceiling would have been ca. 1.95–2.00 m above the floor.
roof could not be ascertained definitively due to the severe disturbance of the upper debris layers in which terra rossa had been added to the tell surface and subsequently ploughed. The accumulation of debris (A15:33) that serves as makeup below the Stratum VIII floor is covered by a thin plaster line which is most clearly visible in the soil between Pillars A15:37–38–39. This thin surface is covered in turn by a beaten earth floor that was itself severely damaged by subsequent collapse. Surface A15:31( = A5:19) was probably the principal floor in Stratum VIII Room 110. Evidence for use of this room is present in the form of 773 ceramic sherds and a group of artefacts partly embedded in the collapse of mud brick and plaster (A5:18 = A15:12) that covers the floor. Table 6F. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 110 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A5:19 + 15:31 15:8, 12, 13
bowl bowl 2 kraters juglet amphora 773 ceramic sherds stone object 3 pestles grinder millstone pounder unregistered basalt fragments 3 fragments spindle whorl loom weight
V184 V183 V185, V186 V141 V140
vertical rim red slip inverted rim, smudged red slip, not burnished white slip, black bands
TJ 2028 TJ 1893, 1909, 2016 TJ 1949 TJ 1579 TJ 1577
imported basalt basalt upper loaf-shaped, basalt chert
TJ 1569, 1570, 2233 TJ 1901 TJ 1902
ceramic ceramic unfired clay
The small assemblage of food processing tools found here is typical of the range of tools needed to crush, grind and pound grains, legumes and nuts. The full range of these tools also includes pestles and mortars. An essential tool within this group is the hammer stone or pounder, almost exclusively made of chert or flint rather than basalt (Daviau 2002:297–313). Most surprising among these artefacts are the 3 ceramic fragments, one (TJ 1569) of which was carefully painted red and black in an intricate lattice pattern within a black border. This fragment was finished on two adjoining edges suggesting that it was part of a larger element. The closest parallel for the style of decoration is the facade of a small model shrine, supposedly from the Mount Nebo region (Weinberg 1978:31, 33). The remaining fragments were not painted but
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were clearly broken off from a clay object that was of unusual shape. These artefacts should be considered in relation to other artefacts from Rooms 105, R217, and R204 in Building 102 that include a group of clay cylinders (TJ 1816, 2234) in the form of free-standing or attached columns, the largest measuring 9.50 cm (TJ 1829 + 2234), a ceramic decoration in the form of a miniature Proto-Aeolic capital (TJ 218), possibly a “crown” of a figurine (Harding 1951: Pl. XIV) or of a column on a ceramic shrine (Chambon 1984: Pl. 66:1), a ceramic limb (TJ 2062), the torso of a stone figurine (TJ 1872), a silt stone male figurine (TJ 1877; Daviau 2002:65–70, 80–84), and the ceramic head of a male deity wearing the atef crown (TJ 100; Daviau and Dion 1994). Such artefacts suggest cultic materials, possibly used in domestic cult practices (Daviau 2001b). Room 111 The smallest enclosed space within Building 102 is Room 111. Located west of Room 110, Room 111 has a single entrance from Room 217. In view of the regular layout of this building, Room 111 appears to be the result of dividing the area of Room 217 into two unequal parts with the construction of Wall 1025 (Figs. 6.5, 6). By comparison with other interior walls, Wall 1025 is exceptionally well built of medium and large flat-topped boulders making it quite thick (ca. 0.70 m), which is surprising given its position and function. Excavated only to floor level (A5:15) for Stratum VIII, Room 111 probably served as a storage area. The principal find is a pithos, smashed in place on a beaten earth Surface (A5:15) in Doorway E. This vessel (V143), stands 1.00 + m in height, when complete, and is similar to those found in Building 113 to the east (Daviau 1995). Also on Surface A5:15 was a basalt pestle (TJ 1254). Room 217 (Figs. 6.5, 6) Between Room 111 on the east and Room 214 on the west is Room 217, a space which forms a Z-shaped passage with Doorway E in the southeast and Doorway D on the northwest. A single beaten earth surface (B65:21), marked only by the presence of ceramic sherds, a camel jaw bone and an iron arrowhead (TJ 2166), was badly damaged by fallen mud bricks, plaster and collapsed wall stones (B65:18). This evidence for severe destruction makes it impossible to identify the function of Room 217. Only in the overlying material (B65:10) is there evidence for the collapsed roof in the form of mud brick, rockfall and patches of
plaster along with the artefacts in use on this upper surface, including a basalt mortar (TJ 1865), an iron point (TJ 1847), and the silt stone male figurine (TJ 1877), mentioned above. Room 214 (Figs. 6.5, 6) The use of Room 214 during Stratum VIII is most clearly seen in a probe in the northeast quarter immediately west of Doorway D. Finds from loci in the probe consist of artefacts and a heavy concentration of pottery (568 sherds), especially cooking pot sherds. A limestone mortar embedded in the floor (B65:30) and an upper loaf-shaped millstone (TJ 2173) fragment in Doorway D were also in use in Room 214; such finds point to domestic and craft/industrial activities. Table 6G. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 214 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
B65:25 + 65:30
cooking pot sherds 753 sherds polishing stone mortar grinder stone baetyl
TJ 2135 TJ 2143 TJ 2153 TJ 2236
ceramic crafts and industry limestone basalt crystalline
The most surprising find (TJ 2236) was a large piece of crystalline stone (graphic granite)14 that was unique at Tall Jawa and must have been imported. What its precise importance was to the Iron Age inhabitants is not clear, although it appears to have fallen from the upper storey or roof area and may have been a baetyl, due to its rectangular shape and exotic character (Daviau 2001b:219; fig. 5:3). Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey The presence of a considerable amount of mud brick and scattered wall stones in the overlying locus (B65:25) suggests that this material is the Stratum VIII roof that collapsed into the room. This collapse continued across the room (B65:25), but was not excavated. The final use of Room 214 is poorly represented, although the pottery from the upper debris layers (B65:23, 7) is clearly that of Stratum VIII. The remains of an installation (B65:19) built up against the east face of exterior Wall 14 I am grateful to Dr. G. Hall†, Department of Geography, Wilfrid Laurier University, who determined the precise geological identification of this stone.
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2032 consist of a semi-circle of cobbles and small boulders.15 Within this installation there was an accumulation of soil and pebbles and a basalt pestle (TJ 1982). In the surrounding soil layer (B65:23), there were typical domestic artefacts. Table 6H. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 214, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
B65:23
286 sherds 2 millstones spindle whorl pillar
TJ 1989, 1999 TJ 1936 TJ 1829
basalt, upper loaf-shaped ceramic (figurine?) mends with fragment TJ 169616
This scattered distribution of finds among various rooms is further evidence of the disturbance of occupational material within Building 102 after it went out of use. Room 109 (Figs. 6.5, 6) Room 109/20917 is one of two parallel, long rooms (1.70 × 8.00 m) that occupy the centre of Building 102. It is bounded on the north and south by Walls 1022 and W1008 respectively, which are both onerow walls, formed of medium, flat-topped boulders (0.55 × 0.75 m), in position above Stratum-IX stacked-boulder pillars that remain mostly unexcavated on the lower level. One well-dressed, flat-topped stone (A5:13), probably a pillar base, had slipped off the wall line into Room 109. Two Doorways (J and L) at the far west end of Room 109, both on the lower level, were blocked up (W2035 and 2033 respectively) and served as supports for renewed occupation above the underlying debris. Wall 2026, itself a stacked-boulder pillar wall from Stratum IX that runs north-south, forms the west end of Room 109. The Stratum-IX doorway (F) in exterior Wall 1006 on the east may have been reused in Stratum VIII to provide access to adjoining structures, especially Building 113. The south jamb (A4:20), coated with plaster (A14:33) on its eastern face, consists of the north end of Wall 1006, while the north frame consists of the south end of Wall 1026 at the point 15 The exact nature of this installation was not determined during excavation. However, its position against the west exterior wall (W2032) of Building 102, adjacent to a work area in Courtyard 211, suggests a bin. 16 This second fragment was located in Room 109. 17 This long room was excavated in two different squares and was assumed to be two separate rooms; both numbers are given here for coordination with the Locus List (CD-ROM).
Figure 6.8. South side of Building 102, with Rooms 104 and R105 at the end of the 1989 season.
where it is a continuation of the south face of perpendicular Wall 1022. This construction technique is extremely common at Tall Jawa (Daviau 1999:216), and indicates that Building 102 was part of a continuing architectural tradition at the site. In Room 109 there were several large boulders fallen at intervals along the length of Wall 1008, indicating the position of these ceiling supports (see A15:14). In this room also, the disturbance of the Stratum-VIII occupational remains caused by fallen stones and mud bricks from the exterior wall (W1006) renders the evidence for room function negligible. Ceramic sherds, charcoal and ash, a chert jar stopper (TJ 1317), and a ceramic spindle whorl (TJ 1316), while suggestive, are too common to indicate more precisely the activities carried out in this room. Room 105 (Figs 6.6, 8) Immediately south of Room 109 is its twin (Room 105), which is similar in size and shape (1.75 × 8.10 m). Room 105 shares a party wall (W1008) with Room 109 on the north and the continuation of
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Wall 2026 on the west. Wall 1005 forms the southern wall of Room 105 and is also a stacked-boulder pillar wall with flat-topped boulders linking the pillars to form the foundation for the Stratum VIII ceiling supports (B64:12). On the east, exterior Wall 1006 closes off Room 105 from Alley 107. Only Stratum VIII remains and subsequent destruction levels were excavated in Room 105. Built above Stratum IX collapsed mud brick (A4:18), soil layers representing a beaten earth floor (A4:16) with broken pottery, animal bones and a handful of artefacts were sealed by mud brick collapse. Most interesting among these finds was a ceramic attachment in the shape of a Proto-Aeolic capital (TJ 218). Such attachments appear at the top of columns on the façade of a model shrine from Tell el-Far#ah (N); de Vaux 1955: pl. XIII). In the western half of Room 105, a circle of stones (B64:13) in the shape of an oven was built up against the south face of Wall 1005. Although this installation was lined with stones, the soil inside (B64:14) did not show evidence of use as a hearth. The only finds were 5 pieces of chert. This dearth of domestic equipment throughout Room 105 (i.e., one spindle whorl, TJ 207) may point to a specialized function for this room, although the only positive evidence that can be put forth to identify activities or use is a ceramic male figurine head (TJ 100, Daviau and Dion 1994). However, this in itself is not determinative; the figurine may have been in use on the roof and not in Room 105. Room 104 (Fig. 6.6, 8) In the southeast corner of Building 102 is Room 104, comparable in size and orientation to its opposite, Room 110, in the northeast corner. The eastern and southern perimeters of Room 104 consist of exterior Wall 1006 and Wall 1011, both boulder-and-chink walls formed of cobbles and small boulders. A cross wall (W1027) of small and medium size boulders serves as the western limit while, on the north, Room 104 shares Wall 1005 with Room 105. Evidence of Stratum IX destruction was only apparent along south Wall 1011, where an ash concentration was exposed. Burnt rocks in the wall itself (W1011) suggest the place where ceiling beams rested while they smouldered. Flotation recovered wood charcoal and burnt bone, but the wood itself was not identified. Stratum VIII use of Room 104 appeared to be disturbed by reconstruction of the Inner Casemate Wall (1004) and the adjoining building (100). Indeed, the south wall (W1011) of Building 102 was different in
Figure 6.9. Building 102, looking east with Rooms 214, R215 and R204 (left to right).
construction than the other exterior walls, in that small boulders and cobbles were used, suggesting severe damage that was repaired at the beginning of Stratum VIIIA. Along the north wall (W1005) of Room 104 was a stone built semi-circular installation (A4:4) filled with loose soil, cobbles and small boulders (A4:3). Although it was once thought to be a concentration of rockfall, the stones that lined this pit/silo do not represent the pattern of collapse seen in Room 120. Excavation reached a depth of 0.80–1.05 m inside Installation A4:4 without any change in the stone liner. Within the fill were a basalt pestle (TJ 14) and an upper loaf-shaped millstone (TJ 15). Table 6I. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 104 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A4:3, 8
bowl krater 400 ceramic sherds 2 grinders millstone sherd awl
V157 V158
large, hemispherical, burnished piriform
TJ 15, 31 TJ 14 TJ 89/214 TJ 34
basalt basalt, upper loaf-shaped reworked iron
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Room 204 (Fig. 6.6, 9) Only in the southwest corner, west of Room 104, is the plan of Building 102 slightly irregular. Here, Room 204 extends the full distance between Wall 1027, which it shares with Room 104, and exterior west Wall 2032. In contrast to its construction along the west side of Rooms 216 and 214 to the north, where it consists of small boulders, exterior Wall 2032 consists of medium and large boulders along the west end of Room 204. At this point, its exterior west face is coated with plaster (B54:12) near the southwest corner. Plaster is also in place on the south face of South Wall 1011 further east (see Room 203 below). Room 204 constitutes the single largest space (18.2m2 vs. 14.1 m2 in R105) for a Stratum-VIII room. Floor levels were not exposed in this room; only Stratum VIII collapse was recovered. Within the debris layers (B64:3, 6, 7, 9) was a representative group of ground stone tools and sherds of ceramic vessels. Table 6J. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 204 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
B64:3, 6, 7, 9
bowl bowl small jug lamp lamp 5,214 sherds small mortar mortar mortar grinder 4 millstones millstone pounder button/buzz spindle whorl
V231 V232 V230 V223 V212
smudged inverted rim, smudged
TJ 122 TJ 153 TJ 1738 TJ 205 TJ 162, 188, 197, 1719 TJ 180 TJ 213 TJ 144 TJ 136, 217
miniature ceramic limestone, cosmetic basalt, with spout limestone basalt basalt basalt, iron rust chert ceramic ceramic
Room 216 Adjoining Room 204 on the northwest is Room 216. Its entrance is through Doorway G, the widest (1.75 m) in Building 102. This doorway was created by the extension of Wall 2021, the north wall of Room 204, which forms the east jamb. North of Wall 2021 is north-south interior Wall 2026, a two-row wall formed of small and medium boulders. Because exposure of this wall did not extend below Stratum VIII levels, it could not be determined whether there were stacked pillars in
Stratum IX. Stratum IX debris (B65:27) consisting of soil and rockfall, was sealed by a firm soil layer, probably a beaten earth surface (B65:11). Although there was a considerable number of ceramic sherds (1101) in this locus and in the overlying soil layer (B65:6 and B64:8), only a small number of artefacts consisting of three spindle whorls (TJ 161, 166, 208) were recovered. Destruction The disaster that ended Stratum VIIIB occupation, and necessitated the reconstruction of Inner Casemate Wall 1030 further south (Chapter 4), was probably the same event that brought about the end of Building 102. In Room 110, the final destruction of Building 102 is marked by chunks of ceiling plaster (A5:18 = A15:8) scattered on floor Surface A5:19 = A15:31 and in the debris layers (A5:12, 17 = A15:13, 12) immediately above. This debris consisted of collapsed and burnt mud brick from the exterior walls, ash, and pieces of charcoal, which accumulated for a total depth of 0.75 m. In Room 111, falling wall stones (A5:11) smashed the pithoi which stood in place (A5:15) within this small room. Ash lenses were also present in Debris Layer A5:17 and on Floor A5:19. In Room 217, fallen stones and mud brick material (B65:10) extended along the length of the exterior north wall (W1024–2034). The amount of mud brick appears to diminish in Room 214 in the northwest where soil and rockfall (B65:23) mark the end of Stratum VIII occupation. This pattern of collapse strongly suggests the use of mud brick for the superstructure of the exterior walls and a direction of collapse toward the northwest. In the central rooms (R109, R105), mud brick fragments are more concentrated along the east end (A4:18, 14), while in the west half of these Rooms, mud brick is widely scattered (B65:17), and the accumulation of debris consists of loose soil, scattered cobbles and small boulders (A5:6, 10; A4:7). Ash pockets are still common throughout these loci. In the southern rooms (R104, R204), the pattern is different yet again, in that there is a heavy concentration of fallen wall stones (A4:8; B64:5, 6, 7, 8). It seems most likely that this represents the collapse of exterior south Wall 1011, itself repaired during Stratum VIII. Chronology The surface treatment of many of the vessels from the lower floor of Building 102 (Stratum-IX Room 120) suggests that this structure was
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built and first occupied at a somewhat earlier date than Building 300 in Field E, which was clearly built after the construction of the inner casemate wall (Chapter 7). How much earlier is hard to tell, although the collars on the pithos sherds in Room 120 appear to be vestigial, probably at the point of transition to the double ridge form which is characteristic of Iron Age II pithoi found in association with red slipped and burnished pottery (see Buildings 100, B113 and B200 below). This later form is present in the upper storey collapse of Room 110 along with one unburnished red slip juglet (V139) and an imported Cypriot amphora (V140). Such characteristic forms suggest that the earlier phase of occupation was within the early Iron Age II (Stratum IX), probably contemporary with the Solid Wall, while the later phase was during Stratum VIIIB. BUILDING 113 Introduction East, south and west of Building 102 were various structures (Building 113, B100, B204, and B200) built in association with the construction of Inner Casemate Wall 1020 + 1030 in Stratum VIIIB. These buildings and work areas ran up to the earlier phase of the Inner Wall and showed severe disturbance where the inner wall was rebuilt in Stratum VIIIA. Although only exposed along its west side, Building 113 yielded floor levels from both Stratum VIIIB and VIIIA and a ceramic corpus that set the standard for Middle Iron Age II pottery forms and wares at Tall Jawa. History of Excavation (Fig. 6.1) Building 113 is located in Squares A3–13 and A14–A24, and was excavated only during 1989 and 1991. In following seasons, excavation did not continue to the east or north due to the presence of modern property walls that cut diagonally across Squares A14–A24. When first exposed in 1989, little was known about the style of architecture employed in domestic structures of Iron Age II or in the range of ceramic ware form types in use. The presence of a number of iron points both inside and outside the fortification system led to the assumption that the site had experienced repeated attacks, although it was later realized that such weapons were also a common item in storerooms. Only with the exposure of Building 300 in Field E in subsequent
Figure 6.10. Building 113 in relation to Building 102 and the Casemate Wall System.
seasons (Chapter 7) was Building 113 put into an architectural and cultural framework, so that the refinement of its building phases could be attempted. Building Plan (Fig. 6.10) Although the excavation of Building 113 was extremely limited, two large Rooms (R106, R108) could be identified as belonging to this structure. West of the principal north-south wall (W1009 + 1014) were
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two additional Rooms, R103/12318 and R107/127, that may also have been an integral part of this building. Room 103/123 opens into Casemate Room 101/121 through Doorway H, while Room/Alley 107 to the north appears to serve as a link with Building 102 on the west. On the south, Building 113 was built up against Inner Casemate Wall 1020 and its re-build, Wall 1010. No other possible exterior wall was identified even though there was a considerable amount of rockfall along the east balk of Square A13, a sure sign of a major wall. The location of Doorway H between Casemate Room 101/121 and Room 103/123 on the west suggests that the casemates were part of the adjoining building. As with Building 200 against West Wall 2023 (see below), no complete plan could be designed which would illustrate this style of room arrangement. Rooms While no complete rooms were excavated in Building 113, the length and width of several areas are suggestive. The largest space was Room 106 which measures a minimum of 4.50 m east-west and 5.50 m north-south. To the north, Room 108 was at least as wide. Room 103 occupies the space (3.10 m) south of Building 102, between Wall 1012 and the west wall (W1009) of Room 106 (3.75 m). On the north, Room 107 extended at least 6.50 m along the east side of Building 102 as far as Doorway F. Whether it continued beyond that point to east-west Wall 1028 remains uncertain, due to the limit of excavation. Doorways The principal Doorway (H) was that from Room 123 into Casemate Room 121. At a width of 0.80 m, it was a standard size (compare 0.846 m average in Building 300). This doorway continued in use during Stratum VIIIA, when the inner casemate wall sections were rebuilt along the same lines. Walls The majority of walls assigned to Building 113 date to Stratum VIIIA although Wall 1012 was in use at least as early as Stratum VIIIB. No evidence for other Stratum VIIIB walls was exposed.
18 R123 represents the earlier of the two phases identified in this room; the same applies to R121, R126, R127.
Table 6K. Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 113) Wall
40
45
50
55
60
1009 1012 1013 1014
65
70
× ×
75
80
90
100
× ×
The size of these interior walls is surprisingly consistent, in the range of 0.70–0.75 m. By contrast, their style varies from one wall to another; Wall 1009 consists of limestone boulders that served as pillar bases with cobblestones between the bases, Walls 1013 and W1014 appear to be simple boulder-and-chink, while Wall 1012 is a stone foundation with a mud brick superstructure. In spite of this variety, Walls 1009, W1013 and W1014 meet to form the northwest corner of Room 106. Stratigraphy Two Stratum VIII occupation phases19 are clearly represented in Building 113 and its adjoining rooms (R103, R107) which were constructed with the inner casemate wall already in place. Although this same sequence will be seen south and west of Building 102, the assumption that these phases were absolutely contemporary from one area to another has yet to be demonstrated. Table 6L. Strata for Field A—Building 113 STRATUM
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI VII VIIIA VIIIB IX X
1 no remains pottery only pottery (?) no remains no remains pottery only 2/repairs 3/casemate wall pottery only pottery only
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Iron I
19 The principal occupation in B113 was originally identified as Field Phase 5 (Daviau 1992:149).
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Stratum VIIIB Stratum-VIIIB remains were excavated in Casemate Room 121 and in Rooms 123 and 126. Within these rooms, the beaten earth surfaces appear to support several Stratum-VIIIA walls (W1009, W1013, and W1014). Whether there were Stratum-VIIIB walls, other than the inner casemate and the exterior walls (W1006, W1011) of Building 102, was not determined during excavation. Casemate Room 121 (Fig. 6.11) With the construction of Inner Casemate Wall 1020 + 1030 in Stratum VIIIB, a single casemate room (R121), with an entrance (Doorway H) into Building 113, shared in the activities of the adjoining rooms. The only Stratum VIIIB surface identified in Room 121 was a hardpacked floor (A2:31) with flat lying pottery that seals against the north side of Outer Wall 1003 and the west side of Inner Wall 1020, at the point where it forms the eastern frame of Doorway H leading into Room 123 (Chapter 5). While its full length is not known with certainty, Room 121 could have been up to 8.25 m long20 and 2.75 m wide between the inner and outer casemate walls (W1003). The function of Room 121 is amply demonstrated by the large amount of pottery sherds (2000 + ) and artefacts, including spindle whorls (TJ 81, 86, 87, 88), found in the debris that filled this narrow space at the end of Stratum VIIIB. The consistency of the material culture remains in this room with the finds from Rooms 123 and R126 suggests extensive food preparation and cooking along with other domestic tasks such as spinning, and recreation. In this room, there were 24 disc-shaped reworked sherds and 5 ceramic triangles; this is the largest assemblage of reworked sherds of any locus in Field A (17.3 %). Faunal remains consist of 48 large mammal bones, 7 cow bones, 6 pig bones, 3 donkey bones, 2 small mammal bones, and 294 sheep/goat bones from approximately 330 baskets of soil. Room 123 (Fig. 6.11) Stratum-VIIIB living surfaces, north of Inner Casemate Wall 1030, were first exposed in Room 123 in 1989.21 With further excavation 20 As suggested above (Chapter 5), Wall 1012 may have served as a room divider. In this case, the length of Room 121 is only 3.70 m. 21 At the time of excavation in Square A3, two rooms were identified (R2 and R3; Daviau 1992: fig. 3), one on either side of a north-south wall (W1012). These rooms,
Figure 6.11. Building 113 with relevant locus numbers for Strata VIIIB–A.
along the casemate wall system in Field B, it became apparent that Room 123 had first been in use in Stratum VIIIB in association with the original casemate wall (Chapter 5). A series of beaten earth surfaces were in position below the lowest course of Stratum-VIIIA Inner Wall subsequently renumbered (R102 and R103; Daviau 1994: fig. 2), were assumed to be part of a single Building (B100). With the removal of balks in 1995, it became apparent that Room 102 constituted the eastern sector of Room 202.
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1004. The level (923.23–923.21 masl) of the earliest surface (A3:31) in Room 123, along with that of Surface A2:31 in Doorway H of Casemate Room 121 and of Surface A13:31 further east (see Room 126), was consistent throughout the contiguous squares, suggesting that this extensive area of domestic activity adjacent to the fortification system was all in use at the same time. The western half of Room 123 is framed by Inner Casemate Wall 1030 on the south, Wall 101222 on the west and the southern exterior wall (W1011) of Building 102. The earliest surface (A3:31) which sealed up against all three walls is a packed earth floor of yellowish brown soil (10YR 5/4). Better understood is a second beaten earth surface (A3:30) which is marked by an accumulation of charcoal, 57 sheep/goat bones, 1 chicken and 9 large mammal bones, (some mendable) and several artefacts. Table 6M. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 123 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
A3:30
cooking pot storejar 302 ceramic sherds grinder pounder serrated tooth 3 whorls animal bones
sherds sherds (unreg) (unreg) TJ 65 TJ 99
Characteristics
basalt chert shark ceramic spindle whorls ( + 2 unreg)
Surface A3:30 may have extended across the east half of Room 123 and continued as Surface A13:40 in Room 126, the principal room in use during Stratum VIIIB. An accumulation of friable soil (A3:25 + 22) covering Surface A3:30 also contained abundant faunal remains consisting of 141 sheep/goat bones, 2 of which were burned, 5 large mammal, 2 pig, and 1 bird bone. In addition to the ceramic repertoire (561 sherds), there were 7 reworked sherds. Although it is not yet clear where the eastern perimeter of Room 123 was located, Debris Layer A13:26 appears to seal the Stratum-X collapse (A13:29, 32) and extend the full length (northsouth) of Square A13 east of the east balk of Square A3. Within this debris there were 509 ceramic sherds, 2 upper loaf-shaped millstones, 22
See discussion of Room 102 + 202 for description of Wall 1012.
2 ceramic spindle whorls (TJ 90, 91), 1 unfinished whorl, and a large number of animal bones (3 donkey, 3 cow, 2 pig, 24 large mammal, and 130 sheep/goat). This assemblage of ceramic sherds, artefacts and animal bones in A13:26 appears to be a continuation of the food preparation and/or consumption activities in Room 123 represented by Surfaces A3:30 and A3:31. Evidence for the final Stratum VIIIB occupation phase in Room 123 is most clearly seen at the top of Soil Layer A3:22. Here a row of cobbles (A3:12) runs along the east face of Wall 1012 at the point where the stone foundation (A3:18) is covered by mud bricks (A3:11). This construction feature, seen already in Casemate Room 201, as well as along the north face of Outer Wall 3006 and Inner Wall 3000 (Chapter 5), appears to mark the point at which a surface meets a wall. The associated Stratum-VIIIB Surface (A3:15) of hard-packed beaten earth joins plaster Surface A3:10, which runs under Inner Wall 1004 into Casemate Room 121. Room 126 The largest excavated space in Building 113 is Room 126, which includes the same area as Stratum-VIIIA Room 106, and is adjacent to Room 123. Apart from Inner Casemate Wall 1020, no other walls can be assigned to this room. The earliest surface (A13:40) was exposed at the point where it runs under Stratum-VIIIA Inner Casemate Wall 1010, adjacent to Doorway H. Immediately east of this doorway was an ash accumulation (A13:31), probably a cooking area, although there was no evidence for an oven in use with this surface.23 The most clearly defined surface (A13:30) in the centre of Room 126 is a beaten earth floor that seals up against a hearth (A13:34) constructed out of mud bricks. The hearth is founded on earthen Surface A13:41, which was itself stained with ash. Evidence for domestic activities was preserved on Surface A13:30, which was also stained with ash, and was covered with several pieces of charcoal, 16 artefacts, more than 500 pottery sherds and an intact red juglet (V102). This floor (A13:30) was severely damaged by rockfall (A13:39, 17), especially on the south and east sides, a pattern of collapse which suggests that the major walls of Building 113 fell toward the northwest. 23 Excavation ended at this level in 1989; Surface A13:40 was only exposed along the north face of Wall 1020; it was not excavated through the west balk of Square A13 to determine precisely its relationship with Room 123 further west.
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Table 6N. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 126 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A13:30 + 39
bowl cooking pot jug juglet 486 + ceramic sherds weight 2 pestles 2 grinders millstone 5 pounders 5 metal points animal bones
V113 V103, V124 V102 = TJ 77
burnished sherds V124 = red slip red slip
TJ 70 TJ 63, V249 TJ 72, V251 TJ 252 TJ 62, 73, 74 TJ 66, 68, 69, 71, 75
basalt, perforated basalt sandstone upper loaf-shaped, basalt chert iron
The hearth, cooking pot sherds and ground stone tools indicate the extensive food preparation activities which took place on this floor. This functional interpretation is supported by the faunal remains which consisted of 85 sheep/goat bones, 6 large mammal, 2 pig, and 2 cow bones. Although the presence of metal arrowheads and javelin points may suggest the reason for the subsequent rebuilding of Wall 1020 (as W1010), and the apparently hasty construction of Wall 1004 west of Doorway H, defence of the town is not the only possible explanation for these finds. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Within Building 113, Debris Layer A13:22 accumulated on Surface A13:30 in the southern and eastern sides of Room 126. This debris probably represents a collapsed ceiling along with fallen wall stones. This fill itself contained numerous artefacts, tools, ceramic vessel sherds and animal bones associated with food preparation activities. Table 6P. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 126, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A13:22
bowl 842 ceramic sherds 2 whetstones roller pestle tray grinder millstone saddle quern pounders
V123
red slip
TJ 40, 42 TJ 41 TJ 43 TJ 46 TJ 44 TJ 253 TJ 47, 48
42 = sandstone limestone basalt basalt upper loaf-shaped, basalt basalt chert
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
2 metal points TJ 60, 61 spindle whorl TJ 92 sharpened sheep incisor worked flint fragment 9 reworked sherds animal bones
Characteristics iron ceramic
The faunal remains consist of 173 sheep/goat bones, 3 donkey, 32 large mammal, and 2 cow bones. The location of this upper storey work area within the confines of building 113 cannot be determined within a complete building plan, because no exterior walls were uncovered in the excavated area, apart from Inner Casemate Wall 1020. Rock fall A13:39, apparently from a north-south wall along the east side of Room 126, accumulated in association with Soil Layer A13:22 in the northeast corner of the square and represents the destruction of Room 126 in Stratum VIIIB. Destruction Comparable debris (A13:29) accumulated on Surface A13:40, adjacent to cooking area A13:31.24 This area, just north of Doorway H was severely disturbed, probably at the time of construction of StratumVIIIA walls (W1010, W1009). Evidence for similar domestic activities was present in Casemate Room 121 to the south, and to the north of the doorway as far as the northeast corner of Room 123 where it meets Room 127, the only Stratum-VIIIB remains exposed in that area. Room 127 (Fig. 6.11) Remains of Stratum VIIIB were only located in the southern half of Room 127. These remains consist of a soil layer (A13:26) which covers the Stratum-X remains in the deep probe (Chapter 4) and constitutes a fill under the Stratum-VIIIA occupation of Room 107. This fill was most probably contemporary with Stratum-VIIIB Surface A13:30 and 24 It is difficult to interpret these debris layers, since there is no preserved evidence for ceilings in this area. The buildings were not burned and, as a result, ceiling material was not consolidated. When the ceilings collapsed, the soil they contained covered the lower floor surface forming make-up for a new (Stratum-VIIIA) surface, but did not retain its character as a ceiling. This situation is common in several buildings at Tall Jawa, and is in contrast to the archaeological record at Khirbat al-Mudayna (Thamad), where two layers of hardened ceiling material could be easily identified (Chadwick, Daviau and Steiner 2000:262).
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the collapsed debris above it, although this was not determined during excavation because a subsidiary balk was left in place for safety sake. The presence of 2 spindle whorls (TJ 90, 91), 2 upper loaf-shaped millstones (unregistered), 500 + ceramic sherds and 130 sheep/goat bones indicates a continuation of domestic activities, either of food preparation as in Room 126 further east, or the discarding of domestic refuse. Because of the disturbed nature of this debris, it is not clear whether we are dealing with ceiling collapse, or with the remains of the lower storey surface. Room 127 represents the space between Building 102 and Room 126 in Building 113. Stratum VIIIA (Fig. 6.11) Evidence for the collapse of the Stratum-VIIIB Inner Casemate Wall (W1020 and W1030) was evident along its entire length on the south side of the tell (Chapter 4). Fallen stones covered Stratum-VIIIB floors and the work of reconstruction disturbed these debris layers and the underlying occupational remains. The end of occupational use of the food preparation area in Room 123 was marked by the collapse (A3:20) of the mud brick superstructure (W1011) of Wall 1012 above Surface A3:15. This collapse may have occurred at the same time as the collapse of Outer Wall 1003 and Inner Casemate Wall 1020, which both fell onto Debris Layer A2:13 in Casemate Room 121, and were later sealed by Debris Layer A2:11. This fill extended from the north side of collapsed Wall 1003 to the south side of Inner Wall 1020 and continued through Doorway H into Building 113 (as Loci A2:28 and 13:25). Into the debris caused by the collapse of Stratum-VIIIB Inner Wall 1020, and the construction of Inner Wall 1010, several new walls were built east and north of Doorway H. These walls (W1009 + 1014, W1013) framed a series of rooms that lay to the east of Building 102. Although these rooms (R103, R106, R107, R108) constitute only the partial remains of a larger complex, they are still assigned to Building 113. The association of Casemate Room 101 with Building 113 is less clear than in the previous phase, although Surface A2:29 may represent the latest occupational level. Better preserved is the evidence for occupation in Stratum-VIIIA Rooms 106, R107 and R108.
Figure 6.12. Pithoi smashed on floor in Room 106, around Mortar A13:23.
Room 106 (Fig. 6.11, 12) Rooms 106 and R108 shared a major north-south wall (W1009 and 1014) constructed immediately east of Doorway H. For a distance of 5.50 m, this pier-and-cobblestone wall (1009), founded on Soil Layer A13:22, formed the western perimeter of Room 106. North of that point, Wall 1014 appears to be constructed in boulder-and-chink style and is bonded to east-west Wall 1013 that forms the north wall of Room 106. In its construction, Wall 1009 shared some characteristics with Walls 1005 and W1008 in Building 102, notably in the size of its boulder pillars or pillar bases, which were the full thickness of the wall (0.60–0.70 m). At the same time, Wall 1009 differed from these walls (W1005, W1008) in the use of full-width cobblestone wall sections between the boulders. In this way, Wall 1009 is closer in style to Wall 3007 in Building 300 (Chapter 7, Figs. 7.19, 22). Doorways into Room 106 from Room 103 on the west probably led through Wall 1009 between certain well-spaced pillar bases. For example, at the south end, the distance between the last known pillar base and Inner Wall 1010 was 2.00 m,25 while the space at the north end was 1.00 m, a reasonable size opening for a doorway. 25 Serious disturbance of this area due to the location of the deep probe may have dislocated a pillar base located ca. 1.00 m north of the inner wall (W1010).
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The principal occupation phase in Room 106, is represented by a beaten earth floor partially paved with cobblestones (A13:12 + 21). Embedded in this surface and centrally placed was a large boulder mortar (D 45 cm; A13:23) surrounded with chink stones (Figs. 6.12, 10.8). The mortar was used in association with 2 chert pounders, a broken basalt millstone, 13 ceramic disks, ceramic spindle whorls, and numerous ceramic vessels, all Iron Age II in style. The heaviest concentration of vessels consisted of a row of pithoi along the west and north sides of Room 106 (Fig. 6.12). Table 6Q. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 106 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A13:12, 21
bowl bowl krater cooking pot 9 + pithoi jug jug juglet 4 juglets
V115 V118 V126 V135 V137–139, V144–149 V105 V122 V101 V106, V107, V108, V110
red slip, hemispherical
TJ 3326 TJ 12 TJ 29, 32 TJ 30 TJ 78, 79, 80, 92, 95
Glycymeris basalt basalt iron ceramic spindle whorls
2,568 ceramic sherds shell pendant pestle 2 grinders metal point 5 whorls
red slip miniature no slip, painted red slip red slip, intact 3 = red slip
Among the ceramic vessels found smashed in situ in Room 106 was a complete juglet (V101) which was a twin to the earlier one found on Surface A13:30 (V102). These small flat bottomed juglets are common throughout the Stratum-VIII ceramic corpus while dipper juglets, common at Palestinian sites (for example, at Hazor; Yadin et al. 1960: pl. LXXXVI:7–15) and in the Jebel Nuzha and Madaba tomb material (Dornemann 1983: fig. 25:8–15), are unknown. This was unexpected given their usefulness for extracting a small amount of liquid from larger jars. This was clearly their use at Tell Miqne where Industrial Building 1 yielded 25 dipper juglets, and Industrial Building 2, 10 dipper juglets (Gitin 1989: Tables 1–4). Among the storage ves26
For a study of the shell material from Tall Jawa, see Reese (2002).
sels, the most distinctive characteristics of the pithoi from Room 106 is their height (up to 1.10 m tall), and the fact that at least three vessels were perforated, each with two holes located approximately one half of the distance from base to rim.27 Perforated jars or kraters were used at Iron Age Tell Miqne in the production of olive oil (Gitin 1990: 38; 1989: 39) and at Tell Hadidi, Syria, during the Late Bronze Age in the production of beer (Dornemann 1981: fig. 3:2, 3.; Gates 1988:66–68). The storejars from Gibeon that Pritchard thought were used to store wine28 during fermentation in underground cellars were perforated at the shoulder but differed from the Tall Jawa pithoi in that they measured only ca. 0.70 m (Pritchard 1964: 25; fig. 32:8). Unfortunately, no parallels to the Tall Jawa jars have been published that have similar holes, so that we cannot exclude the possibility that the holes were formed accidentally at the time of the room’s collapse.29 Ridged-neck hippo style storejars, which also served as liquid storage containers, were found in association with the pithoi, jugs, small jugs and juglets. Such an assemblage suggests a considerable amount of liquid storage along with food processing and preparation.30 Room 108 (Fig. 6.11) The northern limit of Room 106 is marked by east-west Wall 1013 which forms the south wall of Room 108. This wall was built of two rows of small and medium size boulders and small cobble-size (0.06– 0.25 m) chink stones and measures 0.60–0.70 m thick. It remains standing for only 1–2 courses in height above cobbled surfaces A13:12 in Room 106 and Surface A14:15. As such, it appears to be an example of a stone foundation wall whose superstructure was not preserved.31 The second major wall (W1014) of Room 108 is a party wall shared with Room 107 on the west. Although Wall 1014 appears to have been a continuation of Wall 1009, it is built of boulder-and-chink 27 For a study of the forming techniques employed to produce these pithoi, see Daviau (1995). 28 Cross accepts Pritchard’s initial identification of the jars as containers for wine (1962:18). 29 The suggestion that pithoi used to store oil were coated with plaster on their exterior to reduce loss and discoloration (Artzy 1987:3) was not borne out at Tall Jawa, even though several pithoi were stained yellowish-green on their interior surface, indicating oil residue. 30 L. E. Toombs (oral communication, July 24, 1990) has suggested that the pithoi could have been used as settling vessels in the process of wine making. 31 The preserved top of Wall 1013 was ca. 0.23 m below topsoil in Square A14.
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construction, ca. 0.60 m thick, rather than of boulder pillar bases. Wall 1014 bonds with Wall 1013 at the corner where pillared Wall 1009 abuts them on the south. It does appear, however, that these walls are all part of the same structure (Building 113). In Room 108, the principal floor is a partially plastered (A14:14) cobbled Surface (A14:15), which extends north from Wall 1013. While it is likely that the entire floor was originally plastered, there is insufficient preservation to make this assumption. Scattered across Floor A14:15 ( + 14 + 16), and in the superimposed debris layer (A14:12) were numerous mendable ceramic vessels and artefacts. Table 6R. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 108 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A14:12
bowl 2 bowls bowl 2 saucers cooking pot jug juglets lamp 680 ceramic sherds bow drill bit polishing tool raw materials raw materials small trough grinder saddle quern 2 pounders 4 metal points spindle whorl oven
V125 V124, V136 V118 V129, V130
hemispherical, red slip red slip smudged red slip sherds
V136 V116, V117 V172 = TJ 225 TJ 108 TJ 240 TJ 131, 132, 257 TJ 239 TJ 140 TJ 129 TJ 141 TJ 121, 174 TJ 109, 115, 150, 241 TJ 118, 202 V169
bronze stone pink quartz porphyry rectangular, limestone basalt, miniature basalt chert iron ceramic inverted pithos
The bow drill bit (TJ 108) and the small, semi-precious stones indicate an area of craft activity, probably related to jewellery making. The remaining finds are more typical of food preparation and cooking, probably associated with Oven A14:25, located in the southeast corner. Oven A14:25 (Fig. 6.13): Just past the east end of Wall 1013 was a shallow depression cut into Floor A14:15. Set into the depression was the inverted shoulder, neck and rim of a pithos (V169) that served as an
Figure 6.13. Pithos Oven A14:25.
oven. Inside the pithos, which was discoloured by burning, additional sherds appear to form a partial liner, although they may merely have broken off from the upper body.32 A layer of packed sherds fills the neck to form the floor or cooking surface of the oven. At its upper edge, Oven A14:25 measured 54.00 cm-close to the standard shoulder measurement of ca. 50.00–52.00 cm for pithoi found in Room 106. On the outside of the oven, cobblestones (A24:9) seal up against its shoulder where a single flue is cut through the ceramic. The flue is an oval opening (5.50 × 9.30 cm) located 13.00 cm from the rim. The total preserved height of the oven itself is 26.70 cm. This style of oven is similar to two pithos ovens found in Room 222 in Building 100, south of Building 102 (Daviau 1992:148–149; pl. I.1).33 32 With the discovery of additional ovens, it became apparent that the base of the pithos was removed from the vessel, and the cut edge formed the rim of the oven when it was inverted. In the case of Oven A14:25, the upper edge was badly damaged, suggesting that it had suffered during the destruction of Room 108 and from subsequent deep ploughing. 33 Ovens of this same style were also found in Room 222 and R319, see discussion below.
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North of Oven A14:25 is a rectangular depression (A24:7) with a cobblestone perimeter. Due to the dearth of finds in the immediate area of Installation A24:7, its function was not determined. What was evident is that the paved floor Surface (A14:15) in Room 108 did not extend east of Oven A14:25 and Installation A24:7 into Room 112. Room 112 The easternmost Room (R112) in Building 113 was only exposed in the southwest corner of Square A24 (3.00 m east-west × 3.35–4.90 m north-south), in order to leave in place the modern property wall (A24:2) which runs diagonally through the Square. In line with Oven A14:25 and Installation A24:7 is a single limestone boulder (A24:8) that may mark the northern end of both Rooms 108 and R112. This boulder was probably one in a line of similar ceiling supports or pillar bases comparable to those of Wall 3013 in Building 300 (Chapter 7). The presence of this boulder pillar is evidence that Building 113 extends north of the excavation area, probably as far as Wall 1028 which runs east from the northeast corner of Building 102. At the same time, boulder Pillar A24:8 may indicate the trajectory of the east wall of Room 106.34 Segments of this wall appear to have been robbed out ca. 2.00 m north of the south balk and again at 3.00 m north. The most significant find in Room 112 is a limestone roof roller (TJ 229), which fell into the room when the ceiling collapsed (A24:5). The presence of a roof roller, clear sign of roofed space, is especially important here where the major support walls are missing or were robbed out. Evidence for one such wall is seen in the collapse of cobbles and boulders (A24:4) partially excavated in the centre of Square A24. Included in the collapse were fragments of a chert rod (TJ 147), a basalt grinder (TJ 152), ceramic spindle whorls (TJ 154, 159), and a saddle quern (TJ 170). Room 107 (Fig. 6.11) The Iron Age II occupation preserved in Room 107 can be separated into two field phases, the earlier of which may have preceded the Stratum-VIIIA surface (A13:12/21) uncovered in Rooms 106 and R108 on the east. The primary evidence is the sequence of construction for Walls 1014 and 1009, with the latter abutting the former. For 34 Boulder Pillar A24:8 lines up well with the wall collapse (A13:39) exposed in Room 106.
the purposes of this discussion, Room 107 will be limited to the space west of Wall 1014, while Room 103 to the south remains assigned to the space adjacent to Wall 1009. The west wall of Room 107 was the exterior, east wall (W1006) of Building 102. Although no north wall was exposed, Wall 1014 appears to end opposite Doorway F into Room 109 of Building 102, possibly to form the south jamb of a doorway. The southern limit of Wall 1014 is marked by the presence of a single boulder (A14:31) that may have been a component in a cross wall at the north end of Wall 1009. In Stratum VIII, a series of superimposed surfaces (A14:24, 20, 17 and 6) seal against the west side of Wall 1014. The earliest loci (A14:24, 20) seal against a stone-lined Installation/Bin (A14:22) and extend south along the wall to meet boulder A14:31. The installation consists of an L-shaped wall line (W1017), which is built on beaten earth Surface A14:24, and continues in use with Surface A14:20. Inside Installation A14:21 is a hard-packed floor (A14:27), which seals against Wall 1014. Above the floor, the soil within the installation consists of a layer of wind-blown soil (A14:22) which suggests that this area may have been open or unroofed at some time during antiquity. A similar feature, rectangular in shape, was reported from Gezer (Stratum 8A, Field II). Here again, a single row of cobbles, 1 course high, marks off an “area” whose precise function remains unclear (Wright, Dever and Lance 1970:59).35 Surface A14:24 extends west and seals against Wall 1006 of Building 102. This connection indicates that Building 102, built in Stratum IX was still in use with this surface and with Wall 1014. The composition of Surface A14:24 was beaten earth and scattered small cobbles. In Room 107, a pumice pendant (TJ 155), 2 grinders, one basalt (TJ 210) and the other limestone (TJ 209), a spindle whorl (TJ 212) and a representative collection of Iron Age II pottery sherds were spread across the floor and embedded in the overlying soil layer (A14:23). A third grinder (TJ 193), this one of sandstone, was located in the fill (A14:22) inside Installation A14:21. 35 Dever (Wright et al. 1970:59) assumed that the presence of a tabun (1069) in this area “proved” that it was an open courtyard rather than a roofed room. This is surprising in view of the size of the area (2.6 × 4.5 m), and the fact that it was bounded by walls on all sides and had a doorway to another area that also contained a tabun (L. 1087; Plan XIII). See Rogers (1989:356, rpt of 1862) who describes a typical oneroom house with cooking installations inside the house and soot stained walls. Also see the arguments by Daviau (1993: 449–52) for the use of closed rooms for cooking.
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A second use of Room 107 is represented by Surface A14:20, also a beaten earth surface with scattered cobbles. On Surface A14:20, there was a group of artefacts including one spindle whorl and two groups of flat-lying Iron Age II ceramic sherds. Within overlying Debris Layer A14:17 was a ceramic zoomorphic bull(?) vessel (TJ 139) decorated with red slip and black painted bands. Only the head, shoulders and sherds from the torso were preserved. Although the best example of its kind, it was not unique at Tall Jawa.36 Table 6S. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 107, late phase Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A14:17 + 20
725 + ceramic sherds awl/needle mortar bowl millstone pounder bull vessel 2 whorls
TJ 149 TJ 151 TJ 204 TJ 201 TJ 139 TJ 167, 211
bronze basalt lower, basalt chert ceramic ceramic spindle whorls
The small number and the types of finds from these loci suggest a work area or craft centre. This corresponds to the finds from Room 108 where stones for the manufacture of jewellery and a bow drill bit were in use. Such activities may be appropriate in this southern sector of the town that also included an extensive cooking area (R202) and an area where ground stone tools were refashioned (R211). The artefacts on Surface A14:20 and their associated ceramic vessels were in use together before the latest Stratum-VIIIA surface (A14:6) was laid. This layer of cobblestones may have been part of a pavement during the final use phase of Room 107, when it was converted into an alleyway leading south to the entrance (Doorway H) into Casemate Room 101. On Surface A14:6 was a basalt grinder (TJ 236), a chert pounder (TJ 117), and almost 800 Iron Age II ceramic sherds. In the topsoil layer covering these northern rooms of Building 113, there were remains of 2 storejars (V126, V170) and 2 jugs (V131, V132), providing clear evidence that modern ploughing has severely disturbed the archaeological record. 36 Another example (TJ 1900), lacking the red slip and paint, was recovered from Building 700, which also yielded a badly damaged head with a spout through the muzzle (TJ 1286). For a typological study of zoomorphic vessels from Tall Jawa, see Daviau (2001:73–79)
Figure 6.14. Building 100 in Fields A–B, showing position of ovens.
BUILDING 100 Located between the Stratum-VIIIB Inner Casemate Wall (W1030) and the south exterior wall (W1011 + 2020) of Building 102 is a single row of rooms designated Building 100 (Fig. 6.14). Room 123, described above, is better understood as part of Building 113 even though the disruption of this area during the rebuilding of Inner Casemate Walls 1004 and W1010 severely disturbed the evidence that could clarify the stratigraphic links with Room 106 in Building 113. West of Room 103/123 are two rooms (R102/122 + 202/222 and R225) that served as a large food preparation and cooking area (3.00 × 9.50 m).37 Room 122 is blocked on the east by a north-south wall (W1012) that runs between the inner casemate wall and Building 102, while on the west Wall 2014 serves as the limit of Room 225.
37 Originally these rooms were numbered Rooms 102 and 202 (Daviau 1994: fig. 2). With the refinement of the numbering system, all rooms associated with the Stratum VIIIB Inner Casemate Wall were given numbers in the range 120–129. Where this distinction was not possible, the original numbers were retained.
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Figure 6.15. Building 100, with relevant locus numbers, Stratum VIII.
History of Excavation (Fig. 6.1) Excavation began in Square A3 in 1989 and exposed almost the entire area of Room 102/122. In 1991, excavation immediately west of Square A3 was located in Square B63. This square included a section of the inner casemate wall (W1030), Casemate Room 201, and Room 202/222, to the north. During the 1995 season, excavation in the western rooms of Building 102 clarified the sequence of walls associated with Room 102 + 202. It is possible that this large room was originally part of Building 102, although the latest repair of south Wall 1011 + 2020 of Building 102 cut this area off from the final phase of occupation in B102. In the rooms themselves, two occupation phases were identified, although they do not fit neatly into Stratum VIIIA and VIIIB. What is certain is that the earliest floors were in use with the Stratum VIIIB inner casemate wall (W1030). Room 122 (Fig. 6.15, 16) East Wall 1012 consists of two rows of small and medium boulders in boulder-and-chink construction.38 This wall, preserved to a height of four courses (0.60–0.80 m), appears to serve as the foundation for a 38
This is the same wall that served as the west wall of Room 103 (see above).
Figure 6.16. Room 122 with Wall 1012 above Surface A3:29.
mud brick superstructure (A3:11). The lowest stone course was set on beaten earth Surface A3:29, which was exposed only in Room 122. Wall 1012 abutted the south wall (W1011) of Building 102 at a level that demonstrates the priority of Building 102. On the south end, the situation is less certain, because Wall 1012 runs under Inner Casemate Wall 1004 and appears to have been built over by Inner Wall 1030 in Stratum VIIIB (Room 121, above). Although exposed only on the north of Inner Casemate Wall 1030, Surface A3:29, along with Wall 1012, may have been contemporary with Surface A2:31 in Casemate Room 121 on the south, since both floors were at the same absolute level (923.22–923.23 masl).39 On the west, Room 122 opens into Room 222, an area of ovens and hearths (2.80 × 7.75 m). The west wall of this large area is Wall 2014, a two row boulder-and-chink wall that also serves as the east wall of Room 203 (see B204, below).
39 Whether these surfaces had been in use during Stratum IX was not established due to the end of excavation in Room 103 at Surface A3:31 and in R102 at Surface A3:29, both Stratum VIII floors. The amount of red slipped and burnished vessels in Building 100 suggests a somewhat later phase than the construction and first use of Building 102.
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Smashed on Surface A3:29 and resting against the south wall (W1011) of Building 102 was a red slipped, bent-sided bowl (V120)40 with burnishing on the rim. Additional vessels and artefacts probably in use on this floor were attributed to an overlying surface (A3:28) also of beaten earth. Both hard-packed surfaces (A3:29, 28) consist of soil that is dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2), and stained throughout by ash from the cooking and food preparation activities which apparently occurred here over an extended period of time. The depth of Surface A3:28 was 0.09–0.20 m deep with the greatest ash accumulation on its uppermost surface. On this surface also, there were artefacts related to food preparation and consumption; the finds from both surfaces are presented together in Table 6T. Table 6T. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 122, earlier phase Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A3:28 + 29
shallow bowl cooking pot 256 ceramic sherds millstone saddle quern 2 pounders tabun fragments animal bones lithic fragments
V120 V153
red slip
TJ 53 TJ 59 TJ 51 + 1 unreg
upper loaf-shaped, basalt basalt chert
The artefacts on Surface A3:28 consist of the typical tools for food processing, preparation and cooking. Although the basalt saddle quern and upper millstone were both broken, numerous examples of such tools in situ indicate that they continued in use. These were accompanied by two chert pounding stones (Daviau 2002:297–313) and numerous fragments of a clay oven. While the outline of the oven could not be defined with absolute clarity, it appeared to be located against the west side of Wall 1012. Also present on Surface A3:28 were faunal remains (55 sheep/goat—1 burned, and 2 large mammal bones), ashes, and 24 lithic fragments. All of the pottery can be dated to the early Iron II and Iron II periods. A similar food preparation area on Surface A3:24 was located immediately above Surface A3:28 in Room 122. Surface A3:24 was also 40 Bent-sided bowls is the designation for bowls with a single change of direction in the body wall. The term “carination” is used for vessels with two changes of direction.
stained with ash (10YR 5/2, greyish brown), although there was no clear evidence of an oven. The surface of this floor was disturbed by clumps of nari that were also present in later loci (see A3:23, below). The presence of cooking pots and of numerous animal bones (161 sheep/goat, 2 cow, and 8 large mammal bones) indicates clearly that Surface A3:24 was used for cooking. Additional artefacts, along with several stone tools, suggest that food preparation and spinning were also carried out in Room 122.41 Table 6U. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 122, later phase Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A3:23,24
2 bowls bowl cooking pot 907 ceramic sherds raw materials grinder cube grinder millstone spindle whorl lithic fragments
V119, 121 V152 V187, 188
inverted rim red slip, hemispherical + sherds
TJ 52 TJ 49 TJ 50 TJ 45 TJ 247
carnelian basalt miniature, basalt upper loaf-shaped, basalt ceramic
The position of Soil Layer A3:23 in Room 102, just below the founding level of Wall 1004, and the presence of ash layers, fragments of a clay oven, cooking pots, small bowls, and animal bones (32 sheep/goat and 2 large mammal), suggests that this locus was an accumulation of debris, or a collapsed ceiling, above the earlier cooking area. This soil layer (A3:23) was disturbed by the presence of large amounts of white (5YR 8/1) plaster (A3:21) and 125 pieces of chert flakes, evidence which suggests that this material was produced during the construction of the new inner casemate wall (W1004), probably the result of trimming the wall stones.42 Additional evidence for this Stratum-VIIIA construction is present at the south end of the stone foundation of Wall 1012, which was cut down to form a foundation trench. A second, shallow foundation trench which cut into the upper courses of Wall 41 While the small number of registered finds does not allow for statistical analysis, the same range of finds in greater numbers in Building 300 allow for distribution studies and the identification of activity areas. 42 This interpretation was suggested by L. T. Geraty, July 1989. The same phenomenon is seen in Debris Layer A3:8 in Room 103 where 303 chert fragments were recorded.
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1012 at its north end is the only evidence to suggest the reconstruction at the same time of Wall 1011 along the south side of Building 102. While comparable evidence does not exist for the east wall (W1006) of Building 102, it is clear that these earlier walls (W1006 and W1007), were both still in use during this latest phase. Following repairs to Walls 1004 and W1011, mud brick material was packed into the foundation trenches at both ends of Wall 1012, although the reason for this remains unclear, unless it was just a matter of levelling off the collapsed debris and re-establishing an east wall for Room 102. Room 102 No living surfaces were preserved in Room 102 following the construction of the Stratum-VIIIA inner casemate wall (W1004). Instead, a deep (0.25–0.30 m) layer (A3:17, 8, 5) of soil, broken pottery and artefacts appears to represent the collapse of upper storey rooms, possibly from Building 102, at the end of Stratum VIIIB. In Room 102, there was an accumulation of ash (A3:6; 1.10 × 1.30 m in size), which was located in Soil layer A3:5. Although few bones were associated with this locus (5 sheep/goat), botanical remains were plentiful and consisted of barley, wheat, lentil, coriander, sweet helby, olive pit, and green bean.43 This ash concentration was surrounded by a compact soil layer (A3:5), which may represent the final accumulation before modern times. All associated pottery was Iron II or earlier, suggesting that this fireplace was in use subsequent to the abandonment of the town (see below). Room 202/222 (Figs. 15, 17) To the west of Room 102/122 is Room 202/222, an area with six ovens in use over a period of time.44 The sequence of floor levels and the evidence of two flues in the largest oven (B63:30) point to the use of this room in Stratum VIIIB and possibly in Stratum VIIIA as well. At the same time, the exact contemporaneity of all phases of these ovens with Stratum VIIIB surfaces in R122 was not demonstrated univocally, although the continuation of surface A3:28 was reached in 1995 in the east balk of Square B63 (B63:53). For greater clarity, the 43 Processing of botanical remains was carried out by R. Hubbard of the Madaba Plains Project. These were subsequently revised by R. Low (report unavailable). 44 With additional excavation in the east balk of Square B63 during the 1993 and 1995 seasons, it became clear that there was no north-south cross wall separating the two rooms.
Figure 6.17. South half of Room 202 with ovens and Partition Wall 2019; Inner Casemate Wall 1004 on right.
earlier installations (east to west) will be presented first, followed by a discussion of overlying installations and of those ovens that showed evidence of reuse.45 The earliest Stratum-VIIIB occupation level is represented on the east end of Room 222 by Surface B63:53( = A3.28 + 29), which was exposed in a very limited area (1.00 × 2.00 m). One artefact, a small, round basalt mortar (TJ 1819) embedded in the overlying soil layer (B63:54), identifies the surface as a continuation of the food processing area located in Room 122. Soil Layer B63:54 served later as the underlying support for Oven B63:40, which was in use with overlying Surface B63:46, a bright red mud brick surface (5YR 5/8)46 which covers the 45 A detailed preliminary report (Daviau 1992:148–149) presented the results of the 1991 season. Removal of the east balk in 1993 and 1995 revealed the remainder of Oven B63:40. Presented here are refinements to the stratigraphic sequence and a fuller description of Oven B63:40. 46 The brick material (B63:46) itself contains lumps of nari, chert chips, and char-
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Figure 6.18. Oven B63:29 on left; Hearth B63:32 on right.
eastern half of Room 222. Surface B63:46 was baked hard by the presence of overlying ovens and strained with ash and charcoal. This ash stained surface may be contemporary with soil and ash Layer A3:24 in Room 122 on the east, as both were in use with Inner Casemate Wall 1030. In the western half of Room 202/222, Surface B63:46 continues as Surface B63:44, a hard-packed beaten earth floor stained grayish brown with ash (10YR 5/2). Surface B63:44 runs up to a stone par-
coal, evidence that the soil used to make this floor was collected from the debris that resulted from trimming the stones for Wall 1030.
tition wall (W2019); west of this short wall is Room 225, a small area adjacent to the oven room.47 Oven B63:40: Located at the east end of Room 222 is a pithos oven (B63:40) in position against the west face of a row of support stones (B63:51), mud plaster (B63:52), and brick material (B63:50).48 Oven B63:40 was installed on a hard-packed beaten earth surface (B63:53), and consists of an inverted pithos, ca. 0.55 m in diameter at the shoulder, with its base cut off. This pithos (B63:49)49 was wedged in place with 5 cobblestones (B63:48) packed with plaster, forming a circle 0.71 m in diameter to allow space for the handles.50 Partially fired clay, orange in colour, fills the rim where it is embedded in the underlying fill. The pithos oven (B63:40) contains small amounts of ash and plaster (B63:47), and a lump of iron. In addition, there is an accumulation of very black, oily material (B63:39) that might be decayed organic matter (saved for future analysis), and an inverted cooking pot filled with white chalky lime.51 These contents were sealed with clay that served as the support for a second oven (B63:37), also formed from an inverted vessel. Oven B63:37: Put in position above the fill within Oven B63:40 was an inverted storejar (V218; hippo style), with an interior rim diameter of 8.00 cm. Little can be said about this poorly preserved installation, except that sherds of the storejar were concentrated on Surface B63:46 along with a deposit of ash (B63:45), ca. 0.14 m deep, that extends across Room 222 between Ovens B63:37 and B63:36 and Hearth
47 The function of Room 225 is incomplete, due in part to the fact that the north balk was left in place; only the southern half of Rooms 222 and 225 were excavated to floor level. 48 Excavated during three seasons (1991, 1993, 1995) in the east balk of Square B63, this feature is less well understood than the ovens excavated during the 1991 season. 49 Each oven was given a locus number which represents the entire installation (B63:40). The pithos used as the oven wall, the fill inside the pithos, the support stones, and the plaster also have their own numbers (B63:47, 49, 48, 51, 52, etc.), since the measurements and composition of each component is recorded on a separate locus sheet for greater control. 50 The oven was damaged following the end of the 1991 season, but the handles and shoulder sherds were recovered in place. 51 The presence of lime and lithic debitage may indicate repair to the inner casemate wall.
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B63:32. Above this installation, in the East balk of Square B63, is a deep (ca. 0.38 m) ash accumulation or firepit (B63:47), 0.50 m in diameter, containing fragments of mudbrick and pockets of plaster. Within the ash, there was a piece of oak and lumps of camel dung containing chaff.52 Oven B63:36 (Fig. 6.15): West of Oven B63:37, another storejar oven (B63:36) was built up against Inner Wall 1030 and founded on mud brick Surface B63:46. In position on this surface is a broken, basalt saddle quern (B63:43 = TJ 226; 0.35 × 0.37 × 0.09 m thick), that forms the base rock for the oven. An inverted storejar (V219) with a rim measuring 10.8 cm in diameter was placed on the quern and the upper part of the jar was surrounded with 12 cobblestones and plaster. These stones form the upper edge of the oven while the jar forms the lower wall. The oven is bonded for support with mud plaster to Wall 1030 on the south. Both Ovens B63:36 and B63:37 were subsequently covered by mud brick collapse (B63:22), putting these installations out of use. The storejars used as ovens are similar to one another in ware and form, with rims that identify these jars chronologically as Iron Age II, probably 9th–8th century. Oven B63:32 (Fig. 6.18): Installation B63:32, constructed directly on Surface B63:46, is approximately 0.40 m north of Oven B63:36. This installation is an open hearth or fire pit formed of a circle of 10 medium cobblestones and a reused basalt weight (TJ 222). The stones are partially sealed with mud plaster, which forms the floor of the hearth and was itself covered by an accumulation of ash (B63:33), 0.05–0.10 m deep. The original exterior measurement of Hearth B63:32 was 0.90– 1.00 m. Flotation of Ash B63:33 yielded only one small animal tooth.53 Over time, ash and debris (B63:45) built up on Surface B63:46 and a new floor surface (B63:41) was installed. As a result of this accumulation, certain ovens were modified and new installations were constructed and were in use long enough to stain Surface B63:41 with ash and organic material. On this surface there was a ceramic spindle 52 P. Warnock conducted flotation analysis of samples from the 1993 season and identified the wood as FAGACEAE, cf. Quercus. 53 Samples for flotation from the 1991 season were processed by D. Thomas and C. A. Cullingworth in 1995. Additional samples from these ovens, entrusted in 1992 to R. Low of the Madaba Plains Project, were not analyzed prior to publication; they were returned to the project in 1999.
whorl (TJ 177), a basalt scraper (TJ 173), and an upper loaf-shaped millstone (TJ 198). Oven B63:29 (Fig. 6.18): Built over the eastern edge of Hearth B63:32 is Oven B63:29, a free-standing installation, 0.31 m high and 0.42 m in diameter at its base.54 It was carefully constructed on a flat stone (B63:31; 0.15 × 0.25 m) base. The stone itself is surrounded by a layer of clay (0.05–0.10 m. deep) that supports an inverted storage jar (V216). This jar is blackened on the interior and its fabric is very friable, due to repeated exposure to heat. The base of the jar had been removed and the opening was surrounded by 15 stones, one reused from Hearth B63:32. Inside this stone circle, there is packed clay (B63:19) and several storejar sherds that line the storejar and seal against the stones. The stone circle, thus formed, is also plastered on its outer face and measures 0.38 m at its upper edge. The circle appears to have a single opening on the north side, where the stones form a narrow channel or flue. Flotation of material (B63:19) within B63:29 yielded only sherds from the storejar oven, flint chips and pieces of plaster. Oven B63:30 (Figs. 6.19, 20): The largest and best preserved oven (B63:30) is located near the west end of Room 222, east of Partition Wall 201955 and north of Inner Casemate Wall 1030. Partition Wall 2019 was constructed of one row of small limestone and chert boulders and stands 2–3 courses in height. It abuts Inner Wall 1030 and forms the western limit of a work area adjacent to Oven B63:30. Leaning against Wall 1030, there was half of a cooking pot (V221), adjacent to a group of food processing tools and several animal bones. Table 6V. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 222, earlier phase Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
B63:44
cooking pot 133 ceramic sherds 2 mortars pestle grinder animal bones
V221 TJ 192, 200 TJ 203 TJ 199
Characteristics
basalt, square limestone basalt
54 This installation was damaged by vandalism before it could be excavated systematically. 55 B63:28; see Daviau (1992:148).
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Figure 6.19. Oven B63:30 with stones and plaster around upper edge; plaster seals against Wall 1004.
Immediately east of these remains of food preparation activity is Oven B63:30, which was installed in a depression cut through Surface B63:44. The rim of an inverted pithos (V217) was set in place on this hard-packed surface; the neck and shoulder were supported by stones and soil, and a flue was cut in its shoulder. The oval flue hole is located 7.00 cm from the rim and measures 4.50 × 7.50 cm. The upper part of Oven B63:30 consists of the tapering body of the pithos, for a total height of ca. 53.00 cm. Eight flat stones (ca. 0.16 × 0.26 m), standing on end, surround the upper opening, where the base has been removed. The stones are in turn sealed with plaster to the outer surface of the pithos and to the north face of Inner Casemate Wall 1030.56 56 Although this type of oven is not common at sites in Cisjordan, there are several examples at Hazor that were constructed in the same way (Yadin et al. 1961: pls.
Figure 6.20. Oven B63:30 with pithos body and rim exposed.
Oven B63:30 measures 0.47 m inside the top opening, and 0.60– 0.66 m on the outside (including the plaster and stones), while the largest interior diameter across the shoulder was 0.53 m. The oven had a total interior depth of 0.46 m, from the preserved height of the stones to the inverted pithos rim, and contained, at its lowest level, ca. 0.10 m of layered sherds (B63:17) which facilitated the circulation of heat inside the oven. A basalt pestle (TJ 128) was on top of the layered sherds along with broken cooking pot sherds, and pieces of charcoal. Under the sherds, in the neck of the pithos, there was an astragalus. Both the interior of the pithos and the cooking pots were blackened, although no ash was found inside the oven. Additional cooking pot sherds were broken against the outer east wall of Oven B63:30. Evidence for the use of this oven comes from the friable condition of the pithos which showed repeated exposure to heat57 and from the heat-baked plaster and mud brick material surrounding it. XVII:2, 4; XXIII:2). A full study of traditional and Iron Age ovens is in preparation (Daviau, ed.). 57 Traditional clay ovens still produced in Jordan today have a life span of only 3– 4 years. One might suspect that a fired clay pithos might have a longer life since the original fabric was prepared to withstand the high firing temperatures of the kiln.
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Room 225 Contemporary with these ovens was Room 225, a small work area located west of Partition Wall 2019. This small room (1.75 × 3.00 m) fills the space between Partition Wall 2019 on the east, Inner Casemate Wall 1030 on the south, north-south Wall 2014 on the west, and the south wall of Building 102 on the north (W2020). Wall 2014 runs north and seals against the plaster covering the southwest corner of Building 102, thus providing good evidence for the building sequence of Rooms 225 and 222. The principal surface (B63:35) excavated in Room 225 is of beaten earth and supported only one small mortar. This object may very well have been in use with the ground stone tools found at the west end of Room 222 (see Table 6V, above). Stratum VIIIA Room 202 The clearest evidence for the reuse of Room 222 (as Room 202) during Stratum VIIIA is Oven B63:30, whose upper edge was plastered to the lowest course of stones of Inner Casemate Wall 1004, and the construction of a new partition wall (W2018). Inner Wall 1004 was built on a line that was ca. 0.15 m north of Stratum-VIIIB Wall 1030. This overhang was especially noticeable on the south side of Oven B63:36 that is now below the level of the later wall. West of Oven B63:30, a north-south mudbrick wall (W2018) was keyed into a recess in the Inner Wall (W1004). Wall 2018 consists of cobblestones and brick material that includes chips of flint, organic matter, and plaster, all hardened by the heat of the oven. This wall served as a windbreak and separated Room 202 from work area (R205) to the west. Additional evidence for a second period of use for Oven B63:30 can be identified by the presence of a second flue hole located 10.50 cm from the lower one. The need for an additional opening coincided with a rise in level of the floor in use with this oven. We can only assume that the cooking pot (V220) found in situ in the upper part of Oven B63:30 dates to its final period of use. Additional broken cooking pots were in position against the stones that formed the upper east edge of the oven. At this point, Oven B63:30 was resting against the north face of Wall 1004. In the eastern half of Room 202, an uneven accumulation of plaster (B63:25) built up on Soil Layer B63:34, which seals up against Ovens B63:29, 32, 36 and 37. Adjacent to Wall 1030, Oven B63:36 was cov-
ered with a layer of brick material (B63:22) which may have been the remnants of wall collapse from the superstructure of Wall 1030, that then hardened in place due to heat from the oven. Additional remains of this brick material (B63:20) is evident across Room 202, although the absolute level of Oven B63:29 suggests that it may have been reused with Surface B63:20. Eventually, all of these ovens went out of use and were sealed by a layer of collapse (B63:12). This soil contains lumps of plaster or nari (B63:16), comparable to the accumulation (A3:23) in R122 that resulted from the trimming of limestone blocks to form Wall 1004. Within this soil layer (B63:12) was a large ash pocket (B63:8, comparable to A3:6), suggesting reuse of this area at a later time (see below). Although far from certain, it is possible that these features were contemporary with the latest use of Building 102, since all pottery forms from these loci were consistently Iron Age II. The End of Iron Age Occupation in Field A–B All of the Stratum-VIIIA surfaces and features within Buildings 113 and B100 went out of use at the same time as the fortification system. In Building 113, the latest surfaces in Rooms 108 and R112 were covered with rock fall (A14:11, 12, 16 and 24:4), which was sealed in its turn by Debris Layers A14:5, 7 and 24:5. Immediately south in Room 106, the clearest sign of the final destruction of Iron Age Jawa was the accumulated pottery smashed in situ against Wall 1009, spreading across the top of Mortar A13:23 and Floor A13:12/21.58 Deep accumulations of loess, along with pottery churned up by ploughing from the underlying occupation levels (A13:3, 4, 10), covered the remains of Room 106. Within Soil Layer A13:10 was an unslipped and unburnished krater (V168), which may have been on an upper storey. In Building 102, Locus B64:3, which probably represents a collapsed ceiling, contained an exceptionally large number of ceramic sherds
58 Amid the wall collapse (A13:16) on the east side of Room 106 were two iron points (2074, 2076). Thirteen additional iron arrowheads were found outside the wall system, embedded in the nari Surfaces (A2:7, 9, 30) which sealed against the outer foundation courses of Wall 1003. The location of these weapons, especially those outside the fortification system strongly suggests an attack on the town, although it is not certain that this was the event which brought about the end of Stratum-VIII occupation. As suggested above, the weapons embedded in the glacis may testify to the end of stratum IX and have nothing to do with the Stratum VIII–VII transition. Another possible explanation is earthquake.
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(3369), chert flakes (258)59 and animal bones. This pattern of debris is similar to that in all the rooms along Inner Casemate Wall 1004. The functional interpretation of this debris is more difficult, since it may consist of the collapse of the rooms in the wall system. However, evidence for chronology is supplied by the ceramic remains, which are consistent with middle Iron Age II(B) wares and forms comparable to those from sealed loci, especially from the final phase in Building 300. At or subsequent to the end of this occupation, Inner Casemate Walls 1004 and W1010 collapsed (Debris Layers A3:9 and A13:18), filling Doorway H in the casemate system, while Outer Wall 1002 collapsed onto Surface A2:29 filling Casemate Room 101 with debris (A2:6). Probably at the same time, the stones of Walls 1011, W1005 and W1008 in Building 102 slipped off their foundations and collapsed north onto Debris Layers A4:12, 4:18 and 4:17 respectively. Although the historical cause of Jawa’s destruction remains a mystery, there was no evidence of fire. No clear ash layers, comparable to the accumulation in the deep sounding (Building 50), appears in the debris that seals the upper parts of walls in Buildings 100, 102 and 113. While occupation continued, or resumed, in Fields C and D (Chapters 8, 9), no Stratum VII occupation took place in the excavated area of Fields A–B adjacent to the casemate wall system, with the possible exception of repairs to the wall system and some industrial activities. This may account for the presence of two basins (B44:4 and B53:11) positioned on Inner Casemate Wall 2007, above the south ends of Walls 2014 and W2011 respectively (Chapter 5). The position of these basins suggests that the inner wall was without a superstructure along its inner face at this point, or was part of a larger structure whose function is no longer apparent. Other anomalies in this area include an olive crushing stone (B44:20) at topsoil level, west of Room 207, and a smashed pithos adjacent to Wall 2028, north of Work Area 211. The ware of this vessel was very brittle, unlike any of the wares used to make the more than 50 pithoi typical of Stratum VIII (Daviau, in preparation).
59 The lithic finds from 1989 were identified as unworked and discarded by Schnurrenberger (Herr, personal communication). They may, however, represent debitage flaked off of the tools used to trim the stones of the Inner Casemate Wall.
STRATA VI–III
Some time after the final Iron Age destruction phase, a 1.00 m wide foundation trench (A3:13) was cut into Debris Layers A3:17 (in Room 102) and A3:8 (in Room 103), as well as through the upper, mud brick courses of Wall 1012. The continuation of this trench appears to be represented in Pit A13:15, observed in the western balk of Square A13. Within the trench, large amounts of limestone detritus was exposed, possibly the result of repairs to the wall in Stratum VII, or possibly during construction of later structures on the tell in the Umayyad period, or even robbing of fallen wall stones in modern times.60 No evidence for Umayyad period (Stratum III) building activity in Field A was identified,61 although a collapsed building north of modern Wall 1032 may be an indication of the spread of occupation across the tell during that period. Sherds identified as late Roman or Byzantine appeared in topsoil layers, probably spread by ploughing. Before the 1991 season, occupational remains on the tell from the Umayyad period were not recognized, with the result that all late Byzantine-style pottery was identified as “Byzantine”, without making any allowance for possible Umayyad occupation. Since no subsequent occupation (apart from Byzantine-Umayyad) occurred on the tell before modern agricultural activities began, it was a surprise to discover one Fatimid sherd from Topsoil Layer A3:3 (Pail 7).62 STRATUM I The undisturbed appearance of the soil and surface vegetation on the slopes of the tell (A1:6 = 2:2, A2:1, A2:19, A3:1) and above the walls of the fortification system (W1002, W1004) in Field A seems to indicate that this accumulation had changed little in the intervening millennia. Topsoil A2:19, with its covering vegetation, sealed up against displaced
60 The early 20th century AD settlement of Jawa to the east of the tell shows reuse of building stones from the Iron Age site and from a Byzantine site in the area. Numerous dressed stones with crosses carved in relief are indicative of this collection of building materials from abandoned structures 61 A small number of Umayyad sherds were present in topsoil layers, although these may have been deposited at any time since the construction of Building 600 in Field D. 62 Unfortunately, this sherd was not registered. Another remnant of the Medieval period is V1201, an Ayyubid painted jar.
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boulders of the inner casemate wall and was present on the crest of the tell under the modern field wall (W1031), demonstrating the depositional sequence in this area. Ceramic sherds in these loci were mixed, including late Roman, Byzantine, and Umayyad with Iron II forms dominating the field readings. The latest activity on the tell is represented by a series of ploughed fields within the lines of the modern field walls that run east-west and delimit familial property rights. In Squares A4 and A14, red terra rossa added to the fields to increase their fertility produced a very compact soil layer now embedded in the plough zone. In recent years, windblown soil layers (A3:3, 4:1, 13:1, 2, 14:1 and 24:1) accumulated between the ploughed ruts formed in underlying soil layers and piled up against the north face of Inner Casemate Wall 1004 = 1010. The date for the construction of the modern field walls above the line of the ancient walls in Fields A–B is not known for certain although it seems apparent from aerial photographs taken in 1981 that these walls, along with all other field walls on the tell, were already in existence. Because the tell was being cultivated at the time of Glueck’s survey in 1933, it is probable that some walls were already in place, although he does not mention them. According to the principal land owner, Mr. Hamad Talafiya, the walls indicate property lines and not . just field clearing activities (oral communication). These modern walls appear to be formed by the reuse of ancient building materials even though they contain a larger proportion of chert boulders than the ancient walls, where uncut chert boulders represented only 10–15 % of the wall stones. Numerous quarry marks in the bedrock out-croppings that extend to the south and west of the tell are evidence for the source of much of the ancient stone (see Chapter 12, below). Evidence for the build up of wind blown soil was also present against the face of Wall 1001, which runs northwest-southeast through Squares A1–11 and B62 at the foot of the tell. This accumulation (A1:1) was subsequent to recent bulldozer activity that cut into and removed the lower slope exposing, and partially destroying, retaining Wall 1001. Prior to the bulldozer activity, the bedrock may have been covered with an earlier revetment comparable to that still visible on the north (Field E) and southeast (Field C) sides of the tell (Chapters 5, 7, and 9).
FIELD B – BUILDING 200
History of Excavation With the discovery in 1993 of Drain B24:24 at the southwest corner of the site, it became imperative to expose the structures immediately inside the town to determine the origin of the drain and the types of structures associated with it. Excavation in Squares B34–B35 completed the investigation of the casemate wall system (Chapter 5), and exposed four rooms of a building (B200) adjacent to Outer West Wall 2023. In the following seasons, Squares B45, B55, and B65 were also opened, in order to establish the connection of this area of the town with the large cooking and storage complexes further east in Buildings 100 and 102. Excavation along West Wall 2023 began already in 1992 in an attempt to identify the style of fortification system in place along the west side of the town, since only one wall line was visible at ground level. The discovery in 1993 of an “inner” casemate wall (W2004 + W2029) with doorways which opened into rooms on the east provided evidence of a different pattern of room arrangement for Building 200,63 when compared to Building 300 on the north, where there was no direct access to the casemate rooms. Even though Building 200 was not completely excavated, the floors of three rooms were reached with interesting results for our understanding of the range of Iron Age II architecture and for the relative chronology of occupation during Strata VIII and VII, especially in the style of ovens (see Room 212, below). Building Plan (Fig. 6.21) Building 200 has a unique plan for a Stratum-VIII house at Tall Jawa. It is the only structure which incorporates two casemate rooms (R213, R215) into its plan, with a doorway (B) leading directly from the main room (R212) into the casemates. The only other case where there was direct access is Doorway H in Building 113. The best examples of this pattern are seen in the Stratum-VII houses at Beer-sheba.64 In each of these cases, the back room of the house forms a single casemate room, and the outer wall is that of the house proper rather than a continuous Field reports were prepared by L. Cowell and R. DeFonzo. A group of 5 houses of the four-room type in Stratum VII at Beer-sheba are classic examples (Herzog 1984: figs. 7–11, Buildings 2524, 2060, 2309, 2358, 2356). 63 64
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Figure 6.21. Building 200 in Field B.
wall line independent of the rooms built up against it. Somewhat later at Tell Beit Mirsim, houses were located up against a previously existing outer wall. In this case also the back room of each house formed one or more casemate rooms (Albright 1943: plan 3). Rooms The rooms framed by the southwest corner of the fortification system include Building 200 and Casemate Room 210.
Table 6AA. Room Size and Proportion in Building 200, and Casemate Room 210 Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
207 208 209 210 212 213 215
3.75 -?– 1.50 1.60 2.70 2.00 1.90
-?– -?– 3.75 8.35(?) 4.50(?) 3.75(?) 2.50
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
.40 .19 .60 .53 .76
2007, 20112022 2028 2004, 2005, 2022, 2031 2001, 2002, 2009, 200665 2004, 2029, 2028, 2031 2023, 2030, 2029, ? 2003, 2004, 2030, 2023
Range of sizes (omitting Rooms 207, R208) Width Length
1.50 → 2.70 2.60 → 8.35
average – 1.96 m average – 4.59 m
(omitting Room 210) Length
2.60 → 4.50
average – 3.65 m
The casemate rooms on the west (R213, R215) are both ca. 2.00 meters wide, while casemate Room 210 on the south measures 2.00 m wide at its east end, but decreases to 1.40 m on the west. Because it was not excavated to floor level, the full length of Room 210 may not be an accurate measurement; this space may be divided in two by a partition wall, as was the case with Rooms 213 and 215 (Partition Wall 2030). Room 209 of Building 200 was somewhat narrower than the casemate rooms, being in the range of 1.50 m wide. Room 209 and Casemate Room 213 were both 3.75 m long, although the full length of Room 213 remains uncertain. The same uncertainty exists for Room 212, where no east wall was located within the excavated area. Doorways Two doorways with dressed stone jambs cut the inner casemate walls on the west (B) and on the south (A). Doorway M, in the northeast corner of Room 209 was more typical in that it was framed by the end of one wall (W2022) and the perpendicular face of another (W2031).
65 The solid stone fill between Outer Wall 2009 and Inner Wall 2006/2007 formed the east end of R210.
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Table 6BB. Location and Width of Doorways in Field B (west) Doorway
Room
Width (m)
A B C K M
210, Channel 218 212, 213 213, 215 210, Channel 218 (early phase) 207, 209
1.00 0.75 0.90 1.90 0.70
Average width—1.05 m (all Doorways) Average width—0.84 m (without Doorway K)
Doorways A and K both served as entrances into Casemate Room 210. The true size (1.90 m) of Doorway K during Stratum VIIIB remains tentative, because of the rebuilding activities evident along Drain Channel 218. Blocking Wall 2000 appears to reduce the width of Doorway K in half with Doorway A in use during the final occupation phase (VIIIA). Walls Wall sizes for domestic and industrial rooms are anomalous because the Inner Casemate wall served as house walls, which are compared with other interior walls in the house. Table 6CC. Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 200) Wall 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 = 2007 2022 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
90
100 130 120 125 110
× × ×
×+ ×
125
×
×
The walls associated with the casemate system are all in the range of 1.00 m or more thick. The narrowest wall (W2030, 0.50 m) is a cross wall between Casemate Room 213 and 215. The least sturdy wall dividing two rooms along its entire length appears to be Wall 2031,
which was built of stacked-boulder pillars and cobblestone connecting units standing full height. Wall 2031 was also damaged; it appears to buckle midway along its length so that the central pillar juts out, leaning to the north. Stratigraphy The only excavated feature in Field B that is assigned to Stratum IX is the solid wall with Passageway 219, which cut through the wall, just north of the southwest corner. No floor levels of buildings contemporary with Passageway 219 were exposed. The principal occupation phase for Building 200 is Stratum VIII, with fragmentary evidence for rebuilding evident in Drain Channel 218. Table 6DD. Strata for Field B-Building 200 STRATUM
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI VII VIIIA VIIIB IX X
1 no remains pottery, artefacts pottery (?) no remains no remains no remains 2/repairs 3/casemate wall 4/solid wall pottery only
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Iron I
STRATUM VIII Construction and Use of Building 200 North and east of Drain Channel 218 are the remains of a single house (B200) and an industrial work area (211). House 200 fills the space between the channel and the inner casemate wall on the west, incorporating its rooms into the house. During the final season of excavation in 1995, the Stratum-VIII floors were reached in Rooms 209 and R212. Since these rooms were built in association with the Stratum-VIII casemate walls and drain, a single occupation phase will be described.
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Figure 6.22. Building 200, with relevant locus numbers.
