Federal furniture

FEDERAL

FURNITURE

Michael Dunbar

ITI

The Taunton Press

Cover and text photos by Andrcw Edgar. except wh crc noted . Photos. pp, 8 and 10. by John Co rco ra n .

" 1986 by The Ta u nton Press. In c , All righ ts rese rved

First printing: ~I a y 198 6 Int ern a tio nal Sta nda rd Boo k Number: 0 ·918804·48·5 Library of Co ngress Catalog Ca rd Nu mbe r: 85 ·52239 Printed in Denmark

A FIl>E WOODWORKI NG Book FIl>E WOODWORKIl>G"' is a tra dem ark o f Thc Ta unto n Press, Inc .• regist er ed in th e U.S . Pat e nt and Trade ma rk Office , The Ta u nto n Press. Inc . 63 South Ma in St ree t Box 355 Newtown. Co nnec tic ut 06 4 70

Acknowledgments

~I y

wife , Carol. and I dedicate thi s bo ok to o u r good friend Dr. Doro thy Va ug ha n, During World War I, wh en s he was a tee nager, Dorothy began her lifelon g lov e affair with Po rtsmou th, New Hampshire , Th rough out mo st o f this cent ury, wh en few o the rs ca red o r were able to understand wh y, she struggle d to prot ect thi s old c ity b y th e se a from the wrecke r's ba ll. The spec ial cha rac te r a nd a rc hi tec tu ra l heri tage tha t Portsm outh ha s o nly latel y learned to c he rish we re in la rge pa rt sa ve d for us all by Do rothy. She sta nds as a b ridge betwe en Portsmouth 's pa st a nd its future. She has read a nd co mm itted to memory th e c ity's written h istory. And bef ore each re cent generation o f olde r ci tize ns slip pe d a way, s he befri ended them , keeping a live in the process two c enturi es o f o ra l hi st ory for this ge ne ra tio n. Doro thy sha res her kn owledge lib erally. She ha s alw ay s willin gly helped me with my research, and in so doing sh e has also sha re d her uniqu e gift with you, the readers o f thi s book . I would also lik e to acknowl ed ge th e c o ntrib u tio n to this book o f And y Edg a r, wh ose pati en ce a nd good hum or hel ped us bo th s u rv ive many hours o f ph o to graph y. J ack an d Dia ne ~l c G e e ' s ge ne rosity b rought th e Lord bo x hom e . Fe llo w c ra ftsme n a nd woodworkers Pat Edwa rds. Al Breed a nd To m Hin ckl e y co ntrib u te d th eir s pe c ia l knowl ed ge and inf o rmati on . ~I uch o f th e wo od used in th e p rojec ts fell to Ed dy Tr embla y's c ha insa w. Th rough Cha rlie LeBlanc at th e Portsm outh Public Library, resourc es were o nly a ph on e call away . And since this book co nta ins no index , Ed Hyder ha s y ie lded hi s plac e .

Contents

AN INTROHUCTIO N TO FEHERAL nJRNITlJRE THE PARLOR 1 c a,« T a ble

S

10

Project : String in lay 2 Xl irror Project : Ro pe turning

20

.l Sofa

.10

Project: Reeding by hand

4 C a n illes ta n d

.1S

Project : Sliding dovetails

5 Lord Bo .'-Proj e c t: .Jo in te d lid and "matched " veneers

6 Tip -T op Tal)le

50

Proj ect: IIinge block

7 Sec re ta ry Pro j e c t:

58

~ Iunti ns

THE IHNI N(; ROOM 8 Tncy

,-

-'}

74

Project: Edge band ing

9 l lep ple snh ite C lu cir

so

Project : Angled mortise-and-tenons

10 Gcctcleg T a b le

90

Project : Wooden h inge

11 Fa ncy C h a i r

100

Project: Reeding with a pla ne

12 Bello w s

lOS

Project : Front-hoard decorat io n

TilE KITCHE N l.l Willds o r C Ila i r

1 l(, 1 IS

Project: S hap ing the sea t

14 Display 8 1,e U' Project: Stop dadoes

15 Ca n d le Bo s:

l.12

Project: Sliding lid

16 Desk

O il

F ru llI e

l.1 8

Project : Simulated four- way m it e r joi n ts

THE HEIH{OOM 17 l l igh -Po«: Bcd

14() 14 8

Project: Roping the fra me

18 Pembroke Table

15h

Project : Rul e jo ints

19 Brueket-Bas e Blanket C hes t Project: Ra bbeted lid mol d in gs

20 C hes t of Dru seers

170

Project: Si mu lated coc k bead ing

AI»I»ENHICES SOI/n.' es of S l/ p p ly G loss a ry HibliogmpllY

179 180

I S .l

AN INTRODUCTION TO FEDERAL FURNITURE

T,

waning yea" of the 18th century marked a n exhilarating period in Arne ricar history. With the end of the Revolu-

tionary War in 1781 and the ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1788 , Americans embarked on one of the most radical political experiments in history. The produet of their struggle was the Federal Republie-an achievement of which they were acutely proud. At the same time they were also unknowingly laying the groundwork in America for what would begin in England and spread elsewhere as another of history's greatest changes: the Industrial Revolution . The arts of America bear the influence of this exciting era , and many innovations in style heralded the new republic 's birth . In furniture the emerging style in America was known as Federaland was produced roughly from around 1790 to 1820. A large, well-established middle class dominated the populace of Federal -period America. This population was well e d ucated, and politically, technologically and artistically sophisticated . While Hollywood has thoroughly familiarized us with the pioneers who settled the American frontier, we remain largely unaware that our Colonial and Federal forebears also created wealthy, cosmopolitan centers like Philadelphia, Boston and New York. The social conditions of these Federal-period cities and the new republic 's established commercial network made possible a high level of accomplishment in the arts and in manufacturing, arenas that converged in the woodworking trades of architecture and furniturernakin g. During the 17th and early 18th centuries, England had provided the major influence on American architecture, furniture and decorative arts . In the mid-18th century, England, like the rest of Europe , became fascinated with the archaeological discoveries at classical Greek and Roman sites. The decorative objects and the paintings of daily life yielded by sites like Pompeii gave rise to an enthusiastic revival of interest in the classical world . In reaction to the excess of the Gothic and rococo styles from the Chippendale period in the mid-18th century, the neoclassical movement produced a reinterpretation of Greco-Roman antiquity that emphasized simplicity , geometric forms and classical ornament. With the end of the Revolu tionary War and the normalization of relations and commerce between England and America, neoclassicism spread to the new republic . For Federal -period Americans, the similarities of their own political experiment and the democratic experiences of the classical world added significance to their embrace of the neoclassical movement that went far beyond the desire to copy the most up-to-date European fashion . -1-

The new Fed eral furniture was light and delicate in appe arance . Fav oring simpl e . geom etric lines, it observed rigid sy nunc t rv in it s o ve ra ll design and borrowed e n th usi as tic a lly from classical decorative motifs. Among th ese m otifs were vases . urns, plum e s. swag s. b ow s and re eding: patriotic cl em ents lik e the e ag le found th eir way in to many Fed eral pi e c e s a s well . In a dd itio n to classical o rn a me nt. Federa l furnitur e also made frequent use o f s t ring and pictorial inlay and ven e ering. Th e c ha rac te ris tic delicacy o f Federal furniture is also th e feature th at m o st o b vio us ly di stingui sh es it from th e larger. more robu st Ch ip p e nd a le furniture that immedi ately preceded it and th e heavier Em p ire styl e th at foll owed . Federal furniture 's apparent daintin ess. however. wa s largely an illu si on. created by removing from the indi vidual c le m e n ts o f a piece all wood unnecessary to th e s t ruc tu ra l integrity of the whole . Som etim es thi s delicacy was achi eved b y sc ali ng down th e pi ece . so that whil e ad equ at ely s ize d for its function . it wa s ge ne ra lly smaller th an a co m pa ra b le Ch ip pe nd a le o r Empire e xa m ple . Yet d espit e it s a ppea ra nc e . Federal furniture wa s by no mean s fragile . O n th e co n t ra ry. th e pi e c e s pres ented in thi s b ook - all o f whi ch are from th e collec tio n of Fed eral fu rn itu re m y wif e . Ca ro l. and I own-arc an av erage o f 17S yea rs o ld , and all s till remain s ta b le a nd in daily use. Th e int rodu cti on o f ne o cla ssi ci sm in Am erica wa s ha st en ed b y th e importation from England o f pattern . or drawing. b ook s publi shed in th e late 18th c entury b y indi vid ua l c a b ine t m a ke rs or o t he rs in th e furniture trade . Co m pa ra ble to what today would b e a cross b etwe en a mod ern furnitur e c a ta log a nd a hom e -and-garden IlJ aga zin e . th e se d rawing books illustrated th e lat est fashion in furniture and interior d ec orating and provided pattern s for cabinetmakers working o u ts ide London wh o

needed to accomm odate th eir custom ers' requ es ts for th e mo st up-to -date designs . The engra vings in th e drawing books frequently presented both what th e lates t fu rn itu re was to look like and how it wa s to b e accesso rized . arranged and us ed in the hom e . Alth ou gh numerou s pattern b o ok s were published . th e best kn own are Til e Ca bine t-Ma ke r and Unlio lstere r 's G u ide ( 1788) by Geo rge Heppl ewhite and Tile Ca binetMak er's and Un hols te re r 's Dra soing-Book ( 1791 -93) by Thomas Sh eraton . Th e e ngra ving s in these bo o ks , two o f whi ch are found o n th e facing pa ge , co nt ras t ma rke dly with the plans we us e today in building furnitu re. The y include very few measurements and u sually p resent o nly front vi ew s o f pieces. For th e u ser of o ne o f th e se b ook s. additi onal inf ormati on wa s unnecessary : a train ed cabinetmaker needed only a picture o f th e d es ired piece to proportion and construct it. l lc pple wh ite and Sh eraton u sually illu strate d fu rn itu re that wa s far more e la b o ra te than the actual pi ec es ins p ired by th eir bo oks . It is unlikely th at the y intended th e furniture to be so intensely d evel oped . but pro ba bly o vc rado rne d their e ng ra vings to give ca b ine tma kers a nd their cu s tomers a wid e se lec t io n o f o rna me nt from wh ich to ch oo se . It is o fte n thought that Hcpplcwhitc a nd She rato n designed th e furniture th at b e ars th eir name s. b u t ins tea d o f prom oting their o wn d esign s. b oth men merel y illu strated th e s ty le th en current in En gland . Ironic all y . neith er Hepplewhite nor Sh era ton left an y furn iture t hat can be attribut ed to th eir hands . Actually . th e traditi onal distinction b etween ll c pp le wh irc a nd Sh eraton furniture is m isleadi ng. s ince th e pi ece s illustrated in th eir patt ern b ook s were quite s im ilar. Thi s sys te m of classificati on arose in t he lat e 19th

~Iade aruuud 1770, the robu ..t Chippendale ..ide ehllir ..hown at left above feature ....quare Marlborou~h le~.. and a shaped and pierced "ribbon bacl•." The more deticarc, Federal-period Sherllton ..ide chair, center, ha.. a ..erpentfnc-sbaped ..cat, turned and tluted front leg", and II .. quure bucl. thut the milker undoubtudly copied from Sherlltoll'" ..eeond de .. i~1I ill the lower en~rll"in~ 011 the flleill~ page, The Empire ..ide ehuir, riAht, made around 1820, i" ha ..ed 011 the KIi ..mo" chair illu ..truted 011 ancient Gree lc ' ·II"e".

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From Geor~e Hepplewhitc's pattern book, this sofa dcsi~n feutuees thc turned legs that arc usuallv associatcd with Sheraton furniture. (80th cngra,'ings courte!i~' of

Dover Puhtiearlnns.)

C \l A I R H .\ C K S .

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l'ttl/r..rltrll y Z'.JIJt'rfl !.'" A,~'1

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. 'rom Thomas Shcraton·s pattern bool" this cngra,'ing displa~'s a ,'arict~, of chair-back dcsigns lind thc minimal dimcnsions nccdcd for their rcproduction.

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J -

a nd early 20th centuries when antique collectors and the museum world tried to organize and codify, somewhat arbitrarily, the various styles of furniture being collected. A Sheraton chair, for example , is generally perceived as having a square back. turned legs and feet. and often reedcd decoration on both turned and flat surfaces: yet it is possible to find examples of Hepplewhite chairs with one or severa l of these characteristics. By contrast. the traditio na l Hc p plcwh itc -style chair is characterized as having a curvilinear back (often in the shape of a shield). tapered legs and spade feet-all features that are occasionally fou nd on Sheraton furniture as well. And someti mes a feature designated as Sheraton or Ilepplewhite is actua lly an amalgam of designs from both pattern books.

.Just as Federa l-period cab ine tmakers found motifs and features intermingled in pattern books . they too borrowed free ly from various sources for their own designs. They occasionally incorporated an element th a t remained popular from an earlier period or style . Such an clement. called a surv ival feature . is more common on informal and country furniture than on formal. One of several examples of survival features found in this book is the thumbnail molding on the desk on frame on p . 138. a feature carried over from the Chippendale period. Late in the Federal period, cab inetmakers also borrowed from the newly emerging Empire style, ca lled Grecian by the men who made it. This style of furniture was heavily intluenced both by Greek class ica l forms and by arc haeologica l discoveries th e n be ing made in Egypt.

Thi" Hepplewhite engraving advised that furniture, when not in use, was to he symrneteiently di"tributed around the perimeter of the room. (Engraving eourtesy of Dover Publfearlons.}

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Cabinetmakers and their clients In the Federal period , almost every large city had numerous cabinetmaking shops where one could purchase rcady-made furniture or place a special order. Most major cities, among them Philadelphia. New York and Boston, also shipped Federal furniture as cargo to ports all along the East Coast, where it was usually purchased by furniture dealers , who were often cabinetmakers themselves. Any good-size town and many rural villages also had at least one cabinetmaker creating furniture for local use . The great variety of cabinetmakers and the differing needs of their customers produced several categories of Federal furniturc: formal. or high-style, furniture: informal furniture: and country furniture. Formal furniture was usually made in cities with an established cabinetmaking industry by craftsmen who had trained in traditional apprenticeships. Their work was fashioned after that in the pattern books and ornamented in varying degrees. Whatever the extent of its decoration. formal furniture was usually made of mahogany, though occasionally cabinetmakers worked with native woods like cherry or used a highly figured variety , like crotch-grain birch , for veneer. Informal furniture was made both by urban cabinetmakers-sometimes in the same shops that produced more expensive. formal pieces-and by rural artisans. This utilitarian furniture generally carried less ornament than did formal work and it was frequently painted. The wood used for informal furniture was usually a native species like cherry. birch. maple . pine , tulipwood . poplar or walnut. Country furniture was made by rural craftsmen. This furniture is often similar in appearance to informal furniture . and frequently it's impossible to distinguish between the two. While generally simple. country furniture could be ambitious in design . Yet even th e best country furniture usually indicates the maker's inexperience with high -style interpretations of Federal furniture. perhaps the result of a more informal apprenticeship. Country furniturernakers occasionally used mahogany in their work but more often employed locally available . native woods. These craftsmen seem to have frequently copied designs from memory and clearly felt free to express their individuality in interpreting a design, Their work varied widely in quality ; yet a piece like the candlestand on p. 38 displays how successful country furniture could be . Whether making formal. informal or country furniture. a Federal-period cabinetmaker knew how his work would be used by the client. As advocnrcd in the pattern books , most furniture, when not in usc, would be placed against a wall. essentially ringing the room (see the engraving on the facing page) . When needed, it would be moved to the center of the room. Most pieces therefore had to be portable. a requircmcnt made possible by the furniture 's delicate design and light weight. The custom of moving furniture about offered cabinetmakers an opportunity to enhance their designs, and they frequently fashioned pieces like the tip-top table on p. 50 that altered position-and thus character-for storage and use .

Often Federal furnituremakers designed pieces that also changed character in the varying light of day and evening. They knew that a piece would be seen in its entirety in the even, natural light of day ; and that, by contrast , in the oblique candlelight of evening, the piece would lose detail. and its proportions might become distorted amidst the shadows. To use these lighting conditions to advantage , these craftsmen created such intriguing designs as those for the card table on p. 10 and the bellows on p . 108. The cleverness and subtlety of Federal cabinetmakers ' designs displays considerable sophistication . Our Federal ancestors certainly developed and nurtured a keen visual sense, which we, I suspect, have lost from exposure to such passive forms of entertainment as television. Unlike the diversion we electronically pipe into our houses , visual entertainment was built into the Federal-period home itself. A Federal interior was a complex and well-planned composition. meant to be studied over time and enjoyed . Architecture and furniture together contributed to a harmonious whole that engaged and entertained the eye. Perhaps because Federal Americans created their own diversion, they lauded cleverness in conversation and in decor. For this reason , cabinetmakers incorporated delightful surprises and subtleties in their work . Such visual cleverness. for example, can be seen in the choice of veneers on the Lord box on p. 44 and the unusual design with which the maker of the secretary on p . 58 circumvented the rigid symmetry of Federal furniture . Because almost all Federal furniture , formal or informal, was made of wood, Federal cabinetmakers and their customers regarded wood differently than we do today. Though their formal furniture displays an appreciation for bold figure . they understood that furniture 's success did not always depend on seeing the wood itself. An opaque , painted finish was seen , on occasion , as a means of enhancing the success of a piece. Certainly the painted finish on a piece like the Windsor chair on p. 118 serves to unify it and elevate it from a study in grain to a sophisticated composition in line. From my study of Federal furniture , I found that even the most ordinary, functional furniture of this period was better designed and better constructed than modern massproduced furniture . (Only time will tell whether the work of contemporary custom furnituremakers is as enduring as Federal furniture.) Yet despite excellent workmanship , this furniture has inevitably suffered various degrees of damage during nearly two centuries of use, most of it due to wear and abuse . The cracking, warping and shrinking found in many pieccs , however, is the product of wood movement. In the environment for which it was createdhomes heated by fireplaces-this furniture remained relatively stable. Yet in the much drier environment produced by modern central heating, the wood has unavoidedly undergone change.

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Liv ing with Fede r a l furniturc

Using thi s book

Th e indi vidual pi e c e s o f furniture presented in this b ook have a gre a t dc al in co m mo n with one a no the r. Not o nly were th e y all mad e at a bo u t th e same tim e , th ey were a lso fas h ioned as middl e -cla ss furniture , that is , ne ither ove rly e la bo ra te nor e xceed ing ly simple . Yet th e se pieces ha ve so me th ing e lse in co m mon , too . Carol a nd I hav e asse m b le d th em al ong wi th o the r Fede ra l pi e ce s to furni sh o u r Fe de ra l-pe rio d h ouse , whi ch wa s built a ro u nd 18 0 0. Wh en we bought o u r home in 197 6 , it had changed so little o ve r it s lifetim e th at we decided to re st ore it e xac tly to it s o rigina l appearanc e , including duplicating th e o rigina l colo rs a nd wallpapers . As th e wall s, woodwork a nd tloo rs were re s tored , we ad ded to o ur growing collec tio n o f Federal -period furniture. A d ocum ent we have found vita l in furni shing o u r h om e is th e in ventory of th c c ontents o f thc hou se taken in 18 05 . Since co ns u me r goo ds we re very ex pe ns ive bef ore th e Ind us tria l Re volution and hou seh old furni sh in gs ge ne rally mad e up a s u bs ta n t ia l part of a personal estate , the judge of probate usu all y o rde re d a househ old inv ento ry taken upon so meo ne 's d eath. Th e 1805 inv ento ry to whi ch I refer is that o f th e es ta te o f master marin er .J ohn Seaward , .lr. . wh o built thi s h ou se so me time between 17 94 (wh e n h e b ought th e lo t) and 180.1 (whe n h e wr ot e a will leaving th e house to hi s wife , Hannah ) . In March 18 05 , Se award sa ile d o u t o f Boston as captain of th e sh ip Pet er and died while in Sava nna h, Geo rg ia . This in ventory . wh o se te xt is p rovided o n th e facing pa ge , gives a fas ci na ting lo oli at th e co nte n ts o f a typica l m iddl e -cl a ss. Fe de ra l-per io d h ou seh old . Am on g o the r things. th e modern reader will doubtl es s be impressed by th e number o f c h a irs listed-five d iffe rent se ts , to ta ling a s u rp ris ing 4 0 chairs in th e h ou se 's six com ple te d roo ms . (T ho ug h the inv entory lists four se ts in the kitch en, it 's unlikel y to ha ve h eld .10 c ha irs . Pr obably c ha irs from vari ous sets were in th e kitch en a nd th e inventory takers ask ed Mrs . Seaward h ow many of e ac h sh e had .) We haven 't adh ered slavish ly to th is in ventory in furn ishing thi s hou se , th ough we have bought some piec es becau se sim ila r item s were o nce part o f th e house 's furnish ing s. We have a r ra nged this furniture as it would have be en in a typical Federal house , o fte n placing piece s in locations s ugges te d by th e inv entory and , in sofar as possible , using th e se pi e c e s as o rigina lly intended . As a woodworker and Wind sor chairrnakcr since 1971 , as well as a n inv eterate s tu de nt o f Federal-period life , I wanted to address the s u bjec t o f Federal furniture both from the point o f view o f th e pe opl e wh o lived with this furniture a nd from the perspective o f th e c ra fts me n who mad e it. Unfo rt u n ate ly. schola rs s tu dy ing historical furniture a rc se ldo m concern ed with th e craftsman 's point o f view . and fe w a re them selv e s woodworkers. Fo r th ese rea sons, mu ch va lua b le inf ormati on ha s go ne und etect ed . and o u r und erst anding o f th e subjec t is incompl et e . I a m th erefore pleased in thi s b oo k to invite you into my hom e a nd to share with yo u m y findin gs abo u t Fe de ral fu rn itu re and Fede ra l-period life.

This book consis ts of 20 chapt ers, ea c h d ev o ted to o ne piece of furnit ure and all arranged in four se cti on s by room . Every chapter contains a ge ne ra l di scussi on o f th e de sign and co ns tru c tio n of the piece , as well as a proj ect se c tio n o n a particular a spect of constru cti o n o r o rna me nt that is e ithe r typ ic ally Federal o r unusu al to mod ern woodworkers-for e xa m ple , h ow to produ c e the sim u lated cock beading o n a drawer front . Th e p roj e ct sec tio n contains s te p -by-ste p in struction s, d e tailed d rawings a nd process ph otographs ; and e a c h chapter concludes with a compl ete se t of mea sured drawings fo r th e full piece. Th e 20 pi eces included in thi s b ook were ca refu lly sel ect ed from the larger c o lle c t io n of Fed e ral fu rn itu re with which we liv e. Firs t and foremost. I c h ose th e se pieces because th ey are good exa m p les o f Fede ra l-pe rio d d esi gn and workmanship. The y a re not ne cc ssaril y what th e antiqu e market would d eem the most " importa nt" piec es in th e coll ection. but th ey represent th e broad s pe c tru m o f Fe de ra l st yle . I hope th ey will ap pea l to differing taste s and add to th e furni shings o f man y different ho mes . If you , to o , are a wo odworker, you will b e inte res te d in what can b e learned from Fed eral -p eriod ca b ine tmake rs . Th ey used som e woodworking techniqu e s th a t a re no lon ger wid el y known . They also used hand tools, so me of which , though s till ava ilable , are not well kn own ei ther. Since l a wn few machine s and usuall y work with h and to ols , I have chosen to s ho w in this bo ok how to do the proj ects with th ese traditional to ol s. O fte n, h ow e ver, I su ggest alternative e lec trica l tool s that can b e used fo r a particular job , and wh en using an unu sual anti qu e to ol. I have o ffe red advice o n how to adapt a no the r com monly available to ol. Som e o f the pi ece s presented in thi s b ook co uld be interpreted differently from th e o rig ina l o r co uld b e sc a le d up o r d own in size . In b oth c ases. I ha ve men t ion ed th e po ssibl e changes, but I urge you to think th rough each change th oroughly b efore b e ginning work on a p roj e ct , since limited s pace obv iously prevented in cluding all th e inf ormation needed for s u c h changes . Also I o fte n mention th e fini sh used o n th e o rigina l pi ece. In so me very humid o r ve ry dry clima tes , th e original fini sh mi ght not work we ll. For thi s re ason , ke ep loca l conditions in mind wh en ch oo sing a fini sh . I h ope yo u find the furniture in this b ook as interes tin g as I do and that you will decide to make so me o f th e p ieces , e ithe r for yo u rse lf or for your custom e rs. II' yo u do , please send me a slide o f your work .

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To Capt. Edw ard Sargent, M. Daniel Smith and M. Samuel Drowne, all of Portsmouth in said County

By the Hon, Nat hl Rogers, Rocklngham-s-s«, Judge of the Probate of Will s &e. for said County.

Gre eti ng. You are her eby a u t horit<ed to ta ke at. Invento ry of th e Es ta te of John. Seaward, la te of said Po rtsmou th, mariner deceased w ho lately d ied testate to be s hewn un to yo u by Han nah Sea ward Execu trix of h is last Will & Te sta me n t a nd to make a just a nd im partial A p p ra issment th er eof accord ing to the best of yo ur Judgment, a nd to re tu m th e sa me under yo ur. o r a ny tw o of y o u r Hands . into t he Registr;}' of th e Co u rt of Probate fo r sa id Co u n ty , upon Oa t h, to y o ur Fide li ty, herein . a t or bef ore t he T h ir d Wed nes day of September next, togeth e r w it h this Wa rrent. Dat ed at Po rtsmou th th c 19th day of J u ne, Anno Do mini 1805 By O rde r of th e J udge W. Pa rke r Rc!\

1 la rge J apan 'd Tea Tra y $4 . Ca nd le Stand SO cts 1 small Gilt framed looking Glass 1 Viole n 1 map le 4 feet table with lea ves 23 Framed pi c ture s different sizes 1 .la pa ned Tea Tray 2 Small Tru nks 13 Volumes , Boo ks 1 Small Shavi ng Glass 2 large , Floo r ca rpe ts Bed Furniture 1 Birch h igh po st Bedstea d, Bed , an d Furnitu re an d wind ow Cu rtains 1 Fea the r bed, Bols te r and pillo ws

In vento ry o f the Estate of John Seaward, late of Portsmouth, Marincr deceased, taken by us the undersigned, and app raiscdPursuant to the anne xed Warrent-

Viz. 1 Mahogany Bureau 2-di cto-Ca rd Tables 2 Oval Gilt Framed Looking Glasses 1 large easy Cha ir & Covering 8 mah ogany moha ir bottom 'd chai rs and two a rmed-ditto1 high post birch Bedstead, wi th Bed and furniture 1 pair brass Front Andirons , Shovel, Tongs & ho ok s, & 1 pair Bellows 2 pictures 2 small pieces wax work, Glass & Framed 1 pa ir brass Candlesticks, Tray & Snuffers a Quantity of China, glass, & Ea rthern wa re in a closet 1 hearth brush , Carpe nters Hammer, & glass Lan tern 1 large Bib le 1 pair Iron dogs , 2 Iron po ts, Shovel To ngs & Sad Iro ns 1 Tub , 1 pail, 1 bi rc h Square Ta ble , with leaves 2 Sm all pieces, Home mad e Ca rpeti ng 3 Japa ned waite rs , 1 Toile t Table 1 Co rded Bedstead 1 Dozn green, & 6 ye llow Windsor Cha irs 6 Ma pl e c arved , back Flag Botto me d Chairs 6 Common Chairs Amount Inventory, Sum brot forwd, Dollars 1 Large Spinning Wheel, 1 Foot-di tto1 Bread Trough, Bowle , Tray, & 2 measures '1 Tin Roasting Kitchen & Sp it a Quantity o ld Ti n ware Iro n ware 1 Case 15 Two Q ua rt Empty bo ttles a Q uanti ty , Old ea rt hern wa re 1 Brass warming pan Salt mo rtar, & Sieve 1 ma hogany 4 fee t, (old), Table so me old Empty Casks 2 la rge Gilt Framed looking Glasses 1 Mahogany Desk 1 Birch 4 Feet Table & cove ri ng 1-ditto-3 feet tab le , with leaves 1 Cloa thes Ho rse 1 brass fire set sma ll size 1 Pembroke, Mah ogan y ta bl e

1118. 24. 12. 16 . 40. 90 . 15 .

4.50 5 .50 2. 3. 15 . 2. 2. 10 . .30 SO. 46 . 90. 30.

1.

.50

amount earricd forward -Dollars

8697.30

1.

70 . 2. 4.50 2 .50 4. 2. 2. 1.50 12. 4. 2.

5 Ta ble Clo thes , sundry To wels . na pkins & p illow ca ses 2 Chests & 3 Tru nks 1 lookin g Glass & small Ova l ta ble Co p pe r ladl e & Skimme r some Kitc he n Ute ns ils & sundry p ieces. old carpets 1 Po rtmantea u 1 sma ll pla ted Tea Pot, Six large S ilve r spoo ns, 12-ditto- Tea spoo ns, & a pai r of Sugar To ngs Sund rie Eart hern pick le pots 2 Fire Buc kets 1 Ha dle ys Qua dran t, & Spy Glass 1 Cha ise & Harn ess co mplete 1 Gol d Watch 1145 , 1 Sil ve r Wat ch 11 15 1 Du tc h, Liqu or Case, & Bottles Brass, Top Sho ve l & To ngs Wea ring Ap pa re l of sai d dec e ased

8324. 112 . 2. 2. 50 1.

wholc amount Personal Estate

5 .50 2.50

2. 6. 10 . 150. 60. 5. 1. 30.

Dollars SI061.30

Real Esta te a Lot of land in Po rts mou th , situa te by th e no rt h war dly, side of Maud lin Lane with th e dw elling Ho use , out ho us es & and all bu ildings th ereon , and all a ppu rte nances , th ereto , be lo nging 82800.

1.

2.5 0 .50 4. 2. 40. 18 . 8. 2.50

whole Amount of Inventory dollars Portsmouth July 2, 1805

1.

10 . 8.

83861.30

Edwa rd Sa rge nt Danl Sm it h Sa m l Oro wne

Ro ckingham ss, G re en la nd, A ug us t 3 1st 1805. T hen Mr s . Hannah S caw a rd . Executrix of th e la st Will of th e w ithin named J ohn Se aw a rd d eceased, made solemn Oath that sh e had s he w n a ll th e Es ta te of he r late husband, the sa id John Seaw a rd, that has come to her hands agreeable to th e foregoing Inventory, & that if any oth er Es ta te of sa id d eceased s ho u ld hereafter come to her hands sh e would exh ibit th e same to the Judge of Probate for said Co u n ty of Ro ckingham in the A dd ition a l Inventory. sworn to before Enoch Cla rk, Ju st : Pe ac e

State of New Hampshire Rockingham ss Po rts m outh A ugus t 6 t h, 1805 , th en Messrs . Edw a rd Sargent. Daniel S m it h & Sa m u el Drowne abov e named per sonally appeared and mad e So le m Oa th that they ha v e faithfully and impartially appraised a ll the Es ta te of th e said John Seaw a rd de eeas'd that was s hewn them by th e Execu trix of his la st Will agreeable to t he foregoing Inventory, by th em severa lly s igne d according to th eir best sk ills and Judgment. swo rn before Issac Rindge, Just: Peace

-

$25 . 15 . 2. 1.50 8. 3 .50 45.

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THE PARLOR

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Fe de ra l-pe rio d home . th e parl or was usually th e be " and m ost formal mom, b ut it wa s

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of the mos t

co mfortable roo ms in th e h ou se. It wa s t he he art o f so c ia l and famil y life . a nd m ost e nte rtai ni ng was done here . This was an inviting place to ta ke tea . or to dine al on e or in g ro u ps to o sm a ll to wa rr ant se tt ing u p th e d ining roo m . It was a lso t h e us u al s po t to re c eive guests . as th e man y ca lling ca rds found b ehind o u r parlor m antl e ind ica te . The ea rly 19th- century p lay ing ca rds a lso fo u nd the re sugges t that in o u r parlor th e previ ou s o wne rs o f th e house a nd th eir gues ts pa rtook of this m ost popul ar of pa s tim es . probably o n th e pair o f mahogany ca rd table s list ed in th e 18 0 5 inve ntory of th e h o u se . Ou r parl or re flec ts its formal purpose . Th e woodwork is both m ore abundant a nd m ore co m ple te ly d e vel o p ed th an that in a ny oth er room in th e hou se . The mantl e and th e a b u tting c h ina -close t d oor make th e fireplace wall th e focus of th e roo m. Th e mantl e. which is 5 ft. 7 in . hi gh and has a shelf 6 ft. 4 in . long, contains a n ela bo rate cornic e m ad e up of a c ro wn m olding a nd a denti culated b ed m o lding. The mantle 's fri eze is 13 1;2 in. hi gh a nd e nds o n e ithe r s ide with a pron ounc ed S -sh a ped cyr n a curve . Ca lle d a lyre- sh aped fri ez e . this wa s a comm on d e tail o n mantl es in th e Po rt sm ou th a rea during t he e a rly Fed eral peri od. The fir eplace jambs arc surrounded by a tw o-step architra ve , id enti cal to th ose fo und aro u nd th e doorways . The 18 05 inve nto ry sho ws that wh en Ca p t. and Mrs, Seaward . th e builders o f th e house . fu rn ished it. th ey pl a c e d mos t of th e formal a nd e xpe nsi ve objec ts in th eir parl o r. Co nti nu ing th e t radi tion , we also ke ep our fines t fu rn it u re in this roo m . S ince mo st formal Fed eral furn iture wa s ma de of mah ogany , many of th e mah ogan y pi ec es included in this book will a p pea r in thi s sec tio n . Th e expe nse in th e Fe de ra l period of the mahogany furni shings an d th e fabrics in the parl o r res ulted in anoth e r cu sto m o f the d a y th a t. to us. see ms unu su al. Si nce th e ultravi ol et ra ys in direct s u nlig h t ca n b leach da rk wo ods. d am age shellac fin ish e s a nd de te rio ra te fabr ic s. famili es se q ues te re d th emsel ves du rin g th e da y beh ind d rawn sh u tters o r ve ne tia n blinds in th e dimly lit parlor. At ni ght th e s h u tte rs aff orded privac y . In th e su m me r e lim ina t ing dire ct s u nlig h t from th e roo m a lso helped keep it cool. and in th e winter th e drawn shu tt e rs reduced drafts. Eac h of o ur parl o r wind ow s th erefore has a n interior sh u tte r. whi ch s lides into a sp e cial ca sing built into the wall. Like th e h ou se 's previ ous o wne rs, we too ke ep th e se sh u tte rs drawn during th e da y. If we want to usc the ro om . we open th e sh u tt e rs partwa y, a nd c lose th em aga in wh en we lea ve . - - ') -

-

A card ruble was a standard fixture in the Federal-period household and WIIS often the most elaborate piece of furniture a fllmil}' owned. (I·ro.jeet: Strin~ inilly, p, 14.)

- - lO--

Card Table Chapter 1

t no o t h e r t im e in o u r h is tory were America n s m ore fasc ina te d with c a rd p la ying than durin g th e Fe de ra l period . With out televi si on o r m o v ie s. p e ople amused th emselve s b y soc ia lizing with fri ends. Ca rd playing was an id e al p a stim e in th at it gave the participants a reason to gat her a n d e ng age in co n ve rsat io n whil e al so o ffe r ing th em a m use me n t a nd divers io n. So much tim e was d e vote d to c a rd pl a y in g th at a s pec ia l pi e c e o f furn itu re wa s c rea te d for just thi s purpo se . Th e woode n ca rd tabl e . with o ne hinged leaf th at c lose d b ookfa shi on . wa s d e vel oped in th e ea rly 18th ce nt u ry . Altho ugh th e se tabl e s were m a d e until th e mid -1 9th ce nt u ry . th e fo r m was ne ver b ef ore o r after as p opular as it wa s d u ri ng t he Federa l p eri od . A h o u sehold th at did not o w n a t le a st one ca rd ta bl e wa s as unu su al as a m odern h ou seh old w it ho ut a tel e vi si on . O f all th e furnitur e th at h a s su rv ived fro m th e Fe de ra l peri od , o n ly c ha irs arc m ore a b u nda n t t ha n ca rd ta b les . O u r tec h no logy a n d n e w m ateri al s have gi ven us a h om el y ca rd ta b le w it h a ca rd boa rd to p a nd folding le gs . whic h we sto re in a c lose t wh en we ' re not us in g it. During th e Fe de ra l p eriod . ca rd ta b les were not h idden b ecau se t hey w e r e n ot u g ly . Cab ine t ma ke rs la vi sh ed th eir skill s o n c a rd ta bl e s. p roducing wh at we re o fte n the m o s t e la b o ra te pi e c e s of furnitu re a famil y o wned . Wh en no t in use. th e se ta bl c s w ere prom inc n tly d ispl ay cd in thc front hall wa y o r th e form al parl or. ofte n aga ins t a pi er (the wall are a b etwe en tw o windows or d o orways ). T he cl osed table mad e a goo d su rfacc o n whi ch t o d ispl a y a flow er a r ra nge me n t o r a t reas u re d o bjec t. The ca re a n d e ffort required to m ake thi s tabl e is evi de nce o f th e s tat us g iv e n c ard tabl e s b y Fe de ra l-pe ri o d c ab ine tma ke rs a n d th eir c us to me rs . T he table h a s a vi sual int en s it y unu sual fo r s uc h a c ompac t pi e c e of furnitur e , whi ch is cre a ted by th e s t r in g inl a y o n e ve ry visibl e s u rface exce pt th e to p a nd th e in s id e s of th c lcgs.

A

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String inl ay . a lso ca lle d st r ingi ng. is a very th in stri p of wood. u su all y o f a co ntras ti ng colo r to t he s u rroun d ing wo od , th at is se t into a na r row groove, or in let. St r ing ing wa s com mo n ly use d in form al Federa l fu rn it u re. pc rha ps b ecause ca bi ne tma ke rs ap p reciate d its a bi lity to d raw t he viewer's e ye . O n thi s tab le. whi ch is p ri ma rily m ah o gan y , th e light-c ol ored inlay acts as a vis ua l fe nce . bou ndi ng each a rea and prev ent in g th e eye from m o ving eas ily fr o m o n e to the othe r. Fo r a brief m om e nt , t he v ie we r 's att enti on is trap p ed ins ide e ac h area . but it is n o t h el d immobile. T he eye sca ns th e perimeter seve ra l ti mes. then m o ve s o n to th e ne xt s u rface a nd is agai n h ric fly seized a nd s p u n a ro u n d th e o u tline of t he stri ng ing . Ea c h t ime I vie w th is tab le . my eye is draw n first to t hc sk irt . The re it m o ve s qu ickl y a rou nd t he long re c tan gl e , lik e a marbl e s pi n ni ng ins ide a tin ca n . The co ncave c orners e na b le m y eye to j u mp fro m a h o r izontal lin e to a verti c al to the othe r h ori zonta l. (O n le ss well-t houg ht-o u t tables , wh e re th e co rners of the st ri ng ing are squa re, t he eye will foll ow the h orizontal lin e s in to the corne rs . a nd the quick sca n ni ng m o ti o n is subve rted . T he effec t is like tryin g to s p in a m a rbl e in a box instead of a c a n .) Fro m th e s k irt. m y e ye us ua lly fa lls to a le g . wh ere t he s t r ing ing pulls it q uickl y do wn t he long taper to t he a n kle . a c ross th e ankl e b an d in g a nd b a ck up t he ot her s ide . After sca n n ing the le g se ve ra l ti mes, I a m al w a y s d rawn back to th e fo ur pa rall cl lin e s a roun d the edge 01 the folded top . It is a s if each pa ir o f lines ru ns in th e o p pos ite dire c ti o n from th e o the r pair: whi ch e ver way th e eye begins to travel, th e o the r pa ir o f lin e s a uto m a tica lly pull s it bac k the o t he r wa y. I h a ven 't yet fig u re d o ut wh y th is happ en s . and . as a result. I s pe nd m ore tim e lo oking a t the e dges of th e lea ve s tha n at t he skirt or le gs . I e njoy t h is m ystery a n d h ope th a t wh en I do fin all y und erst an d it. t he card tabl e will n ot lo se any of its interest. Th e family that orig ina lly owned this tab le wo u ld h a ve work ed a ll d a y. so m o st of the ti me spe nt wi t h t h is p ie c e -

would h ave bee n in th e eve nings, whe n th e room was illuminat ed b y ca nd le lig h t. Under th e so ft, dim light of ca nd les, the ta ble 's mah ogany loses mo st o f th e s u b tle shading that ma ke s up it s figu re , a nd th e wo od b ecomes a u n ifo rm re d-bro wn. This fa ct o bv io us ly affected th e maker's d eci si on to use s tr ing inlay to o ut line each of th e table's pa rts . With out th e s t ringi ng , th e table would read as a mildl y inte re sting geome tric form lurkin g in th e sha do ws o f th e roo m . Nea r th e botto m o f th e tape red legs. two ho ri zontal lines of light s tring ing flank a d ark , thicke r co re of ebo ny veneer to de fine th e an kles . If the stri ng ing si m ply ran ve rti c ally to the foo t, th e eye would travel do wn to th e tlo o r a nd not easi ly j um p fro m o ne e dge o f th e leg to th e o ther. Th e sa me triple b anding is used as a borde r to deline ate th e lowe r edge o f th e sk irt. Th e e ffect is s tro nges t und er ca nd le lig h t. Th e b andi ng c rea tes a sh a rply d efin ed lin e tha t prev ents th e e dge o f th e mah ogan y skirt from fadi ng in to th e s ha do ws under th e table. Th e skirt b anding se rves a fun ctio nal purpose as well. Its low er. light-col ored e dge h as b e en we ll worn by th e co u n tless le gs that h av e ru bbed aga ins t it ove r th e yea rs . If the mah ogany ve nee r had be en run o u t to th e edge o f th e sk irt, it would h av e b e en s ubjecte d to thi s we ar a nd wo uld certai nly ha ve c hi p pe d. pulled lo ose o r worn aw ay to ex pose th e pine seco ndary wood underne ath . From wh ate ver direction yo u view th e fold ed table , yo u see exac tly the sa me thing. Looking a t it he ad -on o r from ei the r side . yo u see an a rc of sk irt fra med by tw o legs. The venee r used o n th e sk irt is m ad e from thre e adjacen t, o r sis te r, c u ts tak en from the sa me flit ch , so th at each s u rface is as ne arl y identi c al to th e o the r tw o as wood ca n be. Fro m a fro nt vie w o f th e ta b le , yo u glim pse tw o blank s urfaces o n th e rear legs . It ma y seem odd th a t th e y ha ve no s tringi ng , but thi s would h a ve sc uttle d th e mak e r 's not ew orthy d esign. With inlay on ly o n the ex tre me left face o f th e left leg a nd rig h t face of the right leg. th e tabl e b rea ks int o a sy m me tr ical trip tyc h- th ree identical sectio ns made up o f two legs a nd a pan el . e ac h on e sha ri ng a leg with it s nei gh b or. Whe n the ta bl e is o pe n, th is ca reful arra nge me nt no lon ger ex is ts . The maker kn ew that partic ipants in a ca rd ga me co m mo nly d raped a gree n. flo or-len gth wo ol cl oth o ve r the table. almo s t co m p le te ly h iding it from vie w. Eve n if this were not th e c usto m . o ne is more lik el y to interac t vis u ally with th e p iece wh en it is folded and agai ns t th e wall th a n while playing ca rds o n it.