Room 212 (Figs. 6.22, 23) The principal room appears to be Room 212, a rectangular space that extends east-west and leads into the casemate rooms (R213, 215) at the back of the house. Among the rooms in Building 200, Room 212 is the largest (2.70–2.75 × 4.50 + m), due in part to the fact that the eastern wall was not exposed during excavation. Along the north side is a major east-west wall (W2028), which extends 12.50 m east from Inner Casemate Wall 2029 until it forms a corner with Wall 2027. At
Figure 6.23. Looking south into Room 212 in Building 200.
a distance of 3.00 m west of this corner is a single monolithic pillar (B45:2), which measures 0.45 × 0.56 × 1.50 m in height, comparable to Pillar C17:13 (Chapter 8). This pillar may have served as a ceiling support for an upper storey room. Unfortunately, no additional information is available, due to the limited exposure of the north face of Wall 2028. This extra-long boulder-and-chink wall (W2028), built of small and medium boulders, may have been the support for the ceilings of more than one room, leaving the question of the length of Room 212 still unanswered. The south wall (W2031), between Room 212 and 209, is formed of stacked-boulder pillars, positioned 0.70 m apart, and consisting of small and medium boulders. The spaces between the pillars are filled with cobblestone connecting units standing full height. Both the pillars and the cobblestone wall units are capped by large and very large limestone slabs. Built up against its north face and filling the southwest corner formed by Wall 2031 and Inner Casemate Wall 2004 is a group of installations including two ovens and an L-shaped partition wall (W2039). All of these installations are embedded in a hard-packed
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Figure 6.24. Oven B34:54 at left and Pithos Oven B34:50 at right.
beaten earth surface (B35:29) which is heavily stained with ash in an area measuring 1.05 × 2.00 m in front of the ovens. The Ovens (Fig. 6.24): Two ovens (B34:50 and B34:54), each with its own construction style, were set side by side against the north face of the south wall (W2031). The larger (B34:50) of the two ovens is located in the southwest corner (Fig. 6.25). Its footing consists of a group of stones embedded to a depth of 0.10–0.15 m into beaten earth Surface B35:29. Positioned above these stones was an inverted pithos body, 0.50 m in diameter and preserved 0.60 m in height. Although the rim66 and base of the pithos had been removed, the diameter and the presence of the handles reveal that the entire shoulder and upper body were used to 66
rim.
Among the six ovens formed from pithoi, Oven B34:50 is the only one without its
Figure 6.25. Pithos Oven B34:50, in situ.
form the oven.67 Evidence that the pithos had been cut to these precise measurements is apparent on examination of the oven wall and of the broken sherds recovered from inside. When in use, the oven was round and had an opening only at the top. Packed between the outer wall of the oven and the surrounding house walls were a basalt saddle quern, ceramic sherds, cobblestones and mud plaster (B34:58). Such packing was common for ovens formed of inverted vessels (B63:30, E63:10). Inside Oven B34:50 there was a number of pithos sherds forming the floor above the foundation stones. These sherds were covered by a 0.10 m deep accumulation of ash (B34:51), which filled the bottom of the oven. Botanical remains within the fine fraction of this ash sample include malva, grape, legumes (peas and beans), and barley.68 This ash was covered in turn by soil and stones (B34:49) that appear to
67 This same treatment of a pithos for use as an oven is seen at Tall al-#Umayri in Phase 9 (late Iron I; Lawlor 2000: fig. 3.20). Although Lawlor (2000:38–39) thinks that this oven fell from an upper storey, the oven itself shows the fracture pattern that is typical of a ceramic vessel used as an oven; its fragility would have resulted in its complete breakage if it had fallen from above. 68 My sincere thanks S. Ellis-Lopez for floating our samples and to D. McCreery for his identification of the botanical material from the 1995 season.
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Figure 6.26. Clay Oven B34:54, in situ.
have fallen into the oven when the surrounding walls (W2004, W2031) collapsed, breaking the upper edge and wall of Oven B34:50 on its north side. East of Oven B34:50 is a second oven (B34:54), also in place against Wall 2031 (Fig. 6.26). Oven B34:54 is set in position on a chert slab (0.30 × 0.40 × 0.11–0.15 m thick), which serves as a support stone (B34:56). This stone is itself surrounded by cobblestones, which hold it in place; in addition, the stones probably provided insulation for the oven. Support Stone B34:56 was severely burnt indicating high heat levels in Oven B34:54.69 The oven itself is horseshoe-shaped, and was hand built of clay; it measures 0.30–0.36 m wide, 0.36 m long and was preserved 0.15–0.31 m in height. Shortest on its northern side where it was broken by rockfall (B34:48), Oven B34:54 was probably cylindrical when is use, with a single opening at the top. Where it was complete, the clay oven was 1.40–1.60 cm thick and had a finished rim at the top. On the outside, the oven was surrounded by stones, including 69 Support stones under Ovens C27:63 and C27:68 were stained with ash and also showed signs of burning. However, the damage to Support Stone B34:56 was much more serious and suggests higher heat levels. The recovery of “slag” from soil sent to the sifter points to craft activity that may have required increased temperatures.
one flagstone (0.28 × 0.40 × 0.05 thick), potsherds and an upper loafshaped millstone standing vertically; this support is packed in mud plaster (B34:59). Adhering to the north side of Oven B34:54 is an accumulation of clay-like material that appears to seal a 10.00 cm flue hole located immediately above Support Stone B34:56. On the outside, the hole is plugged with pebbles and soil. Whether the sealing of the flue represents a change in function for this oven at some time during its use could not be correlated with the material preserved in the surrounding ash accumulation, although the pieces of slag-like material recovered from the ash and from flotation of soil samples suggests some kind of industrial activity. Inside the oven was a 0.32 m deep accumulation of ash (B34:55) and the oven wall itself was crumbly, badly damaged by the heat. On the east side, a 0.60 m deep accumulation of ash (B35:24 + 26) filled the space between Oven B34:54 and Partition Wall 2039. This L-shaped Partition Wall was formed of 1–2 rows of large cobbles and small boulders set into Surface B35:29. When found, this feature stood 2– 3 courses high and its lowest course extended west toward the oven. Both this stone course and Partition Wall 2039 itself were covered with ash. It appears to have served both as a windbreak and as a retaining wall for ash from Oven B34:54. Oven B34:54 was the only one of its type among the 14 ovens exposed in Fields A, B, and E that date to Stratum VIII. The closest parallels are twin ovens C27:63 and C27:68 in Stratum-VII Building 800 in Field C.70 This fact, and the style of Oven B34:50, which did not have its rim and neck attached, suggests that these ovens were some of the latest Stratum VIII features built at Tall Jawa. At the same time, their construction techniques indicate the short transition period to Stratum VII. Additional features which suggest domestic activities, especially food preparation, include a limestone mortar located north of Oven B34:50, a second mortar on the surface (B35:21) in Doorway B, and cooking pot sherds in position on surface B35:29. A second installation (B35:28) is located in the northwest corner adjacent to Doorway B and opposite Oven B34:50. This feature includes a narrow, L-shaped Partition Wall (W2038), built of one row of cobblestones forming the eastern and southern limits of a packed earth shelf. Unfortunately, only a handful 70 Rim fragments (D12.45.4) of a comparable oven were recovered from Building 700 in Field D. These sherds were 3.40 cm thick and had a finished rim.
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of sherds were found here, not enough evidence to determine with certainty the function of this feature. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Soil Layer B35:23 = 27, containing pebbles, ceramic sherds, a basalt pestle (TJ 2089), fragments of a basalt quern, and a spindle whorl (TJ 2053), seals Surface B35:29. Packed hard by rockfall, Locus B35:23 = 27 is covered by additional soil (B35:20) that may represent the collapsed ceiling in Room 212. Although destroyed in antiquity, Building 200 was not burnt, with the result that ceilings are only evident when marked by the presence of plaster or scattered artefacts as on a surface. All organic remains within the ceiling makeup, such as wooden beams and reeds, decomposed with time. By contrast with Room 209 on the south, the collapsed ceiling in Room 212 was more difficult to distinguish. The presence of numerous artefacts and a high sherd count (835) in this overlying rockfall and soil layer (B35:20) do suggest an upper storey room, as in Room 209. Certain finds, such as a small limestone trough (TJ 1606) and a chert pounder had fallen with ceiling material into Doorway B. Table 6EE. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 212, upper storey Locus
Finds
B35:20 + 835 ceramic sherds 35:14 trough mortar 2 pestles grinder millstone pounder point
Reg. No.
Characteristics
TJ 1606
limestone basalt basalt basalt loaf-shaped, sandstone chert iron
TJ 1387, 1388 TJ 1386 TJ 1343 TJ 1523 TJ 1371
Additional rockfall (B35:7, 15) yielded similar finds, 729 sherds, 1 basalt pestle (TJ 1283), 1 grinder (TJ 1256), and 1 upper loaf-shaped millstone. Casemate Room 213 (Fig. 6.22) Doorway B leads directly from Room 212 into a pair of casemate Rooms (R213 + R215). This doorway is framed by two sections of the inner casemate wall, Wall 2004 on the south and Wall 2029 on the north. Each wall end is reinforced with dressed limestone boulders, somewhat larger than the undressed stones that comprise the remain-
der of these walls;71 on either side of the doorway, these walls remain standing 1.50–1.66 m above Surface B35:21 = 29. The position of a doorway in the middle of a wall line is rare at Tall Jawa; the more typical position is in a corner, where the entrance is formed by the end of one wall and the face of a perpendicular wall, for example Doorways C and M.72 The anomaly of Doorway B may be explained by the fact that Casemate Rooms 213 and R215 were an integral part of Building 200, itself a rarity at Tall Jawa. Room 213 is framed on the west by Outer Casemate Wall 2023 and on the east by Inner Wall 2029. On the south, Partition Wall 2030 and Doorway C separate Room 213 from Room 215. Partition Wall 2030 abuts Outer Wall 2023 and extends east 1.00 m, leaving a space of 0.90 m for Doorway C.73 A few missing wall stones suggest that this wall stub (W2030) was probably incomplete at a height of only 0.75 m above floor level; it may have had additional stone courses or a mud brick superstructure, since large amounts of brick material were present in the collapse. The debris immediately above floor level was reached in Doorway C (B25:28) and north of Wall 2030 (B25:24). Only the uppermost layers of collapsed wall stones (B25:9, 10) were removed in the remainder of Room 213 while additional layers of rockfall (B25:19) were left in situ. Casemate Room 215 (Figs. 6.22, 27) South of Doorway C is the southernmost room of the western casemates (R215). At this point, Outer Wall 2023 again serves as the west wall of the room, while the east wall (W2004) runs south from Doorway B and bonds with east-west Wall 2003 to form the south wall of Room 215. Both of these walls are more than 1.00 m thick, which indicates their importance in the defensive system and makes it likely that they supported a superstructure of one or two additional floors. Floor level was reached in Room 215, revealing a beaten earth surface (B24:37). Although Room 215 provides no evidence of an oven, its proximity to Room 212 with its two ovens made the casemate room 71 This same construction was used at numerous sites including Tell el-Far#ah (N) (Chambon 1984: fig. 6c). 72 A good example of this same style of doorway in the corner of a room formed by perpendicular walls is seen at Hazor, between Room 44a and 14a (Yadin et al. 1960: pl. VII.1). 73 In Field B, Square 63, Doorway G was formed by a comparable partition wall (W2017), which separated Casemate Room 200 from Room 201.
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Figure 6.27. Casemate Room 215 with Doorway C on left and Doorway B in upper left.
an ideal place to store ceramic vessels in use with these ovens. Indeed, the sherds on the floor and in the overlying soil layer (B24:36 + B25:28) include a heavy concentration of cooking pot ware. Table 6FF. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 215 Locus
Finds
B25:26 + 843 ceramic sherds B24:36 cooking pot sherds fibula tray rubbing stone point chert nodule loom weight 2 weights
Reg. No.
Characteristics
TJ 2217 TJ 2214 TJ 2210 TJ 2216 TJ 1678 TJ 1680 TJ 2218, 2219
copper/bronze basalt iron unfired clay, burnt unfired clay loom weights
Clear evidence of collapse was visible in the section through the debris that accumulated in Room 215. Rockfall smashed down on ceramic vessels resulting in tip lines that slope sharply from west to east. Between each layer (B24:15, 16) were lenses of plaster (B25:25) and pieces of mud brick, probably originating from the superstructure of the fortification system. Plaster layer B25:25 appears to represent a ceiling that
served as the floor of an upper storey room. Preserved on this surface were ceramic sherds, a basalt pestle and 2 upper loaf-shaped millstones (TJ 1628) and a faience bead (TJ 1628). This in turn was covered by another layer of rockfall and mud brick material which is sealed by an upper layer of plaster (B24:15 = B25:22). This surface appears to represent the roof of Casemate Room 215 that was itself used for domestic activities. Above Surface B24: 15 + 16 were a small group of domestic tools including a basalt millstone (TJ 980), a saddle quern (TJ 1000) and a polishing stone. These tools were surrounded by burnt ceramic sherds, consisting primarily of cooking pot sherds. The function of the casemate rooms in Building 200 was certainly related to the activities carried out in the rest of the house, especially to the use of the ovens in Room 212. Although there is no direct access between R215 and R209, there is evidence for the same kind of textile manufacturing equipment in both rooms, although the smaller number of loom weights in Room 215 suggests that here they were in storage. Room 209 (Fig. 6.22) The north and south walls of Room 209 were constructed after the inner casemate walls were in place. The south wall (W2005) of this room abuts the southeast outside corner of Room 215, formed by Inner Casemate Wall 2004 and Crosswall 2003. The result is a continuous wall line (W2005 + W2003) that serves simultaneously as the south wall of Building 200 and the north wall of Drain Channel 218. On the west, Inner Casemate Wall 2004 serves as the back wall of the room. On the east, a single doorway (M) ran through short Wall 2022 into R207. From within Room 209, there is no direct access to Room 212 on the north. A surface of hard-packed earth (B34:31) forms the floor, which seals up against the surrounding walls to a height of 0.10–0.20 m and is packed into the corners. Patches of this mud plaster were present on the north face of Wall 2005 to a height of 0.75 m above the floor. We do not know whether this wall face was completely covered, although this is likely in view of the presence of Drain Channel 218 along its south face. Stains and ash on the floor surface suggest a variety of activities including food preparation. Botanical remains recovered from the surface consist of 10 grape seeds, 1 chenopod, wheat, and Pistachia atlanticus (McCreery). Although no actual oven was found in Room 209, the presence of two ovens in Room 212 to the north indicates the proximity of a cooking area. This is consonant with the presence of
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cooking pot sherds and ash in Room 209 itself. Also on the floor was a lamp, providing evidence that this was a roofed room. Beside the lamp was a group of unfired clay loom weights, a smashed pithos and other ceramic vessels. Table 6GG. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 209 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
B34:30–31
juglet V203 = TJ 1879 lamp cooking pot sherds pithos sherds 480 ceramic sherds 7 weights TJ 1841–1846 1881
Characteristics intact
unfired clay loomweights
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Within Room 209 were two superimposed layers of brick material, soil and wall stones, indicating an upper storey room (B34:28 + 29) and a roof (B34:15). The presence of a considerable amount of mud brick, unusual in the houses of Tall Jawa, points to a single, massive collapse of the superstructure of the house. In Room 209, it is not possible to identify a second period of use with a clear floor level. Instead, the mud brick material was scattered across the room, broken into clumps and embedded in the ceiling that was immediately above the ground floor artefacts. Included in this collapse were numerous artefacts, especially tools used in processing and preparing food. Table 6HH. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 209, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
B34:28–29
455 ceramic sherds pendant mortar mortar grinder millstone 2 querns 2 pounders jar stopper murex shell spindle whorl
TJ 1813 TJ 1786 TJ 1749 TJ 1796 TJ 1801 TJ 1752, 1753 TJ 1750, 1793 TJ 1745 TJ 1812 TJ 1818
pumice limestone basalt, reused millstone basalt upper, loaf-shaped basalt, saddle querns chert ceramic limestone
The second superimposed soil layer (B34:15), which was identified as the roof, was extremely hard-packed along the west wall (W2004), and included brick material in which mortar lines were visible.74 In this uppermost locus there was a basalt pestle (TJ 1730), a grinder (TJ 1734) and a small square mortar (TJ 1737). The presence of a single murex shell in the second storey assemblage and the purple-stains on the basalt grinder (TJ 1734) from the roof suggests additional craft activity, possibly related to the textile tools uncovered on the lower floor of Room 209. Room 220 (Fig. 6.22) Located parallel to Rooms 209 and R212 and North of Wall 2028, Room R220 was not excavated below the level of its collapsed ceiling (B35:9). This ceiling was marked by the presence of hard-packed soil with pieces of chert and worked bone inlay (TJ 1218). On the basis of the pattern seen in Rooms 209 and R212, we would expect a series of rooms to be built up against Inner Casemate Wall W2029, with access into additional casemate rooms. Although this may in fact have been the case, the northern and eastern limits of Room 220 were not exposed during excavation. Room 220 may have been connected with a second room that extended east along Wall 2028, as far as the corner with Wall 2027. Room 208 (Fig. 6.28) Along the south side of Wall 2028 is Room 208, only partially exposed during the 1994 season. This room appears to form the eastern extremity of Building 200. Wall 2028, which serves as the north Wall of Room 212, is also the north Wall of Room 208. Due to the limited excavation in this area and the presence of balks which remain unexcavated, the evidence for the use of the upper storey room was limited to an accumulation (B55:1) of pithos and krater sherds smashed in place at the south of Wall 202875 along with several ground stone tools.
74 This hard-packed material (B34:15) and the underlying locus (B34:27) were located in a restricted area along the west side of Room 209. These loci may represent the eastern extent of collapse from inner Casemate Room 215 that had a different composition than the roof over Room 209. 75 The absolute level of these sherds (923.85) was 2.00 + m above the floors in Rooms 209 (921.65) and R212 (921.78) and 0.80 m above the final level (923.05) of Work Area 211 to the east.
–
Figure 6.28. Building 204, Work Area 211, Room 207 and R208.
Table 6JJ. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 208, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
B55:4, 7
worked stone tray mortar grinder spindle whorl
TJ 1304 TJ 1308 TJ 1307 TJ 1305 TJ 1306
limestone basalt basalt reused as a mortar, basalt ceramic
Room 207 (Figs. 6.22, 28–29) Excavation in Square B44 revealed a single room (R207) built up against the Inner Casemate Wall (W2006). Located between Room 206 on the east and the head of Drain Channel 218 on the west, Room 207
opens into Room 209 through Doorway M. Only the southeast corner of Room 209, formed by Walls 2005 and W2022, marks the western extent of Room 207. Due to the limits of excavation, the north wall of Room 207 was not exposed, although there is clear evidence that this had been a roofed room adjacent to or part of Room 208 on the north. Wall 2011 of Room 206 constitutes its eastern limit. On the south, the Stratum-VIIIB phase of Inner Casemate Wall 2006 extends below the earliest exposed floor (B44:18) in Room 207. This hard-packed, beaten earth surface was only uncovered in a 1.50 m probe that produced Iron Age II painted pottery, a basalt grinder (TJ 987) and animal bones. While these finds suggest typical domestic activities, the limited exposure is insufficient for determining the function of the entire ground floor room. Also on this surface, and surrounded by collapsed ceiling material, was an ash deposit (0.85 × 1.38 m, and ca. 0.52 deep) that contained pieces of charcoal, mud bricks and burnt pottery. Although other suggestions are lacking, this may have been a cooking area. However, no univocal evidence was preserved to suggest that this accumulation marked the position of an oven, hearth, or pit. The ash was located against the north face of Inner Wall 2006 and east of the stone spillway (B44:22) at the head of Drain Channel 218. Unfortunately, this location does not do anything to clarify the deposition history or function of the ash. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Fallen on Surface B44:18 were two superimposed ceilings (B44:14 + 15 and B44:11). The floor of the second storey room (B44:14 + 15) was marked by extensive rockfall, firm soil and a lens of firm plaster against the west face of Wall 2011. The use of this surface in an upper storey room is suggested by the presence of several artefacts and a significant amount of broken pottery. Table 6KK. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 207, upper storey Locus
Finds
B44:14 + 871 ceramic sherds B44:15 scraper stone raw material pounder 2 points hook
Reg. No.
TJ 840 TJ 838, 839 TJ 869, 931 TJ 837
Characteristics bone limestone, polishing green stone chert iron metal
–
Figure 6.29. Building 204 and Work Area 211 with relevant locus numbers.
Additional rockfall was sealed beneath the collapse of the uppermost ceiling, or roof (B44:11). That this was in fact the roof is supported by the discovery of a roof roller (TJ 814) among the artefacts and mendable pottery (1258 sherds) scattered throughout the overlying soil layers (B44:9–10). Whether all of the finds from these loci can be assigned to activities carried out on the roof is difficult to determine due to the subsequent collapse (B44:8–7) of the fortification system and modern agricultural activity that disturbed the uppermost soil layers (B44:2, 1).
Table 6LL. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 207, roof level Locus
Finds
B44:9 + 10 B44:11
1258 ceramic sherds roof roller small trough mortar mortar figurine 2 whorls 2 points
Reg. No.
Characteristics
TJ 814
limestone limestone miniature limestone zoomorphic, fragment ceramic, spindle whorls iron
TJ 782 TJ 750 TJ 826 TJ 793, 794 TJ 787, 788
Work Area 211 (Figs. 6.29, 30) An area (R211) immediately west of Building 102 was exposed only in the southern 3.00 m of Square B55. Its eastern limit is Wall 2032, the exterior west wall of Building 102, while the southern limit is the north wall (W2015) of Rooms 203 and 206, although a balk was left in place between these units. On the west are north-south Wall 2027, and Rooms 207 and R208. A beaten earth Surface (B45:8) that runs along the south side of Wall 2028 is assumed to be part of Room 208, because it did not yield the same kind of artefacts as the surface in Work Area 211. This distinction suggests that Surface B45:8 was adjacent to or within Building 200, whereas Work Area 211 was outside the house. Work Area 211 may very well have been unroofed, given its location between the two principal buildings (B102 and B200) in the southwest sector of the tell. Its finds distinguish it from enclosed rooms, which are characterized by a heavy concentration of food processing and preparation tools. Here in the work area, there was a series of superimposed soil layers (B55:19, 20, 21), above a hard-packed surface (B55:22), all of which were stained gray (10YR 5/2) due to a heavy accumulation of ground basalt. These layers contained a minimum of 93 broken basalt artefacts, along with 8 chert pecking stones. Sixteen complete artefacts, possibly manufactured from the broken millstones, were also recovered from this area (Fig. 6.31). Table 6MM. Pottery and Artefacts in Work Area 211 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
B55:19, 20 + 21
561 ceramic sherds mortar TJ 1287 2 pestles TJ 1289, 1290 2 grinders TJ 1291, 1292
Characteristics basalt basalt basalt
– Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
6 millstones millstone saddle quern 3 anvils pounder pecking stones
TJ 1294–1299 TJ 1293 TJ 1300 TJ 1301–1303 TJ 1288 TJ 632 = L-524, TJ 873, TJ 1521, L 429, L 510, L 598, L 658, L 690
upper, loaf-shaped, basalt lower, basalt basalt stone working surfaces chert chert
2 metal points
TJ 1309, 1310
iron
Along with the registered artefacts, there were 14 additional pieces of upper loaf-shaped millstones and 10 saddle quern fragments. These finds in Area 211 indicate extensive refashioning of broken millstones and querns into hand grinders, pestles, and small mortars. Tools for this work consisted of chert pounders and pecking stones along with stone working surfaces (anvils). The layering evident during excavation suggests an area used over a considerable period, allowing for the build up of wind blown soil and debris from the grinding process. Such a suggestion implies that Work Area 211 was an open court, although it was certainly surrounded on the east, south and west by roofed rooms and was within the size range for a roofed space (4.50 × 5.00 m between flanking walls). Work Area 211 went out of use and was sealed by a series of hardpacked surfaces (B55:10, 12 + 16) that included a limestone mortar (TJ 1235), a basalt pestle (TJ 1192), a limestone millstone (TJ 1195) and broken pottery. These soil layers along with Rockfall B55:18 may represent the collapsed ceilings from the upper storey rooms of Building 200 on the west and the Stratum VIIIA collapse of Building 102 on the east. Uppermost (B55:4 + 6, 7) was the continuation of the smashed pithoi located at the southeast corner of Wall 2028 (R208 above). BUILDING 204 Excavation History (Fig. 6.1) Excavation along the north face of the inner casemate wall (Square B53) in 1992 exposed this wall at a point where it forms a solid foundation for Tower 2013 (Chapter 5). Excavating further north in 1993 (Square B54), two small rooms (R203, R206) built up against the wall and against the southwest corner of Building 102 were cleared.
These rooms shared a party wall with Room 205, to the east. These two rooms were without doorways, suggesting that they were entered from above. Building Plan (Fig. 6.28) Rooms 203 and R206 are located south of Work Area 211 and east of Room 207; they seal up against the north face of Wall 2007 = Tower 2013 (Chapter 5). At this particular point along the inner casemate wall, there are no rooms in the casemate, only a solid stone foundation that is a component of the second construction phase (VIIIA) of the wall system. The complex sequence of construction techniques is difficult to unravel; only the presence of a sharp break in the continuous wall face of the inner casemate wall, clearly seen at the point where the eastern wall (W2014) of Room 203 runs south through the inner wall (W2007), suggests that Wall 2014 preceded the other walls of Room 203. At the same time, Wall 2014 abuts the south face of Wall 2020 at the southwest corner of Building 102. Table 6NN. Room Size and Proportion in Building 204 Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
203 206
2.00 2.60
3.75 2.75
.57 .94
2014, 2015, 2016 2015, 2016, 2011
Range of sizes Width Length
2.00 → 2.60 2.60 → 2.75
average – 2.30 m average – 2.68 m
The ratio of width to length clearly shows that Room 206 was practically square, rare among the rooms in Fields A–B, where long narrow rooms are the dominant shape. Surprising is the fact that no doorways are present, either between these rooms or with adjoining Room 207 and Work Area 211. The question that this evidence poses is the manner of access. Assuming that these rooms were entered from above, how were the upper storey rooms connected to Room 225 or 207 to make this access possible? It is possible that access could be had from a room in Tower 2013, however there is no evidence for stairs from the tower or from any adjoining room.
–
Figure 6.30. Broken artefacts on surface in Work Area 211.
Table 6PP. Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 204) Wall
40
2011 2014 2015 2016
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
×+ ×
90 ×+
100 ×
Wall 2015 serves as the north wall of both rooms. This wall also abuts Building 102, sealing up against the west, plastered (B54:12) face of Wall 2032. At its west end, Wall 2015 bonds with north-south Wall 2011, the west Wall of Room 206, and forms a corner marked by a very large limestone boulder. Dividing the two rooms is Wall 2016, which abuts both Wall 2015 on the north and the inner casemate wall face (W2007) on the south. The rooms within these walls measure only 2.00 × 3.75 m (R203) and 2.60 × 2.75 m (R206), slightly larger than the average width (1.96 m), but smaller that the average length (3.65 m) of rooms in Building 200. Stratigraphy Only one phase of occupation is represented by the floor surfaces in Building 204, Stratum VIIIB (Fig. 6.29, 31, 32). This judgment is based
Figure 6.31. Work Area 211 in relation to Building 204.
on the position of Wall 2016, which extends under the later phase of Inner Casemate Wall 2007. At the same time, there is nothing to suggest that these rooms did not continue in use during Stratum VIIIA, except for the lack of clearly defined superimposed surfaces. The sequence of deposition was similar in both rooms. Underlying the hard-packed beaten earth surface in Room 203 was a make-up layer of plaster and ash (B54:17). Although not as elaborate, a makeup layer of pebbles and small cobbles (B54:16) was exposed in part in Room 206. Each room was paved with a beaten earth surface (B54:13 = R203 and B54:14 = R206) that seals against the surrounding walls. Smashed on these surfaces by fallen wall stones were several
–
Figure 6.32. Building 204 looking East.
mendable vessels along with a modest number of food preparation tools. Table 6QQ. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 203 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
B54:9, 13
bowl V228 587 ceramic sherds 2 grinders TJ 803, 810 spindle whorl TJ 792
Characteristics red slip basalt ceramic
Table 6RR. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 206 Locus
Finds
B54:11, 14
cooking pot sherds juglet decanter 277 ceramic sherds whetstone 2 mortars
Reg. No.
Characteristics
V227 V201
red slip painted
TJ 885 TJ 880, 916
sandstone basalt
Pottery and Chronology The sherd material in Room 203 is quite different from the pottery in Room 222/202 to the east, where cooking pots and food preparation utensils and tools were in clear evidence. Instead, Room 203 contained a corpus primarily of bowls (51 %), kraters (12 %), and jugs (11 %), with 61 % of the entire corpus having some type of surface decoration. In addition, 5 % of the pottery was black burnished ware, more typical of Stratum VII, but representative of high status vessels. Apparently, this room was used for the storage of ceramic vessels, since so little in the way of artefacts and ecofacts were recovered.76 For the most part, the ware form types from Rooms 203 and R206 were comparable to those in Buildings 102 and B200, although few fully mendable vessels were recovered. Several pithos rims retained collars (B54:26.7, B54:26.8), indicative of early Iron Age II, while sherds of a flask (B54.49.15 + B54:53:10) and of a tripod, perforated cup (B54.41.6 + B54.41.12) are similar to those from Building 300 (Stratum VIII). Bowls with thickened rim and ridge/bar (V228) found between the stones of Wall 2015 are typical of forms that span Stratum VIII–VII. The red slip and burnishing on these bowls points to Stratum VIII rather than VII, where this form appears in black burnished ware. Summary The construction history in Field B reveals a sequence that gives priority to the construction of the casemate wall system. Building 200 was constructed when the inner wall and Drain Channel 218 were already essential features of the town plan. The relationship of Work Area 211 to the drain is less clear, although water may have been a necessary element for the refashioning of broken basalt artefacts into new ground stone tools. In the case of Building 204, the north face of Tower 2013 forms the back wall of both Rooms 203 and 206, and east Wall 2014 cuts through the inner casemate to form the eastern perimeter of the tower. This integration of rooms and features of the casemate system with the adjoining buildings is not represented in the Stratum-VIII building complex (B300) in Field E to the north.
76
Brenda Silver undertook the research on ceramic distribution.
FIELD E: THE DOMESTIC COMPLEX (1992–1995) BUILDING 300
Introduction The largest Stratum-VIII domestic complex is located in Field E. This is the designation for the northwest sector of the grid, where Squares E1–E61 are adjacent to Field B (Squares B10–B70), while Squares E71–91 are north of Field A (Squares A10–A30; Fig. 7.1). Along the west side (B23–E24), the tell is only ca. 66.00–70.00 m wide and the line of the fortification system is clearly visible above the present surface. Also visible in Field E are several modern property walls, some consist of stones piled up above the casemate system (W3051), and other walls run east-west across the tell. A very large (ca. 0.90 × 1.40 m) limestone boulder (E23:2), with two circular depressions on its upper surface, was found leaning against fortification West Wall 3050; it was probably an industrial installation. Although found in association with a tether stone and the Iron Age II walls, the date of these installations could not be determined.1 They remain, like the press in Field L, some of Tall Jawa’s mysteries. Beyond the Outer North Wall (W3006), the tell slopes steeply toward the north where it is cut by a modern road. Along this scarp (E58– 78), the bedrock and overlying soil layers are visible as are sections of a retaining wall (W3023). Depressions in these soil layers and natural caves in the bedrock itself hint at the presence of Iron Age tombs or installations. Exploration of this slope in a trench which ran north 18.00 m (E55–E57) from the south edge of Inner Casemate Wall 3000 revealed instead the construction techniques of the fortification system 1 E. Meyers examined installation E23:2 during an ASOR-CAP inspection tour in 1994 and noticed a semi-circular relief on one of its long faces. This suggested to him the garland decoration on stone-carved sarcophagi. If this function was the original intended use, this stone certainly ended up fulfilling a very different purpose. However, the observation by Meyers puts the date of this feature in even greater doubt.
Figure 7.1. Excavation Grid in Field E.
and its glacis, without answering any of our other questions concerning the original surface outside the wall and its appearance in antiquity. However, this investigation did coincide with the primary research strategy designed to define the characteristics of a walled town in Iron Age II, and to test the hypothesis that the wall system was a royal project, built to protect a strategically located settlement on the southern flank of the Ammonite kingdom.2 2 Subsequent excavations at Jalul (Younker et al. 1996:73) and preliminary results of the Wadi ath-Thamad survey demonstrate that the southernmost border of the Ammonite potting tradition with its characteristic double disc bases on bowls and juglets appears to run between sites on either side of the Wadi ath-Thamad, 30 k south of Tall Jawa. While this evidence may extend the border of ancient Ammon, the strategic location of Tall Jawa and its proximity to #Amman indicate its usefulness as a defence of the Ammonite core or heartland.
History of Excavation Excavation began in 1992 with three squares (E55, 56, 57) as part of a sampling strategy designed to investigate the extent and style of the casemate wall along the north side of the tell (Chapter 5). Prior to excavation, such sampling was deemed necessary because the West Wall (W2023 = 3050) appeared to be a single wall rather than the outer wall of a casemate system, even though two parallel walls could be identified at other points around the tell. Secondly, the presence of Iron Age structures adjacent to the inner casemate wall face in Fields A– B on the south side of the tell (Chapter 6) suggested that this pattern was characteristic of Iron Age town planning at Tall Jawa. To test this hypothesis in Field E, Square E55 was positioned across the inner wall face (W3000) of the casemate system to expose a small area adjacent to it on the south. The goal was to investigate the relationship of the defensive wall system to structures located in the northwest quadrant of the site. The results of the 1992 season showed that the inner casemate wall face (W3000) served as the back wall of an adjacent work area that contained a shelf/bench and an assemblage of domestic artefacts and pottery (Room 302A; see details below). Following analysis of these finds, Field E was expanded in subsequent seasons along the south face of Wall 3000 in five squares (E44, 54, 65, 75, 76)3 and in a second row of squares further south (E53, E63–64, E74). With the discovery in 1993 of a narrow passage (R309) that ran perpendicular through the casemate wall in Square E76 (Chapter 5), it was apparent that the domestic complex (Building 300) extended east only as far as the west wall (W3016) of Passageway 309. For the 1994 and 1995 seasons, the excavation strategy was to expose the western and southern outer walls of Building 300 in order to clarify its plan and establish the type, style and function of the building and of its individual rooms. Functional analysis of all artefacts and their distribution within the architectural space was planned to further define activity areas, and correlate those areas with the room arrangement within the building. In 1994, it became evident that certain rooms within Building 300 had successive floor surfaces preserved
3 Due to the topography of Field E and the position of the wall system in relation to the location of the squares, balks were established on the north and west sides rather than on the north and east as in Field A.
within rooms that had undergone minimal rebuilding. Additional excavation was undertaken beneath the floors identified in 1993 and balks were removed to expose entire rooms and uncover each floor level in its entirety, to the extent that time allowed.4 STRATUM IX The Fortification System and earliest Occupation The clearest evidence for Stratum IX activity in Field E is the construction of North Wall 3006 that was exposed above ground along the entire north side of the tell. While it is certain that this defensive wall preceded the complete casemate system of Stratum VIIIB (Chapter 5), it could not be ascertained whether the area inside the Solid Wall was occupied. In Field E, there was no Stratum IX architecture uncovered beneath Stratum VIII remains in Building 300, since bedrock was used as the footing for walls and work areas. Only under the floor of Casemate Room 301 was there the remains of pithoi smashed against the south face of North Wall 3006 that could be assigned to Stratum IX. However, in style these vessels are homogeneous with the Stratum VIIIB jars in Building 300. STRATUM VIII With the construction of an inner wall to form a casemate system of defence, occupation appeared to spread across the tell, completely filling the enclosed area. The principal structure in Field E was Building 300. Building Plan (Fig. 7.2) Building 300 is the only structure excavated in the northwest quarter of the tell. Located immediately inside the inner wall of the casemate system, this structure consists of five rooms built up against the defensive wall (Rooms 302, 303, 306, 312 + Bin/Room 321, 313).5 Additional 4 Field reports for the 1992–1995 seasons were prepared by Robert Hutson, Margaret Judd, Stanley Klassen, Lynda Manktelow, Paul Sodtke and Tracy Wilson, who served as field supervisors. 5 A sixth room on the west (R304) also abuts Wall 3000 but appears to be outside Building 300 (see detailed discussion below). Only additional excavation within the
Figure 7.2. Building 300.
rooms immediately to the south (Rooms 305, 307, 308, 314, 324, 326) all appear to have been an integral part of the same structure, although Building 300 may in fact be more than a single house. The northern rooms are separated from one another by six parallel walls (W3001, W3003, W3005, W3011, W3025, W3016), which run southeast, generally perpendicular to the inner face of Wall 3000. In some cases, cross walls abut these walls (W3011, W3025) as they extend south, forming the perimeter of more than one room. The eastern end of Building 300 is enclosed by Wall 3016, the west wall of Passageway 309. The west side was not as clearly marked due to the presence of Room 304 that appears to be either outside of Building 300, or an abandoned room. The full length of this building, excluding Room 304, is ca. 20.90 m. Although by the end of the 1994 season the full width had not been exposed, Building 300 appeared to contain at least 11 rooms and consist of more than 213 m2 of living space.6 northwest corner of the tell will fully explain the function of this area and its association with neighbouring structures. 6 In 1995, only the southern 2.00 m of Square E53 in Room 318, and the west end of Corridor 319 were added to the total floor space. This calculation does not include the cistern room.
Rooms Within Building 300, any space that is enclosed by at least three adjoining walls is identified as a room. Due to the central location of Cistern 13 of Stratum VIIIA, several rooms do not have a solid wall enclosing them on the fourth side. If the fourth wall is not present, measurements are taken at a right angle from the maximum extent of the existing walls. Of the 16 rooms in Table 7A, only one (R312A + B) was relatively square while all others were rectangular (see Table 7A for ratio of width to length). Certain areas around the central cistern (R308 + 326, R324, R325), and rooms only partially exposed (R318, R322, R323), are not included in Table 7A. Table 7A. Room Size and Proportion Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
302 303 304 305 306 307 312(A) 312(B) 313 314 + 327 315 316 317 319 320 321
3.00 3.00 2.20 2.50 2.00 1.70 3.50 2.75 2.20 2.75 2.00 1.00 2.60 1.00 0.70–0.80 1.10
5.00 4.70 ? 4.50 3.75 3.10 4.00 3.20 6.00 6.75 3.00 2.00 4.30 5.00 2.35 2.40
.60 .63 ? .55 .53 .54 .87 .78 .36 .40 .67 .50 .60 .20 .33 .45
3000, 3003, 3005, 3013 3000, 3001, 3004, 3003 3000, 3001, 3002, ? 3004, 3001, 3024, 3035 + 3037 3000, 3005, 3030, 3011 3007, 3013, 3024, 3039 3000, 3011, 3025, ? 3000, 3025, 3043, 3041 3000, 3016, 3025, 3026 3027, 3028, 3036, 3043? 3031 = 32, 3033, 3034, 3035 = 37 3024, 3034, Doorways B, J 3026, 3027, 3048, 3016? 3033, 3038, 3040, 3047 3008, 3011, 3030 3011, 3042, 3028, Doorway N
Range of Sizes (omitting Rooms 304, 312(A), 316, 319, 320) W L
1.70 → 3.00 m 3.00 → 6.75 m
average – 2.46 m average – 4.43 m
Range of Sizes (omitting Rooms 304, 312(B), 316, 319, 320) W L
1.70 → 3.50 m 3.00 → 6.75 m
average – 2.32 m average – 4.51 m
Doorways By the end of the 1994 season, there were nine doorways visible within the building complex (A–I, L), with another (K) only partially exposed. Several different styles of doorjambs were in use simultaneously; for
example Doorway L has two dressed stone wall ends on opposite sides of the entryway, Entrance G consists of stacked boulders forming flanking pillars, Doorway I in Room 305 has the north face of Wall 3031 as its southern doorjamb and the south end of Wall 3001 as its northern jamb. Table 7B. Location and Width of Doorways Doorway
Room
Width (m)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P
303, 305 305, 316 302, 307 302, 306 302, Cistern 13 302, 320 305, 315 303, 305 304?, 305 319, Corridor 316 313, 314 + 327 314, 325 314 + 327, 317 308, 326 319, ?
1.10 1.00 0.70 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.90 0.90 1.00 0.85 0.65 0.60 1.00 1.00
Average width - 0.846 m.
Of the fifteen doorways identified during excavation, Doorways B, F, J, N and P are at the end of narrow rooms or corridors and extend the full width of the room. Of these entrances, all (except Doorway P) are constructed between parallel walls. Of these, all are in the size range of 1.00 m except Doorway F. Without these doorways in our calculations, the average width is 0.79 m. The most common location for a doorway is in a corner where it is framed by two perpendicular walls, such as Doorway A between Wall 3001 and the end of Wall 3004, and Doorways C, D, H, I, K, M (Fig. 7.2). This choice of location had a long history at Tall Jawa and is seen also in Stratum VII structures. Only Doorway G, which leads into the centre of Room 315, and Doorway E into the cistern area are located in the middle of a wall line.
Walls The major support wall for Building 300 was Wall 3000, the inner wall of the casemate system, which ran along the entire north side of the tell and measures ca. 1.30–1.60 m thick. This wall consists of three rows of medium (0.50–0.75 m) and small boulders, chinked with cobblestones. Within Building 300, Wall 3000 stands to a height of 2.20–3.00 m above floor level. Seven walls within the building and the west wall of Room 304 (W3002) abut the south face of Wall 3000. Of these eight walls, six were built of limestone and one of chert in boulder-and-chink construction and the eighth, Wall 3005, consists of large boulders (ca. 0.75 m) stacked on one another to form pillars that are connected by cobblestone wall units.7 This style is seen already in the Iron Age I house at #Ai where rough boulders were stacked to form pillars which were linked to one another by boulder-and-chink partition walls (Callaway 1970: fig. 6). Table 7C. Wall Thickness in centimetres (Building 300 only) Wall 3000 3001 3002 3003 3004 3005 3007 3008 3009 3010 3011 3012 3013 3014 = 3028 3016 3024 3025 3026 3027 3029 3030 3031 3032
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
90
100 140
× ×
× ×+ × ×
×
×
×
×
× ×+ × ×
×
×
×
×+
×
×
× ×+
7 Although only one of the walls built up against Casemate Wall 3000 was of stacked boulders, this style was more common as a dividing wall within the domestic units in Field E and around Cistern E64:13.
Wall 3033 3034 3035 3036 3037 3038 3039 3040 3041 3042 3043 3044 3045 = 3008 3047
40
45
50
55
× ×
×
65
70
75
80
90
100
×
× ×
×
× ×
60
× ×
× ×
×
Walls in the fortification system are not included here. The limestone boulder-and-chink walls (W3001, W3002, W3003, W3011, W3016, W3025) that abut Casemate Wall 3000 are all in the range of 0.70–1.00 m thick, load-bearing walls that can easily support an upper storey, although irrefutable evidence for upper storey rooms is lacking for some rooms. These walls consist of boulders chinked with cobblestones in a two-row construction. Each wall is stone built for a considerable height above floor level without any evidence of mudbrick superstructure. A typical example is Room 313 where Wall 3016 remains standing 2.25 m above Floor E76:16. By contrast, secondary interior walls sufficient for roof support measure 0.55–0.70 m thick. Besides the difference in thickness, there is also a marked difference in construction techniques employed in the design of these secondary walls. In several cases (W3004, W3005, W3007), the wall was formed of stacked boulders that could have supported wooden pillars up to ceiling level. A third style of roof supporting wall was built of a single row of flat-topped boulders (W3024; Fig. 7.2). In this case also, such a wall could have supported wooden or stone pillars, although there is at present no positive evidence for the pillars themselves in Field E.8 Pillared walls of this style would allow for light and air to circulate into the surrounding rooms. Partition wall (3030) and low walls surrounding Cistern E64:13 (e.g. 3009, 3012) are even narrower (0.40–0.55 m thick). While the large 8 See above, Field A, Building 102, where collapsed stones appear to have been pillars supported on Wall 1005.
boulders at the ends of Wall 3013 and 3008 may have supported wooden pillars, it is not clear that partition walls were intended to reach ceiling height. They may have been designed for safety in the cistern area, rather than for room division or roof support. The presence of these three types of walls, sometimes enclosing a single room, and the arrangement of doorways between rooms strongly supports the view that this was one, or at most, two houses sharing party walls. Stratigraphy The construction, use and abandonment of Building 300 appears to date to the middle Iron Age II (B) (Stratum VIII). No subsequent occupation occurred at this location during the late Iron Age II period (Stratum VII), contemporary with Building 800 in Field C or B700 in Field D (Chapter 8). Nor were there any architectural remains from the early Islamic period (Stratum III), even though there are several structures to the east (Field F; Fig. 1.2), whose pattern of collapse appears similar to that of Building 600 in Field D, prior to its excavation (Chapter 8). Serious disturbance of debris in Room 314 and partially robbed out walls (W3036, W3043) suggest a major transformation at the end of Stratum VIIIB, possibly at the same time as the digging of Central Cistern E64:13. Two occupation phases of Stratum VIII (B, A), distinguished clearly in Rooms 302, 303 and 306, were represented by sequential living surfaces rather than by distinct construction levels.9 In Rooms 303 and 304, certain walls (W3001, W3002), first identified with the later floor levels of Stratum VIIIA, were seen to be the same walls in use during the earlier phase (Stratum VIIIB). In some cases the phasing is difficult to determine due to the construction style employed in Building 300, where walls were built in short segments that abut rather than bond with perpendicular walls (e.g., W3032, W3033, W3047, see Chapter 12). Particular problems will be discussed on a room by room basis. The ceramic remains and the artefact assemblages from the rooms in Building 300 were exceptionally rich. Floors were covered with as much as 0.30–0.65 m of smashed vessels, artefacts and ecofacts. For 9 The distinction between major construction phases and the local resurfacing of certain rooms, along with the simultaneous abandonment of other living areas, has been recognized by several scholars as a major factor in the archaeological record (Schiffer 1987:89; Voigt 1983: 11–12).
the rooms in which such assemblages were completely uncovered, an attempt is made in their description to list all vessels and artefacts. While there was a certain amount of contamination from the sherd material included within the beaten earth ceilings which collapsed into these rooms, the vessels listed represent the minimum number that could be partially or completely reconstructed and clearly identified in primary context. In order to do justice to the archaeological record, this housing complex is divided into three sectors, the western unit (a group of rooms that lead into one another (R303, R305, R315, R316, R319) along with two rooms further west (R318 and R304); the central unit (R302, R306, R307, R308, R324, R326, and Cistern E64: 13 in Stratum VIIIA); and the eastern unit (rooms along Passageway 309 (R312 + 321, R313, R314 + 327, R317, R323). While we have not found evidence for two phases within each room, discussion of individual rooms will begin with the western unit where this sequence (Strata VIIIB and VIIIA) was evident in Room 303. Table 7D. Strata for Field E STRATUM
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI VII VIIIA VIIIB IX X
1 pottery only pottery only pottery (?) no remains no remains no remains 2/repairs 3/casemate wall 4/solid wall pottery only
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Early Iron II Iron I
STRATUM VIIIB The earliest occupation in Field E is represented by the founding of walls on bedrock and the filling of depressions in the bedrock to create level floor surfaces. Bedrock itself was uncovered in Rooms 302 and 314. A gravel fill that served as floor makeup was exposed in Rooms 302 and 303. In the northernmost rooms, walls and floor surfaces ran up to Inner Casemate Wall 3000 and sealed against it.
Figure 7.3. Excavation Grid in Field E.
The Western Unit: Rooms 303, 304, 305, 315, 318 (Fig. 7.3) Three parallel, broad rooms (R303, 305, 315) are located along the west side of Building 300. The northernmost room (R303) is the largest (3.00 × 4.70 m), while Room 315 on the south is the smallest (2.00 × 3.00 m), because it shared its space between the principal eastern (W3024) and western (W3032) walls of the unit with Corridor 316 (Table 7A). Due to the limits of excavation in Field E, it remains unclear whether Building 300 was a single free-standing structure or adjoined another domestic complex further west. Secondly, the relationship of Rooms 304 on the west and R318 on the south to Rooms 303 and R305 in Stratum VIIIB remains unclear, since Square E43 was not excavated, with the result that the south end of Room 304 remained undefined. In addition, no exterior wall was identified on the west and south sides of the building.
Figure 7.4. Building 300, Room 303 + 304, showing makeup (E44:12) under earliest surface (E44:11); row of cobbles (E44:13) at base of W3000.
Room 303 (Fig. 7.4) The Stratum VIIIB construction phase of the western unit was located only in Room 303.10 Locus E44:12 = E54:57 consisted of two layers of cobblestones, the first of medium size stones (0.12–0.18 m), then small cobbles covered by a layer of pebbles (0.03–0.06 m) and surrounded by hard-packed soil that served as makeup for the earliest floor (E44:11 = 54:32). Visible within this makeup was a row of stones (E44:13 = 14) along the base of the inner casemate wall face (W3000); these stones may represent either the lowest course of the wall itself or, more likely, a technique used as a support for the earliest surface at the point where it sealed against a major wall.11 These cobblestones (E44:13 = 14) were sealed first by the upper pebble layer of Makeup E44:12 and subsequently by the floor of Room 303.
10 Bedrock (E64:50) and a makeup layer (E54:49) were also identified in Room 302 located in the central unit, see below. 11 At the time of excavation, it appeared that Cobblestones E44:13, 14 were fill within a foundation trench for Inner Casemate Wall 3000. Because there was no other evidence for a foundation trench, another explanation was sought. This feature is comparable to the single row of cobblestones (E56:8) set against the outer casemate
The Stratum VIIIB floor (E44:11) consists of a beaten earth surface laid above the pebbles of makeup Layer E44:12. While its western continuation was not located below Wall 3001, and may have been further west in the area of Room 304, Floor E44:11 extends east over the entire room (as E54:32) as far as Wall 3003. This surface consists of very brown soil (10YR 6/4) with orange flecks and random pockets of charcoal and ash. There was a substantial patch of ash in the extreme northeast corner along with several smaller ash lenses scattered across the room. This evidence points to a considerable amount of burning, presumably for cooking purposes. This interpretation is further supported by the presence of a large patch of ash (E54:40; 0.42 × 1.08 × 0.02 m thick), immediately above Floor 54:32. This ash was associated with a hearth formed of a circle of stones embedded in the floor surface. A group of severely burnt cooking pot fragments found on Floor E54:32 suggests that this area was used for cooking over a considerable period of time. Other finds embedded in or lying on the floor surface consist of artefacts, lithics and animal bones. Table 7E. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 303(B)12 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E44:11/7 54:32/31
saucer 3 bowls 3 bowls 3 bowls 3 kraters 2 cooking pots 16 + pithoi
V422 V479, V480, V483 V478, V481, V482 V431, V484, V485 V416, V433, V473
red slip red slip, knobs red slip
storejar juglet lid 1275 ceramic sherds bead ring/earring pin/needle knife 2 flakes 1 blade mortar
V439, V459–468, V470–472, V475–476 V438 V423 V378 TJ 1219 TJ 1151 TJ 1233 TJ 1029 L612, L620 L625 TJ 1031
hole mouth red slip mushroom shape faience bronze utilized
wall face (W3006) at the level of sloping Plaster Surface E56:10, which was sealed in turn by Plaster Layer E56:7 (see also, cobbles along face of W1012 in B113). 12 M. Judd prepared the initial quantification of pottery and objects for Rooms 302, 303, 305, and 306.
Figure 7.5. Building 300, Room 303, with pottery in situ on Surface E54:31. Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
4 grinders
TJ 1018, 1021, TJ 1026, 1154 TJ 870, 1013, 1022 TJ 962, 1032 TJ 808, 1012, 1025, 1028, TJ 1109, 1143, 1226 TJ 1006 TJ 1249 TJ 899 TJ 824 TJ 1024
basalt
3 millstones 2 querns 7 pounders point figurine head stone weight stone tool animal bones animal teeth
upper, loaf-shaped basalt, saddle querns chert iron zoomorphic limestone, perforated unworked basalt stone
In the debris (E54:31 = 44:7) immediately above the floor, was a collection of pottery that consists mainly of storage vessels, especially pithoi (at least 16 were identified) and storejars, mixed with fine red slipped bowls, a ceramic footed-bowl, jugs and juglets (Fig. 7.5).13 The assemblage of chert pounders, basalt grinders, millstone fragments, a quern 13 This pottery was mended in the Near Eastern Archaeology Laboratory at Wilfrid Laurier University by students employed by the Ontario Work Study Programme.
and a large mortar suggests that food was prepared, stored and cooked here. Metal tools include one iron point as well as a knife (TJ 1029) with part of the handle still attached. The knife was positioned beside the skeletal joint of an animal, one of 15 animal bones in this locus. All the finds from the 1993–1994 seasons confirm the functions attributed to Room 303 in 1993, namely cooking, storage and food processing (original research by M. A. Judd, unpublished). The depth of this accumulation of soil, cobblestones, pottery and artefacts was ca. 0.52–0.67 m. Wall 3004 is a short wall between Doorways A and H that separates Room 303 from Room 305 to the south. The wall itself is formed of three stacked-boulder pillars connected by units of wall consisting of two rows of cobblestones (Fig. 7.6).14 The wall is preserved to a height of 0.56–0.74 m and measures ca. 3.00 m long. One boulder at the eastern end of Wall 3004 serves as the western frame of Doorway H and is coated with plaster (E54:56) on its vertical face. Although pottery on Floor E54:32 appeared initially to continue under Wall 3004, it became clear during excavation that the cobblestone units had slumped onto the floor at the time of destruction sealing the pottery in place. The material on the floor was covered by a hard-packed soil layer (E54:19), which contained a succession of plaster surfaces, visible only in patches across the room. These surfaces may have constituted a ceiling or, more likely, a Stratum VIIIA floor that was subsequently damaged when it too was destroyed (see below). Pottery and Chronology While many ceramic vessel types do not have good parallels from sites in western Palestine, the pithoi with rolled rims and the hippo style storejars with rounded bases from Room 303 are identical to those from Field A, Building 113 (Daviau 1992: fig. 7). The best date for the storejar forms appears to be between the 860 BC and 732 BC horizons (Hazor, Str. Xb-IX; Yadin et al. 1961: pls. CLXXII:10; CCXI:3). Jars with a similar shape continue to appear throughout Iron Age II at Tall Jawa. The best parallels for the hippo jars are those from Horvat . Rosh Zayit, although these are dated to the 10th century by Alexandre 14 The use of stacked boulders/drums that supported wooden pillars was common in the Iron Age I buildings at Shiloh. Here too, the pillars were connected by low cobblestone walls that served to separate rooms from one another (Finkelstein, Bunimovitz and Lederman 1993:23, figs. 2.13, 2.18).
Figure 7.6. Building 300, Room 303 in background, Room 305 in foreground; Room 302 on right.
(1995:86–87). At the other end of the chronological spectrum is a vessel from Tall as-Sa#idiyya (Pritchard 1985: fig. 9:12) that is assigned to Stratum VI (early 8th century BC). A second chronological indicator for the pottery from Field E Stratum VIII is the high percentage (36.3 %) of red slipped and red slipped and burnished pottery. This is in contrast to Building 800 in Field C, where the percentage is much lower (11.2 %), suggesting a 7th century date for Stratum VII (Daviau 1993).15 Room 305 (Figs. 7.3, 6) Room 305 is located immediately south of Room 303 and has a broadroom plan. Two doorways (A and H) lead from Room 303 into Room 305 at either end of Wall 3004 (see above), which is plastered along its south face (see E54:19, 56). The wall plaster is 0.025 m thick and contains a considerable amount of organic material. Although plaster coating on wall faces appears in other rooms within Building 300, it does not appear anywhere else in Room 305 or in Room 315 to the south. 15 These data are based on a count of Stratum VIII vessels recovered during the 1992 and 1993 seasons.
Figure 7.7. Building 300, Room 315, Oven E53:23.
The east side of Room 305 is formed by Wall 3024, which consists of a single row of medium to large boulders, in the 0.60–0.75 m range, fixed in place by cobblestones.16 Two distinct units comprise the south wall (W3037, W3035), one on either side of Doorway G, which is located between stacked-boulders E53:9 and E53:10. Altogether in these two walls, there are three pillars formed of medium size (ca. 0.49 m) boulders stacked in two or more courses, and standing ca. 0.61–0.75 m in height. Each boulder is rounded in shape and held in place by a few chink stones. On the east of Doorway G, Pillars E53:10 and E54:8 are joined to one another ( = W3037) by a low mud-brick bench (E53:19), 0.31 m in height and 0.43 m in width. The height and composition of this unit makes it clear that it was the stacked-boulder pillars that supported the ceiling in this room and may have served as a type of pillar base with an additional support, possibly in wood, set between the upper boulder and the ceiling. An accumulation of collapsed mud brick and stone above Debris Layer E54:51, which rested in turn on Floor E54:53, suggests that Bench E54:19 may originally have stood higher and served as a connecting 16 This wall (W3024) is comparable in construction style and width to Walls 1005 and 1008 in Building 102 in Field A.
Figure 7.8. Building 300, Room 305, Mortar E53:54, and bench with loom weights in situ.
wall in its own right. On the west side of Doorway G, in Wall 3035, Pillar E53:9 stands 0.54 m in height and is connected to west Wall 3031 + 3032 by another mudbrick connecting wall/bench (E53:22) that is only 0.28–0.43 m in height. The function of these low wall units was probably to give support to the stacked boulders and allow light and air to circulate between Rooms 305 and 315. Along the west side of Room 305 was the continuation of Wall 3001 with Doorway I located in the southwest corner. The bottom elevation of this section of wall suggests that it was also a Stratum VIIIA construction with the result that the true size of Room 305 during Stratum VIIIB remains unclear. The earliest floor (E54:53 = E53:27) in Room 305 was a hard-packed beaten earth surface stained with nari and ash pockets. The greatest concentration of ash (E53:24) in Floor E54:53 = E53:27 was immediately north of Oven E53:23, which was in position against the north side of mudbrick Bench E53:19 in Wall 3037. This oven consisted of an inverted cooking pot (V415), broken at the point of carination, and buried in the floor surface (Fig. 7.7). The oven (V415) was supported by eight small stones, three of which were broken basalt tools (2 millstones and a small quern fragment), sealed in place with packed mud. A few animal bones were also associated with the oven.
In the southwest corner of Room 305, in front of Wall 3035, were two slabs of stone, possibly a shelf/bench (E53:26; 0.18 × 0.86 and 0.18 × 0.93, respectively). When found, it appeared that these horizontal slabs had been stacked one on top of the other and that the upper slab had slipped out of position when Room 305 was destroyed. Behind and underneath these dislocated bench stones were 8 unfired-clay loom weights (donut-shaped) and one flat perforated stone disk, objects which indicate textile production in the area (Fig. 7.8).17 A limestone boulder mortar (E54:54), 0.55–0.63 m in diameter, was embedded in the floor surface (E54:53) north of bench/shelf E53:26. This mortar is comparable to Mortar E54:38 located in the earliest floor (E54:41) of Room 302 (see below). Smashed in situ on the rim of Mortar E54:54 were sherds of red slipped bowls, jugs, juglets, ordinary cooking pots and pithoi. A funnel18 whose spout fit snugly into the neck of the typical Stratum-VIII storejar was located north of the mortar. Additional sherds of vessels in use with Floor E54:53 were contained in Debris Layer E54:51 which covered the floor and its installations. All the pottery dates to the early Iron II and middle Iron II periods. Table 7F. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 305(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E54:51, 53 + 53:20, 27
2 bowls bowl bowl 2 bowls krater krater cooking pot pithos jug jug flask
V412, V414 V437 V430 V325, V427 V429 V418 V413
red slip no slip burnished, vertical rim red slip, knobs, V427 = paint small, smudged large, pink interior
V314 V321 V303
small, red slip, paint red slip small, painted
17 Unfired clay loom weights of similar shape and size to those in Room 305 were common at other Iron Age sites. One such group was located in the domestic buildings in Area B at Hazor where they are dated to Stratum VA (740–732 BC; Yadin et al. 1960:63; pl. XVIII:2). Another group of 34 unfired loom weights from Tell el-Far#ah (N) date to a somewhat earlier period (Stratum VIIB = 10th century BC; Chambon 1984:12; pl. 76:1). For a typological study and additional comparative material, see Daviau (2002:191–197). 18 Funnels similar in form are known from Gibeon (Pritchard 1964: figs. 33:16; 48:16), Tell en-Nas.beh (Wampler 1947: pl. 77:1775) and Tall Dayr #Alla (Franken 1992: fig. 5–3:11).
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
funnel 1253 ceramic sherds tripod mortar shell 3 pestles grinder 3 grinders pounder 8 weights stone disk point
V436 TJ 1547 TJ 2228 TJ 1596, 1597, 1600 TJ 1598 TJ 1653, 1619, 1688 TJ 1652 TJ 1669–1976 TJ 1668 TJ 1613
Characteristics
basalt Arcularia gibbosulus basalt sandstone basalt chert clay, unfired loom weights limestone, perforated iron
Pottery and Chronology The pottery in Room 305 is homogeneous with that in Room 303, although this could also be said of the somewhat later material from Stratum VIIIA. In fact, these two occupation phases must have followed each other quite quickly as the rooms in Building 300 seem to have retained similar functions over the two phases. The presence of Mortar E54:54 in the floor of Room 305 is no guarantee that it was part of the earliest phase of Building 300 (Cf. Mortar A13:23 which was embedded in the second phase floor of Building 113). This occupation phase came to an end with the collapse of the ceiling and stones (E54:51) from the surrounding walls. In spite of this destruction, occupation resumed in Room 305 and in Room 315 to the south. Room 315 The Stratum VIIIB phase of Room 315 was not exposed during excavation. From the Stratum-VIIIA configuration of this room it is clear that there had been a doorway in the southeast corner that led originally to Room 316 and was blocked (W3034) in Stratum VIIIA. If Wall 3034 was itself part of the redesign of the entire area after Stratum VIIIB was destroyed, then Room 315 would have been 4.60 m in width, a broad room with two doorways (G, B) like Rooms 305 and R303. For a discussion of its final occupation phase, see Stratum VIIIA below. Room 304 Doorway I in Room 305 led west into the south end Room 304, a space surrounded in Stratum VIIIA by Casemate Wall 3000 on the north and Walls 3001 and 3002 on the east and west sides respectively. As we saw earlier, Walls 3001 and 3002 were not in use with the
earliest, Stratum- VIIIB floor (E44:11) in Room 303, although the western wall associated with this floor was not recovered. A deep debris layer (E44:9 = E44:16), possibly the collapse of Stratum-VIIIB walls and ceiling material, accumulated in the area of Room 304 and was used as the foundation for both Walls 3001 and W3002 (see Stratum VIIIA below). Only the presence of a hard-packed surface (E53:31) over a soil and rockfall layer (E53:32) within Doorway I provides evidence for additional occupation at the level of Stratum-VIIIB Floor E53:27 in Room 305. Room 318 South of Room 304, only the northeastern half of Room 318 was exposed, leaving the north (W3031) and east (W3047) walls to continue into the balks. These walls were party walls shared with Rooms 315 and 319 on the east and Room 304 on the north. The discovery of this additional room on the west side of the building suggests that Building 300 was indeed a complex of rooms without clearly defined exterior walls. During four seasons a total area 24.00 m east-west by 12.50 m northsouth of contiguous rooms was uncovered. The position of Room 318 suggests that this pattern extended even further to the west and south. The north wall (W3031) of Room 318 consists of small and medium limestone boulders with one very large stone that may have been a support for the superstructure. Wall 3031 is founded on a layer of hard packed soil, 0.40 m below the earliest known living surface (E53:39), which suggests that this wall belongs in fact to Stratum VIIIB. The east wall (W3032–3047) is composed of three segments that all abut one another, including in its length the thickness of Wall 3033. Even though many of the architectural features in Room 318 clearly date to Stratum VIIIA, the presence of two surfaces, each with abundant mendable pottery, as well as evidence for activities on the roof, demonstrate that two occupation phases (VIIIB and VIIIA) can be identified. The lack of staircases19 in Building 300, and the thickness and construction techniques employed in the major walls, suggest single storey occupation over two phases, rather than two-storey domestic quarters. 19 Staircases in Buildings 700 and 800 (Chapter 8) are well built between solid support walls and remain standing to the seventh step. If a second story were intended over the rooms in the western unit of Building 300, one would expect some evidence in the construction techniques of walls and door frames needed to support the weight of upper storey walls.
The principal Stratum-VIIIB surface (E53:39) of beaten earth with nari and plaster inclusions was packed in place above a fill (E53:43) consisting of soil, pebbles and pottery dating to Iron I and early Iron Age II.20 Surface E53:39 sealed up against the surrounding walls and was itself covered with broken pottery vessels and ground stone tools. Table 7G. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 318(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E53:39
bowl jug juglet tripod cup 674 ceramic sherds 2 pendants bead 2 mortars 2 pestles 4 grinders column spindle whorl
V534 V529 V326 V359
red slip, hemispherical
TJ 2059, 2085 TJ 2061 TJ 1993, 2036 TJ 1983, 2017 TJ 1987, 1988, 1991, 2020 TJ 2123 TJ 2070
red slip paint limestone, shell limestone, basalt basalt ceramic
The Central Unit: Rooms 302, 306, 320 (Fig. 7.9) Immediately east of Rooms 303 and R305 is the largest interior space (4.8 × 5.5 m) in Building 300, formed by Rooms 302, 306, and R320. Rooms 302 and 306 are divided by Wall 3005, constructed of stacked boulders and low cobblestone units (E65:21), which are an integral part of the wall, and were probably built to support the pillars (Daviau 1999:119–120; fig. 5.3c). This style of wall construction allowed a certain amount of air and light to enter the smaller of the two rooms (R306). On the south side of these two rooms, there was a second series of low partition walls (W3008, W3013) associated with Central Courtyard 308 + 324. These walls, formed of tall boulders and cobble connecting walls also allowed light and air into the northern rooms. Room 320 is a narrow space, parallel to the south end of Room 306, which opens directly into Room 302.
20 Within the underlying fill there was no evidence for Iron Age I architectural remains even though small numbers of typical Iron I ceramic forms, such as collaredrim jars, could be identified among the ceramic remains.
Figure 7.9. Building 300, central unit, Stratum VIIIB.
Room 302 (Fig. 7.10) The area of Room 302 covers part of four squares (E54–E55 and E64– E65).21 Running through Squares E54–E55–E65 is Wall 3000, the inner casemate wall face that serves as the north wall and main support for both Rooms 302 and R306. In Room 302, Wall 3000 remains standing 2.00–2.07 m above the Stratum VIIIB floor. On the west, Room 302 is bounded by Wall 3003, a 2-row boulder-and-chink wall that is 21 To facilitate recording the location for elevations and artefact finds, a 1.00 m grid was established for Room 302, rather than using the grid numbers for each of the four squares (see recording methods, above). In addition, the designation of Debris Layer E54:37 became the locus number for material in all four Squares (E54:37 = 55:37 = 64:37 = 65:37).
Figure 7.10. Room 302, with Bench E54:24 on left, Bedrock work surface in center, Boulder Mortar E54:38 in between.
preserved 1.34 m in height and continues south as Wall 3024. This southern extension is formed of one row of large, flat-topped boulders that stand only 0.80 m above Room 302 floor level and separates it from Room 305 in the southwest. Wall 3013 marks the southern perimeter of the room and forms the western frame of Doorway E. In this stratum, there may also have been a doorway (C) at the west end of Wall 3013 into Room 307. On the east side, Doorway F into Room 320, Doorway D into Room 306 and Wall 3005 constitute the perimeter of Room 302. The founding level for the earliest Stratum VIIIB floor in Room 302 consists of Bedrock E64:50 and Makeup Layer E54:49, an accumulation of rocky debris consisting of small and medium size cobbles exposed over an area of 0.99 × 2.08 m from Hearth E54:43 to Boulder
Figure 7.11. Room 306 on the right; Room 302 on left with Hearth E54:43 on upper left.
Mortar E54:38. In consistency and elevation (921.84–921.96 masl), this locus was comparable to Makeup E44:12 in Room 303.22 Within the excavated area of Room 302, there were no artefacts or pottery present in the makeup, although its surface was stained by the ash from Hearth E54:43. The earliest floor (E54:41 = E64:40) in Room 302 was a beaten earth surface, approximately 2.82 × 4.69 m in length and 0.10 m deep. From north to south over the length of the room, the elevation rose from 922.07–922.14 to 922.19–922.22 masl. Changes in elevation were also evident around Mortar E54:38, where it was 922.11–922.13 masl and in the area around Hearth E54:43; here the elevations ranged from 921.98– 922.08 masl. Thus it appears that the floor sloped toward the two installations, although the surface may have subsided over time, affected by the level of the underlying bedrock. Hearth E54:43 and Boulder Mortar E54:38 were built into Floor E54:41 and were in use simultaneously (Fig. 7.11). Hearth E54:43 was founded on Makeup Layer E54:49 and consisted of a single circle of 22 A small area of Makeup E54:42 under Floor E54:41 was uncovered south of boulder Mortar E54:38. In Room 306 on the east, the makeup (E65:33) under Floor E65:29 remains unexcavated.
stones with exterior measurements of ca. 0.96–1.06 m, and was 0.23– 0.26 m in height. A layer of firm soil (E54:47) formed the floor and one side of the hearth and sealed against the lower edges of the hearth stones, but did not line the sides of the hearth as such. Inside the hearth was Locus E54:44, a very soft, fine ashy soil that contained pottery sherds standing vertically within the fill. These sherds, along with four iron points, apparently fell into the hearth when Room 302 was destroyed. This appears to have happened while the hearth was in use, because the collapsed debris and artefacts fused with the sherds. Some stones and ceramic sherds around the hearth area also showed signs of burning, evidence that the hearth was probably in use for some time before its destruction. The ashy soil in Hearth E54:43 was comparable in texture to Locus E54:48, an accumulation of ash immediately south of the hearth. This ash pit was 0.51 × 0.76 m in size and at least 0.10 m deep. It appears to have built up over time, suggesting that the hearth was occasionally cleaned out to facilitate cooking. The relationship of Ash Pit E54:48 to Floor E54:41 remains unclear in that the sides of the floor appear to end at the perimeter of the ash. However, it seems probable that Floor E54:41 did in fact lie under the ash and was stained by it. Directly south of Ash Pit E54:48 was boulder Mortar E54:38, which was embedded in Floor E54:41 and adjacent to an outcropping of bedrock (E64:50). The exterior of the mortar was squared, while the interior depression was rounded, ca. 0.30 m in diameter and 0.16 m in depth. This central depression was filled with soil (E54:39) of the same composition as Debris Layer E54:37, which covered Floor E54:41. Sherds of a pilgrim flask and other Iron II vessels were uncovered inside Mortar E54:38. Two murex shells23 and polishing stones were found on the floor beside the mortar. A third installation, also in use with Floor E54:41, is Shelf/Bench E54:24, which was founded in Stratum VIIIB and continued in use in Stratum VIIIA. In its earlier phase, Shelf/Bench E54:24 was built against the east face of Wall 3003 for a length of 3.34 m. It is ca. 0.50 m wide and 0.35 m high, and was built of two rows of small boulders and chink stones. 23 A murex shell (murex brandaris) found at Tall Dayr #Alla (Van der Kooij and Ibrahim 1989:60) poses the same question as those found at Tall Jawa; namely what could a small number of shells have been used for, since commercial dyeing took such enormous quantities?
On the east side of Room 302 was a plaster layer (E65:23), which seals against the cobblestone unit of Wall 3005. Although the plaster did not cover all of the cobbles, it did seal against the bottom course of cobblestones sloping down from 922.09 masl to 922.06 at the level of Floor E65:41. The plaster extends west from the wall face approximately 0.13–0.15 m, a feature designed to reduce damage to the foot of Wall 3005, which itself did not appear to extend below the StratumVIIIB makeup layer (E54:49). Although Plaster E65:23 did not continue further west across Floor E65:41, these loci were contiguous and apparently from the same occupation phase. The primary function of Room 302 during its time of use was domestic activity, including food storage, storage of equipment and food preparation. Only a few of the items in use in the room were embedded in Floor E54:41, while the majority of pots and objects were contained in the overlying soil layer (E54:37) that filled the room. Debris Layer E54:37 was a thick (ca. 0.25 m) deposit of pale brown soil (10YR 6/3) which included ca. 55 objects and 1786 ceramic sherds from reconstructible vessels. These sherds were lying almost horizontally in numerous superimposed layers that were both above and below the layers of artefacts, including a group of metal points. Altogether 33 iron points were recovered from Floor E54:41 and Layer E54:37, some of which were fused to each other and originally counted as one item. Since several points (TJ 1379) were fused to a sherd from a jar; it seems likely that these weapons were in storage at the time Room 302 was destroyed.24 Ceramic vessel types present in this fill were bowls, kraters, cooking pots, jugs, juglets, flasks and storejars. Table 7H. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 302(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
E54:37 + 41 E55:37 E65:37
4 bowls
V357, V474, V493, V 525 V363 V496 V302, V304 V309
bowl pithos 2 flasks decanter 1786 ceramic sherds
Characteristics red slip inverted rim white slip, black paint
24 A similar find was reported from Late Bronze Age Tell Batash, where a broken jug contained almonds and a groups of metal points fused together (Kelm and Mazar 1982: fig. 11).
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
bead pestle 2 grinders 7 grinders
TJ 1247 TJ 1340 TJ 1267, 1268 TJ 1271, 1283, 1285, TJ 1345, 1347, 1405, 1406 TJ 1400 TJ 1238 L619, L640 TJ 1408 TJ 1278 TJ 1246, 1270, 1274 TJ 1349, 1401 TJ 1381 TJ 1507 TJ 1245, 1319–1331, TJ 1360–1362, 1364, TJ 1372–1374, 1376– 1379 TJ 1269, 1370 TJ 1279 TJ 1402 samples
starfish fossil basalt small, cosmetic basalt
grinder millstone 2 scrapers stone chisel whetstone 3 stone tools 2 pounders spindle whorl spatula 35 iron points
2 stones worked stone stone nodule 2 murex shells animal bones
large upper, loaf-shaped lithic chert, polishing chert ceramic bone iron, fused in 2s and 3s
worked limestone sandstone sandstone
A modest amount of wall collapse in the form of small (0.06–0.12 m) and medium (0.12–0.18 m) sized cobblestones was present in the midst of the broken pottery and objects in Room 302 sealed under a plaster surface (E54:26), suggesting only minor destruction at the end of Stratum VIIIB. This deposit was probably the result of cobblestone wall units that fell when the ceiling collapsed and filled the room. Since the arrowheads and javelin points appear to have been in storage, the cause of the collapse was probably not an attack on the town. Evidence from other rooms in the same building may help to clarify the factors that brought Stratum VIIIB to an end. Room 306 (Figs. 7.9, 11) Adjacent to Room 302 is a small space (2.00 × 3.60 m) designated Room 306, which can be classified as a long room with bent axis entry, because Doorway D is situated at the south end of its long, west wall (W3005). In this room also, the inner Casemate (W3000) serves as the north wall of the room. A boulder-and-chink wall (W3011) abuts Wall 3000 at an acute angle (80o) and runs south for 5.90 m, ending with a well-dressed doorframe just beyond the southern limit of Room
320. At a width of 0.75 m, Wall 3011 was a major support for the central unit. Six courses were exposed in Room 306 above the earliest floor (E65:29), where the wall stands at a height of 1.25–1.38 m. Due to the limits of excavation during the 1995 season, it is not clear whether Wall 3011 divided two buildings or merely two rooms in the same structure. The remaining architecture in Room 306 consists of one wall (W3005) on the west formed of stacked pillars, one pillar (E65:7) at the north end that abuts inner Casemate Wall 3000 and a second (E65:14) on the south that forms the north edge of Doorway D. On the south is a two-row cobblestone wall (W3030) with one limestone pillar (E65:20; 0.46 × 0.65 m), which marks the west end of the wall, for a total length of 2.56 m. Pillar E65:20 is in line with Wall 3005, and it forms the south frame of Doorway D. On the east, the cobblestone unit (E65:32) of Wall 3030 abuts Wall 3011, ca. 1.50 m north of its south end. Even though it remains standing ca. 0.70 m above Floor E65:29, Wall 3030 may have been a partition wall between Room 306 and Room 320, since it was only ca. 0.35–0.45 m thick.25 The Stratum-VIIIB floor (E65:29) was a hard packed, beaten earth surface with red and black flecks that sealed against all four walls and the threshold (E65:32) in Doorway D. Although this surface was not removed, its levels (922.04–922.14 masl) correspond closely to those in Room 302 (922.07–922.22 masl), supporting its identification as a Stratum-VIIIB surface. On this surface were 21 objects and numerous ceramic vessels smashed in situ. Comparable finds, many mendable with those on the floor, were present in the overlying Debris Layer (E65:28, see Table 7J). Threshold E65:32 in Doorway D consists of one small boulder embedded in Floor E65:29, covered by several rows of small cobblestones standing two courses high (ca. 0.10 m). The upper surface and west side of the threshold was covered with a layer of Plaster (E65:31) that obscured further construction details. Together these loci had a total width of 1.00–1.05 m between the ends of Walls 3005 and 3030. Because Threshold E65:32 was so low, the ceramic vessels and artefacts from Rooms 302 and 306 were scattered across its width and were sealed in the overlying deposits (E65:30, 65:27 + 28) which accumulated at the time these rooms were destroyed. Of special note within Layer 25 The closest parallel for a side room separated from the main room by both a stacked pillar wall and a low cobblestone partition wall is Room 335 in Building 335 at Shiloh (Finkelstein, Bunimovitz and Lederman 1993: figs. 2.3, 2.18).
E65:30 are half of a perforated disk and 1 complete perforated disk, both probably related to the disks inside Room 306. Debris Layer E65:28 was a yellow brown (10YR 5/9) soil layer filled with smashed pottery vessels and artefacts for a depth of 0.15–0.23 m above Floor E65:29. Artefacts included 1 bone spatula, an undecorated bone or ivory spindle (Riis and Buhl 1990: fig. 97:744, also undecorated), 2 spindle whorls (Daviau 1996: fig. 6:5, 6), and 16 perforated stones (Daviau 1996: fig. 6:7, 8), that may have been associated with the production of textiles.26 Architectural elements consisted of 2 limestone door weights and part of a roof roller. Personal possessions included 6 metal points, a bead, and several pendants. Among the food processing and preparation tools was a selection of ground stone tools and broken ceramic vessels. The small and medium size ceramic vessels, including 2 intact juglets (Daviau 1996: fig. 6:1, 2), were covered with pithos sherds, a pattern of deposition seen repeated in the superimposed Stratum-VIIIA levels of smashed pottery in this same central unit. At the south end of Room 306, Debris Layer E65:28 became more hard packed and was filled with collapsed debris (E65:27), including mud-brick material concentrated in front of Wall 3030. Some of the stones within this layer were burnt, although no distinct cooking area was identified. The pottery again included cooking pots, red slipped bowls and juglets, and storejars. Table 7J. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 306(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E65:27 + 26 28, 29
bowl 3 bowls 2 bowls bowl 3 bowls krater krater jar 4 pithoi
V424 V450, V451, V458 V352, V452 V342 V337, V338, V444 V341 V375 V453 V454, V455, V461, V463 V456 V307 V306, V308 V311, V334
red slip red slip, simple rim red slip red slip, paint inverted rim, smudged small smudged hole mouth
storejar amphoriskos 2 jugs 2 jugs
2 handles white slip, paint painted small
26 For a complete study of textile production artefacts at Tall Jawa, see Daviau (2002).
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
juglet 2 juglets
V312( = TJ 1548) V313( = TJ 1511), V348 TJ 347 V301 V346, V379
white slip
juglet flask 2 lamps 964 ceramic sherds pendant bead 2 shells cowrie shell roof roller mortar mortar tray 2 pestles grinder millstone 6 points 2 spindles spindle whorl 2 stones 12 stone disks 2 shells Doorway D E65:30
bowl pithos sherds jug tray mortar 2 disks
TJ 1627 TJ 1609 TJ 1610, 2230 TJ 2231 TJ 1552 TJ 1654 TJ 1660 TJ 1531 TJ 1633, 1651 TJ 1514 TJ 1601 TJ 1592, 1611, TJ 1612, 1615, TJ 1617, 1618 TJ 1530, 1603 TJ 1689 TJ 1624, 1638 TJ 1534–1540, TJ 1593, 1594 + 1602, TJ1595, 1607, 1665
red slip painted painted greenstone faience conus Cypraea annulus limestone limestone basalt, red stain basalt basalt basalt upper, loaf-shaped iron ivory ceramic limestone, perforated nari, perforated
V336
inverted rim
V332 TJ 1637 TJ 1654 TJ 1634, 1666
small basalt limestone nari, perforated
Among the bowls and juglets, there is a heavy concentration of red slipped vessels. In many cases, these vessels are not burnished or have burnishing only on the rim and interior of bowl forms. In the case of shallow saucers, which appears to be a form that has just entered the ceramic repertoire, the burnishing is radial from rim to centre (V421) and the rim continues the line of the bowl without splaying outward.27 27 In Room 305, there was a unique example of a saucer with black painted lines forming a cross (Daviau 2001b: fig. 3.11) that has a parallel in Tomb C at Amman (Harding 1951: fig. 1:5 = Dornemann 1983: fig. 32:1). Harding emphasized that Tomb C should be dated to the 8th century rather than the 7th because the
Other bowl forms are similar to those found in Room 302 and in Fields A–B, namely hemispherical bowls (Dornemann 1983: fig. 20:3), vertical rim carinated bowls (Dornemann 1983: fig. 44:LXIII), shallow bowls with rounded sides and thickened rims (Dornemann 1983: fig. 43:XIX), and inverted rim bowls.28 Although the fabric of ceramic vessels at Tall Jawa comes in a variety of wares, most of these are now known to us. In all the pottery from Building 300, only one vessel from Room 306 appears to be an import, namely the larger of two white-slipped amphorae. This vessel (V307 = E65.88.13) has a very thin-walled, pale red (2.5YR 7/3) fabric covered with a thick, very pale brown (10YR 8/2), almost white, slip that has been heavily polished. The folded rim is tall and rectangular in section. Two flat strap handles (not otherwise represented in the Stratum VIII corpus) spring from a mid-neck ridge and are painted with short black dashes on each edge (Daviau; 1996: fig. 6:3). Numerous black painted bands appear on the rim and sides of this biconical vessel, similar to the pattern on Cypriot White Painted II–III ware imported to Hama (Riis and Buhl 1990: fig. 82:652).29 In the case of the Tall Jawa vessel, the base is a ring base, in contrast to the typical double disk base found on a smaller white-slipped vessel from Room 302 (V309, Stratum VIIIB) that appears to be a local imitation. The presence of a roof roller fragment in Debris Layer E65:28 is evidence of the roof collapse in Room 306 that brought Stratum VIIIB to an end. Fallen wall stones were present at the north end of Room 306, where the accumulation was deepest. Additional evidence for roof ceramic wares appear to be earlier than those from the Tomb of Adoni Nur and the tomb at Meqabelein (1951:37). Dornemann appears to agree, since he locates Tomb C in the range of 780–660 BC (1983: Table 4). 28 Dornemann (1983: fig. 20:3), in his Sequence I from the early Iron Age, illustrates a wide range of bowls with rounded sides that fall into the category of hemispherical bowls. Bowls with vertical upright rims appear in the corpus from Tall al-#Umayri (Lawlor 1991: fig. 3.26:1) and in Dornemann’s own sounding on the #Amman citadel (1983: fig. 44: LXIII). Shallow bowls with rounded sides and thickened rims are usually red slipped and burnished and are common at #Amman (Dornemann 1983: fig. 43: XIX). Bowls with inverted triangular rim and smudged interior were also common at sites in ancient Ammon (Lawlor 1991: fig. 3.13:22–26). 29 The pattern of black painted lines on the sherds recovered at Hama (Riis and Buhl 1990: fig. 82:652) that probably come from a vessel comparable to an amphora (Riis and Buhl 1990: 138, fig. 63:426) appears comparable to the Tall Jawa vessel; the painted sherds from Hama are dated to the 720 BC destruction. However, V. Karageoghis affirms that unlike the Hama imports, the Tall Jawa amphora is not of Cypriot manufacture (personal communication, May 1988).
collapse is the continuation of smashed pottery in Debris Layer E65:24, which covered sherd-filled Layer E65:28 These two loci could only be distinguished from on another by the presence of a circular ring of stones that formed Rockfall E65:25. This pattern of collapse, which was incomplete on the north side, measured 1.00–1.25 m across and had a depth of 0.14–0.24 m. Within the circle, its fill (E65:26) contained pale brown soil (10YR 6/3), burnt stones and a broken pithos. This feature suggests the pattern that results from the collapse of upper wall stones around a large pithos, in this case one that was located against Wall 3005. Vessels and a rectangular basalt mortar from the upper storey or roof terrace were scattered in the collapse. Although no clear surface sealed Layer E65:24, the presence of another superimposed debris layer (E65: 18 = 13) suggests a collapsed ceiling. When Room 306(B) was destroyed, the uppermost cobblestones of Wall 3005 fell into the room and smashed the vessels in use at the time. At this point, the surrounding walls with cobblestone units (W3005, 3030) remained standing, ca. 0.40 m above the floor to heights of at least 922.79–922.87 masl. With its mud-brick superstructure, Wall 3030 may even have had a top elevation of 923.01 masl, while boulder-and-chink Wall 3011 on the east was preserved to 923.23– 923.33 masl. The pottery contained in soil Layer E65:18 was smashed in situ and much of it was mendable. Some sherds were burnt and the collapsed mud-brick superstructure of Wall 3030 was reddened suggesting damage that occurred when Stratum VIIIB ended. The presence of additional soil layers within Room 306 (E65:11, 8) suggests Stratum-VIIIA occupation at a somewhat higher level than in Room 302 (922.50 vs. 922.22 masl). This may have been due to the small size of Room 306 that made it difficult to remove collapsed wall stones before the installation of a new floor. Room 320 Along the south end of Room 306 is a small space (R320; 0.70 × 2.35 m) that opens directly through Doorway F into Room 302, adjacent to the southern entrance (E).30 Boulder-and-chink Wall 3011 forms the back end of Room 320, while its side walls (W3030, W3008) consist of low cobblestone partition walls. Wall 3030 on the north consists of one large boulder (E65:20) that separates Doorway D on the north 30 Although the south wall of Room 320 was in Square E64, the floor levels were dug as E65 due to their close relationship to floors in Rooms 302 and R306.
from Entrance F to the south, along with 2 rows of cobbles and small boulders that stand 3–6 courses high and run east to Wall 3011. On the south is a well-built wall unit (E64:32) of 2 rows of cobblestones capped by flat topped small boulders running west from Wall 3011 to meet 2 large boulder pillars (E64:7) that form the south side of Entrance F and the east frame of Doorway E. Entrance F is the full width of Room 320 and provided easy access to the ceramic vessels in storage within the room. Here were a pithos, a very small red slipped bowl (V382), a miniature krater (V383), and a basalt grinder (TJ 2187). This small room would have been a suitable place for storage of extra vessels when not in use. This same function was probably continued in Stratum VIIIA, where evidence for the position of an upper surface is marked by the base of a toppled pithos (E64:27 = 33) smashed by rockfall. The Central Courtyard—R308 + 324 The central and eastern rooms in Building 300 suggest by their location, orientation, and style of architecture the presence of a central courtyard (designated R308 + 324). The digging of Cistern E64:13 in this area in Stratum VIIIA obscured to a certain extent the evidence for the earlier use of this court. At the same time, the proximity of bedrock to the surface, visible in the cistern’s mouth and three drain holes, indicates the suitability of this area for an open court, where water would drain away quickly into natural underground cavities. The deep soil layers, filled with broken pottery, preserve the remains of activities carried out here in Stratum VIIIB before the construction of the mouth of the cistern and Stratum-VIIIA Partition Wall 3012, which separates the Courtyard into two rooms; R308 on the north and R324 on the south. Each “room” was dug separately because of the size of the area (4.70 × 5.00 + m), and the constraints of time during the final season. An attempt will be made to discuss the courtyard during Stratum VIIIB as one unit. Courtyard 308/324 The earliest floor in the central courtyard was a beaten earth and plaster surface (E64:59) uncovered in the northeast quarter. This surface appears to cover a layer of cobble size stones evident in the western half of the locus. The absolute level (922.24 masl) of Surface E64:59 was just below that of the top edge of the stones (E64:9, 14; 922.29 masl) which lined the mouth of the later cistern. This same surface extended
underneath the packed soil (E64:71, 64:54) which built up across the area over time31 and supported Stratum VIIIA Partition Walls 3009 and W3012 around the cistern mouth. Additional evidence for a Stratum VIIIB surface was located on the south side of the courtyard (in R324) along the balk where the consistency of the surface (E64:70) changed as it ran east from beaten earth to gravelly soil with pebbles and small cobbles. The use of the courtyard is seen most clearly here in the south where a 0.25 m thick layer of soil (E64:63, 64),32 containing a noticeable amount of animal bones and 1100 + ceramic sherds, built up on Surface E64:70. Along the west side were two holes that may have been connected to Drain #1, although the holes themselves did not appear to join. One such hole was rectangular (0.10 × 0.20 m) and surrounded by large pebbles while the shape of the second hole was more amorphous. Although the proximity of the beaten earth surface (E64:70) to bedrock was suspected, excavation ended before the underlying makeup could be investigated. So too, the exposure of a direct continuation of this locus (E64:70) as far north as Surface E64:59 in Room 308 remains incomplete. At the same time, it is clear that this courtyard provided access to the rooms surrounding it on all sides, and continued to serve a vital function after Stratum VIIIB ended and the area was remodelled during Stratum VIIIA (see below). Room 326 In the northeast corner of the central courtyard (R308) is a small room or corridor designated R326. The west face of Wall 3028 and the east face of Wall 3011 form this narrow space (1.15 × 2.40 m), which leads directly into the courtyard through Entrance N, marked by the dressed south end of Wall 3011. At the north end, the space becomes even narrower and may have served as a bin (R321) or dry well, west of Stratum-VIIIB Room 312. The earliest soil layer (E65:53 = 56) exposed in Room 326 was only excavated in part and the remainder was left in place when it was realized that this soil seals against the bottom course of Wall 3042 at
31 Pottery scatters within E64:54, immediately below Wall 3012, suggest continuous use and a quick succession of phases. 32 Only in the southeastern corner was there a concentration of pebbles and gravelly soil comparable to that in Surface E64:70.