This c a rd tabl e is a well -concei ved d e si gn . but it is no t a particularly co m ple x wo odworking project. Ben eath its mahogany vene er, th e curved sk irt is tw o la yers de ep a nd is brickla id a s a sing le long curve rath er th an as thre e di stinct sec tio ns . The mak er laid o u t th re e c u rved segme nts o f pin e as th e to p la yer of th e s kirt and glued o nto th ese a no the r la ye r co ns is ting o f tw o lo nger cu rved segme nts. probabl y ro ug h -c u t to sh a pe. O nce th e glue hard en ed, th e inner a nd o u te r s u rfaces of the segme nted sk irt were plan ed smoo th . Th e re are a bou t a d ozen nail h ol es in th e low er edge o f th e se pine se c tio ns . indi c ating that th e mating s u rfaces were glue d a nd th e pi e c e s nailed togeth er. Th e nails may hav e p revented th e sec tio ns from slip p ing when bei ng cl amped . or elim ina te d th e ne ed for cl am ps altoget he r. Eith er wa y, th e nail h e ad s were ne ver se t, a nd the na ils were ex trac te d a fter th e y h ad se rved th eir p u rpose . Bricklaid co ns truc tio n mak e s a s tro nge r sk irt tha n wo u ld thre e sing le pi ec es c ut from a plank. Th e sho rt length s of edge gra in that occ u r in a c u rve a re s tre ng then ed by th e o the r layer. A skirt com prised o f o ne lo ng, c urved . b ricklaid pi e ce a llo ws fo r so me j oine ry tec hniques that differ from th e s ta ndard mortise -and -tenon normall y use d to jo in a ta bl e 's legs to the ski r t. Th e two ce nter legs are joine d to th e ski rt with a m od ifie d bridl e j o int. The rear tenon of th e bridle is short a nd is h ou sed e nt irely withi n th e skir t. Whil e the morti se s are c ut in to th e ski rt. it re mai ns a sing le , co n tin uous p art. Si nce th e struc tu ra l integrity o f th c b ricklai d sk irt is re ta ined . th is aga in makes fo r a stro nge r co ns tructio n tha n wo ul d th ree se pa ra te , c u rved sec tio ns of ski rt. with a tenon o n each end. in serted in to mo rti se s cu t into th e legs. The rear legs a re trea te d d ifferentl y. T he righ t rear le g (as vie wed from th e table's front) is fixed a nd is joined to th e co rne r fo rm ed b y the end o f the c urved skirt and th e ba ck ra il. Sta nda rd mo rt ise -a nd -t enon co nstruc tio n is us ed . th e te nons bei ng cut o nto th e e nd of the sk irt a nd th c e nd o f th e rai l. Th e card table ope ns and c loses di ffe re n tly than do most o the r ta b les. It s mo vement require s tw o le aves hi nged toge the r a nd a swingi ng leg. c all ed a ga te leg, that is hinged to th e middle o f th e b a ck ra il. The b ottom lea f is fixed to th e sk irt , with th e movable to p le a f h in ged to it. Whc n th e table is cl o sed . th e tw o half-round lea ves lay toge th e r like a closed b ook . Wh en th e tabl e is used, th e hinged top le af is o pe ne d to form a ro u nd pl aying s u rfa ce a nd the ga te leg is swu ng o n it s h in ge to s u p po rt th e le af. Th e gareleg swi ng s o n a mo va bl e sec tio n o f th e ba ck rail a nd is a ttac he d to it with a mo rti se -and -tenon . So me marc int e res ting jo ine ry is requi red to e nab le th is leg to swi ng . The back ra il it self is two la yers th ick. The ou ter la yer is ma d e of tw o separate pieces, th e movable ra il a nd the fixe d rail , and these are conn ec te d in th e mi dd le by a series o f in te rloc k ing k nuckles that fo rm a woode n hinge . The me th od of making th is h in ge is ex plai ne d in th e p roj ec t sec tio n of th e ga te leg-table cha p te r o n p p . 9 4 -96. The two rea r legs . one fix ed a nd one mova ble , arc joine d to th e e nds of this o u ter laye r . The inner layer o f the back rail is j oi ne d to the r igh t-h and e nd

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of th e curved s kirt with a se ries of half-blind d ovetails . The le ft e nd o f t he back rail is lam in ated to the fix ed secti on of the o u te r la yer wi th glue and sc re ws , a nd is cut o ff tlush with th e in side o f th c sk irt. Som e tables, like th e ga te leg tabl e on p. 90 and th e Pembroke table o n p . 156, have rule joints, where the inside e dges of th e m ovabl e lea ves m eet the fixed top . One function of thi s rul e joint is to prevent th e e dges of the leaves from s hi ft ing ve rt ica lly. O n th is card table, h ow ev er. th e t wo e dges o f the top lea ve s m erel y butt to geth e r wh en th e table is open . A sho rt tongu e is se t into th e c enter o f th e rcar edge o f the fix ed leaf. a nd a mortise is made in the rear e dge o f the hinged leaf. When the top is o pe n , th e lo c a tor to ng ue fits into thi s mortise and keeps t he m ovabl e le af from sh ifting . Otherwise, all that s t re ng t h e ns thi s butt join t b etween th e leaves when th e to p is o pe n a re th e two card-tabl e hinge s . Ca rd-table hinge s are unique to card ta b les . A c ard -table hinge h as tw o long legs that o pe n lik e a pair of sc iss o rs rather than opening and c los ing in book-fa shion lik e table le af and butt hinge s d o . Both th e table -leaf and butt hinge s would have to b c se t into th e playing s u rfaces o f th e lea ves. which Fe de ra l-pe rio d cabin etmakers se emed relu c tant to do . In st ead , c a rd- ta b le hinges are set into th e o u ts ide edge s o f the leaves . Mad e o f b rass, and therefore d ec orati ve. th e se hinge s are a vail abl e from th e

reproduction -hardware su pplie rs listed in t he appendice s at the back of this b ook . During th e Federal p eri od , hinged , round ca rd tabl e s, often call ed derni-Iunes, were mad e in e ve ry cabinetmaking center in America . The interpretati ons that exist are nearly limitless , a nd yo u can find e xa m p les in the books listed in th e bibli ography . The us e o f s tring ing o n thi s table is masterful , but you c ould s u bst it u te pictorial inla y, which was also commonly us ed during the peri od . There are Federal-period card tables made e ntirely o f maple or birch , with the skirt cov ered with e it he r a curl y or flame -figure veneer, so yo u c a n reproduce th e tabl e in native woods, too. Use the dim ensi on s a nd co ns t r uc tio n details from this tabl e to make any oth er interpretation o f thi s sh ape that you lik e . When a card table is not in use , th e m o vabl e top le a f is usually cl osed. but it can be open ed halfwa y a nd re sted vertically aga ins t the wall. The se m ic irc u la r sh a pe make s the table look larger. and if yo u ha ve a light-c ol ored objec t (such as a pi ece o f porcelain) that yo u want to di splay , the leaf creates a good background . O f co u rse, the table do es not have to be merel y a surface used to s ho w o ff o t he r obj ects. It is s till well s u ite d to it s o rig ina l purpo se . O fte n on cold winter e venings my wif e and I ha ve fri ends o ve r , set up the card table near the fir eplace and e njoy a leisurely ga m e of Scrabbl e. \Vhen the card table i!i not in use, the movable top leaf can be either folded shut bookfa!ihion, or opened h a lfw ay lind r e s t e d verf ieulty 1I~lIin!it the Willi.

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Adjust nhle fence

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A JIlarldn A A,wAe can be ada pted for euttinA i n let» fo r st ri nA in l a ~·. "'i le or Arind 1111 old h un d su w blade to t he t b ie lmess of t he stringing til u sc us a c utter. S lide two YH- in . bolts t h rouAh h ol e s in t he shufr to seenre the cutter.

-

String inla y To make th e inlets for string inlay. th ere is an ad justa bl e to ol called an in lay c u tte r, available through s pec ialty tool ca ta log s. that will c u t straight lin e s. circles a nd ov als . Th is to ol is more complex than nece ssary to do th e str ing in!:ly o n thi s card table . th ough . I prefer to u se a couple o f to ol s that I c a n quickly make myself. I adapted an old m arking ga ug e to use as a scra tc h tool for making straight inl ets . Th e fence o n th e marking ga uge allow s m e to c u t a n inl et parallel to an edg e at a ny di stance up to 5 in . from that edge . It is intend ed for making s t ra igh t lin c s but will also work on a long rad iu s . su c h a s th e edg es o f th e leave s . I make the c u tte rs fo r thi s to ol from o ld handsaw blad es b y filin g awa y th e te eth and any additi onal m etal until I have a tooth Yio in. wide . Th is cutter will just sc ra tc h . rath er than cut. a flat -b o tt omed inl et with sq ua re s ides th e sa m e width as th e st ri ng ing (Yio in .). Th e marking-gauge s h a ft ha s a scrib e in o ne e nd and th e too t h m ounted in th e o p pos ite e nd . Use a do ve tail sa w to cut th e thin s lo t for th e to oth . Drill tw o \la -in . hol es across the sa wke rf, a b o u t -Y4 in . apart so that th e too th will fit b etwe en th em. Slid e tw o \Ia · in. b olts through th e h ol es. and place wa sh ers under th e h e ads to protect th e wo od . Insert th e c u tt e r into th e sawke rf and adjust th e se tting- t he c u tte r s ho u ld protrude ab out Yi o in . from th e b ottom o f th e mark in g-gauge sh a ft. Ti ghten th e bolts to prevent th e cutter from moving and se t th e fenc e to th e d esired distance . In di scu ssing th e proc edure for inl aying th e legs , I'll limit m y e xp la na t io n to how to do th e s tring ing o n th e low er leg. Th e proce ss is s im ila r for th e o the r s tring ing . Whil e th e leg s toc k is s till s q u a re, cut th e inlet for th e ankl e banding only o n th e front of th e le g. ( If you p ro c eed to c u t inlets for the ankle banding on the s ides and back of the untapered le g, th ey will o nly b e lost during th e tapering proces s .) With a mat knife scrib e tw o lin es for a Y.I -in .-wide inl et, using th e techniqu e for c u tt ing sto p dadoes sh o wn in the sh elf proj e ct on p. 12 8, and rem ov e the wood with a Y.I -in . chi sel. Aft er tapering th e s id es and back o f th e le g with a hand plane to th e dimensi ons give n o n p . 18, yo u can c ontinue the front ankle inl et a ro u nd to th e s ides , and from the sides a round to th e ba c k Next m easure 4 -Y4 in . from the top o f th e leg and draw a light pencil lin e across th e front s u rface o f th e leg . Th is is th e point wh ere th e tw o vertical lengths of stringing s to p and turn inward . Wh en you cut the ve rt ica l inlets, this lin e will tell yo u where to s to p . Hold the leg between benchdogs on th e workb ench a nd se t th e fence of the marking gauge against th e edge . Start the cutter in th e ankle inlet and draw th e marking ga uge up o ne e dge of th e leg. Th e to oth sh o uld sc ra tc h a cl e an , sq ua re- bo tto m ed groov e (it IWI )' be ne c essary to make m ore than o ne pass) . After scratching every 6 in . to 8 in .. lift th e to ol a nd remo ve th e chip that will have c logged th e to o th . You can make a cl ean s to p cut at th e upper e nd o f th e inl et by pushing th e cutter down o n th e p encil line that marks th e top of th e inl et and pulling th e to ol b a ck toward th e a nkle . Repeat this process to cut th e inl et o n th e o the r edge o f the le g. 14 -

Triple-layer inlay

St";lIgillg is eutfroin 11J r,-ill ,·tllick 'VC IlCC I·. w ll icll is g11l C11 ill inlets and tll cll plan ed .17 l1s11 seith sll,:f;ICC of leg. A J.4-i ll. -w itlc. triple-luyer sandsoicl: of fi gllt and tll;rk st";lIgillg rims ((mlilltl unkle and base of skirr.

I-cg is attached to sk i r t usith a b ridle joint, sohos « 'h ,i ll .-t ll ick fro n t tCIlOII protrudes ill , from face of sk i r t . lnternul tCIIOIl is '!'fI ill. thiel« will about 2 ill . IOllg .

')I/O

String Inlay, II common ornament on Federal furniture, hoth guidcd the viewer's eye about the piece and, in the evening h)' eandletight, kept the tublc's lines from heing lost in the shadows,

Tripl c-Ia ycr ----.in lay

4=J -:

~

Draw the marking glluge from the ankle i nlet to the top of the leg to make II clean, square-bottomed groove [above), After s co r ing ever)' 6 in. to 8 in., clean IIWll)' the chip that gllthers around the tool' s tooth (left).

" 'ith a square, IllY o u t the inlet for th e an Ide hllnding on the le g' s front (top). Score the edges with II m ilt I
- - 15 - -

To la~' out curved Iltringing, U IiC divider» with a pair of Ilc r ib cll, Yt6 in. upurt, filcd into the end of one Icg. n~· trial and crror, set the dividerll to thc corrcct radin ll a n d find the location for the pointed leg in the top of the vert icul inlet. Scribe the radiu» for one Ili d e, which will produce II pair of parallcl lines, Repeat thi ll on th c other Ili d e to form the V in the middl e of the le g.

A fte r u liinA thc d iv ide r ll t o Ilcr ibe t he parallel Iin c ll for the curved i n le t, sc o re along those Iines w it h II m at k n ife. Uft ou t th e chip with a ehjsel (th ill one wall g r o u n d t o Yt6 in.), Us e th e chisel to cle an up the intersecrlon o f th e two c urved i n letll a n d the point ll lit which the~' meet the ve r t ieal inl e t ll.

Now c ut th e two ra di i th a t tu rn inward at the top o f the le g. I use a pai r of m odi fied di viders to la y ou t a nd cut thi s c u rved groove for th e s t r ing ing. O ne le g o f the dividers is po inte d , a nd th e o t he r le g h as a notch file d into it s e nd tha t fo rm s sc ribes, Yl6 in . a part-t he sa me di stance as th e width o f th e too th in t he m arking ga uge. Place the pointed le g near th e to p of one of th e vertical inlets and se t th e div iders to o ne- ha lf t he d istanc e be tween t he inlets . You will ha ve to play wi th th e o pe ni ng of t he dividers to find th e e xac t rad iu s- it should b e som ewhere near % in. You will a lso ha ve to find by t ria l and erro r wh e re to place th e po inted d ivid er le g in th e s traight inl e t. Wh en you h av e fou nd t he co r rec t se t ting , swing th e notch e d end o f th e di vide rs so t hat it sc ribes tw o para llel c urve d lines , or co nce ntric a rcs . Do th e sa me with th e po in te d le g of the d ivi d e rs positio ned in th e other s tra ig h t inlet so th a t th e two pairs o f c u rved li ne s in te rse c t in the middl e . This met hod o nly scribes th e e d ge s of th e curved in le ts. Now de e pcn th e sco re d si des of th e se inle ts with a mat k n ife , a nd lift t he c hip o ut with a Yl6- in. chis el , Th e c h ise l will a lso c lean u p th e inte rse c t ion of the c u rve d inl e ts wit h th e stra ight vertica l inle ts. Beca use I th in k whi te birc h was u sed fo r th e stringing o n t he o rigina l ta bl e (it would be imposs ibl e to p o sitivelv ide ntify th e wo od with out ex trac ti ng it for testing). I c hose t his wo od for my stringi ng to o . Any ligh t-c o lo re d hard wo od will d o . h ow e ver. Esse ntia lly I m a ke a she e t of whi te -birch ve neer b y rcsawing thin slabs from a bo ard o n the h a ndsa w . I th en thi c kn e ss-pl a ne th e m as thin as possible a nd finish thcm do wn to Yl6 in . wit h a sm o o th ing pl an e . I c ut th e stri ngi ng fro m t his birch veneer with a mat kni fe and s t raigh tedge . As long as th e ve neer is Yl6 in. t h ic k, it does not m a t te r if yo u cut the s t ring ing sli ghtly wi d er tha n Yl6 in . If ne e d b e , th e Yl6- in.- th ic k st ringing c a n be tu rned o n it s si de to fit into th e inl e t, and any e x t ra d epth t hat p roje cts above t he le g's surface can b e planed flush wit h a smoothing p la ne . After te st -fitt ing th e stri ng ing in th e in let, run a b e ad of glue in o ne vertica l in let w it h a glue syringe . Usc a chisel to slice a square e nd on th e stringing. a nd butt the squ are e nd tigh tly aga in s t the top e nd of th e s t ra igh t inl et . Pu sh th e first inch or so in to th e inl e t : yo u should have no t rou bl e m aking th e res t of t he s tringi ng fit once th is e nd is in pl a c e. It a lmost sea ts itself if yo u press it in with th e face of a ham m e r. Do n't wo r ry about le ng th : any exce ss ca n be s lic e d o ff fl ush in t he a nk le inlet with e ith er a c hisel o r a m at k ni fe . Fitti ng th e curved pieces is m arc d ifficu lt. Roll o ne e nd of th e stringing aro und a cyli nd cr of about th e same radiu s as th e inl e t. A c hisel h a ndl e will work just fin e here . Do not try to cut the stri ngi ng to leng th right now . This can b e donc more cas ily a nd m orc accurately after m ost o f th e stringing is in th e curved in let. Aga in. tes t-fit th e s tringing. the n run a bead of gluc in t he c urved in let. Butt th e e nd of the curved stringi ng ti ghtly agai nst t h e stri ngin g in th e stra ight in let. and wo rk the c u rv e d pi e c e in to th e g roo vc. using th e hammer if necessary. As yo u near th e bottom o f th e \I , you will be ab le to see exac tly where to t rim o ff th e excess s tring ing. Do th e sa me fo r t h e o t h e r curved s ide .

- - 16 -

-

Th e a nkle s tring ing is a Y.!· in .·wid e sa nd wic h o f th e sa me Iigh t·c ol o red wo od used for t he o the r inla y, with a thicker, da rk e bo ny co re. The o rigi na l. three -t iered ve nee r wa s undoub tedly c u t in a s ingle s lice from thre e sla bs o f wo od planed to th e d esired th ickn ess and glue d to gether. Mak e a s im ilar sa nd w ic h o f ve nee r for yo ur ankl e banding and fit it int o the in le t as yo u di d for th e verti cal inlay . Plane a ll th e s t ri ng ing flu sh with th e face of th e le g. Now sa nd with 220-grit paper-th e fin e sa wd us t will mix with th e glue a nd fill in an y s ligh t ga ps. S tring inlay is m eant to be e njoye d from a di stance , and sma ll imperfecti on s arc not notic e abl e . Th e fini sh will usually fill an y ga ps left a fte r sa nd ing.

After la)'ing a bead of glue into the straight inlet, cut a square end on the stringing and push it into thc top e n d of t h e grolH'e (above}, Usc the face of II hammcr to seat the rest of the stringing (left}, You eun trim off an)' excess stringing in the ankle inlet with a chisel or a milt Imifc. Ilefore filling in the curved stringing, "prebend" onc end h)' rolling thc stringing around II cylindcr of about the same radiu» as the inlet.

Once the stringing is in place, plane it tlush witb the face of the Icg. Sllnding with 220-grit pupcr will fill ill 1111)' slight gllps in the groovcs, hut slight lmperfeertons will not he noriceuhle,

- - 17 -

-

CA R n T ABLE Scale:

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in. = 1 in .

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l'ATTE IlN H)1l t' IH)NT U :
II'lIlgel top.

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Front View (top closed)

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tuperiut;

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Skirt

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_r-- Hrickluid pine s k irt ,

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Veneer. v,,, x 4 \4

Fixed mil

Movable mil . I Y!" x 4 \4

Co rne r bloc k

Fi xe d inn er rail. "% x 4 \4. dovetui lcd to s kirt o n ga t deg e nd. a nd gln e d and screwed to fix ed ra il

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Gat e lc g and leaf (o pe n pos ition)

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/

(iat e leg

Ho ttom View

T op

- - 18 -

-

/

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- - - - - - -

17 14 - - - -- - - -

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B ET AI!. A Scale. % in . = l in.

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ill. thick

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joi nt. equally divided into six knuck les

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Vicw

-

Bricklaid pinc skirt , dovetai led to inncr ra il Ve neer

nllcl. Vicw (with A'ltelcA removed)

- 19 -

-

Lcl! Sidc Vicw

An expensive and prized possession in the Federal period, a large mirror was valued because it could make a room appear bigger and, at uight, increase light in the room by retleeting candlelight. Since large mirrors were costl,·, their frames were often eluborarely workcd. (Project» Rope turning, p, 23.)

- - 20 - -

Mirror Chapter 2

ve r s inc e it wa s di sc ov ered that a pi ece oi poli sh e d m etal reflec ts a vie we r's im a ge . mirro rs h a ve bee n integra l to gr o oming. In us c si nce a nc ie nt ti mes, poli sh ed me tal mi r rors un d e rwe n t great improve me nt in t he ea rly Re na issa nc e wh e n it was fo und tha t glass wit h a s ilvered bad, re flected a much c learer, less d is tort e d image . Fo r centuries, h o w e v e r , sh ee t glass with ou t imperfectio n pro ved di ffic ul t to m a ke . a nd mirrors re mai ne d sm a ll. Du ring th e la te 17th ce n tury the tec h no log y wa s develo ped ior m ak in g large . unblemi sh ed shee ts o f glass. an d mirrors inc reased in s ize. Th ese larger mirrors were hi ghl y re gard ed ior th cir a b ility to increase illumination in a room by re fl e cting ca nd le lig h t. T he y were al so va lued be cau se rhcy c ould make a ro om appear bi gger than it re ally wa s. Th e se fea t ures made mirrors ve ry popular. eve n th ou gh th e y re mai ned qu it e e x pe ns ive . (Ac co rdi ng to t hc 180;:; in vent ory o f o u r hou se . th c seco nd h a nd va lue o f th e tw o " la rge o va l gi lt lo ok in g glasses" t ha t th e n hung in o u r bed roo m wa s S4 ;:; . abo u t o ne-seve n th th e a n n ua l in c om e o f a s ki lle d Fe de ra l-pe rio d c ra fts ma n.) Beca use large m irrors we re so va lua ble . it is not surpris ing that tr em endo u s ca re a nd e ffor t went into m nk ln g th e ir frames . Du ri ng the Federa l p eri od . m os t fra mes were gi lded . T he fo u nda tio n of th e fra me wa s a softwood th at co u ld be casi lv mol ded a nd ca rve d. b u t most o f th c o rna me nt wa s east com positio n. a mixture o f plas te r and gluc . The wood was covered with a th in sk in of gesso to gh'e it the snrne smoot h su rface as the compos itio n. a nd then g ildi ng was a p plied to the e ntire surface of th e fram e . As a resul t. a wood worker m ade o nly pa rt of t he fram e , a nd ot he r a rtisa ns com ple te d the res t. I c hose to in cl u d e th e p ie c e sho wn here rath er th an o nc o f o u r g ilded mirrors beca use th c fra me is mad e m ostly o f wo od a nd it is t he m o st s uccessfu l e xa m ple o f it s type I h av e sce n . T hc mirror h as a n hon o red pla c e in o u r hou se . hanging in th e pi e r b etween th e front-parl or window s.

E

Th is mirror was m a de late in th e Fe de ra l peri od a ro u nd 18 20 a nd d ispla ys the influ e nc e of th e e me rg ing Em pire style . Th is typ e o f mi rror. wit h tw o ve r tical co lu m ns a nd two sec tio ns of glass d ivi ded by a h o ri zontal m untin . h a d bee n popu la r fo r as long as 20 years befo re this example was m ad e . The two split colu mns a re it s m ost up-to -d ate feat u re . They a re h e a vie r in appea ra nce th an th o s e o n ea rlie r mi rrors and ha ve ro pe turni ngs, a lso k nown as s p ira l or twi st turnings . whi ch we re a popular Em p irepe riod m ot if of te n used on t he legs of table s . th e c res t rails o f c ha irs, a nd th e engaged columns of b u rea us a nd si deboa rds . ( Had th e m ir ro r bee n made a few yea rs ea rlie r in th e hei ght of th e Fe dera l perio d, th e se colu m ns would probabl y ha ve bee n a ca rved c luste r o f re eds. ) T he d e c orati ve ca rv ing on th e to p a nd bo tto m thirds o f th e c olumns is typical of th e late Federa l peri od and pre sents a s ty lized ve rsion o f th e c lass ic a l acanthu s leaf. Thi s t yp e of mirror is kn o wn as a n a rc h itec tu ra l m irror beca use th e fram e is mad e up o f e leme nts fo u nd in c lass ical G reek a rc h ttec t u rc . It has . fo r in stanc e . a n e nta b la ture . whic h is th e co mbi na tio n o f e le me n ts o n a Greek temple above th e co lu m ns a nd b el ow th e triangular pediment th a t s ha pes t he slope o f th e roo f. Th e co rn ice, o r uppermost m ol d in g of t he e ntablatu re , is s te p ped, o r broken forward . Und e r the cornice is a ve nee re d fr ie ze panel . whic h in cl u d es stepped areas o n ei ther s ide a nd s its a to p tw o ra iscd and rc cdcd arc hit raves, t he lowe s t e le me n t of the e ntablature . The two split colu m ns with rope tu rn ings are mo u nted on pli nth s. the squa re b locks th at serve as th e bases of the colum ns. Th e fram e . how e ve r . is no t m erel y miniaturized arc h itec ture . It is a we ll-t ho ug h t-o u t pi e c e o f furn iture th at reli ed on th e Fe deral-period furniture idi om in it s u sc , for e xa m p le , of ve neer a nd mold ings. Yet th e introdu ction o f architc ctu ral c le men ts into th e pi e c e all owed the mirror to rel ate to th e roo m in which it hung, as well a s to th e o the r fur n itu re aro u nd it.

- - 21 - -

The wide fri eze panel b elow th e cornice is co ve red with bo okmatched, crotch -grain, San Domingo mahogany veneers. Bookmatchcd veneers were commonly used by Fede ral-pe riod cabinetmakers, and th e maker o f thi s fram e co u ld have expected th em to appear o n other surfaces in th e ro om . Th e frame's horizontal bottom rail and the two vertical s tiles are covered with veneer of the sam e colo r. They al so share the sa m e plane , a fact that the veneer reinforces. The sa m e dark , h eavily figured veneer is also found on the tw o plinths and on the tw o stepped areas of th e frieze . Th e se are the only other flat surfaces on th e mirror, and the e ye is informed o f this b y the recurrence of the veneer. Th e brass m edallion s m ounted o n th e plinths and s te p pe d area s of th e frieze empha size the fact that , alth ough related to th e rail , stiles and fri ez e , these a re as a re set in another plane. All the other elem ents of th e mirror are made of Honduras mahogany , whi ch is light go ld in color and c ontrasts nicely with th e rich red -brown of the San Domingo mahogany veneer. Th e use o f two tones o f mahogany is a sophisticated desi gn e le m e nt and is also found on th e sec re ta ry ( p. 58) , which is located across th e ro om . In th e same way that color defin es the flat s u rfa c es on thi s piece , it also unite s the fram e 's threedim ensional elements. The various effects created by th e se turned, carved or mold ed e le me n ts c ombine to produce the mirror' s ove ra ll s ta te me nt . The deep, projecting co rn ice makes the piece top-heavy so that it looms o ver th e viewer and seems larger than it is. Its dominant pre sence is magnified by the fact that it s te ps o u t above th e fri eze and architraves. making th e entire cornice appear to proj ect e ve n farther into the room. The s a m e stepped d esign wa s commonly used o n Fed eral-period mantel cornices. The s ma lle r moldings around th e inside and outside of th e fram e draw pronounced lin es a ro u nd th e frame' s inner a nd outer ed ges . and create a boundary for th e darker, flat, ve nee re d s u rfa ces. The m oldings are raised slightly abov e th e vene er so that they also b order the fram e in three dimensions . The outerm ost m olding s trip ha s a rounded upper e dge, which relates it to the re eding on th e architraves by turning it into a s ingle reed . Th e molding on th e in side of th e fram e is typi cal o f Fed eral -period m oldings used as backhand s on d oor and window architraves in that it steps very qui ckly downward and leads th e ey e in to the "o t he r ro om " o f the reflection in th e sa me way that stepped bu ckbands and architraves lead th e eye through doorwa ys . Since the thickness of this m olding is les s than half that o f th e veneered frame, its re ar surface c re a tes th e b ottom o f th e rabbet into which th e mirror glass is set. The sa m e m olding, with an ex tra step added to it , is set o n th e b ottom e dge o f the bottom rail and se pa ra tes th e tw o plinths. Th e e xtra s te p mak es th e m olding larger than th at around the glass a nd al so p roj ects toward the view er, c re a ting a raised lip . This m olding prevents th e ey e from falling away from the mirror, whil e maintaining a c onsistent molding s ha pe throu gh out th e pi e ce .

On each of the frame 's two split column s, th e ro pe twist leads the viewer's eye outward. Its purpose is to s ugges t that the mirror is wider than it reall y is. Th is complements the projecting cornice b y ke eping its grandeur in proporti on . Th e re eding o n th e architraves and muntin is a detail closel y as sociated with the Sheraton furniture s ty le from which thi s mirror evolved . Its us e here not on ly rel ate s th e mirror to the room and to oth er furniture ne arb y, but a lso expands th e textural s m o rg as b o rd created b y th e carving. molding and turning. Although th e architectural elem ents o f th e m ir ror appear complicated , th ey are not. Nor doc s t he ir use in the piece require any c omplicated joinery . Th e mirror is little more than a flat frame mortise-and -tenon ed toge the r. with the various clements applied to it. Th e s te p pe d e ffec t of the entablature is produced b y th e tw o mah ogany blocks, each ven e ered with crotch-gr ain o n th e face, which extend up b eneath the cornice . The cornice is in turn s te pp ed out above them . The various sect ions o f th e cornice are cut from a s ing le length o f m olding, a nd eac h of th e j oints is a s im ple miter. Th e plinth s arc also mah ogany blocks with crotch -grain vene er o n th e fa c e . They arc capped top and bottom , as arc th e reeded architraves, with 14-in .-thicl, slices o f mah ogan y. The split columns are each half of a turning and are glu ed and nailed to th e vene ered frame . Th e directi on of the s p ira l tw ist s pos es a potential co ns truc tio n pro bl em . The maker obviously intend ed th e twi sts to s pi ra l up a nd diverge outward . To d o this h e c ould not use two h alv e s o f the same turning-th e s p ira ls would both slo pe in th e sa me direction and would pull the viewer's e ye to o ne s ide o r the other. Inverting th e c olumn would not c ha nge th e direction o f th e s p irals, a nd , a s well. the turnings have a di stinct top a nd bottom . Th e mak er of thi s mi rr or th erefore produced tw o turnings with o p pos it e twists. o ne left-hand ed , th e o t he r rt ght -hand ed . After having s pe nt so much tim e producing these turnings, th e mak er c ertainly would not have di sc arded th e unu sed halves. It is th erefore likely that he m ad e a t lea st a pair of these mirrors . Th e pi ece e xh ib its e nough virt uos ity to make me su sp ect that fram e s were hi s spec ia lty and that this was a producti on it em . If you ch oose to m ak e this mirror, yo u mi ght a s well make a pair, too . Since it is no longer possibl e to o b ta in San Do m ingo mahogany, the col or of th e wood you use for th e turned , molded and carved parts mi ght not differ not ic eabl y from the ven e er. This po se s a probl em becau se . a lt ho ug h th e effect of the two-t on ed mahogani e s is ve ry s ub tle , th e ir use is essential to th e mirror's d esi gn. I would th eref o re suggest that you vene er th e pin e frame a nd th en wipe th c vene er with a dark st a in o r
- - 22 - -

Finding th e origina l glass in a mirror t his o ld is rare . With time. a mirror' s silvered surface would have los t it s refl ec tive a b ility , and was usually replaced by those not c ontent to c onsid er themselve s in a glass darkly . This is prob abl y what happen ed with this mirror. The upper se c tio n o f the mirror was probably re versepainted since it wa s c ommon in the period to c ombine a painted sec tio n a nd mi rror glass . but this pa inting has also been lo st with tim e . In reverse painti ng . the painter works o n th e ba ck o f a glass panel. and under cand le light the resulting portrait o r sce ne tak es on a very lifelike depth and co lo r. For t hose who want to include a reverse painting o n th eir mirror. I ha ve included a supplier who docs c usto m work in th e list a t the back of the book . My wife. Ca ro l. ha s o fte n s ug geste d that a view of our house would lo ok ni c e in the upper panel of o u r mir ror. When in stalling mirror glas s or a re verse painting. avoid using e it he r nails o r gla zi ng points. which can scratch the s ilve ring o r painting . In Fe de ra l-pe riod mirrors , glass was in st e ad h eld in pl ac e with glu e blocks that were usually a right tr ian gle in c ro ss sec tio n. as sho wn in the plan on p. 29. A Yl -in. -t h ie k backb oard sho uld be tacked to th e rear o f th e fram e to ke e p o u t dust. Th e o rig ina l mirror we igh s just over 20 lb . and must th erefore be hung in a foolproof manner. I suspended o urs with picture -frame wire . s t ru ng between two cyeh ooks sc re we d into the fra me . It is hung from a n 8d fin ish na il d ri ve n in to th e fr ieze under th e parl or cornice at about a 45 ° a ng le . I slip ped a holl ow c opper rivet over the end of th e nail b e cau s e th e flan ge looks like th e mushroom knobs co m mo nly us ed as hangers in th e Federa l period .

The rope turnings on the mirror's lip lit columns were actually carved rather than turned. To get a pair of rope twists that spiraled in oppos it e direction s, the maker carved two turnings with opposite twi sts and then sawed them in half.

2. Divide circ u mfere nce of turning in to s ix eq u a l sectio ns . __- _ .

Rope turning The various name s giv en to th e detail o n th e ce n te r o f th e mirror's split columns-rope , twi st o r s pi ra l turnings- arc misleading in that this detail is carved. not turned . Visua lizing and understanding the makeup o f th e se s pi ra ls is much more difficult than actuall y creating them. To he lp grasp the idea of their design , think a bou t th e thre ads of a screw and, by c ontra st, the st ra nds o f a rope . Screw threads h a ve what is called pitch and lead . Pitch refers to the n um b e r of threads per inch ; in o the r words , a count of the number of times a ridge and adjacent g ro ove occur on a s ingle inch o f the shank . Lead is th e di stanc e the thread travels a long th e shank in a s ing le s p ira l. Th e se terms roughly describe t he relationship o f th e s p ira ls on these rope turnings. But a screw ha s o nly a singl e worm t hat s pira ls up its shank. The turnings o n this mirror are m o re ak in to a rope , in that th ey a re co m posed o f seve ra l strands that spiral perfectly parallel to each oth er. Le ad can be varied to a lter th e visual impact , but what m o st interests the woodworker making rope turnings is pitch, which is determined by th e number o f s t ra nds in th e s p ira l and their individual thickne ss . To begin this proj ect, turn a mahogan y bl ank , o r whatever primary wood you ha ve sele c te d , to th e o u ts ide dimensions of the column shape s ho wn o n p . 2 7. Use a pair of dividers to divid e th e area to b e carved into 11 e q ua l sections along its length. This distanc e is l YI 6 in . Turn t he lathe on and lightly touch a so ft lead pencil to e a c h o f the marks . Th is will re sult in 10 perfect rin gs around the diameter of the turning. Do not sc ribe th ese lines , as the sc ra tc h e s would remain in th e fini sh ed spiral s.

1. Divid e a re a to IJe carved in to 11 eq ual sectio ns a lo ng its length .

~~ .,.

.3. S ke tc h s ix con ti n uo us, parallel lines that diago nally c u t across g rid p roduced by s teps 1 and 2 a n d s pira l u p turn ing.

- - 23 - -

'Vi th the tool re st positioned at c e nter heiAht, draw a uniform Ar id on the turrring, UeAin by placinA t he re st aAainst the w o r k and rotatinA the turninA to on e o f t he se ts o f horizontal m a rki n As ulready made. Then pcncil a linc th r o u Ah the verf icul m arkinAs. Repcut the proccs s for the r em ainfng markinAs.

T o beAin t r a c i n A out the st r a n ds of t he s p i r a l, start at th e lo w cr ri ~ht corner of on c of the end s q uu res a n d draw a d iagon al Iin c t o the upper left eorner o f t he s q ua re, C o nt i n ue the diaAonal line into the ne xt s q uare on th e row a bove a n d proceed in t h is fa shi on unt il yo u have drawn on c co ntin u o us s p ira l li p th e turrring, Rc peut thi s proces s to make s ix l i n e s t hat s p i r a l fr o m o ne e n d o f the tllrllinA to the orher,

The nex t s te p is to d ivide the area length wise aro und th e Cir c umference , b u t before b eg in ning, p ull the pl ug o f th e lathe motor to avoid th e c ha nce of a n accide ntal s ta rtu p. The re are s ix se parate s tra nds th a t mak e up th e de sign, so th e ci rcu mference wi ll ne ed to be di vid ed int o six e q ua l sections. On the turn ing in the ph otographs. th e circumfe rence is 6 in . at its widest part . so th e d ividers a re se t to 1 in . Use a pair o f dividers to walk o ff this di s tanc e on o ne of the two cen termost line s . Remove the turning from the la th e and adju st th e h ei ght of the top edge of the tool rest to a lig n exa ctly with th e drive and ta il ce n ters o f the lath e- yo u 'll have to mov e th e tai lstock in to do this accu rate ly. Then swing th e rest out of th e way, keepi ng it at the sa me h e igh t . and positi on th e ta ilstock to re mo u n t th e turning. Push the adjust ed tool rest aga inst the tu rni ng. and rotate the piece until o ne of the six points comes into line with the top o f th e to ol rest. Wi th a so ft lead penci l. ligh tl y trace a ho rizontal lin e that intersects th e te n vertica l li nes . Ro ta te th e turning to th e nex t penciled point a nd trace the next horizontal lin e . Re p ea t this process for a ll six points. The res ul t sho u ld be a un iform grid . Begin a t o ne o f th e end sq ua res and ske tc h a line from th e b ottom ri ght corn er to upper le ft corn er. Co nt in ue the line from th e adj a cent low er corner o f th e next sq ua re to th e opposite upper corner. Keep repeat in g th is process. slowl y re volving th e turning as you s ke tc h. until you hav e a single s p ira ling lin e up the turning . Wh ile th ere is s t ill o nly one lin e . you ca n b est see the lead o f th e s p iral. In a sing le twi st it travel s just unde r 5 Y4 in. Wh en this line reaches th e o the r e nd. return to the b eginning o f th e grid and s ta rt the s ke tc h ing p roces s a ne w , b eg inning in th e lower corner of the next sq u a re above o r below the o ne where thc previous spira l wa s s ta rted . Repeat th e process until th ere are six lin e s th at s p ira l from o ne e nd of th e t urning to th e o the r. You a re now ready to b e gin th e carving. I find it ea sies t to do thi s wit h th e turning s till mounted on th e lath e . You might want to repos ition th e lath e to give you acce ss to it from both th e front and th e back . If you hav e a lock o n an inde x ing head . you shou ld engage it to ke ep th e turning from rotating while b eing carved . S tart a t the be ginning of o ne o f th e sq u a re s a nd . using a Y4 -in. parti ng too l. cut a Ys -in. -d e c p V-groove a lo ng th e spi ral linc. Fo llow th e spiral from co rne r to c orner o n e ac h o f the square s as far as you can comfortab ly reach around the work without having to rotate the turning. Try to ke ep th e cut at a constan t d epth. Return to the bcginntng and cut th e same F-groove o n th e a djacen t sp iral. Wh cn a ll s ix spira ls have been worked in this mann er. rotate the turning to complete th e F-grooves o n all th e s p ira ls.

Us c a partinA tool to c u t a groo"e alonA the lenAth s of t he s ix s p i r a l i n g lines . Work all s ix Aroovcs as far as yOll eom foetuh ly can, thcn rotate th e turninA to eo mplctc t he m on all the sp irals.

- - 24 --

The ne xt s te p is to round th e individu al strands with a chisel. You will have to c u t in o nly o ne directi on. working with t he ,~ ra i n , You can shap c th e left half o f ea ch s p ira l (as yo u face th e work) b y moving right to left, tuil st ock to head stock, in th e s a me dire cti on as yo u sketched th e lin e a nd cut the V-groove . To round th e o the r half o f th e sp irals. you will ne ed to s ta nd behind th e lath e . o r fl ip th e work a round if yo u cann ot ge t behind th e lath e. You will s till be working right to left . and alwa ys with the gra in to av oid chipping . After round in g the sp ira l with the chi sel. s moo th away th e face te d to ol marks with a half-round file . The rounded a nd flat s u rfaces o f th e file me et at a sha r p e dge. This ed ge is import ant for cl eaning up between adjac ent s p irals and c reat ing a s moo th. flowing lin e . Avoid using a sq ua re e dged file . which would cut into the sides of th e adjacent s p ira l. Aga in. you sho uld work from both sides of th e lathe to ke ep from filin g ag a ins t th e g ra in. The s urfac e left by the file will be uniforml y round but needs to be smooth ed furth er w ith SO-gri t sa nd pa pe r. With the turning s t ill o n th e lathe . carve th e detail s on th e rin gs abov e a nd b el ow th e s p iral. ( I did not do thi s on th e turning I mad e in th e ph otographs .) Thi s s ho u ld b e don e with a parting to ol. Th e re st of th e carving is done aft er the turning is sa we d apart . To h elp e ns u re a c c u rac y when sawing the turning in two. draw a line along o ne axi s. using the to ol rest o r a ya rds t ick a s a g u ide. Make another lin e o n th e o ppos ite s ide o f th e piec e . Th e pattern in the end gra in. madc b y the s p u r drive ce n te r, ca n a lso be used to h clp locat e th ese two lin e s. To saw al on g th e lines. I used a 10 -point rip pan el saw . Th c back e dges o f th e tw o halves can be planed smooth in e it he r o f tw o ways: You can clamp a jointer plane in the front vise o f yo u r workbench a nd run th e back s ide of the sa wn turning o ve r it. O r yo u can clamp th e turning. sa wn su rfa ce upward . b etwe en b enchdogs and plan c it. The turning I mad e in the photographs had a right-hand s p iral. To compl et e th e mirror. yo u ne ed to make a se co nd turning that is identi cal but which ha s a left -hand s p ira l. Do thi s by laying out the g rid with the s a me divi si on s. but in stead o f ske rc h ing a lin e from th e low er right c orn er o f the fir st e nd sq ua re to th e upper left co rne r. ske tc h from th c upper right corn er to thc lower left corner a nd co n tinue th e s p ira l in that directi on. If you wish to us e spiral turnings in other work , you may need to adapt th cm. Lead c a n be in crea sed by placing th e vcrt icul lines farth er apart . or decreased by pla cing them c lose r to gether'. \Vidth of the s p ira ls can be in cre ased by using few er o f th em. You mi ght divid e the turning hortzoutally into quart ers rath er than s ixths . Spiral width c a n be decreased b y adding m ore s p irals. dividing th e turning into e igh ths. for e xa m ple .

Use a chisel to rouud the "trllnd" of the "piral" (top). You eun worl. oue "ide of the "trllnd" from the front of the lathe, hut ~'ou'll have to round the other "ide from the hack of the lathe to keep workin~ with the ~rain (abuve},

Smooth away the tool mark", with the ~rllin.

worldn~

- - 25 - -

u"in~

a half-round file and always

MIRROR

n

Scale:

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in . = I in.

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Frieze

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Side View

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Scale: % in.

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- - 26 -

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SECTION IJ-U Scul e: ~ in. = 1 in.

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- - 28 --

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SECTION H-8

(eontinucd) SECTION D-D

Scale :

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- - 29 - -

Unlikc most pleees of furniturc in this o~c of wood, this formal sofa is ,'isuoll}' dominotcd by on expanse of fabric, not wood. J)urin~ thc Federal pcriod, all fabric was handwoven and thereforc costly, mllkin~ a piccc likc this out of reach for most huusehnlds, (Projcct: Rccding by hand, p, 33.)