922.26 masl, and then extends under it to cover Room 321.33 The level of this soil layer is clearly in the same range as the Stratum-VIIIB surface (E64:59) in the central courtyard and probably represents Stratum VIIIB in R321, where Soil layer E65:55 runs under Wall 3042 from the north. Because this locus was not excavated all the way to the northern limit of Room 321, against Casemate Wall 3000, the evidence for the Stratum-VIIIB relationship of Rooms 326 and 321 remains incomplete. A similar build-up of soil layers seen in the courtyard was present in R326, where Soil Layer E65:52 contained patches of plaster, a water channel along the west face of Wall 3028, animal bones and pockets of hard packed soil and scattered stones. Since this layer reached the same level (922.43 masl) as Stratum-VIIIA surface E64:52, the upper part of this locus (E65:52) may represent collapsed ceiling material, as was the case for Soil Layer E75:21 in Room 312, and Layer E65:54 in Room 321. Since there was evidence of reuse at an even higher level, the space of Room 326, along with R321, appears to have been incorporated into the final Stratum-VIIIA occupation of Room 312. Room 321 North of Room 326, and divided from Room 312 by Wall 3041, is an even narrower space (0.80 m) that extends south (2.80 m) from Casemate Wall 3000, as far as the north end of Wall 3028. At this point, Wall 3041 seals against the west face of Wall 3028. The lowest soil layers (E64:55, 56) in Room 321, excavated only in a probe at the south end (0.75 × 1.25 m), consist of soil mixed with a considerable number of cobble size stones and pebbles, some of which showed signs of burning. Animal bones were frequent, although pottery was rare. Whether this narrow space served to compensate for the rapid drop in bedrock levels (see below) or had a more specific function, such as a midden, which also served as a dry well that would help to channel water away from the lower floor level of Room 312 and into the courtyard, was not determined during excavation. The only evidence for the latter is the high percentage (90 %) of chert in W3041, an amount which is in sharp contrast to the typical wall, where limestone 33 Although further excavation was not possible, one can only suppose that the south end of Wall 3041, which reduced the width of Room 321 due to its alignment, would have been visible from Room 326 if in fact there had been an earlier surface running the full length of both rooms at a lower level.
Figure 7.12. Building 300, eastern unit, with relevant locus numbers.
boulders and cobbles are in the 80–90 % range. This choice of an impermeable stone and the impression of a water channel in R326, south of Wall 3042, point to a special relationship of this narrow space with the nearby courtyard. At the same time, the channel may have been formed during the intervening centuries and not have been part of the original features in this area. These debris layers were in turn covered by another layer (E65:54) of loose soil with areas of hard packed earth on its upper surface. There were also pockets of ash and nari, animal bones and 120 ceramic sherds. There is, however, no assemblage of artefacts and pottery in this locus that would indicate the function of this space during Stratum VIIIB. The Eastern Unit: Rooms 312, 313, 314, 317, 327 (Fig. 7.12) The evidence for Stratum-VIIIB construction and occupation of the eastern unit of rooms is more complex than that for Rooms 302 and 303 further west. For example, in Room 312 just east of Room 321
and the central courtyard, the bedrock slopes steeply from west to east, dropping ca. 1.00 m from the level (922.27–922.06 masl) of the bedrock outcrop (E64:50) in Room 302. This factor is true for all the rooms in the eastern unit since they share the same deep floor levels (921.25–921.00 masl). When they went out of use, these rooms were buried under 2.35–2.80 m of collapse and fill. Construction techniques necessary to adjust to this change in elevation are also apparent, since here the walls in these rooms measure 0.70–1.00 m thick. At least five rooms in the eastern unit are located between a series of north-south walls (W3011, W3025, W3016, W3028 and W3027), that tend to form long rooms. For example, Rooms 313 and 314 were both 6.00 + m in length.34 At the same time, these parallel walls are mostly boulder-and-chink construction and remain standing 2.00 + m in height, by comparison with the walls in the western unit that remain standing only 0.65–1.30 m high. When found, several rooms were without doorways (R312, R321), and could be understood as basement rooms, which supported an upper storey, although that is not the only suitable interpretation of the evidence. Due to the limits of excavation in this area, the full stratigraphic association of these rooms to Room 327 and to the remainder of the house was not determined with certainty, although it is clear that the north-south walls of these room were built with Inner Casemate Wall 3000 already in place. In addition to the depth of deposition, a fill layer of extremely hard “red” soil with numerous nari inclusions was present in several rooms indicating a peculiar destruction history, unlike the rest of Building 300. Room 312 Built up against the inner casemate Wall (W3000), Room 312(B) is a square room (2.75 × 3.20m) that shares the space between Walls 3011 and 3025 with R321. Separating Room 312 from R321 is Wall 3041, a thin (0.50 m thick) boulder-and-chink wall, which abuts inner Casemate Wall 3000 on its south face. At the point where it reaches 9–11 courses high, this 2–row chert wall (W3041) is capped by small limestone boulders. At this height, Wall 3041 is ca. 0.45–0.53 m below the top of the major north-south walls (W3011, 3025, 3028) and of Casemate Wall 3000, which was 11 courses high and stood ca. 3.00 m above the earliest floor (E75:26). 34
ated.
This assumes that Room 314 included the area labelled R327 that was not excav-
On the east of Room 312, Wall 3025 runs the length of Room 313 as far as Doorway K (5.40 m) into R327/314. This is an exceptionally well built wall, formed of small boulders and chink stones, except at its south end, where large, semi-hewn boulders frame doorway K. The total width of Wall 3025 is 1.10–1.20 m. Although one would expect a doorway between neighbouring Rooms 312 and 313, no Stratum-VIIIB access was discovered, either through Wall 3025 or into R327/314 on the south. This is somewhat surprising since the second wall to be constructed in the formation of Room 312 was most probably Wall 3028, which runs parallel to Wall 3025, and whose north end of dressed boulders marks the south side of Room 312. Inserted between Wall 3028 and Wall 3025 is a thin (0.50 m thick) partition Wall (W3043) which stands 0.60 m lower than the top of the major walls.35 Possibly a doorway between Rooms 312 and 327 = 314 was blocked by the construction of Wall 3043, although this is not evident in the wall itself. At the same time, Wall 3043 bonds with the north end of Wall 3028, and the earliest known floor surface in Room 312 seals against and runs up the sides of the surrounding walls, making it clear that there was no reconstruction of Room 312 during Stratum VIIIB. This well-preserved beaten earth surface (E75:26), probably just above bedrock, forms the floor and seals up against the walls, filling in the corners. Crushed on the floor and within the overlying soil layer (E75:25) were numerous artefacts and mendable vessels, most notably a pithos with a potter’s mark (V392) and a red slipped and painted jug (V310). Table 7K. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 312(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E75:25–26
saucer bowl bowl cup krater 2 pithoi 2 storejars jug juglet 1859 ceramic sherds astragalus
V397 V364 V405 V403 V345 V392, V407 V391, V393 V310 V316
red slip, thick walled red slip, vertical rim inverted rim
TJ 2818
perforated
3 loop-handle feet red slip, paint small, black burnished
35 The height of these thin walls (3041, 3043) marks the level at which Stratum VIIIA floors covered the underlying debris (see below).
Figure 7.13. Room 312, pithos (V392) in situ. Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
lithic flake 2 stone tools 2 mortars 2 grinders 2 millstones stopper spindle whorl loom weight 2 points metal 4 sherds
L856 TJ 2068, 2184 TJ 2082, 2180 TJ 2071, 2078 TJ 2139, 2176 TJ 2057 TJ 2146 TJ 2164 TJ 2074, 2075 TJ 2169 95/153, 156, 162, 172
polishing stones limestone basalt basalt stone ceramic clay iron, one with rivet copper fragment reworked
Pithos V392 was in situ on an angle that brought its rim to a point 0.30 m above Surface E75:26 (Fig. 7.13). This indicates the amount of ceiling debris (E75:25) that collapsed into the room. Above the ceiling material was another living surface (E75:21–22) with an assemblage of pottery and artefacts that were broken in the collapse. Whether these items were in use in an upper storey room or were on the roof cannot be determined definitively, but the amount of rockfall in both Soil Layers E75:21 and E75:22 suggest the former. Within these loci were two installations; Saddle Quern TJ 1898 on a compact plaster patch attached to the quern itself and located adjacent to south Wall 3043, and Installation E75:24, a stone working surface that measured 0.35–0.43 wide × 0.64 long × 0.15 m thick.
Table 7L. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 312(B), upper storey/ceiling Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E75:21–22
bowl 2 bowls bowl krater cooking pot jar 2 jugs 1291 ceramic sherds socket stone stone tray bowl/mortar knife lithic blade 3 pestles
V401 V402, V404 V396 V406 V395 V408 V344, V394
red slip, vertical rim red slip inverted rim
grinder millstone 3 querns 2 pounders
TJ 2060 TJ 2011 TJ 1935 TJ 2029 L837 TJ 1914, 1966, 2032 TJ 1924 TJ 1917 TJ 1898, 1899 2045 TJ 1944, 1965
hole mouth limestone basalt basalt iron chert basalt basalt upper, loaf-shaped saddle chert
The pottery and artefacts within Room 312 were all part of the equipment of food processing and preparation activities typical of Building 300. Although it is not possible to determine how long these activities continued in this room, it is apparent from the archaeological record that Room 312 was filled with additional rockfall (E75:18) and then reused in Stratum VIIIA. Room 313 At 6.00 m in length, Room 313 is one of the longest rooms in Building 300.36 By contrast with Rooms 302 (4.80 m) and R303 (4.70 m), the narrow end of Room 313, with a width of 2.30 m, is along inner Casemate Wall 3000. Wall 3016, which is footed on bedrock at the south end of Room 313, forms the eastern wall of this room and the west wall of Passageway 309. No doorway connects Passageway 309 to
36 The other long room is Room 314, exposed only in its southern two thirds. Since there is a possibility that Wall 3026 continued west beyond Doorway K as a partition wall, the northern third was labelled R327. Together, Room 314 + 327 are 6.75 m long.
Room 313, so that the function of the corridor in relation to Building 300 remains obscure. While it appears that Wall 3016 was the outside wall, it had a thickness of only 0.75 m and was a 2-row thick wall, whereas Wall 3025, the west wall of Room 313, was a 1.00 m, 3row wall, more appropriate for an outer wall. Be this as it may, both walls abut the inner casemate wall face (W3000) and are capable of supporting one or more upper stories. The only entrance is Doorway K at the south end of Wall 3025, leading into Room 327/314. The earliest floor in use is Surface E75:16, an earthen surface immediately above bedrock, that was covered in places with ca. 0.02 m of plaster. Floor E76:16, exposed only in a 1.00 m square probe, seals against Wall 3016 on the east and Wall 3026 on the south. Resting on the floor in Room 313 were sherds of a smashed pithos, ashes and animal bones in a layer (E75:15) of darkened soil (10YR 4/4) that suggests extensive organic remains, possibly from the storejars which had been propped up along the wall. All ceramic vessels were associated with food preparation and storage. No evidence for other activities could be identified. Table 7M. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 313(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E75:15–16
cup pithos amphoriskos flask
V403 V387 V389 V388
1 handle biconical, white slip painted
A series of soil layers (E75:14, 13, 12) which accumulated above Debris Layer E75:15 probably consist of collapsed ceiling remains, as evident in the presence of plaster lenses, crushed mud-brick, pottery, especially cooking pot sherds, 23 animal bone fragments, broken millstones, and a limestone mortar (TJ 1605). The source of the mud brick is uncertain, since Casemate Wall 3000 remains standing 3.00 m above Floor E75:16, and its superstructure could hardly have tumbled into Room 313 to the depth of Soil Layer E75:14. A more probable source would be the superstructure of flanking Walls 3016 and 3025, or of south Wall 3026 which is formed of one row of medium sized boulders and remains standing 2.09 m above the plaster floor. Where one would expect evidence for Stratum VIIIA reuse of Room 313, there is instead a reddish soil layer (E75:11; terra rossa) with plaster/nari inclusions, especially in the south end of the room. This layer
Figure 7.14. Room 314, looking north, Wall 3027 on right.
appears to have been a deliberate fill that marks the abandonment of Room 313 and is even more evident in Room 314 (see below). In contrast, at the north end of Room 313, there was a group of ground stone tools including broken millstones, a saddle quern (TJ 1506), a limestone door weight (TJ 1508), and a chert blade (L863). Since no mendable pottery was associated with these artefacts, it is not clear whether this represents a work area on the roof that had a different pattern of collapse, or was just a midden. Additional rockfall loci (E75:3, 5), which represent the end of occupation in Building 300, cover the flanking walls of Room 313 and extend the full length of the square over south Wall 3026. Room 314 (Fig. 7.14) Another rectangular room (R314), comparable in size to Room 313 (2.75 × 4.25 m; + R327 = 6.75 m long), runs parallel to Room 317 and Passageway 309 to the east and flanks the central Courtyard (Room 308) to the west. Doorway K from Room 313 leads into the northern third of Room 314 (designated R327), framed by the end of Wall 3025 and the north face of Wall 3026. Doorway M is framed by the south face of the same wall (W3026) and by the end of Wall 3027. A third doorway (L), located in the southwest corner, is formed by the ends of
Walls 3028 and W3029, and opens into Courtyard 308. Wall 3028 is a two-row wall with boulder-and-chink construction in the size range of 0.75–0.85 m thick, which indicates that it served as a major support wall for Rooms R314 + R327. In contrast, Wall W3036, which forms the south end of Room 314, is only 0.55–0.60 m thick. Wall 3036 runs east-west to abut the north end of Wall 3029 and the south end of Wall 3027, where it stood ca. 0.80 m lower than the tops of the flanking walls, suggesting that it may have been robbed out. However, since this same pattern was also true of Wall 3043 on the south side of Room 312, the full meaning of this anomaly remains unclear. Midway along its length, Wall 3036 appears to rest on a bedrock step whose north face was cut away to form the lowest “course” of the wall itself. In terms of construction, the most outstanding wall is W3027 (Fig. 7.14), formed of stacked-boulder pillars, one monolithic pillar, and cobblestone connecting units all topped by large rectangular boulders (Daviau 1996: fig. 7; 1999: fig. 5b). Both Walls 3027 and W3036 are footed on bedrock (E74:24), which was exposed in the eastern half of Room 314, where excavation reached floor level. In the west half of the room, rockfall layer E74:18 remains in place to a height of 1.00 m above bedrock. In view of the depth of Stratum-VIIIB floor levels in Room 314, almost 1.00 m below those in courtyard 324 + 308, excavation in this area did not reveal the complete picture of the traffic patterns among the rooms in the eastern unit or their relationship to the central courtyard during Stratum VIIIB. Covering the limestone surface (E74:24)37 is a thin layer of soil that fills the shallow pockets in the bedrock. On this floor, and under 0.20 cm of overlying soil, were a fibula, tibia and patella of a person who stood ca. 1.58–1.67 m in height. While the rest of the skeleton was not recovered, one may assume that it lies buried in the west half of the room under the rockfall (E74:18) which remains unexcavated. The collapse itself (E74:23, 21, 22) appears to have fallen from north to south, and to have been a ceiling which supported red slipped bowls, a grinder and tabun fragments. This ceiling was covered in turn by collapsed wall stones (E74:21), and additional artefacts including several iron points.
37 Bedrock was initially identified as a “plaster surface”, when first uncovered in the middle of Room 314 at 921.28 masl. A similar situation occurred in Room 313 where “plaster” Surface E75:16 was exposed at a comparable elevation (921.25).
Table 7N. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 314(B) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E74:20, 21, 23
2 bowls 2 bowls bowl bowl miniature jug 473 ceramic sherds 2 blades grinder millstone saddle quern pecking stone 2 points tabun fragments
V409, V410 V385, V386 V411 V390 V526
red slip, black paint smudged yellow red slip, vertical rim
L684, 685 TJ 1661 discarded TJ 1662
chert limestone burnt fragment
TJ 1590, 1614
chert iron
Destruction The cause of the original Stratum-VIIIB collapse and the reason for skeletal remains in Room 314 are unclear, although earthquake is a possibility. What is certain is that Wall 3027 with its distinctive architecture remained standing to its full height of 1.80–2.00 m above bedrock with its capping stones in place. Rockfall E74:21 fell into Room 314 from the north, possibly representing the collapse of an upper storey wall or another partition wall that divided the full space into two units (R314 + R327). Partially covering the rockfall in the south end of Room 314 was a lens of plaster at the bottom of a deep clay layer (E74: 22, 20, 19) that contained nari inclusions and scattered stones. This compact material was also found south of Wall 3036 in Room 323 (E74:15, 17), where it was separated from the same fill in Room 314 by a loose, sandy soil layer (E74:14, 8) which seems to fill a robber trench38 above Wall 3036. However, this same sandy layer was present both under (E74:14) and over additional layers of hard soil and nari clumps (E74:7, 9). The origin of this hard, compact soil, or terra rossa, was most probably Cistern E64:13, cut at the beginning of Stratum VIIIA. We can imagine the problem of where to put all the soil from the natural 38 The fact that there are other walls (W3041, 3042, 3043) that are of the same size as Wall 3036 (ca 0.50 m thick), and did not reach the preserved height of the major walls which they abut, suggests that these walls were deliberately built in this way at the same time. Thus the appearance of a robber trench (E74:8) above Wall 3036 may require another explanation.
depression, which the ancient inhabitants emptied and enlarged to form the cistern.39 It appears that they sacrificed several eastern rooms whose deep floor levels made reuse unpractical. At the same time, the death in Room 314 was sealed under the fill, and the area was used only as an open work area during Stratum VIIIA. Evidence for such an interpretation is the uneven upper level of the fill layer (E74:7) and the presence of broken pottery, a limestone mortar (TJ 1503), a spindle whorl (TJ 1396) and several flagstones (one possibly a socket stone) in the overlying soil layer (E74:4). Caught in the general destruction in Doorway L was a figurine (TJ 1375; Daviau 2002:62–63) consisting of a red slipped clay “tree” trunk with the impressed figure of a nude female on one side. This form is not the usual pillar figurine type, where the woman’s skirt forms the pillar. In this case, the female figure is an addition to clay cylinder. Additional evidence can be seen in the contrast between this area and the uppermost remains in Room 312 (see below), and in the position of stones (below E74:18) within Doorway L that blocked the entrance to the cistern area almost to the height of Wall 3036. West of the doorway was Stratum-VIIIA Wall 3044, which surrounds Corridor 325, further cutting off Room 314 from the area around the new cistern. Room 317 Room 317 is east of Room 314 and immediately south of Room 313, separated from it by Wall 3026. Approximately the same width (ca. 2.5 m) as room 313, Room 317 appears to end on the same line as Room 314 giving it a length of only 4.30 m. Only the southwest corner of south Wall 3048 was exposed, at the point where it abuts the east face of Wall 3027. Although not excavated, it seems apparent that Wall 3016, or its continuation along Passageway 309, forms the east wall of the room. While it would have been interesting to see if Room 317 was also abandoned after the disaster at the end of Stratum VIIIB, only the uppermost soil layers and rockfall (E74:3 = E75:10) were removed. At these levels (923.00 masl), the reddish soil that filled Room 314 and spilled over into Room 313 was not encountered.
39 A similar dilemma was faced annually by the excavation team, since the soil dumps were restricted to certain areas on the tell itself, due to the rights of the landowners.
Figure 7.15. Building 300, western unit, Stratum VIIIA.
Room 323 South of Room 314, the hard red soil of brick-like material with nari inclusions (E74:9, 15) is present south of the walls (W3036 + W3027 + W3048) which serve as the north wall of Room 323. Although only a narrow segment (1.00–1.50 m) of this room was excavated, it is clear that the same depositional sequence seen in Room 314 is present here as well. As a result of the depth of deposition, and the apparent abandonment of the eastern unit of rooms in Building 300, Stratum-VIIIA remains can only be described for the western and central rooms. STRATUM VIIIA The Western Unit: Rooms 303, 304, 305, 315, 316, 318, 319 (Fig. 7.15) The rooms of the western unit of Building 300 were reused and, in some cases, remodelled following the destruction of Stratum VIIIB. Al-
though the same sequence of superimposed floors and ceilings evident in the central unit could not be duplicated with the same certainty in the western unit, it is clear from the addition of new walls, and especially from the ceramic vessels and artefacts in situ under the final Stratum-VIIIA collapse, that these two units were in use simultaneously. Room 303 In Room 303, the Stratum-VIIIA builders reused Wall 3003 on the east and founded Wall 3001 within Debris Layers E44:7 + 9 on the west. Although Wall 3001 is a two-row boulder-and-chink wall that is on average 0.80 m thick and could have supported a ceiling over a major room (303) within Building 300, there is evidence to suggest that this was not the case. When found, Wall 3001 was preserved only 1–2 courses in height (0.25–0.32 m). So too, Wall 3002, which forms the west side of Room 304, is ca. 0.85 m in width and is preserved to a height of only 0.35–0.65 m. This minimal preservation suggests that these were either partition walls or foundations, which could have been a footing for wooden pillars or mud bricks, rather than walls that stood the full height of the room. Evidence for a Stratum VIIIA floor (E44:7, upper levels = E54:19) in use with Walls 3001, W3003 and W3004 is marked by the presence of a number of objects and flat-lying pottery at a level of 0.50–0.80 m above the earlier floor (E54:32 = 44:11). This hard-packed soil layer (E54:19), compressed by the collapse of stones from the surrounding walls when Building 300 went out of use, contained several superimposed plaster lenses suggesting a collapsed ceiling. Table 7P. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 303(A) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E54:19 + E44:7, upper
saucer bowl cooking pot jug 1566 ceramic sherds tray mortar grinder
V421 V425 V486 V434
red slip red, hemispherical
TJ 786 TJ 1130 TJ 1116
basalt limestone limestone
At a somewhat higher level, above the fallen stones and plaster fragments embedded in E54:19, was a soil layer (E54:14, 13 = E44:6) with ash pockets, animal bones and teeth, indicating cooking areas and a
group of food processing tools. From the same loci were a collection of unique artefacts and ceramic vessels that point to cultic activity, including a basalt tray (Daviau 1994: fig. 6.2), a strainer bowl,40 a nearly intact red slipped juglet (E54.112.1), sherds of a white slipped and painted decanter, the upper half of a female figurine (TJ 1119) and tripod cups,41 one with petals hanging from the carination just above the base. This assemblage suggests a different range of activities from those on the lower floor, where artefacts and ceramic vessels seem to have been used mainly for storage and food processing, while the upper floor or roof had a greater variety of activities, including elements of a domestic cult (Daviau 2001b). Table 7Q. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 303(A), upper level Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E54:13–14 E44:6
bowl cooking pot 2 pithoi juglet decanter strainer bowl tripod cup miniature cup 886 ceramic sherds figurine stone
V487 V488 V489, V490 V360 = TJ 1132 V377 V491 V358 = TJ 1475 V492
burnished
TJ 1119 TJ 1114
female, mould-made, painted limestone, perforated
red slip red slip, 2 strainers red slip, holes in base painted
Room 304 The eastern (W3001) and western (W3002) walls of Room 304 are both boulder-and-chink walls set into a deep Stratum VIIIB Debris Layer (E44:9 = 15 + 16) of yellowish brown soil (10YR 5/4) that continued to build up inside this room. Probes through the debris did not encounter either the Stratum-VIIIB or -VIIIA floors uncovered in Room 303 to the east of Wall 3001. Within this debris layer was a large amount of sherd material (820), animal bones (569), and a few artefacts consisting of two basalt hand grinders (TJ 884, 966) and a ceramic spindle whorl (TJ 947). While these finds suggest domestic activities, their pattern of distribution appears random and there is no evidence of cooking. Because no specific activity areas could be identified, the accumulation 40 A strainer cup with handle from Level VII at Beth Shan (James and McGovern 1993: fig. 52:4) is the closest parallel in terms of size and shape. 41 Perforated tripod cups are attested as early as the 9th century B.C. at #En-Gev (Mazar et al. 1964:10; fig. 8, pl. 12A).
of sherds and animal bone fragments in Room 304 suggests a midden in an abandoned room or in an area especially designed for that purpose. Destruction The pattern of rockfall suggests that the inner Casemate Wall (W3000) collapsed into Room 304 from the north, covering almost the entire area of Square E44. Only along the south balk was there an accumulation of gravel (E44:5) that may represent a segment of ceiling, either from Room 304 itself or more probably from the casemate room at a higher level. Since Square E43 was not excavated, the continuation of this locus in the south balk was not traced and its original function remains uncertain. Of interest is the large number of artefacts (20) contained within the rockfall (E44:6, 2) from Casemate Wall 3000 and from the walls of Room 303. While most of these objects were the usual ground stone tools, there was one complete millstone (TJ 736) and the alabaster handle of a jug (TJ 688), comparable to a jug from Dayr #Alla (#Amman National Museum).42 Room 305 (Fig. 7.16) Following the end of Stratum VIIIB in Room 305, the ceiling material (E54:21 = 50) which accumulated above the fallen wall stones served as the foundation for Stratum VIIIA occupation. Within this debris, the inhabitants extended Wall 3001 to the south, so that it formed the west wall of both Rooms 303 and R305, and the north frame of doorway I. Wall 3004 on the north remained in use as did Wall 3024 on the east and Walls 3035 + 3037 on the south. Doorway H showed evidence for a rebuild in the form of a semicircle of stones that marked its north side. This same feature, possibly a support for the threshold, is also seen in Doorway G from Room 305 into Room 315. A hardpacked soil layer (E54:15) and severely disturbed artefacts and pottery (E54:12) suggest reuse of this area within the new confines Room 305. The domestic activities evident in the Stratum VIIIB use of Room 305 probably continued in this final occupation phase, although the artefact distribution was less clear in the archaeological record, due to the severe collapse of the surrounding walls at the end of Stratum VIIIA.
42
Personal observation, 1995.
Figure 7.16. Building 300, western unit, Room 319, 315, 305 (left to right), Corridor 316 with stairs in Doorway J (foreground).
Table 7R. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 305(A) Locus
Finds
E54:12 + 15
bowls krater cooking pot sherds flask strainer 772 ceramic sherds tray stone mortar pestle grinder 3 millstones 2 pounders
Reg. No.
Characteristics
V305
painted sherds
TJ 1351 TJ 1365 TJ 900 TJ 781 TJ 913 TJ 784, 789, 851 TJ 783, 1422
basalt polishing limestone basalt basalt upper, loaf-shaped chert
Collapsed wall stones (E54:9) fill Room 305 and mark the end of occupation. Within the collapse in Doorway I on the west (E53:21) was a fragment of worked bone (TJ 1631) and a silver earring (TJ
Figure 7.17. Building 300, Room 315, with cobblestone floor and pillared walls.
1755).43 These few refined artefacts can be associated with the numerous specialty items and figurines found in the uppermost loci in Building 300, pointing to a complex social and economic system in place in this rural town. Room 315 (Figs. 7.16, 17) Adjoining Room 305 on the south is Room 315, a small room only 2.00 × 3.00 m in size. Excavated in 1994, Room 315 was exposed in the northern half of Square E53. By the end of the 1995 season, only one Stratum-VIII floor (E53:17) had been reached. Although it is possible 43 Earring TJ 1755 was a high status possession that was only partially preserved; for a full description, see Daviau (2002:42–43). Several earrings in the gold hoard from Tawilan with similar characteristics have been compared to the jewellery from Nimrud (Ogden 1995:72), although detailed publication of the Nimrud tombs has not yet appeared. A silver earring with a pendant cluster from Tel Michal is also comparable to Neo-Assyrian jewellery, a style that reached its apex during the Persian period (Muhly and Muhly 1989: fig. 25.10:195).
that this floor was in use at the same time as Stratum-VIIIB floors in Rooms 305, R303, and R302, Room 315 is presented here as an integral part of Building 300 in its later phase. This judgment is based on the evidence for reconstruction seen in a possible blocked doorway at the south end of Wall 3034, and on the floor levels, which were comparable to the Stratum-VIIIA surface in Room 305. Room 315 is bounded on the west (W3032), south (W3033) and east (W3034) by 2–row boulder-and-chink walls comprised of small (0.25– 0.50 m) boulders. Wall 3033 on the south remains standing ca. 0.76 m in height, with a total width of ca. 0.70 m. Wall 3034 on the east (ca. 0.60 m thick) runs south from a stacked-boulder pillar (E54:8) in north Wall 3037. Midway along its length, Wall 3034 becomes a cobblestone unit that abuts south Wall 3033.44 The north wall (W3035, W3037) is formed of two units flanking Doorway G, each section consists of stacked boulders (E53:9 and E53:10) with mud-brick or packed mud connecting units (E53:19, 22), which are preserved ca. 0.32 m and 0.56 m high respectively. Mud-brick detritus within both Rooms 305 and 315 (E53:11) indicates a certain amount of collapse from these units. The western boundary of Room 315 is composed of Wall 3032 which is formed of several discrete units, including Wall 3031 that runs west into the balk. Wall 3031 consists of large boulders, two courses wide (ca. 0.63 m wide); Wall 3032 runs north to seal against its south face. A stone on the north face of Wall 3032 has a vertical, semi-dressed side that suggests it was the southern frame of a very large doorway (I) in an earlier phase. The southern end of Wall 3032 abuts Wall 3033, the south wall of Room 315. Cobble Surface E53:17 covers the floor of Room 315 and continues up the west face of Wall 3034 and along the base of Walls 3033 and W3032. As far as could be observed, this surface is comprised of limestone cobbles in the range of 0.06–0.25 m that were laid in a mud plaster bedding. Three additional stones were positioned in a semicircle on the cobbles as a threshold between Pillars E53:9 and E53:10 in Doorway G (see Doorway H above). Running north-south on Floor E53:17 were two parallel lines of cobbles (E53:11a and 11b) that connect the south Wall (3033) to stacked pillars E53:9 and 10. 44 This unit in Wall 3034 may mark an earlier doorway between Rooms 315 and R316 that was blocked in Stratum VIIIA, although this sequence could not be confirmed. At its present level (922.51 masl), Surface E53:17 appears somewhat higher than the Stratum VIIIB-floors in Room 305 (922.32 masl) to the north.
These rows of cobbles were found in a state of collapse along with a certain amount of mud-brick material, but appear to divide Room 315 into three equal parts, each ca. 0.80 m wide. This arrangement, and the cobble surface itself (E53:17), which seals the floor and the lower parts of the surrounding walls, suggests special measures to create a room impervious to intrusion by small animal pests and moisture. Room 315 may have served as a kind of bin or granary for sacks of foodstuffs, although in its latest use period a number of ceramic storejars were in the room along with millstones, 4 iron points and an obsidian arrowhead (TJ 1500). Additional food preparation tools, 917 pottery sherds, and 1 iron point were present in the overlying debris (E53:6). Evidence for the destruction of Room 315 is present in the collapse of the ceiling (E53:4) which filled the room and covered the low mud-brick wall units (E53:19, E53:22). The most distinctive finds recovered from the ceiling were a tall tripod mortar of vesicular basalt (TJ 1185; Daviau 2002: fig. 2.84:1) and a pumice bead (TJ 1192). Room 316 (Fig. 7.16) Room 316 is a corridor (ca. 1.00 m wide × 3.00 m in length) parallel to the east side of Room 315, that connects Room 305 with the cooking area in Room 319 on the south. This walkway includes two entrances, Doorway B into Room 305 and Doorway J into Room 319. If the suggested phasing for Room 315 is accepted, it is possible that Corridor 316 was an integral part of Room 315 during Stratum VIIIB, before Wall 3034 was constructed, although within Corridor 316 itself there is no evidence for an earlier phase. Doorway B on the north leads directly into Room 305, while on the south Doorway J is marked by a rise of 0.25–0.30 m. This rise is accommodated by three steps, which extend the full width of Corridor 316 and are formed of limestone flags held in place with chink stones. A beaten earth surface (E63:23) seals up against the north edge of the lowest step and against the flanking walls (W3024, 3034). This surface is marked by the presence of plaster and ash embedded in the floor. At the south end of the stairs, the stones of the top step serve as a threshold in Doorway J. Covering the surface within Room 316 were several concentrations of broken ceramic vessels surrounded by the soil of the collapsed ceiling (E53:18 = 63:15). A group of pithos sherds were smashed on the floor at the north end of the corridor, while cooking pot sherds were scattered
along its length. Not surprisingly, no artefacts were located in this high traffic area. Above the stairs was an accumulation of mudbrick like material (E63:8) that filled the space between the two flanking walls (W3024 and 3034). While clearly part of the archaeological record for this corridor, the origin of this hard-packed material may be assigned to the upper storey. Only one artefact, a chert pounder (TJ 2018), and 33 ceramic sherds were recovered from this locus. Accumulated soil (E63:3) and topsoil (E63:2) sealed both the collapsed ceiling and the walls of Corridor 316. Room 319 (Fig. 7.16) Parallel to the south wall of Room 315 is a narrow space (1.00 × 6.30 m), designated Room 319. This area is enclosed on the north by Wall 3033, which it shares with Room 315, and Stairs E63:17; Wall 3047 is on the west, and Wall 3040 and Partition Wall 3038 are on the south. All three walls (W3033, W3040, W3047) are 2–row, boulder-and-chink construction with Wall 3033 extending from Doorway J to the west face of Wall 3047. At this point, Wall 3047 abuts Wall 3033 on its south face. In turn, Wall 3040 abuts Wall 3047 on its east face. This southern wall runs east only 2.20 m where it ends adjacent to Oven E63:10. At this point a 1–row, L-shaped partition wall (W3038) abuts the south face of Wall 3040 and continues east forming the southern perimeter of the cooking area (E63:21). The east end of Wall 3038 is marked by a 2–row wall stub (E63:22) which may have framed a doorway (P) or marked the position of a robber trench (E63:7). Along the south side of Room 319 is a recess (E63:21) which measures 0.27 × 2.40 m within its surrounding wall (W3038); here the wall stands 0.90–0.93 m high. Within this recess is a large oven (E63:10), consisting of an overturned pithos without its base (Fig. 7.18). The pithos measures 0.53 m in diameter at the shoulder and the wall of the vessel is 0.02–0.03 m thick. The rim of the pithos is at floor level and its neck and shoulder are sealed in place by a hardened layer of soil and plaster (E63:11) that fills the space between the oven and the adjacent walls.45 Next to this plaster is an accumulation of ash and soil (E63:24) 45 The utilisation of an inverted pithos packed around with clay to form an oven is similar to Oven B63:30, which was also flanked by a one-row partition wall (W2019; see above). The location of a pithos oven in the thickness of a wall is also seen at Tel Dan, where an upside down storage jar filled with ashes was set into W 5070 (Biran 1999:45; figs. 5, 6).
Figure 7.18. Room 319, Oven E63:10.
which built up against a hard-packed earthen bench or shelf (E63:16) within the eastern corner formed by Wall 3038 and Wall Stub E63:22. Resting on top of this installation was an iron point (TJ 2073), while within the soil that formed the bench/shelf were numerous fragments of flint. Inside the inverted pithos was a layer of loose soil (E63:12) that filled Oven E63:10 when it went out of use. Below this soil, the neck of the oven was filled ca. 0.40 deep with hardened soil (E63:13) that looked like mud-brick material and included 70 fragments of the oven wall. Another distinct soil layer (E63:14) contained ash pockets and 18 oven fragments. Missing from this assemblage are cooking pots sherds, although several were recovered from Corridor 316. The floor of Room 319 is a beaten earth surface with plaster and hardened earth inclusions (E53:42 = 63:18).46 Although this surface is 46 Although identified as “mudbrick” in the field, no true bricks with mortar were found either as a superstructure or as brick collapse. Firm, packed earth or pisé with organic inclusions appeared scattered throughout the soil layers adjoining Oven E63:10.
best preserved in the western end of Room 319, it clearly seals against Stairs E63:17 on the east and extends into the recess to form the surface on which Oven E63:10 was placed. Present on this surface are the usual ubiquitous ground stone tools used in food processing. Clearly this area was intended as a food preparation and cooking room. With the collapse of the surrounding walls and ceiling, Room 319 and recess E63:21 were filled with the same soil and “mud-brick” debris and small boulders (E63:6 = 53:38, E63:4) seen in Room 316. Here, too the mudbrick detritus was more plentiful in the west end, near Wall 3047. Table 7S. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 319(A) Locus
Finds
E53:38 = small jug E63:6 882 ceramic sherds mortar 2 mortars mortar pestle grinder millstone quern pecking stone
Reg. No.
Characteristics
V528 TJ 1939 TJ 1964, 1994 TJ 2003 TJ 2067 TJ 1959 TJ 1998 TJ 2000 TJ 1947
basalt, small basalt limestone basalt basalt upper, loaf-shaped basalt chert
Room 318 To the west of Rooms 315 and 319 is Room 318 where remains of two occupation levels were exposed in the eastern half of the room. This can be seen most clearly by the addition of two architectural features, stacked-boulder pillar E53:40 and one boulder of a second pillar (E53:41). Pillar E53:40 stood adjacent to the west balk and remained in place four courses high (0.96 m) above a hard-packed floor surface. In use with these pillars was a floor (E53:37), in place above the StratumVIIIB surface (E53:39). The lowest Stratum-VIIIA surface must have been in use for some time, since it was covered by a layer of soil representing the build-up of a living surface. Both loci were damaged by subsequent rockfall that appears to represent wall collapse. Embedded within the surface and the collapse were small boulders and chink stones, as well as soil with patches of packed earth (mud-brick material) and mendable pottery, including cooking pots, red slipped bowls and juglets. Also on the surface and embedded within it there were 32 artefacts that indicate numerous food processing activities.
Table 7T. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 318(A) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E53:37
bowl bowl cup cooking pot juglet lamp 504 ceramic sherds pendant mortar 2 mortars mortar 7 pestles
V319 V330 V318 V320 V324 = TJ 1908 V371
red slip, paint, very small red slip, burnished
TJ 1934 TJ 1946 TJ 1897, 1956 TJ 1895 TJ 1911, 1913, 1915, TJ 1916, 1918, TJ 1919, 1920 TJ 1912, 1921, 1922, TJ 1938, 1950, 1951, TJ 1953, 1963 TJ 1923, 1925 TJ 1896, 1969 TJ 1943, 1945, 1952, TJ 1960 TJ 2026 TJ 1910, 1958, 2008 TJ 1941
stone basalt, small broken tripod basalt
8 grinders 2 millstones 2 querns 4 pounders spindle whorl 3 stones weight
red slip
basalt upper, loaf-shaped basalt saddle querns chert ceramic worked basalt
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey/Roof Superimposed above E53:37 was a soil and rockfall layer (E53:35) that contained small and medium cobble size stones and small boulders along with mendable pottery clusters. Two almost complete red slipped juglets mark this surface while large pithos sherds suggest food storage, probably on the roof. Table 7U. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 318(A), upper level Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E53:35
jar juglet juglet pendant 2 pendants shell dish pestle
V327 V315 = TJ 1867 V366 TJ 1930 TJ 1859, 2225 TJ 1860 TJ 1883
hole mouth red slip and paint incised checkerboard pumice Glycymeris Unio basalt, small
Room 322 East of Room 318 and south of Partition Wall 3038, there was no evidence for an exterior wall for Complex 300. Instead, a debris layer (E63:5) exposed in the southwest corner of Square E63, and probably equal to E53:36 further west, suggests an additional room (R322) which lay to the south of Corridor 319. As in E53, the soil layer excavated in 1995 (E63:5) was not completely removed as the purpose of excavation was merely to delineate the south face of the L-shaped walls of Room 319. In spite of this limited exposure, additional rooms surrounding central Cistern E64:13 seem very likely. No entrance into this complex of rooms from the outside was identified prior to the end of excavation. Destruction Destruction along the west side of Building 300 appears to have occurred in stages. While the major collapse brought down the ceilings and made it impossible to remodel the building, a midden area (E44:5) that consists of gravel and 300 ceramic sherds accumulated above Rooms 303 and 304, just south of wall collapse E44:2. There were no artefacts in Gravel Layer E44:5, whereas Rock Layer E44:2 contained a limestone quern and a mortar, a basalt millstone, a chert pounder, and an alabaster jug handle along with fragmentary ground stone tools. While E44:2 may represent part of the original destruction, E44:5 may have been the result of later activity, prior to the full collapse of the wall system, which finally covered both E44:2 and E44:5 with a layer of boulders. The Central Unit: Rooms 302, 306, 307, Cistern E64:13, Cistern Area 308 + 324, Room 326 (Fig. 7.19) Room 302 Following the destruction of Stratum VIIIB in Room 302, the occupants reused the existing walls (W3000, W3003, W3005, W3013), and levelled the collapsed ceiling to form a new surface. This plastered floor (E54:26 = 27 = E55:19), initially exposed in 1992, seals up against Casemate Wall 3000 on the north, Shelf/Bench E54:24 = 55:24 and Wall 3024 on the west, Wall 3013 on the south, and slopes up against Wall 3005 on the east. Shelf/Bench E54:24, originally founded on Makeup E54:49 of Stratum VIIIB, is formed of 2–3 rows of semidressed stones and several long stone slabs (E54:24 and E55:24) that form a corner against Inner Casemate Wall 3000 (Daviau 1993c: fig. 4).
Figure 7.19. Building 300, central unit, Stratum VIIIA.
The uppermost slab of the shelf/bench measures 0.19–0.30 wide, 0.94 long, and 0.12 m thick. Bench/shelf E54:24 runs south, ending just north of a windbreak (E54:28) that consists of a large basalt saddle quern (0.29 × 0.57 m) set into the floor on its long edge. The quern protected a cooking area located in the corner formed by the end of Bench/shelf E54:24 and Quern E54:28 itself. A scatter of cooking pot sherds lay on ash stained Surface E54:26, adjacent to the quern. The eastern extension of Surface E54:26 = E65:12 was clearly visible within a sub-balk left against Stacked Boulder E65:14 of Wall 3005. Here the surface, a distinct plaster layer, ca. 0.10 m thick, is on an angle above Stratum VIIIB Debris Layer E65:37, as it slopes down from Wall 3005. Additional plaster was present on the west face of the adjoining cobblestone unit (E65:21) of Wall 3005. Further south,
within the north balk of E64, Surface E54:26 = E65:12b is very patchy, possibly the result of heavy traffic through Doorway E from Room 302 to Cistern E64:13, which was the central feature of Building 300 during its final occupation phase. On this floor (E54:26 = 55:21), the artefacts that had been in use during its occupation were broken and scattered across the room and mixed with the overlying debris (E55:19, 54:23). Along with cooking pot sherds were those of red slipped bowls, some on the upper surface of Bench E54:24 (Fig. 7.20), basalt saddle querns, upper loaf-shaped millstones, pestles, pounders, and a variety of mortars. Sealed in position on Bench E55:24 by a layer of plaster (E54:19) were several miniature basalt tools along with the base of a ceramic figurine, a ceramic strainer vessel, a perforated stone, storejars and pithoi. Table 7V. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 302(A) Locus
Finds
E54:23, 26, 27 E55:19, 21
bowl cup krater cooking pots pithos storejar sherds strainer bowl 887 ceramic sherds bead stone mortar pestle grinder 3 grinders 8 grinders 4 querns quern pounder point figurine loom weight
Reg. No.
Characteristics
V399 V469 V420
finger size holes
TJ 553 TJ 548 TJ 503 TJ 542 TJ 557 TJ 545, 550, 551 TJ 516, 517, 543, TJ 563, 570, 586, TJ 977, 1017 TJ 558, 587, TJ 929, 996 TJ 569 TJ 565 TJ 526 TJ 493 TJ 568
starfish fossil chert, polishing miniature, basalt basalt granite?/porphyry limestone basalt basalt limestone, large miniature, chert iron clay
Evidence for the collapse of the Stratum-VIII ceiling (E54:18) and the superimposed fallen wall stones (E54:5, 7) does not show clearly what
Figure 7.20. Room 302, Bench E54:24 with broken pottery.
activities might have been carried out on the roof. Only a small number (3) of ground stone tools were recovered, and they were scattered over Rooms 302 and R303. Thus the pattern of destruction in these two rooms is similar, even though Room 302 leads into the Cistern Area (R308 + 324) and a different pattern should be expected, if Room 308 was in fact unroofed. A more complete sequence of use on both the Stratum-VIIIA floor and upper storey is seen in Room 306. Room 306 The inhabitants of Building 300 used Walls 3000, 3005, 3011 and 3030 in their reuse of Room 306 during Stratum VIIIA. No plaster surface, comparable to Floor E54:26 in Room 302, was apparent, but a series of superimposed debris layers, each with flat-lying pottery strongly suggests continued occupation. The lowest Stratum-VIIIA surface (E65:18; 922.46–922.58 masl) is marked by an accumulation of pottery and artefacts, with the heaviest concentration in the centre of the room. At this point, the floor is ca. 0.11–0.15 m above the east side of Plaster Floor E54:26, where it seals up against Wall 3005 at levels of 922.49 and 922.38 masl. Superimposed above the collapsed stones of E65:18 = 13 were two more debris Layers (E65:11, 8). Soil Layer E65:11 contained fragments
Figure 7.21. Room 306, pottery in situ.
of plaster and fallen wall stones which filled Room 306. In the southern half of the room was a small accumulation of pottery along with a bone spatula and a perforated stone disc (Fig. 7.21). That this was the first in a series of superimposed Stratum-VIIIA surfaces, as was apparently the case east of Wall 3011 in Room 312(A), is confirmed by the fact that Soil Layer E65:11 was above the topmost stones of Wall 3030. Debris Layer E65:8 contains the same sequence of accumulation as Layer E65:18; namely, a layer of smashed ceramic vessels and artefacts covered by fallen wall stones. This debris layer (E65:8) consists of light gray soil (10YR 7/2) marked by scattered fragments of plaster, suggesting a ceiling that broke up when it fell into the room. It extends the full length of Rooms 306 and 320, representing the final phase of R306(A). The pottery scattered across the collapsed stones and soil of E65:8 consists of ca. 1100 sherds, some from red slipped bowls with inverted triangular rims that were decorated with black bands and white wash which fills the space between the bands.47 These vessels are associated with spindle whorls, basalt grinders, mortars and millstones, and an iron point. 47 This decorative scheme is described by van der Kooij and Ibrahim (1989: 103; fig. 117) as “characteristic of the Ammonite potters” in Iron IIC, 750–600 B.C.
Table 7W. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 306(A) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E65:8 + 11
saucer 2 bowls bowl bowl krater cooking pot pithos pithos jug 2 juglets lamp 1133 ceramic sherds whetstone mortar millstone pounder whorl spatula point disk knob 3 sherds
V333 V356, V451 V353
red slip red slip red slip, paint smudged
V449 V495 V369 V349, V354
hole mouth
TJ 1020 TJ 985 TJ 978 TJ 975 TJ 967 TJ 1153 TJ 985 TJ 1167 TJ 1009 93/301, 302; 94/140
red slip red slip basalt limestone basalt chert ceramic bone iron limestone, perforated bone, small reworked
The final destruction of Building 300 consists of more than a few fallen ceilings. The evidence in Rooms 306 and R302 shows that the walls also collapsed, filling the rooms with boulders and cobblestones and smashing all the ceramic vessels in use at the time. Roofs fell in as well, being covered in turn by more fallen stone, possibly derived from the cobblestone wall units that were preserved to the same height as the stacked pillars with which they were associated. Cistern E64:13 (Figs. 7.22–24) The plan of Building 300 during Stratum VIIIA, especially the layout of rooms in the central unit, indicates that it was rebuilt with serious modifications, especially the infilling of several eastern rooms (313, R314 + 327, R323) when Cistern E64:13 was dug. The cistern itself appears to have been cut in an area where a natural depression filled with terra rossa had served as a sump for rain water in Central Court-
Figure 7.22. Cistern area with Wall 3009 on left, and Wall 3008 on right of Cistern E64:13.
yard 308 during Stratum VIIIB.48 The new cistern was roughly circular in shape (5.69 m north-south, 5.98 m east-west, carved out of bedrock to a depth of 2.57 m from ceiling to floor. A ledge/shelf of rock, ca. 0.36 m in height and varying in width from 0.50–0.73 m, ran along the southwest perimeter at floor level. The characteristics of this ledge were not clear,49 because it was covered with the same plaster (E64:17) that completely lined Cistern E64:13, except for the ceiling. Marks at various points on the plaster indicate water levels within the cistern at various times in the past. At present, there is no way to determine whether these marks reflect ancient or modern water levels, since water from the surrounding area has continued to collect in the cistern.50 48 Such cavities are seen wherever bedrock has been cut through as a result of road building activities in the #Amman area. 49 No attempt was made to excavate the ledge. It may have been merely a harder vein of bedrock that the rock cutters left in place. However, a similar ledge, also along the south side, appears in Cistern D15:2, and may have served in both cisterns as a guide to low water levels. 50 The landowner was not surprised at the discovery of a cistern in this location since he has seen water, which collected here during a rain storm, seep away quickly (H. Talafiyeh, personal communication, June 1993).
Figure 7.23. Cistern E64:13, north-south section; drawn by J. R. Battenfield.
Within the cistern, and covering most of its floor area, was a cone of soil that had filtered in through the principal opening, which is located off-centre to the north. Probes within the cone (E64:18, 19, 20, 21) yielded soil samples51 and little else.52 Although the cone was not removed, the fact that no pottery was recovered from the probes within the cistern suggests that it was cleaned out subsequent to the Iron Age, possibly for reuse during the early Islamic period.53 In addition to the mouth, there were three blocked openings,54 which appeared to be secondary, used only for draining water into the cistern but not for removing it. These openings (#1, 2, 3) were visible in the 51 A soil sample was also taken by P. Warnock in the secondary cone (E64:22) under drain opening 2 in the southwest, immediately north of the ledge. 52 Debris containing Iron Age II sherds and a few bones entered Cistern 64:13 during the winter of 1993–1994. However, this additional material cannot be used to date the construction or use of the cistern. 53 The cistern in Field D (D15:2) had been partially emptied in modern times and the debris, containing Iron Age pottery sherds, was dumped onto the northwest corner of Building 600. The ceramic evidence is not diagnostic, since the neighbouring fields are filled with Iron Age sherds. Although it may have been first cut and used during the Iron Age, its location suggests that this cistern was reused in the Umayyad period, as was Cistern I at Dh¯ıbân (Reed 1964: pl. 99). See Battenfield, forthcoming. 54 The “drains” into Cistern E64:13 appear to be natural crevices, comparable to those seen in Cave/Cistern S-1.
Figure 7.24. Cistern E64:13, plan and section drawings, showing location of drain holes and mouth; drawn by J. R. Battenfield.
ceiling from inside (Fig. 7.24). Drain #1 was blocked with stones and rubble, while Drain #2 appeared to be filled only with soil. By the 1995 season, the opening of Drain #1 had not been found on the surface, although some evidence for Drain #2 appears in Room 324, while crevices at floor level in Room 307 indicate the location of Drain #3.55 55 During excavation, these depressions could not be followed to determine their exact connection to Drain #3, although they were clearly in the same area as the opening seen from inside the cistern.
The principal opening where water could be drawn out of Cistern E64:13 is a cylindrical shaft (0.95 × 1.15 m) carved out of bedrock with a height of 0.68–0.72 m. Plaster E64:17 ran up to the underside of the shaft where it still appears in patches, especially at the point where four stone perimeter walls (E64:9, 64:10, 64:11, 64:14) are positioned above the shaft. These walls, formed of chert slabs and limestone boulders, possibly cut out of the cistern itself, stood to a height of 1.40 m above the base of the bedrock shaft. Traces of plaster (E64:16) were preserved in the corners between the walls and on their inner surfaces, probably intended to fill the crevices between the wall stones, and to protect both the shaft of the cistern and the ceramic vessels lowered into it. The uppermost course of each shaft wall formed a paved stone floor around the cistern’s mouth. The construction sequence of these cistern mouth walls is not clear, due to the presence of a series of overlying partition walls (W3009, 3012). These walls surround the mouth and obscure the dimensions of the shaft walls. However, it seems that shaft Wall E64:9 on the north was earlier than west Wall E64:10 which abuts it from the south. The choice of this precise location for a cistern appears to be based on the presence of natural drain holes. These holes appear to have all fed into a natural cave which could account for the shape and size of Cistern E64:13, since it does not share the proportions of the “standard” types known from other Palestinian sites (Wright 1985: fig. 238). Secondly, there is nothing to indicate that a cistern in Field E was in use before the founding of the Iron Age settlement in Stratum X or in Stratum IX–VIIIB, prior to the rebuilding that took place at the beginning of Stratum VIIIA. This sequence explains the presence of the terra rossa in Stratum-VIIIB rooms following the collapse of their ceilings, and the difficulty which the ancient inhabitants would have had in removing large amounts of soil and stone from this cavity with the surrounding rooms already in use. When found, Cistern E64:13 was capped by a single large boulder (E64:4; 0.70 × 0.75 × 0.70 m in height) that fit snugly into the mouth formed by the perimeter walls. Whether this boulder was in use during Stratum VIIIA cannot be determined with certainty since the cistern may have been plugged at any time after Building 300 went out of use. However, parallels such as the cisterns at Khirbet Raddana (Callaway 1983:53) suggest that the mouth was capped during the periods of use to protect and conserve the contents. In Transjordan, the site with the most impressive number of cisterns
is Dh¯ıbân, where 100 cisterns were located on the tell and in the surrounding area.56 Cistern I, in use during the “Arab” period in Building A, was generally circular in shape with a diameter of ca. 6.50 m and a height of 5.90 m from the floor to the opening in the bedrock (Reed 1964: pl. 99). On top of this opening were what looks like two stages of stone lining for the shaft which measure 3.80 m in depth. Reed (1964:47) suggested that Cistern I was in fact an Iron Age feature, probably in secondary use, because the shaft was north of centre. He does not explain why this characteristic was a sign of Iron Age construction, but it does coincide with Tall Jawa Cistern E64:13, where the shaft is definitely north of centre.57 At the same time, Cistern I is very different in shape from Cistern E64:13. Hill country sites in western Palestine also contain rock-cut cisterns.58 The best parallel for cisterns under the floors of Iron Age structures is Tell en-Nas.beh (McCown 1947:129). Here the cisterns are bottleshaped or cylindrical, usually deeper than they were wide. Also at Tell en-Nas.beh, the location of the cisterns inside the houses was random, although they appear in three instances to be adjacent to interior walls (McCown 1947: fig. 54).59 While the excavators admit that the openings of certain cisterns were in roofed rooms, they assumed that for the most part the presence of a cistern coincided with an open court area,60 as if the only way to collect water would be from rain falling into the cistern itself (McCown 1947: 215, 217). In fact, this is probably the least efficient water collection method, at least when compared to collecting water from surrounding roofs and channelling it to the cistern.61 The 56 Unfortunately, the precise location of these cisterns was not indicated on the site map (Reed 1964:46). This omission makes it virtually impossible to evaluate the interpretation of the excavator who correlated the number of cisterns with the injunction of Mesha that individuals should construct cisterns under their houses (Reed 1964:46). 57 No details of the six cisterns uncovered by members of the Dh¯ıbân team in soundings at "El-#Al near Hesban are included in the brief report on the site by Reed . (1965:12–16). 58 Although Tell el-Far#ah (N) shares much in common with Tall Jawa, especially the use of stone pillars in houses, there are no references to cisterns under the Iron Age houses (Chambon 1984:36–38). 59 Cistern 156 appears to be adjacent to a wall constructed of standing pillars and cobblestone units, similar to the location of cisterns in Iron Age I buildings at Khirbet Raddana (Callaway and Cooley 1971:13). 60 While this author assumes a similar situation for Cistern E64:13 at Tall Jawa, it is important to note that there was a lamp recovered in the collapse beside Wall 3012 (Stratum VIIIA). 61 The plan and section of each cistern is not available in the final publication; only
large number of cisterns (53) indicates that Tell en-Nas.beh was not located near a continuous source of running water sufficient for the population, a situation comparable to that of Tall Jawa. The 63 cellars at Gibeon were also rock-cut features that clearly had a distinct function, since the majority were unlined and very porous (Pritchard 1964:9). Only two of these cellars (L. 204 and 208, 208s, 209, 209w) were converted into cisterns during the Iron Age (Pritchard 1964:10). Even these cisterns, like the remaining cellars, were bellshaped with an average diameter of 2.00 m (Pritchard 1964:1).62 Late Bronze Age cisterns at Beth-shemesh, some of which were reused in the Iron Age, appear to be similar in shape to Cistern E64:13 at Tall Jawa. Among the 24 cisterns reported, Cisterns 17 and 18 are in the same size range (ca. 4.50–5.00 m in diameter), with a rock cut shaft surmounted by unhewn stones (Grant and Wright 1939:41, 43; fig. 4). By contrast, Middle and Late Bronze Age rock cut cisterns, best represented at Hazor in Areas D and E, are cylindrical in shape. Cistern 7021 in Area E is bottle-shaped with a diameter of ca. 2.50 m and a depth of 9.00 m (Yadin et al.1958: pl. CLXXXIV).63 In Area D, there are four cisterns, three of which (9024, 9027, 9028) opened directly from the bedrock, while the mouth of Cistern/Silo 9017, had originally been cut from bedrock, but had acquired over time a shaft built of four to five courses of field stones (Yadin et al.1958: 118; pl. CLXXXII). Such cisterns probably served an individual house, whereas Cistern E64:13 was central to several units of rooms that surrounded it on all sides. The Cistern Area (Fig. 7.25) At least four partition walls (W3008, W3009, W3010, W3012) surround the mouth of Cistern E64:13, with an entrance on the north (Doorway E) that leads into Room 302. Partition Wall 3008 is paired with the north wall (W3013) of Room 307 (see below) to form the frame of Doorway E. In construction, Wall 3008 is similar to the other a small number of the 53 cisterns are illustrated (McCown 1947: pls. 44–45). However, the photograph of Cistern 363 shows a “down-drain” which channelled water into the cistern. 62 At Arad in southern Palestine, large cisterns supplied the Iron Age citadel (Shiloh 1992:288). These cisterns appear in plan to be more than 10 m in extent; detailed publication is still awaited. 63 Cistern 6243 in Area C is even smaller, 0.90 1.30 m with an elliptical shape, and × ca. 5.20 m deep.
Figure 7.25. Cistern E64:13 and its surroundings.
partition walls in that it is ca. 0.50–0.60 m thick and is formed of small (0.25–0.50 m) limestone boulders, above two rows of cobblestones (E64:32). This wall, already in use during Stratum VIIIB, stands (ca. 0.70 m) high and fills the gap between limestone boulder pillar E64:7b and Wall 3011. The builders utilized the same construction techniques for Wall 3009, which is formed of one row of small flat-topped boulders above cobblestones. Due to the use of this building technique, it is not possible to determine on architectural grounds which wall was constructed first; Wall 3009 is, however, clearly in position above the eastern perimeter wall (E64:14) of the mouth of the cistern, clear evidence that the partition walls were constructed after the cistern was completed. Walls 3008 and W3009 meet at a right angle formed by pillar E64:7b. At its south end, Wall 3009 appears to join Wall 3012, although a unit of cobblestones may in fact be debris that collapsed into a doorway leading to the cistern mouth from Room 308. Another partition wall (W3012) runs east from the south end of Wall 3009 toward Room 314, forming the south end of Room 308. All of these low walls may have served at one time or another as shelves for water-carrying vessels, as well as to keep people and things from falling into the cistern. Room 324 (Fig. 7.25) Evidence for a Stratum-VIIIA use of the cistern area is seen most clearly in southern Room 324, where the soil layers above Stratum-
VIIIB Surface E64:70 served as makeup for the Stratum-VIIIA floor (E64:61). This floor surface consists of beaten earth and was covered with smashed pottery. Surface E64:61 extends across the cistern area running up to Wall 3010 on the west, W3044 on the east, and W3012 on the north. Wall 3010 appears to rest on underlying Surface E64:70 or to be embedded in the debris layers (E64:64, 63) above it. This wall is formed of two rows of cobble size stones and capped by one row of small boulders. Altogether Wall 3010 stands six courses high (0.75–0.90 m) and forms an L-shaped enclosure against the east face of Wall 3007, immediately south of the cistern mouth (E64:11). The space between the two walls is filled with soil and cobbles (E64:25), which initially suggested that Wall 3007 was strengthened at this point. If this were not the function of this feature, then its real purpose may be suggested by the presence of diagnostic storejar sherds that indicate a bin/shelf or work area. On the east side of the Cistern Area, Wall 3044 was built immediately above a plaster layer that appears to have been the original Stratum-VIIIA surface (E64:61) that extends into Room 314, where it seals the thick layer of terra rossa. Wall 3044, also a one-row limestone boulder wall, forms an L-shaped recess or corridor (R325) against the south end of the west side of Wall 3028.64 This effectively blocked direct access from Room 314 to the cistern through Doorway L, although the Corridor may have served as a ramp leading into this area from the south. The stratigraphic situation of the two walls (W3010, W3044) south of the cistern area, indicates that both were features associated with the Stratum-VIIIA use phase.65 Although pottery was abundant in this use phase (648 ceramic sherds), it is clear that there was considerable traffic in the cistern area and vessels cannot be said to be in situ, at least not in a primary context. The scattered animal bones and the small number of artefacts clearly indicates that this was not an area where people carried out daily activities of the kind performed in the adjoining rooms, such as Rooms 302, 303 and even in Storeroom 306.
64 Another example of a partition wall that forms an L-shaped space is Wall 3038 of Room 319, which surrounded Oven E63:10 (see above). 65 Excavation in Corridor 325 ended at the level of Stratum-VIIIA floor levels with Locus E64:68.
Room 308 The debris layer (E64:63, 64) recognized in Room 324 continues along the east side of Cistern E64:13, where it runs under Wall 3009 (as E64:71) and extends north (E64:52) as far as Wall 3008 + 3045. Within Debris Layer E64:52 were patches of plaster, brick material, animal bones, a single bead (TJ 2122), a cowrie shell (TJ 2124) and almost 1200 ceramic sherds. Whether these finds are evidence of extensive use of the area or of a deliberate fill prior to the construction of Stratum VIIIA features is difficult to determine. Two partition walls (W3012, W3009) that run along the south and east sides of Cistern E64:13 were badly disturbed by the final destruction of this area, but appear to have been Stratum-VIIIA features built above debris layers E64:71 and E64:54. These low walls, only two courses in height, consisted of one row of flat topped small boulders. The north end of Wall 3009 abuts the south face of Wall 3008. At its south end, Wall 3009 appears to end before it meets Wall 3012 which runs east. This space left an opening between the walls to access the cistern. Wall 3012 in its turn ended midway between the cistern and the west wall (W3028) of Room 314 thereby separating Room 308 on the north and R324 on the south. The surface (E64:61) identified in Room 324 appears to continue east of Wall 3012, where hard-packed soil with pockets of nari and brick-like material (E64:51) are well preserved. In situ against Wall 3028 is a rectangular limestone trough (E64:57 = TJ 1827), which is quite small in view of its position near the cistern (exterior measurements, 0.26 × 0.35 × 0.23 m in height; interior, 0.17 × 0.27 × 0.15 m in depth). Due to the lack of diagnostic finds in the immediate area, the precise function of this installation remains uncertain.66 At the same time, the large number of ceramic sherds, randomly distributed across the area, indicates discard rather than the final destruction of the building. Within Room 308 proper, a beaten earth surface (E64:52) marks the Stratum-VIIIA use phase. In this area, close to major Walls 3011 and W3028, the surface suffered severe damage from rockfall that occurred at the end of Stratum VIIIA. Along the east side, closer to Wall 3028, the surface is in better condition. Here a section of plaster floor (E64:55) was exposed that probably continues north into an area (R326) adjacent to Room 308. 66 No evidence for animals in Building 300 has been identified, with the result that we cannot interpret this trough as a water trough for small animals.
Table 7X. Pottery and Artefacts in Cistern Area, Stratum VIIIA Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
R308, R324
lamp sherds 1690 ceramic sherds 3 mortars millstone loom weight spindle whorl trough
TJ 689, 694, 849 TJ 691 TJ 906 TJ 932 E64:69
basalt ceramic limestone
Room 307 (Fig. 7.19) South of Room 302 and west of Cistern E64:13 is Room 307. This small rectangular room is enclosed by two stacked-boulder walls (W3007 on the east and W3013 on the north), each with connecting cobblestone units. The east face of Wall 3007 was built over the western edge of the mouth of Cistern E64:13, clear evidence that the cistern was dug before the reconstruction of the surrounding rooms. On the west, Room 307 shares with Corridor 316 a party wall (W3024) which is formed of flat topped boulders, while Wall 3039 on the south fills the space between Walls 3024 and W3007, abutting both of them. The only evidence for a doorway (C) was in the northwest corner formed by Walls 3024 and 3013, where rockfall (E64:38) filled the space at the west end of W3013. The principal floor, a beaten earth surface (E64:62) with plaster inclusions, covers a layer of cobble size stones and seals against all four walls. Only in the northwest corner is there a hole in the floor that may be related to the drain holes (especially Drain #3) feeding into the central cistern. On the floor and within the collapsed ceiling and rockfall layer (E64:26 = 58) was a considerable amount of restorable pottery, including an intact saucer bowl, and a variety of artefacts. Table 7Y. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 307(A) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E64:26 = 58 E64:62
saucer 3 saucers saucer small saucer 7 bowls
V398 = TJ 2159 V441, V443, V507 V513 V504 V440, V442, V505, V508, V509, V516, V517 V445, V448
red slip, intact slipped slipped, incised
2 bowls
red slip vertical rim
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
large bowl cooking pot 3 juglets amphoriskos 1225 ceramic sherds bead mortar 2 pestles 9 arrowheads
V511 V512 V447, V501, V514 V502
spindle 2 whorls
TJ 2202 TJ 2215 TJ 2137, 2185 TJ 2133, 2144, 2145, TJ 2204–2209 TJ 2203 TJ 932, 2200
loom weight weight
TJ 906 TJ 2211
Characteristics
red slip, paint glass basalt basalt iron ivory ceramic spindle whorls, broken clay basalt
Pottery and Chronology The most significant clue for the identification of the assemblage of ceramic vessels in Room 307 with Stratum VIIIA occupation is the presence of an increasing number of saucer bowls. This form was rare in Stratum VIIIB, where the dominant small bowl forms were the hemispherical bowl (e.g. V350) and the shallow, bent sided, simple rim bowl (e.g. V493). The introduction of the saucer, first with radial burnishing (V421) and then with ring burnishing, appears in Stratum VIIIB, but develops rapidly in Stratum VIIIA. This development is an important link with the Stratum VII buildings (B700, B800), where the hemispherical bowl is absent and the saucer bowl is the dominant form (see detailed discussion, Chapter 12). Destruction The destruction of Stratum VIIIA in the cistern area is marked by collapsed wall stones and accumulated soil (E64:60 = 23, 26, 15, 12, 5, 3) covering the entire area, including Room 307. The heaviest concentration of boulders was present within R324 near the south balk, a fact which suggests the proximity of a wall running east-west. There was no evidence of ceiling material;67 however, it is not certain that this area was unroofed, since lamp sherds were present. Artefacts of daily use were also scattered throughout the collapse. 67 Due to the lack of burning during the destruction and abandonment of these buildings, there is no clear evidence for roof construction.
The cause of this destruction was not apparent in the archaeological record. The few iron points recovered in this area from both Stratum VIII phases suggest casual discard or loss, rather than a serious battle, thus demanding another explanation for the abandonment of this major domestic complex. While earthquake is possible, political change may also have been involved. Re-use of the cistern during the Umayyad (Stratum III) period is possible although the scant occurrence of Umayyad pottery is not strong evidence for such an interpretation. Clearly, Cistern E64:13 had its principal use during Iron Age II. Room 326 + 321 The narrow space (R326) located between the east wall (W3011) of Rooms 306 and R320 and the west wall (W3028) of Room 314, continued in use during Stratum VIIIA. At the same time that Partition Walls 3012 and 3009 were built in the cistern area, a wall (W3042) was built that separated Room 326 from R321 further north. This wall consists of two rows of small limestone boulders that stand 4–5 courses high (ca. 0.75 m), and bonds only with the upper courses of Wall 3041, which runs north to Casemate Wall 3000. What was peculiar about this construction is the fact that Wall 3042 is only preserved for 4 courses whereas Wall 3041 is 9 courses deep at the point where it was sealed against by Stratum-VIIIB Surface E75:26 in Room 312. If Wall 3042 was indeed a Stratum-VIIIA construction, it is strange that there was no clear evidence of a rebuild of Wall 3041 in its upper courses where it bonds with Wall 3042. Within Room 326, beaten earth Surface E65:45 seals up against Wall 3042 and covers a patch of plaster on the south face of the wall. The surface itself was covered with gray, black and red flecks and scattered patches of plaster. Perpendicular to Wall 3042 at the level of the second course of stone from the top is a single line of small boulders, which extends along the east face of Wall 3011. This feature is poorly understood in its present position, although it may have served as a bench/shelf in the vicinity of the cistern.68 Surface E65:45 was sealed by another beaten earth and plaster Surface (E65:44) which covered the bench/shelf and reached the top of Wall 3042. 68 A single row of cobblestones (E56:8) along the face of a wall was used outside Casemate Wall 3006 at the point where two superimposed plaster layers meet the wall. The same technique is also seen in Casemate Room 201 (B53:9), at the point where a cobblestone floor sealed with plaster (B53:7) meets the west wall (B53:5) of the room.
On the north side of Wall 3042, additional soil layers (E65:47 + 48) built up or were installed as a fill under Soil Layer E65:46, which covers the top of Walls 3041 and W3042 and forms the foundation for Cobblestone Surface E65:43. This surface was well preserved only in the west half of Room 312(A) above R321, where the pavement covered both walls that had formed R321(B). A few patches of the pavement, along with scattered large cobbles (E65:44), were located above R326 along with a limestone door weight (TJ 1795). The cobbles were sealed by a hard-packed plaster surface (E65:42), fragments of which were also found among the cobbles in Locus E65:44. Best preserved above the cobblestone pavement is plaster Surface E65:43, which was present across the entire area of Room 312(A). From this point on, the superimposed soil layers in this area are part of one large room (312A) that extends from Wall 3011 to Wall 3025. The Eastern Unit: Rooms 312 + 321, 313, 314 + 327 (Fig. 7.26) Among the five rooms (312, 313, 314, 317 and 323) located on the east side of Building 300 west of Passageway 309, only one (R312) appears to be in use during Stratum VIIIA and associated with those in the western and central units. The depth of the topsoil and its configuration above the occupational debris is similar to that over the other rooms of Building 300. At the same time, the original elevation of the floor levels in the Stratum VIIIB house points to a different construction style along Passageway 309, a corridor which was not significantly changed in Stratum VIIIA. The boulder-and-chink walls (W3011, W3025, 3016) of Rooms 312 and 313, that run perpendicular to the inner casemate wall face, appear to remain functional. These walls which were all in the range of 0.80 m or more, could easily be reused following the destruction that covered the lower cross walls (W3043, W3036) at the north and south ends of Room 314. The suggestion that the north-south walls (W3011, W3025, W3016) supported a second storey in the original Stratum-VIIIB occupation is most clearly seen in the traffic patterns between rooms in this unit. Doorway K in the southwest corner of Room 313 led into Room 327, and Doorway L, located in the southwest corner of Room 314, led into the courtyard. Since there appears to be no connection in Stratum VIIIB between Room 314 + 327 and Room 312 on the north and Room 323 on the south, access from above was possible and most likely. However, this was probably not the case in Stratum VIIIA, when
Figure 7.26. Building 300, eastern unit, with relevant locus numbers.
Walls 3043 and 3036 were no longer barriers between occupied areas and the remaining debris suggests little or no occupation in Room 314. Room 312 During Stratum VIIIA, Room 312 + 321 became a single room. As such, Room 312 shared a party wall with Room 306 on the west and was divided by a short section of Wall 3028. Soil Layer E65:4 was probably a surface superimposed above the plaster floor (E65:43), a surface comparable to Debris Layer E65:8 in Room 306. Typical Stratum-VIII red slipped bowls with double disk bases, along with domestic ground stone tools, such as a millstone, pounder and mortar were all smashed on or embedded in the soil layer/surface. Of special note is a quern set in place on its long edge with ash and cooking pot sherds in place underneath the bowls that were broken beside the quern. This use of a
quern as a windbreak appears in Stratum VIIIA in Room 302, as well as later in Stratum VII (R802, Chapter 8; R901, Chapter 9). The position of the quern is strong evidence that there had been a beaten earth surface at this level, even thought it has been so severely damaged by modern ploughing that it was difficult to discern during excavation. Among the ceramic vessels, there was only one example of a deep globular bowl covered with red slip and painted with black bands (V335). There was evidence for slight contamination of the pottery by the presence of 1 late Byzantine-early Islamic style sherd. Such contamination is not unusual due to the proximity of the topsoil (<0.58 m above) which had been ploughed deeply in this area of the tell. Table 7Z. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 312(A) Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
E65:4 + 16 E65:42
3 bowls deep bowl bowl cooking pot pithos jug juglet stone bowl tray mortar grinder millstone pounder
V343, V340, V355 V335 V384 V457
red slip red slip, paint bar handle
V329 V367 TJ 1761 TJ 1751 TJ 946 TJ 1463 TJ 941 TJ 937
painted red slip basalt basalt limestone basalt basalt chert
Rooms 314 + 327, 325 Evidence for the reuse of Room 314 is scant, although it was clearly blocked off from the cistern area by Corridor 325 in Stratum VIIIA. Only in certain areas was there the usual soil and rockfall (E74:8) with smashed ceramic vessels and basalt tools in place suggesting a work area associated with Room 312 to the north. Deep layers (E64:7, 9) of hard packed “clay” and nari filled Room 314 + 327 and did not appear to have been carefully levelled off for reuse during Stratum VIIIA. However, there is evidence in Doorway L and in Corridor 325 of the typical soil and rockfall that marks the end of Stratum VIIIA in the central rooms. The precise function of this small corridor, apart from blocking the entrance to Room 314, was never determined. Additional excavation further south in Room 324 may have revealed a connection
between Room 325 and the cistern area or with another housing complex. At present, this remains only an hypothesis. Destruction The walls of the rooms in the eastern unit were very well preserved, standing 2.00 m high in some places. Although one of the top boulders of Wall 3027 was cracked, the wall appeared to be completely preserved when found. In spite of the good condition of the walls in Rooms 313 and R314, occupation did not resume here following the end of Stratum VIIIB, and the dead were not rescued from their grave. STRATUM VII Iron Age occupation was not renewed in Field E following the destruction of Building 300, but seemed to be concentrated instead in Field C on the southern terrace and in Field D. No evidence for activity that would further damage the occupational debris in Field E was present south of the casemate wall system, probably because of the deep accumulation of collapsed wall stones that began immediately adjacent to the wall and extended about 2.00 m to the south. STRATUM III No building remains from the late Byzantine-early Islamic period are preserved in Field E. The recovery of ceramic material in the form of scattered sherds that can be dated to the Byzantine-Umayyad transition or to the Umayyad period itself is consistent in topsoil loci of all squares. The presence of this material, along with such finds as “Turkish” pipe fragments (TJ 649),69 points to occasional activity on the tell in later times. STRATUM I Activity in Field E during modern times consists of the clearing of fieldstones and agricultural use of the area. Field stones (E55:1) were piled up on top of the inner wall face (W3000) of the casemate wall 69 The presence of such pipe fragments in Umayyad debris layers at Tall Jawa and in Roman levels at Khirbat al-Mudayna may suggest an earlier date for these pipes (Daviau and Tempest, in preparation).
system. Compared to the accumulation of stones above the casemate wall in Fields A–B, that in Field E was minimal and the upper course of Wall 3000 was visible at many places.70 Topsoil71 covered all the Iron Age remains except for Wall 3000, which was visible at ground level forming the northern crest of the tell. Although the landowner suspected the presence of an underground cistern, its exact location was unknown prior to excavation. This means that the Iron Age structures were not disturbed in antiquity, although some of the pottery vessels on collapsed ceilings were incomplete. While this may have been the result of modern ploughing, the close arrangement of sherds from bowls smashed in situ suggests that the missing sherds were disturbed at the time of destruction or at some time in the past, but not during the present century.
70 Because of the poor preservation of the “modern” wall (E55:1 = W3049) above the Iron Age Wall (W3000), the stones removed in cleaning were not given a separate locus number except in Squares E55 and E76. 71 Locus numbers for topsoil in Field E include E44:1; 53:1–53:3; 54:1; 55:3; 64:2; 74:1; 75:1.
FIELDS C-WEST AND D: THE PILLARED HOUSES BUILDINGS 800 AND 700 (1991–1995)
Introduction Field C is located on the south side of the mound, midway between the east and west ends of the tell (ca. 70.00 m east of Outer West Wall 2023 in B15; Fig. 1.2). Within the limits of this field is a terrace that extends south ca. 18.00–24.50 m from the casemate wall line on the crest of the mound.1 Beginning at the west, where the casemate wall is still evident in Square C7, Field C is contiguous to the east end of Field A (Squares C7–C27 are immediately south of A73–A93). From this point, the terrace extends east more than 50.00 m to a modern property wall, which runs north-south through Squares C81–C86, and forms the western edge of a small modern cemetery (Fig. 8.1). The terrace is bordered on the west and south by steep slopes that descend 6.00 m to the level of a modern bulldozer cut. Only the modern path interrupts the scarp as it climbs the tell from the southwest and runs along the north edge of the southern crest of the terrace (C4–C84). East of Field C, the slope outside the casemate wall is more gentle. Field C-west (Squares C5–C27, A73–A94) is the designation for the excavation area that comprises Building 800, and was excavated separately from Field C-east. Although the modern path was the clearest feature in Field C prior to excavation, no squares were opened in the path itself, due in part to our excavation strategy and to the needs of the local people. Along the north side of Field C-west is a modern property wall that begins in Field B on the west, covers the inner wall of the fortification system and continues along its length as far east as Square C7, where it turns northeast across Building 800 (A83–A94). In Field C-west, this wall (W8034; C7:1–A93:4) was ca. 1.50–2.50 m thick and remained standing ca. 1.00–1.50 m in height. 1
m.
The slope of the terrace itself is ca. 2.00–2.50 m from north to south over 30.00
Figure 8.1. Excavation Grid in Field C.
Before excavation, the entire area of Building 800 was covered by topsoil, weeds and large boulders, which protruded from the surface. Although few wall lines were clearly defined, the presence of imposing structural remains and the interruption of the circumvallation of the casemate system were both apparent.
History of Excavation The interruption of the casemate wall, which appears to end at the west side of the terrace (C7) and resume its trajectory on the east immediately north of the cemetery (C86), was first noticed in 1989 when excavation of the wall system began in Field A (A1–4). Field C was subsequently chosen for excavation to sample the fortification system and thus determine the extent of continuity and degree of modification to the overall defensive strategy during Iron Age II. A second goal was to determine whether the modern path marked a major entrance into the town (Chapter 9), since no other comparable break in the wall line seemed to be suitable for the location of a chambered gate, such as those known from Palestinian sites, for example at Beer-sheba (Aharoni 1972:37; fig. 1).2 Excavation began in C-west in 1991 (Daviau 1992:152–153; fig. 2). The westernmost squares (C5–C7) were aligned south to north across the easternmost room (R801) of the casemate wall to ascertain the relationship of the fortification system with structures on the terrace. Additional squares (C16, C17)3 flanked this trench on the east. With the exposure of a room (R803) in what appeared to be a pillared building, and a wall with stones measuring 1.20–2.00 + m in length (C17:2), a new excavation strategy was designed to expose this building (B800) in its entirety and identify its plan and function. In 1992, Square C17 was expanded to the northern edge of Field C-west, and Square C27 was opened to the east.4 In 1994 and 1995, the northern rooms in Building 800 were uncovered in Squares A73–84 and A93–94, squares which are contiguous to the northern limits of Squares C17 and C27. Already in 1992, it was apparent that the two monolithic pillars (C17:12, 13) first uncovered in 1991 (Daviau 1992: pl. II.1) were part of a series of roof supports in a structure that had at least two parallel rooms (R803, R804) and one, perpendicular broad room (R802) across the back of the building (Fig. 8.2). With additional excavation in 1993 and 1994 that exposed two stone-built staircases and addi2 Chambered gates are best known at the “major administrative cities” of Hazor, Megiddo, Gezer and Lachich (Herzog 1992: Table 5), centres which can be distinguished from secondary planned towns, such as Beer-sheba and Tall Jawa. 3 In 1991, only half of Square C17 was opened. It measured 6.00 m east-west and 3.00 m north-south. 4 The size of Square C27 (8.30 9.33 m) is anomalous due to the position of × Field D. It was thought desirable to have a long section connecting the west side of Field D with Field C (Fig. 8.1); for details of the grid, see Chapter 2.
tional rooms (R806, R807) further north, it became clear that Building 800 was much larger than expected, and had a different overall plan than the typical “four-room” house (Braemer 1984: fig. 11, Shiloh 1970: fig. 2).5 With modern construction rapidly approaching Field C on the south, an effort was made in 1995 to delineate the outer walls and excavate the northernmost rooms (808, 809, 810, 811, and 812) to floor levels. Bedrock was reached in a probe in Room 811, although the floor was not exposed across the entire room. By the end of the season, Corridor 810 was only partially excavated and Rooms 808 and 812 remained unexcavated, although their surrounding walls were completely defined. So too, West Wall 8028 + 8033 was shown to have an inset half way along its length, where Staircase A83:19 meets Wall 8010 which runs south, completing the exterior west wall of the Building. The construction details showing the association of these walls to one another are not available, because founding levels were not reached. While further excavation might have clarified such details,6 our project was only able to recover the plan of the building during its major period of use.7 Building Plan (Fig. 8.2) On the west, Building 800 was built up against Room 801 of the Casemate Wall system (Fig. 5.31), and extended north of the inner face of the fortification system. In shape, Building 800 is somewhat irregular, with maximum external dimensions of 13.50 (east-west) × 18.00 m (north-south) along the west side, and a minimum length of 15.10 m (north-south) along the east side. Although the function of every ground floor room could not be definitively identified, there were at least 9 rooms of various sizes arranged around Central Hall 804. Apart from Building 700 in Field D, which appears to be a somewhat smaller version of B800, no comparable building plan is known from neighbouring sites.8 5 The careful study by Holladay (1997) of various house plans now replaces the initial study of Palestinian houses by Beebe (1968). 6 The construction of Building 800 may have coincided with the remodelling (W8004) of inner casemate Wall 8005 (Fig. 8.2, Daviau 1994: fig. 10). 7 M. Wood, S. Thompson, and D. Elder were Field Supervisors. 8 Building 700 shares many formal characteristics in its room arrangement with the Late Bronze Age Tablet Building at Tell Hadidi (Dornemann 1981: fig. 2). However, the function of individual rooms and of the building as a whole (a brewery, Gates 1988:68) is in contrast to the finds from Tall Jawa. Meijer’s study (1989:222) may
Figure 8.2. Building 800.