- - .10 --

Sofa Chapter J

h is sofa represents a departure fro m the ap proach to d esigning a nd building furniture see n in th e o the r pi ec es in thi s b ook . Those pi ece s use wood no t only fo r th e ir fram es and o the r un se en pa rts b u t also fo r mos t of th eir visible s urfaces . In this sofa, wood se rve s as a fra me for . th e upholstery b ut pl a ys a relatively minor vis ua l ro le . The so fa 's legs , arm po st s an d th e face s b ehind th ese post s arc it s o nly vis ib le woode n ele me nts . Th e p iec e co nfro nts th e viewe r with s uc h a vast ex pa nse of fab ric tha t th ese woode n are a s h elp es ta blis h th e sofa's identity as a pi e c e o f sea ti ng furn itu re, an d th is wood is intensel y worked with o rn a me nt of th e peri od . The reed ed arm posts a nd th e turn ed legs a re c ha rac te ristic of th e S herato n s tyle o f Fede ral fu rn iture , th o ugh it is unu su al to find a sofa wh ere th e arm p os ts a re re eded a nd th e legs are no t. Th is leg is a typical S heraton turn ing , with a maj or vase, rings, a cove and a n urn- sh aped foo t, com pressed into o nly l Oin. The re sult is o ne o f the most appealing turn in gs I have eve r e nco u n te re d, a nd perhap s th e ca b ine tma ke r used thi s de si gn in st e a d o f a rcede d leg be cau se he admired it to o. Since thi s is a n e lega n t pi e ce , d esign ed fo r a parl or o r o the r form al ro om . th e a rms a nd legs are mad e o f mahogany . Th e flat si des a nd fro nts of the sq ua re b lo c ks sc pa ra tmg th e legs a nd the arm post s arc ve nee re d with c ro tc h -gra in b irch pan el s s urro undcd by bi rch a nd e bo ny s tr ing ing and s t rips of mah ogany ve nee r. Th is motif, without th e co ntrasting st ri ng ing, is re pea te d in e lo nga te d form o n th e exposed fac e s behind th e a rm po st s . While th e so fa 's exposed wo od en e le me nts a re visua lly arresting, th e wo odwork th at is un se en is eq ua lly important. Th e birch fram e is th e foundation for the up ho lstery. It se rves th e sa me purpo se as a s ke le to n, s u p po rting and giving definition to a tle sh o f fabri c and s tu ffing . And just as a ske le to n determines th e ge n e ra l dimcnsions o f a b ody, th e fram e cre ate s th e sh a pe of th e

O

so fa . It is re spons ibl e for th e sligh tly a rc hed b ack a nd for th e echoing curve of th e front rail 's long, ge nt le bow. T he co ncave upper edge o f th e arm , slo p ing forward to the ex posed po st s, is al so a fun cti on o f th e fram e . The sh ape of th e so fa assoc ia tes it geogra p h ic a lly with Boston and the North Shore , th e latter a s tr ing o f port c ities and u rb a n cabinetmak ing ce n te rs s tre tc hi ng northward a long th e Ne w Eng la nd coast. Portsm outh , New Hampshire , wh ere we found th is sofa, is inc lu ded in thi s a rea. Alth ough th e frame determin es the so fa's size a nd ge ne ra l s ha pe . the personality o f this pi e c e is largel y a fun ction o f it s visibl e ex te rio r. Th e s kin ove r th e wo oden s ke le to n and padded flesh is th e cloth cover ing, whic h b ecom es th e so fa's mo st pr onoun ced feature . Thi s o u te r fa bric do es not ove rride th e importan c e o f s ize and s ha pe in th e so fa 's ove ra ll lo ok (the p ie ce wo u ld s t ill a p pea r o d d in a sma ll ro om) , but it d ominat es th e p ie c e a nd e na b les it to harmonize with th e room 's o the r fab rics , wallpaper a nd pa int. In thi s re spect , th e so fa is sim ila r to th e a rc h itec tura l piece s sho wn in thi s boo k- the mirror (p . 20) a nd th e secre ta ry (p . 5 8) . Th eir a rc h itec tu ra l e le me nts rel ate th em to th e woodwork o f th e room and to th e s u rro u nd ing furniture . The same is tru e o f th e c ol or a nd pattern o f the fabri c cove ring thi s pi e ce . Th e so fa is not merely in the room , but of the roo m . A so fa is a rath er intlexibl c pi e c e of furnitur e . It s cov ering closely links it to it s s u rro u nd ings and it s great siz e limits its portability. Its plac ement in a room and th e se le c tio n o f its cov ering are not ge ne ra lly isolated deci sions b ut ra th e r part o f a com p le x d e c orating sc h e me . Th e limitations created by th ese factors , howev er, are a lso a so fa 's strength s. More than most o the r pi ece s of furn iture, a sofa h elps create a d eeor.

--31 -

Federal -period Ame rica ns appreciated the complex contribution a sofa made to a room , but they admired this piece of furniture for o th er re a so ns as well. Theirs was an age o f wood , and upholstery wa s weleomed sinc e it produeed sofas and chairs that were both softer and , on a cold winter night, warmer than wooden ones. Bef ore the Industrial Revolution and the d ev el opm ent of textilemaking machinery , however, all c lo th wa s spun and wov en by hand. This made upho lstered furniture very costly , and ownership o f s uc h a pi ece th erefore indicated status. Cu r io usly, th e woodworking on a Federal -period sofa was its least expensive elem ent. But thi s did not mean that th e worksmanship o n th ese pieces was of poor quality. O n th e contrary , it was well conceived and e xe c u te d . Give n the great ex p e nse o f th e fabri c, it would have be en foolish to skim p o n th e fram e o r oth er wo oden parts. Many period cabinetmakers o ffe re d uph olstering as a se rvic e to their custom ers, and independent uph olsterers o fte n set up business near cabinetmaking s ho ps. Wheth er o r not the maker o f a fram e actuall y did th e uph olst ery , th ere wa s a collaboration b etwe en th e two c ra fts . As a re sult , th e uphol st erer understo od furnituremaking and d esi gn , and th e cabinetm ak er kn ew h ow to build a frame that, wh en uphol st ered , would re sult in th e de sired sh a pe . Thi s cl ose assoc ia tio n b etwe en mak er and uph olst erer is uncommon today. Thus a modern upholsterer ma y neith er sh a re nor understand an ea rl ie r c a b tne tma ke r's int ent , and may be unfamiliar with th e techniqu es ne eded to co rre c tly interpret a Fed eral-peri od so fa. When we bought thi s pi e c e , it had bee n fre shl y reupholst ered , but with re sults th at differed greatl y from th e way it look s now. The upholst erer had reli ed o n mod ern material s and te chniqu es . He used c oil ed sp ring s. for exampl e , un aware that th eir patent wa s not gra nt e d until 18 28 , two decad e s after this so fa wa s mad e . As a res ult, hi s reupholstered sea t h ad a d om e to it rath er than th e nice tight. flat surface p roduced b y o ur s u bs eq ue n t reupholstering, which more acc u ra te ly refl ects th e period. He also ove rs tu ffed th e so fa with foam ru bber. so that it look ed bl oated and th e e x posed wood en parts seemed s p indly. O u r reuphol st ering p rodu c ed in stead the lean . trim lin e s th e cahinetrnakcr intended and al so a comfortable firmn e ss . whi ch is ex tre mely different from th e mushine ss o f s p ring s a nd fo am rubb er. Having witnes sed the transformation o f th e so fa wh en correctly uph olst ered , I s ugges t th at, if yo u are unable to do th e uph olst ery yourself, yo u res ol ve to find an uph olsterer wh o ca n acco m plis h th e p roper e ffec t. To h e lp you se le c t a sk ille d upholsterer a nd kn ow ge ne rally what needs to b e don e . I will outline the s te ps in volved in Fede ra l-pe riod uphol st ery . For th ose interested in a more d etail ed description o f these uphol stery meth ods. I have inc lu d ed an 18.34 source in the bibli ography . Our fram e was upholstered b y Pat rick Ed wa rds . o f San Die go , Ca lifo rn ia , a wel l-kn own ex pe rt o n Ame rica n Em p ire furniture wh o al so spec ia lizes in ea rly upholst ery techniqu e s. He prefers to work with tacks and a hamm er. and refuses to use stapl es. He first builds up a la yer o f woven jute webbing a nd pull s it tau t. Thi s c re a tes a firm

foundation for the u ph ol s te ry and strength ens th e wooden frame . Next he s tre tc hes a layer of burlap and th en lay s o n th e stuffing. Instead of foam rubber. h e used s pe c ia lly treated ho rsehair that curls. This make s th e upholste ry spring y, so that it bounces back when sat on. Until World \Va r II. horsehair was a common s tu ffing for mattresses, which is where we found the quantity we necded for the sofa . Nowadays upholstery supply house s sto ck rubberized horsehair, a natural bristle coated with rubb e r. An other lay er of burlap is la id o ve r th e horsehair. and a sha rp. straight line is obtained by stitching th e two lay ers of burlap with a rolled edge . Th en the burlap- andh orsehair sa ndwic h is se w n together with twine to th e webbing, in quilting fashion , to pre vent th e s tuffing from ga the ring a nd th e cl oth from s h ift ing. Edwards the n sp re ads cotton batting ove r th e top lay er o f burlap and covers it with muslin. Th is h elps produce a smoo th. ti ght s u rfa ce and al so prevents th e stiff e nds o f th e h orsehai r from sticking th e sitter. The cove r is put o n last , a nd th e methods us ed for fitting it are sim ila r to modern pr actice s . The final touch in th e uphol stering is th e ad d itio n o f a c lo th tape to fini sh o ff th e work and produc e a smoo th lin e a ro u nd th e visibl e wo od s u rfa ces. On Federal p iec e s. this tape wa s so me t im es se cured with brass tacks . Knowing that th e outer fabri c we ch ose for o u r so fa would rel ate th e pi ece to the ro om and s u rro u ndi ng o bjec ts. we proce eded slo wly with th e se le ction. In fac t . we left th e so fa in it s mu slin c ov ering for a yea r whil e we restored th e parlor and planned our decorating sc he me. In th e e nd. we d ecid ed to return th e wo odwork an d wain scot in th e room to th eir o rig ina l painted colo rs , a light bei ge with a deep brown mopboa rd . We did not kn ow wh at th e o rigina l wallpaper had lo ok ed lik e . but foll ow e d th e exam ple of th e o rig ina l sa m p les in the front hall a nd th e bedchamber. Both o f th e se papers had as a b ack ground c olor a pal er sh ade o f th e co lo r us ed for th e wall s an d woodwork o f th e ro om in which th e y we re hung. Th is pr ecedent helped us fin all y se le c t a rep roductio n of a late l Sth -ce ntu ry French wallpap er. Th e result o f o ur wo rk is a tw o -tone b ei ge roo m with a s tro ng b ro wn lin e a ro u nd th e tlo or a nd. o n th e wall a bove th e wain sc ot. a bl ack . sing lescre en pattern o f tendrils and birds. Thi s is a very c alm e nv iro n me n t, whi ch we felt co u ld carry a large . livel y counterpoint. We therefore chose a cranb erry-red reproduction fabric for th e so fa, whi ch would pi ck up th e red of the pla st ered ch e eks and jamb o f th e fir eplace . as well as that in several o f the watercol or prints o n th e wall s and in the c ocksc omb that Ca ro l uses in dri ed fl ow er arrangements on th e mantel. \V e tried placing th e sofa in o th e r sp ots in th e ro om before concluding th at it works best und er th e two sy m me trica l window s, b etwe en whi ch th e archl tc ctural mirror hangs. Like th e sec re ta ry facing it o n th e o p posite wall. th e sofa is a dom in e ering pi ece . It is long a nd low . and take s up mo st o f its wall. I have alw ay s th ought that it would be nice to plac e th e so fa in th e center o f th e roo m facing th e fir eplace . a practice that became popular du ring the Em p ire p eriod . In o u r parl or. h ow ever, th e fire place is o ffse t and th e tloor s pace in front of it is a traffi c area .

--.32 -

-

Reedin g by hand Among th e ne ocl assi cal o rna ment in spired by Gree k and Ro man a rc h itec t u re wa s flut in g. whi ch mimi ck ed th e m ulti ple. pa rall el co ncave groo ves found o n classi cal co lu m ns . Du ring th c Fe de ra l period , reeding. o r parall el co nve x m oldings. was in cre asingly used ins tea d . Re eding co m mo nly d ec orated She rato n-s tyle turned legs. bed posts. e ngaged colu m ns . a p plie d pateru e (s m all ro u nd o r ova l ca rve d orna me nts) a nd. as o n thi s so fa. ann post s. Peri od ca b ine t ma ke rs working in different regi ons d e vel oped va rio us . id entifiable s tyles o f re eding. The re a re tw o m ethods for makrng re eds o n turnings. The s im p lest. d one with a re eding plane call ed a c e n te r bead plan e . ca n b e worked o nly o n c ylinde rs o r ve ry gra d ua l tapers. Th at techniqu e is c xpla tnc d in th e chapter o n th e Fan c y c h a ir (p . 1(0) . Th e se co nd m ethod is used o n vusc -sh apcd turnings. s uc h as th e arm posts on this so fa . Becau s e the turning profil e c u rves as it changes diam et er. it wou ld b e impo ssible for a plan e to track al on g both th e co nve x a nd c onca ve su rfaces . Also . a plane can c u t o nly a re ed o f uniform width . and on this turning th e re eds narrow af ter th e y pass ove r th e swe lling o f th e vase s ha pe to fit th e d e crea sed di am et er of th e neck . Th eref ore t his typ e o f re eding mu st b e don e b y hand . Be fo re begin n ing th e re eding. turn th e so fa leg and arm po st to th e p rofil e sho wn in th e drawing at right. Th en . wi t h th e work s p inn ing in th e lath e . sc ribe a lin e a ro u nd the full est point o i th e va se o n th e post. This marks th e begi nni ng o i th e reeds. Do nothing more until yo u hav e pull ed the plug o n th e lathe mo tor to elimi na te th e poss ib ility o f an acci de nta l sta rt- u p. The re a rc 14 ind ivid ua l reeds o n thi s arm post. ea c h abo u t -Ys in . wid e a t th eir maximum . Wall, th em o ff o n th e sc ribed lin e with a pair o f dividers. Th e diam eter is small e no ugh that it is unlikely that th e 14 segme nts will b e perfectl y e ve n-s-the last reed will probably be s lig h tly s ma lle r o r la rge r th an th e o the rs, Whe n doing t he carving, yo u wil l b e a b le to s pace o u t thi s discrepancy over severa l reeds so t hat it will not be noticeabl e .

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Since the arm posts on this sofll are vase-shaped turnings, the reeding mu st be carved bJ' h a n d , rather than with a reeding plane, A fte r !'e r i b in~ II l i ne lIround t he w ide!'t pllrt of the va se, w af k off a n d m urh 14 equul !'e~me n t!' fo r t he reedin~ .

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Next re move th e turning from th e lathe and adj us t th e top edge of th e too l re st to th e e xac t c enterline betwe en th e d rive a nd ta il ce nters, as ex pla ine d in th e c ha p te r o n th e a rc hitec tu ra l mirror (p . 20). Remount th e turning and p lac e the re st ro ug hly parall el to it and a bo u t an inch a way. Now sha rpe n a so ft le ad pe ncil a nd set it on th e rest wit h its poin t o n th e sc ri bed lin e . Ro ta te th e turning until o ne of th e 14 m arks comes in to co n tac t with th e pen cil le ad . Holding th e pen cil o n th e rest a nd perfec tly pa rall el to the lath e bed , draw a lin e from th e mark down th e ne ck of the vase to th e ring a t th e bottom . (I n th e ph o to bel ow , I'm da rke ning th e lin e I' ve a lready d raw n.) This lin e sho uld be stra igh t , eve n tho ug h it follo ws the c urve o f th e arm post. You ca n c heck it with a sho rt, stra ight edge, suc h as th e bla de o f a try sq ua re. The n rota te the turn ing to the ne xt ma rk a nd trac e th e seco nd lin e . Repeat thi s process un til a ll 14 lin e s ha ve bee n mark ed . Now yo u a rc re ady to c a rve th e reed s. Lo ck the d rive shaft of th e la th e to ke e p it from turn ing. With a sma ll pa rt ing tool. start at o ne o f th e lin es an d ta ke a hea vy cu t , abo u t Va in . de ep, as yo u m ove ove r the vase . As you move down th e neck , ligh ten th e c u t; for the bottom 1 liz in ., it shou ld be qu ite fine . Ro tate th e turning so that th e next line is co mfo rta b ly po sition ed fo r yo u a nd ca rve it in the same ma nne r. Repe at thi s p ro c e ss fo r th e re mai n ing reed s, but begin pla n ni ng a head as you ap proach th e fin al reed if it is la rger o r sma lle r tha n th e rest. To di stri bute any d iscrepa ncy ove r th e last severa l reeds , sligh tly adjust th e positio n of th e pa rting tool o n th e pen cil lin e .

Cu tt ing th e V-grooves d istinguishe s th e ind ividua l re e ds, b ut th ey still ne ed to be uniformly ro u nded. Start this proc ess using the sa me sm all parting tool. Roll the tool sligh tly, so th at o ne si de of th e V-sha ped cu tting e dge will tr im th e sha rp a rris o f th e ad j o in ing reed. Be caretul nor to tak e too hea vy a c ut. After following the reed all the way down the nec k to th e ring, retu rn to the scribed line and place the pa rting to ol in th e sa me groove. Thi s time, roll it in th e o pposite dire ction to rem ove the arris of the other reed. Repe at th e se two cu ts in each groove to rough out all th e reeds. I sugges t mak ing ro ug h-s hap ing cuts all th e way around the post rath er tha n tryi ng to co m plete each individual reed , o ne a t at ti me. Working o ne step at a time on all the ree ds will e ns ure th a t they will a ll be uni form . O nce you ha ve wo rked your way back to th e groove in wh ich yo u be gan , yo u ca n start finis hing the individual reed s , I use a fla t ca rving c hisel, bevele d o n both sides o f th e c u tt ing edge, to co mplete the ro u ndi ng of the reeds. Afte r fini shing a series of th ree or fou r reeds, you can go back a nd clea n u p the co rne r formed by the beginning o f th e V-groove a nd th e scribed li ne . T his clean up can be d o ne wi th a mat kni fe . Wh e n all th e reeds have been rou nded and the corners c lea ne d. smooth the su rface of each reed with a cabinet scra per. Hold th e scra per blade so that o ne c orner is in the groove, a nd roll the e dge as ne c e ssa ry over the reed . You ca n use sma ll pieces of sa nd pape r to c lean up any irr egul ariti es no t smoo the d by th e scraper.

With the tool rest at the centerline of the lathe and roughly parallel to the turntng, draw a line from each of the 14 marks down the neck of the va se to the rinA s c r ib e d at the bottom (above). Once all the lines have been drawn, begin earvinA out the reeds with a l '- shllped pllrting tool (right).

After the Intrlul cuts have been made, shape the sides of the reed s with the partinA tool (riAht). Thi s time a s you cut, roll the tool sliAhtl)' toward the center of the reed bein~ s h a p e d . Then usc a scraper blade to s m o o t h lind clean up the rounded curve of the reeds (for ri~ht).

- - 34 -

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-

.18 -

Candlestand Chapter 4

ip -to p stands have a dual personality, changing character when their tops are raised or lowered . This characteristic is shared by two other tabl es in this book, the card table (p . 10) and th e Pembroke table (p . ]56). But those two tables rem ain us eful pieces of furniture even with their movable leaves down : a chair can still be pulled up to them, and objects can be set on their fixed leaves. Whcn the top of a tip-top stand is lowered , however, the piece serves no other function than to please the eye. It becom es a piece of sculpture. Federal-period Am ericans obviously appreciated furniture for its visual accomplishment, but they were nonetheless a very practical people . It seems odd therefore that they would greatly enjoy a piece of furniture that. much of the time, contributed nothing more than its own presence . But whether this was out of character or not, their fondness for tip-top stands created a rcal demand for these pieces, and cabinetmakers often invested considcrable effort in making them. I suspect that this particular tip-top table and its larger counterpart (p . 50) were used in a Federal-period home in much the samc way that Ca ro l and I use them now. \Ve make a point of dining at them by candlelight several nights a week . When we arc alone, we usually eat in the parlor rather than in the dining room , and the large tip-top table is therefore ke pt in the center of this room. Although the large table will seat four people, there is not enough space left for serving dishes and candles. We make up for this by strategically placing several smaller stands nearby to keep platters and bowls within casy reach . I usually m ove this small tip-top candlestand to one side of the larger table and place a candelabrum on it. In the summer Carol often uses the stand to hold a vase of freshly cut gardcn tlowers . When the stand is not in use, its top is tipped vertically and the piece is placed against the wall between the secretary and the door to the kitchen .

T

Because of its small size (the table is only a fraction over .18 in. high with its top tipped vertically) , this piece is extremely versatile and fits in nicely almost anywhere in the house. It works well alongside most pieces of furniture, whether formal or informal , smaller or larger. Unlike most other furniture in this book, this tip-top table is a country piece. This isn't a disparaging observation. In fact, like all other rural art, country furniture often displays an originality absent from more studied urban work . I chose to include this stand rather than a more formal example of a small tip-top to illustrate just this point. It is such a successful piece that it never fails to draw notice from visitors . Although the maker of this piece was a rural craftsman, this candlestand proves that he was both familiar with more formal cabinet work and skillful enough to produce it, but preferred instead his own highly individual design. His work displays a spontaneity unseen in most other pieces in this book and is most obvious in this piece in the pedestal. Its turnings are well executed , with each element crisp and clearly defined . The presence on the pedestal of a boss (or base), cove and urn is consistent with urban work . More formal Federal-period tables , however, usually break into a tapered column above the urn. On this table the maker chose instead to use a vase shape above the urn and added to it four bands of decorative rings, spaced to be cornplet ely vis ible only whcn thc top is raised . On more formal work these rings were generally turned on the urn itself and spaced much closer together. Despite the fact that it is country work, this stand embodies the Federal -period idiom as completely as any other piece in this book. It is airy and delicate, even fragile in appearance , an effect strengthened by its small size. With the top tipped vertically , the piece reflects the Federal-period appreciation of geometric shapes. In this position, the oval top seems to hang in space and becomes the stand 's dominant feature.

- -.19--

This vertical ova l is an e xc elle nt place to sh ow off a pi ece o f highl y figured wo od. Our sta nd is made of cherry, whi ch ha s darken ed to a rich tobacco brown. Its co lor is e nha nced by tw o coats of orange sh e llac. If made in a light er wo od s uc h as bi rch or mapl e , the s ta nd c o u ld bri gh ten a d ark co rne r. If a d arker, plainer wood were used . th e piece co u ld b e inlaid with a Federal motif. perhaps combin ed with se ve ra l c oncentric ovals o f s tring ing at th e tabletop 's e dge . While this table mu st b e s m all to b e portable , it must a lso be s ta b le. Th e pi ece is g ive n s ta b ility by it s three legs . since th eir fe et alwa ys rest in a plane . wh eth er o r not the floor it self is flat. Th e maker furth er brac ed th e tabl e by se tt ing the thre e feet 15 in. apart a nd making e ac h foot e xte nd 9 in . from th e ce n te r o f th e boss . He de signed th e ova l top so that it s maj or radiu s is likewise 9 in .. and he kept th e s ta nd's h eight low (with it s top in th e h orizonta l po siti on , th e tabl e is o nly 2S -Y.; in . hi gh ). While th e legs functi on to s ta b ilize the stand . they arc a lso largely responsibl e for it s s p righ tly a p pe a ra nc e . They arc more so p h is t ic a te d than yo u mi ght exp ec t to find on country work and illu strate h ow native ability can make up for a la ck o f formal training. O n urban stands. for exa m ple . th e legs o fte n e nd with tap ered spade fe et or so me times with bands o f ven e er inlaid a t th e ankl e s. The

maker of this s ta nd, howev er, used a s u b tle r device . Fro m th e bo ss to the feet. th e legs s te ad ily taper in b oth thickness and width. This re sults in fe et that a re o nly liz in . thick by % in . wide , whi ch make s th e pi ece a p pe ar to s ta nd o n tiptoe. lik e a wat er s p ide r o n a lily pad . Wh eth er the e ye mov e s up o r d own th e legs. th is dou bl e ta pe r makes visu a l se ns e . If the eye s ta rts at the feet. which se em little more than points. it is d raw n up the legs by the gra cefu l flow o f S-s h a ped cyrna c urves a nd the increasing thickne ss o f the le gs. If th e eye move s downward from th e h eav y b oss. th e tapered legs narrow. announcing that the y will so o n terminate . Wh en the top is rai sed into h ori zontal p osi t io n. it s % -in.-thiclmess ec hoes th e feeling of delicate ne ss c rea ted by the dainty fe et. Th e va se sh a p e o n th e upper pedes tal pr edicts this thinness by narrowing to a ne c k tha t disappears under th e ove rha ng ing top . The eye foll ow s th e curve o f th e vase until it pa sse s out o f sigh t, a nd th e view er draws th e illu sory co nc lus io n that th e vase is very narrow at the top . In re ality , th e pede stal in c re ase s in thi ckness just before it m e ets th e hinge bl ock to e ns u re ample st re ngth for the ten on j oining th ese pa rt s . (A full di scu ssion o f th e hinge -bl ock m echanism th at a llo ws th e tabletop to pivot is found in th e chapte r o n th e tip-top table o n p , 52 .)

Slid ing doveta ils

The s p ide ry lelt s on thi s eandfcstand are joined to the boss, or base, of the pedestal with s li d inlt dove tails.

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1'4,' Huttum Vie w

- - 40 -

Th e legs o f this cnndlesrand and th ose o f th e larger tip-top table arc se c u re d to th e b o ss with slid ing dov etails. Th e first st ep in constructing th e se d ov etail s is to locate th c position o f th e thre e morti se s on th e bottom o f th e b oss . [I' you remember your hi gh- school geome try. you kn ow th at a circle can be wa lked o ff in s ix e ve n segm ents eq u al to its radius. Set a pair o f divid ers to th e radiu s o f the bo ss and loc a te these six points o n th e circumferenc e o f th e boss . Ne x t draw a lin e from the c enter to e ve ry o the r point. These lines will bisect the mortise s. A template for the do vetails can b e made from a c lea rplastic coff e e-can cove r. Plac e o ne leg of the d ivid ers. s t ill se t to th e radius o f th e b o ss, on th e ce nte r d impl e o f th e cov er and sc o re a c ircl e o n th e plastic . Walk o ff th e sa me six e q ua l points on th e diameter of thi s c irc le a nd sco re a lin e from the c enter to e ve ry o th e r point. Th en sc ribe the outline o f a morti se that is perfectly bi se cted by o ne o f the three lin es. After the template is cut o u t. it s ho u ld fit o n the boss so that it s scratched lin e s are directl y a bo ve th e boss' penciled lin e s. The pla sti c cover's center dimpl e will conveni ently sit in th e hol e made in th e boss b y th e lath e center and will help prevent th e pla stic from slip p ing. Trace all three morti ses o n th e b oss using th e templ at e. Then , using a sq u a re. co nt in ue th e layout for the mortise s down th e sides of th e bo ss. '''ith th e ped estal held in a vise . c u t alo ng th e lin e s with a d ov etail saw as you would if making half -blind d o ve tail s in a ve ry thick dra we r fro nt. Remove th e wa st e with a c h ise l. Cu t thre e legs to th e pattern in th e drawing o n p . 43 . I waited to taper the legs until after I h ad cut th e tenons . This made it eas ie r to hold e a c h leg in th e vise without d amagin g its tap ered cross se c tio n. Trace th e dov etail -

sh a pe fro m th e template o nto th e top end o f the leg, be ing s u re to tra c e th e s ho ulde rs so th ey follow th e c u rve o f th e boss . Th en usc a sq u a re to co m ple te the teno n's la yout o n th e s ide of th e leg . Cu t th e tenons wit h a dov eta il saw . Be s u re to c u t o u ts ide th e pe ncil marks in thi s s te p, wh ic h will produ ce a slig h tly overs ized te non that will la te r be fitt ed to th e morti se. Th e saw will not follow the curve o f th e sho u lders , a nd th e c u t will necessarily be s tra igh t. How e ver, th e bevel of th e sho ulde rs will ulti mate ly result in a tight fit b etwe en th e s ho u lde rs a nd th e ro u nd bos s . Fitti ng th e slid ing dov eta ils is a ma tt e r o f tri a l a nd e rro r. Find th e h igh s po ts in e ithe r th e mo rt ise o r teno n and s have the p roblem a reas with a ch ise l. Fine r adjustm e nt s ca n b e mad e wi th a file .

O nce a leg has b een fitted to it s morti se , a nd th e shou lde rs fit tightly, marl , both parts so th a t th e y can b e ea sily identified wh e n it' s ti me for glu ing. Th e m arktng sy s te m I used o n th is s ta nd is a simple but e ffe c t ive o ne . Usi ng a punch (a n awl o r a na il will a lso work) , I marke d ea ch te non with o ne, tw o o r thre e d ots and ide ntifie d its acco mpan yi ng mo rt ise in the sam e way an th e e nd gra in o f the b oss. Whe n th e table is completed an d th e top is re ad y to b e moun ted to th e hinge b lock , b e su re to po siti on th e p ed es tal so that o ne o f th e legs proj ects dire c tl y b a ckward . If th e leg is place d fo rwa rd , it will not o nly d e tra c t from th e im pac t o f th e s us pe nde d oval top, b u t will a lso be prone to damage fro m roo m tr aff ic a nd ma y trip pa ssers b y.

With a pair o f divider» s e t to th e radiu s of the hos a, w a ll. 0(( s ix equal s eg me n ts on the c i rc u mfe re nce of t he ho s s . T h e n draw lines from the center to e very o ther point.

Usc the template to p en cil in the morti"e " on the end of the hos " and tran sfer the layout t o the s ide" u sin~ II s q u a r e,

Milke II template for th e " li d i n g den'et llil " by eo py i n ~ the hos s ' penciled pattern, then euttin~ lin outline of II morti se bis ec t e d b" on e of the line".

With the pedes tal held in II vi se , cut the mort ises with SIlW lind chi sel out the waste,

II

dovetllil

Us c the templute t o mark th e t enon lind the beveled s h o u lde rs on top of eueh le~ (fllr left), and thcn u sc II " q u llre to continuc the layout down both s ides of the leg. With the leg in II vi se , cut the tenon with II doverait SIlW (left). The SIlW will not follow the curve of the tempI lite but will e r e are b cve led s h o u ld e r« that fit tightl,· Ilgllill!;t the boss.

- -4 1 -

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CANI)L"~ST AND

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This simple, dovetailed and veneered box has served numerous owners for about 160 years as an elegant storage chest for treasured objects. (Project: Jointed lid and "matched" veneers, p, 46.)

- - 44 -

-

Lord Box Chapter 5

h e veneered box presented in this chapter is in reality a very well-designed and well-made piece of furniture . Like the display shelf (p . 126) , .th is box is an ideal storage space for the small, cherished, personal objects we all have . The maker and original owner of this piece are not anonymous , however. The story of this box and how I came to o wn it is an interesting one , which I would like to tell. Throughout th c 19th c entury, the Federal-period house I now live in was occupied by the family of Ebenezer Lord. Lord was a successful cabinetmaker whose long career, begun around 1811 , spanned the Federal , Empire and Victorian furniture periods. For more than 50 years, he and his apprentices supplied Portsmouth with wooden products that ranged from furniture to ships' figureheads . Lord was also an important social and political leader in Portsmouth , but time gradually erased the town 's memory of him and scattered his work . When we bought our house in 1976 , I had never heard of Ebenezer Lord . Nor had the townspeople [ questioned after establishing the house 's chronology of owners in the county 's Registry of Deeds. I spent the next few years working in various archives to rediscover the man who had so long been a part of this house and to reconstruct the network of journeymen and apprentices he had trained . While I learned a great deal a bo u t Lord from my research , examples of his work eluded me . Then one evening Carol and I were visiting our lawyer and his wife. After dinner our host said to me , " Since you're interested in Portsmouth history, let me show you some papers I have ." These were papers that he had found as a boy , while rummaging in the attic of his uncle's law office in search of stamps for his collection. He had stuffed the papers and their stamped envelopes into a wooden box that was also in the attic and somehow managed to keep these boyhood treasures a ll his life.

T

When I opened the box , I lost all interest in the papers it contained. My eye was seized by a penciled inscription on the inside of the lid , which read , "Susan B. Lord , New Year's Present, Portsmouth , N.H. " This box had been presented to Susan Boardman Lord, Ebenezer's eldest daughter, who , I had learned in my research , always used her middle initial to distinguish herself from her mother, Susan Lord . The box represented the first object I had ever been able to attribute to the shop of the man I had been studying for years . A number of other pieces made by Lord and his apprentices have since been identified in both public and private collections, but this box remains very special to me because it was also used in the house Carol and I now own. Lord dealt in veneers as a sideline to his furniture business , advertising that he always had a large supply on hand. The pieces of veneer used on this box probably came from his own stock. I don 't believe that the veneers were chosen randomly; in fact, I think they may even have been cut especially for this piece. (Remember that this was a presentation piece for Lord 's daughter, and it is not likely to have been production work.) The carcase of the box is veneered with a very pale gold Honduras mahogany, whose heavy stripes run horizontally around the piece. In real contrast to the sides , the top is covered with a deep red-brown , San Domingo , crotch -grain mahogany with a swirling figure. The effect of this design is intriguing. The stunning gold on the sides of the box makes the piece stand out dramatically in any room . The dark veneer on top produces a drama of its own , creating the illusion that t he box may not really have a lid and that the viewer can look directly down into its contents. The swirling figure of the dark veneer on the lid suggests also that what is contained in the box is a liquid in a surreal state of nux.

--45--

Th e fini shing o n the pi e c e enhance s thi s illu si on . Th e sides o f th e ca rc ase were fini sh ed with a sh e llac, whose shee n is ple asant but not to o glossy . In co ntrast, th e top is Frenc h poli sh ed to a high gloss that makes it look lik e a shee t of tinted glass, through which o ne sees th e se ns uo us form tr apped in sid e . An oth e r curiou s vis u al e ffec t of th e ve nee r is c re a te d b y th e pro no u nced h orizontal s tripes o n th e ca rouse . l3eca use th e gra in retl ects light differentl y as o ne walk s a round th e box , th e figure appears to undulate. To th e lef t o f th e ke yh ol e is a ve rt ical lin e cau sed b y d etl e cti on o f th e wo od around a s pi ke kn ot. Wh en vie we d o bliq ue ly from th e right, th e lin e is just b arel y vis ib le . As o ne mo ve s from right to left , this lin e b e come s more and more o bv io us . And for th e view e r who pa sse s b y th e b ox a t a normal ga it, th e ve nee r's h orizontal s tripes se e m to sh im me r and th e ve rt ica l lin e magi call y a ppea rs . Th e sa me vis ua l e ffec t is ac hieved o n a ll fo ur si des of th e b ox , since th e four s hee ts o f ve nee r a re sis ter c uts from th e same flit ch a nd c a rry th e sa me pattern . It is th e figure in th e ve nee r th at h old s th e sec re t o f th e b ox 's succe ss. Most Fe de ra l furniture th a t produc e s thi s illu si on o f mov em ent do c s so with swee ping c u rves. Sinc e suc h c u rves a re o b viously impo ssibl e o n a rec tangul ar bo x, th e maker lo ok ed to a no the r d es ign e le me nt-a parti cular pattern o f ve nee r-to ac h ie ve the de sired e ffec t. Th e c rea tio n of thi s illu si on. how e ver. depends not o nly o n th e figure o f th e wo od but a lso o n th e view er's mov em ent past th e bo x; th e se a te d vi ew er will sec non e o f it s magi c . I consid er thi s d e si gn th e p rodu ct o f ge ni us . 1I0w e lse can o ne expla in s uc h co m ple x ity a nd so p h is t ica tio n in so me th ing as sim p le as a b ox ? Afte r trying thi s pi e c e in seve ra l s po ts in o u r hom e . Carol a nd I have dec ided that it is bes t di spla yed in o ur parl or. Thi s roo m ha s a s u n ny so u the rn e xpos u re a nd. with th e sh u tte rs o pe n, plenty o f light to retl ect a nd ripple o n th e b ox 's go lde n s tripe d venee r. We usually se t th e b ox o n th e ca rd table (p. 10) , wh o se dark. Sa n Domingo mahogany to p pro vid e s a dramatic backg ro u nd to se t o ff th e light-col o red sides o f th e b ox . The table a nd b ox ha ve bee n give n a spa ce under a window a ll their own, and hardl y a da y goes b y th at I don 't s pe nd a t le ast a moment letting m y eye e njoy th is b ox . If yo u plan to make th is b ox , I re commend that you invest so me tim e a nd th ought in ch oo sing th e vene ers for it , since th e y acco u nt for th e real visua l impact of thi s pi ec e. With out eye- te a sing vene er. th e o bjec t is ju st a plain wood en b ox . Th e cons truc tio n o f th e c arcase and it s lid is ve ry sim ple. Th ey arc mad e o f cl ea r white p in e a nd joi ne d with th rough dove tail s a t th e four co rne rs. 130 th th e top a nd b ottom boards arc merel y glued a nd nail ed in pla ce . As wo od workers, we mi ght b e di sappointed that more com ple x j oin ery wa s not used in a pi ec e so vis ua lly com ple x. Yet th e ca rcase is noth in g more th an a su bs tra te for th e vene ers. Th e o nly requ ir em ent of the c a rc ase is th at it b e s ta ble, since wood movem ent du e to seaso na l c ha nges in humidity cou ld damage th e hi ghl y figu re d ski n that cove rs it.

Whil e making the c a rc ase , give so me tho ught to wha t yo u will ke ep inside . The o rig ina l b ox h as a n u ndi vid e d interi or s pa ce, but you can arrange this s pace any way you wi sh . You ma y want to h av e built· in di viders or even a miniature bank o f draw e rs. No ne o f th ese a lterna tives will affect th e box ' s ex terior. So me h ardware is re quired to du pli ca te th is piece . Th ere is a lock o n th e o rig ina l Lo rd box. but it is not ne c essary to include one o n yo u rs. Do inc lude the keyhole a nd bra ss su rro u nd. th ough , eve n if they do not service a lo ck . I also s tro ngly re c omm end including the brass handl es o n ei the r end . Th ese thre e me tal mounts (a ll of whi ch a rc ava ila b le from th e h ardware su pp liers listed in th e appendi c es) are a part o f th e idi om we associa te with Federa l furniture. A lock a nd h andl es immedia te ly a nno u nce th at thi s is not j us t a fan c y wo ode n box . Th is is a pi e ce o f furniture .

Jointed lid and "matched" veneers O ne o f th e in terest in g fe ature s o f th e Lo rd box is the way th e pattern o f th e ve nee r co nt inues across the joint of the lid o n to th e sides . Ve nee ring the b ox a nd lid separately to ac h ieve th is e ffec t would be extre mely d ifficu lt. The method Ebeneze r Lo rd used . h ow e ve r. is easy and e ffec tive: h e co ns truc te d a c losed box a nd th e n sawed it o pe n, jo ining th e lid to th e base with h inges . The b o x ca n b e m ad e of a ny stable wo od . such as pine. ba ssw o od o r tulipwood. Th e la yout of th e do ve ta ils at the four co rne rs is important. Th ere is s ing le hal f pin at the to p o f th e sides . The firs t fu ll pin is located approx imate ly Yl6 in. from th e top and is su fficie ntly large to allow the j oint o f th e lid to b e ce nte re d o n it . The plac e me nt and si ze o f this first fu ll pin are c ritica l since th e lid . whe n cut later, sho uld b isec t th is pi n . The remain in g h e igh t of the sides is com p rised o f tw o o r th ree p in s a nd ta ils- th e ir e xac t number is impo ssibl e to d ete rmin e without X·raying th e box, as th e carcase h as remained so s table that the joints have not tel egr aph ed th ro ugh the ve neer. The sa wke rfs made wh en c u tti ng th e d ov e ta ils don ' t o ffer m a ny clue s e ithe r to th e numb er of pins, since few of these kerfs ex te nd into th e bo x. I can o nly a ssum e from standa rd pra ctices and practi cal ex perie nce that the tails a re cut o n th e e nds o f th e bo x and th e p in s are c ut on the front a nd ba ck . Using an ele c tric s tu d find er, I fo u nd tha t the top and bottom were nailed to th e c a rcase , with th e ir edges tlush with th e sides. Th e slig h t s ta in in the joi nt re ve al s that the top and b ottom we re also glued in place. Wh ile drawn or cut fini sh nail s c an be used to sec u re th e bo ttom on your b ox, it is b est to usc T·headed brads o n th e top. since they will le ave no h ol e s to be fille d. whi ch would la te r sho w th rough th e vene e r. Ma ke s u re thur the b rads used for the top a re o nly 1 in . long, so that th e y will no t exte nd in to th e joint o f th e lid . O nce th e box is constru cted , c lea n up th e outs ide s u rfa ce with a low -an gle b loc k plan e . Th is tool . whi ch the mak er o f th e box would h ave c alle d a mite r p lane . is le ss lik el y to te ar e nd gra in th an is a smooth ing plane. whose iron is se t a t 4 5° .

-46-

.J. Top is ceneered last w itll cOlltras ti llg red ·b rowlI mallOgally.

UsinA cuts from t h e s a m e Oiteh, the box' s maker "matched" the s t u n n in g mahogan,' ve neer on the sides of t h e eareuse by ve ncc rtng a closed box and then s a w in A it open to c reate a lid.

4. Af ter closed IJO,\: is ceneered , jointed lid is laid Ollt a m i box is c u r opell .

1. Ends of closed pine box are 'Veneered f i rst witll pa le gold ma hogally .

2 . Fro n t and ba ck are 'Veneered next with pale go ld mahogany.

Make sure the layout of the dovetails allows enough s p a ce for yo u to center the joint of the lid on the first full pin. After completing tbe carcase of the box, nail on the top aud bottom (left). Us e l-in.-Iong, T-headed brads on the top, which will not interfere with the lid joint (above).

- - 47 - -

The next s te p is to prepare th e shee ts o f ve nee r. It is unlikel y tha t yo u' ll be abl e to dupli cate th e pattern o f the o rigina l light-c ol o red ve nee r, so s im ply se lect a flitch that in teres ts you . Find in g a shee t o f dark , c rotc h-g ra in ven eer like that used o n th e to p o f th e b ox will probabl y b e rc lartvc ly easy . O nce I h ad se lected th e ven e ers I wa nt ed to usc- ma hoga ny for th e sides a nd c ro tc h -grai n bi rc h for th e to p (t he b ot tom is not vcn c crcd )-I c u t the m o n a bandsaw and thi ckn css-pl rmcd th em to 111 6 in. Th e shee ts o f ve nee r ca n be ap pl ied to th e box with co n tac t ce me nt . b ut I p re fe r h o t glue . To pr epare th e ve neer for glui ng. firs t lab el each s hee t as to it s po siti on . The o rder in wh ic h the s hee ts arc a pp lie d is important. The tw o e nds o f th e b o x s h o u ld be ve nee re d firs t to p reve nt th e c nd gra in o n th e s ides o f these shee ts fro m sho wing o n th c front o f th e b o x. With th e e nds ve neered, c ut away an y e xcess wit h a ve neer sa w a nd cl ean up th e edges with a block plan e . Ne xt appl y th e front a nd b ack sheets of ve nee r a nd trim th e e dges with a ve neer sa w. You ca n plan e the long e dges wh e re th e front a nd back me e t th e to p a nd bo tto m o f th e box, but use a ve nee r sa w to tri m th e e nds , as th e pl an e co uld easily inju re th e adjace nt venee r o n th e e nds of th e box . Th e fou r co rne rs

Trim lIn~' excess lit thc cnds with II veneer SllW; dClln up the cdAcS with II hlock phme,

o n th e o rigi nal bo x are slig h tly ro u nded , p roba bl y the result of being c lea ne d up with ve ry fin e sa nd pape r. Last to be appli ed is the top shee t o f ve neer. The edges of this s hee t sho u ld al so b e cl e aned up with a ve nee r saw a nd lightly sa nde d to fin ish th em . O nce th e ve nee r ha s b e en appli ed , lay o ut th e joint for th e lid b y se tti ng a ma rking ga uge to 1 1.4 in . a nd scribing a lin e this di stan ce fro m th e to p o n all four si des of the box. No w sec u re th e bo x in a b ench vise , wrapping a towel a round the bo x to preven t d amage to the veneer. To c ut o pc n th e bo x , I used a 14 -p oint handsaw , wh ic h is fine e no ug h to p rev ent te a rou t in th e ve nee r. Afte r th e lid ha s b e en se p a ra te d , plane away the sa wrnn rks o n b oth e dges . Be s ure to pl an e from all co rners to ward th e middl e to pr e vent ch ip p ing th e veneer. If yo u've used pine or a no the r light-col ored wood fo r th e c a rcase , yo u' ll want to b rus h a thi n red wa sh on the e dges of th e ca rouse a nd lid , as Lo rd did o n th e o r igina l box . I mak e an e xt ra -thi n b a tch o f red milk paint for this wash . wh ic h e lim ina tes the fin e , light lin e th at would a ppea r aro u nd th e j oint of th e lid and ca rcase, were the edges not s ta ined . All tha t rem ains to com p le te th e b ox is to mo unt th e hinges . ke yh ol e s urro u nd a nd h andl es.

With the hox veneered, scribc II linc 1 1A in. from the top on 1111 four sidcs of the box,

Cut the box IIpllrt IIlong the s c r ib c d Iinc, usinA II fine-toothed SlIW to prevcnt rearout of the veneer [abeve}, Then plane lIWIIY the suwmurks on thc edges of the lid lind eurcase, worldn~ from thc corncrs toward the ecntcr to avoid chipping (left).

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I --49 - -

Thi!i formal, mllhogan,- tip-top represents II genre of tables that wus extremely popular during thc Federal pcriod. With it" 0111"sh-c, serpentfne-edged top, thi" tablc would have had II dramut ie presence in an" rOOIlJ. (Projcct: Hinge bloc I., p, 52.)