The present dearth of buildings that appear to share a similar plan may be the result of limited excavation and publication of sites in the imme(Ibrahim 1975: fig. 2), diate region of #Amman,9 for example Sahab . already have been in press by the time Gates showed the usefulness of correlating room arrangement, ceramic finds and texts to interpret the “utilitarian function” (Meijer’s term) of a building. 9 Braemer (1982:1) noted the small number of excavated Iron Age houses in Transjordan available in 1982 for comparison with the “four-room houses” of western Palestine. Little has changed in the interval. Recent excavations in Moab exposed a pillared building with 7 rooms at Lehun (Homès-Fredericq 2000), and documentation of the architecture of pillared buildings at Khirbat al-Mudayna al-#Aliya (Routledge 2000) add to the number of known buildings with stone pillars.
where only a limited area was available for excavation, Tall al-#Umayri where excavations are still in progress,10 the #Amman citadel (Humbert and Zayadine 1992: Foldout A), and Tell Safut (Wimmer 1987). Thus Building 800, with its full complement of rooms and corridors, along with twin staircases that lead to a second storey, appears at present to be the most complete example in central Jordan of a high status house from the late Iron Age.11 Rooms The rooms identified on the ground floor of Building 800 vary considerably in size, shape, and function. Table 8A. Room Size and Proportion Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812
2.50 2.20 4.85 1.2012 2.75 2.75 1.25 2.50 0.65 1.85* 2.50
5.55 4.20 8.00 3.20 2.80 3.00 1.75 4.15 2.55 2.85 3.50*13
.45 .52 .60 .37 .98 .91 .71 .60 .25 .70 .71
8006, 8011, 8013, 8014 8011, 8014, 8015, 8016? 8014, 8015, 8022, 8026 8016, 8017, 8018 8020, 8021, 8022, 8023 8025, 8026, 8027, 8028 8029, 8031, 8032 8021, 8023, 8024, 8031 8029, 8030 8024, 8025, 8033, A84:6 8024, 8025, 8033, A84:6
10 At Tall al-#Umayri there also appears to be a chronological difference of occupation phases. A large pillared building (B) excavated over several seasons contained a storeroom filled with collared-rim pithoi that date to Iron Age I (Herr 2000:173–175). 11 Although not identical in plan, the government residences in Area B at Hazor are comparable in size on the ground floor to Building 800; Building 3100b was 13.00 × 13.70 m (ca. 178.10 m2), while Building 3067b was 12.30 × 12.60 m (ca. 155 m2; Yadin 1960:44–45). However these structures are not comparable in terms of total floor space, in view of the upper storey which covered all of the rooms in B800. The same is true of the largest houses at Tell el-Far#ah (N), where only two houses exceed 100 m2, Maison 327 (103 m2) and Maison 355 (108 m2; Chambon 1984: Tableau 1, 2). The “palace”, with 440 m2 of floor space, is in a class of its own (Chambon 1984:44). By comparison, Building 800 at Tell Jawa, with its two storeys, probably had 320 m2 of interior floor space, definitely much larger (three times) than average Iron Age II domestic structures such as those at Tell el-Far#ah (N) (Chambon, above). 12 The full size of Room 805 was 3.00 3.20 m, although what is represented here is × the width of the L-shaped passage that results from the position of Support Wall 8018 in the middle of the room. 13 In the evaluation of room size, Rooms 811 and 812, divided only by Pier A84:6,
Range of sizes (omitting Rooms 804, 805, 808, 810) Width Length
1.85 → 2.75 2.80 → 5.55
average – 2.43 m average – 3.72 m
(omitting Rooms 805, 808, 810) Width 1.20 → 4.85 average – 2.73 m Length 2.80 → 8.00 average – 4.25 m
Several areas within Building 800 (R805, 810) were not full size rooms as is evident in the ratio of width to length (less than 40 %). Although Room 808 was almost square, it was the smallest enclosed space. For the remaining rooms, Central Hall 804 with a length of 8.00 m is also out of range, being the largest room in the building. Average sizes were first calculated for rooms wider than 1.00 m and longer than 2.00 m, excluding Rooms 804 and 805.14 Secondly, average sizes were calculated including Room 804. The average widths (2.43–2.73 m) probably are indicative of the length of roof beams available during Late Iron Age II and the engineering skills of the builders. Central Hall 804 was also roofed, although the longest single length needed would have been 4.00 m, assuming that beams were positioned across the room at its narrowest point. Additional support for the ceiling could have been provided by Socket Stone (A83:31), assuming that it held a roof support (see details below) and not a pithos, several sherds of which were found in its central depression. Two units, Rooms 806 (2.75 × 2.80 m) and R807 (2.75 × 3.00 m), on opposite sides of Central Hall 804, are close in size and shape, and comparable to the full space (3.00 × 3.20 m) of Entryway 805. Rooms 803 and 809 are medium size rectangular rooms with a maximum length in the range of 4.20 m, whereas Room 802 and combined Room 811 + 812, also rectangular in shape, are in the range of 5.50–6.00 m in length. have been considered separately. If R811 and R812 were taken together, this large room would measure ca. 2.56 × 6.00 m, similar in size to Room 802. 14 If the full size of Room 805 (3.00 3.20 m) is included in these calculations, the × range of sizes would be: (omitting R804, R808, R810) Width 1.85→3.00 average – 2.50 m Length 2.85→5.55 average – 3.65 m or (omitting R808, R810) Width Length
1.20→4.85 2.80→8.00
average – 2.76 m average – 4.13 m.
The presence of two interior staircases suggests that this was a two storey building with approximately 20 rooms. Finds and architectural elements (flagstones and stone installations) from some upper rooms were recovered in the collapsed debris (Daviau 1996:92). These finds clearly indicate that the second storey consisted of finished rooms and not just a roof terrace. The thickness of the ground floor walls suggests that the room arrangement of the upper storey was similar to the lower storey, although the collapse along the south side of Building 800 was so extensive that no upper storey assemblages could be identified for rooms above R802 and R803. Doorways On the ground floor, only one doorway (A) in the southeast corner leads into Building 800. This entrance was restricted to an L-shaped entryway (R805) that provided indirect access into Central Hall 804 at Doorway B. From R804, doorways leading into surrounding rooms are positioned between standing pillars (Doorways C, D, and F) or at the end of walls (E, G, H). No doorways are built directly through a wall, which extends in both directions on the same trajectory, although this style was common in pillared houses (i.e., Chambon 1984: fig. 13, Houses 327, 362, 366. 148). Doorway K was the only entryway in Building 800 formed by a truncated wall or pier forming the frame on one side with only the continuing face of a perpendicular wall forming the opposite door frame (cf. B700 below). Table 8B. Location and Width of Doorways Doorway
Room
Width (m)
A B C D E F G H I J
805, exterior 804, 805 803, 804 803, 804 802, 804 804, 806 804, 807 804, 809 809, 810 810, 812
1.00 1.20 0.80 0.75 0.95 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.65 0.6515
15
Corridor 810 was not completely exposed at the point where it enters Room
Doorway
Room
Width (m)
K L
812, 811 W8007, W8008
1.65 1.4016
Average width - 0.844 m (not including Doorways J, K and L). Three of these doorways were above average (0.90 + m) in width. Doorway A into Entrance Room 805 from the exterior of the building was 1.00 m in width. Its size alone is not evidence that Doorway A was the principal entrance; a second doorway from the outside may have been located on the upper storey.17 Doorway B connecting Entryway 805 with Room 804 south of Staircase C27:43 was slightly larger, ca. 1.20 m in width, as was Doorway E from R804 into Room 802. Entrance K formed by Pier A84:6 between R811 and R812 was the largest doorway on the ground floor, measuring 1.65 m in width. Walls Although boulder-and-chink was the dominant construction technique employed in building the walls of Building 800, several other styles are represented in this building. Table 8C. Wall Thickness in centimetres Wall 8010 8011 8012 = 8014 8013 8015 8016 8017
50
55
60
65
70
75
× ×
×
80
90 ×
100 ×+
× ×+
812. The width of the corridor appears consistent along its entire length and serves to connect Rooms 809 and R812. 16 Doorway L is located between two walls of a structure located south of Building 800. Only limited excavation was carried out in this area (Square C16). 17 Several places along the outer walls may have been suitable for a major entrance, for example in the northwest corner where a large socket stone (A84:12) was built into the corner, and at the point where each staircase formed a landing against the outer wall. Due to post destruction damage to North Wall 8024, the exact position and size of a doorway in this area cannot be reconstructed. So too, there is insufficient evidence for an upper storey entrance at the west end of Staircase A83:19, where the west wall (W8028 = 8033 = 8010) forms an offset.
Wall
50
8018 8019 8020 8021 8022 8023 8024 8025 = 8030 8026 8027 8028 8029 8031 8032 8033
×
55
× ×
60
65
70
75
80
90
×+ ×+
×
× ×+ × × ×
100
×+ × ×+
×
The outer walls on the west (W8010 and W8028 = W8033), north (W8024) and east (W8021) sides of B800 are formed of two to three rows of limestone boulders in boulder-and-chink construction. These walls, all in the range of 0.90–1.50 m thick, are 0.20–0.50 m thicker than the walls in Building 300 (Field E) of Stratum VIII, suggesting that Building 800 was constructed of exceptionally heavy masonry and was designed to support one or two upper stories. The narrowest outer wall, W8011 on the south, was built of one row of extra large boulders18 and measures 0.90 m thick, although its extension (W8017) as the south wall of Room 805 is a full 1.00 m thick. The reason for a thinner section of this southern wall can only be explained by the presence of a secondary structure that protected Building 800 at this point. Unfortunately, erosion and modern construction of the path along the crest of the terrace have destroyed much of the ancient remains. Interior walls are of varying thickness depending on construction techniques (see Chapter 10). Four walls (8013, 8026, 8025 = 8030, 8027), all of boulder-and-chink construction are in the range of 0.80– 1.00 m thick, considerable by contemporary standards for interior walls.19 Walls 8013 and 8027 extend east from outer Wall 8010 and 18 One stone in Wall 8011 along the south side of Room 803, originally thought to be 2.00 m in length, actually measured 4.08 + m when completely exposed. Due to a large crack midway along its length, the measurement is not exact to the centimetre. 19 For example, at Balu‘ in Moab, interior walls were in the range of 0.30–0.55 m and outer walls were 0.76 m thick (Worschech and Ninow 1994:195, 198). For the Middle Bronze Age in Palestine, average wall thickness for single storey houses was in
serve as support walls for Staircase A83:19, as well as perimeter walls of major rooms (R802 and R807). Wall 8025 = 8030 serves as the north wall for Rooms 807 and 804, separating them from the northernmost rooms (R810–R812). Sturdy free-standing walls, in the range of 0.55–0.70 m thick, include those built of medium to large boulders, such as Walls 8019 and W8020 that serve as parallel support walls for Staircase C27:43. Three walls (W8029, W8031, W8032) in the smallest size range (ca. 0.50 m thick) surround a small room or bin (R808) built against the south face of North Wall 8024. The only other walls that measure 0.50 m thick are W8023, the south wall of Room 809, which stands full height but is built of only one row of small boulders, and Wall 8018 in Room 805. Wall 8015 (0.65 m thick) that forms the division between Room 803 and Central Hall 804 consists of three standing pillars connected to one another by units of boulders and pierced by two doorways (C, D). On the west, Pillar C17:13 is connected by a stone slab and cobbles to perpendicular Wall 8012 which constitutes the west wall of Room 803. This wall (W8012 = 8014) appears to be formed of boulder-and-chink limestone boulders at its south end (W8014), but changes its style of construction as it runs north past Wall 8015, the point where it forms the division between broad Room 803 and Central Hall 804. Here Wall 8012 is constructed of stacked-boulder piers capped by long (0.75–1.00 m) rectangular boulders. Between the piers are cobblestone units that are less thick than the piers and, as a result, form recesses within Room 802. A third variation on this style of construction is seen in Wall 8022 where 2 stone pillars and a stacked-boulder pier are connected to one another by cobblestone units that stand full height and are as thick as the pillars (see Chapter 12). The smooth line of the flat-topped capping stones strongly suggests that this was a support wall for the beams of the second floor of Building 800. The Staircases A special feature of Building 800 is its stone-built staircases, one on the east (C27:43) and the second on the west (A83:19), that both lead from Central Hall 804 to the upper storey. The eastern staircase is supported by two, free-standing walls (8019 south; 8020 north), each the range of 0.50–0.70 m and for two-storey or high status houses, the average thickness was 0.70–1.00 m (see Daviau 1993a:213, Tables 3.60–3.63).
formed of one row of semi-dressed, medium to large boulders laid in regular courses (Figs. 8.3, 9). The steps consist of two, small to medium boulders and an occasional chink stone. West Staircase A83:19 is located between Walls 8013 on the south and W8027 on the north, both boulder-and-chink walls that form the narrow ends of Room 802 and 807 respectively. At the west end of Staircase A83:19, outer Wall 8028 forms an offset with Wall 8010 that may have served as the landing, or as the location of a possible doorway into Building 800 at the top of the stairs. In both staircases the steps are ca. 1.00 m in width, 0.25–0.35 m in depth and 0.20–0.30 m in height.20 Stratigraphy The construction, use, repair, reuse and abandonment of Building 800 all appear to have taken place during the Late Iron Age II period (Stratum VII). Evidence of repair to the outer walls in Room 811 and superimposed floor levels in Room 809 suggest two building phases (Strata VIIA and VIIB), although only one building phase on the ground floor could be identified in most rooms. There was little if any change in the shape or size of these rooms with the exception of Room 807, where West Wall 8028 is slightly out of alignment and is thicker (1.50 m) than Wall 8033 (0.95 m), its continuation further north. Whether this anomaly provided extra support for the upper storey or was related to the offset between Walls 8028 and 8010 to the south is unclear. Wall 8023 at the south end of Room 809 may also have been an addition to support the upper storey during the final occupation phase (Stratum VIIA). Additional support for the hypothesis that Building 800 had only one major occupation period is seen in the ceramic remains which are homogeneous among themselves and with those recovered in Field Ceast, both in the domestic structure (Building 900, Squares C43–54) and in the gate complex (Building 910), as well as with the finds in the lower storey of Building 700 (see chronological discussion below). Ceramic remains dating to the late Byzantine and early Islamic periods were deposited in Field C during construction, occupation and destruction of Building 600 in Field D (see Daviau and Tempest,
20 A comparable staircase (7K61:30) at Tall al-#Umayri (Lawlor 1991:20; fig. 3.6) has six steps preserved. These steps were also ca. 1.00 m wide and varied in height from 0.17–0.34 m.
in preparation) and in modern times.21 No architectural evidence for occupation during these later periods was recovered above or within22 the Field C structures. Table 8D. Strata for Field C-West STRATA
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI
1 no remains pottery, etc. no remains no remains no remains
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian
VIIA VIIB VIII IX X
2 3 pottery only pottery only pottery only
Late Iron II Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Iron I
STRATUM VIIB–VIIA Evidence for the earliest or founding phase of Building 800 was recovered in the northernmost rooms, especially in Room 811. Here the floor level was ca. 1.05 m below Central Hall 804, and there was no direct access through Wall 8025 = 8030 into either Room 807 or Central Hall 804. In order to better understand the room arrangement in Building 800 and the function of individual rooms, the northern rooms (R808–R812) will be described as a unit, separate from Central Hall 804. This large room (R804) along with Staircases A83:19 and C27:43 and flanking rooms R806 and R807 will be described as the Central Unit. Finally, the southernmost rooms (R802, R803, R805) will be discussed in their relationship to Central Hall 804.
21 Following the beginning of our excavations in 1989, children from the neighbouring village of Jawa would bring sherds from other sites to the tell as gifts. In addition, they and would leave sherds for us to find that they had recovered from their own small excavations, undertaken after we had left the field for the day. All this adds somewhat to the contamination evident in Fields C and D. 22 A fragmentary wall (C62:4 = 72:2) along the crest of the Field C terrace may have been formed as the result of clearing a modern path that ran eastward onto the tell through Field C (west and east).
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF BUILDING 800
The Northern Unit: Rooms 811–812, 810, 808, 809 (Fig. 8.3) Room 811–812 The largest single unit north of Wall 8025 = 8030 was Room 811– 812 (Table 8A). Three boulder-and-chink walls surround this space on the north (W8024), west (W8033) and south (W8025). Although all three walls are similar in construction techniques and thickness (0.90–1.10 m), Walls 8024 and W8033 are exterior walls, while Wall 8025 = 8030 is an interior wall. North Wall 8024 consists of two rows of fieldstones with rubble fill and measures on average 1.10 m thick at its uppermost courses.23 The foundation course is made of large (0.75–1.00 m) boulders, which were laid on bedrock (A84:11, at 922.52 masl), while the upper courses are of small and medium size boulders. Altogether, Wall 8024 remains standing 10 courses high (ca. 3.50 m). While the field stones in this wall can be described as unhewn or, at best, semi-hewn, the boulders appear to have been hammer dressed to provide vertical inner and outer faces. No evidence for the use of mortar was identified. North Wall 8024 bonds with Wall 8033 on the west to form the northwest corner of Building 800. Although Wall 8033 measures only 0.95 m thick in its upper courses, it is similar in construction and building materials to Wall 8024. Here also, the lowest exposed courses within Room 811 are built of large to extra large (>1.00 m) boulders, while the upper courses are of small boulders (0.25–0.50 m).24 Beginning 1.20 m above bedrock, these upper courses, at least in the northwest corner, appear to have been rebuilt using less care and precision than is evident in the lower courses. This may account for the awkward position of a socket stone (A84:12) located at the northwest corner of Walls 8024 and 8033. Wall 8025 bonds with West Wall 8033 and runs east for ca. 8.50 m to form the southern perimeter of Rooms 811, R812, and Corridor 810 (as Wall 8030). Although it is an interior wall, Wall 8025 = 8030 23 Of the 50 Iron Age houses studied by Mitchell (1992), only six had walls in the size range of 0.80–1.00 m thick: 1–2) Vered Yeriho (2 houses; Eitan 1983:247–248); 3) Beer-Sheba, House 2060 (Herzog 1984:18); where R175 and R181 are casemate walls that are thicker than comparable walls in the adjoining houses; 4) Khirbet er-Ras 943 (Gibson and Edelstein 1985:142); 5)Tell Beit Mirsim NW31:10–11 (Albright 1943:50; pl. 6), and 6) SE23:12–13 (Albright 1943: pl. 3). 24 A probe along the outer face of Wall 8033 (A84:5) clarified the wall line and exposed the second course of boulders and chink stones.
Figure 8.3. Building 800, with relevant locus numbers.
was 0.90–0.95 m thick, comparable to outer Wall 8033. As well, these walls are similar in construction and building materials at least for the upper 2.00 m, where Wall 8025 = 8030 is exposed along its north and south faces. Room 811–812 is divided by a stone-built pier wall (A84:6) located 2.00 m east of the northwest corner of Room 811. This cross wall is
founded on bedrock and forms an opening (Doorway K) of 1.65 m between the two rooms. The pier, almost square in plan (0.95 × 1.10 m), is built of 10 courses of large (0.75–1.00 m) fieldstones, and stands the full preserved height (ca. 3.50 m) of North Wall 8024. Like Wall 8033, the pier bonds with Wall 8024, clear evidence that it was built at the same time. At present, the precise function of this architectural element is far from evident, although it may have served both as a room divider and as a buttress for the exterior wall (W8024).25 Such a support may have been needed for an upper storey wall or to stabilize outer Wall 8024 at a point where the bedrock began to slope toward the south. Immediately above Bedrock A84:11 was a soil layer (A84:10) which contained small lumps of charcoal and flecks of lime with a concentration of lime appearing to mark the top of the layer. Within the limits of the probe it was not possible to recognize the function of this accumulation, although the lime itself and the small number of loose stones suggest collapsed wall plaster or ceiling. The pottery resting just above bedrock and smashed within Debris Layer A84:10 consists of one red slipped saucer bowl and bowl sherds, a juglet, cooking pot ware, and pithos sherds (Table 8E). As will be seen in the following discussion, this same range of domestic wares appears in virtually every room of Building 800. Above Soil Layer A84:10, the probe was expanded to run the entire length of Wall 8024 in Room 811 (1.00 × 1.85 m). Here was another debris layer (A84:9) which also contained plaster flecks, especially on its upper surface. Unlike A84:10, this soil layer was damaged by rock collapse and contained pebbles, cobbles and boulders. The pottery recovered from this locus indicates the types of vessels in position along the walls, even though these represent only a small portion of vessels 25 Parallels for Pier Wall A84:6, which separates Rooms 811 and 812, are numerous at Tell el-Far#ah (N), for example, in Palace 148 and Houses 327, 328 and 411, where they function as door frames (Chambon 1984: pls. 18–22). Also in House 411, there are two such piers in Room 409 that were not positioned opposite each other (Chambon 1984: pl. 18); these may have had a different function. Chambon (1984: fig. 12) identifies examples of such piers that abut the perpendicular wall as well as others which bond to it. At Tall al-#Umayri, there is a single “pedestal” located against a wall immediately adjacent to a doorway (Herr et al. 1994:150, fig. 3). In Building 700 at Tall Jawa, a stone pier wall supports one end of a lintel over a doorway between Rooms 712 and R713 (see below). This same construction technique was used at Busayra, where a “pier” wall (90) bonds with the outer wall, and serves as a cross wall between two rooms (Bienkowki 2001: fig. 3; 2002: fig. 4.5). While this technique is also used in casemate wall systems, what is of interest here is its use in domestic structures.
Figure 8.4. Deep probe in Room 811, showing Pier A84:6 with Doorway K at right, and upper storey flagstones.
used in Room 811. Nevertheless, the concentration of sherds from a late Iron II wide-mouth pithos with four handles (V844),26 identical to Vessel 806 from Room 802, is clear evidence of the contemporaneity of the rooms in the northern unit with those in the southern part of the house. In addition, the top of Locus A84:9 may represent a new floor for the final occupation phase (Stratum VIIA) of the Building. At the level of 923.40 masl, it was close to that (923.73 masl) of the main Floor Surface (C27:66 = A83:32) in central Hall 804. Surface A84:9 may also have served as the construction platform from which outer Walls 8024 and 8033 were repaired. As it was, this beaten earth surface, marked by a small scatter of flat lying sherds, was damaged further by the final collapse of the building whereby the ceramic vessels in use at the time were smashed, their sherds embedded within layer A84:9 by falling boulders and scattered throughout the overlying debris (A84:8). A dense rockfall Layer A84:8, excavated over the entire area of Room 811 for a depth of ca. 1.00 m, contained the collapse of Stra26 This wide mouth form does not appear in the corpus of pithoi (40 + ) from Fields A–B and E in Stratum VIII.
tum VIIA wall stones into Room 811 along with a group of flagstones (Fig. 8.4), probably upper storey paving slabs similar to those recovered in Room 807 to the south. The pottery in use before the collapse, and subsequently smashed by falling stones, consists of partially mendable vessels with clean fractures and little evidence of disturbance after deposition. Absent from this sherd material are the indicators of wealth and status found in other rooms of Building 800, namely black burnished ware (only one rim sherd was recovered, TJ A84.26.11) and painted ware (2 body sherds).27 This predominantly utilitarian pottery suggests a variety of domestic activities while the flagstones point to a well-appointed room on the second floor. Table 8E. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 811 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A84:8–10
saucer bowl bowl pithos small jar 2 juglets tripod cup mortar bowl mortar bowl stone tool lead ingot millstone pounder
V843 V841 V844 V842 V840, 848 V846 V845 A84.38.3 TJ 2174 TJ 2168 TJ 2192 TJ 2182
red slip carinated wide mouth hole mouth ceramic, ring base, wedge decoration ceramic, tripod feet28 polishing pendant?, perforated loaf-shaped, broken chert
Ceramic finds of special note include the shallow saucer, which became the most common small bowl form in Stratum VII.29 The wide mouth 27 As in previous chapters, the vessels listed are those that could be mended in large part and were clearly distinct from other known vessels. All registered artefacts are listed, and can be studied in Daviau (2002); for a complete listing with drawings, see the CD-ROM. 28 Ceramic tripod mortar bowls were in use with basalt mortars in both Strata VIII and VII. Parallels to this form appear at Tall Dayr #Alla in the Jordan Valley (HomèsFrederdicq and Franken 1986: #480), and at Tall al-#Umayri (Geraty et al. 1989: fig. 19.16:16; Low 1991: fig. 8.12:11). 29 Three such bowls with slightly splaying rim (V803, 804, 805) all have the same diameter, 0.17–0.18 m. Dornemann (1983:236) identifies this form as Type I, the most open vessel shape in his formal typology. Numerous parallels appear in his Sequence II (1983: fig. 32:2–16) from tombs in #Amman, Madaba and Sahab. This form is also seen . at Tall al-#Umayri in Field Phases 2 and 3, although in many instances these bowls are not slipped (Lawlor 1991: fig. 3.15:2–6). At Hesban, Type Sb:1a appears in a variety of
pithos30 was also a new form even though the narrow mouth pithos common in Stratum VIII was still in use. Both pithos types share the same shape from the base to the level of the shoulder and are in the same height range (1.00–1.20 m). A new style of shallow ceramic mortar bowl also made its appearance; mortar bowl V845 is identical in shape and in fabric to a second wedge-decorated bowl from Room 802 (V828). Destruction Debris: The uppermost layers of debris (A84:4 and 3) in Room 811 show an increasing density of boulders and stones of all sizes and a decreasing amount of soil, suggesting that the upper storey wall fell south into Room 811. At the bottom of Debris Layer A84:4, there was a broken roof roller (TJ 2046), the second found in Building 800 (see R805 below), 1 chert pounder and 2 basalt mortars (TJ 2034, 2080), probably evidence for activities on the roof. At the same time, many ceramic sherds included in these layers were worn and pitted, evidence of their proximity to the surface and possibly of secondary deposit and occasional disturbance. Stones of all sizes and badly worn ceramic sherds covered the modern surface; these point to later infilling during Stratum III, the Umayyad period, and in Stratum I, possibly at the time of construction of the modern property wall (A83:1 = A93:4). Room 812 (Fig. 8.3) To the east of Pier A84:6 is the space designated Room 812. Only the uppermost Debris Layers (A84:3 and 4) of second storey wall collapse were removed in order to determine the size of this room (2.50 × 3.50 m) and clarify its wall lines. Room 812 is bounded by Wall 8024 on the north, Wall 8032 on the east, Wall 8025 = 8030 on the south, and Pier A84:6 marks its western limit. In the southeast corner, Doorway J leads colours including yellowish red (5YR 5/6) slipped and burnished (Lugenbeal and Sauer 1972: pl. IXA:508), pink (7.5YR 7/4) unburnished (pl. IXA:509), and very pale brown (10YR 7/3) (pl. IXA:515). 30 This form does not appear in Dornemann’s corpus (1983), due in part to the fact that much of his material is from tombs. The Tall Jawa pithoi differ from Beer-sheba examples of Judean pithoi with a similar rim form in three important respects; 1) the Tall Jawa pithoi each have a noticeable change of direction at the shoulder where the top of the handles are attached, 2) their conical lower body and rounded base is in sharp contrast to the ovoid forms and ring bases on examples from Beer-sheba and Tel Halif (Lahav), and 3) the maximum height of 1.20 m is almost double that of Judean forms that stand 0.45–0.60 m (Aharoni 1973: pl. 73:6, 7, 8; Blakely and Hardin 2002: figs. 10, 13).
into Corridor 810 that links Room 812 to Room 809. Due to limited excavation, no evidence was recovered for the function of Room 812 during the period of occupation of Building 800, although its position and inaccessibility from Central Hall 804 suggests that it may have served, like Room 811, as a domestic storeroom. Room 808 (Fig. 8.3) Room 808, the smallest space in Building 800, is surrounded on three sides with boulder-and-chink walls (8029, 8031, 8032), one row thick (all ca. 0.50 m). We can only assume that these thin walls remain standing the full height of the building on the basis of Wall 8031, which is exposed for ca. 2.80 m in height on its east face in Room 809, similar in height and size to W8023 which forms the south wall of the same room (R809). In Room 808, only the remains of a modern wall (A93:4), and 0.70 m of the upper debris layers (A93:14 and 5), consisting of collapsed wall stones, were removed. Positioned inside the southeast corner formed by Walls 8029 and 8031 was Door Socket A93:7 (TJ 1542), and a perforated stone/door weight (TJ 1549) that suggests a door into an upper storey room above Room 808. Because of the damage to this building in modern times, and probably already in the Umayyad period, no evidence remains for the upper storey rooms except the collapsed ceilings and their superimposed remains. Corridor 810 (Fig. 8.3) Flanked on the south by Wall 8030 = 8025 and on the north by Wall 8029 is a Corridor ca. 2.50 m long and 1.00 m wide that connects Rooms 812 (Doorway J) and 809 (Doorway I). No opening from Corridor 810 into Room 808 was apparent in the 1.90 m long probe against the south face of Wall 8029. A series of superimposed soil layers (A93:16, 22, 35, 37) with collapsed boulders from the surrounding walls filled the Corridor. Within Soil Layers A93:37 and 35 were ceramic sherds but no recognizable mendable vessels. Soil Layer A93:22 also contained collapsed boulders and soil along with one millstone and one flagstone. As in other rooms, the flagstone appears consistently to mark the upper storey floor surface (see Room 811 above, and R807 and R809 below). The uppermost Soil Layers (A93:16, 14, 6) that covered the whole square also filled Corridor 810. These layers consisted of collapsed boulders, soil and debris containing sherds from both Iron Age II and Umayyad periods.
The entrance (Doorway I) into Room 809 is marked by two superimposed stones (A93:39), each 0.70 m long, that extend between Walls 8029 and 8030. While it was clear that these stones served as the threshold, their association with superimposed floor levels recovered within Corridor 810 and in Room 809 was not clearly defined for both phases (B and A) of Stratum VII. Room 809—Stratum VIIB (Figs. 8.3, 5) Located in the northeast corner of Building 800, Room 809 forms the link between the rooms in the northern unit and Central Hall 804. This rectangular room is bounded on the north by Wall 8024 and on the east by Wall 8021. Both walls are formed of two rows of large and extra large (>1.00 m), unhewn and semi-hewn limestone boulders, dry-laid in a boulder-and-chink construction with a total thickness in the range of 1.25–1.50 m, and a maximum preserved height of ca. 3.00 m.31 The top of East Wall 8021 is very uneven along its length and has suffered severe damage to its upper courses at the north end. This damage appeared initially to mark a doorway to the outside. However, with further excavation at the point where the outer walls (W8021, 8024) form the northeast corner, it became clear that they remain standing ca. 2.30 m above the lowest Stratum-VII floor surface (A93:34) with no signs of a doorway on the ground floor. The western perimeter of Room 809 consists of the east end of Wall 8030 and the east face of Wall 8031, which also serves as the east wall of Room/Bin 808. Wall 8030 also forms the south side of Doorway I from Corridor 810 and the north side of Doorway H, which leads into Central Hall 804. On the south is Wall W8023, built in one row (0.50 m) of dry-laid, boulder-and-chink construction. This wall was almost entirely of small limestone boulders with one re-used basalt millstone fragment. While its north face was carefully finished, the south face in Room 806 is very rough and the entire wall slumps toward the centre of Room 809.32 Its sorry state may be an indication of a collapsed second row or damage caused during the final collapse. What remains of this wall (W8023) appears to abut both outer East Wall 8021 and Wall 31 Excavation ended at this point due to the danger of rock fall from the outer walls, which appear to have suffered earthquake damage. 32 The condition of Wall 8023 is surprising, considering the well-built walls in the rest of Building 800. While it is clear that it supported a ceiling, W8023 probably could not have supported an upper storey wall.
Figure 8.5. East side of Building 800, with Room 809 in the lower left, Room 808, Corridor 810, Doorway H, and Central Hall 804 on the right.
8022 at it north end, where it consists of a large pier of dressed boulders that bonds at the top course with Wall 8023. Such construction suggests that Wall 8023 could have been a Stratum VIIA wall constructed in association with Hearth A93:27 (see below) or, if it had been part of the Stratum VIIB house, it was probably rebuilt at the same time as the hearth. This leaves us uncertain about the original size of Room
809 which may have extended as far as Staircase C27:43 (7.50 m) and included Room 806, although this appears unlikely given the average length (4.25 m) of other rooms in this Building (Table 8A). Due to the instability of Walls 8023 and 8021, excavation was terminated before reaching bedrock in Room 809. The earliest occupation phase, designated Stratum VIIB, is represented by smashed ceramic vessels and artefacts embedded in a soil layer (A93:34) located below the level of Hearth A93:27. The “surface” on which these vessels were broken was itself penetrated and covered by the Stratum VIIB collapse of large wall stones (A93:33) found scattered throughout the room north of the hearth. This impressive installation was not removed to reveal the full extent of Loci A93:33 and 34 or, for that matter, to test the full extent of Room 809. The assemblage of pottery and objects from Surface A93:34 is most likely incomplete. Nevertheless, several mendable vessels were recovered. Table 8F. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 809, Stratum VIIB Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A93:34
bowl bowl platter krater cooking pot tripod cup juglet juglet lamp basin bead grinder stone ring
TJ 872 V864 V830 V834 A93.129.2 V847 V863 V867 V868 V831 TJ 1878 TJ 1851 TJ 1890
red slip black burnished red slip, thick-walled smudged interior sherds miniature globular, painted ceramic, heavy industrial33 basalt small
Room 809—Stratum VIIA Stratum VIIA occupation is marked by the construction of Hearth A93:27.34 A plaster surface (A93:38), 0.03 m thick, seals Debris Layer 33 Basin sherds (A83.31.1, A83.39.1) present in Room 807 are also evidence of industrial activity. Basins similar in style appear to have been used as coffins in certain late Iron Age II tombs, such as the tomb of Adoni Nur (Harding and Tufnell 1953:59– 60; see also Zorn 1993). 34 The location of the Hearth A93:27 inside a room is not unexpected; several Stratum-VIII ovens (i.e., A63:30, 36; B34:50, 54) were built inside roofed rooms along-
A93:33 in the south half of Room 809 and forms a floor (A93:45) under the hearth. Positioned slightly above this plaster surface were three flat stones on edge, along with one basalt millstone fragment and a hand grinder that form the perimeter of the hearth on the east, north and west sides. These stones are held in place with packed clay, later hardened by the heat of the oven. The south side of the hearth was formed by east-west Wall 8023, preserved 8 courses in height. The hearth itself has exterior measurements of 0.90 × 1.50 × 0.49 m in height.35 Whatever superstructure the hearth may have had was not recognized during excavation, primarily because the uppermost soil layer (A93:28) within the hearth consisted of hard-packed soil with nari inclusions, fragments of bone, flint and pottery, similar in composition to Locus A93:25 which extends completely across Room 809, and represents the collapse of the Stratum-VIIA ceiling (A93:29) and upper storey floor. Inside the hearth were two other distinct layers of debris. The lowest soil layer (A93:44), immediately above Plaster Surface A93:45, consists of hard-packed reddish soil with some animal bone, flint and ceramic sherds. This is covered by a layer of ash (A93:43) that contains similar finds. Additional ash accumulation (A93:26) fills the space between the east edge of Hearth A93:27 and the corner formed by Wall 8023 and Outer Wall 8021. In the ash was a black burnished bowl (V865), one of several high status vessels in use with the hearth and with beaten earth Surface A93:31, which served as the principal Stratum VIIA floor.
side a wall. This was also the case in Middle and Late Bronze Age houses where only 3.2 % of all ovens studied were unequivocally located outside of the house (Daviau 1993: chart 6.2). Although this is the only hearth of its type recovered at Tall Jawa, hearths formed of perimeter stones were common in Late Minoan levels at Kommos where nine different structures were constructed of stones set on their long edge. The hearths themselves were enclosed on only three sides and had a front opening. Such hearths were located against a wall or in a corner (Shaw 1990:238). 35 Two rectilinear installation in the squatter reoccupation of the fort of Horbat Rosh . Zayit were each built up against a wall and consisted of one row of stones packed with clay. Although not identified by the excavators as cooking installations, “several cooking pots, bowls and juglets” were uncovered within one of these installations (Gal and Alexandre 2000:23). At Tall al-#Umayri, in a room dated to the early Persian period, there was an accumulation of ash, measuring 0.90–1.48 m, located above a floor of flat stones (7K80:22; Clark 1991:69; figs. 4.10, 4.11). The excavator called this installation a “hearth”, even though there is no verbal description of the stone perimeter walls. Only the locus summary sheet indicates the presence of these perimeter stones, which are standing 0.26 m in height (Cash and Trenchard 1991:483).
Figure 8.6. Room 809, Hearth A93:27.
Table 8G. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 809, Stratum VIIA Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A93:31
bowl krater storejar jug juglet 2 decanters
V839 V829 V832 V837 V862 V835, V849
red slip, thick-walled wide mouth smudged int.
decanter decanter 436 ceramic sherds shell pendant 2 grinders 2 millstones saddle quern
V866 = TJ 1759 V836 TJ 1833 TJ 1787, 1822 TJ 1798, 1808 TJ 1717
large oblong small, spout, strainer, red slip, painted intact, red slip large Glycymeris, perforated basalt
Within and immediately above this surface (A93:31), there were more than 400 ceramic sherds, many from mendable vessels, all associated with food preparation and consumption. Other finds in the assemblage from this room, especially three large “tether” weights, which suggest industrial and craft activities (Daviau 2002:208–210), appear to have fallen from an upper storey room, since they were found in a vertical
position against the north and west walls. Usually, such weights are associated with olive oil production (Daviau 2002:208–210), although no pressing stone was found on the ground floor level of Room 809 or in the debris surrounding Building 800. There were no other installations within Room 809 that might suggest its function. The presence of a hearth strongly suggests domestic use, since cooking pot sherds were in association with it. Cooking remains the most likely interpretation of this hearth’s function, even though it is very different in style from the two ovens in Central Hall 804 and the cooking area in Room 802 (see below). Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey: The destruction of Stratum VIIA is especially evident in Room 809 where the northeast corner of the outer walls (W8021, 8024) collapsed with the upper storey walls (A93:23–24–25, A93:14, 16). That these walls were stone built is apparent from the massive amount of boulders and chink stones removed from every room in Building 800 during excavation. Among the wall stones (A93:25) in Room 809 were dressed flagstones comparable to those recovered in Room 811. In addition, there were mendable vessels, one (V852) probably imported from Assyria (see discussion below), and ground stone tools that suggest a domestic assemblage for the upper storey room. The probability that the three large weights found in the collapse were originally in use on the upper storey may be confirmed by the presence of limestone table (TJ 1543)36 which fell into Room 807. Industrial activity on the upper storey, especially olive pressing, cannot be completely ruled out since there is growing evidence at contemporary sites of small scale domestic oil processing. At Horbat Rosh . Zayit, a building with a plan that shares many similarities to B800, also contained olive pressing installations (Gal and Frankel 1993: fig. 2), although in this case it seems certain that is was an industrial building. Table 8H. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 809, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A93:14, 16
2 bowls 2 bowls
V869, V870 V838 V825
red slip, carinated everted rim gray burnishing37
36 Although this “table” has affinities with larger crushing platforms (Daviau 2002: 121–122), its small size (47.50 × 42.00 × 13.00 cm) suggests that it could have had a different function (Daviau 2001b:220). 37 Part of this same vessel was recovered above the ceiling at the foot of Stairway
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
goblet juglet juglet 1652 ceramic sherds socket stone mortar pestle grinder millstone work surface worked stone basalt 3 weights
V852 V871 V833
green ware red slip, tall-necked large
TJ 1683 TJ 1657 TJ 1642 TJ 1576 TJ 1513 TJ 1517 TJ 1646 TJ 1516 TJ 1810, 1811, 1825
limestone basalt basalt upper loaf-shaped basalt function unknown unused large, limestone, perforated
Destruction: As in Room 811, Debris Layers A93:8, 6, 1, suggesting modern disturbance, covered the tops of the ancient walls obscuring the outer walls and architectural plan of Building 800. Modern property Wall 8034 ran the full length of the northern outer wall (W8024). Soil and ceramic sherds in a worn and pitted condition, disturbed by agricultural activities in the recent past, filled the crevices of the modern wall (A93:4) and spilled over it to cover the topsoil (A93:1), filling in Rooms 809, 808 and Corridor 810. The Central Unit: Rooms 804, 806, 807 (Fig. 8.3, 5) The Central Unit consists of Central Hall 804 and two small rooms that open off the hall; Room 807 on the west, north of Stairway A83:19, and Room 806 on the east, north of Stairway C27:43. Room 807 (Fig. 8.7) On the west side of Central Hall 804 is a small square room (2.75 × 3.00 m) that fills the space between Room 811 and Staircase A83:19. All four perimeter walls (W8025, W8026, W8027, W8028) have tworow boulder-and-chink construction, formed of small to medium size boulders and are more than 0.90 m thick. Outer Wall 8028, with individual limestone boulders in the range of 0.45 × 0.60 × 0.80 m, became three rows thick (1.30 m) at the point where it met east-west
C27:43. This widespread scatter pattern suggests a single large room above Rooms 806 and R809. It appears that several items in use in this upper storey area were scattered on the stairs as well as in the lower rooms.
Wall 8025.38 A single doorway (G) of average proportions (0.75–0.80 m wide), located in the southeast corner of Room 807, opens into Central Hall 804. Only one occupation phase (Stratum VIIA), identified in Room 807, coincided with the major use of Central Hall 804. Within Room 807, the lower storey floor is a beaten earth surface (A83:16) that seals up against all four walls and extends through Doorway G (A83:33) as far as Threshold Stone A83:34. The floor itself (A83:16) is at the same absolute level (923.77–923.87 masl) as the beaten earth surface (A83:32) outside Doorway G in Central Hall 804, where Threshold Stone A83:34 is located. The threshold is actually formed of one large (0.50 × 0.75) flat-topped stone slab and a second, smaller stone (0.20 × 0.30 m) that together completely fill the space between Walls 8026 and W8027. Debris layers (A83:17, 18) within the doorway were almost devoid of pottery, good evidence of a heavy traffic area on both the lower and upper floors. Within Room 807, beaten earth Surface A83:16 was covered with smashed vessels concentrated along the south (W8027) and east (W8026) walls and in Doorway G. Table 8J. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 807 Locus A83:16
Finds 3 bowls 2 bowls krater 2 cooking pots 2 pithoi storejar 2 juglets miniature cup stopper bead ball/grinder 2 stones metal 2 pestles 3 grinders hand grinder
Reg. No. V887,39
V766, V899 V873, V893 V890 V896, V897 V877, V891 V884 V861, V898 V854 TJ 1589 TJ 1629 TJ 1639 TJ 1621, 1644 TJ 1616 TJ 1574, 1622 TJ 1563, 1640, 1641 TJ 1573
Characteristics red slip black burnished
mend holes ceramic, red slip, painted broken, carnelian basalt polishing fragments basalt oversized
38 The reason for this added thickness is not immediately apparent. It could have been part of the remodelling of the northwest corner, seen in R811, or an attempt to give added support for the upper storey flagstone floor (A83:9–11). 39 Shallow bowls with grooves below the rim appear at Hesbon (Lugenbeal and Sauer 1972: pl. IXA:521, 522), and as far north as Rujm al-Henu in the Baq#ah Valley (Clark 1983: fig. 3:32–34).
Figure 8.7. Room 807, looking east toward Doorway G.
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
7 millstones
TJ 1561, 1564, TJ 1565, 1566, 1568, TJ 1643, 1648 TJ 1567 TJ 1630 TJ 1656 TJ 1562, 1575 Lithic TJ 1608 TJ 1556–156040
upper
millstone quern work surface 2 pounders pecking stone peg/stopper 9 weights
lower basalt stone chert chert bone unfired clay loom weights
The presence of doughnut-shaped loom weights, comparable to those found in Room 802 (Daviau 1994:185), suggests extensive textile production in this building even though spindle whorls were surprisingly few. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey: Above Surface A83:16 is a 0.30 m deep layer (A83:15) comprised of superimposed levels of packed soil and lime that suggests several resurfacings. Pottery is scattered across 40 Several loom weights were so fragmentary that they were not given individual registration numbers, even though they were recognized during excavation.
the hard-packed soil layers culminating with Surface A83:14, in whose soil was a concentration of vertical pithos sherds (V891),41 concentrated in the southwest corner. Ceramic vessels were recovered from various loci indicating a complicated process of collapse. This pattern of accumulation in Room 807 is somewhat different from Central Hall 804, where the upper storey ceiling (C27:55, 56) was immediately above the principal floor surface (C27:65, 66). Instead, it appears that the ceiling material (A83:9, 10, 12, 13) in Room 807 is quite thick and may contain several re-surfacings of the upstairs room. Easiest to detect was Lime Surface A83:10, located in a narrow strip against east Wall 8026 and sealed against by Soil Layer A83:12, which covered the rest of the room. The uppermost hard-packed surface (A83:9) representing the final use of the upper storey room is marked by the presence of nari pockets and a flagstone pavement that was broken up and scattered in the surface material itself, and in the underlying layers of collapsed surfaces (A83:10, 12). The flagstones measured ca. 0.30 × 0.40 m × 0.10 m thick, with the largest being 0.40 × 0.60 m. While the heaviest concentration of flagstones was recovered here (36 were counted), it appears that all the upstairs rooms including those in the northern unit adjacent to the outer walls may have been paved with these fine limestone flags. Numerous finds from the upper storey indicate food preparation, storage and high status personal possessions, possibly including cultic artefacts. Table 8K. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 807, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
A83:9–12
bowl krater storejar jug juglet decanter lamp shell pendant shell dish table mortar bowl mortar
V888 V883 V885 V886 V892 V889 V778 TJ 1314 TJ 1471 TJ 1543 TJ 1338–1339 TJ 1587
brown slip smudged red slip two-handled, spouted mendable sherds Glycymeris Tridacna limestone basalt basalt
41 These sherds are all part of V891, which was probably standing on lower Surface A83:16, and was broken in place when the ceiling collapsed around it.
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
mortar pestle 3 grinders 2 grinders 6 millstones
TJ 1358 TJ 1472 TJ 1470, 1474, 1578 TJ 1315, 1469 TJ 1342, 1475, 1482, TJ 1486, 1488, 1512 TJ 1515 TJ 1333 TJ 1354, 1473, 1483 TJ 1281 TJ 1520 TJ 1275 TJ 1468, 1484, 1518
limestone basalt
millstone saddle quern 3 surfaces pounder arrowhead stopper 3 weights
reused as mortars upper loaf-shaped reused as small mortar working, basalt chert iron stone unfired clay loom weights
Among the high status items were the undecorated tridacna dish and the glycymeris pendant (Reese 2002), as well as the large (0.42 × 0.47 m and 0.13 m thick) limestone “table” (TJ 1543)42 found intact while resting on one of its corners against the inner face of Wall 8028. This artefact had clearly fallen into the lower room when the ceiling gave way. Destruction: Deep debris layers filled with small and medium boulders filled Room 807, both above (A83:5) and below (A83:7) a soil layer (A83:6) which may represent the roof or windblown soil accumulated during a period of abandonment. This soil locus was well preserved in this small room where subsequent disturbance was less apparent than in larger adjoining rooms. Additional wall collapse was present in the uppermost soil layer (A83:2) which was covered in part by the modern property wall (A83:1) that cut across the square. Room 804 (Figs. 8.3, 5, 8) As the largest space on the ground floor, Central Hall 804 covers an area of ca. 34.4 m2. The southern half of this hall, along with two staircases (C27:43 and A83:19) was partially exposed during 1993 and 1994. Excavation in the northern half (in Square A83) took place in 1995. The goal was to determine whether Central Hall 804 extended 42 Table 1543 was associated with a group of high status artefacts that suggest its use as a libation table (Daviau 2001b:220–221; fig. 5.5), although these are otherwise rare for the Iron Age. For example, the offering basin located on the gate podium at Bethsaida is one of the few shallow basins/tables that are close in size (ext. 69 × 50 × 35 cm in height, and int. 53 × 35 × 10 cm in depth (Bernett and Keel 1998:2, n. 11; figs. 3, 4).
north as far as Wall 8030 and to clarify the arrangement of Rooms 807 and 809. A second task was to complete the exposure of Walls 8025 and 8030 that appeared to be two segments of a single wall. The results of the final season demonstrate that Rooms 807, R806 and R809 do in fact open into Central Hall 804; in the case of Room 809, a small corridor in its southwest corner (Doorway H) leads into R804, immediately south of Wall 8030. Clearance of debris layers that seal against Wall 8030 exposed its continuation as Wall 8025, which includes a centrally placed niche measuring ca. 0.90 m in length × 0.68 m in depth and 0.50 m in height (Fig. 8.8). Although this feature appears to have been deliberately built at a height of 1.20 m above floor level and was constructed of carefully dressed stones forming the base and sides, no artefacts or other remains witness to its purpose or use (lamp niche?). Wall 8025 continued west as far as Outer Wall 8033 and formed a major (1.00 m thick) east/west division in Building 800. Within Hall 804, Wall 8025 = 8030 remained standing 1.75–2.00 m above Floor A83:32.43 Fragments of plaster on its south face appear to be evidence that the entire wall was coated with plaster. Wall 8026 bonds with Wall 8025( = 8030), 2.00 m west of the niche, and forms the west wall of R804 north of Doorway G into Room 807. South of Doorway G, east-west Walls 8027 and W8013 support Staircase A83:19 and serve secondarily to extend the line of the west wall. A stacked-pillar wall (W8012) with cobblestone connecting units forms the southern segment of this west wall line in R804. On the east side of the Central Hall is Wall 8022 that runs south almost 3.00 m from Doorway H to Doorway F of Room 806. This wall is formed of one pillar built of five stacked boulders framing Doorway H, and two standing pillars, with cobblestone and small boulder connecting units (Fig. 8.8). South of Doorway F is Staircase C27:43 with its supporting walls (W8020, W8019), which serve also as wall segments. Doorway B, along with the north end of Wall 8016, forms the southeast corner of R804. The southern wall (W8015) consists of three monolithic limestone pillars (C17:13, C17:12 = C27:22, C27:19) which stand 1.40–1.80 m tall. The western pillar (C17:13) is connected to north-south Wall 8012 by several stone slabs that form a low connecting wall (C17:14). The 43 Technically, the northeastern quarter of Floor Surface A83:32 was in Square A93. However, to assist with the removal of deep rockfall layers (A83:26–29) and with the exposure of the floor itself, all loci were assigned to A83.
Figure 8.8. Central Hall 804, with Room 803 on lower left.
two eastern pillars (C27:19, C:27:22) are connected to each other by one large limestone block that stands 0.32 m high. This construction technique results in the formation of recesses between the pillars. This wall line (W8015) is pierced by Doorway C between Pillar C27:19 and Wall 8016 on the east, and by Doorway D between Pillars C17:12 and C17:13 on the west. Stratum VIIA A surface of beaten earth (A83:32 = C27:66) extends the full length of Central Hall 804; when discovered this floor was carpeted with pottery broken in situ. This surface was clearly the lower storey floor in use with the twin staircases and the threshold stones that were in front of Doorway E (C27:78) and Doorway G (A83:34).44 This principal surface (C27:66 = A83:32) is founded on debris (A83:35), that consists of firm soil and small cobblestones. Whether this matrix served as subfloor makeup or was evidence for an earlier, Stratum VIIB phase was not determined. The surface itself was coated with plaster and ash. Installations located on this floor consist of two ovens (C27:63, C27:68) at the south end, and a boulder mortar (A83:31) in the northern half that was possibly reused as a base for a ceiling support. Its central 44 The superimposed plaster surfaces (C27:55, 56), uncovered in 1994 above Floor A83:32 = C27:66, are now understood to be the ceiling and upper storey floor.
depression (ca. 0.35 m diameter) was partially lined with pithos sherds and unfired clay.45 Other installations on the floor include the flat stones that serve as the lowest step of each staircase (C27:43; A83:19). The heaviest concentrations of ceramic vessels on surface C27:66 = A83:32 were along the walls and around the twin ovens, although scattered sherds and artefacts extend across the floor. Running counterclockwise, from Stairway C27:43, along Wall 8022,46 were 5 clay loom weights, along with the neck of an extra-large pilgrim flask and a small jar/large jug (V851) of bright light red, sandy ware (Daviau 2001a:321). Within Doorway H (A93:40), adjacent to Hearth A93:27 in Room 809, was an accumulation of pithos sherds, ground stone tools and a shell pendant. The location of these vessels and the Hearth in Room 809 would have made access from Room 804 quite awkward. However, no other ground floor access was available since east/west Wall 8025 = 8030 ran all the way from Room 809 to outer West Wall 8033. In the northwest corner of Room 804 was a flask,47 this one made of extremely poor ware comparable to flask V301 from Stratum VIII in Building 300. Nearby at the entrance to Room 807 there were 3 more basalt ground stone tools and a red slipped jug broken on the steps of Staircase A83:19. Scattered on the floor in the centre of the room were numerous artefacts consisting of 2 upper loaf-shaped millstone fragments, 1 reused as a mortar, 2 pestles, 1 basalt mortar fragment, 2 basalt hand grinders, 1 pounder, 1 large (ca 0.14 m in diameter) stone ball comparable to those found on Stairway C27:43, 1 sandstone working surface, 2 querns, 2 shells and a group of fused iron points. In addition, there were broken storage vessels. Some of the ceramic sherds mended with others found 45 This lining of sherds suggests that the boulder was not used as a mortar in its final phase, but rather held a vessel or a wooden post for roof support that was wedged in place by the sherds. The base of the pithos is missing, so it was clearly not this vessel that was in use at the time. Installation A83:31 sat on Surface A83:32, midway between W8022 and the end of W8027, whereas boulder mortars recovered in earlier Iron Age contexts (A13:23 = Room 106, E 54:38 = Room 302, E 54:53 = Room 305), were embedded in the floor and fixed in place by a circle of cobblestones. 46 A round depression in the south face of Pillar A83:45 may have been related to weaving, in view of the proximity of the loom weights to this pillar. At the same time, if this were its function, one would expect the depression to be at the top of the pillar rather than somewhere in the middle. 47 The neck of this flask, broken off at the point where extra clay had been added to the opening in the body, was recovered in Room 809. The presence of all body sherds together on Floor A83:32 suggests that this vessel was still in use at the time of the ceiling’s collapse.
Figure 8.9. Pottery and artefacts in collapsed debris on Staircase C27:43.
on Staircase C27:43 (Fig. 8.9), suggesting that these vessels came from either an open area above the stairs, or were among the pottery and artefacts stored on the stairs when the building collapsed. This distribution was most notable in the case of a straight-sided, red-wash decanter (V850), which may have been an imported vessel since its fabric in unique at Tall Jawa (Daviau 2001a:231). Artefacts still in position on the steps included a basalt quern and 3 pounders/large hammer stones. Table 8L. Pottery and Artefacts in Central Hall 804 Locus
Finds
A83:32 + 2 bowls C27:66 chalice cup pithos 2 storejars 2 jugs jar/jug 2 flasks decanter tripod cup 892 + ceramic sherds shell mortar
Reg. No.
Characteristics
V787, 878 V858 V853 V87748 V783, 880 V791, 823 V851 V856, V855 V897 V859
red slip painted one handle
TJ 2148 TJ 2171
sandy, pitted large, painted small red slip Glycermeris, perforated reused millstone fragment
48 The severe destruction of Building 800 is evident in the scatter of sherds in more than one room. Vessel 877 was a pithos, ca. 1.10 m tall, whose rim was found in pieces on the floor of Room 807 and mendable body sherds were present in Central Hall 804.
Locus
C27:43 (Stairs)
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
3 pestles 3 grinders 4 millstones 2 querns working surface pounder stone ball iron points 5 weights
TJ 2149, 2150, 2152 TJ 2172, 2088 TJ 1937, 2120, 2141 TJ 2178 TJ 2127 TJ 2115 TJ 2140 TJ 2119 TJ 2128–2132
basalt basalt broken, + one unregistered
decanter 435 ceramic sherds quern 3 pounders
V850
large, red wash
TJ 749 TJ 753, 756, 773
chert
sandstone chert extra large tool fused unfired clay loom weights, (doughnut-shaped)
A considerable amount of high status pottery is represented among the various sherd scatters that covered the floor of Central Hall 804. In addition to red-slipped wares, black burnished bowls and a painted flask, there was a tripod cup, and a red slipped and painted chalice. The Twin Ovens (Fig. 8.10): The most distinctive features at the south end of Room 804 were twin ovens (C27:63 [east] and C27:68 [west]), located north of Wall 8015. Each oven consists of a vertical ceramic wall,49 set in position on a flat stone or base-rock embedded in Floor Surface C27:66. The oven wall is finished on both the inner and exterior surfaces, and there is a finished rim at the top. These ovens are similar in form and style to Stratum-VII oven C54:19 (Chapter 9), and to Oven B34:54, the only Stratum-VIII oven which was not formed of an inverted ceramic vessel.50 No ovens formed of packed clay
49 At Tall Jawa, the oven wall is hand-made, and is independent from the surrounding plaster. This style of oven is different from Oven 10 at Tel Masos (Kh. el-Meshash) described by Gunneweg (1990:106) as “hard-baked beaten earth or loess,” which was supported by stones on both the interior and exterior faces, and in some places ceramic sherds had been stuck against its outer face. 50 The only similarity with the early Iron Age ovens at Tel Masos (Gunneweg 1983:106) is that the clay oven walls were 0.03 m thick. However, here the resemblance to the Tall Jawa ovens ended, because these earlier ovens were circular, not open on one end, and the walls were slightly convex rather than straight. In size (0.50–0.58 m), the Tel Masos ovens were closer to the Stratum-VIII ovens which had a diameter of 0.50 m. Ovens of this size have been recovered at Khirbat al-Mudayna in Gate Room 153 (C96:29; Chadwick, Daviau and Steiner 2000:261; fig. 4), and in a kitchen south of Temple 149 (A18:34, Khirbat al-Mudayna 2001 report, unpublished).
Figure 8.10. Central Hall 804, looking south, with base rocks of twin ovens in front of Pillared Wall 8015.
with sherds impressed on the outer surface were recovered at Tall Jawa, although this was clearly the most common type in Cisjordan and in Edom.51 East Oven—C27:63: Oven C27:63 was located 0.75 m north of Connecting Wall C27:33 that linked Pillars C17:12 and C27:19. The foundation or base-rock consists of a flat, circular limestone slab (C27:71), ca. 0.50 m diameter. On Floor C27:66, on three sides of the base-rock, 51 For example, see Hazor, Area G, Stratum VII (Yadin 1961: pls. XCV:2, 3); Area A, Stratum VIa (Yadin 1961: pl. XXVI:1); and Tall as-Sa#idiyya (Pritchard 1985: fig. 44). For Edom, the same style of packed mud and sherds is reported; personal communication, P. Bienkowski (November 9, 1996).
were medium size field stones, probably used for protection and stability. The largest of these stones (C27:72; 0.42 m in length) was placed on its long edge south of the base-rock. In this position, Stone C27:72 stood as high or higher than Oven C27:63, and may have served as a heat reflector to help maintain a constant temperature in the oven. Two other field stones were placed to either side of Stone C27:72 . In position on the base-rock was the hand-built ceramic oven (C27:63), oval in shape, ca. 0.40 m in diameter, ca. 0.02–0.03 m thick, and preserved a maximum of 0.15 m in height. Resting against the ceramic wall of the oven on Base-rock C27:71 were several small stones with no apparent pattern. There were also some small stones around the front of the oven, apparently at floor level. All these stones were cemented in place by a layer of plaster (C27:79), which covered the space around the oven, from its ceramic wall (C27:63) to the support rocks (ca. 0.20 m) and sealed around their edges. When found, Oven C27:63 was poorly preserved with broken pieces of the oven wall scattered in the ash (C27:65) and soil (C27:64) that filled and surrounded the oven, and spread across Floor Surface C27:66. Surface C27:66 itself continued east as far as paved Floor C27:58, located in Doorway B south of Staircase C27:43. West Oven—C27:68 (Fig. 8.11): Oven C27:68 was located 0.40 m north of Pillar C17:13 and was similar in construction to Oven C27:63. The condition of this oven when found allows for a better understanding of the construction techniques used by the ancient inhabitants. A large rectangular boulder (C27:83), 0.60 m in length, was set in position on Floor Surface C27:66, flush against the north face of Pillar C17:13. To the north of this boulder, a rectilinear base-rock (C27:82) measuring 0.36 m × 0.38 m was set in place supported by small levelling stones.52 The space between the boulder and the base-rock was filled by a narrow, rectilinear stone set on edge (0.55 m long) that extended 0.38 m above the upper surface of the base-rock. This upright stone, several flanking stones (0.13 × 0.16 × 0.07 and 0.12 × 0.15 × 0.08 m), and a lump of clay protected the sides of base-rock C27:82 and oven wall C27:68, possibly serving as heat reflectors. A layer of Plaster (C27:84) covered that part of the base-rock surrounded by the oven wall (C27:68) and extended to the back of the 52 Only in 1996, after a winter’s rain, was it apparent that Base-rock C27:82 was itself supported by a basalt saddle quern embedded in the floor makeup.
Figure 8.11. Oven C27:68, with packed plaster and stones, in front of Boulder C27:83.
base-rock, sealing it and the surrounding stones and clay lump in place. The plaster also covered an oblong juglet (V860) wedged between the base-rock (C27:82) and the narrow, upright stone. The juglet had been fractured by heat from the oven, but was complete when found except for its rim and upper neck (Daviau 2001a: fig. 7:3). Its position indicates that it was deliberately placed between the stones before the plaster sealer. The ceramic oven wall (C27:68) was elliptical in shape and measured 0.33 m north/south and 0.22 m east/west. Although the upper edge of the oven was damaged, it remained standing to a height of 0.18 m. A layer of ash (C27:65) accumulated around the front of the oven’s base-rock (C27:82), where the oven was open at its north end, staining the rock itself and the plaster which covered its upper surface. Ash was also visible under the edges of the stones that flanked the base-rock suggesting the prior use of Oven C27:63. At the same time, Ash C27:65 did not extend to the west, where there was a storage area in the recess formed by Walls 8012 and 8015 (see below).
The location of these twin ovens at the south end of Central Hall 804 exhibits several important features. The ovens were not directly attached to Pillars C17:13 and C17:12 ( = C27:22), but each had its own support stone on the south side adjacent to the pillars. In this position, both ovens were just south of the line between Doorway B from Room 805 and Doorway E into Room 802. As a result, the ovens benefited from a certain amount of air circulation, while the indirect access through Room 805 on the east prevented a direct draft. The precise function of these ovens is less clear. The accumulation of bowls and various ceramic vessels in their immediate area suggests food preparation, although the number of mendable cooking pots was limited (see Table 8M).53 The presence of a quern to the east of Oven C27:68 and of a working surface and pounder east of Oven C27:63 adds support to the functional identification of this area. However, the method of cooking must have changed toward the end of Stratum VIII, since the size of these ovens (ca. 0.25–0.30 m) is considerably smaller than the Stratum-VIII ovens formed of inverted pithoi which were all in the range of 0.50 m in diameter.54 Storage Area west of Oven C27:68: Immediately west of Oven C27:68, the connecting wall (C17:19) which links the westernmost Pillar (C17:13) to Wall 8012 forms a niche or recess. In this small space (0.65 × 1.20 m), there were 15 unfired clay loom weights that appear to have been in storage, rather than in use on a vertical loom (Barber 1991:92). This concentration of weights corresponds to a group of 14 that were in storage in House 16 at Tall as-Sa#idiyya (Pritchard 1985:25; fig. 88).55 The proximity of the loom weights in Room 804 to central Pillar C17:12 may explain a hole cut diagonally through the northwest upper corner of this stone monolith (Daviau 1992: pl. I.1); such a hole could
53 A considerable amount of cooking pot sherd material was recovered which points to continued use of the ovens during the life of the building. As always, cooking pots suffer the extremes of hot and cold and their bases crumble into numerous unmendable pieces. 54 For a discussion of the ovens in Fields A–B and E, see above (also Daviau 1992:148–149). 55 The distribution of loom weights on a diagonal between two walls in House 6 at Tall as-Sa#idiyya suggests that they were in use at the time the house was destroyed (Pritchard 1985: text figs. 2, 3; figs. 73, 74). The storage of loom weights near an oven was reported for Room 44 of Stratum II at Beer-sheba (Beit Arieh 1973:36).
support the upper beam of a vertical loom56 when weaving was in progress.57 The location for the opposite end of the beam is less certain, although it was probably in Room 803, away from the ovens. Clustered around the front of Oven C27:68 was a small assemblage of ceramic vessels that scattered west into the recess between the pillar and Wall 8012, north as far as Doorway E into Room 802, and east as far as the north side of Oven C27:63. Table 8M. Pottery and Artefacts at south end of Room 804 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C27:66 + 27:70 + C17:42
2 bowls bowl krater 2 cooking pots storejar 2 jugs decanter 826 + ceramic sherds spindle whorl 15 weights
V773, V802 V798 V824 V776, V881 V876 V857, V875 V874
red slip black burnished
burnished
TJ 1891 limestone TJ2063, unfired clay, donut-shaped TJ2099–2112
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Two surfaces (C27:55, 56), tightly superimposed within 0.15 m of each other, constitute the collapsed ceiling which fell into Central Hall 804. Due to the importance of this room and the large amount of smashed pottery on Staircase C27:43 that leads up to the second storey, a 56 Barber illustrates the house of Thutnofer (1994: fig. 11.2), where she points out the double frame of the upright or vertical looms (1994:260). Because she imagined that the tomb painting illustrated a three storey house, she suggests that spinning and weaving of flax was carried on in the basement. Since Egyptian houses did not usually have basements, the painting in the tomb of Thutnofer (TT 104), also known as Djehutynefer, probably illustrates the central rooms flanked by side rooms (Daviau 1993: fig. 1; 403–404). 57 A depression in the southwest upper corner of the same pillar (C17:12) may also have been related to weaving. In his excavations of houses at Tell Beit Mirsim, Albright (1943:50) assumed that the pillars were intended to support both the ceiling, without cutting out light, and to support the beam of the vertical loom. (such an arrangement was reconstructed in the Ha-Aretz Museum, when I visited there in 1975). At Tell Beit Mirsim, loom weights in the shape of doughnuts were present in SE 51A-2 adjacent to stone pillars (Albright 1943:56, pl. 5). The same distribution pattern was noted in building F607 at Tell Batash, where Mazar (1997:244) discovered 30 loom weights east of the central pillars.
1.00 m2 grid was laid out in the south central area of Central Hall 804, in order to excavate the soil (C27:48) immediately above Surface C27:55.58 Each grid was excavated separately and assigned its own pottery pail. All finds from a particular grid were to be plotted. Surprisingly little pottery (124 sherds) and few artefacts (1 seal-TJ 1128, 1 basalt spheroid-TJ 1126) were recovered within the grid, with the result that pail numbers were assigned only as needed. Table 8N. Grid for Soil Layer C27:48 with Pottery Pail and Artefact Numbers Grid 46
Grid 47
Grid 48
Grid 49
G50/P119
G51/P124 P125
G37/P107 113
G38/P108 111
G39/P117
Grid 40
G41/P118
G42/P123
G 1/P106 112 TJ 1126
G 2/P116 120
G 3/P115
Grid 4
Grid 5
Grid 6
G 7/P121 TJ 1128
G 8/P122
Grid 9
Staircase
C27:43
The paucity of finds in the earthen surfaces (C27:55, 56) and in the overlying soil layers (C27:48, 47) suggests either a very thick ceiling makeup (0.75 cm) or a high traffic area on the upper storey between the two Staircases, which was covered in turn by the collapse of the roof (C27:46). It is only in the corners and in one of the overlying soil layers (C27:46) that the amount of pottery (522 sherds)59 and artefacts points to extensive food preparation activities on the upper storey. The most unusual find was a two-storey lamp or double vessel (V793), which may have been associated with the cultic bowl from Room 802 and the tripod cups.
58 Because the size of Square C27 was irregular (8.30 9.30 m), due to changes × in the grid alignment of Field C (see Chapter 2), the usual 36 square meter grid was expanded to include Grid Squares 37–42 and 46–51. The use of the 1.00 m grid system is described by Jacobs and Borowski (1992: x–xi) in their procedures and guidelines for collection of materials at Tel Halif designated as locus.P (used with permission). The same method was used at Tell el-Hesi to record a dense artefact distribution (Field 1.51; 1975), and at Ashkelon for the collection of soil samples from surfaces (Lass 1994:24). 59 A small amount of contamination was evident in the pottery. Whether this is due to disturbance during the Umayyad period or during modern times with the construction of the property walls remains unclear.
Table 8P. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 804, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C27:42 C27:46
2 mortars 3 millstones lamp 522 ceramic sherds grinder 5 millstones
TJ 790 TJ 775 V793
fragments double lamp
quern
TJ 802 TJ 765, 798, 821
basalt upper loaf-shaped (2 = unregistered) fragment
Evidence for Final Destruction Layers of rockfall (C27:44, 38, 39, 37) filled with small and medium size boulders, scattered pottery, and broken basalt tools demonstrate the severe collapse that brought occupation in Building 800 to an end. This debris is consistent with that recovered in all rooms in the central unit although it appears somewhat more disturbed, probably due to the large size of the central hall that allowed for stone robbing in both Umayyad and modern times. Room 806 (Fig. 8.5) On the east side of Central Hall 804, Room 806 is close in size (2.85 × 2.80 m) and shape to Room 807 on the west. This square room fills the space between Stairway C27:43 and the northeast room (R809). It is bounded on the east by the outer Wall (8021), on the north by singlerow Wall 8023, on the west by Wall 8022, and on the south by the support wall (W8020) of the staircase itself. At the southwest corner is a single doorway (F) that leads into the central hall. Excavation in R806 did not reach floor level across the entire room, and no clearly defined installations were exposed. Alongside outer Wall 8021, was an exceptionally hard packed surface (C27:60) which contained scattered oven fragments. It was not clear whether this represents the collapsed ceiling that fell onto an oven and was baked by the heat, or whether it was an installation in its own right. Partial removal of the collapsed ceiling (C27:73) inside Doorway F along the north side of Staircase C27:43 (W8020) exposed a floor surface (C27:75) which was contiguous to Surface C27:66 = A83:32 in Room 804. Evidence for room function is most clearly seen in the group of groundstone tools in Doorway F. Due to the limited exposure of this surface, few mendable vessels were recovered making it impossible to identify more precisely the range of activities in this room.
Table 8Q. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 806 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
C27:75
storejar 80 ceramic sherds 2 pestles grinder millstone
V796 TJ 2167, 2189 TJ 2188 TJ 2177
Characteristics
basalt basalt upper, loaf-shaped
The overlying debris layers (C27:37, 38) of collapsed wall stones filled the upper two-thirds of Room 806 in the same pattern as seen in adjoining rooms. Only one use phase was identified here as was the case in Room 807. The Southern Unit: Rooms 802, 803, 805 (Fig. 8.3) Two rooms (R802, R803) perpendicular to each other along the south and west sides of Building 800 flank Central Hall 804. To the east of Room 803 is a small entryway (Room 805), located south of Staircase C27:43. Although the depth of accumulated debris along the south end of Building 800 was only 1.50 m, in contrast to 3.50 m at the north, the three ground floor rooms against the south wall (W8011 = 8017) were filled with collapsed wall stones consisting of medium to large size boulders and cobble size chink stones that made excavation extremely slow and laborious. Excavation began in Rooms 802 and 803 in 1991, continued in 1992 in Rooms 803 and 805, and was completed in 1993 in Room 802. Room 805 (Fig. 8.12) Room 805 is an L-shaped space that contains the only ground floor entrance (Doorway A) into Building 800 that could be identified with certainty. The shape of this room provides indirect access from Doorway A to Doorway B, which opens into Central Hall 804. This arrangement was achieved by the construction of Wall 8018, which runs south from the southern staircase support wall (W8019), and serves in turn as support for the upper steps of the staircase over Room 805. Wall 8018 is only 1 row thick (0.50 m) and serves as a support for a fill layer (C27:53) under the stairs. Doorway A (1.00 m in width) is located between the south end of outer East Wall 8021 and the north face of South Wall 8017. This formation results in the location of Doorway A in the southeast corner of
Figure 8.12. Room 805, with Basin C27:27 in southwest corner; Room 803 is on the right.
Room 805, rather than in the middle of a wall line. This construction technique is a feature that was used extensively here and in Building 700 in Field D (see below), as well as in B300 in Field E (see above). Both of the outer walls (W8021, W8017) of Room 805, formed of 2– 3 rows of small to large size boulders, are in the range of 1.20–1.30 m thick. The boulders at the ends of both walls were carefully chosen and semi-hewn forming vertical dressed edges. Bonded to South Wall 8017 is interior Wall 8016, which forms the west wall of Room 805. Wall 8016 is formed of one row of medium to large boulders and, at its north end, is built of dressed boulders at the point where it forms the south side of Doorway B. The north side of Doorway B and of Room 805 is framed by stairway support Wall 8019. This wall is formed of one row of hewn, rectangular boulders in the range of 0.75–1.20 m in length. In line with Doorway A is a rectangular limestone basin/trough (C27:27) that is located in the corner formed by Outer Wall 8017 and west Wall 8016. The external dimensions of the basin are 1.00 × 0.75 × 0.45 m in height, while its interior depression is ca. 0.75 × 0.55 × 0.35 m in depth. In the southwest, lower corner there is a drain hole located 0.18 m below the rim and 0.04 m above the bottom that ranged in size
from 0.05–0.13 m in diameter.60 Inside the basin, below the level of the drain hole was an accumulation of mud plaster(?), 0.04–0.05 m thick (C27:30). Whether this layer had a functional purpose or represents a residue has not been determined. Additional fill layers (C27:26a–d) within the basin appear to consist of soil and do not contribute to a functional interpretation of this installation.61 According to Kelm and Mazar (1995:150; fig. C30), roof rollers were used to crush olives in stone basins. While this may have been the custom at Tell Batash where the roller was used perpendicular to the long sides of the basin,62 the roof roller (TJ 589) found in Room 805 is too long (0.68 m) to be used in Basin C27:27, and appears to have fallen from above (see below). In addition, the position of the drain hole that had its exit in a corner formed by two walls is counter productive if crushing were the intended function, since a considerable amount of oil would be lost. Basin C27:27 is supported by chink stones (0.15–0.25 m in size) in position on a beaten earth and stone paved surface, or sub-floor, which was not exposed in the centre of Room 805.63 In the northeast corner, on Surface C27:76, was a saucer bowl (V813) and a broken storejar that may have been in use with the basin prior to the installation of a second stone pavement. The bottom of the basin is sealed with a soil layer that serves as the foundation for Flagstone Pavement C27:34, the final use phase in Room 805.64 The stones in this pavement are in 60 The drain hole was certainly cut from the inside where it measures 0.13 m in diameter; it then tapers to 0.05 m on the outside. 61 An impressive basin located in the gate complex at Gezer (0.80 1.00 m) probably × did hold liquid, because there was no drain hole. Surprisingly, basins similar in shape but slightly larger in size, identified as olive crushing basins used in the olive oil industry at Tel Miqne, had drain holes in some instances (Basin 197003 (1.75 × 1.05 × 0.70 m); Basin 86006 (1.25 × 1.00 × 0.42–0.50 m), although comparable basins (Basin 182007, Basin 166016) in this same Area II were not perforated (MacKay 1995:83, 163–64, Plan Nos. 858, 867c). Basins at Megiddo that functioned as mangers, according to Holladay (1986:116), were in the range of 1.20 × 0.60 × 0.70 m in height. Their interior depression measures 0.90 × 0.30 × 0.12–0.15 m in depth. 62 One such basin, first reported in 1982 by Kelm and Mazar (1995: pl. 20B), was located in a private house that shares similar construction techniques with Building 800, such as stacked boulder piers, monolithic stone pillars, boulder-and-chink walls and a flagstone pavement in a broad room. 63 Evidence for this earlier surface is seen in Doorway B and in the southeast corner of Room 804, where beaten earth Surface C27:76 is a continuation of C27:66, the surface in use with Oven C27:63. Here, the flagstone floor (C27:58) is above the earlier surface. 64 At first, the disturbed condition of the flagstones in Pavement C27:34 suggested
the range of 0.20–0.40 m in length, 0.10–0.15 m in width and 0.10– 0.12 m thick. The surface (C27:74) in Doorway B may have been paved with stone slabs which measure 0.07–0.09 m thick and 0.16–0.32 m × 0.21–0.56 m. These were found at a slightly higher level (923.91 masl) than the Stratum VIIA floor level in Central Hall 804 (923.78 masl), but appear to have been contemporary. In view of its small size and function as an entryway, Room 805 may have endured several repavings during the life of Building 800. As a high traffic area, this room contained few artefacts and little pottery. Table 8R. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 805 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C27:28
2 saucers saucer sherds pithos sherds bottle 208 ceramic sherds pestle millstone sherd shell pendant iron point
V812, 813 red slip
red slip, burnished
V788 TJ 514 TJ 552 92/117 TJ 2165 TJ 519
upper loaf-shaped reworked Glycymeris, perforated
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Evidence for the collapsed ceiling consists of a light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) soil and plaster layer (C27:18) which contained fallen wall stones, especially pebbles, cobbles and small boulders. The size of these stones, here as elsewhere, suggests that the upper storey walls were made of smaller stones than those on the ground floor. Certain rectangular stones in the debris may have come from the upper steps of Staircase C27:43 where it turned south above Room 805. In the midst of this collapse was roof roller TJ 589 that had pierced the flagstone pavement when it fell from the north, probably through an open area above Stairway C27:43.
an upper storey floor that had collapsed. However, the elevation of this pavement (924.00 masl) was very close to that of the pavement in Doorway B (923.91 masl) and to the main floor (C27:66; 923.78 masl) in the adjacent rooms (R804 and R803), whereas the collapsed flagstones in Room 807 were at least 0.60 m higher.
Table 8S. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 805, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C27:18
2 saucers bowl bowl jug 279 + ceramic sherds roof roller 2 millstones 1 millstone grinder whetstone shell sheep and goat bones
V810, V811 V822 V821 V785
red slip red slip black burnished
TJ 589 TJ 440, 509 TJ 442 TJ 449 TJ 564 Sh 6
limestone upper loaf-shaped lower basalt sandstone Glycymeris
Evidence for Final Destruction Uppermost layers of rockfall filling Room 805 and Doorway B (C 27:3, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12) contained wall stones of all sizes including small and medium boulders, suggesting collapse over time of the upper courses of the lower storey walls. Pottery from these loci is contaminated with late Byzantine/Umayyad sherds. Additional contamination from modern agricultural and pasturing activities was present in topsoil layer C27:1. Room 803 (Figs. 8.3, 12) Room 803 is the central room on the south side of Building 800. This broad room opens onto Central Hall 804 through two entrances (Doorways C and D) in Pillared Wall 8015. Within Room 803, Doorway C is located between the west face of boulder-and-chink Wall 8016 and the easternmost limestone pillar (C27:19), while Doorway D is between western Pillar C17:13 and central Pillar (C17:12 = 27:22). The two eastern pillars (C27:22 and 19) are joined by a low connecting wall (C27:33) formed of a long (0.65 m) rectilinear boulder that supports both pillars. In similar fashion, the western Pillar (C17:13) is linked to west Wall 8012 by a connecting unit (C17:19). The result is a wall (W8015) that consists of four openings allowing for air and light to circulate from the central hall. The south face of the two units of Wall 8015 form a straight line and did not contain recesses as on the north face in Central Hall 804 (see above). West Wall 8014 also presents a linear face in Room 803. South of its meeting with Wall 8015, Wall 8014 is, for the most part, a boulder pillar and cobblestone unit wall. Wall 8014 appears to abut exterior
Wall 8011, which runs from the southwest corner of Building 800 as far as Wall 8016, the east wall of Room 803.65 As the longest wall of Room 803, Wall 8011 is formed of medium to large boulders laid on the extra-long (4.08 + m) stone that forms its main support. In contrast to the northern exterior wall (8024) which remains standing ca. 3.70 m above floor level, South Wall 8011 is only preserved 0.45–0.80 m above Floor C27:32, showing the pattern of erosion on the slope of the tell. Stone Pavement C27:32 = C17:18 covers the floor of Room 803 and is contemporary with Floor C27:66 in Central Hall 804. Formed of flagstones and cobblestones, this surface is connected through Doorway C to Pavement C27:58 in Doorway B, and to Pavement C27:34 in Room 805. Additional flagstones form the threshold in Doorway D. With the exception of the southeast corner of Room 803, the pavement appears to be covered with a plaster coating (C17:17 = C27:31) which was damaged by artefacts and broken pottery when the upper storey collapsed. Pottery and artefacts are scattered across the surface and embedded in the overlying soil layer (C27:25). Table 8T. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 803 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C27:25 C17:17
bowl 49 + ceramic sherds 3 mortars mortar mortar 2 grinders grinder 2 millstones 2 pounders basin/mortar shell pendant animal bones
sherds
vertical rim, mends with V802
TJ 310, 318, 378 TJ 189 C27:35 TJ 206, 317 TJ 316 TJ 308, 382 TJ 164, 307 C17:15 TJ 456
limestone, basalt basalt, small limestone, boulder basalt extra large upper loaf-shaped chert limestone Glycymeris, perforated
An intact boulder mortar (C27:35), measuring 0.38 × 0.48 × 0.24 m, was found leaning against South Wall 8011, where it was thrust by rockfall. These finds strongly suggest domestic or industrial activities, such as food processing. McCown (1945:14) reported a similar pattern
65
Wall 8011 appears to bond with Wall 8016.
for the paved room, which was used for storage, in Building 3 at Tell en-Nas.beh.66 Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Although several loci (C17:10 = 14 = C27:21 = 14) of collapsed wall stones were removed from the upper part of Room 803, there is little evidence for activities on the upper storey since erosion was so severe along South Wall 8011. Most striking is the presence of a basalt mortar bowl with a ring base (TJ 191 = 344) and 2 weights, frequently identified as tether stones (TJ 219, 221). These “tethers”, unlike the slab weights in Room 809, are natural stones with evidence that the perforation has seen wear. The function of these weights, and those in Room 809, is still a mystery. In Room 803, one might suppose that these were in use either as weights for the foot of a loom, whose clay loom weights were in storage in the recess in Central Hall 804, or for some other craft or industry carried out on the upper storey. Another industrial size feature was located in front of Doorway D. This large basin (C17:15) was broken and surrounded by fallen stones (C17:14); it measures 0.54 m in diameter, 0.46 + m in length and 0.40 m in height, and was either circular or oval when complete. The number of weights, the presence of the limestone basin and a “table” (TJ 1543),67 also fallen from the upper storey, are similar to elements of an oil press and are frequently found together. A square pressing table, considerably larger in size, was uncovered at Tel Qiri in Stratum VII, an Iron II horizon (Ben-Tor and Portugali 1987: photos 19–21). However, the presence of such an installation on the upper storey of a building is probably unique. Room 802 (Fig. 8.13) Room 802, located in the southwest corner, is similar in size (2.50 × 5.55 m) and shape to Room 809 in the northeast corner. Room 802 is enclosed by outer West Wall 8010 on the west and on the south by outer South Wall 8011. At the north end of Room 802 is Wall 8013, the south support wall for Staircase A83:19. This was a boulderand-chink wall that remained standing 1.42 m above Surface C17:52. 66 Clearly paved Room 803 was not used for animals, given the number of installations present on the floor. This is in contrast to the suggestions for the use of paved rooms in “four-room” houses, such as the one at Tall al-#Umayri (Herr and Clark 2001:40), where (in an isometric drawing) an ox is shown standing in the paved room. 67 See Room 807, above.
Figure 8.13. Room 802, looking south toward stacked-boulder Wall 8012.
Patches of plaster (C17:48) on its lowest exposed course are the only remains of a plaster coating on the south face of this wall. The eastern wall (W8014 = 8012) is composed of several construction units identified individually during excavation. The south end of this wall (8014) appears to be a boulder-and-chink segment (C17:7) that was later seen to be constructed in the same style as the northern unit (W8012). Wall 8012 consists of stacked-boulder pillars (C17:33, C17:35) linked by cobblestone connecting units (C17:34, 56; Fig. 8.13), and capped with long rectangular boulders that linked the piers. The cobblestone units are less thick (0.25–0.35 m) than the pillars (0.65–0.75 m) and form recesses that were found filled with collapsed wall stones. Some of these walls were badly damaged during the destruction of the building.