- - 50 -

-

TiQ -ToQ Table Chapter 6

h is tip-top table o ffe rs a c le ve r so lu tio n to thc fa mi lia r probl em of what to d o with a tabletop wh en it 's not being used. In s im ila r fashion to th e gnte lcg and Pem brok e tabl es (pp, 90 and 15 6 ). th e top o n this tabl e ca n be pivoted out o f th e way. Unli ke th e ga te leg, th ough , thi s table doesn 't io ld up into a com pac t unit that ca n be s to re d uno btru si vel y nga int a wall. Instead , its hinged top swings into a vertical po siti on , and th e tip-top becomes a major pi e c e o i furniture that d ominates th e c orner of the room it occ u pies . Th e hinge m echani sm o n thi s table is th e sa m e device used o n th e c a nd lesta nd (p. 3 8 ) , but th ese tabl es are o the rwise quite di ssimilar. The candle stand is small and so ve rs a tile that it can be used in a lmos t any setting, wh ile thi s tip-top is so large that it functions very differently in a room. When its top is raised for dining, the table must be m oved to a large , open area of the room . With its top position ed vertically. it stands 4 112 ft. hi gh and either dw arfs o r c ompetes with o th e r furniture nearby . Thus, wh en not in u sc , this table demands a c orner unto itself. It is unu sual for a piece o f furniture to b e so aloof. But , as with a ny s pec ia l c a s e, thi s o ne als o presents so me uniqu e o p po rt u n ities . Whenev er [ find a particularly s t rik ing pi e c e o f wo od , [ usually se t it as ide for a special proj e ct-whi ch m e ans that I ge ne ra lly e nd up with m ore s pec ia l wood than s pecia l proj e cts. If yo u are lik e m e , take no te . With it s sens uo us , serpentine e dge , th e top of this ta b le co m ma nds attention and o ffe rs a n ideal place to mak e use o f some wid e boards with a pronounced figu re . Th e o rigina l tabl e is made of e x t re mely dark San Domingo mah o gany. We ke ep th e pi ece in o u r parlor, which ha s b ei ge w o odwork and a pal er beige background in th e wallpaper. This large , dark table is the centerpiece o f th e light- c ol ored room and is placed in the m iddle of th e tlo or with its top positioned horizontally, ready wh en ev er we want to dine in that room .

T

[I' you have a more somb er se tt ing in mind for yo u r table, you might want to use a light-c ol ored wo od lik e curly o r quilted maple , o r e ve n wa vy birch . Wh at e ve r wo od you sele c t, m ak e s u re th at yo u ha ve e no ugh to glue up a 3 6-in.- sq . top. I would sugges t u sing th e sa me s pecies fo r th e table 's le gs and pede st al , but yo u' ll find th e s e pa rts ea si er to m ak e it' yo u work with s t ra ig h t rath er th an wa vy grain . No t o nly would a pronounced figure make it m ore difficult to carve the tabl e' s thre e fe et and c u t d o vetail m ortises in th e b oss o f th e ped est al. it would a lso b e a wa st e o f special wood since th e se parts are hidden wh en the top is displayed and in s ha do w wh en th e pi e c e is us ed . Th e heavy base on thi s table is quit e a contra st to th e candlestand 's thin ped estal and delicately tapered le gs . The legs on the la rge tip-top mu st be s t u rd ie r both beca use of its size and because it is u se d differentl y . Meals arc ea ten at th is table, and the weight of food , drink and tablew are can be considerab le . Furthermore , when diners re s t their elbows on th e ed ge s of th e top, it s large overhang places t heir weight iar away from th e p oint o f s u p po rt in the center. Although the table 's le gs a re 1 ~ in. thi ck at th e p oint wh ere th e y radiate from th e boss. th ey are s t ill attrnct ive . LiI\C th e le gs o n th e candl estand , th os e o n this tip- top foll ow an S-shaped curve . in this case a cyrn a revcrsa , which runs in th e opposite d irec t io n from the cym a recta c u rve found o n th e s ma lle r s ta nd . Th es e tw o tabl e s illu strate c le a rly th e power o f line to c rea te fe clmg. O nc c u rve appears very d elicate , th e o the r robu st. Th e cyma reversa c u rve cre ates a di stinct kne e . round ed o n its upper edge and flat underneath . From th e knee th e t hick le g tapers to an a nkle and from th e ankl e breaks into a pad foot. This foot , with a clear rib on it s upper surface and a so le like platform on the bottom. is a survival feature fro m the Ch ip pe nda le period . Th e upper pedestal , with a vase 1i1\C t hat on a la rge Windsor-chair leg, id e n tifie s the table as a Federal piece , probably from the Boston arca .

-- 51 - -

If yo u decide to make thi s table , I s uggest assembling it with th e th ird leg dire cted backward . Oc ca sio na lly I've co me across a large tip-top with th e od d leg proj ecting forward, wh ic h make s the table lo ok a wkwa rd a nd inte rfe res with roo m tr affi c . Th e on ly ad vantage to positi oning th e leg forward is th at th e pi ec e ca n be placed close to a wa ll. Wi th th e leg o rie n te d to th e ba ck, as it is o n thi s tip -top, th e table s ta nds ni c el y in a co rne r. The we akest struc tu ra l s po t o n suc h a large tr ip od tabl e is th e boss. It is co m mo n to find old th re e -le gged table s o n wh ic h th e boss has s plit. Thi s proble m ca n usu all y be avo ide d by a tt ac h ing a shee t-me ta l trifid s u ppo rt to th e bo ss . This pi ece , whi ch can be c u t o u t o f scra p metal , ha s th re e arm s th at radi at e in th e sa me pattern as the legs o n th e table. A sma ll nail or sc re w is passed th rough th e ce nte r of th e su p po rt to hold it to the unde rsid e of th e boss. An oth er nail o r sc re w is dri ven at an a ngle toward th e boss through each a rm o f th e tri fid pi ec e and int o th e corres po nd ing leg. To ke ep th e top from tipping over wh en wei ght is put o n th e wrong co rne r, b oth thi s tabl e and th e candl estand ha ve a s pec ia lly de si gn ed catch th at locks th e top in its horizontal position. If yo u plan to mak e thi s tabl e , you 'll wa nt to orde r a reproduction bra ss ca tc h from o ne o f the su pp lie rs list ed in the a p pe nd ices. Eac h ca tc h co mes with a kee pe r, a nd th e pa ir must be ca refully mounted. If th e

catch is fit too tightly against th e hinge bl ock , th e slid ing bolt ca nno t be e as ily di senga ged . On th e o ther hand , if the catch is po sitioned to o far from th e bl ock , th e bo lt will no t ca tch se c u re ly in the keeper-i-and ev erything o n th e table co uld e nd up in so rneo nes lap. Th e o riginal ta ble is fini sh ed with o ra nge she llac , wh ich compl em ents th e d ad, c ol or o f th e mah oga ny. We ke e p th e pi ec e well waxed to p rote ct the she llac fro m sp ills a nd we use a mat under hot di sh e s. If yo u wan t a mo re d ura bl e fini sh, try va rn ish or la cqu er. I don 't think th e se ha ve th e d epth o f she lla c, but th e y a re m ore re sistant to we ar and s pills . Th e eas iest c lea r finish o f a ll to a p ply and ca re for is o il a nd wax , but th eir e ffe c t is too flat for m y tas te. The hi ghli ghts that result fro m a hard , poli shed fini sh give th e tabl e a far rich er lo ok .

Hinge b lock Th e hinge mech ani sm fo r ra isi ng th e tabletop o n bo th th is tabl e a nd th e ca ndlesta nd requires tw o cl eats an d a hinge bl ock . The cl eats o n this tabl e are mad e o f ma hogan y, like th e pi ec e itself, whil e th e hinge bl o ck is a nat ive di ffuse porou s hardwood that a p pe a rs to b e ch e rry o r mapl e. Using th e same wo od a s you selec t fo r th e tabl e , make th e c lea ts to the sha pe and dim ensi on s sho wn in the drawing o n p . 57 , with th e gra in o f th e wood ru nn ing in th e directi on indi c at ed .

A wooden hinge block, unehorcd to the pedestal, allows the tabletop to be rai sed and lowered. T his block ha s two pivot pins at one end that fit into holes in th e wooden cleat!! screw e d to the underaidc o f the top.

Hac k of clea ts sho u ld be fl u sl: to back of hillg e blocl« w hell ill ver tica l pos it io ll.

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To p surfaces of cleat W ill lIill ge block s ho uld be f 711s1l for tabletop to be pla ced ill h o risso n ta l po sition,

Mo r t ise, 2 'A. x 2 'A., centered on /ol-i1I.-sq . b lock to accept wedged tenon

-

- 52 -

-

To m a ke the h inge b lock , firs t cut a pi ec e to th e ove rall dime nsions, 9 1;.j in . by 8 in . Now grip t he blo c k in a vise , c nd grain u p , and m e a su re in -Ys in. , the radiu s of th e wooden pivot on which the b lock turns, fro m bo th th e long and sho rt faces. Where these two meas ure me nts intersec t will be the center of the p ivot pi n. Use t h is ce nter to scribe a circle with a pa ir of d ividers se t to -Ys in. Th is ci rc le shou ld to uch or ne a rly to uc h both face s of the block. If yours is not q uite tlus h with o ne face, as is the case with mine , you can remove th e excess wo od later. Re move the b lock from the vise an d use a sq uare to mark a line all the way aro u nd the e dge of the block , % in. in from the edge, or the depth of th e pi vot pin . The n use t he square to transfer the di a m et er of t he pi vo t fro m th e end of the b lock to t he adjacent s ides. These lin e s ind ic at e the waste to be removed . Re pl ace th e b loc k in th e vise, end grain up , and cut a long the in sid e line j ust b eh ind th e p ivot w ith a hacksaw , The n re move the largest area o f waste wit h a cross-cut pa nel sa w and the sma lle r area j us t bel ow the p ivot with the hacksaw to lea ve a prot ru d ing cube with a circle drawn o n its e nd gra in. Underc ut th e cube 's co rne rs with the hacksaw , a nd sh ave t he wa ste away wit h a fis htail go uge o r c h isel. Smoo th a way the facets left b y t he gouge with a file , lea vin g th e pi vot slightly overs ized for no w. Follo w th e sa me p roc ess to make the woode n pivot a t th e o the r e nd of th e b loc k.

••

T o lay out th e wooden pivot, s c r ib e a circle on one corner of the hinge bluek with a pair of divider s s e t to a o/s-i n . radiu s (left}, A f t e r marldn g off the w a ste are a s , make the first cut behind the pivot w ith a backsaw (b e lo w ). C u t away the large waste area u s in g a panel saw.

-

With most of the waste removed, undercut the pivot' s corners with a baeksaw (top left), then rough-shape with a fi shtail gouge (above). Round the faceted edge s of the pivot with a file, leaving the pivot s li g h tl y oversized for later adju stment (left).

- - 53 - -

Round the edAe of the bloek between the ph'otN with II bloek ptune, making sure to ptane IIWIl~' IIn~' CXCCNN from thc cdAc NO rhut the pivot pinN lind cdAc form II cunrlnuous surface,

Place thc ph'ot holc liN close a s pONNiblc to the uppcr cdgc of thc eleut, u sing II block of wood to bolster the thin area whilc drillinA the hole.

Now clamp th e hinge bl ock in a vise with it s u ppe r surface facing o u t and th e pivots p arall el to th e be nc h to p. Round th e sq ua re corn e r o n th e e dge b etwe en the pi vo ts with a block plane , leaving it sligh tly larger than th e pivots' diam eter. You ma y ha ve to furth er adju st th is edge later. The next s te p is to drill th e pi vo t h ol e in the cleats. Lay o ne o f the cleats o n th e bench , a nd with dividers se t to % in ., scribe th e pivot hol e with its cen ter 3 % in . off the cl eat' s ce n te rline a nd so th at it s diam ete r is almos t tangent to th e c le a t' s upper edge. Th en secu re th e c leat in a vise and clamp a sc ra p bl ock a djacen t to wh e re the ho le wi ll be drilled. This sc ra pwood will b ol ster th e th in edge of the cl eat and prevent th e drill bit fro m s p litti ng the edge loo se . Use a ~ - i n . bit to b ore th e % -in.-d e e p piv o t hol e . placing th e lead o f th e b it o n th e c ente rm a rk of the hol e and using a sq ua re to ke ep th e b race a nd b it vertical. O nce th e pi vot h ol e is drill ed , te st -fit th e pivo t. If it is too tight , use a file to a dj us t the pi vot pin . O nce yo u have a satisfa ctory fit , asse mble th e c le a t a nd pi vo t. Now sigh t a lo ng th e edge o f th e bl o ck whil e ro ta ting th e cleat to determin e if th ere a re a ny hi gh s po ts o n th e h inge b lock that need further s hav ing . If th e pi vot pins. e nd of thc hinge bl ock and ba ck e dges o f th e cl eats a re not flus h, th e tabletop ca nno t b e pla c ed in a full y ve rt ica l posit io n. O nc e eve ryth ing fit s , mark th e c lea t a nd pi vo t as a pair to prevent c onfu si on wh en th ey a re late r asse mbled . Nex t se t th e cl eat parall el to the b loc k's up p e r s u rface . Th e piv ot pins , top o f th e block and upper edges of the c le a ts should b e tlu sh in orde r for th e ta bl e to p to be placed in it s full h orizon tal po siti on . If the y are not, plan e the block o r the upper e dges o f th e cl e ats to adj ust th em . Repeat th e ab o ve s te ps to make th e seco nd pivo t hol e . Aft er testing the fit o f thi s p ivot in it s h ol e , re mo ve the c le a t and b ev el th e bottom edges o f th e bloc k in the same way as for th e lid o f the ca ndle box (p. 132) . O nce th e hinge bl ock and cl eats a re fini sh ed, atta ch th e pedes tal to the block with a wedged throu gh tenon , a nd screw the cl eats to th e unde rside o f th e to p .

Aftcr fittinA thc p ivo t , NiAht alonA thc rounded edge of the block lind rotate thc clear to find high Np Ot N on thc block rhut nccd to be removed, If necessary, plane the block or thc cleat so they are f1uNh.

-

- 54 -

-

TIP-TOP TABLE

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- - 58 - -

Secretary Chapter 7

h is combination desk-bookcase is called a secretary. It is one of a group of about a dozen similar Federal-period secretaries in public and private collections around the country that are believed to have been made in Portsmouth. Although Portsmouth was a major Colonial and Federal-period cabinetmaking center, little is known about the furniture manufactured here , and only a surprisingly small amount of surviving furniture can be attributed with confidence to this city's cabinet shops . Several of the secretaries in this group were branded with the names of people known to have lived in Portsmouth during the early 19th century, but these people were probably the owners of these pieces, not their makers. The secretary in this group that, in time , may become the Rosetta stone for identifying more secretaries and other Portsmouth furniture bears a handwritten inscription stating that it was made by Ebenezer Lord , the cabinetmaker who throughout much of the 19th century owned the house my wife and I now own. A second inscription on that piece dates it to 1811 and identifies the shop where Lord worked as a journeyman. On all of these related secretaries, the cupboardbookcase doors have two , three or four long windows, each topped by a Gothic arch. Although this motif is the visually dominant feature of these pieces, it was used by cabtnctmakcrs working in many other cities, too, and cannot alone be used to link these secretaries to Portsmouth. This conclusion is instead based on a combination of similarities among the pieces, such as construction techniques and the choice of moldings, skirts and veneers . Like the mirror (p. 20), this secretary is an architectural piece of furniture, meaning that it bears elements borrowed from classical Greek architecture . It has both an entablature (the elements immediately above the column on a Greek temple) and a pediment above it. The

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entablature is modified by the elimination of its lowest element, the architrave , which is normally positioned beneath the cornice and the frieze. The cabinetmaker probably dispensed with the architrave because the piece would usually have been placed in a formal room . Such a room almost certainly would have had a large cornice molding at the intersection of the walls and ceiling, which would not have included an architrave. (This element was commonly reserved for use as a casement around doors , windows and fireplaces .) Because this piece stands quite tall, the effect of this design is particularly successful. The cornice and veneered frieze on the secretary fall just below the same elements of the wall's molding, echoing their architectural counterparts. Like most cornices, that on the secretary is a combination of several different molding profiles. The cabinetmaker used shapes popular in interior woodwork of the period, since he couldn 't be sure what the makeup of the cornice would be in the room that would house the secretary. The lower molding of the cornice on this piece , called a cove and bead , was a common Federal shape used both on the cornice in a room and as a backband on architraves. The uppermost molding is a quarter-round, which, like the secretary's frieze, is faced with crossbanded veneer. Such cross-banded veneer, which is veneer set at a right angle to the substrate , was a common technique in Federal-period cabinetwork. At first glance, the secretary appears to be an extremely complicated piece of furniture , but actually it is simply a clever combination of several basic elements. It is essentially two separate pieces of furniture : a chest of drawers, and a two-door cupboard-bookcase that sits atop it. The chest of drawers and the cupboard are simple, dovetail-joined, rectangular boxes with solid mahogany sides and pine tops and bottoms. These two boxes, open front and back, are positioned vertically. Backboards fill the rear side of both , and doors or drawers the front.

--59--

The top of the chest is made up of two distinct areas, one that slopes forward to create a writing desk and a second horizontal surface that supports the cupboard. Nail ed in place over the upper row of dovetails in the ch est is a cove molding that forms a lip and holds the cupboard in position . The pine carcase of the entablature th at tops th e cupboard is also a dovetailed box. Thi s box is open top and bottom, positioned horizontally, and largely covered with mahogany veneer. The secretary's visual statement se e ms equally complex at fir st glance , but this , to o , can be broken down into basic design elements. A combination of several features . s uc h as the sk irt , cornice and shape of the feet , relates this sec re ta ry to the others made in Portsmouth. Yet the use of color. texture and pattern in th e piec e is an expression of the individual cabinetmaker. Like the architectural mirror, this pi ece makes use of two tones of mahogany , but does so for different reasons. O n the sec re ta ry th e cabinetmaker used dark. crotchgrain . San Domingo mahogany on the skirt, outer face of th e writing desk, frieze , center plinth o n the pediment, and drawer fronts . He then used a light Honduras mahogany on the feet. sides of the lower carcase, dividers around the small drawers , finials and outer plinths o n the pediment, and cove molding separating th e upper and lower sections o f th e pi ece. This us e of light mahogany perhaps resulted from th e maker's solution to a problem that arose in designing the se c re ta ry' s French feet. These fe et are su ffic ie ntly strong to support the piece , even wh en it is loaded with books . but th eir proportion is troublesome. The bottom o f th e secretary is th e sa me siz e as an o rd ina ry ch est of drawers . with its fe et in matching scale. Since th e e n tire piece is m ore than twice as tall as a normal bure au, though , feet that are appropriatel y siz ed for the base se em tiny on the full piec e . By making th e feet of a lighter-col ored wood , th e c ra fts ma n visually exaggerated th em without actually increasing their size. This solution , h owever, had to b e integrated into the o ve rall design of th e secretary. Th e cabinetmaker th erefore extended the motif of light-colored wood throughout, visually tying the piece together while also downplaying it s c o m po ne n t construction . Surrounding the tw o small drawers with a band of lighter wood. for e xa m ple , not only sets o ff th e darker drawer fronts but als o s moo ths the transition from the lower ch est to th e cupboard-bookcase . Th e cabinetmaker's use o f bo okmatched veneers on the fronts of th e four large drawers is espe c ia lly worthy of note. Bookrnutched veneers were co m mo nly used o n wide , flat surfaces in Federal furniture . but here the results are exceptional. Th e drawers are fac ed with adjacent sister cuts from th e sa me Hitch , which wa s taken from the base of a limb . Th e re sulting shape o f th e figure is a pronounced wh orl. Wh en b o okmatchcd , the veneer displays th e wh orl not onl y as a mirror image but al so as po sitive and negative images. O n th e left sid e o f th e drawer fronts th e red-brown wh orl is s u rro u nde d b y a dark background. On th e right side th e mirror-image whorl is dark and set against a red-brown b ackground . -

At first glance , few people notice this unusual use o f veneer. The effect is necessarily subtl e, as the purchaser would undoubtedly have been uncomfortable with a pi ece that did not observe the rigid symm etry expected o n furniture of the peri od . With this positive/negative image , however, the cabinetmaker cleverly violated th e rul e o f symmetry without creating offense . All four edges of th e large drawer fronts are o rn a me nted with cock beading. a raised lip made o f a thin . se p a ra te strip of wood set into a shallow rabbet. Thi s d etail. discu ssed at length in th e c h a p te r on th e chest o f drawers (p. 170). protects th e fra gile veneer from chipping, helps articulate the facad e of the drawer fronts and keeps the front of the carcase from reading as a simple plan e . The brass pulls on the drawers are call ed rose ttes. Generally identifi ed with th e Sh eraton style . th ey seem to contradict th e presenc e o f th c French feet, whi ch are associated with the Hepplewhite style. Yet thi s apparent contradicti on confirms that any attempt to rigidly date o r classify furniture by a single feature will often b e inaccurate. The pres ence o f th e rosette s make s me s us pect that this piece dates to around] 8 1S, wh en th e She ra to n style was popular in Portsmouth . Thi s would place its dat e of manufacture a c oupl e of years after th e o nly two dated secretaries in th e Portsm outh group were made. The secretary's cupboard-bookcase wa s int ended to sto re books a nd other trea sured possessions. It is not su rp risi ng that one of the most e la b o ra te piece s o f furniture in a Federal house would have been mad e for thi s purpo se . At the time . books were still very expensive and were hi ghly regarded . Probate househ old inventori e s o fte n noted th e number of books owned by th e deceased, and so me times even list ed them by title . Th e books and other items stored in th e boo kcase were not alwa ys on display. Th e ba ck sid e o f glass- pan ed secretary doors was o fte n cove re d with curtains tacked to the doors' stiles a nd rail s . Tack holes on th e top and bottom rails of the doors o n thi s secretary c onfirm th at these doors were at one tim e curtained. Because the stored books and obj ects would va ry in size . the shelves in this and th e o ther Portsm outh secretaries were adjustable. Th ey co uld be fit into a ny o f eleven closely spaced dadoes cut in th e inside s of th e bookcase carcase and in both sides o f th e cent ral divider. The original crown glass remains in the bookcase do ors and is typical o f sh e et glass available in th e Federal period . The panes were cut from a la rge , flat di sc mad e by spinning molten gla ss . This process resulted in the imperfections that giv e th e glass it s texture . Lo oking through the panes at close range , o ne sees no o bv io us di stortion. Because o f th e imperfection s, how ever, light reflected from the glass ripple s lik e th e s urface o f a p ond disturbed by a sli ght bre ez e. This sam e crown glass is used in all th e window sash in the parl or and e lse whe re in o u r hou se. and it protects th e Fed eral -p e ri od prints o n th e parlor walls and shelters th e ca nd le in th e lantern h an ging in the cen te r o f the room . O n a s u nny day o r by even ing candl eli ght, a vis ito r to th e parlor is gr e eted with a su b tle light sho w o f retl ections o ff th e ro om 's crown glass . 60 -

The muntins s e p a ra t in g the glass panes in the c u p bo a r d -b o o k c a se doors arc formed of two s e para t e pieces of wood-a doublebead molding backed by a thin s p ine.