Figure 8.14. Room 802, loom weights in niche in Wall 8012.
Immediately north of Pillar C17:35 and south of east-west Wall 8013 is a single Doorway (E) from Central Hall 804. In position on Surface C27:66, are three flat stones (C27:78) that mark the entrance and serve as a threshold. Inside Room 802, 0.50 m west of Doorway E, there is a large (0.25 × 0.77 × 0.10 m thick) basalt saddle quern (C17:50) set on its long edge parallel to the threshold stones and perpendicular to Wall 8013 (Fig. 8.3). This quern is embedded in a beaten earth floor surface (C17:51) which extends the length of the room (C17:52 = 53). The quern serves as a windbreak for a fire place (C17:46), located against the south face of Wall 8013.68 Only ashes mark the position of this fire; there is no oven as such. The heat from this fire may have helped to preserve the patches of plaster (C17:48) that adhere to the lowest course of Wall 8013. The fireplace itself (C27:46) measures 1.00 × 1.20 m in size and consists of ash, burnt ceramic sherds, 19 + pieces of iron (slag?) and 1 fragment of an iron point.69 Due to its location in Building 800, it is unlikely that Room 802 served as a craft area for forging 68 This same feature was seen in Room 303 (E54:27, Stratum VIII, Chapter 7) and in Room 901 in Field C-east (quern C54:19), where it was adjacent to a clay lined oven (C54:18). 69 The metal fragments and point were recovered in flotation.
new weapons. This was usually carried out in a room separate from the living quarters or in an industrial building.70 Ground stone tools, usually associated with food preparation, were also in position on Floor C17:51 around the fire place. Table 8U. Pottery and Artefacts west of Doorway E in Room 802 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C17:46
lamp sherd iron fragments iron point 3 mortars pestle pounder
TJ 778 TJ 742, 755, 767 TJ 769 TJ 762
rectangular basalt chert
C17:5 1
Fireplace C17:46 was buried under 0.90–1.00 m of soil, fallen wall stones (C17:44 = 45) and smashed pottery that had probably all been in use with Surface C17:51 = 52 = 53 = 54. The contents of these loci suggest that Room 802 was most probably a storeroom. It contained a considerable amount of mendable ceramic vessels, a total of 18 loom weights, 15 of which rested on Surface C17:54 located in a recess formed by stacked pillars C17:33 and C17:7 in Wall 8012 (Fig. 8.14). Their position indicates that these objects were not in use when this room was destroyed; the loom weights were merely stored here as were the loom weights found in Central Hall 804, on the east side of the same Wall (8012).71 The location of pithoi and store jars near the entrance of Room 802 also points to the use of the room for storage. Foodstuffs taken from such vessels may have been prepared either in Room 802 or in Central Hall 804 adjacent to the twin ovens. Numerous food preparation tools were scattered across the floor of Room 802, especially in the vicinity of the fireplace and near a stone working surface. 70 For example, a mould to manufacture weapons was located in House E at Carchemish, which was a separate unit from House D (Woolley 1921:130; pl. 23b, reference courtesy of P. E. Dion). On occasion, metalworking is associated with temples, although the smithing in Temple 149 at Khirbat al-Mudayna in Moab (Daviau and Steiner 2000:6) may have been secondary. 71 It was a common practice to put loom weights in storage during the off-season, when weaving was suspended due to the pressure of other activities. Loom weights in storage were located in the storeroom at Ta#anach where they were put in a krater (pace Frick 2000: fig. 21).
Table 8V. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 802 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C17:44–45
4 saucers + 17:29 + 17:49 4 bowls
V805, V807, V808 V803 2 bowls V790, V797, V799, V816 V804, V819 V789, V795 V815, V817, V818 V806 V767, V781, V786, V794 V782 V775, V780 V792, V820 V828 V827 TJ 901
red slip yellow slip V814, V826 black burnished
2 kraters 2 cooking pots 4 pithoi 4 storejars 1 storejar 2 decanters 2 lamps mortar bowl mortar bowl shell pendant pendant basalt bowl 3 mortars 2 grinders 5 millstones 2 querns work surface 2 pounders stopper spindle whorl 18 weights 6 sherds 4 lithics
TJ 757 TJ 818 TJ 708, 716, 821 TJ 702 TJ 698, 709, 713, TJ 735, 819 TJ 777, 853 TJ 827 TJ 762, 823 TJ 768 TJ 575 TJ 740–746, TJ 855–863, 908 93/165, 166, 183, 227, 230, 265 L491, 492, 498, 503
hole mouth hole mouth potter’s mark small, 4 handles wedge inpressions tripod, ceramic Glycymeris, perforated, very small bone ring base 716 = miniature + one fragment upper loaf-shaped basalt, saddle querns limestone chert stone ceramic unfired clay loom weights (doughnut-shaped) reworked
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Because of its size and location, a considerable amount of collapse was preserved in Room 802 although the southern Wall (8011) had suffered here also from extensive erosion. The collapsed ceiling was most clearly seen in soil layers (top of C17:47 = 24, 26–28 = 43) that contained rockfall and smashed pottery with some flat lying sherds.
Most notable were the presence of a cultic cup (V801) and an ostracon (Dion 2002). The cup was made in two parts that were attached at the bowl and then coated with red slip, burnished and painted with black bands and white wash (Daviau 1994: fig. 11:6). Table 8W. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 802, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C17:24–28
saucer jug 324 ceramic sherds mortar millstone
V774 V784
red slip large
saucer 171 ceramic sherds grinder quern ostracon cultic cup
V809
red slip
TJ 664 TJ 665 TJ 1071 V801 = TJ674
basalt fragment 3 lines of text red slip, painted
grinder iron point
TJ 771 TJ 796
basalt
C17:40, 43
C17:47
TJ 378 TJ 387
Summary The pottery and artefacts from Building 800 are evidence of intensive domestic activities along with several crafts and industries. Within the ceramic corpus, the variety of pottery types indicates the range of food preparation activities and the presence of elements of a domestic cult most notable in the specialized wares and painted vessels. A preliminary count of recognizable ware form types among the partially restored vessels is presented in Table 8X. Table 8X. Classes of Pottery in Building 800 Ceramic Class
Totals N %
Surface Treatment* N % % of class of all
Saucer Bowl Platter Chalice Cup Goblet Krater
11 29 1 1 1 1 9
11 26 1 1
8.59 22.65 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 7.03
100.00 89.65 100.00 100.00
22.00 52.00 2.00 2.00
Ceramic Class
Totals N %
Cooking Pot Pithos Storejar Hole mouth Jar Jug Juglet Flask Decanter-small Decanter-large Bottle Lamp Mortar bowl Tripod cup Cultic cup/stand Miniature vessels Basin
6 6 14 1 9 10 2 5 4 1 6 3 3 1 2 1
4.68 4.68 10.93 0.78 7.03 7.71 1.56 3.90 3.12 0.78 4.68 2.34 2.34 0.78 1.56 0.78
Miscellaneous Total
1 128
0.78 101.38
Surface Treatment* N % % of class of all
2 1 5 1
20.00 50.00 100.00 25.00
4.00 2.00 10.00 2.00
1 1
100.00 50.00
2.00 2.00
50
100.00
* Surface treatment refers to vessels that bear evidence for red slip and/or paint or were made of black burnished ware. Specialized Finds The large repertoire of pottery (128 + vessels) and artefacts in Building 800 and the amount of red slipped and black burnished wares are clear indicators of a high standard of living. In addition, certain finds point to a certain degree of official activity; these include the seal and ostracon and the presence of “rare” or imported vessels and shells. Other finds suggest cultic activity, for example the red slipped and painted chalice, a “cultic” cup, and a painted clay “stopper”, along with tripod cups and a double lamp (Daviau 2001b). Although no figurines were found inside Building 800, the head of a bull vessel (TJ 1286) was recovered from debris sealed against North Wall 8024, and the torso of a figurine depicting a nude female (TJ 1106; Daviau 2002:60) was found at the sift. This evidence for daily life in Late Iron Age II is supplemented by finds from Building 700 and from the domestic rooms (B900) and gate complex (B910) in Field C-east, where additional figurines were found.
Evidence for Final Destruction Topsoil (C17:1, 5, 20, 37) covered the uppermost wall stones both inside and outside of Room 802. In debris layer C17:5, there were the remains of the modern wall that crossed the building at this point along with a group of architectural elements, consisting of pieces of a ceramic drain, that was probably in use with Umayyad-period Building 600. Formation of the Archaeological Record in Building 800 The complexity of the formation of the archaeological record of Building 800 is seen most clearly in the distribution of broken ceramic vessels beyond the room in which they were used. While the majority of vessels were smashed in place and could be successfully reconstructed, some vessels located near doorways were broken in such a way that sherds were recovered from the adjoining room. In several cases, the distribution was more extensive; sherds were discovered almost on opposite sides of the building. This is seen most clearly in the case of V877, a large pithos whose rim sherds were found in Room 807, to the west of Central Hall 804, as well as beside Wall 8021 in Room 806 on the opposite side of the hall. In both locations, the sherds were sealed by the collapsed ceiling and tumbled wall stones. Although such distribution suggests damage to the building before its final destruction, this is hard to imagine since B800 was not burnt. Although the soil from the ceilings was present in every room, no wooden beams were preserved or ash layers encountered that would provide evidence of burning. An alternative explanation may be destruction by earthquake or abandonment due to military threat. Evidence for attack, such as weapons and burning, are clearly lacking however, as is historical documentation that could suggest events related to the destruction of Tall Jawa during the late Iron Age. BUILDING 700 Introduction Field D is located to the northeast of Building 800 in Field C-west, and immediately north of Field C-east (Squares C47–C77 are contiguous to Squares D1–D31; Fig. 8.15). Modern property walls run along the south, east and north sides of Field D. Adjacent to the northern property wall (D25–35) is an area covered with scattered tesserae (500 + )
Figure 8.15. Excavation Grid in Field D.
that marks the position of a long (20.00 + m) building whose walls are barely visible at ground level. More apparent, prior to excavation, were the outer walls of Building 700 that were preserved above ground level and clearly delimited the entire perimeter of a structure filled with collapsed debris. Most intriguing was a central depression that gave the impression of a cistern mouth. In fact, the depression was the result
of ancient collapse and modern exploration on the part of local land owners earlier in the twentieth century. A rock-cut cistern (D15:2), outside the northwest corner of Building 700, was emptied in modern times and a dump of soil and broken pottery (D14:1) was piled against the west wall of the ancient structure. The mouth of the cistern was covered with large stone blocks and, on first investigation in 1992, was found to contain a modern mortar shell. The presence of large numbers of Iron Age sherds in the dump suggests that this cistern was used initially in association with Building 700, although reuse during the Umayyad period is also likely. History of Excavation Before excavation began in Field D, the history of settlement at Tall Jawa was only known through the results of surface survey. Ceramic material, gathered by Boling (1989:144), had identified only a few sherds with Byzantine characteristics and one Umayyad sherd. Due to its preservation above ground level, it was assumed that the Field D building (B700) was a later structure even though the date of its construction and use was yet to be determined. Thus, excavation began in 199172 to determine the association of the known Iron Age remains with this later structure. Excavation continued each season until it was ascertained in 1995 that Building 700 was first constructed and occupied in the Iron Age (Stratum VII), and then later rebuilt in the late Byzantine-early Islamic period (Stratum III, B600, Daviau and Tempest, in preparation). This evidence was revealed in deep probes beneath Rooms 601, 602, 604, and 609, where undisturbed Iron Age collapse was sealed beneath the Umayyad floors of the upper storey rooms.73 Building Plan (Fig. 8.16) Rooms At least five ground floor rooms (R714, 716, 712, 713, 715), one Corridor 717, an possible entryway (R718), and the space of Stratum III 72 At least ten collapsed buildings are preserved above ground level on the north and east sides of Tall Jawa, indicating a considerable settlement during the Umayyad period. Of these structures, only Building 700 was within the area owned by Mr. Hamad Talafieh and available for excavation by the Tall Jawa Project. 73 The size of Building 700 is ca. 12.20 16.00 m; the east end was extended when × the structure was rebuilt in the Umayyad period.
Figure 8.16. Building 700 in Field D.
Rooms 607 = R707 and R606 = R706 were probably in use during the Iron Age. The presence of one free standing staircase (D23:43), similar in all respects to Staircase C27:43 in Building 800, is firm evidence that there had been upper storey rooms as well. While the arrangement of these rooms may have duplicated that on the ground floor, this cannot be tested or assumed, due to the extensive remodelling during the Umayyad period. Iron Age floor levels were reached on the west in Rooms 714 (below Room 609), and R716 (below Room 608), on the south in Rooms 712 (only below Room 602) and R713 (below Room 604), and on the east in R715 (below Room 605). These ground floor rooms were securely dated by the discovery of in situ Iron Age pottery immediately above the floors.74 These finds were sealed by debris layers consisting of soil and medium to large (0.50–1.00 m) 74 Rooms 706 and R707 were reused during the Umayyad period and all of the Iron Age remains were removed. In Rooms 716 and 715, the Iron Age materials were contaminated by Umayyad pottery and glass during reconstruction and repair of certain walls and of Staircase D23:43.
field boulders deposited in such a way as to indicate massive collapse. This collapsed material contained Iron Age pottery, including sherds of well-known late Iron II wares (see below), along with numerous ground stone tools.75 Table 8AA. Room Size and Proportion in Building 700 Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
606/706 707 712 713 714 715 716 717 718
3.30* 4.50* 2.85 3.10 1.80* 2.00 3.70 1.60 0.90
3.50 4.70 6.80 5.30 3.50 3.30* 4.00 6.20 3.10
.94* .95* .42 .58 .51 .60* .92 .25 .29
7002, 7003, 6010, 6018 7003, 6018, 6015, 7020 7019 = 24, 7023, 7026, 7031 7024, 7025, 7026, 7028 7017, 7029, 7019, 7031 ?, 7010, 7024, 6027 7017, 7021, 7030, 7031 7015, 7027, 7024, 7029 7023, 7024, 7026, 7028
* Room size in doubt due to reuse in Stratum III. Range of sizes (omitting Room 717) Width Length
1.80 → 4.50 3.10 → 6.80
average – 3.03 m average – 4.27 m
(omitting Rooms 712, 717) Length
3.10 → 5.30
average – 3.91 m
Due to limited excavation under upper-storey Umayyad rooms (R601– 605, 609), the full dimensions of certain Iron Age ground floor rooms could not be ascertained,76 for example Corridor 617/717 whose use during the Iron Age has not yet been established, and Room 714 where a probe only tested the debris layers along the west side of the room. In certain rooms the Stratum III builders removed almost all evidence of Iron Age construction, for example in Room 606 where the walls and 75 The presence of late Iron Age II wares strongly suggests that the original Iron Age structure was contemporary with Buildings 800 and B900 (in Field C-east, immediately south of Building 600). This is seen especially in the ceramic fabric of vessels V701, a finely levigated clay with pink surface decorated with black painted bands that is comparable to V901, and of a group of oblong juglets (V702, 703) that are identical to those in Building 800 (V861, 862; Daviau 2001: figs. 8, 7, respectively). 76 In spite of the limits of excavation in Building 700, the average dimensions are very close to those for Building 800; width = 3.03 m vs. 2.73 m and length = 4.44 m vs. 4.27 m.
floor represent the Umayyad period room; the location of the original Iron Age east wall appears to be marked only by Installation D33:28. This feature lines up well with Wall 7025, which marks the east end of Room 713 in the southeast corner of Building 700. Between these two rooms, evidence for an eastern outer wall was not uncovered in Room 715, because excavation ended just west of that line. At that point, there was a stone pier which may have been built up against the outer east wall; however, it was not excavated and remains covered by an Umayyad period flagstone floor. Another area of uncertainty is the original layout and size of the main hall or court (R707) during the Iron Age. The southern corridor (R717) may have been an Umayyad period construction to support an upper storey walkway that would facilitate entry to Rooms 609 and R605, if part of Room 607 were unroofed. This corridor may not have been in existence during the Iron Age, with the result that the earlier room (R707) would have had a total length of 6.80 m. This length would have put the central hall in the same class as Room 712, and Central Hall 804 in Building 800. Both the northeastern and northwestern rooms (R706, R716, R714) are almost square whereas the remaining rooms are rectangular. Along the south side of the building, Rooms 712 and R713 + 718 appear to be more than 6.00 m in length. While this is longer than the average length of rooms in Building 800, the evidence for these dimensions was clear at those points where probes revealed upper storey Umayyad period walls firmly footed in the upper layers of Iron Age collapse, rather than above lower storey walls. So too for Room 712, where the known length cannot be checked; it is possible that there was a pier against the outer south wall dividing this room in two, comparable to the one between Rooms 811 and R812 in Building 800. Doorways Only five interior doorways (A–D) in use during the final Iron Age occupation could be identified with certainty in Building 700. One of these (A) is located in the same place as a later Stratum III Doorway (AA), which made use of the Iron Age lintel, thus retaining the original Iron Age dimensions. The same system of reuse may have been employed for Doorway B, although that is less certain. Doorway C is situated at the north end of Wall 7028 and leads into a narrow corridor (R718), whose precise function could not be determined. Although this space would be adequate for an entryway from the outside, no firm
evidence for this interpretation was recovered nor was the position of a major ground floor entrance into this building located elsewhere. Doorway E, like Doorways A and B, is flanked on one side by the outer wall and leads into twin rooms (R714, R716). Other possible doorways were blocked up or were obscured by the later reorganization of the building. Table 8BB. Location and Width of Doorways Doorway
Room
Width (m)
A B C D E
716, Stairway D23:43 Stairway D23:43, 707 718, 713 712, 718 714, 716
0.90 1.36 0.80 0.95 0.85
Average width = 0.875 m (not including Doorway B).
Lintels Only here, in Building 700, were lintels found in situ over Doorways A, D and E. In each case, the lintel consists of a very large (1.00–1.55 m long) limestone boulder that was supported by a boulder-and-chink wall at one and, on its other end, by a stacked-boulder doorjamb or the end of a wall. Also in two cases (A and D), the wall supporting the south end of the lintel continues the line of the lintel itself, while the wall supporting the north end ran perpendicular. The bottom of lintel D23:41 over Doorway A is positioned 1.76 m above the bedrock surface and threshold stones, while that of Doorway E (Lintel D13:13) is 1.80 m above the floor, and in Doorway D the lintel (D12:34) stands at 2.07 m.77 Walls Wall thicknesses represent the width of the uppermost courses, many rebuilt during the Umayyad period. Excavation outside the walls revealed the original width and wall line, which was utilized by the Umayyad builders in 90 % of the cases. 77 Examples of well preserved lintels are known for the late Iron Age from Balu‘, where five doorways still have lintels in place (Worschech 1995:147; fig. 5). By contrast, these lintels are only 1.20–1.40 m above floor level. At Khirbat al-Mudayna al-#Aliya, lintels are as much as 2.00 m in length and consist of large stone slabs, positioned on walls and on pillars at a height of 1.40–1.70 m high (Routledge 2000: 50). Closer in design to B700 is the Late Bronze Age lintel at Tel Hadar, which is in place 1.70 m high (Kochavi 1994:138; fig. 3).
The major Iron Age walls of Building 700 were W7030 on the north, W7031 on the west, W7026 on the south and W7025 on the east. Although it is clear that East Wall 7025 bonds with South Wall 7026, it is less certain that it was in fact the exterior east wall of the original building, since the area further east remains unexcavated. While the Umayyad inhabitants repaired the exterior, south wall (W7026) of the building and a second, interior east-west wall (W7024) that runs parallel to it (as Walls 6005 and W6014 respectively), they did not reuse the east Wall (W7025) of the Iron Age structure, but built a new wall (W6002) 1.50 m further east. The foundation of Wall 6002 was not exposed during excavation and its history can only be surmised.78 Table 8CC. Wall Thickness in centimetres Wall
50
7010 7011 7017 7019 7020 7021 7023 7024 7025 7026/6005 7028 7029 7030/6003 7031/6004
55
60
65
70
75
80
90
?
? ×
×
100
? 115 ×+ ×+ × ×+
×+ × × ×
The Iron Age walls were constructed in boulder-and-chink style, comparable to other late Iron Age II buildings at Tall Jawa. The main wall stones are medium (0.50–0.75 m) to large (0.75–1.00 m) size boulders, laid in rough courses in either two or three rows. Wall stones are predominantly of limestone, although a certain amount of chert (20–30 % on average) was used. The major walls that serve as exterior walls or main support walls for upper storey rooms are in the range of 0.85– 1.00 m thick, and many such walls remain standing 2.00–3.00 m high. The thickness of interior walls was more difficult to determine since many of these had been strengthened or rebuilt by the Umayyad inhab78
The west face of Wall 6002 was only exposed full height in Room 606.
itants. One such example is Wall 7019, between Rooms 712 and 714; this wall is 1.20 m thick, the heaviest interior wall in this structure. Wall 7019 continues east as Wall 7024, which was ca. 0.90 m thick, comparable to interior walls in B800. The support walls for Staircase D23:43 (W7020, W7021) are 0.70–0.75 m thick, again comparable to those of Staircase C27:43 in Room 804 of Building 800. Staircase As in Building 800, the presence of a stone built staircase (D23:43) off the central hall (R707) provides clear evidence for a second storey in Building 700. In this case also, the staircase is situated between two parallel walls, W7020 and W7021, each formed of large (ca. 0.85 m) boulders. The individual steps are supported on either side by these free-standing stone support walls, rather than built into one of the outer walls of the building, as was the case at Hazor in Area B on the Citadel (Yadin 1960: pl. CCV), and at Tell en-Nas.beh (McCown 1947: fig. 43). Seven individual steps are preserved in place; these range in width from 0.80–0.89 m and are 0.30–0.45 m in depth. The bottom step, as well as the support walls (W7020, W7021), are founded on bedrock. This staircase, the orthogonal plan of Building 700, and the use of construction techniques and materials comparable to Building 800, show the use of a known building plan. Stratigraphy Building 700 appears to have been constructed, used and destroyed in Stratum VII at the same time as Building 800. Because of the history of reoccupation as well as the complexities of excavation, only one Stratum VII phase could be identified. Table 8DD. Strata for Field D STRATA
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI VIIA VIIB VIII
1 pottery only 2 3 no remains no remains 4 undetermined pottery only
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Late Iron II Middle Iron II
Figure 8.17. Building 700 with relevant locus numbers.
STRATA
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
IX X
pottery only pottery only
Middle Iron II Iron I
STRATUM VII Building 700 was first built and occupied during Stratum VII. In spite of considerable Umayyad period reconstruction, sufficient evidence is available to designate four ground floor rooms containing original Iron age remains as undisturbed Stratum VII occupation; R714 on the west side, R712, 718 and R713 on the south. Staircase D23:43 also appears to be an original feature of the Iron Age building. On either side of the stairway was a doorway, one (B) leading east into Central Hall 707 and the second (A) leading into Room 716. Two other doorways (C, D) linking Room 712, Corridor 718 and Room 713 appear to be the only direct connection between rooms in the southeast section of the Iron Age structure. The doorway (F) between eastern Room 715 and
Figure 8.18. View of Wall 7031 in Room 714 below W6004, with Lintel D13:13 and later Umayyad Wall 6016 (D13:8).
Room 707 was blocked in antiquity. In the following discussion, we will present first the evidence for rooms with undisturbed Iron Age remains (R714, 713, 712) and secondly, that for rooms with considerable remodelling (R715, 707, 716) during Stratum III.79 Rooms with Undisturbed Stratum VII Occupation (Fig. 8.17) The Stratum VII rooms along the west and south sides of Building 700 are located on the ground floor level and are sealed by upper storey rooms of Stratum III; Room 714 under R609, Room 712 under Rooms 601and R602, Rooms 713 and R718 under Rooms 603 and R604. For the most part, the Iron Age collapse was left in place and the Stratum III builders footed their upper storey walls on this foundation. 79 The area between Walls 7024 and W7015 ( = 6015) was filled with collapsed wall stones and was capped with Stratum III ceiling slabs. In the midst of the collapse was a tomb. The use of this corridor during the Iron Age cannot now be established, and will be discussed with the Stratum III occupation of Building 600 (Daviau and Tempest, in preparation); the skeletal report has been prepared by M. Judd.
Figure 8.19. Probe in Room 714, looking north; Lintel D13:13 over Doorway E is on the left.
This practice contaminated the uppermost debris layers in these rooms, but left the collapsed remains of the ground floor Iron Age occupation in place. Due to the depth of accumulated collapse, the Iron Age floors were only reached in narrow probes into Rooms 714, 712, and 713. Room 714 (Figs. 8.17–19) The middle room (R714) on the west side of Building 700 yielded evidence for undisturbed Iron Age occupation sealed beneath a Stratum III upper storey room (R609). The outer west Wall (W7031) that extends the entire width of the building is footed on bedrock and remains standing ca. 2.07 m.80 The south wall (W7019) of Room 714, clearly in use during the Iron Age, appears to abut the outer wall (W7031), except at the lowest course, where the two walls were linked by a large rectangular stone (D13:64) that extends into the room on an angle.81 This major wall (W7019) was exceptionally thick (1.20 m) at 80 The entire wall face was seen in a deep probe (Table 8EE). The courses that were above the 2.00 m level had been rebuilt in Stratum III (W6004) to stabilize the stones above Lintel D13:13, which was reused as the frame of a later installation. 81 This same construction technique is seen in Room 906 where a large boulder
the point where it separates Room 714 from Room 712 to the south. This thickness suggests strengthening of the wall during the Iron Age since this same thickness was not noted further east, where Wall 7019 (as W7024) forms the north wall of Rooms 712 and R713. At a distance of 3.50 m east of outer west Wall 7031, Wall 7019 = W7024 meets and bonds with Wall 7029, which runs north forming the eastern perimeter of Room 714. Both walls consist of small and medium boulders in boulder-and-chink construction. Within Room 714, W7019 was damaged, probably at the end of Stratum VII, with the result that the northern row of boulders stands only 7 courses (2.35 m) high, while the southern row is preserved in places to 10 courses (3.20 m).82 So too, Wall 7029 is poorly preserved, retaining evidence that it suffered severe collapse at its north end, near its meeting with Wall 7017.83 In Room 714, eastern Wall 7029 was only exposed in its uppermost courses, since the probe in this room left collapsed debris (D13:35, 37, 39, 41) in place in front of its west face. A similar situation applies to the north wall (W7017), which does not extend west as far as outer Wall 6004 and, as a result, was not present in the area of the deep probe. Instead, the probe exposed the fill in the doorway between Rooms 714 and R716 (Table 8EE).
links the south and west walls across the corner. 82 The north face of Wall 7019 was only exposed along the narrow end (0.65 m) of a deep probe against outer Wall 6004. 83 This collapse may mark the position of a doorway, although no doorjambs could be identified.
Table 8EE. Harris Matrix of Soil Layers in Probe into Iron Age Room 714
Room 714 was paved with a rough flagstone floor (D13:45) packed with heavy clay soil (D13:43) to fill gaps between the stones. In view of the absolute elevation (923.15 masl) of the flagstones, it is assumed that this floor was laid directly on bedrock although this was not exposed.84 At this level also, was flat-topped Slab D13:64, which probably served as a working surface since a saddle quern was lying against one side of the stone. Superimposed layers of beaten earth were stained brown, orange, and black and had the consistency of clay. This evidence of a living surface was supported by the presence of ground stone tools and smashed pottery within the uppermost surface layer (D13:41).85
84 A similar soil layer was found in Room 716 to the north, where the bedrock surface (D23:38) sloped toward the south. 85 As in previous chapters, the table of room contents presents only a partial list which includes the best examples of partially restored vessels and artefacts. In this case, the sample is even more limited because only a portion of the room was emptied.
Table 8FF. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 714 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
D13:41
jug 87 ceramic sherds mortar 2 grinders millstone quern
V708
wide neck
TJ 1585 TJ 1582, 1583 TJ 1586 TJ 1581
rectangular basalt upper loaf-shaped basalt
The finds in ground floor Room 714 were sealed by deep (1.10 m) layers (D13:35, 37, 39) of collapsed wall stones and ceiling material that included pockets or nari. In the midst of this collapse were Iron Age vessels, such as juglet V712 (D13:35) which has a typical Ammonite double disk base. While it seems apparent that these loci represent the destruction of the Iron Age II building and the remains of an upper storey room, the upper debris layers were somewhat contaminated with Umayyad pottery and glass; this Stratum-III material was probably introduced during reconstruction in the Umayyad period and with the reuse of Lintel D13:13. Rooms along the South Side Along the south side of Building 700 were two long rectangular spaces (R712, R713 + R718), each 3.10 × 6.80 m in size. Room 713 was distinguished from Room 712 by the presence of a second wall (W7028) at its west end that separated a small space (R718) from the main room. The original function of R718 was not determined during excavation. Room 712 (Fig. 8.17) Located in the southwest corner of Building 700, Room 712 is bounded on the west and south by outer Walls W7031 and W7026 respectively. A certain amount of evidence remains that shows internal stratigraphy within Room 712, as well as the imposition of overlying Stratum-III rooms (R601, R602). Elements within the upper courses of the outer walls, as well as installations built up against them in Stratum III,86 show the extent of Umayyad rebuilding. Of interest here is the evidence for original Stratum-VII construction, use and destruction that remains in place. 86 Two arch springers (D2:15, 16) in R601 and one in Room 602–603 (D12:22) are footed on Iron Age collapse and are in position against the outer walls.
North Wall 7024 extends the full length of Building 700 from west outer Wall 7031 to Wall 7025, which appears to have been the eastern outer Wall during Stratum VII. Although used as a foundation for a Stratum-III wall (W6013), the Iron Age wall could be identified in both the western (W7019) and eastern halves (7024) of Room 712. In the west, this interior boulder-and-chink Wall (7019) was built of 3 rows of limestone and chert stones. The 2–row construction of Wall 7024 is most apparent in a deep probe (D12) that exposed a section of its south face, just west of Doorway D that had its lintel still in situ. The north and east walls of Room 712 appear to have been footed on bedrock, since the rough cobblestone paving (12:33) which covers the bedrock seals up against both walls. Wall 7024 remains standing ca. 2.05 m below Stratum-III Wall 6013. The lintel of Doorway D consists of an extra large boulder (0.70 × 1.55×0.45 m thick), which runs perpendicular to Wall 7024. The north end of the lintel bonds with Wall 7024 and the south end is built into the north end of Wall 7023. Based on its construction techniques and the position of Lintel D12:34, Wall 7023 can be assigned to Stratum VII as an Iron Age wall that was not rebuilt in the Umayyad period. This wall marks the east end of Room 712 and remains in place in the midst of the collapse that fills Rooms 712 and R718. As a result, its building materials consisting of small to large boulders can be compared favourably with other boulder-and-chink walls of the late Iron Age II. At an absolute level of 922.99 masl, the Stratum VII builders installed a stone pavement (D12:33) and packed the crevices with clay-like soil (D12:31). In the superimposed soil and rockfall layers (D12:30, 29, 28) were mendable Iron Age vessels broken in the collapse that marked the end of Iron Age occupation.87 Table 8GG. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 712 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
D12:29
juglet + 12:30 3 grinders millstone bead iron
V702 95 ceramic sherds TJ 1799, 1800, 1804 TJ 1802 TJ 1817 TJ 1790
oblong basalt upper, loaf-shaped glass, fragment fragments
87 The small number of finds from these loci reflect the limited area (0.85 0.90 m) × of the probe at floor level.
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey In Room 712, there was very limited evidence in the superimposed debris layers (D2:22 = 12:24, 25) for upper storey activities during Stratum VII. Only a small number of typical ground stone tools and a bead can be assigned to the Iron Age. These soil and rockfall layers were separated from the ground floor material by Soil Layer D12:27, which had no reported artefacts, at least in the area of the probe. This layer may have been the remains of a collapsed ceiling since Loci D12:24 + 25, immediately above, did have artefacts and pieces of charcoal. Although additional debris layers (D12:21 and 23) were in place beneath the Stratum III floor, they was too contaminated with Umayyad pottery and small finds to be useful in understanding the range of activities in the Iron Age building. Table 8HH. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 712, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
D2:21–23 12:24–25
krater 367 ceramic sherds mortar pestle 3 grinders 3 millstones bead charcoal
V709 contaminated TJ 1762 TJ 1795 TJ 1760, 1763, 1778 TJ 1768, 1769, 1779 TJ 1756
interior smudged used as a grinder basalt upper, loaf-shaped carnelian
Room 718 (Fig. 8.20) East of Room 712 is a narrow space (R718) that runs north-south parallel to Wall 7023. This space (0.75–0.80 m) extends north from south Wall 7026 as far as Doorways C and D. Although the exact function of this area (R718) was not determined before the end of excavation, its position between two parallel walls suggests that it was either the location of a second staircase or of an entryway into Building 700. Using as a parallel Staircase A83:19 in Building 800 that was built between the short end walls of two rooms (R802 and R807), it would not be unlikely that there were steps leading up to a landing that turned and then followed the outer Wall (W7026), using it as a support for additional steps. The room arrangement and traffic patterns that would necessitate two staircases cannot now be determined in view of the later transformation of the original building. However, on the basis of excavation to floor level, one can assume that Wall 7024 was a major support wall that ran the full length of the building, effectively cutting off Rooms 712 and
Figure 8.20. Room 718 on left, with Doorway D on left and Doorway C at north end of Pier Wall 7028 (during excavation).
713 from the central hall.88 Access to these rooms through Doorways C and D appears to have been provided only by R718. Room 713 (Fig. 8.17) Doorway C leads east from Room 718 into a large (3.10 × 5.30 m) rectangular room (R713), which occupies the southeast corner of Building 700. To a certain extent, this characterization is based on the assumption that Wall 7025 not only marks the east end of the room but also of the building. This judgement is based on the fact that Wall 7025 bonds with outer South Wall 7026, even though it could not be ascertained whether both walls are footed on Bedrock D31:36; bedrock was only exposed below north Wall 7024, which also bonds with Wall 7025. The 88 This construction style is similar to that seen in Building 800, where Wall 8025 = 8030 separated the northern unit of rooms from Central Hall 804.
Iron Age walls are of boulder-and-chink construction and consist of 40 % small (0.25–0.50 m) boulders, 30 % medium (0.50–0.75 m) boulders and 20 % large (0.79–1.00 m) boulders, while the interstices are filled with pebble size chink stones. Each wall is at least two rows (ca. 0.80–0.85 m thick), and remains standing 8 or 9 courses high forming the perimeter of the ground floor room. The original hard-packed earthen surface (D31:35) of Room 713 was located only in a probe (0.75 × 2.00 m in size) against the south face of Wall 7024. The continuation of this floor surface was not uncovered in the western half of Room 713, due to the presence of Umayyad Wall 6008 with it threshold stone in place at a higher level. The floor itself is ca. 0.10 m thick and is situated on bedrock (D31:36). The debris layer (D31:34) immediately above the floor contains collapsed wall stones and soil along with the pottery and objects in use on Floor D31:35. Prominent among the ceramic sherds are the remains of several mendable vessels including the largest krater in the entire ceramic corpus (V706; 0.42 cm interior diameter at the rim, 0.37 cm in height) and sherds of a second somewhat smaller krater, also with a folded inverted rim. Both vessels were smudged on the interior and had irregular ring burning. Table 8JJ. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 713 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
D31:34–35
cooking pot krater jug 186 ceramic sherds 2 pestles 2 millstone pin head(?) loom weight
V705 V706 V704
small extra large grainy ware
TJ 2009, 2015 TJ 2012, 2014 TJ 2027 TJ 2005
basalt upper loaf-shaped, pieces ivory unfired clay
Although the functional identification of this assemblage cannot be determined statistically because of the small number of artefacts and ceramic vessels, the finds do suggest food preparation and storage activities as the primary use of Room 713.
Figure 8.21. Pier Wall 7028 and fill in Doorway D.
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Within the next 0.90 m of collapsed wall stones and soil with nari inclusions (D31:33, 32, 31)89 was a group of 10 unfired clay loom weights in the shape of doughnuts (TJ 1929–1930, 1970–1976, 1978– 1981), the fragments of an additional 8 weights, and 1 upper loafshaped millstone (TJ 1997). These finds suggest that weaving was the primary function of the upper storey room or roof area that fell into Room 713 when the building was destroyed. The ceramic evidence within Room 713 indicates occupation only during late Iron Age II, as was the case with west Room 714. Excavation west of Umayyad Wall 6008 again encountered Iron Age destruction beneath the Stratum III floor. The western half of Room 713 extends 1.75 m beyond Wall 6008 and ends at Pier Wall 7028 (Fig. 8.21). Although only partially exposed, Wall 7028 is built of medium and small limestone and chert boulders in boulder-andchink construction and is keyed into the southern jamb (D21:24) of Doorway C. This doorjamb stands 0.80 m high, is the thickness of Wall 7028, and consists of medium and large semi-hewn boulders 89 Debris Layer D31:31 covered the entire area (2.20 2.80 m) between east Wall × 7025 and Wall (W6008) of upper storey Room 604.
(>0.90 m in length) in an irregular header and stretcher formation. The upper two courses of the doorjamb (or pier) are preserved above the height of Wall 7028, while the lower four courses bond with the wall. Although only the upper 1.80 m was exposed, it can be assumed that the base of Doorjamb D21:24 and Wall 7028 is footed on bedrock and that this feature originally stood ca. 2.00–2.35 m in height. The location of Doorjamb D21:24, 0.75–0.80 m south of Wall 7024, is comparable to that of the north end of Wall 7023 that supports the lintel above Doorway D. Unfortunately, no lintel was in place over Doorway C. The earliest debris layer (D21:29) uncovered within the west half of Room 71390 was a soil layer with a scatter of collapsed wall stones. Only collapsed debris layers (D21:27, 26, 23, 22, 20, 19) containing predominantly Iron Age sherds and an increasing amount of Umayyad pottery in the uppermost loci were excavated. The contamination of these upper layers is evidence of disturbance during construction of the Stratum III building. Table 8KK. Iron Age Pottery and Artefacts in Room 713, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
D21:27 D31:31
bowl 2 bowls krater amphoriskos juglet 862 ceramic sherds tang + rivet
V707 V713, 714 V710 V701 V703 contaminated TJ 2121
red slip, vertical rim black burnished smudged painted oblong
D21:26
iron, broken
The most characteristic late Iron Age II vessel types were black burnished bowls and oblong juglets with a high loop handle that were present in both Buildings 700 and 800.91 Another interesting artefact
90 In 1995, when all excavation was within the confines of Walls 7023, W7026, W6008 ( = a Stratum III wall left in place) and W7024, all loci were assigned to D21 even though the northern two-thirds of Room 713 was in D22. A balk through the room on the diagonal would have reduced the area available for excavation to an impractical size. 91 Two oblong juglets were recovered from the Iron Age collapse in Rooms 712 and 713 (V702, V703), while three identical juglets are from Building 800 (V860, V861, V862). Parallels appear at Meqabelein (Dornemann 1984: fig. 38:8) and fall into Dornemann’s Sequence II (late Iron Age II).
from the uppermost debris layers was an iron chisel (TJ 2054 + 2055 + 2083) with a slightly splayed end (Daviau 2002:99–100; fig. 2.56:1). Found along with Iron Age ceramic spindle whorls (TJ 2022, 2064) in a heavily mixed locus (D21:20) containing both Iron Age and Umayyad pottery, its allocation to the Stratum VII building remains tentative. Such an allocation would suggest that these finds were in use on the upper storey and remained in the collapsed debris that was in place when the early Islamic period builders refashioned the south side of Building 700. In support of this Iron Age dating is the condition of the iron itself, and a close parallel from Tall as-Sa#idiyya assigned to Iron Age Stratum VI (Pritchard 1985: fig. 8:23). Evidence for Iron Age Remains in the Remodelled Rooms of B700 Room 715 North of Wall 7024, the middle room (Room 715) along the east side of Building 700 is positioned between Room 713 and Stratum-III Room 606 in the northeast corner. Evidence for both Iron Age occupation and Umayyad reuse of this room (R605) was present, although disturbance of the earlier remains renders functional analysis of the Stratum VII room impossible. Rebuilding of walls, blocking of doorways, and removal of Iron Age collapse altered the archaeological record. This was especially true in regard to east-west Wall 7010, which forms the north wall of Room 715, and was later overlaid by Wall 6001. A probe to determine whether Iron Age Wall 7010 was founded on Bedrock D32:51, as was Wall 7024, had to be abandoned due to the narrow space between Wall 7010 and Pier D32:48 that occupies the middle of the room. Even less certain is the history of the wall that forms the eastern end of Room 715, since Umayyad rebuilding altered the position of the outer east wall so that Room 605 extends as far as Wall 6002. In addition, the presence of an Umayyad flagstone pavement (D32:38), left in place above underlying debris layers, obscured the eastern wall line with the result that only a limited area of Room 715 could be exposed. The west end is bounded by Wall W7011, which runs underneath Wall 6008 and bonds with Wall 7024 of Room 713 on the south. Umayyad construction of a staircase and wall (W6027) above the remains of Wall 7011 contaminated the evidence, although the Stratum-VII wall appears to end before reaching north Wall 7010. Due to the presence of a Stratum-III blocking wall to support the stairs, the Stratum-VII doorway could not be fully exposed. In its original
condition, Room 715 measured ca. 2.20 × 1.80 m, dimensions which would make it one of the smallest rooms exposed in a Stratum VII building.92 Bedrock D32:51 was exposed at the base of the north face of Wall 7024 and the east face of Wall 7011. There is very little difference in the absolute elevation of bedrock in Rooms 715 and R713 (922.91 and 922.84 masl, respectively); this allowed for the sure footing of both interior and exterior walls, and for stone Pier D32:48.93 A limestone basin (D32:50) cut from a single block of stone was in place above beaten earth floor (D32:49), which is immediately above bedrock. This basin measured ca. 0.62 × 0.48–0.50, × 0.40 m high with an interior depth of 0.20–0.25 m. Its position in Room 715 gives no clue to its original function, although it may have had an industrial use (see Chapter 10). A similar situation applies to other finds immediately above the floor, such as a basalt grinder (TJ 984) and a pumice stone (TJ 926). In the lowest levels of Debris Layer D32:47, late Iron Age II pottery was dominant. Room 707 The evidence for the Iron Age construction and use of the central hall is even more meagre than for Room 715. Here, the Stratum III builders cleared away the Stratum VII features and, with the exception of Staircase D23:43, built new walls (W6015, W6018), repaired old ones (W7030 = 6003), and laid a mosaic floor (D23:4) covering most of the bedrock in the central part of Building 700. Only on the north, between Staircase D23:43 and Statrum-III Doorway FF, is there an area of exposed bedrock. In the centre, there is a small sump or small cistern, with several drain holes located on the south and east to channel water into the drain. This feature was certainly part of the Umayyad structure, but it may also have been an integral element in the Iron Age II house as well. This would provide evidence for a central court, or impluvium, comparable to the room arrangement in Late Bronze Age House A at Ugarit, where the open central court was adjacent to the staircase and was a source of light and air circulation.94 On the 92 If this room were located in a corner of the building, it would be tempting to suggest that R715 served as an entryway. It compares in size with Entryway 805 (1.20 × 3.20m), Room 811 (1.85–2.85m), and R904 (1.60 × 3.60 m). 93 In the Umayyad period, a support wall ran west from Pier D32:48 in order to stabilize the debris under the upper storey Umayyad room (R605). 94 Court 10 in House A is almost square (3.50 3.90 m), somewhat smaller but ×
Figure 8.22. Limestone basin below floor in Room 707.
east side of the court there is a deep well that collected water which was channelled through grooved stone baseboards lining the walls on either side (Callot 1983:31, 45; photo 12–13; fig. 27). The only other evidence for Iron Age use of this part of the house was exposed in the centre of the room in a pit (D23:24; 1.61 × 2.03 m) under the mosaic floor (D23:4).95 This feature consists of a portion of a large limestone
similar in shape to R707 (4.50 × 4.70 m). Although an open room that would be a source of light, air and water was a common feature of palatial buildings at Bronze Age Aegean sites, houses of two-three stories at Akrotiri were constructed without a central court or light well (Treuil et al. 1989:222, 331). 95 When first excavated in 1993, the centre of mosaic floor D23:4 was worn and some tesserae were missing, although the underlying bedding plaster was intact. At the end of the excavation season, the floor was covered with mats and soil, and put under the protection of a guard. At the beginning of the 1994 season, it was evident that there had been a certain amount of vandalism over the winter. A large pit (D23:24) had been cut through the sub-floor leaving the native soil and floor makeup (D23:25) exposed.
Figure 8.23. Staircase D23:43; Doorway B is on the left and Doorway A with Lintel D23:41 in place is on the right.
boulder (ca. 0.68 × 1.23 m × 0.40 m thick) with an off-centre depression (0.22 × 0.68 m × ca. 0.18 m in depth; Fig. 8.22). This feature, apparently broken in antiquity, had certainly been buried before the Stratum III floor was laid and had probably been part of the Stratum VII building. On the west side of Central Hall 707, the eastern support wall (W7020) of Staircase D23:43 forms the southern jamb of Doorway B. Remodelled in Stratum III when an arch support was built against its eastern face, the north end of Iron Age Wall 7020 appears to be slightly out of alignment with the south end. A second anomaly is the distance of Wall 7020 from North Wall 6003; at 1.36 m this doorway (B) is wider than any in Building 800, with the exception of the opening between Rooms 811 and R812, where Pier C84:6 constitutes one jamb of Doorway K. In spite of these anomalies, Wall 7020 appears to be an Iron Age construction, at least at its north end where it is formed of large hewn boulders in the typical header and stretcher style with individual boulders that span the full thickness of the wall. The course of stone that is level with the exposed surface of Bedrock D23:38 is in position
Figure 8.24. Looking east in Room 716 at Wall 7021 and Doorway A into Room 707.
above a lower stone course that was set into a depression/foundation trench in the bedrock. The continuation of this depression, immediately north of Wall 7020, was then filled in to the level of the bedrock surface (923.41 masl) with limestone slabs and half of a perforated stone (D23:37). The west edge of this fill seals against the east side of the lowest step in Staircase D23:43 that extends north beyond the end of Wall 7020.96 The rectangular stones used to form the steps of the staircase are in the same size range as those in Building 800, 0.70–0.90 m long (Fig. 8.23). These stones are stabilized by chink stones, while small cobble size stones fill up the remaining space between the step and the parallel support walls, especially for Steps 1, 2, 4, 6. The depth of each step is in the range of 0.09–0.39 m for a minimum diagonal length of 2.61 m. Seven steps are firmly in place, each with an average rise of
96 Due to the reuse of the staircase in Stratum III, Debris Layers D23:35, 26 above Bedrock D23:38 and Fill D23:37 were contaminated with pottery from both major periods of occupation.
0.20 m,97 for a total height of 1.63 m. An eighth step, which would have given the staircase a maximum height of ca. 1.88–1.90 m, was dislodged and rested on the fill just south of Step 7. Whether this point marks a landing where the staircase turned west over the south end of support Wall 7021 cannot now be ascertained due to the position of Umayyad ceiling slabs in upper storey Room 608. Both Iron Age and Umayyad pottery and lamp fragments were found on the stairs, clear evidence of reuse during Stratum III. As well, Umayyad pottery under the uppermost step suggests remodelling during Stratum III. Room 716 (Fig. 8.24) The western support wall (W7021) of Staircase D23:43 forms the south jamb of Doorway A and the east wall of Room 716. Similar to the north end of Wall 7020, the end of Wall 7021 is built of large, dressed boulders that span the thickness of the wall itself. On the other hand, Wall 7021 extends the full length of the steps (2.25 m), blocking a view of the lowest step from Room 716. Doorway A is 0.82–0.87 m wide and is marked by a threshold (D23:47) formed of two stone slabs laid on Bedrock D23:38. At the top of Wall 7021 is Lintel D23:41, which spans Doorway A and is keyed into north Wall 7030. Due to extensive rebuilding in Stratum III of the upper courses of this outer wall (as W6003), it cannot now be determined whether or not Lintel D23:41 was in the position it had during Stratum VII.98 Bedrock (D13:54) was also used as the floor surface in Room 716, where it served on the north as the footing for outer Wall 7030. As it dipped to the south, the surface was levelled with a mixture of terra rossa soil and medium size cobbles (D13:57) to maintain an elevation of approximately 923.29 masl. This soil layer extends south along the west face of Wall 7029, an Iron Age wall that extends to the south the line of staircase support Wall 7021. Unfortunately, the north end of Wall 7029 was badly damaged in the final collapse of the building and it association with Wall 7021 can only be seen in the lower courses where the two walls bond. The upper courses had collapsed throwing the wall 97 The range in height of the rise from one step to another is 0.09–0.39 m, very close to the variation seen at Tell en-Nas.beh (0.09–0.31 m; McCown 1947:213, n. 20). 98 Because it is somewhat lower in relation to the bedrock than is the lintel over Doorway D, one suspects that the Stratum III builders re-established the lintel in relation to the position of stone ceiling slabs which they installed over the debris in Room 716. The lintel was then bonded with the upper courses of outer Wall 6003, which shows evidence of extensive Umayyad construction.
out of alignment, however, it is clear that Wall 7029 was not linked to the Umayyad rebuild of Wall 7021. In the middle of Room 716 is a stacked-boulder pier (D13:62) that serves to support the Stratum III ceiling. Although its construction techniques appear similar to other piers from the Iron Age, suggesting that this was one of the original features of Building 700, it should be noted that the limestone boulders are less regularly dressed and not as well supported by chink stones as are the stones of Piers A84:6 and D21:24. Pier D13:62 consists of four large boulders that are laid the full thickness (0.90 m) of the pier. Preserved four courses high, it stands 1.68 m tall, close in height to the bottom of Lintel D23:41 (924.92 vs 925.00 masl). The obvious function of Pier D13:62 as a ceiling support, comparable to Pier D32:48, makes it difficult to ascertain its initial construction phase, since it was a construction technique used by the Stratum-III builders as well. Pottery and artefacts from the debris layers (D13:53, 55, 56) above the floor do not clarify the occupation history of Room 716, since each sample contained Iron Age II pottery and Umayyad sherds and roof tiles. Like the architectural elements, the finds were mixed and included animal bones, especially canid, suggesting that over the centuries carcasses were deposited in the ruined building. Cistern D15:2 (Fig. 8.25) Outside the northwest corner of Building 700 is a bell-shaped Cistern (D15:2) cut into the bedrock.99 Similar to Cistern E64:13, the cistern was covered by large boulders and the upper 1.50 m wall of the mouth and neck is formed of five courses of large chert boulders. Below the level of the boulders, the cylindrical bedrock neck continues for an additional 0.80 m. At this point, the wall of the cistern flares out to form an oval bell, 4.43 m wide on the east-west axis, 5.00 m long on the north-south axis, with a minimum depth of 5.00 m.100 The wall was plastered up to 3.10 m below the mouth; the plaster itself was 0.02– 0.03 m thick at points where it could still be measured; it was in fairly good condition, flaking off only at the upper edge. On the surface of 99 The mouth of the cistern is located in Square D6, but its interior extends under Squares D5 and D15. Battenfield first entered Cistern D15:2 in 1992 to document its size, shape and features. Due to presence of a mortar shell, these tasks were completed only in 1994. 100 The bottom of the cistern was covered by the base of the soil cone and by water, making it impossible to take true measurements of the maximum depth.
Figure 8.25. Cistern D15:2, north of Building 700; drawn by J. R. Battenfield.
the plaster were stain lines that indicate the level of water retained in the cistern at various times in the past. Because of the presence of the plaster, tooling marks on the bedrock wall of the cistern itself were not visible. A second feature that this cistern has in common with the Iron Age cistern in Field E is a bedrock ledge or bench left in place just above
floor level. This bench ran 3.70 m around the southern wall of Cistern D15:2 and was at the level of the water remaining in the cistern in June 1994.101 The centre of the cistern was covered by a cone of soil and fallen stones, which had accumulated since it was last cleaned out in modern times.102 The construction and original use of Cistern D15:2 was most probably during the Iron Age. This suggestion is based on the numerous features that this cistern shares with Cistern E64:13 from Stratum VIII (Chapter 7), and on the large amount (1249 sherds) of Iron Age pottery in the dump (D14:1) that represents the contents of the Cistern D15:2.103 Typical late Iron Age II forms are represented by V711, a hole mouth krater with smudged interior, and by V715, a hole mouth pithos. Because there is Stratum-VII occupation present in the eastern half of Field C, the discussion of chronology (Chapter 12) will follow the description of the domestic and industrial buildings in C-east (Chapter 9).
101 In 1994, the ledge around the south edge of the cistern could be identified and drawn because the water level was considerably lower than in 1992. 102 Cistern D15:1 was cleaned by the relatives of the current owner, personal communication by H. Talafieh. 103 The only portion of Dump D14:1 excavated in 1994 was the accumulation against the outer walls (W6003, W6004). Thus the sherd corpus is only a sample of the contents. The sherds themselves were predominantly Iron Age, although the dump was contaminated by later pottery due both to its origin and to its vulnerable position on the surface.
FIELD C-EAST: GATE BUILDING AND DOMESTIC QUARTER (1992–1995)
Introduction The eastern half of the southern terrace, in Squares C46–C86 on the north and Squares C43–C73 on the south, covers an area ca. 24.00 × 24.00 m in size. Along the south crest of the terrace, Outer Wall 9000 runs east-west, below which the mound slopes steeply (18o). To the north of Wall 9000, one heavy walled structure (B910) and a second building consisting of a series of rooms with domestic assemblages characterize the Stratum-VII remains. The system of defensive walls surrounding these buildings (Chapter 5) appear to be related to the Stratum-VIII casemate wall that resumes its trajectory around the town in Squares C86–C96, adjacent to the northeast corner of Building 910. Excavation of the eastern rooms in Building 910 was restricted by a modern wall line (W9043) running north-south in Squares C81–C86; this wall marks the western edge of a modern cemetery. History of Excavation (Fig. 9.1) Excavation in Field C-east began in 1992 with a north-south trench (C61–C64) along the west face of Wall 9010 that extended north as far as the south wall (W9018) of Building 910. In 1993, expansion to the north enabled us to sample both the principal east-west wall (W9000; C43–C63) on the crest of the slope, and to identify structures visible at ground level adjacent to the fortification wall. Several rooms (R901, R902, R904), each one containing an assemblage of food preparation tools and representative pottery, were exposed in Building 900. The excavations in Field C-east during the 1994 season continued work begun during 1992 in the original north-south trench in order to clarify the connection between the defensive walls and Building 910, a structure that resembles a gate complex. The terrace itself seems to be the most likely location for a city gate, since no other break in the
Figure 9.1. Excavation Grid in Field C-east (C41–C91/C47–C97).
fortification system of comparable size is apparent anywhere else on the tell. Since this building appeared to have two phases of use (B910 and B905), both within Stratum VII, additional work was undertaken here during the final season (1995), even though the modern property wall was not moved from its position over the eastern line of rooms. The end of excavation at Tall Jawa came before the stratigraphic links
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between the buildings in C-east and Building 800 in C-west could be established. So too, the extent and plan of the domestic area remains only partially understood, although the ceramic finds provide firm links between these rooms and both Stratum-VII houses (B800, B700). BUILDING 910–905 On the east side of Field C, adjacent to the modern cemetery, is the most heavily walled building on the southern terrace. This structure (B910) could only be exposed west of the modern property wall that runs north to the point where the casemate wall resumes its circumvallation east and then north around the tell. Although the southern wall (W9018) of Building 910 was first cleared in 1992 (Daviau 1994: fig. 5), it was not until 1994 that excavation began in Squares C65–C66 to the north (Daviau 1996:93). Building Plan (Fig. 9.2) Structure 910–905 has a tripartite plan with three rows of rooms running north-south. At the northeast corner, a single room (R912) of the eastern row, located at the point where the modern wall (W4043) ends, could be partially excavated. The western and central rows show evidence of extensive rebuilding, indicating a change of function following Stratum VIIB. The original plan is somewhat obscured by the addition of cross walls in the central row, by the blocking of certain doorways, and the creation of new ones. The features constructed in the final use phase (VIIA, B905) radically changed the traffic patterns throughout the building. This transformation may be associated with changes in the political and military situation in Ammon that reduced the need for the heavy defences in use during Strata VIIIB–VIIB. Assuming a regular plan, the overall size of Building 910 is 12.50 m long × 15.75 m wide, not including the foundations for what appear to be small towers (T9020, T9036) or bastions. With these features included, the total length would be 15.50 m, almost a complete square. The middle row, probably the location of the central roadway (R915), measures 4.50 m in width, while the side rooms in the western row are ca. 3.00 wide.
Figure 9.2. Plan of Building 910, Field C-east.
Rooms Altogether, seven rooms of Stratum VIIA were identified along with certain features of Stratum VIIB. Since the major walls did not undergo any significant changes, the size of each room in Stratum VIIA will be presented here; the Stratum-VIIB central roadway will be discussed separately.
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Table 9A. Room Size and Proportion (B905, B910) Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 916 917
2.50 3.00 2.00 2.60 4.00 2.40 2.40 4.20 NA 2.50 3.00
2.50 3.50 2.95 4.10 4.50 4.60 3.60 4.25 + NA 2.50 6.00
1.00 .85 .67 .63 .88 .52 .66 .98 NA 1.00 .50
9019, 9025, 9027, 9022 9019, 9022, 9021, 9023 9018, 9019, 9023, 9021 9024, 9026, 9027, 9028, 9035 9021, 9024, 9028, 9029, 9031, 9032, 9030 9021, 9030, 9032, 9036, 9037, 9038 9031, 9033, 9034, 9040 9036, 9037, 9038, 9042 9018, 9019, 9020 9022, 9019, 9025, 9024 9018, 9019, 9022, 9021
Range of sizes (Stratum VIIA, omitting Rooms 914, 916, 917) Width 2.40 →4.20 average – 2.88 m Length 2.50 →4.60 average – 3.75 m
Doorways During Stratum VII, certain doorways were in use during both phases of occupation, while others were clearly blocked up, and new doorways built between flanking walls. All recognizable entrances are classed as doorways and studied in terms of their size and function. For the most part, access from one room to another is through an entrance between the ends of two wall units. In only two cases (Doorways A and H) is access gained through a doorway located between the end of one wall and the face of a perpendicular wall. Table 9B. Location and Width of Doorways Doorway
Room
Width (m)
E F G H J K L M N P Q
907, 908 907, 910 909, 910 906, 909 909, 912 910, -?– 910, 911 911, 913 906, 907 907, 915 912, 915
0.70 0.70 0.82 0.80 0.75 0.65 0.80 1.05 1.00 1.50 1.20
Range of narrow doorways Average width
- 0.65–0.82 m - 0.745 m
Range of wide doorways Average width
- 1.00–1.50 m - 1.187 m
Doorway E is the only instance where a doorway is framed by the end of a thin (0.30 m) partition wall (W9023) on one side. In all other cases, the doorways open through the full thickness of flanking walls or are framed by a wall and a wall stub, both of which are formed of two rows of medium and large boulders, with the result that the entryways are consistently 1.00–1.50 m deep. The best example of a blocked entrance is Doorway H, which leads from Room 906 into the central row of rooms (R909). The system of access to this room in Stratum VIIA was probably limited to Doorway N. Walls The Walls of Building 910 are formed of 2–3 rows of medium to very large boulders (>1.00 m long), and with few exceptions, are all in the range of 1.25–2.00 m thick. Such heavy walls exceed those in Building 800, in Field C-west, and point to a specialized function for this multistoried structure.1 The original (Stratum VIIB) plan of Building 910 probably consisted of the eastern and western row of rooms flanking a central roadway. Changes to the building (VIIA) are most clearly seen in the construction of cross walls that form three additional rooms (R909, R910, R911) in the central row. Access to these rooms is indirect through a series of Doorways (M, L, G) cut through the east-west cross walls, an unusual arrangement at Tall Jawa (see B300, B800 above). The narrowest wall (0.35–0.50 m) is Partition Wall 9023, which separates Rooms 907 and R908. This wall is clearly secondary and is associated with the domestic activities carried out in Room 907 (see below).
1 The walls of Building 910 are also thicker than the average size (0.90–1.10 m) of walls in the Citadel Building at Tall al-#Umayri (Lawlor 1991: figs. 3.3, 3.5). Closer in size (1.60 m thick) are the walls of the chambered gate at Hazor, although they appear to have been built of small size stones (Yadin et al. 1989:31; Plan VIII). The gate walls at Khirbat al-Mudayna are also 1.60 m thick, with stones ranging in size from small to large (0.75–1.00 m) boulders (Chadwick, Daviau and Steiner 2000:258; fig. 2).
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Table 9C. Wall Thickness in centimetres Wall 9018 9019 9020 9021 9022 9023 9024 9025 9026 9027 9028 9029 9030 9031 9032 9033 9034 9035 9036 9037 9038 9039 9040 9042
<50
75
100
125
150
×+
175 ×+
×+ ×
×
× ×+
×+ ×+ ×+
225
×+
×
×+ ×+
×+ ×?
200
×
×+ ×
×
×+ ×+ ×+ ×
Stratigraphy Like the situation in excavation areas on the west and north sides of the tell (Chapter 5), the defensive walls on the southeastern terrace date to various periods, all within the Iron Age. Pottery from the Field Ceast buildings dates as early as Iron Age I, but the architecture dates to Iron II, Stratum VIII at the earliest.2 As in all other areas excavated at Tall Jawa, a certain amount of material from the later Umayyad occupation is also present.3 The percentage of late material is higher here because of the proximity of Building 600 in Field D. 2 The association of Building 910 in Field C-east with the casemate wall system suggests the presence of a gate in this area in Stratum VIII. Unfortunately, there is no evidence for Stratum VIII occupation. All evidence of an earlier structure may have been removed in Stratum VIIB, when Building 910 was constructed on bedrock. 3 The south slope of Field C-east was the only area that yielded sherds dating to the early Roman period, including Nabataean painted pottery (C63.8.5). While these
Table 9D. Strata for the Buildings on the Southeastern Terrace STRATA
FIELD PHASE(S)
PERIOD
I II III IV V VI VIIA VIIB VIIIA VIIIB IX
1 2/burials pottery, features pottery? pottery no remains 3 4 5/repairs? 6/casemate wall 7/solid wall
modern post-Umayyad Umayyad Byzantine Roman Persian Late Iron II Late Iron II Middle Iron II Middle Iron II Early Iron II
STRATUM VIIB Gate Building 910 In Field C-east, the founding levels of the earliest walls in use in Building 910 were reached below Room 908, where West Wall 9019 is founded on bedrock. At the same time, the only evidence for occupation on the terrace earlier than Stratum VII also appears in Room 908, where soil layers below Stratum-VIIA floor levels yielded sherds of a collared-rim storejar (late Iron I-early Iron II).4 All other evidence for occupation dates this structure to late Iron Age II (Stratum VII). Although two phases of construction were preserved, the features of the earlier phase are somewhat obscured by later additions. Construction and Use of Building 910 The best preserved unit for understanding the Stratum VIIB construction of Building 910 is the western row of rooms where the outer walls could be exposed on both faces and their construction techniques studied. Two other areas where Stratum-VIIB features are clearly seen is in the composition of Roadway 915, both to the south of Building 910, and at the north end of the road itself, where it passes through the innermost entryway. sherds may be related to a child burial (C53) located slightly upslope, no finds in the grave itself allow for secure dating. 4 The probe under Flagstone Floor C65:21 was undertaken between seasons by local inhabitants; they left the pottery in situ.
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Figure 9.3. Construction of outer West Wall 9019 and South Wall 9018, showing diagonal linking stone (C65:38).
The Western Unit and Central Roadway (Fig. 9.2) The northern wall (W9025) of the western rooms (R906–R908) bonds with west Wall 9019, which gradually increases in width (1.60–1.80 m) toward its south end, ca. 16.00 m away. Both walls are constructed of medium, large and very large limestone and chert boulders, including several large chert slabs. West Wall 9019 extends beyond the southern limit of Stratum-VIIB Room 917 to flank a narrow L-shaped space (R914), possibly a staircase, inside Tower 9020. Two heavy cross walls (W9022, W9018), each 1.25 + m thick, meet and bond with Wall 9019 along its length. At the point where Walls 9019 and W9018 meet in the southwest corner, a boulder (C65:38) is set on the diagonal tying the walls together below floor level (Fig. 9.3). While not unknown from
other sites in Transjordan,5 this is one of only a small number of examples at Tall Jawa of this particular construction technique (cf. D13:64). Both Walls 9018 and W9019 extend below linking stone C65:38 and are footed on bedrock (C65:39). Against the south face of Wall 9018 is Tower 9020. This unit consists of a heavy stone foundation that is integrated into the southern extension of east Wall 9021. The southern edge of Tower 9020 extends west to Wall 9019, creating a structure that measures 3.45 m north-south and 6.00 m east-west, the full width of the west row of rooms. Against the south face of Tower 9020, at foundation level, there was an accumulation of cobbles (C64:14) packed with loose soil and patches of nari. The south face of these cobbles was battered, becoming ever thicker as the foundations became deeper. This construction technique, used to stabilize the tower, suggests that the bedrock (C65:39) on which Building 910 is founded begins to slope steeply to the south at this point. Along the west and north sides of the inner core of Tower 9020 is a narrow space (R914) which separates the tower from West Wall 9019. The space is 0.60 m wide on the west and 0.75 m wide along the north and contains cobbles, small boulders and nari pockets (C64:2). Although this space is comparable in width to Drain Channel 218 (0.80 m) through the southwest corner of the casemate wall system (Chapter 5), its shape suggests a different function, possibly that of a staircase to reach the upper stories of the tower. Modern road building activities along the crest of the terrace, and the severe erosion that followed, has removed all evidence of the superstructure. Additional evidence for construction of the major features associated with Building 910 consists of Wall 9039, which runs south from Tower 9020 to meet Solid Wall 9000, a major east-west wall protecting the terrace along the crest of the slope. Wall 9039 is inset from the eastern edge of Tower 9020, forming a bastion. It is here, immediately north of Wall 9000, that there is a large limestone door socket; its twin on the east side can be seen built into the modern wall (W9043).6
5 For this same construction technique, see the Iron Age architecture at Balu# (Worschech 1995:147; fig. 4; see below, Chapter 12). 6 This Socket Stone (C74:20), consisting of a very large boulder with a circular depression, is located at the western limit of Plaster Surface C74:17, apparently within Wall 9039. Due to its elevation (923:76 masl), this stone appears to have been reused in Wall 9039, so that its original position and possible use with the Stratum-VIIB gate complex cannot now be determined.
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Figure 9.4. Gate Building 910 with lower Bastion 9007.
The western unit consists of one broad-room chamber, Room 917 on the south, and a second, almost square, room (R916) on the north. Room 917 is the larger of the two, measuring 6.00 m from south Wall 9018 to Wall 9022, an interior wall that separates the two rooms. The entryway (Doorway P) into Room 917 from the central road was at least 1.50 m wide, although this arrangement is far different from the
chambered gates in Cisjordan where certain gates appear to have side chambers that are completely open to the road.7 Doorway H, between Room 916 and the central road, is 1.00 m wide, since Wall 9024 closes off 1.50 m of the room from the road. Nevertheless, these doorways control access to the chambers in the gate, indicating that the rooms functioned very differently from Israelite style gate rooms (Herzog 1992: Fig. 21). The only evidence for the Stratum VIIB surface in Room 917 was seen in a deep probe through the floor (C65:21) of Stratum-VIIA Room 908 in the southwest corner. Here a plastered surface (C65:37) represents the earlier floor. Because the full extent of this surface was not uncovered horizontally, finds that might indicate the activities carried out in Room 917 were not recovered. Central Roadway 915 (Fig. 9.4) In Stratum VIIB, there was a central access road (R915) into the town that ran between the east and west units of Gate Structure 910. Clear evidence for the secondary nature of the Stratum-VIIA rooms in the central unit can be seen in a series of east-west walls which all abut the inner, north-south walls of the eastern and western units (see below). This construction feature indicates that Walls 9021 and W9024 on the west and Walls 9031 and W9032 were originally the flanking walls for the central passage. The walls of the Building 910 remain standing 1.00 + m above the Stratum VIIA floors and exposed sections of the central roadway. Sections of stone pavement in Roadway 915 are preserved at the north end and in Entryway 913 in the south. At the north end where the road leads into the Iron Age settlement, a flagstone pavement (C76:16) is packed with firm soil and brick material. The flagstones were in the size range of medium to large boulders. This surface is present across the 4.00 + m width of the roadway between Doorways H and J and extends further north under Stratum-VIIA blocking Wall 9026. South of the flagstones, the make-up for the Stratum VIIA surface (C76:15) consists of hard-packed terra rossa and pebbles (C76:22). It is not clear whether this make-up had served originally as the Stratum VIIB road surface, although small areas of surfacing are present beneath Stratum-VIIA levels in Squares C75–C74. Evidence 7 Narrow walls, closing off the gate rooms from the central roadway, are the norm at Khirbat al-Mudayna in northern Moab, where each room had only a narrow (0.75– 0.80 m) doorway (Chadwick, Daviau and Steiner 2000:265–266; fig. 2).
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for the latest surface in Roadway 915 consists of a hard-packed surface (C75:27, 29) with the composition of cement, possibly containing terra rossa (see C76:22).8 Further south, in Entryway 913, the earliest Surface (C74:17) consists of a packed plaster layer that extends into Square C73. The degree of slope of the surface loci from the north end of Roadway 915 to the south end of Entryway 913 is ca. 6o from the horizontal for a drop of 1.10 m over a distance of 18.00 m. Beyond that point, the decline appears to level off before dropping rapidly down the south slope of the terrace along the west face of Wall 9010. The plan of Gate Building 910 has certain anomalies in comparison with contemporary chambered gate buildings in Cisjordan. Typically, a chambered gate is located inside the wall line with the outer wall attached to the outermost gate rooms on either side. At Tall Jawa, Wall 9000 forms the outer face of a bastion that forms the western perimeter of the central road. On the east, the pattern is different. Instead, the casemate wall system is linked to the eastern wall (W9033) of Room 912, and from that point it resumes its trajectory around the east end of the site. Because of the presence of a modern property wall (W9043), we can only assume that the building plan on the east is comparable to that on the west (Daviau 1996:93–94; fig. 9). This plan would then indicate an indirect entry gate complex with an approach road beginning in the east. The lower Bastion 9007 would then flank the road on the south and provide bent access to Road 915 through the gate building. This gate plan appears to be a modified version of the gate complex at Lachish, with its approach road, which is flanked by an outer wall and a bent access entry. However, all of the six-chambered gates in Cisjordan were built inside the line of the casemate wall system. In terms of size, the gate at Tall Jawa is closer in width to the gate at Gezer (17.00 m), whereas Megiddo is 17.50 m and Hazor measures 18.20 m (Herzog 1992:268, Table 2). The width of the roadway at Tall Jawa is slightly larger (4.50 m) than at Gezer (4.10 m), closer in size to the roads at Hazor and Megiddo (ca. 4.20–4.25) m. The variation in room size is also distinctive of the Tall Jawa gate, suggesting a local adaptation.
8 Surface C75:27 was located in the southwest corner of Stratum-VIIA Room 910 and Surface C75:29 was exposed along the south face of Wall 9030 in Room 911.
STRATUM VIIA
Building 905 (Fig. 9.5) At some time during the late Iron Age II, Gate Building 910 was transformed into an industrial and craft production centre (B905). This change is seen most clearly in the closing off of central Roadway 915 by a series of cross walls to form discrete rooms (R909, R910, R911) north of Entryway 913, and in the blocking of doorways that originally opened onto the road. In this discussion of the final use of this structure, the rooms of the western unit will be presented first, and then the details of the transformation that occurred in the central unit.9 The Western Unit: Rooms 906–908 The major walls of the western unit of Gate complex 910, Wall 9019 on the west and Wall 9025 on the north, were reused in Stratum VIIA and retain the same numbering system. The east wall (W9024) was built in two units, the southern wall unit (W9021), south of Doorway F, bonds with Wall 9018 to form the southeast corner of Building 905. Above floor level in Room 908, south Wall 9018 appears to abut the east face of West Wall 9019, although below floor level the two walls are tied together by a diagonal stone (C65:38; Fig. 9.3, above). The same construction technique may have been used in east-west Wall 9022 that separates Rooms 906 and R907. Wall 9022 was cut on the east by Doorway N to provide access to Room 906 after Doorway H, in Wall 9024, had been blocked. Doorway N was subsequently filled with fallen wall stones distorting the appearance of Wall 9022. Partition Wall 9023 is a new feature in Stratum VIIA (Fig. 9.6). This single row wall is founded above a layer of cobble stones (C65:35) that also serve to position the principal use surface in Room 907.10 At its east end, in line with Doorway N, is Doorway E, which leads south into Room 908 from central Room 907. In the east wall (W9021), Doorway P was reduced in size, forming Doorway F, which is now the only entrance into the three rooms of the western unit.
9 10
For details of room size, doorways and wall thickness, see Tables 9A, 9B, 9C). For this same feature in use during Stratum VIII, see E56:8; B53:9 and A3:12.
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Figure 9.5. Plan of Building 905, Field C-east; Stratum VIIA.
Room 906 The only access into Room 906 during Stratum VIIA was through Doorway N from Room 907. Filled with collapsed boulders, this doorway was discovered when the underlying fill was excavated by chance.11 Surrounding this small (2.50 × 2.50 m) room on the north and west are the outer walls (W9019, W9025), two of the heaviest building walls 11 This fill was disturbed by visitors to the site, causing the uppermost wall stone to collapse into Room 906.
Figure 9.6. North face of Partition Wall 9023.
ever constructed at Tall Jawa, comparable only to the exterior walls of Building 800. Rockfall and soil (C66:2, 7) filled this room and remains unexcavated. Finds, such as upper loaf-shaped millstones (TJ 2160, 2196) and an incised limestone stopper (TJ 2186; Daviau 2002:176) along with 850 + ceramic sherds, show conformity with the material culture of Building 905 but cannot be used to identify activities on the upper storey or roof of Room 906. Room 907 (Fig. 9.7) Excavation to floor level in Rooms 907 and R908 provide evidence for the principal occupation phase on the ground floor, along with remains from the upper storey and the roof. The floor surface consists of beaten earth (C65:28) with ash pockets and a large almost circular area (0.70– 0.80 m in diameter) stained with ash (C65:36). The ash concentration was located on the southwest side of a pillar base (C65:30), the central one of three in a row embedded in Surface C65:28. The northern pillar base (C65:29) was set against the south face of Wall 9022 and secured on its west side by 3 chinkstones (C65:33). The same technique was used around the base of central Pillar Base C65:30, where 5 cobblestones (C65:34) were embedded in the floor. The third pillar base (C65:32) was installed in the floor itself, just north of Partition
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Figure 9.7. Room 907, with pillar bases (C65:29,30,32).
Wall 9023 where cobbles (C65:35) mark the level of the floor. No other chinkstones were identified with this, the smallest (0.37 m in diameter, vs. 0.50 m in diameter) of the three bases. The bases are in place almost exactly along the middle of Room 907, although they were not quite equidistant since the central base was offset to the south, probably due to the location of Doorway F (Fig. 9.5). The resulting span of ca. 2.00 m on a side certainly made for a very strong ceiling, probably to support a flagstone floor on the upper storey.12 Scattered across Surface C65:28 were several unfired clay loom weights (TJ 1848 + unreg. fragments), a small chert pounder (TJ 1864), animal bones, yellow ochre, 90 ceramic sherds, and a partially mendable storejar. By contrast with the heavy accumulations of pottery sherds and artefacts from Buildings 300 and B800, the finds in Building 905 were very limited. Whether this is the result of the function of these rooms or of their occupation history remains unclear. What is certain is that there was a second storey room and a roof, both of which may have supported work areas.
12 Small, or at least narrow, rooms (R805, R806, R809, R811) with flagstone floors on the upper storey were also seen in Building 800 (Chapter 8).
Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey A firm layer of soil with packed nari (C65:20 + 27) represents the collapsed ceiling of Room 907. As in most other rooms excavated at Tall Jawa, the organic material within the ceiling was not preserved, although flagstones that paved the floor of the upper storey room and artefacts from this room were found among the fallen wall stones (C65:17 + 26). The flagstones measure 12.00–20.00 cm in width and 17.00–42.00 in length. Some of the paving stones were still attached to the plaster of the floor while others were on edge, standing almost vertically in the debris. This disturbance was probably due to the force of falling wall stones and was especially noticeable near Doorway E. At the same time, the plaster of the ceiling accumulated in lumps along the north end of Room 907, possibly suggesting the direction of collapse. Table 9E. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 907, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C65:26, 27
bowl bowl shallow bowl 187 ceramic sherds 3 millstones mortar weight
V923 V922 V924
offset rim vertical rim, carinated grooved base
TJ 1681, 1792, 1806 TJ 1826 TJ 1824
basalt, upper loaf-shaped limestone
Also amidst the upper storey remains was a socket stone (TJ 1480), the cranium of a young female, a few teeth and long bones and a copper/bronze earring (TJ 1663). Excursus: TJ Burial 4—The Skeletal Remains [by Margaret A. Judd] The cranial remains of one individual were recovered from Field C, Square 65 (C65:B4; Fig. 9.8). The bones were within a mixed matrix of friable, dry soil with inclusions of pebbles, cobbles and boulders (Fig. 9.9, on the right). A stone mortar (TJ 1467) and worked round stone (TJ 1480), found in Debris Layers C65:12 and C65:17 respectively (Daviau 2002: CD database), along with the copper earring (TJ 1663; Daviau 2002:42, fig. 2.20:1) were recovered from Soil Layer C65:18. The ceramic sherds from these loci were Iron II, Late Iron II, Byzantine and Umayyad.
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Figure 9.8. Human remains in upper storey collapse of Room 907.
Portions of both parietal and the occipital bones were present and unmodified by disease processes; the oval puncture on the posterior right parietal is likely an artefact of excavation rather than ancient trauma since the light colour of the edges of the puncture contrast sharply to the earth-covered broken edges of other areas of the bone (Ubelaker and Adams 1995). The right mandibular second incisor and canine were recovered. In both cases, portions of the dental crown were broken postmortem and dental wear patterns could not be ascertained, although the remaining height of the crown suggests that little wear was present (Scott 1979:214, Smith 1984:45–46). Similarly, there is no evidence of dental disease, calculus or dental enamel hypoplasia. The fully formed permanent teeth, absence of dental wear, and the lack of the sagittal and lambdoidal suture closure are characteristic of a young adult, likely under 30 years of age. (see references, below) Room 908 (Fig. 9.9) Like Room 906 on the north, Room 908 on the south had only one doorway (E) which connected it to Room 907. Three of the four walls of Room 908 were major support walls for Building 905, especially west, exterior Wall 9019. On the south and east, Walls 9018 and
Figure 9.9. Room 908 (left) and south end of R907; Partition Wall 9023, East Wall 9021 in foreground.
9021 bond to form the southeast corner of the western unit of rooms. Partition Wall 9023 separated Room 908 from Room 907 on the north. The pattern of deposition present in Room 908 is similar to that seen in Room 907 with the exception of a flagstone pavement (C65:21) in situ in the western half of the room. This pavement was in use with a beaten earth surface (C65:15), and had almost the same absolute level (924:54 masl) as the floor (C65:28, 924.56 masl) in Room 907. Smashed on the floor were the sherds of a red slipped bowl (V925) and some shattered clay loom weights. It is likely that these loom weights were in use with those on the upper floor. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Evidence for a collapsed ceiling in Room 908 was well preserved; a loose soil layer filled with layers of plaster fragments (C65:14) had collapsed onto a beaten earth and flagstone surface (C65:15, 21). Associated with the ceiling were at least 3 unfired clay loom weights (TJ 1409–1411), an upper loaf-shaped millstone (TJ 1352), a limestone weight (TJ 1356) and a stone working surface (TJ 1467).
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Figure 9.10. Plan of Building 905, Field C-east, with locus numbers.
Destruction in Building 905 In Room 907, there was clear evidence of roof collapse marked by an accumulation of silty soil (C65:24) which was buried by a subsequent layer of rockfall (C65:23). Among the fallen boulders, this layer contained a roof roller (TJ 1754) a limestone bowl (TJ 1739) and a basalt grinder (TJ 1743). A similar “sandy” soil layer (C65:11) was sealed by rockfall (C65:6, 5) in Room 908. In all three rooms of the western unit, these layers were filled with Iron Age artefacts consisting primarily of ground stone tools and pottery sherds. For the most part, the pottery
Figure 9.11. Room 909, looking east through Doorway J; Pavement C76:16 at left.
readings indicate little contamination from the Umayyad period even though Building 600 is only 12.00 m to the north. Only in the topsoil layers (C65:3, C66:1) was Umayyad pottery evident. The Central Unit: Rooms 909–913 Room 909 (Figs. 9.10–9.11) The northernmost room in the central unit is Room 909. This room was formed by closing off the north end of Roadway 915 in Gate Building 910 with an east-west wall (W9026) that fills the gap between the eastern and western units. Wall 9026 was constructed of small, medium, large and very large boulders in the same dry-laid technique
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used in the outer walls, but it was slightly narrower (1.40–1.50 m) than Walls 9025 and W9040 (1.50–1.75 m). On the west side of Room 909, Doorway H was blocked by medium and large boulders (C66:8), which fill the space between the north end of Wall 9024 and the south face of Wall 9025. On the south and east sides, the reconstruction was more complicated. A new east-west wall (W9028) was built up against north-south Wall 9024. This wall was formed of 2 rows of medium and large boulders with a single very large boulder in header position marking the west jamb of Doorway G. A boulder of similar size and shape marks the east jamb where it was built into a short wall unit or stub (W9029); this wall unit abuts Wall 9031 on the east. North of Wall 9029, Wall 9031 was thickened on its west face (W9035) to form the south frame of Doorway J. Another wall stub (W9027) was positioned at the join between blocking Wall 9026 and Outer Wall 9040, the original north wall of Room 912. The result of this reconstruction is that the traffic patterns were altered. Access into Room 910 on the south is available from Room 909 through Doorway G, and a new entrance (J) leads into Room 912, somewhat west of its position in Stratum VIIB. There is no direct link with Room 906 on the west. Both Doorways G and J had well hewn stones framing the passageway through the thickness of the flanking walls and both preserved evidence of threshold stones. Doorway J was floored with cobblestones (C76:17) packed in the underlying soil while Doorway G retained a hewn boulder (C76:12) in situ and a dislocated dressed stone with a raised edge that may have been reused as a threshold stone. The principal surface in Room 909 was a beaten earth floor (C76:15) that covered the Stratum VIIB flagstones and sealed up against the surrounding walls. Surface C76:15 was stained with 4 ash pockets and covered with a soil layer (C76:10) containing artefacts and 518 pottery sherds. Surprisingly, only partially mendable vessels were recovered. Table 9F. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 909 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C76:9, 10, 15
saucer 2 bowls bowl 518 ceramic sherds mortar mortar
V928 V929, 930 V931
red slip offset rim, 1 red slip heavy offset rim
TJ 2044 (unreg)
limestone limestone, small
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
3 metal points loom weight core tool
TJ 2049, 2084, 2113 TJ 1977 lithics
iron clay, unfired chert
Immediately above Surface C76:15 was an extensive lens of ash (C76: 14; 1.50 × 1.96 m) which sealed up against south Wall 9028 just west of Doorway G. Whether this ash represented a cooking area or was a sign of the final destruction of Building 905 remains unclear. At the same time, its position adjacent to a doorway but away from the draught is typical of ovens seen in both Buildings 900 and B800. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey The size of Room 909 (2.60 × 4.10 m) posed no problem to the ancient builders for spanning the walls with a ceiling. The presence of unfired loom weights and the ash concentration increase the probability that Room 909 was not only roofed but also carried a second storey. The sequence of collapse in Room 909 yielded soil loci that were difficult to separate with the result that upper storey artefacts may have penetrated into lower storey debris. Ceiling material and upper storey wall collapse was represented by a deep accumulation (C76:9) of soil, brick material, localized concentrations of nari and fallen cobbles and pebbles. Heavy boulders and flagstones were concentrated in the overlying layer (C76:5) and in Doorway G. Artefacts and installations present in these loci and probably in use on the upper storey represent domestic and industrial activities, such as weaving, crushing and grinding. Table 9G. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 909, upper storey Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C76:5,9 C76:7
681 ceramic sherds door socket work surface mortar grinder grinder(?) 3 millstones 2 querns pounder metal point loom weights weight/tether
TJ 2042 TJ 1967 TJ 2002 TJ 2031 TJ 2039 TJ 1857, 1868, 1996 TJ 1853, 1870 TJ 1948 TJ 1905 TJ 2025 TJ 2001
slight contamination limestone basalt basalt, reused millstone basalt sandstone basalt basalt saddle querns chert iron clay, unfired, broken limestone
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Figure 9.12. Building 905, looking east from R907 into R909 on left and R910 in middle distance.
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
red ochre yellow ochre
geology geology
Characteristics
Room 910 (Fig. 9.12) A second room (R910) of somewhat larger size (4.00 × 4.50 m) is located to the south.13 Walls 9028 and 9029 served as the north wall of Room 910 and as the jambs of Doorway G from Room 909. On the east, Stratum-VIIB Walls 9031 and W9032 were separated by Doorway K, which was exposed only in part due to the proximity of the modern wall (W9043). A new Stratum-VIIA wall (W9030) and wall stub (W9044) abut the north-south inner walls (W9021 and W9032, respectively) forming the southern limit of Room 910 and the doorframes on either side of Doorway L. The earlier walls (W9021, W9024) were reused on the west with Doorway F providing access to Room 907. Each doorway is marked by a cobblestone paved threshold (F = C75:8; G = C76:12; K = C75:28; L = C75:11) and filled with collapsed wall stones and soil (C75:7, 12, 14). Since the thresholds of the door13 Excavation of loci in Room 910 was limited due to constraints on staff and the termination of excavation in 1995.
Figure 9.13. Installation C75:10 in Room 910.
ways were installed on the cement-like surface which served as the latest Stratum-VIIB roadway (C75:27, 29), we may assume that the east-west walls were also built upon it. Working Platform—C75:10 (Fig. 9.13): Two installations, one on the south and one on the west side of Room 910, were excavated. These features were both installed on a beaten earth surface (C75:20) which covered roadway Surface C75:27 + 29. Installation C75:10 consists of 2 rows of 3 large cobbles or small boulders that cover an area of 0.75 × 0.80 m, and run perpendicular to east-west Wall 9030. Set above these stones was a single flagstone (C75:10) that measures ca. 0.45 × 0.70 m. In place along the eastern half of Stone C75:10 were several lumps of plaster that still adhered to its upper surface. The function of this installation was unclear since there was no evidence of ash or other residue apart from the plaster. In appearance, it is comparable to the base of Ovens C27:63 and C27:68 in Building 800, although there is no evidence for the clay oven that would have been put on this stone support.
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Figure 9.14. Hearth C75:9, in Room 910.
Hearth C75:9 (Fig. 9.14): A second installation is in place against Wall 9021, between the south edge of Doorway F and the southwest corner of Room 910. The base stones (C75:19) for the hearth are set on Surface C75:20 and cover an area 0.80 × 0.80 m. A border of large cobbles set on edge surround the base rocks forming a hearth with a depth of 0.28 m. Inside the hearth was a 0.30 m deep accumulation of ash (C75:17),14 clear evidence of use, although not of its purpose. A thin lens of ash (C75:18) covers the floor between the two installations. Such stone built installations are not rare; a good example is seen in the re-use of Room 74 in the fort at Horbat Rosh Zayit (Gal and . Alexandre 2000:23; fig. II.26–28), where installations 71 and 72 are associated with saddle querns, an upper loaf-shaped millstone, and a cooking pot. Pottery sherds in association with these features at Tall Jawa were few (39), as were the typical food processing tools so numerous in Building 800. This may be due to the incomplete excavation of the centre of Room 910. In contrast, 12 food processing tools appear in the topsoil locus (C75:1) that covers the collapsed debris (C75:5) in Room 910, 14 There was no charcoal in the ash, which felt “greasy”; the fuel in use in this hearth may have been dung rather than wood (personal observation, S. Ellis-Lopez).
suggesting an upper storey or roof terrace where these artefacts had been in use. Room 911 Room 911 is the smallest (2.40 × 4.60 m) of the three rooms built into the space of the former roadway (R915), although the side walls of Gate complex 910 were slightly farther apart at this point. Two east-west wall stubs (W9038, W9039) of almost equal size frame Doorway M, which leads from Entryway 913, forming an indirect access between the three rooms in this central unit. This pattern blocks one’s view from one room into another, and restricts entry into Complex 905. In order to accomplish this, Wall 9038 on the west of doorway M is built up against the northeast corner of Tower 9020, while Wall 9037 abuts Wall 9036, which appears to be an addition to the north-south wall of the eastern gate chambers or to a tower(?) on the east, opposite Tower 9020.15 Only limited areas along the south face of Wall 9030 and immediately north of south Wall 9038 and 9039 were excavated in Room 911. Under the debris layers, the latest Stratum-VIIA surface (C75:29) appears to be a continuation of Surface C75:27 uncovered in Room 910. Evidence for the use of Room 911 comes from the few finds associated with the overlying soil layer (C75:21). These artefacts consist of a chert pounder (TJ 2220), a basalt bowl (TJ 2221), a basalt millstone fragment reused as a mortar (TJ 2222), and a large (16.1 × 27.8 cm) basalt mortar (TJ 2223). The continuation of this locus on the south side of Room 911 was not reached, limiting our understanding of the function of this space in the redesigned building. Room 913 (Fig. 9.15) In Entryway 913, a surface (C74:21) which overlies the Stratum-VIIB roadway, consists of a pavement of flat-lying boulders and cobbles. The position of this cobblestone and boulder pavement and its continuation eastward, under the modern property wall (C84:1), appears to mark the southernmost limit of Building 905. At this point, Wall 9036 is directly opposite the south edge of Tower 9020 and west Wall 9019 (Fig. 9.4). Although additional sections of this stone pavement were not exposed in the northern part of Square C73 to the south, a similar pattern of hard-packed soil with flat-lying boulders (C73:8) seals against the north 15 Clarification of the architecture all along the east side of gate Complex 910 was restricted by the presence of modern Wall 9043.
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Figure 9.15. Building 905, with Room 908 in lower left, and R913 in upper left.
end of north-south Wall 9010 that runs down the slope to meet eastwest Wall 9008 (see above). This packed surface also seals against the east edge of a cobblestone pavement (C63:22) south of Solid Wall 9000. On the west side of Entryway 913, this surface appears to surround Wall 9042, a north-south wall unit formed of 2 rows of large and very large boulders that abuts Tower 9020 on the north and Solid Wall 9000 on the south. Excavation ended here before the founding levels of Wall 9042 could be determined. However, to the east of Wall 9042, in Entryway 913, is an installation (C74:24) that consists of a small pit formed of cobblestones set on edge around a rectilinear depression. This installation measured 0.60 × 0.90 m and was ca. 0.12 m deep. Inside the depression were bits of broken or decayed plaster. This feature may have been the support for an installation, such as a stone basin associated with the industrial activities in Room 910. However, its proximity to Plaster Surface C74:17 and the similarity of the plaster material in both loci also hint at the artificiality of this feature as an installation and suggest instead a certain amount of damage to the pavement resulting in the exposure of the underlying surface. At present, both interpretations of the evidence are possible.
Figure 9.16. Room 712.
Room 912 (Fig. 9.16) In the northeast corner of Building 905, at the point where a modern path runs eastward onto the tell, the walls of one room were partially exposed north of the modern property wall (W9043). Room 912 is bounded on the north (W9040) and east (W9033) by exterior walls of the Stratum-VIIB gate complex. Both walls are formed of medium, large and very large boulders, with cobble chinkstones. In its present condition, Room 912 appears to measure only 2.40 × 3.60 m, with its greatest length extending north-south. The reduced width of Room 912 may have been the result of refashioning inner Wall 9035–W9036 along the east side of Roadway 915. Evidence for a change in alignment is seen also in Entryway 913 to the south, where a single row of large and very large boulders is located west of the line of Wall 9032. In Room 912, the west Wall (W9035) appears to have been thickened on its west face (W9031) where it bonds with Wall 9029. These new walls, which formed the frames of Doorways J and G in Room 909, were built of cobbles and small boulders, in sharp contrast to the walls of Building 905 as a whole. The position of Wall 9035 in the east balk of Square C75, and the limited exposure of the full width of Room 912 under modern Wall 9043, concealed the construction details of both phases during Strata VIIB and VIIA.
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The uppermost soil and rockfall layer (C86:1) was cleared in Room 912, clearly revealing the surrounding walls and the east side of Doorway J which opened into Room 909 in the central unit. Here on the east side of Building 905, the traffic patterns differed from that on the west, where the doorway (H) between Room 909 and 906 was blocked during the final occupation phase. The relationship of Room 912 to the room(s) further south is indicated by the presence of Doorway K, which leads east from Room 910 into a room that may have been comparable to Room 907 on the west. However, there did not appear to be any evidence for a doorway in south Wall 9034 that would have opened into the middle room from Room 912. BUILDING 900 Occupation west of the gate complex (B910) is represented by Solid Wall 9000 and by a group of rooms (R901/921, R902/922, R903/923, R904/924) that yielded finds indicating extensive food preparation activity. Only four Squares (C43–53, C44–54; Fig. 9.1) were excavated in this area, with the result that the arrangement of these rooms with one another was clarified, but the complete building plan was not exposed. Wall 9013 + 9017, which marks the east side of Building 900, was traced north (C64–C65) for 13.00 m, indicating that there were additional rooms north of Room 901,16 probably still within Building 900. The presence of a soil dump north of Squares C44–C54 and west of Wall 9017 prevented further exposure in this area during the final season. Inset/offset Wall 9000, exposed for 13.00 m in Field C-east, runs east-west just north of the modern crest of the southern terrace. This solid wall constitutes the principal exterior wall protecting the structures built against its north face. Wall 9000 consists of 2–3 rows of large and extra large, flat-topped boulders, with cobble size chinkstones, for a total thickness of 2.20 m. Although only 2 courses were exposed along its south face, evidence for a plaster coating (C53:24) is preserved at the corner where an offset/inset (C53–j) is located. These construction features are similar to those found in West Wall 2023 in Field B, where 16 The walls were in use during both Strata VIIB and VIIA. The Stratum VIIA room numbers are used when describing the location of the principal walls. Because there appears to be only minimal changes in the major features from one phase to another, the Stratum-VIIB building was not assigned a number of its own.
the original founding of the wall was assigned to Stratum IX. That the same construction techniques continued to be employed as late as Stratum VII is not surprising given the reuse and repair of the wall system evident during Stratum VIII.17 Wall 9000 remained unexcavated west of Room 902 (Square C43). However, its trajectory west through Squares C33–C3 could be seen at intervals at ground level. A second Wall (W8035) also ran east-west along the crest of the southern terrace. This wall, originally thought to be a casemate wall, due to its size of 1.50 m, may have been related to north-south Wall 8001 along the west edge of the terrace. The relationship of Walls 8035 and W9000 was not determined during excavation. Building Plan Building 900 is framed on the east by north-south Wall 9013 ( = 9017) which appears to bond with Wall 9000. By contrast, Wall 9001 on the west may have abutted Wall 9000, as did interior Walls 9002 and W9041 (the south frame of Doorway D through Wall 9005). Within this unit were twin Rooms 901 and R902, linked on the north by Corridor 903, and located on either side of a small room (R904) which opens only into Room 901. Rooms Three rooms, one corridor and one possible staircase have been exposed sufficiently to determine their sizes. Table 9H. Room Size and Proportion (B900) Room
Width(m)
Length(m)
Ratio W/L
Bounded by Walls
901 902 903 904 905
3.00 2.80 1.20 1.60 0.80
5.50 5.30 3.00 3.60 3.00
.55 .53 .40 .44 .26
9000, 9005, 9016, 9013 9000, 9001, 9003, 9002 9003, 9006, 9016, Doorway A 9000, 9002, 9006, 9005 9003, 9004
17 While the fortification system located on the southeastern terrace may itself date to Stratum VIII, Stratum-VII structures (B 800, B700 and B910) were founded on bedrock (Chapters 8 and 9, above). The presence of retaining Wall 9015, below the Stratum-VII Buttress Wall 9008, points to the construction of defensive walls around the terrace prior to its final occupation phase, possibly as early as Stratum IX.
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Range of sizes (omitting Rooms 903 and 905) Width Length
1.60 →3.00 3.60 →5.50
average – 2.46 m average – 4.80 m
Although the number of rooms in Building 900 is limited, the ratio of width to length is in the same range as rooms in Building 800 (0.45– 0.70; Table 8A). At the same time, the arrangement of rooms, with Room 904 flanked on two sides by larger rooms and closed off on the third side by a corridor, (R903) is not found elsewhere. Doorways Clear evidence for four doorways indicates the traffic patterns among the rooms. From Room 901, Doorway D leads into Room 904 and Doorway C leads into Corridor 903. Corridor 903 extends west through Doorway B into Room 902. On the north side of Corridor 903 is Doorway A, which opens into additional rooms that remain unexcavated. Table 9J. Location and Width of Doorways (B900) Doorway
Room
Width (m)
A B C D
903, ? 902, 903 901, 903 901, 904
1.10 1.00 1.05 0.70
Average width - 0.96 m The average width of Doorways A, B, and C (1.05 m) is 25 % wider than the average (0.84 m) in Building 800. This is due in part to the fact that Doorways B and C were conditioned by the size of corridor Room 903, since they extend almost the full width of this room. This may also be the case for Doorway A, which leads north into a stone paved passageway R918. Room 905, suitable in size for a staircase, may have opened into the passageway (R918) north of Doorway A. So too, another doorway may have opened into a room opposite the stairs, north of Wall 9016. Walls Solid Wall 9000 is in a class by itself since it was the exterior defensive wall for the southern terrace.
Table 9K. Wall Thickness in centimetres (B900) Wall 9000 9001 9002 9003 9004 9005 9006 9013 9016
60
70
80
90
100
125
150
175
220
140 × ×
×+ ×+
200
140
×
×
Wall thickness in both Buildings 910 and B900 is exceptional by comparison with Stratum-VIII Building 300, where major support walls were in the range of 0.70–1.00 m thick and secondary walls measured 0.55–0.70 m. In Building 900, only the east and west walls of Room 904 were in the latter range whereas all other walls were 1.00– 1.50 m thick. Such heavy construction indicates a concern for defence and for support of upper storey walls. This is most noticeable in Wall 9006, an interior wall that is more than 1.00 m thick, certainly built to support ceiling beams and an upper storey wall opposite Doorway A. STRATUM VIIB Construction and use of Building 900 During the 1993 season, excavation reached floors that represent two Stratum-VII phases of use in Rooms 901, 903 and 904. Room 902 was excavated only in part to clarify the wall lines and traffic patterns between rooms. Additional exposure of earlier floors was not possible in the final season. Room 901 (Fig. 9.17) With the exception of Wall 9013, the major north-south walls of Building 900 appear to abut Wall 9000 which serves as the south wall of Rooms 901, R904, and R902. Room 901 is located in the southeastern corner of Building 900 with no entrance from the outside. East Wall 9013 + 9017 consists of 2 + rows of small and medium boulders with rubble fill and cobble chinkstones. On the north side of Room
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Figure 9.17. Building 900, Field C-east.
901, Wall 901318 appears to bond with Wall 9016, which was built of 3 rows of small, medium and large boulders, forming a major east-west support wall (ca. 1.20 m thick). By contrast, Wall 9005 on the west was a 1–row wall of medium size boulders that was clearly an interior wall separating Room 901 from Room 904. Two superimposed beaten earth surfaces (C54:30, VIIB; and C54:25 = 16, VIIA) were both disturbed by fallen wall stones that mark the end of Room 901 during Stratum VII. The earlier floor (C54:30), in position above a make-up layer (C54:33), was only exposed over an area measuring 2.75 × 3.5 m in Square C54.19 This surface seals up
18 This wall extends north as Wall 9017, forming the western edge of a “channel” (C65:9) between two parallel walls, with Wall 9019 of Building 910 forming the eastern perimeter. The “channel”, excavated only partially at its south end, was packed with 236 + ceramic sherds. 19 The north balk of Square C53 remained in place and the only surface (C53:16) uncovered north of Wall 9000 was contemporary with the later floor (C54:25) in Room 901.
Figure 9.18. Oven C54:18 with Windbreak Stone C54:19, in Room 901.
against Wall 9013 on the east and Wall 9016 on the north. On the west, Wall 9005 was separated from Surface C54:30 by a single row of small boulders with cobble chinkstones. This feature (C54:32), possibly a shelf (2.30 m long), sealed up against the east face of Wall 9005 for much of its length north of Doorway D. Table 9L. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 901 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C54:29 + 30
bottle 4 stone tools pestle mortar 2 grinders pounder
V902 = TJ 964 TJ 971, 972, 2 unreg. TJ 1003 TJ 969 unreg. TJ 974
carrot-shaped polishing stones basalt basalt basalt chert
Scattered on Floor C54:30 were stone tools commonly in use for craft activity or food processing and preparation. An Oven (C54:18) in use with Surface C54:25 during the later phase may already have been in use with floor C54:30. The most distinctive ceramic find was a carrotshaped bottle, well known in late Iron Age II tomb groups (Dornemann 1983: fig. 39:20–23).
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Figure 9.19. North end of Room 901 with Corridor 903 and Doorway A at left.
Oven C54:18 (Fig. 9.18): Against north Wall 9016 was a cooking installation consisting of an oven and a windbreak positioned midway between east Wall 9013 and Doorway C. The windbreak stone (C54:19) was a limestone slab (0.29 × 0.75 × 0.25 m thick) set into Surface C54:30 on its long edge with one end abutting Wall 9016. The oven (C54:18) was situated on the west side of the windbreak where a second stone slab (C54:36), set into the floor, served as a base rock (0.45 × 0.65 × 0.10 m thick). In place on the base rock was an oven of packed clay (C54:18) lined with pottery sherds on the interior (C54:17) and sealed with mud plaster to Windbreak Stone C54:19. It was not clear during excavation whether the sherds were part of the original oven or were added later to strengthen the oven wall. The oven itself was slightly smaller than the base rock on which it sat. Ash accumulated to the south (C54:21) of the oven and to the east (C54:22, 23) of the base rock. Here it was associated with a ring of cobble size stones (C54:37) that may have served as a small hearth with an exterior diameter of 0.50 m. Although surrounded by rockfall, the function of this small installation appears clear in view of the amount of ash (C54:23) that surrounded it.
Figure 9.20. Building 900, with relevant locus numbers.
Room 903 (Fig. 9.19) To the west of Oven C54:18, the beaten earth surface (C54:31) in Doorway C was also stained with ash. This doorway, located between the north end of Wall 9005 and the south face of Wall 9016, marks the eastern end of Corridor 903. Wall 9005 extends slightly (ca. 0.15– 0.20 m) beyond the line of Wall 9006 to form a distinct frame for Doorway C, with the result that the entrance was slightly narrower (1.05 m) than Corridor 903 opposite Doorway A. This narrow room (1.20 m) was excavated to Stratum VIIB levels only in its eastern half. STRATUM VIIA A quick succession of surfaces was seen in Rooms 901 and 903, where rockfall scattered the sherds of ceramic vessels among various ground stone tools and covered these finds with soil and boulders.
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Room 901 (Fig. 9.20) Room 901 continued to serve as a food preparation area in use with Oven C54:18. Certain changes were seen with the rise in floor level, especially along the west side of the room, where Shelf C54:32 was no longer visible above Surface C54:25. Additional exposure of this use phase in the south half of the room (in Square C53) indicates that the same range of activities was carried out in all parts of Room 901. Table 9M. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 901, upper surface Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C54:24 + 25 C53:16
bowl krater 2 lamps 2 stone tools mortar 2 pestles roller pestle 2 grinders 5 grinders 3 querns work surface 5 pounders large pounder knife blade animal bones
V911 V914 V907, 908 TJ 888, 889 TJ 815 TJ 881, 912 TJ 882 TJ 883, 897 TJ 801, 868, 887, 893, 898 TJ 865, 866, 878 TJ 811 TJ 807, 876–877, 879 TJ 873 TJ 667
red slip smudged ceramic polishing stones limestone basalt basalt sandstone basalt basalt sandstone chert chert iron
Room 903 Artefacts above a superimposed Surface (C54:26) within Doorway C and in the eastern end of Room 903 suggest a continuation of food processing activities. Here too, the beaten earth surface was disturbed by boulders and cobbles fallen from the surrounding walls. Between the stones were the remains of ceramic vessels, animal bones, and stone tools. Table 9N. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 903, upper surface Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C54:26
bowl 2 juglets mortar bowl 2 grinders millstone
V906 V904, 905 V909 TJ 872, 874 TJ 890
red slip, vertical rim oblong tripod basalt basalt, upper
Figure 9.21. Wall 9000 at south end of Room 904, with Doorway D.
Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
work surface pounder
TJ 847 TJ 886
limestone, anvil chert
Room 904 (Figs. 9.21–9.22) In the southwest corner of Room 901, Doorway D leads into a narrow space (1.60 × 3.60 m) designated Room 904.20 The doorway is positioned between the south end of Wall 9005 and a wall stub (W9041) that abuts the north face of Solid Wall 9000. Within Doorway D there are two carefully laid stones that serve as a threshold (C53:20) to form a step down into the room. A second north-south Wall (W9002), similar in thickness (0.60–0.70 m) and in construction, constitutes the west wall. On the north, Wall 9006 serves as both the north wall of Room 904 and the south wall of Corridor 903. This wall (W9006) is more than double the thickness of the side walls of Room 904. The principal feature of Room 904 is an installation (C53:17) built of a single row of stones set on edge to form the semi-circular perimeter
20 Room 904 was only exposed to Stratum VIIA levels in Square C53. The south balk of Square C54 was not excavated to reveal the room’s north end.
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Figure 9.22. Artefacts in place in Room 904, between Bin C53:17 and Doorway D.
of a bin(?). This installation was built above an earlier surface and sealed on its exterior face with the hard-packed soil of Surface C53:25. Material from the lowest loci (C53:22, 23, 26) within Installation C53:17 consists only of soil and cobblestones, not indicative of the function of this feature. Only the uppermost locus (C53:18) contained loose soil with 2 artefacts, a metal fragment and a stone tool (TJ 944). Unfortunately these finds were also ambivalent in regard to functional identification. Adjacent to Installation C53:17, and in use with it, was a small group of stone tools, similar to those in Room 901 to the east. During excavation, it was clear that hand grinder TJ 952 was in use with mortar TJ 955. In several cases, it was apparent that every possible surface of a grinder was utilized so that the tool functioned as both a hand grinder and as a pestle (Daviau 2002:143). Although ceramic sherds were present, there was insufficient mendable material to reconstruct a representative corpus of vessel types in use on the lower storey during Stratum VIIA.
Table 9P. Pottery and Artefacts in Room 904 Locus
Finds
Reg. No.
Characteristics
C53:19 = 25
saucer bowl long point mortar 2 grinders 2 pounders
V916 TJ 948 TJ 955 TJ 952, 953 TJ 809, 959
yellow slip iron basalt basalt chert
Room 902 Room 902 is the mirror image of Room 901. Together with Corridor 903, these rooms form a U-shaped space around Room 904. Like the other rooms in this unit, Room 902 extends north from Solid Wall 9000 as far as Wall 9003, which forms the northern limit of Corridor 903 and flanks Doorway B. In this space (2.80 × 5.30 m), only the upper debris layers were excavated with the result that neither of the Stratum-VII floor levels were reached. Soil and rockfall layers produced the same range of finds as elsewhere in Building 900, namely Iron Age pottery contaminated with sherds from the Umayyad period and ground stone tools. Only the traffic pattern among the rooms during Stratum VII can be identified with certainty. Evidence for Features on the Upper Storey Although the heavily built walls of Building 900 strongly suggest the use of upper storey rooms, evidence was very limited in Field Ceast due to severe erosion along the crest of the terrace. Fragments of a unique vessel, a red slipped and burnished chalice with finger depressions (dimples; V920; Daviau 2001: fig. 2.4) were present among upper storey wall stones (C43:6). Evidence for the removal and reuse of Iron Age wall stones is apparent in the Umayyad building (B600) in Field D, as well as in the traditional houses in Jawa village (Ellis-Lopez in Daviau, in preparation/b) and in the hundreds of stones piled up to form a property wall (W9043) along the west side of the modern cemetery. Within the rooms of Building 900, the upper soil layers contained hundreds of sherds, including recognizable vessel types. Examples of several forms that show contemporaneity with Building 800 can be cited, such as red slipped saucers (V915, V916), an everted rim bowl (V913) with no slip, a vertical rim carinated bowl with red slip and burnish (V917), an extremely thin, simple rim bowl with red slip (V918),
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a black burnished bowl (V927), and a crisp ware jug (V919).21 A unique vessel type is represented by a small, cylindrical jar or bottle (V901) which was formed of smooth, well-levigated clay and decorate with black painted bands (Daviau 2001: fig. 8:2).22 Destruction Extensive collapse of wall stones filled the rooms of Building 900, piling up against Solid Wall 9000. Additional stones covered the wall and slid down the slope of the southern terrace. Outside the wall line, ceramic sherds and artefacts were also present, indicating the richness of occupation during Stratum VII. Among the finds was a ceramic ram’s head (TJ 961) which formed the corner of a larger artefact. The head was red slipped and decorated with black paint to highlight the horns, eyes and forelock (Daviau 1994: fig. 9). Excursus: TJ Burial 1—The Skeletal Remains [by Margaret A. Judd] Within the destruction debris was a small grave (C54:8; Fig. 9.23–9.24) built up against Wall 9013 and surrounded by the Iron Age rockfall, which filled Room 901. The burial was covered by boulder and cobblestone debris layers (C54:5, 6) which were approximately 0.25 m thick. Potsherds from these soil layers derive from the Iron II, Late Byzantine and Umayyad period, however, the burial itself contained no grave goods. The loose and dry burial fill (C54:7) was differentiated from the moist soil of Debris Layer C54:6. This oval burial fill measured 1.10 m long, 0.50 m wide, and was 0.38 m deep at its greatest depth. The skeleton was supine on an east-west axis and surrounded by stone slabs (Figure 9.24). The head, which rested on a stone pillow, was oriented to the west (320°) and faced north. The fill and body were enclosed in a pit with stone-lined sides, which when removed revealed the total dimensions of the pit to be 1.35 × 0.75 m and 0.49 m at the great21 Along with these vessel forms are the shallow lamps (V907, V908), oblong juglets (V904, V905), and offset rim bowl sherds typical of late Iron Age II (Daviau 2001a: figs. 7:1–4; 9:1). 22 Vessels with a similar shape but without handles and undecorated were reported from Madaba (Dornemann 1983: Fig. 40:7, 8). For a preliminary study of the fabric, see Daviau (1997b).
Figure 9.23. Burial 1.
est depth. When the burial was removed and excavation continued, soil layers and surfaces (C54:15, 24, 25, 29, 30) rich in domestic artefacts (e.g., pounders, grinders, mortars, etc.) and Iron II potsherds were found. The burial was later than the Iron II occupation, but previous to, contemporary with or later than the Umayyad period occupation of the site. The entire body was preserved in situ and the condition was unmodified, that is the bones were solid and no evidence of taphonomic processes were observed, which is equivalent to Stage 0 on Behrensmeyer’s (1978) scale. The complete dentition, long bone length and careful excavation of the epiphyses enabled an accurate estimation
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Figure 9.24. Stone-lined cist grave C54:8.
of the individual’s age of 1 year +/– 4 months (Scheuer and Black 2000: Table 11–17, Ubelaker 1978:47). The mixed dentition consists of the 10 deciduous teeth of the upper and lower dental arcades, as well as the permanent crowns of the mandibular central incisors. Few bones were missing; one cervical and one sacral element were absent, as were portions of the hyoid, coccyx, and sternum. The hands were represented by seven metacarpal shafts and 24 phalanges, while eight metatarsal shafts and nine foot phalanges were observed; 22 ossification centres were present. There were no pathological lesions observed on the remains of this infant. Cranial and postcranial measurements for this child, following criteria described by Fazekas and Kósa (1978) and illustrated by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994:45–46), are appended (Table 9Q).
Table 9Q. TJ- Burial 1: Child’s skeletal metrics (mm) Occipital base Zygomatic Mandible Maxilla Clavicle Scapula Humerus Ulna Radius Sphenoid
Petrous portion Ilium Ishium Pubic Femur Tibia Fibula
Measurement
Left
Length Width Length Width Body length Arc width Full length Length Width Length Diameter Length Width Spine length Length Width Diameter Length Diameter Length Diameter Lesser wing length Lesser wing width Greater wing length Greater wing width Body length Body width Length Width Height Length Width Length Width length Length Width Diameter Length Diameter Length Diameter
14.4 21.9 32.4 25.7 48.8 26.0 70.2 24.9 34.1 58.4 6.3 51.4 39.1 45.8 95.4 24.2 8.2 83.5 7.3 – 6.3 – 17.6 48.3 30.8 11.0 23.6 47.1 21.8 36.2 52.6 46.6 29.5 21.6 28.3 116.3 32.4 9.3 97.7 9.5 96.0 5.3
Right
– 26.1 48.7 24.8 25.7 33.0 56.5 5.9 51.7 39.0 46.3 94.5 24.3 8.3 83.9 7.6 75.1 6.4 29.9 17.4 50.4 – 48.9 20.8 38.0 52.3 46.6 30.1 21.3 28.4 115.2 32.6 9.4 97.7 9.6 95.5 5.1
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References for the Excursus Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1978 Taphonomic and Ecologic information on bone weathering. Paleobiology 4:150–162. Buikstra, J. E. and D. H. Ubelaker, eds. 1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, Vol. 44. Daviau, P. M. M.; M. Judd and M. Beckmann 2002 Artefact classification and typology. Pp. 19–267 in Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan: Volume II. The Iron Age Artefacts, by P. M. M. Daviau. Culture and History of the Ancient Near East, 11/2. Leiden: Brill. Fazekas, I. and F. Kósa 1978 Forensic Fetal Osteology. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. Scheuer, L. and S. Black 2000 Developmental Juvenile Osteology. London: Academic Press. Scott, E. C. 1979 Dental wear scoring technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51: 213–218. Smith, B. 1984 Patterns of molar wear in hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 63:39–56. Ubelaker, D. H. 1978 Human Skeletal Remains. Chicago: Aldine. Ubelaker, D. H. and B. J. Adams 1995 Differentiation of perimortem and postmortem trauma using taphonomic indicators. Journal of Forensic Sciences 40:509–512.
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PART THREE BUILDING TRADITIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
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BUILDING MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES AND ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
Introduction The Iron Age town of Tall Jawa is characterized by its stone architecture employed in the casemate fortification system and in the houses and public structures within the town.1 The ancient residents of central Transjordan made use of building materials, construction techniques and building designs which were embedded in a long architectural tradition that flourished in southern Syria2 and Palestine,3 and which remain partially preserved in the archaeological record. In order to appreciate the choices that the ancient builders made at Tall Jawa and determine the relationship of those choices to the regional architectural traditions, this study will present a summary description of available building materials, the specific techniques of construction evident in the excavated remains (see Chapters 4–9, above), and the correlation of these techniques with the resulting building plans. The patterns of room arrangement in individual buildings are the meaningful expression of culturally determined rules combining space, proportion and a group of variables specific to the builders (Meijer 1989:221). The articulation of these variables in stone architecture provides primary data for the identification and classification of various building types. The hypotheses to be tested in this chapter are first, that the architectural remains at Tall Jawa represent a regional variation of known Iron Age architectural traditions, and second that comparison of build1 An initial study of the stone-built domestic architecture at Tall Jawa, #Amman, Tall al-#Umayri, Sahab, and Tall Jalul is presented in Daviau (1999). . 2 While many Iron Age sites in southern Syria remain to be excavated, the northern coastal city of Ugarit illustrates well the second millennium building techniques, especially the use of stone in domestic and public buildings (Aurenche 1977: pl. 7; Yon, Lombard and Renisio 1987). 3 The names of “Palestine and south Syria” are used in the same sense as Wright (1985:2) who sees these areas as forming one entity in a contiguous geographical region. This region in antiquity contained several small states, especially during the Iron Age and, in this study the regional terms are preferred over ethnic names.
ing materials, construction techniques and building plans at Tall Jawa with the same features from neighbouring sites in Transjordan, western Palestine and south Syria will demonstrate a similar tradition, an “application of a system—a tradition” (Wright 1985: 332) of construction and building design. Building Materials Limestone and Chert Boulders The most widely used building materials in central Transjordan are limestone and Senonian chert (Wright 1985: 338). Reich (1992:1) identifies the several types of limestone with varying degrees of hardness as mizzi yahudi, mizzi helou, meleki, nari and chalk. According to Reich, the hardest of these limestones, mizzi yahudi, was difficult to dress and was used only in certain installations that received a lot of wear, such as thresholds and door sockets. Chalk and nari are soft limestones that were easier to quarry and dress, although some chalk is probably too soft for use as a building stone (Reich 1992:1). This would suggest that nari limestone was probably the preferred building material. For the immediate region around Tall Jawa, “carbonates… and chert” are the major components of exposed bedrock; the limestone is both chalky limestone and a harder stone somewhat more resistant to erosion (Schnurrenberger, Chapter 3 above). It is the latter that was used, along with chert slabs, in the construction of the fortification walls. Chert was used in certain features that required a vapour barrier between stone walls and other construction materials, such as mud brick and plaster. Limestone boulders were used to build the foundation walls and part of the superstructure of the fortification system, as well as the walls of individual houses within the town. The precise location of the Iron Age quarries at Tall Jawa is not apparent in contrast to those for the late Byzantine-early Umayyad period. During this later occupation phase (Stratum III), stone was quarried from the bedrock tongue to the south of the tell (Field M; Fig. 1.3), leaving precise negative reliefs where the stones had been removed. One such quarry, Feature M-85, contains the outline of stones that measure 0.40 × 0.48 × 1.60 (Battenfield, in preparation),4 not quite 4 At present, bedrock is visible in the fields to the west and south of the mound and in the modern village to the north and east.
the size of the Iron Age pillars in House 800 that measure ca. 0.40 × 0.70 × 1.75–1.90 m. While this lack of information for the Iron Age is not unusual (Wright 1985:340), the current setting of Tall Jawa, surrounded as it is by ploughed fields and a modern village, does pose some problems for understanding the stone gathering methods employed in antiquity. One area immediately adjacent to the tell where stone may have been quarried is the north slope of the mound; unfortunately, this area has been cut by a modern road, destroying the evidence needed to support this suggestion. The clearest evidence for Iron Age quarrying are two features in Field S (MPP RS 127), where it extends west beyond the modern houses adjacent to the tell. Here Feature 15 is a long zigzag cut which indicates extensive quarrying of the bedrock outcrop, although it is not clear when this quarry was used. In their study of ashlar quarries, Shiloh and Horowitz (1975: pl. I) illustrate a quarry north of Jerusalem that appears comparable to Feature 15.5 A second feature (18), a large reservoir with a staircase in the northeast corner, may have been built at a place where earlier quarrying had taken place, although this is an argument from silence. Other likely sources of building stone were the cisterns cut into the bedrock immediately south (Field M, Features 28, 47/48, 71, 81, 84(?), 87) and west of the tell (Field S with its 9 cisterns),6 as well as Cisterns E63:13 and D15:1 on the tell itself.7 Bedrock Excavations during six seasons have added to our knowledge of the bedrock underlying the occupation debris on the tell and its use as a building material. The bedrock consists of very clean limestone that is not dolomitic (see Hancock, Chapter 11), but does contains chert pockets. Bedrock has been reached in four areas on the tell where the walls of several structures (Buildings 300, B700, B910, and B800) were founded directly on the rock, demonstrating that its location was known to the ancient builders. The earliest known wall (W9015) which was 5 The remains of a fallen quarry face at Busayra (Bienkowski 2002: pl. 1.5) shows similar characteristics. 6 A complete report of these features will accompany the description of excavations at the wine press (M2) and cave (M13) in Volume V, Survey and Documentation in Field M (Battenfield, in preparation). 7 A large top-loading cave, Feature S-1, was excavated south of Fields B–A in 1992 by the Tall Jawa Survey Team, directed by J. R. Battenfield. This cave may have been used as a cistern.
founded on bedrock (C71:20) is located on the southeast side of the tell, below the Iron Age flanking wall (W9007) and buttress (W9008; see Chapter 5). A retaining wall (W1001), visible on the southwest side of the tell in Field A, may have had a different function than Wall 9015 in Field C. Assumed to be part of the fortification system, Wall 1001 was also founded on bedrock and the gaps under the lowest boulders were filled with soil and small stones (A1:5) as a levelling device. We see this same technique at the base of Outer Wall 2023 and Tower 2024 in Field B. Bedrock appears to have been used as a floor surface in several rooms (R314), although in certain instances, the bedrock appears to have been paved with lime plaster (R313). In another instance, a flagstone pavement was installed immediately above the rock (R716).8 Various installations either made use of the bedrock itself, or were cut into it (in Squares A1, A84, C71, E74), including the two cisterns on the tell (E64:13 and D15:2), and a cave at the base of the tell (Feature S-1). In addition to its use as a footing for wall foundations and for cisterns, the bedrock was quarried and used for building stone, flagstone flooring, plaster and a large variety of stone installations and objects. Paramount among these items were limestone pillars (C27:19, 22, 45), door frame stones (C17:35, C27:2, C54:11),9 thresholds (C54:14), lintels (D12:34, D13:13, D23:41), roof rollers,10 boulder mortars (A13:23, C27:35, C54.31.815), large troughs (C27:27, D32:50) and basins (B44:4, B53:11), medium size rectangular mortars and small troughs (Daviau 2002:160–161), and perforated stones used as various types of industrial weights (Daviau 2002:209–210). Mud Brick Mud brick, the second most common building material in ancient Palestine, was used for the superstructure of walls that had stone foundations (Reich 1992:5).11 Evidence for a mud brick superstructure has been found at Tall Jawa only in a handful of cases. One area was the 8 McCown (1947:219) describes the floors in the houses at Tell en-Nasbeh as beaten . earth, lime, or stone pavements laid directly on bedrock. 9 Lintels, comparable in size to the pillars (ca. 1.60–1.70 m), were used in the Field D building (B700). 10 Three roof rollers were recovered during the 1992 and 1993 seasons: 1) outside the casemate wall in E56 (TJ 381); 2) in Room 207 (TJ 814); and 3) inside Room 805 (TJ 589) in House 800 (C-west). 11 Houses with mud brick foundations are also known, for example the Early Bronze
deep probe (A13, see Chapter 4, above) into Iron Age I occupation levels that produced an intact mud brick (0.65 × 0.35 × 0.15 m thick). Other remains of mud brick were located along the casemate wall system in Field B, where fragments of collapsed brick are present in small amounts (B24–25) in the casemate rooms (R213, 215). The heaviest collapse was located in Room 120, where mud brick collapse filled the room and served as the foundation for the later phase of occupation. Only a few interior walls had evidence of a mud-brick superstructure, such as brick Wall 1011 which remained in place on stone foundation Wall 1012, separating Rooms 102 and R103 (Buildings 100 and B113). Construction Techniques Boulder-and-Chink Wall Construction The Fortification Walls (Figs 5.8, 17, 29) Limestone and chert boulders in boulder-and-chink style were used to construct the fortification walls and the majority of house walls. In the casemate wall system, building stones consist of limestone boulders and large chert slabs. These stones range in size from medium to large boulders (0.50–0.75 × 0.75–1.00 m), with occasional examples of very large boulders (1.00 + m). Such large stones were most common in the flanking towers or walls on the west (B16) and southeast (C61– 71) sides of the tell. Limited evidence for a course of rectangular chert boulders that appears to mark the transition from stone wall to mud brick superstructure is preserved on Outer West Wall 2023 and on Inner Casemate Wall 2006. Chert is also used as the capstone over Drain B24:24, and as a lining along the east face of W2012 as it runs through Inner Casemate Wall 2007 (Tower 2013). For the most part, the boulders were “unhewn field stones”, without clear evidence for stone dressing. The flattest surface was used to form the face of the wall, although the boulder itself was not squared.12 The boulders were dry laid and held in place with cobble size stones and Age remains at Tell el-Hesi (Rose and Toombs 1978:141). However, this technique was not used in Iron Age Transjordan. 12 A similar style of construction is seen in the outer wall of the casemate system on the south side of Ramat Rahel below the ashlar courses (Shiloh and Horowitz 1975: pl. IV), as well as in the walls of individual buildings, such as the south wall (7K80:59) of Iron Age I Room B2 (Clark 2000: fig. 4.21), and throughout the late Iron Age II complex in Field A at Tall al-#Umayri (Lawlor 2000: fig. 3.1).
pebbles (0.06–0.25 m in size). Semi-hewn stones were incorporated into the outer fortification wall at those points where there was an offset or inset, to form a straight edge.13 Such stones may also have strengthened the wall, although they were still used in boulder-andchink construction; they were not ashlar masonry.14 The defensive walls were usually three rows thick and were footed on bedrock. Only on occasion did it appear that there was a rubble core formed of smaller stones (cf. Netzer 1992: fig. 11); for example, in the outer casemate wall (W2023). The outer wall of the casemate system is almost consistently 2.10 m thick.15 Minor variations occur along its length so that certain sections are in the range of 1.90–2.60 m thick, due to the presence of the insets and offsets which sometimes measure as much as 0.50 m in depth. The same is true in Field C-east, where a single fortification wall (W9000) measures 2.50 m thick. For the most part, the inner face of the casemate system does not have offsets and is consistently 1.25–1.55 m thick. The casemate system from Iron Age I recovered at Tall al-#Umayri is visible for 24.00 m. The outer wall measures 1.60–2.00 m thick, the inner wall is 1.00 m thick, and the casemate room measures 2.75 m wide, for a total thickness of ca. 5.00–5.50 m. Cross walls at intervals form discrete rooms, each approximately 5.00 m in length (Clark 2000:74). Clark suggested that this fortification system be classed as “proto-casemate”, because certain cross walls not only bond with the outer and inner wall faces, but extend into the town, forming the walls of rooms adjacent to the casemate system (Clark 1994:147, n. 2). This same style of construction was used at Tall Jawa in Iron II (in Building 204), suggesting that this was a common Ammonite feature intended to strengthen the wall system. In northern Moab, 30 km south of Tall Jawa, the outer casemate wall (W2001) at Khirbat al-Mudayna (on Wadi ath-Thamad) is 2.00– 2.25 m thick and consists of 3 rows of limestone boulders with one flattened edge used for the wall face (Chadwick, Daviau and Steiner 2000:267). Similar construction is visible at ground level at Khirbat al13 For details concerning wall construction, especially the use of offset-inset on the façade of the outer casemate wall, see Chapter 5, above. 14 A good example of carefully constructed, dry laid boulder-and-chink walls with larger stones in header-and-stretcher formation at the corners is seen at #Ar¯a#ir on Wadi Mujib (Aurenche 1977: fig. 429). 15 Although Wall 3006 = 3018 was not sampled east of Field E, the wall line is visible at ground level.
Hiri, a site with Ammonite style pottery located 4 km north of Khirbat al-Mudayna (Thamad),16 although the outer wall appears to be ca. 3.00 m thick. At this site, the integration of the casemate rooms with adjoining structures appears to be the norm. This is in contrast to the room arrangement at Tall Jawa, where doorways from the casemate rooms opened only into Buildings 200 and B113. House Construction House walls typically contain 90 % limestone boulders and 10 % chert, although several walls consist of nearly 100 % limestone (e.g. C27:43, 45, 49). Such field stones, classed as small, medium, large and very large boulders, range in size from 0.25–0.50 m to 0.75–1.00 + m, and are found in both exterior and interior walls. On occasion, stones greater than 1.00 m in length were incorporated into these walls, tying the smaller stones together. The largest single stone, located in B800, is more than 4.00 m in length (W8011). The Iron Age buildings at Tall Jawa appear to have been constructed with stone walls on the ground floor that were in the range of 0.50– 0.90 m thick, and with stone or mud-brick walls on the upper storey. Stone construction appears at many other sites in Transjordan, such as #Amman (Humbert and Zayadine 1992: Foldout A), Sahab (Ibrahim . 1974: pl. XX.1), Khirbat al-Mudayna al-#Aliya (Routledge 2000:49) and at Balu# (Worschech 1989: figs. 7a, 7b).17 The lower storey walls of the houses at Tell el-Far#ah (N) were also stone built, but here they were one row thick and measured only 0.35–0.45 m, comparable to buildings in the early phase of Stratum I at Tell en-Nas.beh (McCown 1947: fig. 43). Even though the house walls at Tell el-Far#ah(N) were preserved to ceiling height (Chambon 1984:28), they could not support an upper storey. Stone walls one and two rows thick were also common at Jerusalem during the late Iron Age, where two storey houses were the norm on the southeastern slope of the city (Shiloh 1984:18; 16 This Wadi ath-Thamad Regional Survey Site #17 (Palestine Grid 234.8N/ 114.8E; JADIS # 2311.009) was documented by J. A. Darman, survey director during the 1996 season. Daviau read the pottery and noticed the similarities with Ammonite material from Tall Jawa and Jalul; this ceramic corpus is very different in form and fabric from the contemporary pottery recovered at Khirbat al-Mudayna, on the south bank of the Wadi ath-Thamad (Daviau 1997a:226–227). 17 Stone architecture may also be the norm at Khirbat al-Mudayna (Thamad), although the only structure excavated inside the town with walls standing to the second storey is an industrial building (Daviau and Dion 2002).
Figure 10.1. Boulder-and-chink wall with doorway; previously published (Daviau 1999: fig. 5.1), reprinted with permission.
pl. 28:1). While houses with second storey walls of stone may be rare in Cisjordan, they do appear in heavily fortified sites, such as Horbat Rosh . Zayit (Gal and Alexandre 2000: figs. II.4, II.12), where the walls of certain rooms were founded on bedrock and the rooms themselves served as basement storerooms (Gal and Alexandre 2000:21; figs. II.18–20). Within a single building, it was common for the interior boulderand-chink walls to abut the exterior wall rather than bonding with it. At the corners, however, the exterior walls of structures were not only bonded, but in some cases, were tied together with diagonal stones. This feature was seen most clearly in Building 910, Room 908 where the diagonal stones were positioned at and below floor level. This type of construction technique was also seen in contemporary late Iron Age buildings at Balu# (Worschech 1995:147; fig. 4). Boulders incorporated into special features within domestic buildings, such as Walls 8019 and W8020 supporting Staircase 43 in Building 800, appear semi-hewn and smooth, with no rough edges. No noticeable tool marks were observed suggesting that many of these stones were chosen because of their regular shape and suitability for wall construction (Wright 1985:340–41), while others were probably trimmed and smoothed. These stones range in size from small (0.25– 0.50 m) to large boulders (0.75–1.00 m). Medium and large boulders, carefully dressed but not quite ashlar, were used to reinforce doorway frames (Fig. 10.1; for example, into Room 213 in Building 200) and the ends of walls at the point where they separate rooms from one another (W3011 in B300; W8016 in B800).18 As a general principle, large semidressed boulders were used at Tell el-Far#ah (N) at the end of stub walls (Chambon 1984:29) that formed one frame of a doorway. Good paral-
18
Illustrations from Daviau 1999 are republished here with permission.
lels for this type of doorway construction can be seen in the Unfinished Building 411 (Level VIIc = 9th century B.C.; Chambon 1993:440), and on the plan of Stratum VA–B in Area C at Tell Qiri (Ben-Tor and Portugali 1987: plan 42).19 Doorways at Busayra, standing more than 1.00 m high, also have carefully trimmed stones forming the doorframe (Bienkowski 2002: pls. 4.39, 72). Pillared Walls (Figs. 8.8; 10.2–3) A variety of styles of pillared walls were employed in the Iron Age buildings at Tall Jawa. First among these is a wall (W8015) constructed with monolithic pillars, which were connected by low partition walls. These pillars served as roof supports and stood on average 1.60–1.75 m in height (C17:13) above floor level.20 We can only assume that these pillars were also linked by large lintels so that the ceilings were 1.80–1.90 m above the floor, comparable to the style of stacked-boulder pillars in Building 102. Evidence for smaller drums at the top of each pillar that would have supported the ceiling beams was not identified at Tall Jawa, although such drums were recovered at Tell en-Nas.beh in Room 640 (Zorn 1993b:582). The monolithic pillars in Building 800 were linked to one another with stone slabs and boulders set on their long sides to form low (ca. 0.50 m) walls of masonry.21 Tall monolithic pillars used as ceiling supports and room dividers is a feature that was widespread in Palestinian architecture, especially in the four-room style house. Classic examples of such pillars are located at #Ai, Tell en-Nas.beh, Khirbet ed-Dawwara, and in the house of "Ahilud at Khirbat Raddana (Callaway 1983:44–45). At #Ai and Rad. dana, the houses include three types of wall construction; monolithic pillars, stacked-boulder pillars, and boulder-and-chink walls. Callaway (1970:14; fig. 5; 1993:1253) noted that both the stone pillars and the stacked boulders were linked with screen walls made of field stones. 19 It is very unfortunate that there is no verbal description of the wall construction techniques employed at Tell Qiri (Ben-Tor and Portugali 1987: 107). 20 At Tell en-Nasbeh, monolithic pillars stand 1.70 m tall (Zorn 1993b:548). . 21 The low cobblestone connecting walls between the standing monolithic pillars at Khirbet ed-Dawwara (Finkelstein 1993:333) and in Building 3 at Tell en-Nas. beh appear to fill the space between the pillars (McCown 1945: fig. 8; 1947:209; fig. 51). Zorn (1993b:507, 548) mentions several rooms with this style of screen walls between monolithic pillars; for example, Rooms 366, 369, 376. While this style of wall construction is preserved in Wall 3005 in Building 300, it is in contrast to the connecting units in Building 800 that are only about half as thick as the pillars.
Figure 10.2. Stacked boulder W3005; previously published (Daviau 1999: fig. 5.3c), reprinted with permission.
At Raddana (Callaway 1983:46–47), the pillars stand only 1.30 m in height and require capstones to link them together and provide additional height (Daviau 1999:118, n. 13). These pillars seem to be comparable in proportion to those at Tell Beit Mirsim (Albright 1943: pl. 44:ac), and to the “low monolithic pillars” at Tell en-Nas.beh (McCown 1947: pl. 77:5).22 A second type of wall construction consists of stone pillars made out of two or more large rectangular boulders, stacked one above the other23 and joined together by thinner screen walls or connecting units formed of small boulders. These pillars stand to a height of ca. 1.25 m (C17:7, 33, 35 = Wall 8012; A15:37, 38, 39 = Wall 1022), and are positioned at a distance of 0.50–0.75 m apart. Two types of connecting walls were in use, either low boulder-and-chink partition walls (i.e. E65:21 in W3005), or cobblestone wall units which stand to the same height as the pillars themselves. In most cases, the pillars in such walls were then capped by large rectangular boulders, laid horizontally to link the pillars (W8012) and to raise the height of the wall to a total of 1.75–1.80 m.24 In those cases (W8015 of Room 803) where the 22 Zorn (1993b:475) describes five monolithic pillars in Room 341a + b that measure only 1.00 m above the floor surface. 23 Stacked drum pillars in place of monolithic pillars were used in Room 361b at Tell el-Nas.beh (Zorn 1993b:479). 24 Two pillars (7K71:14, 15) in Room 8 at Tell al-#Umayri were founded in FP 4B and reused in FP 4A. Lawlor (1991:21; fig. 3.6) describes these pillars as “monolithic”, although Pillar 15 appears to consist of two stacked boulders. In the later phase,
Figure 10.3. Stacked boulder and pillar W3027; previously published (Daviau 1999: fig. 5.3b), reprinted with permission.
connecting units were low walls that braced the base of the pillars, windows were created between two interior rooms. An example of a wall with connecting units standing full height is Wall 8012 + 8014; this wall is formed of semi-hewn boulders (ca. 0.40–0.70 m) stacked to form pillars (C17:56) set at intervals along the length of the wall. Thick stone slabs were used as capstones or linking stones, forming an additional course at the top of the pillars (W8012). This technique is also seen at Khirbat al-Mudayna al-#Aliya (Routledge 2000: figs. 10, 18), where long slabs served as capstones, not just as lintels (personal observation). The thickness of the standing pillars was ca. 0.70 m on average, with boulder-and-chink connecting walls measuring only about 0.30–0.40 m thick. In Building 800, this pattern resulted in the formation of a series of niches between the pillars, for example along the east wall (W8012) of Room 802. The ability of such a wall to support an upper storey is strengthened in the case of Room 802 by its continuation to the south as a solid wall (W8014). The most complex walls are those that combine monolithic pillars, stacked pillars, and cobblestone connecting walls, such as W3027 in B300 and W8026. Wall 3027 is an interior wall in Building 300 that remains standing 1.80 m high and is at least the pillars were attached to partition walls, one stone thick (0.30–0.40 m), that form a bin (Lawlor 1991:24). No evidence was reported concerning the type of ceiling support capping these “pillars” which stood to ca. 0.35 m. Stacked boulder pillars with capstones in place are seen at Tell en-Nas.beh in Room 390 (McCown 1947:209; fig. 51; pl. 77:2).
0.60 m thick.25 Two walls in Building 300 (W3005, W3035 + W3037) were constructed of round boulders which were stacked one upon another, supported by chink stones, and connected with low cobblestone or mud-brick units that are the same thickness as the pillars. Since there was no evidence for the capping stones connecting these stacked boulders, these may have been low partition walls. At Shiloh, short pillars made of stone drums stacked one on top of the other were interpreted by the excavators as pillar bases for wooden pillars that supported the ceiling (Finkelstein, Bunimovitz and Lederman 1993: fig. 2.18). A variant of the stacked-boulder wall is seen in the wall construction in Building 102, where the pillars standing full height on the ground floor were linked at the top by flat-topped stones in a rough corbel formation, which in turn formed the foundation for an upper storey row of shorter pillars. It is here that one limestone pillar (A15:14) measuring only 0.70 m in height was recovered above W1022; in this case, we can only assume that this pillar was supported by the flat-topped stones which themselves formed the lower courses of the wall above floor level (Chapter 6, above). This type of construction could support either stone or wooden pillars. If this were the case, these walls could have functioned as a stylobate or as pillar bases, although such bases usually appear individually, along the same axis (Reich 1992:9–10). The final type of wall construction is precisely the use of wooden columns positioned on stone pillar bases which were embedded in the floor (R907). In this case, the northernmost pillar in the row of three bases was located right up against the north wall of the room, while the southern pillar was beside the south wall. Only the central pillar base was free-standing, approximately in the middle of the room. Albright (1943:51) also recognized a great variety of wall construction techniques at Tell Beit Mirsim and at Bethel (Albright and Kelso 1968: pls 22:2; 23:1); he notes that there was great variation 25 At Balu#, Worschech (1989: figs. 7a, 7b) identified a blocked doorway consisting of two standing pillars and a fieldstone fill. At Tall Jawa, it was rare (W8022) to have a pillar forming both sides of a doorway, even when one entire wall consisted of a row of pillars (W8015). In this case, however, there were two doorways, one formed by two flanking pillars (the only example of this construction technique), and the second consisting of a pillar that forms one doorframe, while the other frame is the face of a perpendicular wall. What Worschech has illustrated at Balu# appears to be two pillars with a connecting unit standing full height, although it is difficult to distinguish a blocked doorway without full plans of the buildings.
on this construction “theme”. There is also abundant evidence for this theme at Tell en-Nas.beh, where Room 376 has two boulder-and-chink walls, one wall constructed of one row of large stones in a header pattern, and one wall with six monolithic pillars and low connecting walls (“sections of masonry”; Zorn 1993b:548). Wall Thickness The boulder-and-chink outer walls of Building 800 in C-east and B700 in Field D measure ca. 0.80–1.00 m thick and remain standing to a height of ca. 2.50–3.00 + m. Since this appears to have been the latest Iron Age building on the site, one might expect earlier buildings to have employed different construction techniques, and this is indeed the case. Although the boulders in the outer walls of Building 200 (Field B) and B300 (Field E) show the same range of sizes (0.50–1.00 m), the walls themselves are only in the range of 0.50–0.80 m thick. In some cases, the walls of contemporary sites remain standing ca. 0.60–1.00 m (Albright 1943: pls. 3, 6), or as much as 1.30 m in height (Yadin 1960: pl. 203), suggesting that they were more than mere foundations for a mud brick superstructure. The degree of standardization clearly indicates that the intention of the ancient builders was to construct walls that could support a second storey (Daviau 1993a:211–213). Comparable walls in the range of 0.80–1.00 m were constructed at Tell el-Far#ah (N) (de Vaux 1951: 413) in Level VIId (9th–8th cent. B.C.). Tell el-Far#ah (N) is a particularly apt comparison, because here too the stone walls appear to be more than foundations for mud brick superstructure. In several cases, these house walls are standing ca. 0.78–.84 m above floor level (de Vaux 1951, plan of Niveau 2), a degree of preservation that strongly suggests that the entire lower storey walls were built of stone as at Tall Jawa. While this may reflect a common architectural tradition, it may also have been influenced by the geographical location of these sites and the available building materials. Such construction techniques are in contrast to those employed in the single storey structures at Tell Qiri where the choice was to build walls only 0.60–0.65 m thick (Ben-Tor and Portugali 1987: 134) and in the “poorer” houses at Tell el-Far#ah (N), where one-row thick walls measured ca. 0.40 m thick (de Vaux 1951, plan of Niveau 2).
Table 10A. Thickness of Walls in Tall Jawa Structures in centimeters Type of Wall Outer Casemate Face Inner Casemate Face Retaining Wall Boulder-and-Chink exterior interior one-row walls Stacked Pillar Standing Pillars Flat-topped Boulders Boulder and cobblestone Staircase support walls
50
60
70
80
90
× ×
× × ×
150 ×
×
×
100
200 + ×
×
× × × ×
From this tabulation, it appears that the exterior walls of domestic and public structures at Tall Jawa were usually in the range of 0.80–1.00 m. Interior walls in boulder-and-chink construction were between 0.70– 1.00 m thick, whereas stacked pillars, standing pillars, and boulders with cobblestone units were all in the range of 0.60–0.70 m, except for a small number of one-row boulder-and-chink walls (R810). For the most part, 0.70 m thick walls were standard for exterior walls at sites such as Hazor and Tell Beit Mirsim in the Late Bronze Age (Daviau 1993a: Table 3.60, 3.62). This means that building techniques at Tall Jawa during a somewhat later period represent a slightly different building tradition, making use of walls that are noticeably thicker than at other sites. Surfacing Material At Tall Jawa, there was very little evidence for mud mortar,26 although there is evidence for its use in Wall 3000, where the south face was exposed in Rooms 312 and R313 (Fig. 5.15). There is more evidence for the use of lime plaster at several points along the fortification walls and the towers to protect the outer surface of the wall against the weather. The vulnerability of dry laid stone walls to the action of wind and water can be seen in the disruption that occurs on archaeological sites between excavation seasons. Steps to control water damage 26 Winnett (1964: 14) assumed that the mud mortar used in the boulder-and-chink masonry at Dh¯ıbân had completely disappeared over time and had not remained in the archaeological record.
were taken by the ancient builders who sealed the exterior face of fortification walls and flanking towers with lime plaster (B16:2, B26:5, C71:2, 10; and C53:3) which continued below surface level.27 Plaster was also used on the outer face of certain building walls (e.g. B102). The thickness of the plaster is in the range of 3.0–8.0 cm thick, covering the outer surfaces of the boulders themselves and filling in the gaps between the boulders and the chink stones (for chemical content, see Hancock, Chapter 11).28 Extensive use of mud plaster on stone wall surfaces is preserved at Busayra (Bienkowski 2002: pls. 4.25, 26, 44, 67), where it extends below surface level to cover the foundations. Building Plans and Room Arrangement Room Size and Roofed Space The use of major load-bearing walls that measure 0.70–1.00 m thick points to a tradition of two-storey construction at Tall Jawa for which there was abundant evidence in the architectural record.29 At the same time, the roofed space and the presence of upper storey rooms severely reduces the amount of light and air that can circulate in a building as large as B700 with its 11 rooms on the ground floor alone. It is here that the use of monolithic stone pillars, wooden columns on pillar bases, and stacked-boulder pillars serve an important function in facilitating air circulation and illumination. So too, the staircases may have had a secondary purpose as light wells. While lamps in the lower storey rooms also support the evidence for roofed space, the ground floor rooms were filled with a variety of activity areas and their associated tools; these were not merely basement storerooms. The size of roofed spaces varies depending on the design of the building, the intended number of stories, the length of available wooden beams, and the status of the structure. Portugali (1987: 133) suggests that the normal span for public and private buildings alike at Tell Qiri is 2.20 m, while Wright (1985:460) judged the normal span to be about 4.00 m. At Tall Jawa, the range of room width varies from 1.50– 4.85 m, with the averages falling in the range of 2.32–3.03 m, while 27 The plaster, in each case, has its own locus number; see detailed descriptions in previous chapters. 28 The same use of heavy surface plaster is recorded at Lehun (Homès-Fredericq 1992:194; figs. 16.6, 16.7). 29 See discussion of individual rooms above, Chapters 6–9.
rooms in the “Ammonite Citadel” at Tall al-#Umayri range in width from 2.50–4.00 m (Lawlor 1991:20). Such architectural plans suggest that the available building materials were able to span such widths and support the ceiling or roof without additional support.30 The difference in room width may have more to do with a building’s function and/or importance rather than a necessity of construction. At Tell el-Far#ah, the Level VIIb = Niveau III houses constructed of onerow stone walls have interior spaces of 2.00 m on average except for one larger room (410, 436, 440) that measure ca. 3.00–3.50 m (de Vaux 1955: pl. VI), while the “Unfinished Building” of Level VIIc has several rooms that measure 3.00–3.50 m (409, 410 411), and were most likely roofed (de Vaux 1955: pl. VII). The same can be said for the 3.80 m wide central room (214) of the corner Tower (Area B) at Tel Jezreel (Ussishkin and Woodhead 1993: fig. 33). Room Arrangement The room arrangement in the Iron Age buildings at Tall Jawa varies from one building to another. And these structures have very little in common with the layout of contemporary buildings at neighbouring sites. Although it is clear that similar construction techniques were used throughout ancient Ammon, no typical “Ammonite” style house has been identified. Even the traffic pattern varies from one building to another; in Building 300 the doorways are located at the end of a wall in the corner, or in the middle of two short walls, or at the two ends of a partition wall, while in Building 800, the doorways are almost always at the end of a wall in the corner, but that is not the case in Building 905. For want of preservation, the traffic patterns for upper storey rooms are unknown, although one might suppose that a pattern similar to the lower storey was adopted.31 30 A very different building tradition appeared at Tel Halif where the interior space between walls and standing pillars was 1.5 m (Jacobs 1993: 88, 230), although the beams may also have spanned an adjoining room as well. The length of beams available for use in the olive presses at Tel Batash is estimated at 5.50 m in length (Kelm and Mazar 1987:123), more than adequate for spanning rooms in the range of 4.50–5.00 m wide. 31 The average width of doorways at Tall Jawa is in the range of 0.745–0.960 m, with a limited number of wider doorways in Buildings 102 (1.22 m) and Gate Building 910 (1.18 m). These sizes strongly support our understanding of the Tall Jawa buildings as two storey structures, in sharp contrast to Busayra, where doorways are 1.50–2.50 m wide (Bienkowski 2002:72–73).
Staircases The most interesting feature is the well-preserved staircases in Building 700 and B800.32 In all three cases, the staircases were “free-standing”, in that they were independent from the outer wall of the building. Instead, the two staircases in Building 800 were perpendicular to the exterior east and west walls, although they both extended up to the wall at the point where there was probably a landing. In Building 700, Staircase D23:43 was only linked to the outer wall by a lintel spanning a doorway. Flanking the steps on either side were parallel walls, built of large and extra large (1.00 + m) boulders, which remain standing 1.50–1.75 m in height. Only one row of boulders was used to form each wall. The steps were stretched between the walls and rested on built-up debris that had been packed between the supporting walls. At the preserved top of the stairs, there was probably a landing; the only remaining evidence for this hypothesis is a support wall (W8018) perpendicular to the south wall (W8019) of Staircase C27:43. Stone staircases are an integral part of the architectural tradition of Syria and good parallels are found in Late Bronze Age houses at Ugarit. For the most part, these staircases are keyed into the outer wall, rather than between two free-standing walls (Callot 1983:30; Photo 10, 11). Another example of a staircase stretched between free-standing walls has been observed in the Iron Age remains at Jerusalem, although this appears to have been a stairway to an upper terrace rather than to the upper floor of a house (Kenyon 1974: pls. 70, 74).33 At Tall al#Umayri, a good example is the FP-4 staircase (30) which consists of six steps, each formed of three semi-hewn stones. Staircase 30 was ca. 1.00 m wide and flanked on either side by support walls (7K61:15 and 21), each ca. 0.50 m thick (Lawlor 1991:20). Ceiling Material and Roof Rollers During six seasons of excavation, only minimal evidence for roofing material appeared in the archaeological record at Tall Jawa. This may be the result of the way in which the buildings went out of use and were abandoned. Without a destructive fire, traditional, flat roofs made of a wooden frame with branches and packed mud probably decomposed 32 For a detailed description of the staircases in Buildings 800 and B700, see Chapter 8 above. 33 The existence of monolithic pillars dividing interior space (Kenyon 1974: pl. 70) in the “adjoining” house may suggest another interpretation.
and became part of the soil layers filling the buildings. Only with the heat of a fire would the roofing material become hardened to such a degree that it could be recovered complete with impressions of the wood or reeds used to support the mud or beaten earth surface (BenTor and Portugali 1987: Photo 61; Daviau 1991:103). Evidence that such roofs were common at Tall Jawa is provided by the presence of seven roof rollers.34 One roller was outside the casemate wall in Field E, fallen from the roof of Casemate Room 301, a second was in Room 208, adjoining the wall system on the south (Field B), and a third had fallen through the stairwell in Building 800 (Field C-west; note 10 above). These tools were used to compress the earthen surface of the roof after each rain (Aurenche 1977: 156), and numerous examples were recovered at Ugarit and Hazor. Roof Rollers Function Watson (1979:119, 283) describes the process for constructing a traditional mud-packed roof along with the function of the roof roller as employed in the villages of Hasanabad and Ain Ali in Iran. Roofs were formed using a series of wooden beams set into the walls near the top.35 These beams were covered in turn with reed mats, small cross beams or branches and a layer of mud tempered with straw. A roof roller was used to pack this mud into a smooth surface. It was also used after heavy rains to consolidate the mud. People who did not have roof rollers walked all over their roofs, taking steps close together, to pack down the surface. Evidence from the archaeological record of Ugarit suggests that a roof roller was present in almost every Late Bronze Age house (Yon 1992: 32). Criteria A roof roller is a cylindrical object made of stone, usually with a hemispherical depression in each end. When in use, the long, con34 The use of rollers in modern times to compact earthen roofs is seen at Raachine, Lebanon (Aurenche 1977: fig. 425). 35 Modern buildings in Jordan that are constructed in a traditional style have beams placed ca. 25–60 cm apart (personal observation at Salt., 1996; Khan Zaman in Petra, 1998), although in some cases the beams are much closer together (Khammash 1986:87, photo). See also a traditional house at Majdel Anjar, Lebanon (Aurenche 1977: fig. 439), and the reconstruction of the Iron Age I house at Tall al-#Umayri (Herr and Clark 2001:43).
vex side is parallel to the surface of the roof. In present day Iran, rollers are on average 50.00 cm long and 20.00 cm in diameter with a depression in each end for a wooden handle (Watson 1979:283). Elliott (1991: fig. 11:6) illustrates an example of the handle in use with a contemporary roof roller from Cyprus. The presence of handle depressions appear to be of secondary importance for Iron Age roof rollers although such depressions are seen in certain well preserved examples. Two basic types of roof roller were present in the Iron Age strata at Tall Jawa. All rollers were of limestone and cylindrical in shape although several were quite irregular in diameter. Rollers varied from one another in both length and diameter. Further classification distinguished those rollers which had a depression in each end (Type A) and those which did not (Type B), although it appears that broken rollers continued to be used. Two fine examples of Type A rollers found in 1992 came from Stratum VIII. Roller TJ 381 had fallen from the casemate wall onto the north side of the tell, while Roller TJ 814 was embedded in debris in Room 207, adjacent to the Casemate Wall in Field B. Type A. Roof Rollers with Depressions Among the finds from all seasons, three well preserved roof rollers have end depressions. Broken rollers, such as TJ 1552, could not be adequately classified. Catalogue36 TJ 381 (Fig. 10.4:1; E56:5/10). Limestone. L 47.00, D 18.70–21.70 cm. 1 depression, int D 4.00, int Dp 2.00 cm. Broken. TJ 814 (Fig. 10.4:2; B44:11/22). Limestone. L 38.00, D 24.00 cm. 2 depressions, int D 2.70, int Dp 1.50 cm. Complete.37 TJ 2046 (A84:4/20). Limestone. L 40.00, D 18.50–23.00 cm. 1 depression, int D 4.75 cm. Broken. 36 Features are identified by their object registration number (TJ #), the figure # within the text, and by Field + Square:Locus #/Pottery Pail #. This is followed by material, technology, and measurements. The maximum dimensions in centimeters are indicated for features that stand upright as H(eight), W(idth) or D(iameter), and T(hickness), while items which lie flat are described with their L(ength), W(idth) or D(iameter), T(hickness) and Wt (Weight). Features with depressions and perforated objects include the interior diameter (int D) and, where relevant, the depth of the depression (int Dp). 37 This roller is in the collection of the #Amman National Museum.
Figure 10.4. 1) TJ 381, 2) TJ 814, 3) TJ 589.
Type B. Roof Rollers without Depressions A total of three roof rollers without end depressions fall into Type B. Since two of these rollers were in use in Stratum VII buildings, the difference in style may correspond to a difference in chronological period.38 Catalogue TJ 229 (A24:6). Limestone. L 22.00, D 19.00–22.00 cm. Fragment. TJ 589 (Fig. 10.4:3; C27:34/53). Limestone. L 67.00, D 20.40 cm. Complete. TJ 1754 (C65:23/37). Limestone. L 41.50, D 21.00–24.00 cm.
Parallels Ugarit: Nine limestone roof rollers were catalogued from the 1978–1987 excavations. Complete examples varied in length from 41.00–69.20 cm and in diameter form 14.00–26.00 cm. Depressions in the ends were 38 The classification of TJ 589 is somewhat tentative because the sides are not perfectly rounded. This stone could have seen little use or have been an architectural element, such as a lintel, that fell from the upper storey. At the same time, lintels found in situ in Building 700 were twice the size.
5.00–7.40 cm in diameter and reached a maximum depth of 9.30 cm. As at Tall Jawa, several were broken (Elliott 1991:34; Yon et al. 1987:86; fig. 65). Hazor: Roof rollers in a variety of sizes with socket depressions in one or both ends were recovered from domestic and public structures in Iron Age levels. One limestone roof roller from Stratum VI (Area A) measures only 25.00 cm in length and 22.0 cm in diameter (Yadin et al. 1961: pl. CLXXXVIII:10); Yadin does not indicate whether or not this object was broken, although it is possible that broken rollers continued to be used. Other Iron Age rollers are visible in field photographs but were not discussed elsewhere (Yadin 1958: pl. VII:1; Yadin 1960: pls. IX:4, X:4, XX:1, XXXII:2). A comparable but larger example in basalt (L 50.00, D 18.70 cm) from Area H, Stratum XIII (1A; Yadin et al 1961: pl. CCLXXXV:6 = CCCXXXIII:15) dates to the Late Bronze Age. Tell el-#Or¯eme: One complete roof roller at Tell el-#Or¯eme, made of local stone (basalt), had socket depressions in both ends (Fritz 1990: pl. 109:10). Megiddo: A limestone roof roller from Stratum IV and a basalt roller from Stratum III (Lamon and Shipton 1939: pl. 114:9, 10) were only two of several recovered during excavation. Tel Michal: Two complete rollers (Singer-Avitz 1990: figs. 31.4–5), each with socket depressions on both ends date respectively to the Iron Age and the Persian Period. The smaller roller measures 31.50 cm while the larger is 55.00 cm in length. The same range was seen at Tall Jawa. Tell en-Nas. beh: Two rollers, different in size, are shown with other groundstone tools (McCown 1947: pl. 91:1). Tel Batash: Rollers used to crush olives in stone basins (Kelm and Mazar 1987:122) were either re-used roof rollers or were similar in size and shape if not in function.39 Khirbet er-Ras: Visible in the plan of a four-room house is a roof roller with an end depression. The roller was apparently in the debris fallen into the broad room at the back (Gibson and Edelstein 1985: pl. XA). Tell Beit Mirsim: The rollers described by Albright (1943: 51–52) appear to be in the same size range, measuring 40.00–68.00 cm in length and 13.17–18.22 cm in diameter. Almost every house had its own roller.
39 In the Georgica, Virgil (1986: I, lines 178–179) mentions rollers used to level threshing floors.
Sah. ab: One roof roller, called a levelling stone, blocked a doorway (Ibrahim 1975: 71, fig. 2; 72, pl. XXV, 2). It appears to be about 50 cm in length. Busayra: One roller (1235), described among the small finds, measures 36.0 cm in length, 18.0 cm in diameter. One end of this roller is broken off; the preserved end has a 6.0 cm deep depression (Sedman 2002:380; pl. 10.152). Tawilan: Rollers with and without depressions were among the stone implements (Bennett and Bienkowski 1995: figs. 4.52, 9.43). Architectural Features Although it seems unreasonable to include large stone artefacts and installations among small finds, it is difficult to locate the division between small ground stone tools and the larger items of equipment with which they were used. In our study, built-in features which were integral to the architecture of the buildings at Tall Jawa were assigned installation locus numbers; these features include socket stones, thresholds, lintels, pillar bases, large stone basins and troughs and boulder mortars. On the other hand, roof rollers and small, portable stone troughs were assigned an object number and included in the object database (Daviau 2002). However, all of these features are discussed in this chapter in relation to the architecture. Installations such as socket stones, pillar bases for wooden support poles, and lintels are often shown in photos or on top plans, but are rarely described in detail. While their function may be obvious in most cases, there are certain installations whose function is less certain, because they may serve more than one function and are not directly related to the architecture. These installations include boulder mortars, stone troughs and basins recovered in the buildings described above and at various places on the site.40 Socket Stones Function During the Iron Age, doors were swung from a wooden pivot pole which was greater in height than the door opening. Based on ethno40 Unfortunately, not all installations identified at Tall Jawa can be fully reported here, due in part to the removal of certain useful items by the local people.
graphic analogy derived from a study of mudbrick houses, it is probable that the upper end was fitted into a loop or a forked stick to hold it in position. This method of hanging a door dates back to Jarmo during the 7th millennium and is still used in rural Iran (Watson 1979:122). The stone construction at Tall Jawa offered other alternatives for securing the upper end of the pivot beam, either between upper storey wall stones or between these stones and the lintel. In traditional houses, the lower end of the pivot pole stands in a hollow of wood or stone implanted in the floor (Singer et al. 1954:193) While limestone socket stones were found in several buildings at Tall Jawa, the evidence for the upper socket or other means of securing the end of the pivot beam were not recognized in the archaeological record. Criteria and Function A door socket is an object made of stone, or possibly of wood with a metal fitting,41 that is of sufficient size and weight to support a pivot beam. The socket is necessary to keep the pivot and the door in an upright position and prevent excessive wear caused by rotation of the lower end of the pivot pole and of the door itself. Usually, a depression was made on the upper side of a boulder to receive the pivot; this depression gradually increased in size due to the continuous rotating motion of the pole as the door was opened and closed. Twenty-four door sockets42 were assigned to Iron Age II occupation levels, although certain of these stones were found in surface loci above Iron Age collapse, and may have come from Stratum III re-occupation (Umayyad period). Two types can be distinguished; A) an irregularly shaped stone with a depression on its upper face, such as E76:19, and B) sockets formed from a boulder with both the depression and the outer surfaces somewhat finished. Only a handful of the best examples are discussed here. Catalogue TJ 301 (Fig. 10.5:1; C17:0.5/23). Limestone. H 9.80, W 17.60 cm; single depression, int D 10.00–11.00, int Dp 3.35 cm; Wt 4.500 kg. Complete.
41 Watson (1979: 122) notes that the door sockets in Hasanabad were made of wood or mud. 42 Twenty sockets were registered as objects; four additional sockets were assigned locus numbers (A84:12; C74:20, C76:18, E76:19).
Figure 10.5. 1) TJ 301, 2) TJ 960, 3) TJ 1480.
TJ 960 (Fig. 10.5:2; E44:4/49). Limestone. H. 10.50, W. 19.00 cm; single depression, int D 10.50, int Dp 6.00 cm; Wt 6.000 + kg. Complete TJ 1480 (Fig. 10.5:3); C65:17/29). Limestone. H 6.10, L 22.8, W 18.20 cm; two depressions, int D 4.70, int Dp 0.085, D 3.70, int Dp 0.075 cm; Wt 4.140 kg. Chipped. TJ 1542 (A93:7). Limestone. H 24.5, W 40.00 cm; single depression, int D 8.50, int Dp 5.90 cm; Wt 6.000 + kg. Broken. TJ 1683 (A93:29/88). Limestone. H 9.4, L 23.6, W 19.9 cm; single depression, int D 5.75, int Dp 1.80 cm; Wt 5.300 kg. Complete. E76:19 Limestone. H 23.0, L 60.0, W. 50.0 cm; single depression, D 10.00, int Dp 5.00 cm. Complete.
For the most part, socket stones have one depression on the upper face, although certain objects with a depression on upper and lower faces are also classified as sockets (TJ 1480). These objects may actually have been weights whose central depression was unfinished. The largest socket stone (57.00 × 80.00 cm) is Locus A84:12, built into Wall 8024 in Building 800; its size suggests that it was originally used in the gate (B910) and reused in the construction of Building 800. This structure yielded the largest number of socket stones, several of which may have been in use on the upper storey. One of the smaller basalt sockets measures approximately 15.00 cm in diameter.
Parallels43 Ugarit: A socket stone, ca. 10.00 cm in diameter, was in situ in Doorway 1057 in House A (Yon et al. 1987: fig. 14). A good example of a granite socket is from House E (Yon et al. 1987: fig. 74). Tell el-‘ Or¯eme: What appears to be a basalt socket stone is described merely as a stone (Fritz 1990: pl. 109:7). Without a top view, the identification of this object remains tentative. Megiddo: Several examples from Stratum II (Lamon and Shipton 1939: fig. 91) demonstrate the variously shaped stones chosen for use as sockets. For the most part, these sockets appear only in public buildings (Lamon and Shipton 1939: fig. 89). Khirbet er-Ras: Visible in the plan of a four-room house is a socket stone adjacent to a doorway (Gibson and Edelstein 1985: pl. XA). Tell en-Nas. beh: Socket A84:12 has a good parallel in the socket stone from the gate at Tell en-Nas.beh (McCown 1947: pl. 72:4). Thresholds The design of thresholds varied somewhat from Stratum-VIII buildings to those in Stratum VII. For example, Doorway A between Rooms 303 and 305 in Building 300 consists of a row of cobblestones forming a half oval shape and extending the full width of the entrance, while the threshold in Doorway E, leading from Room 802 into Hall 804 in Building 800, was made of a large, flat-topped stone. In fact, the best examples of thresholds are found in the Field C buildings (B800, B900, B910), where one or more stones serve as a reinforcement, forming a doorsill that fills the space between the doorframes. Two superimposed stones serve as the threshold from Corridor 810 into Room 809, one stone marks the exit from Room 807 into Hall 804, and a single large stone leads from Corridor 903 into Passageway 918 in Building 900. In other doorways, two or more stones were installed between the frames to serve as the doorsill. It is interesting that Albright noticed the same development at Tell Beit Mirsim where few stone thresholds were identified in the “ordinary” houses. This observation led Albright (1943:52) to suggest that doors were also lacking, although these could have been hung in such 43 Installations such as socket stones, pillar bases, and even roof rollers are rarely studied for their own sake and even illustrations are rare; examples of such features do appear in published reports in site photographs, even when they are not entered into the locus or artefact registration system, and can be used for comparison.
a way that they did not require a stone threshold, or a wooden doorsill could have been used. However, in a second house located in the northwest sector, Albright reported that there were five stone thresholds. Lintels Lintels were formed of one or more limestone boulders in one of two styles, either a single large boulder, or a group of stones in a corbel style that linked two pillars and raised the height of the roof. In Building 700, there were three lintels preserved in situ. These lintels were each a single very large boulder that was bonded into the outer wall of the building at one end, and supported by a wall at the other end. In the case of Room 716, the two lintels (Doorways A, E) extended from the outer wall to a wall running in the same direction as the lintel, whereas the lintel in Doorway D (between R712 and R718) connected to a perpendicular wall. Catalogue D12:34. Limestone; L 1.55, W 0.70, T 0.45 m. D13:13. Limestone; L 1.45, W 0.50, T 0.40 m. D23:41. Limestone; L 1.13, W 0.62, T 0.33 m.
Parallels to these lintels, although varying in material due to locally available stone, Pillar Bases Criteria and Function Detailed studies of pillar bases do not usually appear in published reports.44 These stones, usually disc-shaped, served as supports for wooden posts that in turn support ceiling beams. Their size depends on the diameter of the post but can be distinguished from working surfaces/anvils by their lack of wear, their position in the architectural space, and their relationship to the floor surface. Only three bases could 44 A good example of the illustration of pillar bases at Tel Batash is accompanied by a discussion of one base surrounded by chink stones (Mazar 1997: Photos 28, 33). In this case, the function of this installation is somewhat in doubt, although the excavator’s suggestion (1997:44) that this stone served as a work surface is mitigated by the fact that the tops of the chink stones rise above the level of the base stone.
be identified with certainty; for their position in Room 907, see the discussion of Building 905, above (Chapter 9). Catalogue C65:29. Limestone; surrounded by chinkstones (C65:33); D 04 = .45– 0.50, H 0.24 m; embedded in Surface C65:28. C65:30. Limestone; surrounded by chinkstones (C65:34), D 0.45–0.55, H 0.24 m; embedded in Surface C65:28. C65:32. Limestone; D 0.33–0.37, H ca. 0.20 m; embedded in Surface C65:28.
Benches/Shelves The distinction between benches and shelves in the archaeological record is difficult to determine. Generally speaking, a bench requires sufficient space for a person to sit (ca. 30.00 cm deep) and a height of approximately 30.00–40 cm. Features that are wider than 30.00 cm or lower than 30 cm may have been used as shelves. Artefact distribution can help to distinguish these features from one another, although that is not always determinative, since the same feature may be multifunctional. Two styles of bench were present in the buildings at Tall Jawa, stonebuilt benches formed of cobble size stones, and individual stone slabs. Four examples occur in Building 300 and one bench is located in Building 900. Bench E54:24 was located along the east face of Wall 3001 in Room 302. This bench is well built, consisting of two rows of stones, two courses in height. Perpendicular to Bench E54:24 is a single stone slab (E54:23) set against the south face of Inner Casemate Wall 3000. Another example of stone slabs used as a bench was uncovered in Room 305 In this case, the stones (E53:26) appear to have been stacked, one above the other, but were out of place when found. The only other evidence for a bench in Building 300 is a single row of stones (E65:51) running along the east face of Wall 3011 in Room 326. The narrow size of this “bench” puts its function in doubt although it is probably too narrow to serve as a shelf. The same can be said for a single row of cobble size stones (C54:32) along the east face of Wall 9005. This is the only clear example of a bench in a food preparation area within the Stratum VII buildings, although the archaeological record is incomplete due to the limits on excavation in Buildings 905 and B700.
Figure 10.6. Limestone Trough C27:27 in Room 805.
Domestic and Industrial Installations Stone Troughs Stone troughs were used in a variety of domestic and industrial activities, not all of which are understood from the evidence remaining in the archaeological record. Small stone troughs in a variety of shapes and sizes were recovered in domestic buildings in association with mortars, pestles, and other food processing tools (Daviau 2002:160–161). The large troughs are less well understood; such limited knowledge has led to the great debate over the identification of pillared buildings as stables or storehouses, based primarily on the function of troughs (identified as mangers) located between the pillars (Holladay 1986; Davies 1988). Two large troughs, one in Building 800 and the second in Building 700 were distinctive due to their size and weight. In addition, there were two shallow basins (B44:4 and B53:11) built into the casemate wall (W2007) in secondary use. Catalogue TJ C27:27 (Fig. 10.6). Limestone; with drain hole; L 1.00, W 0.75, H 0.45, int Dp 0.35 m.
Trough C27:27 was cut from a large boulder; the trough has rounded corners but a generally rectangular shape on the inside. A drain hole, cut from the interior, is located in one corner, 4.00 cm above the base.
Figure 10.7. Limestone trough from Room 715 in Building 700.
The fact that the trough is located in the corner of Room 205, with the drain pointing in the direction of the corner formed by two walls, is somewhat perplexing. Clearly, the liquid in the trough would have drained into the masonry. TJ D32:50 (Fig. 10.9:2). Limestone; L 0.62, W 0.48–0.50, H 0.40, int Dp 0.20–0.25 m; rim 0.09–0.11 m thick. Trough D32:50 (Fig. 10.7) was finely made of hard limestone, with upright sides carefully smoothed. This trough is taller and the depression is deeper than Trough C27:27. It was certainly designed as a container that could hold dry goods or liquids, since there was no drain hole. At the same time, it is too low to serve as a manger, which Holladay (1986:117) postulates should be 1.07 m above the floor. In both cases, these troughs were in place on a floor surface. However, the exact functions of these troughs could not be identified on the basis of their position in the architectural space or the associated finds.
Parallels Shallow limestone troughs have been found in use in olive oil pressing buildings, and were probably used in the separation of the oil from the lees. Horbat Rosh Zayit: A relatively shallow basin was in situ in a room with . two pressing stones and two vats (Gal and Frankel 1993: pl. 17:A). Tel Miqne-Ekron: Numerous stone basins/troughs were reported from the more than 100 oil processing buildings excavated at the site (see Mackay 1995, and details in Chapter 8, above). Large Shallow Basins Two shallow basins, made of limestone, were installed in Wall 2007. This appears to have taken place at a time when the wall was no longer in use and at a place where industrial activities were carried on. In contrast to the troughs, the basins were extremely shallow. A third basin (TJ 817), also of soft limestone, was in the collapse of Building 800. All three basins are semi-round in shape, rather than semi-rectangular, as is trough C27:27, or rectangular (D32:50). The fact that all three basins had shallow depressions and had a low base, in contrast to the Megiddo troughs, indicates that these features had a specialized function. The basins in Wall 2007 may have been used in association with a large (D ca. 0.75, T 0.25 m) crushing stone (B44:20) found nearby. Catalogue TJ B44:4. Limestone; L 0.64, W 0.63, H 0.32, int Dp 0.09 m. TJ B53:11 (Fig. 5.27). Limestone; L 1.00, W 0.75, H 0.35 m. TJ 817 (C17:15). Limestone; D 0.54 + , H 0.40, int Dp 0.20 m.
Parallels Horbat Rosh Zayit: Immediately inside the entrance of Building 307, . there is a shallow, rounded basin (Gal and Alexandre 2000: plan 10; fig. VII.3), whose precise function is unknown. Its position so close to the entrance is similar to the trough in Building 800, Room 805, in that it reduces access to the building.
Figure 10.8. Boulder Mortar A13.23; in Room 106.
Boulder Mortars Large mortars fashioned out of a limestone boulder and embedded in the floor are in a different category than the portable mortars classed as artefacts (Daviau 2002:134–135). These large mortars are usually surrounded by cobblestones, which help to hold them in place (Fig. 10.8). This additional feature suggests that the mortars were used so strenuously that they would have been unstable or would cause damage to the beaten earth surface that sealed up against them had it not been for the presence of the chink stones. The depression in the upper surface of the mortar is either bowl-shaped or hemispherical, but the wear pattern is different from that in socket stones. In two instances (R302, R804) the depression was filled with ceramic sherds, suggesting that the mortar was used either temporarily or secondarily as a jar stand.45 For the most part, the mortars were used with the pestles, pounders (Daviau 2002:297–313), and hand grinders that were found on the floors beside them.
45
Ceramic jar stands are not represented in the pottery corpus from Tall Jawa.
In every case, these mortars were discovered in rooms where a variety of food processing activities were carried out (R106, R302, R305). This includes grinding, crushing and pounding of food stuffs as well as cooking. Other activities, such as food storage, crafts and textile production were also carried out near the mortar. Whether there was a direct link between any of the craft activities and the boulder mortars cannot be distinguished from food processing, which was clearly the dominant activity. The mortars themselves were an important architectural feature embedded in the floor surface and associated with a bench or a working surface. This same use pattern was also identified at Tel Halif, where a large boulder mortar was in position in the centre of a large room where typical domestic activities were carried out (Stratum VI, Field III; Blakely and Hardin: figs. 7, 9). Summary The architecture and features of each building excavated at Tall Jawa can be studied in detail, thanks to the deep collapse layers and good preservation of the exterior walls of most rooms. The combination of construction techniques with various wall styles is not unique, but the number of variants on a theme is distinctive. This variation may appear elsewhere, but to date the excavations at #Amman, Sahab, and . Tall al-#Umayri have been limited to one or two major building types. The new excavations at Jalul, where Ammonite style pottery has also been recovered, should be very rich, given its size; however, complete building plans have not yet been uncovered. To date, Tall Jawa offers several building styles that can be used as a model for 8th–7th century architecture in the region. The same cannot be said for individual architectural features, since these appear to be similar over a wider area, with parallels in Judah, Israel, Moab and Edom. While the presence of door sockets, pillar bases, and staircases is documented at numerous sites, the use of inverted vessels as ovens has fewer parallels. So too, the use of flat-topped stones as working surfaces or anvils (Daviau 2002:159–160) is rarely identified, although this may be due to a lack of recognition. The arrangement of these features in a given room and the designation and organization of activity areas has yet to be analysed, although ovens/hearths were often in close proximity to boulder mortars, or surrounded by portable mortars and ground stone tools used in food
preparation.46 Certain activities were certainly carried out in upper storey rooms or on the roof, including religious activities (Daviau 2001:201). Further comparison of Ammonite and Moabite sites, many now under excavation, should clarify the distinctive character of Ammonite architectural traditions and its distinctive features preserved in the archaeological record. Additional information regarding diet and ethnicity will derive from functional analysis of the ceramic material and of its distribution in the architectural space. At present, an increasing number of scholars and projects in Jordan will contribute to this research, including the Madaba Plains Project, the excavations at Tell Madaba and its many associated projects, the Wadi ath-Thamad Project excavations at Khirbat al-Mudayna and Shrine Site #13, and other excavation projects in Moab, such as Lehun, Balu#, and #Ataruz. At present, the architecture of Tall Jawa has its best parallels at the sites of Tell en-Nas.beh, Tell el-Far#ah(N), and Hazor although this may be due in part to the extensive publication of these sites. Nevertheless, it is clear that it has less in common with coastal sites, and sites in southern Judah, especially those that made extensive use of mud-brick architecture.
46 Initial research by Judd will be expanded for publication in Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan: Vol. V: Survey and Ethnography, Daviau, ed. (in preparation).
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ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF LOCAL LIMESTONE AND PREPARED PLASTER SAMPLES R G. V. H
Introduction Excavation of the fortification system and major Iron Age buildings at Tall Jawa yielded examples of artefacts manufactured from native limestone as well as samples of wall plaster. In order to determine the composition of the native bedrock and compare its chemical profile with that of prepared plaster, samples of limestone were taken from a roof roller (TJ 381) and compared with 20 samples of wall plaster. Analysis Roof Roller (TJ 381) Three small (44–80 mg) samples were taken from the roof roller. These samples were weighed into 1.2 ml polyethylene vials, in which they were irradiated sequentially in the SLOWPOKE nuclear reactor at the University of Toronto for periods of five minutes, at a neutron flux of 5.0 × 1011 neutrons cm-2 .second-1. The gamma-rays emitted from the samples were counted twice, at nine minutes and again at twenty-seven minutes after the irradiated samples came out of the reactor. This gave analytical information on twelve elements, listed in Table 11A. From Table 11A, it can be seen that the Ca content is 36 % to 39 %. This corresponds to quite clean limestone, since, based on atomic masses and from its molecular formula, pure CaCO3 contains 40.0 % Ca. The limestone is not dolomitic, as can be seen by the low Mg content (1500–3400 ppm = 0.15–0.34 % Mg). Furthermore, it is not shellfishbased limestone (aragonitic limestone) since the Sr content is too low (220–290 ppm instead of 1100 ± 100 ppm) (Sheppard et al. 1996).
Table 11A. Roof Roller (TJ 381) analyses Element
#1
#2
#3
U ppm Dy ppm Ba ppm Ti ppm Sr ppm Mn ppm Mg ppm Na ppm V ppm Al ppm Cl ppm Ca %
4.4 ± 0.3 <0.52 <120 <300 270 ± 30 36 ± 1 3500 ± 100 240 ± 20 36 ± 1 3500 ± 100 <160 38 ± 1
3.8 0.51 ± 0.08 <110 430 ± 60 290 68 ± 3 3400 360 35 3600 290 ± 30 36
5.1 0.36 <70 <400 220 38 1500 190 42 3500 180 ± 20 39
Mass (mg)
43.7
48.1
80.3
Prepared Plasters Twenty analytical plaster samples were taken from ten samples of wall plaster excavated at Tall Jawa. Relatively large samples, ranging from 180 mg to 590 mg, were taken for analysis. Sample masses, and the locations from which they came, are listed in Table 11B. Table 11B. Plaster samples Sample Number
Mass (mg)
Location at the site1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
320 208 465 585 196 353 368 509 288 391 437 408 321 538
C61.36 L16.43 E56:10/25 C71:3/9 C71:5/17 C71:5 C71:5 B26:10/23
1 The site information includes Field + Square: Locus/Pail. Samples were taken from the outer face of the outer casemate wall, from Tower 2024 in Field B, and from the outer face of the buttress wall in Field C-east.
Sample Number
Mass (mg)
Location at the site
15 16 17 18 19 20
207 436 387 476 181 500
B16:5
B26:9 B16:7/34
The samples were weighed into 1.2 mL polyethylene vials and were irradiated for five minutes in the SLOWPOKE nuclear reactor at the University of Toronto at a neutron flux of 1.0×1011 neutrons.cm-2.second-1. The gamma-rays emitted from the samples were counted about seventeen to nineteen minutes after they came out of the reactor. This procedure gave analytical information on the seven elements reported in Table 11C. The higher Ca samples are of similar chemistries to the published chemistry of eighteenth-dynasty plaster adhesive found at Tell el Dab#a in Egypt (Endlicher and Tillmann 1997); there are not enough data to establish more than the fact that limestone is limestone. Table 11C shows that the Ca contents of the plasters vary between 20 % and 38 %, with the other elements tending to be present in high concentrations when the Ca is low and in low concentrations when the Ca is high. This negative correlation effect can be seen in Graph 11.1 (Al versus Ca) and in Graph 11.2 (Na versus Ca). Both show reasonable negative correlations. The lumpiness of the Na versus Ca plot probably indicates additional sources of Na-rich material. One such potential source of Na is NaCl. Every 355 ppm of Cl corresponds to 230 ppm of Na. Graphs 11.1 and 11.2 may be interpreted as a deliberate or inadvertent mixing of limestone with differing amounts of local silicate rockbased (or sediment) particles. At a Ca content of 38 % (samples 3, 4, and 17), one has essentially clean, natural limestone, while at a Ca content of 20 % one has an approximately 50–50 mixture of rock-based particles and limestone. If one reconstructs the chemistry of the silicate rock (or sediment)based particles, assuming there is only one source material, the data of Table 11D are obtained. This “elemental fingerprint” may represent local sedimentary material, or it may be the product of my overactive imagination.
Table 11C. Plaster analyses #
Al %
Ca %
Cl ppm
Mg %
Mn ppm
Na ppm
V pmm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2.1 ± 0.1 2.0 0.6 0.7 2.3 2.2 1.8 1.7 2.9 3.2 1.8 1.8 1.8 0.9 1.8 2.1 0.7 2.0 1.9 2.1
28 ± 1 27 38 37 26 26 29 28 22 20 24 25 31 33 27 28 36 26 28 24
630 ± 90 350 <220 <130 950 1070 490 400 1000 900 810 900 <340 <110 410 460 <260 990 800 840
1.1 ± 0.1 1.0 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.2 1.5 0.5 0.4 1.1 1.3 0.6 1.6 1.7 1.5
400 ± 10 530 67 57 400 460 280 270 600 600 390 410 290 140 350 420 110 360 410 440
6300 ± 100 4200 240 200 6100 7700 2800 2500 9100 10400 6600 7600 980 470 5700 7300 560 8300 8800 7900
97 ± 4 120 27 28 96 120 57 53 96 88 240 240 57 33 160 160 26 170 210 150
TeD
0.36
36
–
0.9
–
<1000
-
TeD = Tell el Dab#a plaster adhesive (Endlicher and Tillmann 1997). Table 11D. Guestimate of the chemistry of the local sedimentary material mixed with lime to make plaster. Al Ca Cl Mg Mn Na V
≈5–6 %
<2 %
≈0.2 % ≈2 % ≈1200 ppm ≈2 % ≈200 ppm
Reorganisation of the plaster sample data by location on the site, along with the roof roller (RR) data, produced Table 11E. In this it is easier to see that most of the pairs of plaster samples are relatively close (within ± 10–20 %) in their elemental concentrations. The exceptions are the sample pairs 13/14 and especially 17/18, where sample 17 is mainly limestone and sample 18 is a 40–50 %
mixture. This latter pair of samples is valuable in that it firmly links the limestone to the mixed plaster. Plasters with high or low Ca contents are not, however, associated with specific locations within the site. As alluded to above, the source and variability of the Cl and Na is potentially interesting. The relative concentrations of Al, Cl and Na do not fit with a simple lime-sediment-salt system. On the other hand, if NaCl was added naturally or deliberately to the limestone prior to slaking it, some of the Cl may have fired out during the slaking process, leaving the Na (from the salt) preferentially enriched by factors of up to ten, relative to the Cl. Table 11E. Plaster analyses, sorted by site location #
Al %
Ca %
Cl ppm
Mg %
Mn ppm
Na ppm
V pmm
C61 1 2 13 14
2.1 ± 0.1 2.0 1.8 0.9
28 ± 1 27 31 33
630 ± 90 350 <340 <110
1.1 ± 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.4
400 ± 10 530 290 140
6300 ± 100 4200 980 470
97 ± 4 120 57 33
E56 3 4
0.6 0.7
38 37
<220 <130
0.3 0.3
67 57
240 200
27 28
C71 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.3 2.2 1.8 1.7 2.9 3.2
26 26 29 28 22 20
950 1070 490 400 1000 900
1.1 1.1 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.4
400 460 280 270 600 600
6100 7700 2800 2500 9100 10400
96 120 57 53 96 88
B26 11 12 17 18
1.8 1.8 0.7 2.0
24 25 36 26
810 900 <260 990
1.2 1.5 0.6 1.6
390 410 110 360
6600 7600 560 8300
240 240 26 170
B16 15 16 19 20
1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1
27 28 28 24
410 460 800 840
1.1 1.3 1.7 1.5
350 420 410 440
5700 7300 8800 7900
160 160 210 150
#
Al %
Ca %
Cl ppm
Mg %
Mn ppm
Na ppm
V pmm
RR 1 RR 2 RR 3
0.35 0.36 0.35
38 36 39
<160 290 180
0.2 0.3 0.2
36 68 38
240 360 190
36 35 42
RR = roof roller
Graph 11.1. Al versus Ca.
Graph 11.2. Na versus Ca.
References Sheppard, P. J.; Pavlish, L. A.; and R. G. V. Hancock 1996 A preliminary assessment of usefulness of the chemical analysis of Turbo setosus shells for provenance studies in the Pacific Region. Archaeometry 94:269–272. Endlicher, G. and Tillmann, A. 1997 Lime plaster as an adhesive for hafting eighteenth-dynasty flint sickles from Tell el Dab#a, eastern Nile delta, (Egypt), Archaeometry. 39:333–342.
R. G. V. Hancock Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry University of Toronto Toronto, ON CANADA
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PART FOUR SETTLEMENT HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY
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SETTLEMENT HISTORY AT TALL JAWA: CHRONOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
Introduction Excavation at Tall Jawa yields a rich picture of the settlement history of this site over an extended period during Iron Age I and II. The remains of architecture, pottery and artefacts indicate clearly the local traditions that have their parallels at the #Amman citadel, in the tombs of the #Amman region and in sites south of #Amman, such as Sahab . and Tall al-#Umayri demonstrating the position of Tall Jawa within the Iron Age kingdom of Ammon. Ceramic vessel forms also make it possible for us to see certain correlations with sites in Moab to the south, Judah to the west, and Syria to the north. The closest parallels appear to be with Israel and southern Phoenicia, especially during Iron Age II. Iron Age I (Stratum X) The limited evidence for Iron Age I architecture suggests a small, unwalled settlement at Tall Jawa that made use of the surrounding fields for agriculture and pastoralism. That this community was long lived can only be assumed on the basis of the ceramic corpus, which includes a variety of plain and painted wares, some of which appear to continue Late Bronze Age painted styles. Most significant is the number of collared-rim pithoi which were produced in a great many different fabrics and reflect changes in potting techniques and formal characteristics over a considerable period of time (Fig. 4.5:1–4). The size and location of the Iron Age village may also have changed during Stratum X, since Iron Age I pottery was located not only in Field A, where contemporary architecture was present, but also in fill and debris layers in Fields E and C, where no architectural remains were identified. A second distinctive feature of the Iron I pottery is the gray grainy fabric common in jug and bowl sherds. The colour is grey throughout, including the interior and exterior surfaces. In certain cases, a gray ware bowl is covered with a white slip (Fig. 4.6:4). This
treatment does not seem to be present among the Iron Age I vessels and sherd material from Tall al-#Umayri.1 The date of the earliest settlement at Tall Jawa can only be determined following the full publication of Iron Age I pottery sequences at such sites as Tall al-#Umayri, Sahab, Jalul and the #Amman citadel. To . date, the known sequence for Transjordan is not tight enough to allow us to fit the various ceramic ware form types into a secure chronology. Clearly, Late Bronze Age ceramic traditions appear side by side with the collared-rim pithoi, making it difficult to assign a clear beginning to the Iron Age I period (London 1999:64–67; Sauer 1994:235).2 The pithoi themselves also underwent gradual change, as can be seen by the comparison of the body shape and the height of the neck. At Tall al-#Umayri, the neck including the collar is tall, sometimes as much as 12.00–15.00 cm, the shoulder is gently curved and set low on the body, ca. 35.00–40.00 cm below the rim (Clark 1997: figs. 4.16, 18). At Tall Jawa, the neck of tall-necked pithoi is in the range of 7.50–10.00 cm. Sauer himself (1994:235–243) was able to identify three phases of Iron Age I pottery at Hesban, the earliest (1A) is represented by “heavy” . collared-rim jars, the second phase (1B) by “less heavy” jars, and the final, 10th century phase (1C) by “more bulbous” jars.3 Determining the final date for the Iron Age I settlement is made more difficult by the longevity of individual vessels of such forms as the collared-rim pithoi, which could last for as much as a century (London 1999:86). A settlement life of approximately one century at Tall Jawa (Stratum X), prior to the construction of the offset-inset wall 1 As an example, see the colour coding of jug sherds from Phase 11 in Field B (early Iron I; Clark 2000: fig. 4.30), where the exterior fabric colour is “pink” or “reddish yellow” (4.30:1–11). Only one jar and two jugs are listed as “gray” throughout (4.30:15–17). 2 In view of the continuation of Late Bronze Age material culture into the late 12th century at several sites west of the Jordan (Herzog 1997:190; Finkelstein 1999:36), it is surprising that Herr (2001:241) dates the founding of the Iron I settlement at Tall al-#Umayri as early as the late 13th-early 12th centuries (see also, Clark 1994:147). At the other end of the sequence, a destruction date in the 10th century by King David (Younker et al. 1990:22) supposes an extraordinary longevity for the collared-rim pithoi in the casemate room and adjoining pillared house at Tall al-#Umayri. A shorter sequence does not mean that the potting tradition did not extend for two centuries (Esse 1992:103), only that the jars in a given house at Tall al-#Umayri may represent a shorter interval within that span. 3 None of these jars are illustrated (only photographs of individual sherds without captions), so it is not clear whether it is the body shape, the neck thickness, the rim or the collar that is more or less heavy.
system in early Iron Age II (Stratum IX), may be sufficient to account for the presence of collared-rim pithoi with relatively tall necks and various styles of collar. However, the occurrence of collared-rim jars with a short neck and a small mouth opening suggests occupation at the site dating to the end of Iron I (10th century) or the beginning of Iron Age II, immediately before the transition to the Iron Age II style pithos (9th century), a style that continues until at least the early 7th century. This sequence would push the dating for the pithoi with tall necks and pointed collars into an earlier period, possibly as early as the late 12th-early 11th centuries.4 At both Tall al-#Umayri (Clark 1997: fig. 4.10) and Tall Jawa, the Iron I occupation ended in a conflagration that destroyed the buildings, turning sun-dried mud bricks into heaps of collapsed fired bricks. Iron Age II (Strata IX–VII) Early Iron Age II (Stratum IX) At Tall Jawa, the Iron Age I destruction set the stage for the establishment of a walled town. Early Iron IIA is identified as the period of construction of the outer offset-inset wall and of Building 102. There was also limited occupation in Field E, although little of this was recovered. The evidence for this stratum is derived from the vessels located on the lower floor of Building 102 (Stratum IX, Room 120). The surface treatment of some of these vessels suggests that this structure was built and occupied for some time before the inner casemate wall and Building 300 in Field E were constructed. This is, however, only a relative sequence, which does not provide absolute dates for either of these strata. Certain ceramic forms are helpful in clarifying this sequence, especially the collars on the pithos sherds in Room 120 that appear to be short-necked pithoi (Fig. 4.5:4), characteristic of the final stage of this forming technique, prior to the change to the double ridge form which is characteristic of Iron Age II pithoi. At Sahab, the proportions of the neck and body of pithoi designated . as Iron I reflect the same changes over time seen in Tall Jawa Stratum IX; the neck and collar are 7.00–10.00 cm tall, the shoulder is
4 Herr (2001:241) dates the Tall al-#Umayri long-necked pithoi (Episode 1) to the 13th century, since he assumes a gap in occupation from the 12th–10th centuries. His “Episode 2” follows in the 10th century BC.
Figure 12.1. Typical Stratum-VIII pottery from Field A; 1) V125 (A14/29.4), 2) V118 (A14/29.1), 3) V189 (A13/53.4), 4) V101 (A13/87.1), 5) V145 (A13/39.2), 6) V147 (A13/29.3).
more pronounced and is only 20.00–25.00 cm below the rim. Clearly, the Sahab . jars are considerably later than those from Tall al-#Umayri; in fact, they are closer in style to the Iron Age II, Stratum-VIII pithoi from Tall Jawa (Daviau 1992a: fig. 5; 1995: figs. 2, 3), whose neck has all but disappeared, the collar has been replaced by a groove with flanking ridges, and the shoulder is ca. 20.00 cm below the rim. The sizes of the Iron I and early Iron II pithoi also vary; at both Tall Jawa and Tall al-#Umayri, the Iron I jars have larger rim openings (20.00– 25.00 cm) than the pithoi at Sahab and the early Iron II pithoi at .
Figure 12.2. Hippo style storejars from Fields A and E; 1) V126 (A14/59.1), 2) V497 (E55/52.1).
Tall Jawa (15.00–17.00 cm). So too, the Iron I pithoi have a greater range in overall height (87.00–110 cm) compared with those of Iron II (105.00–120 cm). In view of the closeness of fit of the variables in form between the Sahab . and Tall Jawa pithoi, this writer suggests a relative chronological sequence that places the Tall al-#Umayri and Tall Jawa Stratum-X collared-rim jars in Iron I-late Iron I, and the Sahab . pithoi in late Iron Age I-early Iron Age II.5 Stratum VIIIB Stratum VIIIB is characterized by the construction of the inner casemate wall. Both Iron I and early Iron II pottery are represented in the sherd material from loci associated with the fortification wall in Field A. Whether this represents the more extensive fills used in the construction of the inner casemate wall, which was undertaken at this time, or testifies to the Stratum IX founding of the solid offset-inset wall (W1003) remains unclear. Iron II pottery was dominant in all StratumVIIIB–VIIIA loci in Buildings 100 and B113 (Fig. 12.1–2). It is here, in Building 113, and in B300 in Field E that the later pithos form with a double ridge at the top of the shoulder is found in large numbers (Figs. 12.1:5, 6; 12.4:4), and is associated with hippo style storejars (Fig. 12.2:1–2), hole mouth jars (Fig. 12.3:7), and red slipped and burnished pottery. 5 This sequence is strengthened by the fact that at Tall Jawa both the tall and the short-necked collared-rim jars are present in debris layers; and these are all earlier than the Iron II pithoi, which were in use with red slipped and burnished bowls, jugs, and juglets (see especially Field E, below).
Figure 12.3. Typical Stratum-VIII vessels from Field E; 1) V425 (E54/76.1), 2) V318 (E53/13.2), 3) V429 (E65/9.1), 4) V361 (E65/6.1), 6) V351 (E65/6.1), 7) V438 (E54/85.1).
Based on the ceramic evidence, it seems probable that Building 102 in Field A continued in use throughout Stratum VIIIB. Walls 1007 on the south and W1006 on the east are preserved to a height of 1.00 m, even though the outer face of their bottom courses was not reached below the earliest surface in adjoining Room 122 in B100. Stratum VIIIB was also the period of construction of Buildings 113 and B204 inside Casemate Wall 1004 on the south, of Building 200 adjacent to Drain 218, and of Building 300 in Field E. The occupation during this period is marked by the highest percentage of red slipped, and red slipped and burnished pottery (Daviau 1993b) in the form of bowls, jugs and juglets. Three of the most common Stratum-VIII bowl types consist of red slipped and burnished vessels; a) small hemispherical bowls (Fig. 12.1:1; 3:1), b) carinated bowls with vertical rim
Figure 12.4. Typical Stratum-VIII vessels from Fields B and E; 1) V221 (B63/63.4), 2) V512 (E64/72.3), 3) V314 (E54/170.7), 4) V462 (E54/89.6).
(Fig. 12.3:4), and c) deep and shallow, bent-sided bowls with a simple rim (Figs. 12.1:2; 3:2). Inverted rim bowls and kraters (Figs. 1:3; 3:5, 6), often smudged on the interior suface, occur in both unslipped and slipped and painted versions. Painted pottery was recovered in all Stratum-VIII structures, although the finest examples are from Building 300 in the form of bowls (Fig. 12.3:6), and large and small jugs (Fig. 12.4:3). In the case of V351, the entire vessel was red slipped and painted with thin black bands on a broad band of white wash. Unslipped bowls with inverted triangular rim (Fig. 12.1:3) and kraters with inverted rectangular rim with a smudged (black or gray) interior are also common forms. One-handled cups (Fig. 12.3:3) were present in B300, but rare in other buildings, and are almost exclusively a StratumVIII form. The characteristic juglet of the buildings in Fields A–B is a globular juglet, red slipped, with a ridged rim and spout (Fig. 12.1:4); a greater variety of juglet types is represented in B300, including two black juglets (Daviau 2001: fig. 2:5–6).
Stratum VIIIB–A appears to have been the floruit of Ammonite culture. The adoption of red slip as the characteristic surface treatment for small bowls, juglets, and painted jugs is comparable to the ceramic traditions operative in Phoenicia, Israel, and Judah at the same time. Recent 14C dates at Tel Dor help to establish a sequence of dates that puts the first occurrence of red slipped pottery after 850 BC (Gilboa 2001:1347). However, there is still little in the way of absolute dates to anchor this ceramic development in Transjordan, especially in view of the current debate concerning state formation in Israel and Judah (Finkelstein 1999; see his bibliography). Steiner (2001:113) notes that the dating of the early Iron II “administrative centre” of Jerusalem probably falls into the 10th or 9th century, when red slip pottery is almost completely absent; it does appear, however, in the expanded town of the late 9th-8th centuries. Stratum VIIIA The transition from Stratum VIIIB to VIIIA at Tall Jawa appears to have been less violent than that of Stratum X to IX, but is marked by rebuilding of the inner casemate wall, especially in Fields A and B, the partial blocking of Doorway K to form Doorway A, the laying of new floors (or the use of collapsed ceilings as floor surfaces) in Building 300, and the clearing of Cistern E64:13. The latest pottery forms present in Building 300 show the introduction of new forms, such as the straightsided saucer bowl, along with a few new fabric types; these assemblages probably date to the second half of the 8th century BC, with parallels from Hazor Strata V and IV (Yadin 1958: LXXIII:38; 1960: XCIV:14, XCIX:18). Stratum VII Changes to the wall system during the transition from Stratum VIII to Stratum VII were most apparent in the southeastern part of the town where a terrace was defended by a single, solid wall rather than the casemate system. At the same time, the gate complex (B910) located here may have already been in use in Stratum VIII; its reuse and final remodelling as an industrial complex is contemporary with Buildings 900 (Field C-east), B700 (Field D) and B800 (Field C-west).
Stratum VIIB The construction of two rectilinear buildings (B700, B800) on the southeast terrace, both different in style from the Stratum VIII-buildings, suggests that a new style of town planning was introduced. Building 700 was not built up against the wall system as were the domestic units of Stratum VIIIA, but was located near the centre of the tell, north of Buildings 800 and 900. Both Buildings 700 and B800 were domestic structures, but appear to be larger than what might be expected for modest housing; B800 measures 231.5m2 and B700 is at least 195.2 m2. on the lower floors alone. In Building 800, there would have been approximately 22 rooms on two stories, and in Building 700 there may have been as many as 18. In both cases, there were stonebuilt staircases that led up to the second storey (Daviau 1994: fig. 13), a feature that appears to be local.6 Although these structures share certain similarities with other 7th century buildings in Cisjordan (Daviau 2001a:220–221), there are no known parallels from Transjordan. Assyrian influence can be seen when these building plans are compared to houses in Assur (Daviau 2001a:221, n. 23), although these are usually described as having a central court, whereas the main room of the largest Tall Jawa house (B800) was clearly roofed. Stratum VIIA The fortification system appears to have changed during Stratum VIIA, since the gate area was transformed into a group of industrial rooms. It is not known where the major entrance into the settlement was located at this time, although it may have been somewhere on the east side of the site. Occupation in the damaged buildings on the west and north sides (B102, B300) of the site does not appear to have resumed; this area may have been abandoned or used for industrial purposes. A certain amount of continuity in the ceramic assemblage can be seen in the use of the carinated, red slipped bowl form (Figs. 12.3:4; 12.5:6), the pithos, hippo jars, and the cooking pot with folded rim (Fig. 12.4:1). The most significant changes are evident in an increasing number of saucer bowls (Fig. 12.5:1, 2) and the virtual disappearance of hemispherical bowls of Stratum VIII. So too, Assyrian style carinated 6 This feature was not part of any of the fully exposed Stratum VIII-houses at Tall Jawa, or of the earlier buildings at Khirbat al-Mudayna al-#Aliya (Routledge 2000:49– 58).
Figure 12.5. Typical Stratum-VII vessels; 1) V808 (C17/71.6), 2) V812 (C27/52.7), 3) V790 (C17/86.3), 4) V924 (C65/60.9), 5) V893 (A83/45.1), 6) V822 (C27/10.1), 7) V703 (D21/20.1), 8) V879 (A83/98.2).
bowls were not present in Stratum VIII, although they do appear in Stratum VII (Daviau 2001: fig. 5:1–2). This repertoire is also characterized by eggshell thin, fine wares, possibly an imitation of the “Palace Ware” known in Assyria (Oates 1959: pl. XXXV:18, 20, XXXVI:27, 28, 29). At Tall Jawa, these bowls appear in the traditional clay fabric well known from Stratum VIII and were red slipped and burnished. Other new forms that make their appearance are the carrotshaped bottle, vessels with finger depressions (Daviau 2001b: fig. 4.3; 2001a:225–226; fig. 6), and off-set rim bowls (Fig. 12.5:3–4).7 Minor 7 A good example of a typical late Iron II ceramic assemblage with parallels to several Tall Jawa vessel types comes from Field Phase 6B in the administrative complex at Tall al-#Umayri (Lawlor 2000: fig. 3.29).
Figure 12.6. Typical Stratum-VII vessels; 1) V795 (C17/85.7), 2) V786 (C17/86.2).
changes are also reflected in cooking pots that have a thickened rim and short neck (Fig. 12.6:1). A more significant change is seen in the introduction of a large pithos with a folded, rectangular rim, wide mouth and multiple handles that shares these features with deep kraters. The Tall Jawa kraters are similar to those from Stratum II at Beer-sheba (Aharoni 1973: pl. 65:1– 4, 7), although the shoulder is more pronounced; this shoulder appears in earlier versions (Stratum VI) of this vessel at Beer-sheba (Brandfon 1984: fig. 29:5). The multi-handled pithoi at Tall Jawa that share the same upper body form as the kraters are twice as large (ca. 1.20 m) and have the lower body and base of the standard Stratum-VIII pithoi. The tradition of the hippo style storejar continues, although certain vessels reflect change over time. This is seen in new rim forms (Fig. 12.6:2) and in a narrowing of the shoulder and body of the vessel, a tendency seen already in B300 (Fig. 12.6:2). Another new form is the decanter; this form appears in both small (Fig. 12.5:8) and large versions and is a vessel type well known from late Iron II Judah. Several small decanters are painted with black bands and have a strainer spout on one side; these vessels have close parallels in the assemblages from the tomb at Sahab . and at Madaba (Dornemann 1983: fig. 37:14–17). More significant as a chronological marker of cultural change is the introduction of a group of new ceramic fabrics.8 The distinguishing element in one of these fabrics is the production of highly levigated clay;9 there was a virtual elimination of organic inclusions and the
8 Dornemann (1983:179) claims that there was “a complete overlap” in the forms and fabrics used for red slipped, black slipped and creamy wares in late Iron Age II. At Tall Jawa, the new fabrics of Stratum VII appear in only a limited number of traditional Stratum-VIII forms and in almost all of the new Stratum-VII vessel types. 9 Certain scholars limit the definition of “levigation” (Homès-Fredericq and Franken 1986:26) to a refined clay used to produce the fine wares of Petra in the late Hellenistic-early Roman period. However, Rawson’s (1954:170) analysis of Assyrian
reduction in size of non-plastic inclusions.10 The use of a fast wheel (Dornemann 1983:49) would necessitate this change in clay fabric to protect the potter from injury caused by the rotation of clay containing large inclusions. The speed of the wheel is evident in the sharp rills on the interior surfaces; this is seen most clearly in the oblong juglets (Fig. 12.5.7). A second technological change is apparent in a higher firing temperature that resulted in the fully oxidized cores and hard finish of the levigated vessels.11 A second diagnostic fabric for the period is black ware that was slipped and burnished. This fabric was used exclusively for bowl forms at Tall Jawa (Fig. 12.5.5; Daviau 2001a: fig. 9:1–4).12 A change also took place in the realm of utilitarian wares, for example in the case of the ceramic mortar bowl or grater (London 1992:90). Whereas these bowls usually have tripod feet in Stratum VIII, the new type is very shallow, with a ring base and wedge-shaped depressions in the centre of the bowl (Daviau 2001a: fig. 10).13 Zertal (1989:81) was the first scholar to suggest that this decoration originated in Mesopotamia; however, his view that this vessel form and its characteristic depressions came to the hill country of central Palestine with deportees from Babylonia may not apply to the situation at Tall Jawa, where the local cultural traditions continued in use.14 At present, there is insufficient evidence for Zertal’s interpretation of cultural change at Transjordanian sites. It is clear that the introduction of these graters reflects a change, either in food processing techniques or in diet, which was probably
Palace wares from Nimrud characterized the clay as either naturally washed or “artificially levigated”. 10 At Dayr #Alla, Franken (1982:144) dated this change in fabric to the 7th century BC, and associated it with the re-introduction of the fast wheel, which allows for the production of “wheel-thrown pottery.” 11 For a more detailed discussion of the five vessel types that appear in this fabric, see Daviau (2001a:227–233). 12 Small black juglets appear only in Stratum VIII loci and reflect an earlier tradition. 13 The shallow ceramic mortar bowls with tripod feet (V827) in use in Stratum VIII continued into Stratum VII; however, the wedge incised graters were produced in a different fabric, with a different surface colour (gray). 14 More serious disruption of the local cultural traditions took place at towns in Syria, where Assyrian control resulted in deportation of certain elements of the population and the introduction of settlers from other areas of Assyria. This disruption is represented by a deterioration in the ceramic repertoire and the abandonment of the fortifications, such as at the site of Tell #Arqa (Chaaya 2000: 216–217).
part of the technological and cultural changes resulting from increased Assyrian influence in the region.15 Conclusion It is at the two ends of the chronological spectrum (Iron Age I and late Iron Age II) that the links with known technological and cultural changes are evident. At the same time, the beginning and end of this spectrum cannot be located in an absolute chronology. Iron I begins when the collared-rim pithos is already the current form for large storage jars, and Iron II ends during the time of obvious Assyrian influence. No seals with Babylonian motifs were recovered, not was there any other evidence for exclusively 6th century material, although its continuation during the Babylonian period is a possibility (Chapter 13). The precise event that brought occupation at Tall Jawa to an end remains unknown. What is certain is that the periods of occupation preserved at this site represent the time before and during state formation on the Jordanian plateau. The strong links between the ceramic traditions of Tall Jawa and that of #Amman confirm its integration into the kingdom of the b˘enê #Ammôn. Tall Jawa’s position in the landscape emphasizes its strategic importance for the small kingdom, but does nothing to illuminate its particular history, the events that brought each stratum to an end, or its ancient name.
15 Sherds from similar bowls appear at Tall al-#Umayri (Low 1991: fig. 8.22:22, 23), at Balu# (1991), and at Tall as-Sa#idiyya (Pritchard 1985: fig. 16:14). At Tall al-#Umayri, the wedge incised bowls are assigned to the early Persian period (Low 1991:173); this is not surprising at a site where occupation was not interrupted but continued into the Persian period.
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THE AMMONITES: A HISTORICAL SKETCH P-E D
Introduction This short presentation of the Ammonites—their name, territory, origin, and political history until the fall of their kingdom—is based above all on ancient texts. It is meant as a companion piece to Michèle Daviau’s study of Ammonite material culture in the Tall J¯aw¯a final report. This is neither a complete nor an exhaustive coverage of Ammonite history during the Iron Age. Scholars who had the privilege of reading Hübner’s magisterial monograph (1992) will not learn much in the following pages, although I sometimes adopted different positions, and was able to bring into the picture a few tiny pieces of evidence that were not yet available to that historian. Everyone will notice that I did not discuss Ammonite language nor Ammonite religion, a difficult task that was accomplished recently and successfully by Aufrecht (1999a; 1999b). I have tried to quote all the relevant ancient sources of any importance, but I did not refer to any large amount of secondary literature, a task that would have generated a mass of annotation and bibliography, dwarfing the text of this short essay. “Ammonites”—The Name Orientation The English word “Ammonite” belongs to a well-known class of ethnic designations characterized by the ending -ite, which also includes, for instance, “Moabite” and “Edomite.” As we shall see, this usage differs from that of the Hebrew Bible and the other ancient sources; in Antiquity, when referring to this people, one normally used phrases translating as “children of Ammon” or “house of Ammon.”
Second Millennium Attestations? No mention of #Ammôn, nor indeed of the b˘enê #Ammôn (“children of Ammon”) can be found in any document firmly dated to the 2nd millennium or earlier times, whether in the Ammonite language or in Egyptian, Akkadian or Hebrew. In our days no serious biblical scholar will put an early date on the story of Lot and his daughters (Gen 19:30–38), or on the narratives of Moses’ conquest of Transjordan (Num 21–36 passim, espec. 21; Deut 2–3). The heroic legends of Jephthah (the core of Judg 11:1–12:7) and Saul (1 Sam 11:1–11) may not be devoid of factual foundations, and may deal with events of the eleventh century; but these stories too came down to us in redactions much more recent than the events they purport to relate, and they cannot be trusted to preserve the earliest name given to the Ammonites and the date when it first appeared. Priority must be given to contemporary, epigraphic sources over the biblical materials with their long history of literary transmission and modification. “Ammonites” in Neo-Assyrian and Later Cuneiform Inscriptions In 853, Shalmaneser III allegedly defeated a coalition of “twelve” Syrian kings at Qarqar (Tell Qarqur?) on the Orontes (Dion 1997:183– 89). In his Kurkh Monolith, which was inscribed soon after this battle, the Assyrian lists his adversaries (RIMA 3:23), mentioning among them Ba-"a-sa son of Ru-hu-bi KUR a-ma-na-a-a, “Baasha (…) of the ˘ country Amana.” It has been widely accepted that this Baasha was an Ammonite ruler; the Qarqar narrative used an ethnic designation of the same type as Hebrew #Amm¯onî, and attested to the existence of an Ammonite kingdom in the mid-ninth century. However the “Amana” ˘ ˇ mentioned in this text is more likely to be the Gebel eˇs-Sarqi, or AntiLebanon (Cogan 1984; Lipinski ´ 2000:343); and the use of a-ma-na-aa for “Ammonite” does not agree with later cuneiform usage. When they refer to the Ammonites, Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC; text in Tadmor 1994:170)1 and his successors constantly use expressions containing the sumerogram É, for bît, “house;” typically, one finds URU (“city”) É Am-ma-na-a-a, or KUR (“country”) É Am-ma-na-a-a (Hübner 1992:244).2 The testimony of the Kurkh Monolith must therefore be 1 This is Tiglath-pileser’s longest “summary inscription” (No. 7 in Tadmor’s edition), written between 729 and 727. 2 A tantalizing exception is KUR ba-an am-ma-na-a-a, which is found on two Nim-
left aside.3 Without it, the Neo-Assyrian material clearly does not bring us back to the beginnings of the Ammonite state; but its homogeneity,4 and its agreement with the epigraphic and biblical data to be reviewed forthwith, will prove important in assessing the nature of Ammonite society. “Ammonites” in Ammonite Epigraphy The name of the Ammonite people appears very seldom in the more than 150 Ammonite epigraphs that have been recovered (Aufrecht 1989; Hübner 1992:15–129). Its only two attestations from the days of independence are the title mlk bn #mn, repeated three times on lines 1–3 of King #Amminadab’s inscription on the Tall S¯ır¯an bronze bottle (Aufrecht 1989:203); and the same title, born by king B#lyˇs # (the biblical Ba#alis, a contemporary of Jeremiah, Jer 40:14), restorable on a seal from a private collection (Deutsch and Heltzer 1999:53–56).5 The name #mn has also been found on a bulla in Aramaic script discovered at Tall al-#Umayri in 1989, in the phrase sˇb" #mn, apparently the name plus condensed title of a Persian governor of the Ammonite province (Herr 1992:190–93 and figs. 3–6). Here the mention of #mn alone (the city of #Amm¯an as a name for the whole province?), instead of the older phrase bn #mn, reflects the new political situation, and does not detract from the significance of the massive attestation of bn #mn / (KUR/URU) É am-ma-na-a-a in the days of the Ammonite monarchy. The Biblical Names for the Ammonites The Old Testament uses three different designations for the Ammonites: #ammôn alone, as a collective; the gentilicium #amm¯onî; and the phrase b˘enê #ammôn, “the children of Ammon.” b˘enê #ammôn is vastly predominant; it appears 104 times. #ammôn as a collective occurs in Ps 83:8, in a context containing other unusual rud tablets of the late 8th century, ND 2765 and, by means of a restoration, ND 10078; see, conveniently, Timm 1989:339. As noted by Hübner, this form may imitate the Ammonite expression bn #mn. 3 Contrast Halpern 2001:179–83. 4 The oscillation between the determinatives URU and KUR is immaterial; the same uncertainty occurs in the Neo-Assyrian designations of many other nations. 5 Many have also restored bn #m[n] at the end of the fragmentary Amman Theatre Inscription (late 6th century?); but the second letter of the last word is more probably a sˇin than a mem (Aufrecht 1989:153).
expressions, such as p˘eleˇset for the Philistines. This form also appears in the Masoretic Text of 1 Sam 11:11, and it is hard to decide between this reading and that of the Versions, which imply b˘enê #ammôn but may be normalizing the phrase instead of preserving the original text. Finally the gentilicium #amm¯onî, the closest linguistic equivalent to our word “Ammonite,” appears twenty times. Two of these are mere repetitions of the book of Kings by the Chronicler; and seven occur in the post-exilic Ezra-Nehemiah, which never uses b˘enê #ammôn. Outside Ezra-Nehemiah, most examples are of the type “So-and-so the Ammonite” (e.g., N¯ah. ¯asˇ h¯a #amm¯onî, 1 Sam 11:1, 2), and are not at loggerheads with the use of b˘enê #ammôn as the nation’s name; in 1 Kgs 11:1 above all, an adjective is particularly apposite. Only three times (Deut 2:20; 23:4; 1 Kgs 11:5) does the choice of #amm¯onî(m) instead of ben- or b˘enê #ammôn seem somewhat a-typical. #ammôn or #amm¯an?—The Greek Evidence English “Ammonite” is derived from Ammonites, which translates #amm¯onî in the Latin Vulgate; but the Latin, as well as the Greek and Syriac, does not privilege this term and follows the Hebrew preference for “children of Ammon.” The only remarkable phenomenon is the Greek vocalization "Amman, "Ammanit¯es instead of "Amm¯on, "Amm¯onit¯es that one would expect on the basis of the Masoretic Text. Against the MT, Greek "Amman thus sides with the vocalization ostensibly reflected by Akkadian am-ma-na and surviving until now in Arabic (#Amm¯an). As the name is written without vowel letters in Ammonite epigraphy, it is hard to decide whether the native pronunciation was */#amm¯an/ or /#ammôn/. The prevailing opinion (Aufrecht 1999b:172) is that the Canaanite shift from /¯a/ to /¯o/ had indeed affected the Ammonite language and that MT #ammôn is correct; but the supporting evidence6 is very thin, and the main reason for accepting the Canaanite shift is the general agreement of Ammonite with the other Canaanite languages. This position seems difficult to reconcile with data from Hellenistic times. The so-called Zeno papyri from the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–246 BC) call the Ammonite territory "Ammanitis7 and its cap6 A royal name written Budu"ilu in Akkadian (see below); the name of the god Milkom. 7 A short for *"Ammanitis ch¯ora. "Ammanitis is indeed an adjective, the same used by the Septuagint to translate the feminine #amm¯onît, applying to women like Na#amah, Rehoboam’s mother (1 Kgs 14:21).
ital Birta t¯es "Ammanitidos and Rabbatammana.8 In the latter part of the 2nd century BC, Rabbatammana also appears in Polybius (V.71.4), and "Ammanitis in 2 Macc 4:26; 5:7. It thus appears that "Amman, "Ammanit¯es in the Septuagint (and in Josephus’ paraphrase) simply follow, and corroborates, contemporary Greek usage, and it is hard to explain this vocalization with /a/ other than by a local tradition going back to the Ammonites of old. It seems therefore most likely that, in their own reckoning, the Ammonites were in fact Ammanites. The etymology of this word, or rather of #amm¯an, is not entirely clear. Gen 19:38 derives it from ben #ammî, “son of my kin,” obviously invented to fit the story; but it is probably right in pointing to the word #am, “kinsman,” common in Semitic onomastics. One may construe #amm¯an as a hypocoristicon of some name like “ #ammî-"¯el,” in which however the divine element cannot be determined with certainty.9 The Ammonite Country Approximative Delimitation The Ammonite Territory According to the Literary Sources The literary sources are unsatisfactory; it is impossible to determine the boundaries of the Ammonite country with real precision on their basis. The main indications are found in the Old Testament, and they agree on a few important facts:10 the children of Ammon live north of the Moabites (Deut 2:17–19, 24), and east of the territories that Israel conquered from Sihon, king of Heshbon (Num 21:24); their land is mountainous and close to the Jabboq (W¯ad¯ı az-Zarqa; Deut 2:37); they are more or less contiguous to Aramaean territories (2 Sam 10); and they are threatened on the east by those camel nomads that the Bible calls “children of the east” (bny qdm; Ezek 25:4, 5, 10). Their polity stands and falls with one particular town, rbh, “the great one” (2 Sam 11:1), rbt bny #mwn, “the great one of the children of Ammon” (2 Sam 12:26–30), “their city” (2 Sam 10:8). This picture agrees with that implied by Assyrian inscriptions, from Tiglath-pileser III, who names Ammon before Moab in a list running 8 For references and discussion see Hübner 1992:220–21. Note the possible exception quoted ibid. n. 287. 9 See Hübner 1992:243. 10 I only refer to a few texts to illustrate these well-known facts, without any attempt at being exhaustive.
roughly from north to south (summary inscription No. 7, reverse, line 10'; Tadmor 1994:170), to Ashurbanipal, who names Ammon in his record of operations against the Arabs throughout southern Syria and Transjordan (Prism A, col. VII, line 110; Timm 1989:394). Thanks to its archaeological importance, a continuous tradition,11 and its agreement with the topographical pointers found in 2 Sam 10–12, there is no doubt whatsoever that the Ammonite capital was located at present-day #Amm¯an, more precisely, on the #Amm¯an citadel. Unfortunately, of the few other biblical place names attributed to the Ammonites—Aro#er (Josh 13:25; Judg 11:33), Abel-keramim (Judg 11:33), Ai (Jer 49:3), Minnith (Judg 11:33; Ezek 27:17; a real toponym??)—Rabbah, the capital (#Amm¯an) is the only ancient toponym that can be located with reasonable certainty (Hübner 1992:131–37). The well-known town of Heshbon is included in Jeremiah’s oracle against Ammon (Jer 49:3), but this reflects at best a late situation, since, after the demise of Sihon, Heshbon is usually ascribed to the Israelites, and sometimes to the Moabites as in Jeremiah’s foregoing oracle (48:2, 34, 45). Serious effort has been spent on locating Jazer, which may have lain at Hirbat Jazz¯ır, 4 km south of as-Salt. (MacDonald 1999:34– ˘ 35). In modern translations, Num 21:24 presents Jazer as the border between Sihon’s Amorite kingdom and the Ammonites (cf. vv. 26, 32). Unfortunately this is based on the Greek reading of Num 21:24; the Hebrew text, which does not contain the word Jazer, suits the context even better, and does not show any trace of corruption. In any case, the rest of the evidence presents Jazer not as Ammonite,12 but as Amorite and then Israelite. Archaeological Pointers to the Extent of the Ammonite Territory Find Spots of Ammonite Inscriptions One cannot claim for Ammonite every place where just any piece of Ammonite writing, howsoever unimportant, has been found; a good case in point is an ostracon with a list of names found in Iraq (Nim11 In addition to the Hellenistic references given above, see the patristic evidence quoted in Schürer 1979:155 (texts of Eusebius, Jerome, Stephanus Byzantius). 12 1 Macc 5:8 states that Judas Maccabaeus took Jazer from Timotheos, the general of the “children of Ammon.” But this text reflects a late situation, in which one only has to cross the Jordan to confront the Ammonites (v. 7). It is interesting that Judas took Jazer rather than any town traditionally ascribed to that people.
rud), which current scholarly opinion considers Ammonite.13 Yet, the geographical distribution of Ammonite epigraphs with certified archaeological provenience14 is a valuable clue to the extent of the Ammonite territory, and most of the Ammonite inscriptions found so far actually fall in line with the indications taken from the literary evidence. #Amm¯an itself (with its suburb Umm Udayna) is the most important ¯ place of discovery, and most of the other inscriptions were discovered within a radius of 20 km around the capital, at Sah¯ . ab, Tall al-#Umayri, Tall S¯ır¯an, and Hirbat Umm ad-Dan¯an¯ır. ˘ There are important exceptions to this concentration around #Amm¯an. Ammonite text has been found at Tall al-Maz¯ar in the Jordan Valley, slightly north of Dayr #All¯a, and therefore of the Jabboq, reputedly the northern limit of the Ammonite kingdom. An ostracon from the early 6th century discovered at Tall al-Maz¯ar (No. 3; Aufrecht 1989:334–37) contains the remains of a short message in Ammonite;15 another one (Tall al-Maz¯ar No. 7; Aufrecht 1989:340–42) is in Aramaic script and goes back to the 5th century at the earliest. It contains a list of names, one of which is Ammonite (mlkmyt), another one Jewish, one Persian, and the others of nondescript Semitic origin. This material leaves little doubt about Ammonite presence at Tall al-Maz¯ar in the 6th-5th centuries. It may not be sufficient, however, to prove that the area was under Ammonite control, even during that period. The dearth of traces of Ammonite culture in the Jordan Valley, and the different language (a very marginal type of Aramaic) used in the socalled “Balaam Inscription” (ca. 800 BC) at neighbouring Dayr #All¯a (Hoftijzer–Van der Kooij 1976), favour a rather minimalist interpretation of the Tall al-Maz¯ar finds with regard to the extent of the Ammonite realm.16 Another exception is found at Tall Hisb¯ . an (biblical Heˇ . sbôn). Several ostraca discovered there have been claimed by Cross ( e.g. 1986; see now 2003) for Aramaic epigraphy. Although challenged by Hübner (1988), who argued that those ostraca were Moabite, Cross’s analysis has been followed by most. A couple fragments may go back to the Baghdad, Iraq Museum, No. 73200. See Aufrecht 1989:118–24. Unfortunately many seals were acquired by private collectors from the antiquities trade. 15 Ostraca Nos. 4 and 5, apparently from the same period, have also been claimed to be Ammonite but are too poorly preserved to be considered here. 16 By the end of the Assyrian empire however, Dayr #All¯ a may have fallen into the lap of the Ammonite kingdom; two Ammonite ostraca were found there, one of which 13 14
7th century, but the most important pieces, now labelled A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, and discussed in the past as Heshbon Ostraca IV, XI, XII, II and I, range from ca. 600 to ca. 500. Ostraca A4 and A5 illustrate the gradual Ammonite adoption of the pervasive Aramaic script, and the advent of a broader, international set of personal names; but throughout this series typical Ammonite names, and Canaanite forms such as bn for “son,” leave little doubt about the tradition here represented. This material concurs with Jer 49:3 in suggesting that Tall Hisb¯ . an came under Ammonite control in the late 7th century and remained Ammonite for a while. Find Spots of Distinctive Aramaic Artefacts The geographical extent of the Ammonite settlement can also be inferred from the distribution of a few objects typical of Ammonite material culture. One can no longer depend on the clue once taken from the massive towers called rujm in Arabic, which were not exclusive to Ammonite territory, and, in many cases, not contemporary with the Ammonites (Hübner 1992:155; Bienkowski 2000:50); but two other kinds of artefacts seem distinctive enough, and important enough, to be useful in mapping the Ammonite area. The first of these types of artefacts is the Ammonite stone statuary, with at its core limestone statues representing heads, or whole persons, of males wearing various adaptations of the Egyptian atef crown (Abou Assaf 1980). All the examples whose provenance is known were discovered in #Amm¯an or its vicinity, at Hirbat al-Hajj¯ . ar, Ab¯u #Aland¯a, and ˘ #Ar˘ga¯ n, within a radius even shorter than that of the main concentration of Aramaic epigraphs. Typical pottery, especially the black-burnished ware of Iron IIB–C, can also be considered diagnostic of Ammonite culture, and useful in identifying Ammonite settlements. This pottery abounds in #Amm¯an (Dornemann 1983:107–110), and occurs as well on sites like Meq¯abal¯en (Dornemann 1983:109), Sah¯ . ab (Dornemann 1983:108), Tall J¯aw¯a (Daviau 2001:59–60), and Tall al-#Umayri (London, Plint and Smith 1991:437). To find significant samples of similar pottery, one has to
could be dated ca. 600 and the other some time in the 5th century (Van der Kooij and Ibrahim 1989:69–70). In favour of a rather extensive Ammonite territory at the end of the Assyrian era, see, e.g. Lemaire (1994:19); for a maximalist view, Herr and Najjar (2001:335).
go to northernmost Syria, where some was found at Tall Ta#yin¯at (Dornemann 1983:110) and Tall Bassît..17 Conclusions The various criteria that I have reviewed indicate most clearly that the Ammonite country strongly gravitated around #Amm¯an, but they leave its outer limits shrouded in obscurity, and do not allow any neat borderline to be drawn around the realm. Clearly enough, Ammonite settlements did not extend eastward into the Syrian desert, and very few indeed are found east of #Amm¯an, itself dangerously close to the desert; but one encounters greater difficulties when trying to determine the other borders of the Ammonites. In spite of the biblical hints that the Jabboq set a northern limit to Ammonite land, the dearth of archaeological sites in the northeast leaves an element of uncertainty about the exact situation that prevailed on the upper Jabboq. This is regrettable, for one would like to know whether Ammonite rule extended to the valuable iron ore deposits of the Mu˙garat al-Warde area, the most important source for this metal in southern Syria-Palestine (Coughenour 1976). The iron jewellery from the Baq#ah shows that people of this region had access to the iron of Mu˙garat al-Warde at the end of the Late Bronze Age and during the early Iron Age (McGovern 1995:31–33); but the situation that prevailed during the classical times of the Ammonite kingdom remains obscure. The find of Ammonite epigraphs at Tall al-Maz¯ar poses the problem of the relationship between the Ammonites and the Jordan Valley, and may hint at Ammonite expansion in that direction towards the end of the age of independence. In fact, the whole western front of the Ammonite kingdom, and its southern limits as well, is open to much questioning. The biblical books—our only literary source in this matter—make it clear that the Ammonite realm lay east of the regions that the Bible describes as Israelite (broadly speaking, “Gilead”), and north of Moab; but the boundaries of Gilead and of Moab were anything but sharp and stable (de Vaux 1978:571–72; Weippert 1997:19– 28). Fortunately, recent archaeological work in what can be called, roughly speaking, northern Moab, from Madaba to the M¯ujib, is on the verge of clarifying the Ammonite/Moabite border (Daviau 1997; Herr 1999:221). Mesha in his inscription claims that he re-possessed
17
Prof. Jacques Perreault, personal communication.
the “land of Madaba” (KAI 181 lines 7–9); but Ammonite pottery similar to that of Tall J¯aw¯a and Tall al-#Umayri is found at Tall Jal¯ul (east of Madaba) and Rujm al-Heri (south); while Moabite pottery is present at Hirbat al-Mudayna on the W¯ad¯ı ath-Thamad (just 3 km south of Rujm ˘ al-Heri) and several adjacent defensive towers. The problem of Heshbon, which certainly changed hands repeatedly, is a sad illustration of this uncertainty as far as the southwest is concerned. Further north, #Ir¯aq al-Am¯ır, down in the deep W¯ad¯ı as.-Sîr, . well below the Ammonite hill country, poses another problem, since it may have been the private estate of feudal rulers who controlled the Ammonite country during much of the 3rd-2nd centuries BC and perhaps even earlier. Finally, the position of the undoubtedly Ammonite sites of Hirbat ˘ Umm ad-Dan¯an¯ır and Tall S¯ . af¯ut. implies possession of the fertile Baq#ah; but, west of this depression, the massif of as-Salt. may very well have belonged to Gilead rather than to the Ammonite kingdom (Hübner 1992:145). Unfortunately, the archaeological investigation of this area, without which no certainty can be achieved, is still pending. The Character of the Ammonite Country If the northern iron mines lay outside Ammonite borders, this landbound country, dry from May to September, and richer in stone and clay than in metal ores, was admittedly not predestined for material prosperity. However, free from the unhealthy humidity of the deep valleys, the Ammonite highlands receive more than the minimum 200 mm of annual precipitation required for dry farming, and #Amm¯an itself is blessed with a long-term average of 500 mm. This chief city is also well supplied in permanent water resources (Thompson:2000:482), with the potential to grow into a sizable demographic and economic centre. Northwest of #Amm¯an, the well-watered Baq#ah has particularly good agricultural land (largely terra rossa), where cereals can prosper (McGovern 1986:1–6). The north has wooded areas, and typical Mediterranean plants such as the vine and the olive tree do well even in the dryer or more rugged regions. Pasture for sheep and goats is available everywhere, and it is clear from innumerable finds of bones— unfortunately not yet tabulated—that animal husbandry was just as flourishing during the Iron Age as it is now. Like the subordinate settlements of Tall J¯aw¯a and Sah¯ . ab, the “Great City” (Rabbâ) of #Amm¯an is located close to the most convenient north-
south caravan trail east of the Jordan, which links Arabia and its special resources to Damascus and the rest of Syria.18 Staying close to the Syrian desert, this trail avoided deep wadies such as the M¯ujib and the Zarqa. From it, one could also reach the Mediterranean harbours via various turnoffs, such as W¯ad¯ı Y¯abis, which led to the Beth-Shean depression and a number of further options (Hübner 1992:233). This advantageous geographical situation must account for much of the rich grave goods found in the tombs of the Ammonite upper class. It is indeed well known that ancient societies relatively poor in natural resources but sitting on important international points of transit, were able to derive considerable benefit from duties they levied on merchants and travelers. Iron Age sources have little to say on this practice, but one can rely on the analogy of an incident that happened in semiindependent Suhu, a state along the Euphrates east of the H¯ab¯ur; a ˘ 770 BC tells at length in his inscriptions ˘ how he ruler of Suhu ca. ˘ waylaid and despoiled an Arabian caravan that had tried to ignore his privileges (Frame 1995:300). Chronological Presentation Late Bronze Age Background Contrary to Nelson Glueck’s long prevalent opinion, the northern part of Transjordan, inclusive of the future Ammonite territory, was not devoid of urban settlements during the Late Bronze Age (Sauer 1986). Besides #Amm¯an itself, definite remains of LB occupation have been found at Sah¯ . ab, Tall S¯ . af¯ut. and Tall al-#Umayri, and a case has also been presented for Hirbat Umm ad-Dan¯an¯ır, largely on the basis of the nearby cemeteries˘ of Jabal al-Haw¯ayah and Jabal al-Qes.¯ır (McGovern 1986:7–17; 336).19 The still incompletely inventoried and even less fully published data suggest a settlement pattern not altogether different from that of contemporary Cisjordan; but it has rightly been emphasized that nothing like the great cities of Hazor or Megiddo has yet 18 I am deliberately avoiding the phrase “King’s Highway.” There is no proof that Iron Age Transjordan knew any organized and controlled highway anticipating the Roman via nova Traiana (Bienkowski 2000:49–50). 19 To say nothing of the curious, apparently isolated “Amman Airport Structure,” which contained considerable evidence of wealth, but on whose meaning scholarly opinion remains divided (see, e.g., Campbell and Wright 1969; Herr 1983; Hübner 1992:160–61).
surfaced in what was to become the kingdom of Ammon (LaBianca and Younker 1995:409). One cannot avoid the issue of the relationship between the sedentary population revealed by those archaeological finds—and the probably larger number of pastoralists who must have surrounded them—, and the “children of Ammon” of the Iron Age sources. Analogy suggests that in Transjordan as well as in Cisjordan, sizable Late Bronze Age urban settlements did not amount to any unified territorial kingdom but were essentially independent entities. Contemporary literary sources too remain silent until well into the Iron Age about the existence of any such kingdom in the #Amm¯an area, or in Transjordan generally. Mesopotamian sources are indeed completely missing, and the very few Transjordanian city states mentioned in sources related to Egypt’s Syrian empire are all located outside the future Ammonite territory; apart from Pahil (i.e., Pella in the Jordan Valley), the names appearing in those sources refer to places located in the far north of present-day Jordan, and—with less certainty—in the future lands of Moab and Edom (Kitchen 1992:23–29). Thutmose III’s so-called List of Asiatic Toponyms is the only Egyptian document from the Late Bronze Age that possibly contains place names relevant to the future kingdom of Ammon, especially Krmn that could perhaps be identified with Tall al-#Umayri via the biblical Abel-Keramim (Redford 1982);20 but in the best of cases, these toponyms reveal a mere itinerary, which does not say anything about the politics or demography of the land. In light of the archaeological evidence now available, the silence of Egyptian sources implies at best that the hill country of Transjordan was quite marginal to imperial interests. This silence may even mean that the future Ammon was still rather modest and unattractive to outsiders during the Late Bronze Age; but there is no doubt that sedentary life was present there long before any clear emergence of the Ammonite identity. As there is no destruction layer implying a general collapse of this modest urban establishment during the 12th century, and as pottery sequences indicate continuity in the development of the material culture (see here Chap. 10), it is not unreasonable to consider the LBA inhabitants of the #Amm¯an area as “proto-Ammonites.”
20 For a piercing critique see Timm (1989:53–56); for a more favourable appreciation, Kitchen (1992:23–25). Other identifications have been envisioned for AbelKeramim (Hübner 1992:162; MacDonald 1999:34).
Emergence of the b˘enê #Ammôn The LaBianca-Younker Hypothesis What is it that triggered the transition from a plurality of local patriotisms to the unified Ammonite identity (bn#mn, bît Am-ma-na-a-a) under monarchic rule? As argued by LaBianca and Younker (1995:410), more than one factor probably contributed to this process. The first two causes put forward by these scholars are based on anthropological views as well as on the archaeologically verified “collapse of the Late Bronze Age city-state system” in Cisjordan and in much of Syria. LaBianca and Younker first argue that this transformation of the economic environment pushed Transjordanian people to intensify their own production in domains for which they used to rely in part on more advanced sedentary cultures. This proposition almost sounds selfevident; but its working out could use more refinement. To illustrate Transjordan’s former dependence on international trade, LaBianca and Younker take all their examples from luxury items, such as “faience amulets and scarabs from Egypt;” it remains to be shown how the drying up of the usual sources for goods like those “led gradually to the intensification of plough agriculture” (my emphasis). The second factor posited by LaBianca and Younker is even more hypothetical. They posit that the collapse of the city-state organization in Cisjordan brought refugees to Transjordan, and thereby new needs, new skills, new opportunities. Once again, there is a certain a priori likelihood to this suggestion, but it is hard to substantiate in the current state of our information. The claim made in Judg 12:4 that the people of Gilead had migrated there from Ephraim is obviously polemical (Weippert 1997:27), and the early Iron Age chronological sequences in Transjordanian pottery and other artefacts are not yet firm enough to establish definite conclusions with regard to innovations brought over from Cisjordan (see Chapter 12 in this volume). More convincing is a third hypothesis: the domino effect of the Philistines’ arrival in Palestine; but this factor is more relevant to the origin of Ammonite kingship than to the germination of an Ammonite tribal identity. It is agreed that the danger represented by a powerful new ethnic group from the Aegean hastened the unification of Israel as a monarchy, and one can expect that Israel’s aggressive expansion, in turn, “precipitated the formation of supra-tribal polities in Ammon and Moab.” I will not discuss the advent of Israelite kingship, but only the early relations between Ammon and Israel—the first events
of Ammonite history to be reflected in ancient sources, and the only ones to be told with a minimum of details.21 The Jephthah Narrative The Jephthah narrative (Judg 11:1–12:7)22 is poorly connected to the deuteronomistic presentation of pre-monarchic Israel by means of the late and utterly unhistorical Judg 10:6–18, and by an end-formula typical of the “Minor Judges” (12:7). Judg 11:1–12:7 contains several stories, of unequal relevance to Ammonite origins. At the root of the tradition is the rather secular career of a crafty, calculating Habiru leader comparable to David (see above all Judg 11:1–11); but ˘in the final form of the story, this character is disguised as a charismatic hero like Saul (Judg 11:29, 32), and the legend of a young girl’s tragic, untimely death (Judg 11:34–40)23 is amalgamated with it by means of the reckless vow motif (Judg 11:30–31).24 The war story proper, focused on a Gileadite confrontation with the Ammonites, has two secondary parts that can be disregarded in assessing its yield about Ammonite origins. One of those is an altercation between Jephthah and the men of Ephraim, illustrative of the Ephraimites’ notorious claim to hegemony (Judg 12:1–6); the other, Judg 11:12–28, is an alleged disputation between Jephthah and the king of the Ammonites—a late, unhistorical, composition that repeats the pentateuchal accounts of Moses’ Transjordanian conquests, and mistakes the Moabite Chemosh for the god of the Ammonites. Place names do not allow us to follow the progress of the military operations with any precision. Most important is Mizpah (Judg 11:11, 29[bis], 34). V. 11 suggests that Mizpah had a YHWH shrine, and 21 There is no doubt that at all times the Ammonites had other aggressive neighbours beside the Israelites, and this above all on the desert front. Why should they not have had to suffer from groups comparable to the Midianites and the Amaleqites, that the Bible portrays harassing the early Israelites? Enemies like those are most likely to account for the destructions detected by archaeologists in the Iron Age I strata of Tall al-#Umayri and Tall Jawa, relatively far from the heartlands both of the Moabites and the Gileadites. Unfortunately, neither the Ammonites nor most of their neighbours left historical records of their own, and one constantly turns to the better-known Israelites when looking for explanations. 22 What follows is my own analysis, but it differs little from those of de Vaux (1978:685–86; 760–61; 819–22) and Hübner (1992:167–68). 23 An aetiological narrative, see Judg 11:39bβ–40. 24 Warriors’ vows are found elsewhere in ancient Near Eastern literature, not only in the Bible (e.g., 1 Sam 14:24—another reckless vow), but already in Ugaritic literature (Krt’s vow, I K col. iv lines 195–207).
in v. 29 this toponym is closely connected with Gilead in the phrase mis. p¯e(h) gil#¯ad. It seems reasonable to assume that Mizpah was a central place in Gilead, and to look for it at or near present-day Hirbat ˘ Jel#ad, south of the Jabboq (de Vaux 1978:820; Weippert 1997:25). The toponyms in the conquest account of Judg 11:33a—Aro#er, Minnith, Abel-Keramim—are obviously chosen to indicate a deep penetration into Ammonite territory; but none of these places can be located with certainty (MacDonald 1999:33–34), and even the authenticity of the half-verse that contains them has been questioned (Mittmann 1969). What emerges from this material is that the Ammonites tried to expand westward, but suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the local people, united under an ad hoc military leader. This story reflects conditions definitely older than the situation documented during Iron Age II, when the kingdom of Israel repeatedly goes to war to assert its claims on Gilead (a Gilead now centered on Ramoth-Gilead, near the present-day Syrian border), and the children of Ammon are ruled by kings, each with a recorded name. In the biblical Jephthah complex, it is remarkable that the Gileadites do not even think of seeking help from across the river, and that the phrase “king of the children of Ammon” is only found in the late, secondary narrative of the diplomatic debate between Jephthah and the invaders (11:12, 14, 28). In the basic narrative, “children of Ammon” appears in almost every sentence, without any kind of leader ever being mentioned. Were Gilead’s aggressors already called children of Ammon when this war took place? This is entirely possible. The eponym of the children of Ammon/bît Ammanaya may very well have been a patriarch like the Aramaean #Adinu—definitely no dynasty founder—who, in the 10th century at the very latest, left his name to the large tribe of the “children of #Adinu” (Bît #Adini), along the western bend of the Euphrates (Dion 1997:87–88, 229–30). If there is anything historical to infer from the Yahwist’s account of Moabite and Ammonite origins (Gen 19:30–38), it is that whenever this narrative was written—or whenever the underlying tradition took shape—the name of Ammon was shrouded in enough obscurity for such a legendary “explanation” to be projected back to the hazy time of the remote ancestors; this could not have happened if Ammon, as David, Omri, Hazael and many other eponyms, had been remembered as a ruler and dynasty founder of the more recent past.
Saul’s Rescue of Jabesh-Gilead In the days of Saul’s rescue of Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam 11:1–11) there remains something of the acephalous character of early Ammonite society, but several things have changed. The direction of the alleged Ammonite thrust has shifted from the west to the northwest, beyond their fabled northern border the Jabboq,25 and the name of Gilead too has clearly moved northward. The Gileadites, still entirely selfcontained in the days of Jephthah, now appeal to Israel for rescue. Most interestingly for our purposes, the Ammonites are united under one leader, Nahash. Much can be said in favour of the basic reliability of this story. As related passages of the books of Samuel (1 Sam 31:8–12; 2 Sam 2:4–7; 21:12), it must be rooted in the heroic traditions of Jabesh. Bezeq (Hirbat Ibz¯ıq), on the east edge of the Israelite highlands almost due west˘ of W¯ad¯ı Y¯abis, is a reasonable point of departure for Saul’s expedition (v. 8); Nahash’s systematic eye gouging (v. 2) is paralleled in contemporary Assyrian war practices;26 and Saul’s recruiting method (v. 7) resembles that of an 18th century Mari official (Dossin 1941: No. 48). On the other hand, we only know this story in a relatively late form, since it portrays Saul on the model of the charismatic “saviours” of Judg 1–8, and includes unlikely details (Hübner 1992:169), such as a fantastic number of combatants (300,000 Israelites and 30,000 Judahites in v. 8), and the suspension of arms granted to the people of Jabesh explicitly to allow them to get help (vv. 3, 10). In view of this late reshaping of 1 Sam 11, it is all the more significant that it does not give the royal title to Nahash, the enemy leader;27 25 The exact location of Jabesh-Gilead is unknown, but its name is clearly related to that of the present-day W¯ad¯ı Y¯ab¯ıs. The town has long been identified with Tall Maql¯ub, but an alternate location, Tall Ab¯u al-H¯araz, was recently submitted again, tentatively, by Peter M. Fischer (see the web site˘ of the Swedish Expedition to Jordan, http://www.lls.se/~fischer/id.htm). 26 Ashur-bel-kala (1073–1056 BC), see Grayson 1991:88; Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 . BC), see Grayson 1991:220–21. 27 Typically, this title, which is not used in the Masoretic Text, is given to Nahash in a Qumrân manuscript (4QSama), whose “plus” vis-à-vis the Masoretic Text (it narrates a previous Ammonite conquest of Gad and Reuben, and the gouging of the men’s right eyes) has been accepted by many as original. As Rofé (1982), I consider this reading as a midrashic expansion. To Rofé’s arguments, one may add that 4QSama, like the LXX, inflates to 70,000 the number of Judahites who followed Saul (for Israelites the figure is lost); and that it leaves one to wonder why the people of Yabesh were the first Gileadites to send for help across the Jordan.
he is simply called “Nahash the Ammonite” (vv. 1, 2), or “Nahash” tout court (vv. 1, 10). Ammonite levies are now, more clearly than before, operating under single command, but apparently not under a king. Yet, irreversible steps may already have been taken in that direction for, if we accept the testimony of the deuteronomistic homily in 1 Sam 12:12 and of the so-called Court History (2 Sam 10:1–2), Nahash did eventually become “king of the children of Ammon.” This could have been facilitated by the co-operation with David alluded to in 2 Sam 10:2, or simply brought about by the example of Israel, and by the continuous pressure that resulted from its very existence. It must be emphasized however that those late witnesses are not absolutely compelling; conceivably, the children of Ammon may not have had any king of their own until some time after the collapse of Israel’s “United Monarchy.” Conclusions In spite of the narrowness of the documentary basis, and of this uncertainty about the time when the full transition to kingship occurred, it seems that, among the Ammonites as in many other tribal societies (Sigrist 1979:97–98; cf. 204–17), the concentration of political power in the hands of a single individual was precipitated by the needs of war. Israel had just followed the same path, and the same thing was happening during the same time period among many Aramaean tribes, such as the already mentioned “children of #Adinu.” Assyrian references make it possible to track the development of this society from an acephalous situation through a period of ineffectual, piecemeal resistance to Assyrian inroads, to its unification under a powerful local/clan leader (Ahuni), who fought Shalmaneser III most vigourously (Dion ˘ Ahuni’s final downfall in 855 does not diminish the repre1997:87–94). ˘ the process that brought him to kingship: state formasentative value of tion followed the same course among the children of Israel, the children of #Adinu and the children of Ammon. The persistently tribal character of the children of Ammon and most probably, of the monarchy that they formed, is more evident than that of those comparable societies. The absolute predominance of the expression “children of …” in referring to them, both in the local epigraphy and in the biblical tradition, is certainly significant in comparison to the phraseology referring to their immediate neighbours. The expressions “children of Israel” and “house of Israel” are
common in the Bible, but their relative frequency to designate Israel is far less impressive than that of “children of Ammon” to designate the Ammonites. This is even more so if one considers Edom and Moab.28 Particularly striking is Jer 27:3, a text from the last decades of the Ammonite kingdom, where the prophet lists: “the king of Edom, the king of Moab, the king of the children of Ammon, the king of Tyre, and the king of Sidon.” In Assyrian references to the Ammonites, the key term is b¯ıt (“house”), in contrast to Moab and Edom, who are never presented as the House of Moab or the House of Edom. In Assyrian terminology, “House of So-and-so” is used mainly for kingdoms with a tribal origin, like those of the Aramaeans and the Chaldaeans (on this whole question, see Dion 1997:225–32). Most of the “So-and-so” who give their names to those “houses” are known dynasty founders, but this is not always the case; think, for instance, of b¯ıt #Adini, which was certainly a tribal entity, and whose eponym #Adinu is an absolutely hazy figure, never clearly referred to as a historical character. It is certainly to this second group, the “houses” whose eponym had not been a king or chieftain of an organized political entity, that the “house of Ammon” belongs; if anyone had known who Ammon really was, how could a legend like Gen 19:30–38 have arisen and been circulated without the utmost ridicule? As a result of this persistent recognition of a tribal character to the Ammonite people even once it had become a “kingdom,” one will have to posit that lineages continued to play a serious role in its cohesion and administration, under the veneer of royal staff and administration that, as we will see, is reflected in the epigraphy. In view of this, Herr’s description of Ammon as a “city-state” (Herr 1999:222; Herr and Najjar 2001:336) only makes sense as a means to emphasize the strong preponderance of the capital city at the top of Ammonite settlement hierarchy. Israelite Domination? Perhaps it was not just the fear of Israel and its example that turned the Ammonite tribe into a monarchy; it may have been a more intimate experience of kingship, acquired under Israelite rule. If we accept the 28 The name of Moab was most probably geographical rather than ethnical, and was treated as such by the Ancients (see Weippert 1994:318–19).
testimony of our single29 source on this subject, 2 Sam 10–12, David, who ruled Israel soon after Saul at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, did not only defeat the children of Ammon; he conquered their capital and their territory, crowned himself king over them,30 despoiled them and exploited their manpower (2 Sam 12:26–31). Unfortunately, the historical reliability of this material is just as low as that of the rest of the Court History (or “Succession Narrative;” very roughly, 2 Sam 2 – 1 Kgs 2), a captivating but late and tendentious historical novel (Van Seters 1983:277–91). Confronted with uncorroborated events, the reader has good cause to be wary of the author’s amazing ability to spin plausible developments. The author (henceforward, ACH) knew from oral tradition and from 2 Sam 8:12 that David had successfully fought the children of Ammon; from 2 Sam 8:3–4, 7–831 he knew that David had also defeated Aramaean forces headed by Hadadezer, king of Zobah. The lands of Maacah and Tob (2 Sam 10:6–8) were still known to the deuteronomistic historians (Josh 13:13; Judg 11:3, 5), and the “city of waters” of 2 Sam 12:27 may still have been extant when he wrote (anything to do with the installations described by Herr and Najjar [2001:338]?). Tradition may even have had it that Solomon’s mother had first been married to Uriah, an officer of David’s, who died in the siege of Rabbah.32 Egged on by his hostility towards David and Solomon, could not ACH invent all the rest, picking on the involvement of Bathsheba’s first husband in military action against the Ammonites, and drawing on his 29 2 Sam 8:11–12 states that the Ammonites were defeated, but it does not necessarily imply that their country was occupied. The children of Ammon are named among the nations that David conquered (kibb¯esˇ), i.e., all the nations surrounding Israel and Judah except the Phoenicians, that David was believed to have befriended (1 Kgs 5:1). The verb kibb¯esˇ is strong, and goes beyond a mere defeat on the battlefield; but the context is bombastic, and it includes defeated countries that were not occupied by David—such as Philistia, where Gath kept its own king (1 Kgs 2:39). One cannot base on 2 Sam 8:11–12 alone the usurpation of Ammonite kingship that 2 Sam 12:26–31 credits to David. 30 This is the self-evident meaning of 2 Sam 12:30 if one reads “the crown of their king” (malk¯am) with the Masoretic Text. This sense remains possible if one reads “the crown of Milkom (milk¯om),” i.e., of their chief god, with the LXX. 31 Vv. 5–6, about Damascus, break the continuity of the report and probably did not form part of the original account. 32 2 Sam 23:39 names “Uriah the Hittite” among David’s Thirty Heroes; but more than thirty men are listed, and Uriah is the very last in the list. Is this good enough evidence that Uriah had his place in Israel’s collective memory even before the Court History was written?
usual crew of characters (Joab and Abishai)? He certainly had the skill to work those ingredients into a gripping and convincing narrative, in which an Ammonite campaign brought Bathsheba to David’s attention, and allowed him to hide their adultery by sending her husband to a certain death.33 Yet, there are parts of 2 Sam 10–12 that cannot be accounted for in this manner. David twice sends his men against the Ammonites (10:7; 11:1); but the first of those campaigns, and the Aramaean wars connected with it, are irrelevant to David’s affair with Bathsheba. There are also details, such as the crown of Milcom (12:30), that are both unnecessary to the vilification of David’s adultery and murder, and concrete enough to come from sources (Rost 1965:184–89) rather than from imagination alone. It seems therefore reasonable to grant a certain amount of historical substance to the wars narrated in 2 Sam 10–12. The Ammonites may have sought34 Aramaean support from northern Transjordan and southern Syria in their struggle against David, and thus succeeded in repelling a first Israelite attack; and David may very well have finally conquered Rabbah, and proclaimed himself king over the children of Ammon. The Independent Ammonite Kingdom When Did the Children of Ammon Recover Their Independence? The documents do not allow us to determine how long the Israelite domination may have lasted. No Ammonite king is named in any inscription written before Assyrian times,35 neither have archaeologists brought to light any material remains clearly pointing to the efforts of a native ruler. An impressive structure such as the cyclopean wall of Tall J¯aw¯a, a wondrous accomplishment if it was the work of such a small community all on its own, went up early in Iron Age II, but does it nec33 For my purposes in this context, it matters little if the report of a second confrontation between Israel and Zobah (2 Sam 11:15–19), and Nathan’s intervention in chap. 12, originally formed part of the Court History. 34 More specifically, “hired,” following a practice common during the Iron Age. The same verb sˇkr is used in the 9th century inscription of Kulamuwa, king of Sam"al (KAI 24 lines 7–8). The relationship between this ruler of a small kingdom in northern Syria and the mighty king of Assyria that he “hired” is comparable to that between the small Ammonite kingdom and the kingdom of Zobah and its allies. From the 8th century, see also 2 Kgs 7:6; 16:17–18. 35 I have argued above that the Baasha that the Kurkh Monolith mentions among his opponents at the battle of Qarqar was no king of Ammon.
essarily have to be credited to a strong central authority? If such was the case, one could also quote the casemate wall at Tall al-#Umayri, which goes back to Iron Age I (Clark 1991:57–58), in favour of an earlier date for Ammonite kingship than the written record can support. A more consistent historical record would tell us when Israel lost its grip on the countries conquered by David; but the Old Testament does not. Reading on patiently, one eventually realizes that Amos 1:13–15 addresses an independent kingdom of Ammon that was extant some time in the 8th century, before the Assyrian takeover in Palestine and southern Syria;36 but one is never told how and when the Ammonites regained their independence under a king of their own. Perhaps the Ammonite liberation followed the weakening of Israel, which ensued from the separation of Israel and Judah ca. 931 BC, and which Shoshenq’s campaign made worse;37 but it may also have had to wait until the weakening of the Omrides in the mid-9th century— the same time when, in Moab, Mesha the Dibonite threw the yoke of Israel. Ammonite independence can hardly have come much later, if, with most scholars, I correctly date and interpret the text known as the “Amman Citadel Inscription” (Aufrecht 1989:154; Hübner 1992:19). This monumental inscription, carved in stone in a script of the late 9th century, is ill preserved and leaves many questions unanswered; but it seems designed as a divine oracle to a king, who is enjoined to build entrances round about, and is heartened with the promise that his enemies will be wiped out. This is a record from an independent ruler, not the representative of a foreign overlord. At whatever date Ammon’s liberation from Israel occurred, there is no reason to believe that it ever fell back under Cisjordanian control.38 The question remains: if by any chance the Omrides dominated Ammon as well as Moab, were they maintaining, or intensifying, a 36 Amos was a contemporary of Jeroboam II (ca. 783–743 BC). His oracle does not indicate how recent is the war crime that he condemns, and this crime may have been committed any time during the first half of the 8th century. 37 In 1 Kgs 14:25–28 Shoshenq’s campaign is reported from a most narrowly Judahite standpoint, but it is clear from his own inscription that Israel was the main target. The Ammonite country apparently was not touched (Kitchen 1992:29; Hübner 1992:180). 38 2 Chron 26:8 would have it that the Ammonites paid tribute to Uzziah, king of Judah (ca. 781–740); but this is not reliable information; see Hübner (1992:188). Neither is it possible to grant any credibility to the 3–year domination of Ammon by Yotam (ca. 740–36), which is asserted by the same source (2 Chron 27:5; see Hübner 1992:190–91).
supremacy that went right back to the United Monarchy, or did they have to re-conquer Ammon after it enjoyed a period of freedom in the days of Jeroboam I and his weak successors? A fresh conquest by the Omrides seems to have been the case as far as Moab is concerned (2 Kgs 3:4–5; KAI 181 lines 4–5);39 but no such information is available concerning Ammon in the late 10th–early 9th century. The Ammonites and Their Neighbours before the Assyrian Takeover Amos 1:13–15 inveighs against the children of Ammon about a border conflict with Gilead, showing that relations between Ammonites and Israelites could go sour after David as well as before him; a time indeed would come, when biblical law would exclude altogether (“even to the tenth generation”) the possibility for Ammonites to join the YHWH community (Deut 23:3). Yet, there are also many signs, even in the biblical text, that this prohibition does not reflect the conditions that really prevailed during Iron Age II, and that there were also peaceful exchanges between those neighbours, who shared very closely related languages and material cultures. Even though Gen 19:30–38 assigns an incestuous origin to the Ammonites, this pericope consecrates at the same time their status as children of Lot, a man who had been closely related to Abraham, and whom YHWH had taken special care to spare when he struck Sodom. According to the Court History (2 Sam 10:2), David had enjoyed some sort of compact with Nahash, apparently the same Ammonite leader who had fought his former lord Saul. His attempt to maintain good relations with Nahash’s successor had failed, but later on ACH names Shobi, another son of Nahash, at the head of the Transjordanian grandees who supported David during his flight from Absalom (2 Sam 18:27–29). This may not imply that Shobi served David—and ruled the Ammonites—as a kind of viceroy, or even, vassal king, and that the continuity of Nahash’ royal line had somehow been affirmed by the conqueror; but clearly ACH did not see David’s conquest as kindling a general and permanent feud between Israelites and Ammonites. Another, more reliable source does mention a child of Ammon who found a niche in the very royal family of Judah—none other than King Rehoboam’s mother, “Naamah the Ammonitess” (1 Kgs 14:21, 39 According to the bombastic language of 2 Sam 8:11–12, Moab, like Ammon, had been conquered (kibb¯esˇ) by David; but we know from Mesha’s own inscription (KAI 181 lines 4–5) that his country, northern Moab, had been subdued by Omri—not by
31). This concrete example, the only one beside “Pharaoh’s daughter,” may be at the root of the deuteronomistic generalization concerning Solomon’s foreign wives in 1 Kgs 11:1–10, and it lends credibility to what is said in the same passage (1 Kgs 11:7) about the bâmâ (“high place”) that Solomon built to M¯olek (sic), the god of the Ammonites. Apart from those meagre biblical allusions, we are completely without literary sources on the one or two centuries Ammonite independence lasted. Strong fortifications like the casemate walls of Tall J¯aw¯a and Tall al-#Umayri, and towers (rujm) that may go back as early as the 8th century (Najjar 1999, esp. 105; Thompson 2000), concur with the promise of divine help against enemies contained in the Amman Citadel inscription, and make it clear that dangers beset this small country. However, the enemies really to be feared perhaps boiled down to Israel or its Transjordanian affiliates (who had a will of their own40 as well as strong cultural differences41 with Cisjordan), and the “children of the east” (Ezek 25:4, 5, 10).42 As for the other neighbours of Ammon, it is worth noting that there is no record whatsoever of hostilities between Ammonites and Moabites, nor between Ammonites and Aramaeans. Aramaean people had long been present in northern Transjordan,43 and the Ammonites had looked up to them as their natural protectors in the days of David’s aggression; there is no record that those David. How serious had been David’s “conquest” of Moab? How long did its results last? It may be a mere fiction, seeking to attribute to David some of the exploits of later rulers. 40 See, e.g., 2 Kgs 15:25. 41 The Balaam inscription from Dayr #All¯ a and its strange dialect (Hoftijzer and Van der Kooij 1991). 42 Ezek 25 brings us down to the beginning of the 6th century; but the validity of the Arab threat for earlier times is unquestionable. Arabs were already present at the battle of Qarqar in 853 (Grayson 1996:23 line 94), and repeatedly fought the Assyrians in the Syrian desert in the 8th and 7th centuries, when, as we saw, Ashurbanipal explicitly names Ammon as forming part of the war theatre. 43 As noted by de Vaux (1978:176–78), the logistics of the narrative of Jacob’s pursuit by the Aramaean Laban in Gen 31 presupposes a geographical point of departure much nearer than Harr¯an, and the heap of stones of Gilead is supposed to mark the ˘ clan and Laban’s Aramaeans. It is remarkable that during the border between Jacob’s Iron Age this became, instead, a border between “Israelites” and Ammonites. The Ammonite settlement may have taken place on territory where Aramaeans had first roamed freely as semi-nomads; when Jacob leaves for Laban’s place, he is said to depart for the land of the “children of the east” (Gen 29:1). I would not follow de Vaux (1978:573), when he surmises that the people supposed, in Gen 31, to have made a compact with Laban were in fact Ammonites “who are included under the very general term of Aramaeans.”
cordial relations later failed. There is no sign, archaeological or otherwise, that the Ammonite country was affected by Hazael’s conquests,44 whereas short Aramaic inscriptions from his time and apparently in the dialect used at Damascus have been found at nearby Dayr #All¯a (Eph#al and Naveh 1993), in territory traditionally claimed by Israel. The Ammonites’ peaceful relations with their southern and northern neighbours, as well as (perhaps most of the time) the Cisjordanian kingdoms, and their position on a convenient north-south line of trade and communications from Arabia through the “Fertile Crescent” helped them to reach a fair degree of economic and cultural development45 even before their entry into the sphere of Assyria opened them to a wider world and increased opportunities. Not only did they show remarkable ingenuity in creating a great variety of ceramics; specialized craftsmen also produced a statuary (Abou-Assaf 1980; Dornemann 1983:154–63), whose abundance and quality so far has no parallel south of the Phoenician cities and the large Aramaean kingdoms, and which owes little, if anything at all, to Assyrian models, but much to Egyptian motifs (largely mediated by the Phoenicians) and to artistic traditions best represented in the northern part of Syria (e.g., the older statuary from Zencirli before the full impact of Assyria). North-Syrian and Phoenician affinities are also evident from the finding among them of types of luxury artefacts common in ancient Syria (and of course, admittedly represented more broadly in the ancient Near East), such as cosmetic palettes and decorated tridacna shells. The Ammonites under Assyrian Overlordship ˇ Sanipu, Servant of Tiglath-pileser III Assyrian kings have been aware of the Transjordanian countries perhaps as early as the end of the 9th century. In his summary inscription on a slab found at Nimrud, Adad-narari III (810–783 BC) names Edom among conquered and tributary lands, strangely omitting the more important kingdoms of Ammon and Moab (Grayson 1996:213 line 12). The “House of Ammon” itself does not appear in Assyrian documents known to us until the reign of Tiglath-pileser III (744–727 BC; text in Tadmor 1994:170), in a list of kings who paid tribute in 734. The
44 On 2 Kgs 10:32–33, and the questionable historical validity of v. 33, see Dion 1997:199. 45 On what follows, see Hübner 1992:229–36.
name of the king mentioned by Tiglath-pileser could be read Sa-ni-pu ˇ b˚ or Sn ˇ p˚ , which figures as the grandor Sa-ni-bu, as the name of one Sn father of *Yarh#azar, a probable royal personage, who dedicated a lime. stone statue found in #Amm¯an (Aufrecht 1989:106; Hübner 1992:24, with an elaborate but inconclusive onomastic discussion in note 35). This identification would be compatible with the little that palaeography of this ill-preserved epigraph can tell, suggesting a date ca. 700. The Ammonite king’s submission to Tiglath-pileser III was a reasonable, and in fact unavoidable decision, considering that the Assyrian army, bent on subduing the “Syro-Ephraimite” coalition, was operating in the immediate vicinity of his kingdom. This practical arrangement was probably easy enough to enter peacefully, thanks to the fact that the children of Ammon had not been involved with Damascus and Samaria in their efforts to subvert the pro-Assyrian regime of Ahaz, ˇ king of Judah. *Sanip could also reason that the Assyrian control, on the one hand, would bear less heavily on his Transjordanian state than on those of Palestine (including of course Philistia), which lay on the road to Egypt; and that, on the other hand, Assyrian protection could be helpful against the troublesome nomads who were a constant threat to his eastern border. Assyrian Protection and Its Price These calculations were sound, and they were well rewarded in the century or so during which Assyrian domination remained effective in Syria-Palestine. During this whole period, we never hear of hostilities between Ammon and other kingdoms or provinces of the Empire, and archaeology does not find any trace of military destruction, nor of importations of settlers from conquered nations like those that were so common in countries that the Assyrian kings had annexed and turned into provinces. On the contrary, as noted in a previous paragraph, there is evidence from Ashurbanipal’s inscriptions that Assyrian forces fought and defeated the desert nomads who threatened the Ammonites and other subject peoples living on the west side of the Syrian desert. Ammon of course had to pay the prize for peace and protection. Its kings had to deliver to their overlords not only the precious metals that the tribute required, but also manpower for the Assyrian kings’ building projects and military contingents for their campaigns. Tribute usually was conveyed by the vassal kings to the Assyrian capital, unless a military expedition brought their overlord to their own neighbourhood, as during Sennacherib’s (704–681 BC) celebrated 3rd Campaign of 701
BC. On that occasion, “all the kings of the West” congregated around him in Uˇsû (the town that faces Tyre on the continent), bringing their tribute; Pudu"ilu (*P˘ed¯a"¯el)46 of the House of Ammon was among them (see ANET 287; Timm 1989:353). The same king is named again under Esarhaddon (680–669 BC), in an undated document, listing twelve “kings of the West” who had to help in the construction of their lord’s arsenal in Nineveh (see ANET 291; Timm 1989:362). Later on, King Amminadab appears in an updated form of this list (ANET 294; Timm 1989:372), which ostensibly names the “kings of the West” who delivered assistance to Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC) in his first Egyptian campaign (668 BC). It is useful to open a parenthesis here, and to note that the epigraph on the bronze bottle discovered at Tall S¯ır¯an in 1972 (Aufrecht 1989:203) names, as current king of the children of Ammon, another Amminadab, son of Hs. l"l and grandson of Amminadab—most probably the Amminadab who did his duty by Ashurbanipal in 668— who nearly completes the list of the Ammonite kings who ruled since ˇ ca. 734 BC47 the days of *Snp, The only document that allows us to put figures on the tribute imposed on the children of Ammon, a letter from the time of the Sargonids (ABL 632; Timm 1989:367–68), rates it at 2 minas (ca. 1.14 kg) of gold—twice as much gold as the sum Moab delivered at the same time; the same document reports the delivery of 10 minas of silver from Judah, a sum whose value was closer to the Moabite payment than to that of the children of Ammon.48 There is not much that can be inferred from such thin evidence; but the disproportion between the Ammonite payment and those of the Moabites and Judahites is puzzling; it would remain curious even if we took it as an indication that the Ammonite territory had been expanded north, west and south (as I On this name see Cross 1974:494. To this list one may probably add the name of a Barak"el, to be dated somewhere in the first half of the 7th century, on the basis of a seal impression from the private collection of Mr. S. Moussaieff. The seal bore the words lbrk"l hmlk, and therefore does not explicitly designate its owner as a king of the children of Ammon; but it was a very small seal, on which saving space was important; and the editor (Deutsch 1999:121, 123) makes a strong case that both the script and the name are best explained as Ammonite. 48 Other texts illustrating practices related to the tribute mention wine deliveries to envoys from Transjordan, among whom Deller (1985:328), in his reading of ND 10078 (time of Sargon II, 721–705 BC), restores [ba-an am-ma-n]a-a-a. Another text from Sargon II’s reign (ADD 1110 + ) mentions token gifts to Pudu"ilu (*P˘ed¯a"¯el), king of the Ammonites, and his retinue. 46 47
have speculated above, in discussing geographical boundaries), largely at the expense of the defeated Israelites. Could this inequality imply, instead (or: also), that the Ammonites were being punished for some offence, whose record has not yet been discovered? Or rather, that they had been more cunning or diligent than their larger southern neighbour in taking advantage of their position on international highways, and had amassed more wealth? Ammonite Prosperity under Assyrian Rule The archaeology of Ammon during this period yields considerable evidence of imported luxury, demonstrating both good taste and extensive contacts with the rest of the ancient Near East, from Egypt to faraway eastern countries; interestingly, specifically Assyrian cultural influence, though real, was limited,49 on this side of the Jordan as on the other. The new prosperity and international outlook of the Ammonites is particularly evident from the grave goods of the capital’s upper class (Hübner 1992:231–34); small altars and perforated cups show that they also shared the contemporary taste for incense and other aromatic substances (Hübner 1992:234–35). To the Ammonites as to the betterknown Judahites, integration into the Assyrian oikoumen¯e meant accepting, or at least, experimenting with many values and models that had not yet been very familiar to the local clans. The children of Ammon took long strides towards conformity with a world that had grown much bigger; but, protected by their land-locked situation and their hills, they managed to retain their national identity, their language and their allegiance to the same major deities as in the past, El and Milkom,50 and they developed distinctive styles in aspects of their culture like ceramic production. The Ruling Class Adoption of internationally accepted canons involved the development, somehow in superposition to the traditional elders of the clans or villages, of an upper class of administrators or servants of the king (I am deliberately avoiding the much-abused word “bureaucracy”), who bore titles like those we know from the epigraphy of the Phoenicians 49 It is mainly evident in pottery, as well as seal cutting and jewellery. See Bennett (1982); Hübner (1992:192); Daviau (2001). 50 Thanks to excellent treatments by Hübner (1992:247–82) and Aufrecht (1999a), there is no need here for a new presentation of Ammonite religion.
and of the Aramaean and Cisjordanian neighbours of Ammon.51 No doubt this process had begun earlier. During the days of Ammonite independence Amos 1:15 already mentioned s´ry bny #mn, who must have represented the highest echelon of leadership under the king;52 but the written evidence for this class—essentially, seals adding titles to the names of their owners—is mainly from Assyrian times. Titles denoting close dependence on the king or some high-placed individual include #bd (Aufrecht 1989:30, 40, 96, 261, 308)53 and n#r (Aufrecht 1989:137, 139). A third title, nss (“standard bearer,” it seems) appears ˇ h. r (Aufrecht 1989:181), and once or twice: certainly on the seal of Sw th possibly on an ostracon of the late 7 century from the #Amm¯an citadel (Koutsoukou et al. 1997:166). Interestingly, two women are designated as the “maid-servant” (*"mh) of So-and-so (Aufrecht 1989:85, 112); was this possibly an official function? No ordinary maid-servant was likely to own a seal. Other people, no doubt specialized craftsmen living in the main centres, also had titles they could proudly put on their seals: Ns. r"l hs. rp (“the goldsmith”; Aufrecht 1989:65); and H . .ty, the spr (“scribe”) of Adn¯ur (or was it Ad¯o[n¯ı]n¯ur?)(Aufrecht 1989:328); and ¯ ¯ır¯am the spr (Deutsch and Heltzer 1997:56). "El Aramaization and Its Limits Another important aspect of the Ammonites’ opening up to a wider world was their increasing use of Aramaic.54 An Isaian legend plays on the fact that, at the end of the 8th century, the political elite of Judah, 51 This upper class of royal servants is a prime candidate to the ownership of large residences like Tall J¯aw¯a House 800. The same could be said about those large round or square towers (rujm) that some archaeologists now believe to have been meant to control and protect agricultural estates (Hübner 1992:155–57; Najjar 1999:105). Unfortunately, only larger finds of seals and other inscribed materials would make it possible to verify this supposition. 52 From later times, see also Jer 49:3, and note how priests (khn, at least in Judahite Hebrew), who were also state officials, are mentioned in the same breath as the s´rym. The s´rym also appear in David’s “Court History” (2 Sam 10:3), but I am not sure that this story should be considered earlier that Amos 1 or even Jer 49. 53 On three of these four seals the word “servant” is followed by the name of a known king. This is not true of n #r; in the first example the individual named after n #r is otherwise unknown; in the second example, the bearer of the seal is the n #r of Brk"l, who might be a king (see Deutsch 1999). On the seal Aufrecht 1989:261, the phrase is #bd mlk; the absence of the article before “king” is curious; instead of a title, we may have the proper name #bdmlk, as suggested by Aufrecht. 54 On this subject, the reader will find excellent orientation and bibliography in Aufrecht 1999b:167–69.
if not the rank-and-file of the population, understood Aramaic (2 Kgs 18:26). Similarly, and not much earlier, the epigraph on the statue of the exalted Ammonite personage *Yarh#azar (Aufrecht 1989:106; Hüb. ner 1992:24) was written in Aramaic characters, and used the Aramaic word bar for “son,” instead of the well-attested form ben, which Ammonite shares with the other Canaanite languages. So much for high-class, and possibly international, communications in the late 8th century; with regard to domestic consumption, on the other hand, Ammonite scribes writing in their own language had stopped following the trends favoured by Aramaean scribes, and were developing something of a script of their own;55 this is visible in a number of inscriptions, from names on seals to the Tall S¯ır¯an bronze bottle (Aufrecht 1989:203). However, with the relative trivialisation of borders that came with Assyrian imperial rule, the pressure of the very widely used Aramaic language and script increased and became irresistible. The Ammonites gradually adopted Aramaic as their written medium even for day-to-day matters. At the end of the Assyrian period, this transition was complete. Tall J¯aw¯a has yielded a good example, an ostracon about wheat, written in Aramaic ca. 600 BC (Dion 2002). The imperial regimes of the Babylonians and the Persians only confirmed this fait accompli (Lemaire 1994:20–21). At the end of the 6th century, traces of the traditional dialect and onomastics of the children of Ammon are still perceptible; but the ostraca on which they are found are in Aramaic script, and many of the proper names used in those texts are of foreign origin.56 The Ammonites and Babylon “Baalis,” the Last King of the Ammonites “Baalis,” perhaps the best-documented king of the Ammonites, perhaps the immediate successor of this Amminadab whose grandfather had served Ashurbanipal, was probably the last ruler of a semi-independent Ammonite kingdom. For a long time his name was only known to us from the Bible (Jer 40:14), which spelled it b#lyˇs #. More recently, this 55 This position is followed by most and seems indeed to be correct; but one must note, with Aufrecht (1999b:167) that it is not universally accepted. 56 I am thinking here of the Heshbon ostraca traditionally classified as No. 2 (Aufrecht 1989:199) and No. 1 (Aufrecht 1989:174). Even in the Tall al-Maz¯ar ostracon No. VII (Aufrecht 1989:340; Hübner 1992:33), traditional Ammonite names still emerge in a text more completely Aramaized.
name turned up twice in ancient inscriptions. It first appeared on a seal impression found on surface at Tall al-#Umayri in 1984 (Herr 1985; Aufrecht 1989:308), which reads lmlkm"wr #bd b#lyˇs #. The spelling of the royal name on this bulla is strikingly different from biblical b#lys; however, the identification of b#lyˇs # to the king named in Jer 40:14 has been fully vindicated by the more recent publication of a seal bought from a Jordanian antiquities dealer (Deutsch and Heltzer 1999:53– 56). On this seal, b#lyˇs # bears the (largely restored) full title “king of the children of Ammon,” the same title as in Jer 40:14 and on the bottle from Tall S¯ır¯an. Most of the interpreters have recognized a verb equivalent to Hebrew y¯asˇa# as basic to this Ammonite royal name, and it is also recognized that the difference in the sibilants can be accounted for by the fact that the original Semitic consonant /t/, ¯ which in Judahite Hebrew became /ˇs/, had survived as a consonant distinct from /ˇs/ in the Ammonite dialect—a consonant that sounded to Judahite ears more or less like their own /s/ (samek).57 The Bible represents Baalis as an enemy of Babylon, who resisted Nebukadnezzar at the same time as Zedekiah of Judah. To understand the role he played and what happened to his kingdom, we must step back and take a look at a larger context, namely the western part of the ancient Near East during the second half of the 7th century. Assyria Loses Its Grip on Palestine and Transjordan Especially from 652 on, the reign of Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC) was made difficult by enormous problems on the south, the east and the north of Assyria, and he had less and less resources left to protect his interests in Syria-Palestine. An Assyrian army still showed up near Palestine when it went to Uˇsû, the continental counterpart of Tyre (ANET 300), at a disputed date, perhaps 644/643. But effective control of the western part of the empire was more and more left to the new, allegedly loyal, 26th Dynasty, which Ashurbanipal had been just too happy to leave behind when he renounced further campaigning in Egypt in 663 BC. After the death of Ashurbanipal (627 B.C.), 57 In my opinion, this is not the full explanation. One cannot account for the loss of the final /#/ consonant of the Ammonite form if one posits that yˇs # represents the verb y¯asˇa#. The loss of the last consonant is best explained if yˇs # does not stand for the verb itself, but for a noun meaning “salvation,” like Hebrew yeˇsa# whose underlying form was yiˇs #—presumably yit# in Ammonite—a noun in which the final cluster must have ¯ imperceptible to Judahite ears, hence its absence from their made the /#/ practically transcription of the king’s name as “Baalis.”
Nabopolassar seized power in Babylon (625 BC) and the erosion of the Assyrian empire accelerated. In 616 BC (Grayson 1975:91) or even before, Egypt sent expeditionary forces to hard-pressed Assyria, with a view on keeping it as a buffer against the new eastern giants, the Medes and the Babylonians, while actually repossessing the Syrian dominions of the 18th Dynasty. One cannot avoid wondering what this meant for the Transjordanian vassals of Assyria. Obviously, Egypt’s commercial and cultural influence could only benefit from its new rise as a world power. On the other hand, Egypt never had shown much interest in the conquest and political domination of Transjordan, and there is no reason to believe that the situation was different in the latter part of the 7th century. This presumable hands-off policy as well as the increasing powerlessness of Assyria, must have left Ammon more exposed than before to the inroads of the increasingly powerful and aggressive “children of the east,” among whom Qedarite Arabs were prominent.58 The Ammonites now were probably less able than before to regulate and benefit from the transit and traffic of the great commercial caravans, less able also to protect their settlements on the desert margin from the encroachments of the nomads. This must have been a thrilling period for the children of Ammon. They had lost the empire’s protection and the benefits that came with it, but in compensation they sooner or later stopped paying tribute to Assyria; they probably also expanded into the adjacent ex-“Israelite”—now, ex-Assyrian— regions, which no imperial garrison defended any more—hence the signs of Ammonite presence, which archaeologists have detected to the south and to the west of the former nucleus of the Ammonite kingdom. The children of Ammon were getting a new taste of freedom and self-reliance. Baalis Resists the Babylonian Invasion The new ambitions demonstrated by Babylon—which at first could have been expected to simply re-conquer its independence from Assyria, with or without serious encroachments in areas lying between their respective traditional cores—must have come as a shock to the Ammonites, when the Babylonians not only destroyed Nineveh in 612 and booted the Egyptians out of northern Syria in 605 BC, but soon followed them all the way down to their own borders, where this 58 Most of Ashurbanipal’s Arab campaigns already had been directed against the Qedarites (Eph#al 1984:147–69).
advance was severely checked by Neko ca. 600 BC (Grayson 1975:101). Would the Babylonians try and establish a lasting presence, as the Assyrians had done before? Would they be as indifferent to Transjordan as the pharaohs of the 26th Dynasty? Or would they claim as vast an imperial domain, and as much submission (financially and otherwise) from its denizens, as the Assyrians used to do? How good were their chances to fulfill their imperial ambitions? Were they so irresistible that the children of Ammon should renounce their new freedom without a fight? The Old Testament—our only source alas—has preserved some hints at the fluctuations of Ammonite policy. If we give credence to 2 Kgs 24:2, Ammonite units joined units from other nations in harassing Jehoiakim of Judah on behalf of Nebukadnezzar until his main army took Jerusalem in 597 BC; as suggested by Lemaire (1994:12), who quotes Babylonian Chronicle No. 5 (Grayson 1975:101), perhaps they were grateful for Nebukadnezzar’s recent attack on the Arabs. According to Jeremiah 27:3, on the other hand, Ammonite envoys met in Jerusalem with Zedekiah, King of Judah, and envoys from Edom and Moab, Tyre and Sidon, to try and formulate a common policy in front of the Babylonian threat. Undoubtedly, hopes for a prompt Babylonian retreat had been re-kindled by the accession of an energetic new pharaoh, young Psammetichus II. Nothing came out of this conference, but Psammetichus soon showed his mettle in a victorious Nubian campaign (592 BC), and an insolent tour of Palestine under pretence of religious devotion. This pharaoh died in 589, and his successor Hophra was much less eager to confront Babylon; but apparently the dice had already been thrown. Baalis, the king of Ammon, found himself on the losing side. Our only precise information about actions taken by Baalis comes from the narrative portion of the book of Jeremiah. From chap. 32 on, and especially from chap. 37 on, this book gives us an insider’s view of Jerusalem and the court, and a vivid impression of the atmosphere that prevailed during those feverish last days of independent Judah. With regard to Baalis, we learn that after the fall of Jerusalem in the summer of 587 (or 586!), he gave asylum to a disgruntled member of the Judahite royal family, Ishmael.59 In the fall of the same year, Baalis sent Ishmael on a foray into captive Judea to eliminate 59 It seems that Zedekiah himself, the last king of Judah, had tried in vain to flee into Ammonite territory when the Babylonians broke through his rampart (2 Kgs 25:4–
the pro-Babylonian governor Gedaliah, with a view on de-stabilizing Babylonian rule in that conquered neighbouring state (Jer 40:13–41:3; 41:15–18). It was probably this same Baalis who had been on the throne of Ammon, already in defiance of Babylon, when Nebukadnezzar marched against Jerusalem a couple years earlier: with poetic imagination, Ezekiel (21:23–28) depicts the king of Babylon holding a mantic inquiry to decide whether Rabbah of the Ammonites should be his next target, or rather Jerusalem. Nebukadnezzar Puts an End to the Ammonite Kingdom The immediate consequences of Ishmael’s terrorist activity and of Ammonite resistance to the Babylonian takeover are unknown. No authentic narrative whatsoever tells us anything more about the Ammonite kingdom. Josephus (Jewish Antiquities 10 §§ 181–82) puts the Babylonian conquest of Ammon and Moab five years later than that of Judah, i.e., in 582 or 581. He may have wanted to give a recorded fulfilment to Jeremiah’s doom oracles against those countries (Jer 44–49); but his date is both precise and likely enough, and one cannot simply brush aside the suggestion that he drew this information from Berossos (Lemaire 1994:13). In any case, the complete lack of further documentary mentions or allusions certainly implies that the Ammonite kingdom went under in the days of Baalis, or soon after. Thus, the curtain fell on the Ammonite state at an uncertain date, early in the 6th century. No doubt the Babylonian conquest involved some fighting, and the “rebellious” king of Ammon was probably removed; but Josephus’s short report only speaks of “reducing” Ammon and Moab “to obedience,” not of destroying them, and the children of Ammon probably demonstrated once again the realism that had kept them comfortable under Assyrian suzerainty. It seems indeed that, perhaps under a native Quisling, they retained for a while some of the prosperity that had accrued to them during the 8th and 7th centuries. At Tall al-#Umayri and in its vicinity, Herr claims that there is good evidence of a reactivated economy, now focused on wine production on a large scale (Herr 1999:227–32; Herr and Najjar 2001:336).
5). Lemaire (1994:19) quotes some evidence, biblical and epigraphic, that more Judeans found their way to Ammonite territory; but this evidence is difficult to evaluate.
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Abbreviations ABL ADD ANET KAI ND
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MacDonald, B. 1999 Ammonite Territory and Sites. Pp. 30–56 in Ancient Ammon, eds. B. MacDonald and R. W. Younker. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East 17. Leiden: Brill. McGovern, P. E. 1986 The Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of Central Transjordan: The Baq #ah Valley Project, 1977–1981. University Museum Monograph 65. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, The University Museum. 1995 Technological Innovation and Artistic Achievement in the Late Bronze and Iron Ages of Central Transjordan. Pp. 29–37 in Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan. V: Art and Technology Throughout the Ages. Amman: Department of Antiquities of Jordan. Mittmann, S. 1969 Aroer, Minnith und Abel Keramim (Jdc 11, 33). Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 85: 63–75. Najjar, M. 1999 “Ammonite” Monumental Architecture. Pp. 103–12 in The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond. Essays in Honor of James A. Sauer, eds. L. E. Stager, J. A. Greene, and M. D. Coogan. Harvard Semitic Museum Publications, Studies in the Archaeology and History of the Levant 1. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Redford, D. B. 1982 A Bronze Age Itinerary in Transjordan (Nos. 89–101 of Thutmose III’s List of Asiatic Toponyms). Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 12:55–74. Rost, L. 1965 Das kleine Credo und andere Studien zum Alten Testament. Heidelberg: Quelle & Meyer. Sauer, J. A. 1986 Transjordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages: A Critique of Glueck’s Synthesis. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 263:1–26. Schürer, E. 1979 The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 B.C.-A.D. 135). A New English Version Revised and Edited by G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Black. Vol. 2. Edinburgh: Black. Sigrist, C. 1979 Regulierte Anarchie. Untersuchungen zum Fehlen und zur Entstehung politischer Herrschaft in segmentären Gesellschaften Afrikas. Frankfurt am Main: Syndikat. 2d ed. Thompson, H. O. 2000 Some Towers in Jordan. Pp. 482–89 in The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond. Essays in Honor of James A. Sauer, eds. L. E. Stager, J. A. Greene, and M. D. Coogan. Harvard Semitic Museum Publications, Studies in the Archaeology and History of the Levant 1. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Timm, S. 1989 Moab zwischen den Mächten. Studien zu historischen Denkmälern und Texten. Ägypten und Altes Testament 17. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Van der Kooij, G., and M. M. Ibrahim 1989 Picking up the Threads… A Continuing Review of the Excavations at Deir Alla, Jordan. Leiden: University of Leiden, Archaeological Centre.
Van Seters, J. 1983 In Search of History. Historiography in the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical History. New Haven: Yale University Press. Weippert, M. 1994 Moab. Pp. 318–25 in Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, Vol. 8, ed. D. O. Edzard. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 1997 Israélites, Araméens et Assyriens dans la Transjordanie septentrionale. Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 113: 19–38.
PART FIVE MULTIMEDIA PROGRAMME
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THE TALL JAWA MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION SYSTEM D H
Introduction The documentation for the archaeological record of Tall Jawa is preserved at Wilfrid Laurier University in the form of field notebooks, photographs, plans and section drawings, object, pottery and sample registration books.1 Like any excavation, the recording in the field produces thousands of locus sheets, daily journal sheets and illustrations. Changes in publishing and in technology have made it possible to publish much of this material on the world-wide web, but the final report in book form can also contain a large, representative sample of this data, a sample that contains precise information related to the written description of the stratigraphy and architecture of the major structures at the site. In this volume, each chapter contains a grid plan of a given field, plans of the buildings in that field with their elevations, room and wall numbers, and relevant locus numbers. In addition, there are photographs of each major room and of certain special features, such as ovens, hearths, boulder mortars, staircases and details of the architecture. In order to present this information in a more complete format, a locus list, locus sheets adapted from the Madaba Plains Project Manual, and a multimedia programme containing ca. 400 colour and black and white photographs and a linked database are included on a CD-ROM. Copies of the plans of the buildings in each field are also included in the multimedia programme.
1 The seasonal report, a set of contact sheets of all black and white photographs, a set of colour slides, and a complete copy of the object registration log are on file in the Department of Antiquities in #Amman.
The Locus Summaries A complete locus summary list is included on CD in MS Word and in PDF formats. The standardized descriptions include identification, Munsell Colour Codes, composition and inclusions, ceramic count, pottery pail numbers and selected readings (all pottery is Iron Age unless otherwise indicated). For certain loci, the total number of sherds is not available; in these cases, the number of registered sherds and the + sign are given. Stratigraphic position is indicated by Under, Over, Seals against, Sealed against by, Abuts, etc. For those loci restricted to a given room, the room number is also included. A bottom elevation is given for most walls, although this represents the lowest excavated depth and not necessarily the base of the wall. For detailed information, see the relevant discussion above. These lists can be searched or selected, in whole or in part, copied, printed, and saved for future use. Plans The field plans of the wall system and of the major structures were designed as EPS files; they are included in the multimedia programme in the form of JPG files. Although the stratigraphy was relatively straightforward and was restricted to only two or three principal debris layers, a number of section drawings are also included. Section drawings of the elevations across the tell are presented in Chapter 1 (Fig. 1.3). The Multimedia System The record fields in the Tall Jawa Iron Age database represent the categories of information recorded for each photograph or drawing. While most of this information is not subject to modification, certain categories, such as Room, and Feature may refer to only one element in a given photo in which other rooms or features are visible. The Caption contains a fuller description of the elements in a given image. So too, information in the fields of Stratum and Chronology reflects the Iron Age elements, and does not include reference to features that are part of a later building phase, for example the Umayyad reuse of Building 700 in Field D. Certain fields in the original database provided needed information concerning original file names, duplication, etc.; these working fields are not represented here, so that the presentation of data in its final
format is more useful for the reader. In the final version, each record is accompanied by an image drawn from the photographic record. Certain loci were not photogenic, consisting primarily of collapsed wall stones and soil. Other loci, especially the architecture and floor surfaces with pottery and artefacts in situ better illustrate the finds in each building and are the foundation for our interpretation of room arrangement and function. At the same time, an individual photo is not necessarily complete, given the fact that the team did not live at the site and therefore any material culture exposed on a given day could not be left in the field overnight. Pottery, artefacts and samples were removed at the time of discovery, even though a floor surface had only been partially exposed. The information in the photographs is therefore supplemented by the data in the tables presented in the text. Overview of the System The information system is designed for researchers, lecturers and students in the classroom and in the field who make use of archaeological field reports. This information system (IS) is suitable for users at the beginner to intermediate level of computer literacy. Many researchers in archaeology work primarily in the PC platform, and at the present time Microsoft Access is one of the leading database programs for small-scale applications. The Access database and a linking program generated using Microsoft Visual Basic 6 are modelled on the multimedia system used in Excavations at Tall Jawa, Jordan. Vol. II: The Iron Age Artefacts. Visual Basic was chosen because of its multimedia capabilities and tight integration with Access as well as its cross program/platform support. Table 14A. List of Fields in each Record of the Database Field Name
Content
Site-Yr Field Square Locus Photo_No Stratum Chronology Category Building Room
Code for site (TJ) + year (89, 91–95) Letter (A-E, L, M, S, TJ) Number Number Number of photo in programme Roman Numeral Iron I, Iron II, Late Iron II, Persian Excavation, Survey, Final Photo, General, etc. Number Number
Feature Caption
Building, Room, Wall, Oven, Section, Probe, etc. Description of image
Although the IS could be placed on a network, it is primarily designed to be installed on an IBM PC compatible computer running Windows 95, 98, ME, NT 2000 or Windows XP. It should also remain compatible with future Windows versions. At the time of installation, the user will have to inform the program where the CD-ROM is located, so that access to the large number of images and the database are possible. It is the intention of this design that advanced statistical manipulation and analysis will be done in other programs, by importing the database directly (e.g. OBDC link—see Microsoft website or Microsoft Access manual for more information). Requirements Windows 95, 98, ME, 2000, or Windows XP2 16 MB RAM (64 MB recommended especially for newer operating systems), VGA 800 × 600 for best viewing, 10 MB of hard drive space for program, CD-ROM drive.
Installation To install the IronAge program insert the CD-ROM into the drive and run the ‘setup.exe’ file (double click on the file from Windows Explorer or click start, run, then go to the CD-ROM drive and click setup.exe). This will begin the installation process. The program was not designed with an “auto-install” function because the CD-ROM needs to be inserted to allow the program access to the database and the images. If the CDROM had this function it would ask to be installed each time it was inserted into the drive. During the install process follow the instructions. Depending on what has been installed previously on the computer, the installation program may require rebooting of the computer. If the program finds installed components that are newer than those on the CD-ROM it will ask whether to keep the newer existing file or replace 2 This program has not been tested on NT 4, but should run if the latest NT service pack has been installed.
it with its older version. It is recommended that the newer version be kept. If the installation program says that it needs to replace older files with up-to-date versions, it is recommended that they be replaced and updated. The setup program will ask for the location where you wish the program to be installed on your hard drive (default c:\program files\ironage). The program will automatically create a program group and insert the program icon. After installation, the program will search the computer for the CD-ROM and access the Tall Jawa images from the “images” subdirectory. Note: depending on your computer setup, certain files may already be installed (registered) on your system. Thus, if you get an error box indicating a file cannot be registered, just continue the installation. Along with the “images” subdirectory, the CD-ROM has a subdirectory named “support”. This subdirectory contains the ironage program, the associated Tall Jawa Access database, and the support files needed for installing and running the program. Generally the user will not have to interact with the files in the “support” directory.
Figure 14.1. Main screen of the Tall Jawa information system.
The Tall Jawa Information System The information system has a one-screen layout. From this screen (Figure 14.1), access to images, searches, and printing is controlled. This interface allows for easy and quick access to the information in the database. Main Menu The main menu is located at the top left of the main screen (Fig. 14.1) and has two major pull down submenus, labelled “File” and “Copy to ClipBoard”.
Figure 14.2. File submenu.
The “File” submenu allows the user four options (Figure 14.2). The “Print Page” option produces a snapshot of the screen and outputs the image to the default printer. The user may want to change the default printer (From the Microsoft Windows Start, Settings, Printer menu) to direct the output to a specific location. The “Print Current Records” allows the user to print all the current records as selected by the “Record Control” on the main screen. The records printed will in most cases be the result of a query and not the full database. The “Print Range” allows the user to print a range of the current records (as selected by the “Record Control”). The “Print Range” menu has a handy feature that allows user to advance through the records and click on the “Use Current” button to enter the current record into the text box, rather than typing. Presently, the “Print Range” command does not update the pictures for each record when printing. Hence all the printouts will have the first image in the image box. If separate images are needed each page will have to be printed individually. The “Exit” option exits the program. All query information will be lost and the Tall Jawa database closed.
Figure 14.3. Copy to ClipBoard submenu.
The “Copy to ClipBoard” submenu is designed to move information from this program to other programs such as word processors or spreadsheets, such as Microsoft Excel. The “Copy Page” option allows users to copy all the textual information on the screen to the clipboard. The information stored on the clipboard will be formatted with the field name, separated by two tabs, and then the record information. For example: Site year: TJ89
The information was formatted with two tabs so that it can be pasted neatly into a spreadsheet’s columns or a word processor document. Note that the image is not copied. The “Copy Range” option uses the same format as the “Copy Page,” and allows the user to copy a range (textual information) of the current records into another program for presentation or further analysis. The “Copy Range” menu has a handy feature that allows user to advance through the records and click on the “Use Current” button to enter the current record into the text box, rather than typing. The “Copy Current Records” option uses the same format as the “Copy Page,” but copies all of the records currently selected by the “Record Control” object. This allows the user to copy the result of a query or all the records, into another program for presentation or further analysis. The “Copy Image” option allows users to copy the current record’s image into a paint program (such as Microsoft Paint). This option is limited to programs that recognize image information and may not support importing directly into word processing programs. To do this, paste the image into a paint program and copy it from the paint program and paste it into the word processor. Database Information The database information system presents the fields in Table 14A for each record. The fields are divided into three sections; the field information database fields (1–4 upper left), feature information fields
(6–11), and the caption field. There are three elements for each field (see field example, Fig. 14.4).
Figure 14.4. One field from the field information portion of the database.
On the left there is a check box, followed by the field name and the data for the specific record. The check box allows the user to perform a search for similar information. By selecting the check box and clicking on the “Perform Search” button in the lower right, the program will search for information similar to that in the selected field. The user may select more than one check box to narrow a search. The program performs an “AND” search with the selected fields. Record Control
Figure 14.5. Record control object.
The program uses a standard record control object to allow users to move through the records. The left and right arrows, allow you to move forward and backwards though the dataset. The bounded left and right arrows allow you to move to the beginning and end of the dataset. The central textual area labelled “Record Control” indicates the current record being used. A slider object is also available to allow the user to move to a point in the database quickly by moving the pointer left and right (left mouse click on the pointer and while holding the button down, drag the pointer left and right). Alternately, if a user wants to view a specific feature, they can click on the “Enter Search” button and type into the feature box the name of the desired item and click “Perform Search” (see searching the database for further information). The number of records will change if the user performs a search or loads a different database. In the case of a search, the text in the record control will reflect the number of records that match the search.
Field Images
Figure 14.6. Image control object.
With the popularity of the JPG format, it was decided to convert the images into this file type. The images were then stored at the highest resolution with virtually no loss. On the CD-ROM all of the images are located in the image directory. For information on the numbering system for the images see the database field section in this chapter (Table 14A). The images were scanned at a width × height of 800 × 600 pixels (24 bit colour), which matches the typical screen resolution of a VGA computer screen. A scale is visible in each image to give a perspective of image size. On the main screen a thumbnail image can be seen in the upper right corner of the screen. In order to speed movement through the database on slower computers, the user can deselect the “Auto-load picture” check box, located above the thumbnail image. This will turn off the image display for future thumbnails. When the check box is deselected, a “Show Image” button will appear. This button allows the user to manually view the thumbnail. Full Image Preview The image can be seen in full screen mode simply by clicking on the thumbnail image. The image will be viewed in its native format of 800 × 600 pixels. If the image resolution is greater than this, scroll bars at the sides of the image, will appear to allow the user to scroll and view the image. To return to the main screen mode just click on the full screen image.
Searching the Database
Fig. 14.7. Search controls area.
Searching the database can be performed in two ways: simple searches for information that is similar to information in a particular field, and a complex user-defined search. The program uses an “AND” search for all multiple criteria searches. Searches from the main screen allow the user to find information that is similar to that in a field(s) of the present record. This is done by simply clicking on the check box adjacent to the field and then clicking on the “Perform Search” in the search control area. Selecting the appropriate check boxes can search matches for more than one field. Note: the buttons in Fig. 14.7 will become available (visible) as needed. A more powerful search facility can be activated by clicking on the “Perform Search” button in the search control area, or by clicking on the text box containing information for which the user wants to search. Activating the search screen brings up a second screen where the text boxes are yellow in colour. If this is the first time a search has been activated and the “Perform Search” button used, all the check boxes will be cleared and the text boxes will be yellow. If the search was entered by clicking on a text box instead, the current field will appear with the current record information already entered in the field and the associated check box checked. The user can click on this cell to enter information or click on the “Perform Search” button to find similar features. If past searches have been performed, the search criterion information will be seen in the text box. If you do not want to include these items in the present search, ensure that the unwanted check boxes are deselected. Once the search criteria have been entered, click on the “Perform Search” button and the program will return to the main screen
with the number of matches reflected in the “Record Control” object. Now the user can view the subset of chosen records by using the “Record Control”. After a search is completed, the “Clear Search” button will appear. Clicking on this button will reset all of the selected fields to their nonselected state thus returning the database to its original (all records browsable) state. This can also be accomplished by deselecting all of the check boxes that were involved in the search, and then clicking on the “Perform Search” button. If a search is unsuccessful and no matching records are found, a message box will appear and a subsequent error box will be presented giving a technical definition of why the search failed. If a letter has been entered into a numeric field, an error indicating that too few parameters were entered will be seen (because in a numeric search all non-numeric information is stripped off). The user may decide to exit the search without performing a search by pressing the “Exit Search” button. This will deselect all the check boxes and reset the database to it original state. The full database is now available for review. Uninstalling the Program As with other programs developed under the Microsoft Visual Development Suite, this program registers the information necessary to uninstall itself in the “Windows Control Panel” under the “Add/Remove Programs” utility. For each of the different versions preceding Windows 2000 the procedure is virtually identical. The following illustrations were captured from Windows 2000. To uninstall the program (see Fig. 14.8) click on the “Start” icon, select “Settings”, and select “Control Panel”. The control panel will appear as seen in Figure 14.9.
Figure 14.8. Accessing the Control Panel.
Figure 14.9. Accessing Add/Remove Programs.
From the control panel select “Add/Remove Programs”. The “Add/Remove Programs” window will appear as seen in Figure 14.10. On the left side of the window the “Change/Remove” box (Install/Uninstall in Windows ME) must be selected (it usually is selected by default when the “Change/Remove Program” window loads). Select “Iron Age” and click on the “Change/Remove: button (Add/Remove in Windows ME). The user will be prompted to confirm that the program is to be removed and then finally clicks “OK” to complete the procedure.
Figure 14.10. Removing the Iron Age program.
It is hoped that the multimedia information system developed here will provide researchers with a powerful tool for accessing and investigating the features unearthed at Tall Jawa. It is also hoped that other researchers will see the utility and produce similar systems to aid in dissemination of other archaeological findings. The authors can be contacted for further updates to the program or to report problems or suggestions for enhancements.
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WALL DESIGNATIONS
FIELD A (1000–1999) Wall#
Locus
Brief Description
1001 1002 1003 1004
A1:4 A2:3 = 22 A2:20 A3:4
1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010
A4:5 = B64:11 A4:6 = A3:27 A3:11 A4:15 A13:5 A13:7
1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
A3:7 = A4:11 A3:18 A14:13 A14:8 A13:36 A13:37 A14:21 A15:2
Retaining Wall, Stratum IX–VIII Outer South Wall, Stratum VIIIA Outer South Wall, Stratum VIIIB Inner Casemate Wall (W of Doorway H), Stratum VIIIA North Wall of R104 East Wall of B102 Mud brick wall above W1012 North Wall of R105 East Wall of R103 Inner Casemate Wall (E of Doorway H), Stratum VIIIA South Wall of R104 in B102, = W2020 East Wall of R102 South wall of R108 West Wall of R108 East-west wall, Stratum X North-south wall, Stratum X Partition Wall around bin Modern wall NA Inner Casemate Wall (E of Doorway H), Stratum VIIIB NA South Wall of R110 West Wall of R110 North Wall of B102, = W2034 West Wall of R111 East Wall of R110 West Wall of R104 East-west Wall; east of R110 Inner Casemate Wall (W of Doorway H), Stratum VIIIB Modern stone pile above Inner Casemate Wall Modern wall through Building 113
A13:42
1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1030
A5:8 = 15:9 A5:9 A15:4 = 5:23 A5:27 A15:6 B64:15 A15:42 B63:42
1031 1032
A23–A63 A14:2 = A24:2
FIELD B (2000–2999)
Wall#
Locus
Brief Description
2000 2001
B24:28 = 34:13 B24:3
2002 2003 2004
B24:5 B24:6 B24:13= 34:12 = 35:6 B34:3 B34:8
Blocking wall, west frame of Doorway A East-west inner casemate wall; south of Drain Channel 218 Outer casemate wall, south of Passageway 219 Inner casemate wall; north of drain North-south inner casemate wall; east wall of R215, South of Doorway B South wall of R209; abuts W2004 North wall of Casemate Room 210, east of Doorway A Inner casemate wall, later phase
2005 2006 2007
2010
B43:2 = 44:6 = 53:4 = 63:3 B43:3 B43:8 = 53:1 = 63:18 B43:11
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029
B44:12 B53:5 B53:16 B53:22 = 54:8 B54:6 B54:10 B63:9 B63:21 B63:28 B64:2 B64:12 B34:11 B25:8 + 26:5 B16:2 B65:5 B65:8 B24:2 B35:4 B25:17 = 35:8
2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038
B25:27 B34:24 B65:14 B65:16 B66:2 B65:13 B24:38 B35:25
2039
B35:30
2008 2009
Cross wall bonding with W2007 East-west, outer city wall, south of Room 210 Line of stones, abuts 2007 in earlier construction phase West wall of R206 Cross wall perpendicular through W2007 Cross wall in casemate North-south interior wall Interior wall running e-w North-south interior cross wall. Abuts 2015 and 2007 Cross wall in R201 North-south mud brick wall, west wall of R202 Partition wall, west of Oven B63:30 and R202 South wall of R204 in Building 102, = W1011 North-south interior wall East Wall of R209 Outer west wall Tower South wall of Room 214 East wall of Room 214 South end of Wall 2023, under Drain B24:24 East-west wall, north wall of R212 Inner casemate wall, east of R213, north of Doorway B Partition wall between R213 and R215 South wall of R212 West wall of Building 102 Blocked doorway in R217 Outer North wall of B102, = W1024 Blocked doorway in R109 Blocking wall in outer wall 2023, above W2027 NA L-shaped partition wall at east end of platform B35:28 L-shaped partition wall at east end of oven B34:54
2040 2041 2042 2043
B34:35 B24:33 B34:2–B63:1 B25:1 = B26:1
East-west wall Retaining Wall Modern wall Modern wall FIELD E (3000–3999)
Wall#
Locus
Brief Description
3000
Inner Casemate Wall
3001 3002 3003 3004 3005 3006 3007 3008
E44:3 = 54:2 = E65:2 = 76:2 E44:8 = 53:30 E44:10 E54:16 E54:20 E55:22–E65:7 E55:13 = 76:12 E64:6, E64:30 E64:7 + 32
3009 3010 3011
E64:8 E64:24 E64:28 = 65:5
3012 3013 3014 3015 3016 3017 3018 3019 3020 3021 3022
E64:29 E64:35 E65:10 E76:5 E76:7 E76:8 E76:11 E76:13 E76:14 E76:17 E76:34
3023 3024 3025 3026 3027 3028 3029 3030 3031 3032 3033 3034 3035
E57:4 E64:54 E75:6 E75:8 E74:5 3014 = E74:6 E74:11 E65:20, 22 E53:8 + 29 E53:13 E53:5 E53:12 E53:9, 22, 25
3036
E74:16
North-south wall abutting 3000; west of R303 North-south wall abutting 3000; west wall of R304 North-south wall between R303 and R302 South wall of R303 Stacked boulder wall; east wall of R302 Outer Casemate Wall North-south wall; east wall of R307 East-west wall, north of Cistern E64:13; abutted by W3009 North-south partition wall, abuts W3008 North-south L-shaped wall; abuts W3007 North-south perpendicular to W3000; east wall of R306 East-west wall south of Cistern; north of R324 South wall of R302; abutted by 3007 Cancelled; north end of W3028 Inner casemate wall, east of Passageway309 Corridor wall south of W3000; east wall of R313 Corridor wall south of W3000; east wall of R309 Outer casemate wall east of postern Corridor wall north of 3000 (west side) Corridor wall north of 3000 (east side) Partition wall between R310 and R311 East-west wall along N side of Inner Wall 3000, Stratum IX Retaining wall visible from road North-south wall, east wall of R305 and R316 North-south wall between R312 and R313 East-west wall between R313 and R317 North-south wall between R314 and R317 North-south wall between R308 and R314 North-south wall, west wall of R323 East-west wall between R306 and 320 East-west wall, north wall of R318 North-south wall, west wall of R315 East-west wall, north wall of R319 North-south wall, east wall of R315 East-west Wall, stacked boulder pillars + connecting units; W of Doorway G East-west wall, south wall of R314
3037
E53:10, 19; 54:8
3038 3039 3040 3041 3042 3043 3044 3045 3046 3047 3048 3049 3050 3051
E63:21 E63:19 E53:33 E65:50 E65:49 E75:20 E64:53 E74:25 E64:65 E53:34 E74:12 E55:1 = 76:1 E13:1 E21–E24
East-west Wall, stacked boulder pillars + connecting units; E of Doorway G Partition wall south of Oven E63:10 East-west wall on south of R307 East-west wall, south wall of R319 North-south wall, west wall of R312B East-west wall on south of R321 East-west wall on south of R312 L-shaped Partition wall, west wall of R325 East-west wall on south of R327 Cancelled; threshold in Doorway E North-south wall on west of R319 and R322 East-west wall, south wall of R317 Modern wall North-south outer West Wall; = W2023. Modern wall
FIELD D (6000–6999); (7000–7999) Stratum VII Walls: Wall#
Locus
Brief Description
7010 7015 7017 7019
D32:36 D22:29 D13:9 D13:27
7020 = 6020
D12:20 = 23:5
7021 = 6021
D13:20
7023 7024 = 7019
D12:32 D12:26 = 21:21 = 31:38 D31:29 D31:37 D21:28
East-west wall, north wall of R715 East-west wall, south wall of Room 707 East-west interior Wall; North wall of R714 East-west interior Wall; South wall of R714, north wall of R712. East support wall of Staircase D23:43, West side of R707 West support wall of Staircase D23:43, east wall of R716 North-south interior wall, east wall of R712 East-west interior wall north of R612, R613
7025 7026 7028 7029 7030 7031
Outer East Wall, east wall of R613 Outer South Wall, under W6005 North-south interior Wall; abuts outer Wall 7026; forms Doorway C North-south interior Wall; runs north from W7019 Outer North wall of B700, under W6003
D13:61 D14:2 + 23:6 + 33:2 D2:4 + 13:7 + 14:3 Outer West wall of B700, under W6004 FIELD C-WEST (8000–8999)
Wall #
Locus
Brief Description
8001 8002
C5:2 = C6:2 C6:6
North-south wall East-west wall, outer casemate
8003 8004 8005 8006 8007 8008 8009 8010 8011 8012
C6:9 C7:3, 17 C7:21 C7:20 C6:12 C16:6 C16:8 C17:21, 39 C17:2 = 27:23 C17:7, 33
8013 8014
C17:38 C17:19, 13
8015 8016 8017
C27:22, 35, 19 C27:2 C27:4
8018 8019 8020 8021 8022
C27:7 C27:15 C27:41 C27:49 C27:45
8023 8024 8025 8026 8027
A93:2 A94:2 = A84:2 A83:4 A83:3 A83:8
8028 8029 8030 8031 8032 8033 8034 8035 8036
A83:11 A93:11 A93:20–A83:24 A93:41 A93:42 A84:7 C7:1–A93:4 C3:1–C63:17 C2:2–C72
North-south wall, east end of casemate R801 East-west inner casemate wall, final phase East-west inner casemate wall, earlier phase North-south wall west of Building 800 East-west wall, east of casemate R801 East-west wall in S. balk North-south wall in E. balk West wall of B800 and R802 South wall of Building 800 and of R802, R803 East wall of R802, includes stacked pillars (C17:34, 35, 56) and connecting units, = W8014 North wall of R802 East wall of R802, south end, boulder-and-chink, = W8012 Pillared wall, north wall of R803 North-south wall, east wall of R803 East-west wall, south wall of R805, continuation of 8011 Support wall for upper Stairs C27:43 South wall of Stairs C27:43 North wall of Stairs C27:43 North-south wall, east wall of Building 800 Pillar and North-south wall, east side of R804, N of Stairs C27:43 South Wall of R809 Exterior north wall, bonds with W8028 North Wall of R807, continuation of W8030 East wall of R807 South wall of R807, north support wall of Staircase A83:19 Exterior West wall, continuation of 8033 South wall of R808 South wall of Corridor 810, continuation of W8025 East Wall of R808 West wall of R808 Exterior West wall, bonds with W8024 Modern property wall East-West wall on crest (same as W9000?) Wall in scarp of bulldozer cut
FIELD C-EAST (9000–9999) Wall #
Locus
Brief Description
9000 9001 9002 9003
C43:3 = C53:3 C43:4 = C44:5 C43:14 C44:4 = C54:11
9004 9005
C44:8 C53:10 = C54:9
East-west wall on southern edge of terrace North-south wall abuts W9000 North-south wall on East side of R902 East-west wall bonded to W9001; north wall of R902 East-west wall, north wall of R905 North-south wall, abuts W9000, east wall of R904
9006 9007 9008 9009 9010 9011 9012 9013 9014 9015 9016
C54:10 C61:3 = C71:2 C61:16 = C71:10 C62:4 = C72:2 C62:8 = C72:3 C62:10 C63:6 C63:12 C63:17 C71:17 C54:3
9017 9018 9019
C65:4 C64:6 C64:3 = 65:2 = 66:3 C64:7 C64:6 = 65:10 = 75:25 C66:5 C65:7 C66:4 = 75:24
9020 9021 9022 9023 9024 9025 9026 9027 9028 9029 9030 9031 9032 9033 9034 9035 9036 9037 9038 9039 9040 9041 9042 9043 9044
C66:6 C76:4 C76:13 C75:22 = 76:3 C75:23 = 76:11 C75:3 C75:11 = 85:2 C75:13 = 85:3 C86:4 C86:5 C75:6 = 86:2 C74:8 C74:3 C74:16 C64:11 = 74:10 C86:3 C53:28 C74:13 C81–C86
East-west wall, abuts W9005, north wall of R904 East-west wall north of Buttress 9008 Buttress wall, sealed against by W9007 Byzantine or modern wall North-south wall, bonds with W9007 Buttress to 9010 Partially excavated wall in N. Balk North-south wall, east wall of R901 Cancelled; East-west wall, = W9000 East-west wall below buttress wall W9008 East-west wall, north wall of R901, east of Doorway A North-south wall, east side of B900 East-west wall, south wall of R908 West wall of B910 Tower(?) foundation North-south wall on east side of R917, R907 + R908 Interior East-west wall, north of R, 917, R907 Interior East-west wall, north of R908 North-south Wall, on east side of R917, R916, R906 + 907 East-west wall, North wall of B910 East-west wall, North wall of R909 North-south wall stub, north of Doorway J East-west wall, west of Doorway G East-west wall, east of Doorway G East-west wall, south of R910 North-south wall, north of Doorway K North-south wall, south of Doorway K North-south wall, east side of R912 East-west wall, south side of R912 North-south wall, East wall of R909 North-south wall, east of roadway East-west wall, east of Doorway M East-west wall, west of Doorway M North-south wall, south of Tower 9020 East-west wall, north of R912 Wall stub; south frame of Doorway D North-south wall line, west side of Roadway 915 Modern Wall Blocking wall, south frame of Doorway F.
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SUBJECT INDEX access, 56, 62, 69, 85, 86, 107, 135, 178, 192, 194, 200, 239, 240, 244, 277, 278, 282, 294, 299, 320, 326, 330,360, 377, 378, 384–387, 395, 397, 400, 452, 489, 512 activity, 4, 10, 11, 15, 16, 20, 42, 65, 76, 93, 101–103, 109, 118, 131, 147, 155, 164, 171, 176, 177, 187, 188, 194, 197, 208, 220, 232, 254, 264, 285, 309, 312, 342, 403, 408, 437, 454, 513 animal, 11, 35, 73, 80, 111, 137, 147–150, 163, 164, 169, 170, 175, 196, 218–220, 223, 240–242, 247, 253–255, 259, 277, 278, 310, 335, 336, 370, 389, 411, 490 anvil, 199, 412, 448, 454 ash, 73, 77, 98, 127,136, 137, 140, 148, 163, 165, 167–169, 172, 174, 175, 185, 187, 188, 192, 196, 202, 218, 223, 230, 231, 242, 247, 253, 259, 260, 261, 265, 283, 309, 310, 319, 324, 325, 338, 395, 396, 398, 399, 409, 410 ashlar, 73, 106, 425, 427, 428, 430 axis, 108, 112, 129, 233, 370, 415, 434 basalt, 82, 85, 102, 103, 110, 128, 132–135, 138, 139, 147, 149, 153, 155, 157–159, 163, 164, 166, 169, 170, 172, 186, 189, 191–196, 198, 199, 203, 204, 219, 223, 236, 238, 239, 245, 246, 253, 254, 256, 259, 262–266, 268, 269, 279, 280, 284, 304, 305, 307, 309–311, 313–317, 320–322, 324, 328–330, 334–336, 338–341, 357–359, 361, 365, 390, 393, 396, 400, 408, 411, 414, 443, 446, 447 basement, 243, 327, 430, 437 basin, 89, 175, 309, 317, 331, 332, 335, 336, 342, 365, 401, 426, 443, 444, 450, 452 batter, 98, 99, 100, 107, 282
beam, 128, 131, 137, 189, 293, 297, 327, 343, 406, 431, 437, 438, 440, 445, 448 beaten earth, 83, 85, 91, 127, 132, 133, 137, 140, 145–148, 153, 158, 159, 162, 163, 167, 168, 173, 185, 190, 196, 198, 202, 214, 218, 223, 227, 230, 234, 239, 240, 244, 259, 261, 277, 278, 279, 281, 284, 303, 310, 312, 314, 319, 322, 332, 338, 356, 365, 388, 392, 395, 398, 407, 410, 411, 426, 440, 453 bedrock, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 21, 22, 41, 42, 49, 50, 52–54, 56, 59, 62, 65, 97, 99, 101, 125, 177, 205, 208, 215, 217, 229–231, 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 246, 247, 249, 250, 270, 273, 274, 275, 290, 300, 302, 309, 349, 351, 354, 356, 358, 360, 361, 363–371, 379, 380, 382, 404, 424, 425, 426, 428, 430, 457 bench, 7, 9, 207, 222, 223, 224, 231, 261, 264, 265, 266, 281, 371, 449, 454 bin, 135, 158, 209, 240, 259, 277, 297, 307, 413, 432, 433 black slip, 477 bond, 49, 63, 66, 68–70, 77, 78, 85, 100, 125, 129, 152, 155, 169, 190, 201, 215, 244, 281, 300, 302, 308, 318, 331, 335, 350, 355, 358, 360, 363, 364, 369, 381, 386, 391, 402, 404, 407, 428, 430, 448 bottle, 274, 275, 333, 342, 408, 415, 476, 483, 506, 509, 510 boulder mortar, 153, 224, 229, 230, 231, 319, 320, 335, 420, 444, 453, 454 bowl, 6, 38, 40–42, 98, 102, 103, 127, 128, 132, 138, 139, 149, 153, 159, 163, 164, 203, 204, 207, 218, 219, 224, 227, 232, 235–237, 239, 244, 246, 249, 250, 253, 254, 256, 262, 263, 266–269, 279, 280, 283–286, 302, 304, 305, 309–312, 314, 316, 321, 322, 326, 327, 328, 332–336,
340–342, 363, 390–395, 400, 411, 414, 415, 453, 467, 471–479 bulla, 438, 510 burial, 17, 48, 93, 108, 110, 111, 112, 119, 380, 390, 415, 416, 418, 379, 380 burnish, 19, 41, 43, 98, 102, 132, 138, 141, 149, 162, 163, 174, 204, 221, 224, 236, 237, 244, 254, 263, 280, 304–310, 312, 314, 322, 327, 333, 334, 340–342, 363, 414, 415, 471, 472, 476, 478, 488 buttress, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 302, 426 carinated, 98, 237, 304, 312, 390, 414, 472, 475 cave, 6, 7, 10, 11, 24, 205, 271, 273, 425, 426 ceiling, 30, 34, 36, 41, 72, 84, 92, 117, 128, 130, 131, 136, 137, 140, 149–151, 157, 164, 174, 184, 189, 191–199, 214, 215, 220, 222, 225, 226, 233, 238, 241, 245–249, 253, 255, 259–270, 272, 273, 279, 280, 286, 293, 302, 306–310, 312, 316– 320, 327–329, 333, 340, 343, 353, 357, 359, 369, 370, 389, 390, 392, 396, 406, 429, 431–434, 438, 439, 448, 474 cemetery, 98, 100, 112, 287, 289, 373, 375, 414 chalk, 23, 24, 53, 100, 168, 424 channel, 11, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 87, 88, 170, 181, 182, 192, 195, 196, 204, 241, 242, 274, 275, 365, 366, 382, 407 chert, 9, 21, 23, 24, 65, 67, 73, 74, 77, 80, 89, 97, 98, 104, 132, 136, 137, 138, 147, 149, 153, 155, 157, 159, 163, 164, 166, 170, 175, 177, 187, 189, 191, 193, 194, 196, 198, 199, 212, 219, 225, 233, 241, 243, 246, 248, 250, 254, 256, 260, 262–264, 266, 269, 273, 284, 304, 305, 315, 317, 322, 335, 339, 340, 350, 358, 362, 370, 381, 389, 390, 400, 408, 411, 412, 414, 424, 425, 427, 429 chronology, 14, 47, 102, 127, 140, 175, 178, 204, 220, 225, 280, 372, 465, 468, 479 cistern, 6, 9, 10, 11, 56, 62, 81, 85, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 215, 239, 240,
250, 251, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 284, 285, 286, 344, 345, 365, 370, 371, 372, 425, 426, 274 cobble, 18, 32, 35, 41, 49, 53, 56, 58, 63, 71, 76, 80, 81, 88, 89, 93, 98– 101, 108, 129, 135, 137, 138, 140, 144, 148, 152–159, 168, 169, 173, 182, 184, 186–188, 202, 212, 213, 217, 220, 222, 227, 229, 232–234, 238–242, 249, 258, 259, 263, 265, 269, 274, 276, 277, 279, 281, 282, 297, 302, 318, 319, 330, 333–337, 358, 368, 369, 382, 386, 388–390, 395–403, 406, 408, 409, 411, 413, 415, 427, 431–434, 436, 447, 449, 453 collared–rim, 117, 127, 468, 479 complex, 66, 70, 89, 101, 151, 178, 200, 204, 205, 207, 211, 215, 216, 226 cooking pot, 7, 38, 41, 73, 98, 128, 134, 147, 149, 153, 155, 163, 164, 168–173, 188, 191–193, 203, 204, 218, 223, 224, 232, 235, 246, 247, 253–256, 259–266, 269, 280, 283, 284, 302, 309–310, 312, 314, 326, 327, 340, 342, 361, 399, 475, 477 corridor, 71, 211, 216, 240, 247, 251, 259–264, 277, 279, 282, 284, 290, 292, 300, 306, 308, 313, 318, 345– 348, 352, 404, 405, 410–414, 447 courtyard, 227, 239–242, 243, 248, 249, 282 cross wall, 66, 68, 72, 85, 88, 89, 92, 128, 137, 158, 181, 209, 282, 301, 375, 378, 381, 386, 428 date, 5–8, 11, 29, 33, 37, 38, 42, 43, 56, 71, 73, 81, 93, 101, 109, 112, 140, 143, 163, 173, 177, 188, 205, 214, 220–224, 226, 269, 285, 345, 346, 379, 380, 443, 445, 454, 468, 469, 474, 482, 501, 510, 513 door frame, 294, 426 doorjamb, 210–211, 349, 362, 363 drain, 21, 48, 52, 61, 73–78, 80–83, 87–89, 93, 178, 181, 182, 192, 195, 196, 204, 239, 240, 271–273, 279, 331, 332, 343, 365, 382, 427, 450, 451, 472 drum, 431, 434
dry laid, 49, 63, 65, 427, 436 dynasty, 459, 463, 495, 498, 510–512 epigraphic source, 482 erosion, 24, 56, 72, 89, 105, 296, 335, 336, 340, 382, 414, 424, 510 flagstone, 41, 72, 76, 77, 85, 86, 91, 100, 126, 188, 251, 294, 304, 306, 312, 316, 332–335, 348, 356, 364, 384, 389–392, 395–398, 426 flake, 164, 175, 218, 244 flue, 156, 165, 170–173, 188 food preparation, 35, 41, 145, 148–151, 155, 160, 163, 164, 171, 188, 192, 203, 204, 232, 247, 259, 262, 311, 316, 326, 328, 339, 341, 361, 373, 403, 411, 449 fortification, 6, 10, 16, 17, 19, 30, 42–108, 122, 141, 147, 174–179, 191, 197, 205–208, 213, 287–290, 373, 374, 423–428, 436, 437, 457, 471, 475, 503 foundation, 32, 34, 41, 45, 49, 50, 60, 74, 89, 90, 98, 103, 137, 144, 148, 154, 161, 164, 165, 175, 176, 186, 199, 200, 226, 253, 255, 282, 300, 323, 332, 350, 353, 358, 368, 375, 382, 424–427, 434–437, 482 foundation trench, 41, 90, 164, 165, 176, 368 gate, 16, 17, 41, 45, 62, 101, 102, 154, 129, 298, 342, 373, 380, 384–386, 394, 400–403, 446, 447, 474, 475 glacis, 48, 53, 61, 63, 65, 76, 101, 206 granary, 259 grater, 102, 478 grave, 93, 94, 108, 111–113, 285, 415, 491, 507 grinder, 85, 128, 132, 134, 138, 139, 147, 149, 153, 155, 157–159, 164, 170, 189, 193–199, 203, 219, 225, 227, 233, 236, 239, 245, 246, 249, 250, 253–256, 262, 263, 266, 268, 284, 308–311, 313, 314, 317, 320, 322, 329, 330, 334, 335, 340, 341, 357–359, 365, 393, 396, 408, 411, 413–416, 453 hall, 290–352 passim, 360, 365, 367, 447 header, 60, 363, 367, 395, 435
hearth, 137, 148, 149, 162, 168–170, 196, 218, 229–231, 308–312, 320, 399, 409, 454 hemispherical, 138, 153, 155, 164, 227, 237, 253, 280, 440, 453, 472, 475 hippo, 154, 168, 220, 471, 475, 477 holemouth, 218, 235, 246, 263, 269, 304, 340, 342, 372, 471 horseshoe, 187 inner wall, 45–109 passim, 120, 141–152, 162, 169–175, 190, 196, 200–212, 285, 287, 397, 402, 428 inscription, 482–505, 509 inset, 45, 48–58, 61–63, 66–69, 75, 85, 95, 103, 104, 290, 382, 403, 428, 468–471 installation, 6, 11, 17, 20, 108, 134–138, 157, 158, 166–170, 184, 188, 205, 224, 230, 231, 238, 245, 246, 261, 278, 294, 309–312, 319–320, 329, 332, 336, 348, 357, 396–401, 409, 412, 413, 424, 426, 444, 450, 499 jug, 40, 41, 244, 255, 264, 320–321, 415, 467 juglet, 141, 148, 153, 254, 309–310, 325, 357, 473 king, 482–513 krater, 38, 41, 128, 132, 138, 153, 154, 174, 194, 204, 218, 224, 232, 235, 239, 244, 246, 256, 266, 269, 309, 311, 314, 316, 327, 340, 342, 359, 361, 363, 372, 411, 473, 477 Kurkh Monolith, 482, 500 landing, 298, 359, 369, 439 legend, 482, 494, 495, 498, 508 lens, 80, 140, 191, 196, 218, 247, 250, 253, 396, 399 lime, 20, 99, 101, 168, 302, 315–317, 426, 436, 437, 460–463 lintel, 348, 349, 357, 358, 363, 369, 370, 426, 431, 433, 439, 444, 445, 448 lithic, 20, 163, 164, 218, 233, 245, 246, 314, 340, 396 loom weight, 132, 191–193, 224, 225, 245, 266, 279, 280, 315, 317, 320, 322, 326, 336, 339, 340, 361, 362, 389, 392, 396 long room, 121, 135, 233, 343
marl, 23, 24 Masoretic Text, 484 midden, 241, 248, 255, 264 monarchy, 483, 493, 497, 498, 501 monolithic pillar, 131, 184, 249, 289, 431–435 mortar, 102, 103, 108, 132, 134, 139, 159, 166, 170, 173, 174, 188, 189, 193–195, 198, 199, 203, 218, 220, 225, 227, 236, 238, 245–247, 251, 253, 256, 259, 262–269, 279, 280, 283, 284, 300, 304, 305, 313, 315, 317, 320–321, 329, 336–342, 345, 357, 359, 390, 395, 396, 400, 408, 411–416, 426, 436, 450, 478 mud brick, 32–35, 41, 45, 53, 54, 69, 74, 80, 81, 104, 105, 128, 131–137, 140, 144, 148, 151, 162, 165, 166, 169, 172, 176, 190–193, 222, 247, 253, 424–427, 435, 469 nari, 23, 63, 101, 127, 164, 174, 223, 227, 236, 242, 243, 247, 250, 252, 278, 284, 310, 316, 357, 362, 382, 390, 396, 424 niche, 112, 318, 326, 433, 502 offset, 45, 48–58, 61–63, 68, 83, 95, 103, 104, 106, 298, 389, 390, 395, 403, 428, 468–471 onomastics, 485, 509 origin, 23, 73, 178, 250, 260, 481, 487, 493–495, 498, 502, 510 outer wall, 45–107 passim, 119, 120, 125, 130, 146, 148, 151, 175, 178, 179, 186, 190, 207, 208, 290, 296– 303, 307, 310, 312, 313, 316, 318, 329, 331, 344, 348- 351, 354–359, 369, 373, 380, 385, 387, 395, 420, 428, 429, 435, 439, 448 oven, 42, 49, 91, 117, 137, 148, 155– 157, 162–174, 178, 184–196, 223, 260–262, 310, 319–320, 329, 338, 339, 396, 398, 408–411, 454 Palace Ware, 476, 477 partition, 66, 81, 92, 167, 170, 173, 180, 184, 188, 190, 212, 214, 227, 234, 238–240, 244, 250, 253, 260, 264, 273, 275–278, 281, 378, 386, 388, 392, 431–434, 438
party wall, 136, 154, 200, 214, 226, 279, 283 passage, 51, 55–87, 133, 182, 207, 209, 215, 246, 248–251, 282, 384, 395, 405, 447, 496, 503 pastoralist, 492 pavement, 41, 42, 55, 61, 69–71, 79, 100, 101, 159, 282, 315, 332, 333, 335, 358, 364, 384, 392, 400, 401, 426 pebble, 18, 58, 59, 65, 99, 101, 135, 188, 189, 202, 217, 218, 227, 240, 241, 302, 333, 361, 384, 390. 396, 428 pecking stone, 198, 199, 250, 262, 314 pier, 152, 294–297, 301, 302, 305, 308, 337, 348, 362–367, 370 pillar, 29, 120 ,122, 126–132, 135, 137, 139, 144, 152, 155, 157, 182, 184, 211, 212, 213, 220, 223, 227, 234, 239, 249, 251, 253, 258–262, 269, 276, 287, 289, 294, 297, 318–319, 323–327, 334, 337–339, 388, 425, 426, 431–437, 444, 448, 450, 454 pillar base, 135, 144, 152, 155, 157, 222, 388, 434, 437, 444, 448, 454 pithos, 41, 42, 127, 133, 141, 155, 156, 168–175, 185, 186, 193, 194, 204, 224, 232, 235–239, 244–247, 259– 263, 266, 269, 284, 293, 302–305, 314, 316, 319–321, 333, 337, 342, 343, 372, 409, 470–471, 475, 477, 479 plaster, 20, 34, 53, 58–93, 99, 101, 107, 124, 128, 132–148, 155, 164, 168– 174, 186–192, 196, 201, 202, 220, 221, 227, 232–234, 239, 241, 245, 247, 250, 253, 258–270, 273, 277– 279, 281–283, 302, 309–310, 318– 319, 324, 325, 332–338, 370, 371, 384, 385, 390, 392, 398, 401, 403, 409, 424, 426, 436, 437, 457–461 platform, 104, 303, 398 postern, 56, 61 pounder, 132, 139, 147, 149, 153, 155, 159, 163, 189, 193, 196, 199, 219, 225, 233, 246, 254, 256, 260, 263–266, 269, 283, 284, 304, 305, 315–317, 320–322, 326, 335, 339, 340, 389, 396, 400, 408, 411–414, 416, 453 quarry, 7, 11, 177, 424, 425
recess, see inset religious, 16, 455, 512 reservoir, 11, 82, 425 retaining wall, 10, 42, 46, 48, 53, 54, 63–65, 96–98, 177, 188, 205, 426, 436 roadway, 102, 375–378, 380–386, 394, 398, 400, 402 robber trench, 250, 260 roof, 7, 29, 69, 70, 81, 86, 92, 132–134, 137, 157, 158, 193–199, 213–214, 226, 238, 245, 248, 254, 263, 267, 269, 274, 280, 289, 293, 294, 317, 328, 348, 362, 370, 388, 389, 393, 396, 400, 431, 437–441, 448, 455, 475 roof roller, 92, 157, 198, 235–237, 305, 332–334, 426, 439–444, 457, 458, 460, 462 room size, 104, 122, 180, 200, 210, 292, 347, 377, 385, 404, 437 rubble, 107, 272, 300, 406, 428 salient, see offset saucer, 102, 155, 218, 236, 244, 253, 269, 279, 280, 302, 304, 332–334, 340, 341, 395, 414, 474, 475 Septuagint, 485 screen, 431, 432 shelf, 188, 207, 224, 231, 261, 264, 265, 270, 277, 281, 408, 411, 449 shell, 110, 153, 193, 194, 225, 227, 231, 233, 236, 263, 278, 311, 316, 320, 321, 333–335, 340, 342, 345, 357, 504 skeleton, 93, 112, 249, 415 socket, 56, 102, 246, 251, 293, 300, 306, 313, 382, 390, 396, 424–447, 453, 454 stacked–boulder, 122, 126, 129, 135, 137, 139, 182, 184, 211, 214, 220, 222, 223, 227, 249, 258, 262, 265, 279, 297, 318, 337, 349, 370, 431, 434, 437 staircase, 70, 226, 289–299, 308, 312, 316–320, 324, 327–330, 333, 336, 346, 351, 352, 359, 364–369, 381, 382, 404, 405, 425, 430, 436–439, 454, 475 storejar, 29, 40, 91, 108, 127, 147, 154, 159, 168–170, 218–220, 224, 232, 235, 244, 247, 259, 266, 277, 311,
314, 316, 321, 327, 330, 332, 340, 342, 380, 389, 471, 477 stable, 450, 489 strategy, 13–16, 30, 46, 47, 120, 206–207, 287, 289 superstructure, 34, 35, 45, 53, 54, 69, 73, 74, 92, 100, 103, 104, 140, 144, 151, 154, 162, 174, 175, 190–193, 213, 226, 238, 247, 310, 382, 424, 426, 427, 435 terrace, 16, 47, 94, 95–102, 238, 285– 289, 294, 296, 373, 375, 379–382, 385, 400, 403–405, 414, 415, 439, 474, 475 threshold, 71, 79, 86, 234, 255, 258, 259, 307, 314, 319, 335, 338, 349, 361, 369, 395, 396, 412, 424, 426, 444, 447, 448 tower, 3, 17, 45–48, 59–65, 73, 81, 82, 87, 89, 98, 100, 199, 200, 204, 375, 381, 382, 400, 401, 426, 427, 436–438, 488, 490, 503, 517 traffic pattern, 249, 282, 359, 375, 395, 403, 405, 406, 414, 438 tribe, 495–498 tribute, 504–506, 511 trough, 11, 155, 189, 278, 279, 331, 426, 444, 450–452 upper storey, 69, 70, 74, 104, 107, 120, 123, 127, 128, 130, 134, 135, 141, 149, 150, 165, 174, 184, 189, 191, 193–196, 199, 200, 213, 243, 245, 246, 250, 260, 263, 267, 294, 295, 297, 298, 302, 304–306, 310–312, 314–316, 327–329, 333–336, 340, 341, 345, 346, 348, 350, 353, 354, 357, 359, 362–364, 367, 388–392, 396, 400, 406, 414, 429, 433–438, 445, 446 wall plaster, 92, 221, 302, 457, 458 wall thickness, 63, 124, 144, 181, 201, 212, 295, 349, 350, 379, 406, 435 weaving, 327, 362, 396 windbreak, 173, 188, 265, 284, 338, 409 wooden, 189, 213, 253, 343, 434, 437–441, 444, 448 work area, 117–120, 141, 150, 159, 170, 173, 175, 182, 198–200, 204, 207, 208, 248, 251, 277, 284, 289
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GEOGRAPHIC AND ETHNIC NAME INDEX Abel-keramim, 486, 492 #Abdun, 3 Ab¯u #Aland¯a, 488 Ajlun, 21, 24 Akkadian, 482, 484 #Amman, 3, 5–7, 16, 22–24, 34, 98, 105, 128, 207, 236, 237, 255, 270, 291, 292, 304, 423, 429, 441, 454, 467, 468, 483–485, 491, 495, 501, 503 Ammon, 3–5, 16, 29, 104, 207, 237, 375, 438, 467, 481–486, 492, 493–513 Ammonite, 4, 5, 8, 14, 16, 20, 31, 105, 113, 120, 206, 268, 357, 428, 429, 438, 454, 455, 474, 481–513 Arabic, 6, 7, 484, 488 Arad, 105, 275 #Ar¯a#ir, 428 Aramaean, 485, 495–500, 503, 504, 508, 509 Aramaic, 483, 487, 488, 504, 508, 509 Arnon, 7 Ashkelon, 328 Assyria, 4, 5, 117, 257, 311, 475, 476– 479, 482–485, 487, 488, 496–513 #Ataruz, 455 Babylon, 478, 479, 509–513 Balqa, 3, 13, 21, 24 Balu#, 29, 107, 296, 349, 382, 429, 430, 434, 455, 479 Baq#ah, 314, 489, 490 Beer-sheba, 9, 79, 103–105, 178, 289, 300, 305, 326, 477 b˘enê #Ammôn, 29, 479 Bethel, 8, 9, 37, 75, 434 Beth Shan, 37, 112, 254 Beth Shemesh, 8, 9, 104 Bît Adini, 495, 498 Bît Ammana, 5 Busayra, 302, 425, 431, 437, 438, 444 Canaanite, 484, 488, 509 Castron Mefaa, 5, 7
Cisjordan, 9, 78, 103, 171, 323, 384, 385, 430, 475, 491–493, 501–504, 508 Damascus, 491, 499, 504, 505 Dayr#Alla, 9, 38, 224, 231, 255, 304, 478, 487, 503, 504 Dh¯ıbân, 107, 271, 274, 436 Dibon, 7, 9, 501, see also Dh¯ıbân al-Drayjat, 13 Edom, 38, 492, 498, 504, 512 Edomite, 481 Egyptian, 327, 482, 488, 492, 504, 506, 511 #En Gev, 107, 108 #En Ha . s.eva, 107 Ephraim, 493, 494, 504 Euphrates, 491, 495 Fuhais, 24 Gath, 499 ˘ ˇ Gebel eˇs-Sarqi, 482 Gilead, 489, 490, 493–496, 502, 503 Greek, 484–486 Hama, 237 Hazor, 42, 50–52, 62, 66, 69, 71, 78, 81, 82, 91, 103–106, 153, 171, 190, 220, 224, 275, 289, 292, 323, 351, 378, 385, 436, 440, 443, 455, 474, 491 Hebrew, 481, 482, 484, 486, 508, 510 Hesban, 4, 13, 37, 40, 274, 486 . Hirbat al-Hajjar, 488 . ˘ Hirbat Jel#ad, 495 ˘ Horvat Rosh Zayit, 220 . Hummar, 24 #Ir¯aq al-Am¯ır, 490 Israel, 14, 38, 105, 107, 112, 113, 384, 454, 467, 474, 485, 486, 489, 493–506, 511 #Izbet Sar . t.ah, 43
Jabal al-Haw¯ayah, 491 Jabal al-Qes.¯ır, 491 Jabboq, 485, 487, 489, 495, 496, see also W¯ad¯ı az-Zarqa Jabesh-Gilead, 496 Jalul, 206, 423, 429, 454, 468 Jazer, 486 Jerusalem, 425, 429, 439, 474, 512, 513 Jewish, 487, 513 Jordan Valley, 4, 304, 487, 489, 492 Judah, 38, 104, 454, 455, 467, 474, 477, 496, 499, 501–513, 561 Khirbat al-Hiri, 428, see also Rujm al-Heri Khirbat al-Mudayna (Thamad), 15, 59, 106, 150, 285, 322, 339, 378, 384, 428, 429, 455, 490 Khirbat al-Mudayna al-#Aliya, 107, 291, 349, 429, 433, 475 Khirbat al-Mudayna al-Ma#arradjeh, 107 Khirbat N¯efa#a, 5, 7 Khirbat as-Suq, 3 Khirbet ed-Dawwara, 431 Khirbet Raddana, 273, 274, 431, 432 Khirbet er-Ras, 300 Kommos, 310 Kurnub, 24 Lachish, 42, 43, 81, 93, 103, 113, 385 Lahav, 9, 305, see also Tel Halif Lebanon, 440, 482 Lehun, 9, 107, 291, 437, 455 Ma#acah, 499 Madaba, 7, 153, 304, 415, 477, 489, 490 Madaba Plains, 3, 4, 8, 13–21, 24, 62, 118, 165, 169, 455 Majdel Anjar, 440 Mari, 496 Mefaath, 6 Megiddo, 52, 66, 81, 103–105, 289, 332, 385, 443, 447, 452, 491 Mesopotamia, 478, 492 Mizpah, 494, 495 Moab, 29, 291, 296, 339, 384, 428, 454, 455, 467, 485, 489, 492, 493, 498, 501–506, 512, 513 Moabite, 7, 455, 481, 485–490, 494, 495, 503, 506
Muwaqqar, 24 Naur, 5, 24 Negev, 106 Nimrud, 257, 478, 482, 486, 504 Orontes, 482 Pella, 492 Persian, 32, 48, 93, 94, 108, 111–113, 119, 144, 182, 216, 257, 310, 351, 380, 443, 483, 487, 479, 509 Petra, 440, 477 Philistia, 499, 505 Phoenicia, 467, 474, 499, 504, 507 Qasr er-Ruheibeh, 106 Qarqar, 482, 500, 503 al-Qast.al, 5 Raachine, 440 Rabbath-Ammon, 3, 5 Ramoth-Gilead, 495 Rehov, . 107 Reuben, 5, 496 Rujm al-Heri, 490, see also Khirbat al-Hiri Rujm al-Henu, 314 Safut, 9, 34, 292 Sahab, 3, 29, 291 ,429, 444, 445, . 467–471, 477 Salt., 440 Samaria, 43, 104–106, 505 Shechem, 104, 105 Shiloh, 37, 220, 234, 275, 290, 425, 427, 429, 433 Sidon, 498, 512 Subeihi, 24 Suhu, 491 ˘ 122, 154, 423 ,424 ,439, 467, Syria, 478, 482, 484, 486, 489, 491–495, 500, 501, 503–505, 510, 511 Tall Ab¯u al-H¯araz, 496 ˘ 4, 9, 112 Tall al Mazar, Tall ar-Rufaisa, 3 Tall as-Sa#idiyya, 221, 323, 326, 364, 479 Tall S¯ır¯an, 483, 484, 506, 509, 510 Tall S¯ . af¯ut., see Safut Tall al-#Umayri, 4, 8–15, 19, 29, 37–43,
53, 66, 104, 106, 186, 237, 292, 298, 302, 304, 310, 336, 378, 423, 427, 428, 432, 438, 439, 440, 454, 467–471, 476, 479, 483, 487–492, 494, 501, 503, 509, 513 Tawilan, 257, 444 Tel Batash, 89, 232, 327, 332, 438, 443, 448 Tel Dan, 45, 260 Tel Dor, 474 Tel Halif, 9, 305, 328, 438, 454, see Lahav Tel Jezreel, 438 Tel Michal, 93, 257, 443 Tel Miqne, 332, 452 Tell #Arqa, 478 Tell Beit Mirsim, 9, 43, 66, 105, 179, 300, 327, 432, 434, 436, 443, 447 Tell el-Far#ah (N), 102, 122, 137, 190, 224, 274, 292, 302, 429, 430, 435, 438, 455 Tell el-Fûl, 65, 66, 102, 104, 105 Tell el-Hesi, 14, 15, 17, 45, 100, 112, 113, 328, 427 Tell el-Kheleifeh, 45, 103–106 Tell en-Nas. beh, 8, 9, 45, 102, 104, 224, 274, 275, 336, 369, 351, 426, 429, 431, 432, 432, 435, 443, 447, 455
Tell el-#Or¯eme, 443, 447 Tell Halaf, 82 Tell Qiri, 431, 435, 437 Tob, 499 Tyre, 498, 506, 510, 512 Ugarit, 365, 423, 439, 440, 442, 447, 494 Um el Ghudran, 24 Umm ad-Dan¯an¯ır, 489–491 Umm ar-Rasas, 7 Umm Udayna, 487 . Wadi al-Ghudran, 22, 23 Wadi al-Hinu, 21 Wadi Hinu al-Marashida, 21 Wadi Mujib, 7, 428, 491 Wadi Sir, 22–24 Wadi ath-Thamad, 15, 106, 206, 428, 429, 455 Wadi Um al-Kudsh, 21 W¯ad¯ı az-Zarqa, 485, 491, see Jabboq al-Yadudah, 3, 5 Yoqne#am, 82, 107 Zencirli, 504 Zobah, 499, 500