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The other secretaries in the Portsmouth group are of interest because they illustrate how Federal-period production cabinetmakers variously adapted a design. This secretary, which is 7 ft. 9 in . tall , fits comfortably in our parlor, where the ceilings are 8 ft. 2 in. But because many Federal -period homes would have had lowe r ceilings, cabinetmakers would often have been called upon to shorten this design . This was sometimes done by placing the two small drawers in the bottom of the bookcase behind the doors instead of beneath them. It was also common to reduce the height of the frieze by about a n inch so that the entablature remained in proportion . Wi th these two changes the secretary lost about six inc he s overall , and another four inches could be removed by eliminating the center finial. All these adaptations lowered the height of this design to as little as 6 ft. 11 in . If you want to make a scaled-down version of this secretary for your home , these same changes will work for you, too. One other minor change you might want to make in reproducing this piece involves the writing desk . The sloping surface on the chest of drawers is a folded lid that lowers onto two sliding supports flanking the top d rawe r a nd opens to create the desk . The ample work area is covered with lightweight, green wool fabric, which was quite serviceable when quill pens were used for writing . Now that q uills have been replaced by ba ll-po int pens , which require more pressure for writing , I wo ul d sugges t that you replace this rather de licate fabric with a sturd ier material such as fine le a th e r or high-quality fe lt.

Spines, notched a nd j oined together, glu ed and d ad oed to fr ame

Muntin s The ind iv idual panes of glass in the secretary doors are separated by a web of shaped wooden strips called muntins . These m untins form two lower tiers of small panes and an u pp e r tie r of elongated panes topped by Gothic arches. Like win dow-sash muntins, those in the secretary are T·shaped in cross section. Window-sash muntins , however, are normally made of a single piece of wood, while those in th is secretary are built up of two separate strips. Here , the visible mo lded surface forms the top of the T; the bottom is a thi n sp ine, which forms a rabbet on either side. The edges of the glass panes fit into these rabbets and are held in place by glazing points and glazing compound . Mak e each door frame before making the muntins, using mah oga ny thro ug hout. Cut the st iles and rails to the d imensions shown in the plans , copy ing the Gothic arches in the top ra il. The edges of these arches will be covered by a molding in front and a bead of putty behind , so you need no t la b o r over cleaning up the sawn edges. Join the fra me with mortise-and- tenons , and test· fit the stiles and rails, b ut do no t glue them yet. The s pi nes of the muntins in each door are made of lis-in . by o}.4-in . stock. Their ends are set into dadoes cut into th e insid e edges of th e door frame . Where the vertical a nd h o rizontal spines cross, matching notc hes are cut into each piece to form a b ridle joint. I made the spines by rip ping thin slices off a o}.4-in. mahogany board and planing the m to thickness . After each slice , I rejointed the board so th at each new piece cut would have one finished side.

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Cu t th e dad oes in th e d o or fram e with a dov etail sa w a nd rem ove th e waste with a lis-in. ch ise l. Remember that th ese da does will be covered b y th e appli ed molding, so do n' t ma ke th em a ny deeper than half th e width o f th e mo ldi ng, o r VJ6 in . No w m ark a nd cut th e spines to len gth a nd te st-fit each pi e c e . To locate th e intersections of th e horizontal and vertical strips , firs t partiall y in sert th e ve rt ical strips into th eir co rres po nd ing dado e s, pushing th em sligh tly bel ow th e s u rface o f th e do or fra me. Th en se t th e horizontal strips in th e ir d ad oe s. Th e low er corne rs o n e ac h e nd o f th e horizon tal strips wiII just ca tc h in the fram e , b u t th e assem bly is sta ble e no ug h to a llo w yo u to mark th e joints . Using a m at knife as a sc ri be. begin marking th e join ts o n the ve rtical strips on bo th sides of th e horizontal strips . The n rem o ve th e two ve rt ical str ips a nd use a sq uare to scribe th e joi nts do wn th ei r sides . Place th e se strips toge the r to lin e up th e m arks o n thei r upper edges , put th em in a vise , a nd mak e th e c u ts with a dov etail saw, bei ng ca reful to c ut o nly a bout -Ys in . d e ep . Working with the two str ips toge the r mak e s th em stiffe r and le ss lia bl e to b rea k whil e bei ng sa wn . It also hel ps e ns u re th at th e

four joints wiII be uniform . Afte r removing th e waste with a ch ise l, test th e width o f each slo t b y in serting o ne of th e horizontal strips . Repo sition th e vertic al strips in th e d oor frame , thi s time letting them sit flush . Se t th e horizontal strips in plac e a nd pu sh th em d own into th e slo ts in th e ve rtical pi e c es a nd dad o es . The horizontal stri ps wi ll now sit halfwa y into the ve rtica ls and ca n be adj usted wi th the help of a sq ua re until each o pen ing is sq ua re . When you a re sa tis fie d , mark th e positi on s o f th e ve rtical strips o n th e horizontal s. Th e n re move th e horizontals and cu t the slo ts in th em the sa me way a s for th e ve rtica ls. Th is wi ll p roduc e tw o hal ve s o f a b rid le joi nt, whi ch should asse m ble pe rfectly. Before pr o ce eding to m ak e th e moldings for the front of th e rnuntin s, glue th e morttse- nnd-t cn on joints of the do or fram e and se t th e d oor as ide to d ry . The m u ntins' front moldings are re ed ed , a co m mo n m o tif o n Fe deral furnitu re, wh ich I p roduc ed wi th th e sa me ¥16-in. pla ne used to re ed th e front le gs of th e Fa ncy c ha ir (p. 100) . If yo u ca nno t find o ne o f th e se woo de n pla nes. try a Stanley #4 5 o r # 5 5 , o r a m ulti-pla ne .

A sscmblc the s p t n es in thcir do doc s and mark on the vcrtical s t ri ps wh crc th c horizonta ls and vcrticllis inters ect (left). C u t the notche s in the two verrical s p ines a t the same time (ubove),

Reassemble thc s p ln e s in the door with thc horizontals in the notche s just cut, ehcck that thc horizontal s lind vertical!l a re s q u a rc, and marl. the eorrespnnding slots to be cut in thc horizontal !lpines.

- - 62 --

For th e m oldings, I s im p ly m ade a seri es o f reeds o n a n at board . Begin by planing a pi ece o f mahogany to .y}6 in . thick Be s u re to se lec t s truigh t-g ruinc d wood , as a pron ounced figure would te ar. To make th e reeds , roll th e plane slig h tly to th e left so that o ne leg o f th e cutter is set o ver the a rris , while th e o the r rid es o n th e s u rfac e o f th e wood . Tak e a fir st pa ss, which sho u ld produc e a groove in whi ch the plane will track. Se veral more passes will be required to full y devel op the re ed. My wooden plane has a stop that will e ve n tua lly rid e o n th e s u rface of th e b oard and automatic all y cease th e cutting action . Set th e left leg o f th e cutter in th e groove just cut and use it as a tra ck to c u t th e next reed . Repe at this proc es s ac ross th e m ah ogany until yo u have e no ugh m olding m aterial. If yo u ex pe rience tea ro u t, turn th e mahogany a round and s ta rt to reed from th e o the r direction . Wh en you hav e fini sh ed th e re eding, use a mat knife to c u t the mah ogan y into s t rips o f tw o re eds eac h. Cle a n up th e rou gh e dges o f th e s t r ips with a bl ock plan e . Wh en th e m olding is a p p lie d to th e do or fram e , th e \I-groove betwe en th e tw o reeds sho u ld be placed exactly ove r th e ins ide e dge o f the s tile s a nd bottom rail. Position a pi e ce o f m olding o n o ne o f the s tiles, le a vin g e xcess len gth at th e top a nd bottom . Ma rk wh e re th e b ottom rail inte rsec ts, th en sc ribe a miter and make th e c u t. (I find it is eas ie r to d o this with a mat kni fe th an with a dovetail sa w.) Repe at th es e s te ps for th e o the r ve rt ic a l s trip. Ne xt miter o ne e nd o f th e molding st rip for the b ottom rail and lay thi s s trip in place alo ng with th e corresp onding ve rt ica l m olding . If th e two mi ters do not m eet perfectl y, use a low -angle b lock pl an e to m ak e adj us t me n ts . I hold th e plane in o ne h and with its he el aga ins t m y s te rn u m. Holding th e m olding in m y o the r hand , I draw th e miter across th e m outh o f th e plane . removing wood o nly wh ere necce sary in ti ssu e -paper-thin sha vings . Wh en th e mi te r is com ple te , se t the tw o pi ec es in pl ace. Po s iti on th e o t he r ve rt ica l m old ing and rest it s miter o ve r th e e nd o f th e h o ri zontal - th is is mo re acc u ra te th an m e asurin g. Mark a nd c ut th e seco nd miter o n th e bo tto m s t rip a nd use th e bl o ck pla ne to adj us t the fit. With th es e thre e m ol d in g s trips fitt ed an d in pl ac e , po siti on th e g rid o f lls ·i n . s pi nes in th e dad o e s a nd m ark wh ere th e m old in g s trips in tersect th e sp ines . At th e sa me tim e marl, th e fini sh ed h ei ght of th e tw o ve rti cal m olding s t rips. Remove th e thre e m olding s t rips a nd la y out th e ind ented \I o f th e d oubl e mi ter a t each o f th e s ix inte rsec tio ns . I c u t th es e with a do vetail sa w and cle a ne d th em up with a c h isel. Nex t c u t th e reeded m olding for th e pe rim eter s t r ips to length. S pread glue o n th e ba ck s o f th e s tri ps a nd cla m p th em in place o n th e fram e. Th e ten sho rt ho ri zontal a nd ve rt ica l se c tio ns and th e two longer sec tio ns o f m olding th at will cover th e s p ines a re all joine d with four four-wa y m it ers. Th ese occu r at th e co rne rs o f th e m iddle p ane o n th e se co nd ro w. Eac h o f th e sho rt pi ec es ne ed s to have tw o 4 5 ° cuts at e ac h e nd. I sc ribed th e cuts with a m at knife a nd mite r sq ua re but c u t th em wi th a do veta il sa w. Be su re to c u t to the outside of th e scri be m a rk, which will leave a little e xcess wood for adj us t me nt. Test th e fit o f th ese pi e ce s with o ne an oth er

Usc a o/,6-in . center-he ad molding plane, in clined s ligh tly to t h e le ft , to cut a se r ies of re ed s on a n a t hoard. T he plane tracks in t he ~roove of o ne re e d to produce th e adjacen t r eed. After t he reeding is c omple te , cu t the hoard into s t r i ps t wo r eeds w id e.

Us c a lo w-angl e hl o e k pl an e t o fine-tunc t he m i t ers c ut on t he ends of t he moldin ~ s t ri ps.

-63 -

a nd the mun tin s o n th e fram e and m ak e an y co rrec tio ns with the block plan e. Th en glue th e s pines in plac e a nd glue th e re eded mo ld ings to th e spines . The transi tio n from th e vertical muntins to th e c u rve d molding aro u nd th e arche s is made by a sho rt , single ho rizo nta l bar. T his ba r, produ c ed wit h th e re eding plan e , is made fro m Yl6-in. m ah ogan y stock so th at it proje cts above the muntins. No te th a t the two m iddl e ba rs a re lo nger th an th e o u te r o nes to acco mmo da te th e tw o c urved munt ins th at me et a bove th em . Cut th e ba rs to len gth a nd ro u nd bo th e nds wi th sa nd pa per. Cu t the six c u rved moldings to the sha pe a nd d ime nsio ns sho wn in th e draw ing on p. 67. I cu t th em o u t wi th a copi ng saw a nd c leaned u p the ir cu rve d e dges with the sa me sma ll spokes have used on the co nc ave e dges of the seat on the ro d-back Win d so r c hair (p . 118) . To re ed th e c u rved m oldings, I used th e same scra tc h too l as for th e si m ula te d cock beadi ng o n the chest of d raw e rs (p. 17 0) , c u tti ng a lin e para lle l to th e two cu rve d edges. Firs t, how e ver, yo u ne ed to ro u nd th e fen c e o f th e woode n block to allow th e to ol to follo w a co ncave surface . The n tu rn th e wo od screw to set th e wid th o f th e c ut to exac tly o ne- ha lf th e width of the six c urved pi ec e s. I sha ped th e c left of th e m olding with th e sa me sma ll V-sha pe d parting tool used to reed the arm post of th e sofa (p . 30) . Note th at wh e n th e gra in of the pie c e c ha nges, yo u will need to c ha nge th e dire ctio n of yo ur c ut to preve nt spli n teri ng . Smoo th o ut th e c u t wi th a sma ll pi ec e

o f sa nd pa per, fold ed so th at it abrades bo th sides at once , a nd finall y sa nd th e o utside e dge to ro und it. Now asse mb le th e arched m untin s to te st the ir fit both at the to p of th e a rc h and a t th e horizontal transition bar. Wh en yo u a re satisfied with the fit, glue the muntins in plac e a nd cla mp the m till d ry. Du plicating th e origina l crown glass in th e secretary 's doors will be difficult, a lt ho ug h yo u ma y find an antique or archite ctural sa lvage d eal e r who will se ll it by the pane. Cy linder glass will be easie r to find , since window glass co nti nue d to be mad e by this pr ocess int o the 20th century. The rec ta ng ula r pa ne s ca n be easily size d . but a J;.l -in. thi ck wood templa te sho uld be m ad e fo r the arched panes . Test the te mplate 's fit in the a rc hed ope nings. It should no t be too tigh t, as glazing or th e woo d 's seasonal movem ent co uld break a t igh t-fitt ing pane. Using a good q ua lity, d iam ond -po inted glass cu tter and wearing gloves . sco re the pane aro un d the o u tline of th e te mplate. ho ld it over the co rner of a table and sna p off the waste. Set th e glass in th e door a nd hol d it in place with glaz ie r's po ints . (The pu sh points available at hardware stores are too la rge .) Poin ts of any size can als o be made , lik e th o se o n th e o rigi na l sec re ta ry. Sma ll metal triangles we re cu t fro m sheet iron wi th shears a nd then carefully pushe d in place wit h the b it of a sc re wdriver. For glazing. I pr efer a co m po u nd sold under th e b rand name " Old Fas hioned Pu tty," wh ich is m ad e of linse ed oil and whiting a nd is not as dryas other varie ties.

Once you are !iatisfied with thc fit of thc enrved muntin!i. a !i!iemblc and ing thcm in place while they dry.

With a s c r a t c h tool, bcgin rccding the curved molding s t r i p by cutting a g r o O\'c paratlel to the edge of the !it r i p [above left ), T h e n U!iC a s m a ll V- shaped parting tool to round thc initinl groovc made b y the s e r u t c h tool (left).

-64-

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Rabbets (II ). .)1. x %. 2 \4 in . o n ce nte r: fo u nd o n bo t h s ides of ce nter divider a nd interior wall o f earease side

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l1Iah o ~an y

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Section III nrcuk

Adjust able shelf

SECTION AT A Scale. ~ in. = 1 in.

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%-in . pine - --+... center divider

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mahogany fuein/.\ strip (typ.)

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- - 67--

·)4-in . cnrcase side, solid llIaho~any

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Note: Druwer dimen sions for lower mul upper cnrcuscs utul their dovctuil luvouts "I/ry uccordine. to drawer openintis:

-68-

1'J'Y!"

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SECTION AT CENT ERLINE Scale: ~6 in. = 1 in .

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;1 dovetailed pine frame. SYJ. x %. veneered front and sides. Pediment and entablature arc symmetrical from ~. Finial and side plinths are solid mahognny,

Corn cr block

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Molding substrate. x 0/1.

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Purt iul Front Vicw

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-71 -

10/1. f-E-(typ.)

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THE DINING ROOM

"W

salmo n-co lo re d walls and burgundy woodwork.
",, 0 "

st riking fea tu re . The,"

a re the ro om 's orig ina l colo rs, I wa s su r p rise d to di sc ov er wh en restoring it seve ra l ye a rs ago. Th e pa in te rs h ad b e e n co nsistent with the ge ne ra l d ecorating sc he me in the oth er formal area s o f th e hou se . wh ere the wall s were papered a nd t he wo od work painted a darker shade o f th e back ground colo r in the wallpaper. Altho ug h th e dining-ro om wall s a re p aint ed ra t he r than papered . the pairing o f tw o sha des of o ne colo r repeats th e e ffec t found in th e parlo r. bedc ha mber and fro nt h allwa y . The tlo or in thi s ro om wa s o riginally unfinish ed . but at my wif e 's requ est I painted it with a c hecke rboard patte rn o f 12 -in . bl ack sq uares o ve r a white b ase . This was a common tr eatm ent in America n hom es from th e 17th to th e m id -1 9th cen tury . Togeth er. th e c hec ke r boa rd tloor and tw o -tone red wall s make a ve ry b old colo r sc he me, whi ch is in c ha racte r w ith t he Federal period . e ve n if it 's in marked contrast to th e more sed ate parl or next do o r. Th e d ining room 's wo odwork is s im ple r and less abundant than th a t in th e parlo r. The fire place m a nt e l. though si m ila r to th e parlor's, is sma lle r and more restrained . A prominent detail o n th e mantel is th e co rn ice's denticul at ed bed moldi ng. wh ich echoes a ro w o f d entils und er th e crown molding in the ro om 's co rn ice . The wall s a lso h a ve a proj ecting c hai r ra il to p ro te ct th e pla st er from b eing dam aged by th e ten Fan cy chairs that rin g the ro om. Alt ho ug h th e window case me nts are ra b be te d to allo w for hinged s h u tte rs, sh u tte rs were nev er in s talled. Th e a mo u nt o f light e n te ri ng th e room is regul ated by c u rta ins. Th e large st pi ece in the roo m is th c s ide board. Ac co m pa ny ing it are a very large. m ahogan y ga te leg tabl e . a nd a m arbl etopped table , call ed a mixing tabl e , for preparing al c oh oli c beverages (e ve n a s m a ll s p ill o f al cohol wo u ld spot a s hellac fin ish) . A dumbwaiter s e rves as a di splay s ta nd but is pull ed up to th e tabl e a nd used for se rving wh en we are dining . In typica l Federal fashion. we pla c e th e furniture against th e dining-ro om wall s wh en th e roo m is not in u se . le a ving t he c enter o f th e ro om c lear. Th e c ha irs sy m me trica lly flunk e ac h table in imitation of dining-room furniture arra nge ments fo un d in both th e Sh e raton and He p pl e wh ite pattern book s (see p . 2). Our dining roo m ha s an interesting period in it s h is to ry. In 1915 th e hou se was so ld fo r th e fir st tim e o uts ide t he Seawa rdLord fa m ilies . Th e new o wne r repaired watch es and cl ocks and used thi s roo m as hi s s ho p. A ] 920s s ke tc h of o u r s t ree t sho ws a s ign hang ing by th e front d oor advertising this bu sines s. Aft er we b ou ght th e house . I found tha t sig n in the cc lla r. - - 7. 1 -

A vital part of a Federal-period household, trays transported meals and tea eaeh day from the kite hen to a more eomfortable or more formal setting. (Itrojel.!t: Edge banding, p, 77.)

- - 74--

Tray Chapter 8

n Federal-period home s, food was cooked in the kitchen but often eaten in another room. Becaus e of th e kitchen fireplace 's large opening (in te nd ed to give the cook better access to the fire and kettles} , considerable hear was drawn up the l1ue in winter, so m eals were served in the dining room or parl or where the fire could be kept burning vigorously . In summer, the small bed of coals kept constantly burning in the kitchen fir eplace made the room so hot that housewives would certainly have apprcciated Harry Truman 's admonition to get out of the kitchen (even if their lot in life precluded following his advice) . Since Federa l-period Americans also regularly enjoyed tak ing tea and always did so in a more forma l setting than the kitc hen, this meant that food was carried several ti mes a day from the kitchen to another room . Eac h ho usehold was therefore equipped with severa l trays , or, as they we re then called , waiters (five are listed in the 1805 in ve nto ry of our house). The most common type of tray was made of tin-coated sheet iron and was produced in factories at Pontypool or Usk , Wales . These trays were brightly painted and decorated . The technique used was called japanning, which consisted of several layers of varnish applied over paint, and which produced an attractive, durable and waterproof surface . l\lass production and the low wages paid to thc worne n dccornrors made these metal trays inexpensive . Woodcn trays like this one required more timc to produce and were therefore more costly and less common . \Vhcn a cabinetmaker did make a wooden tray, it was intended for formal use, and mahogany was the usual material . As a woodworker, I have a special fondness for this tray. Most wooden trays of the Federal period had cast-brass handles and a pierced -metal gallery , or rim, that too was oftcn of brass. The maker of this tray was clever enough to make these clements almost entirely of wood . Not using

I

metal created some problems, however, the principal one being how to make wooden handles . Normally these castbrass parts were U-shaped and had threaded ends which cou ld be inserted into holes in the tray 's wooden bottom and secured with nuts. The maker of this tray carved each U-s h a p ed handle from a single piece of wood and oriented the grain to run vertically in the horizontal handhold . To minimize the weakness in this short-grain section, he made this area th icker t han the rest-in addition to the structural advantage, it also makes sense that the handle be rounder and thicker where it will be grasped . The long-grain legs of the ha ndles co u ld be made thinner because they are inherently s tro nge r than the horizontal piece . The fact that the original ha ndles have survived 180 years of use proves the practicality of th is so lution. The meta l strip that was commonly used as the gallery on wooden trays offered strength and durability, was easier to install th a n wood , and could be stamped or pierced to make its surface more interesting. The problem with mak ing the ga llery of a heavily figured wood like mahogany is that it d oe s not bend well and in thin strips is fragile . A light b low to such a thin wooden edge will bruise or chip it . The imaginative so lution the maker employed in this tray was to lam ina te four Yi 6-in .-thick strips of veneer to form the ga llery . This ta kes advantage of the aesthetic qualities of wood while overcom ing its weaknesses . The innermost strip is 1 Y2- in .-wide ma hogany edge band ing, wh ich is c ut so that t he grain ru ns across , rather than the len gth of, the strip. This m e ans t hat th e strip's upper edge is end gra in a nd very fragile . The next la ye r appears to be a combination of b irch (or some othe r diffuse-porous hardwood) a nd brass . The birch forms the lower portion of this layer and a strip of brass the same thickness as the wood has been set in to for m the exposed edge. The wood is visible o nly from the bottom, where it is too thin to be

- - 75--

The two halves of this tray's woodand -brass gallery of edge b~nding fit into vertical grooves in the ends of the handles.

/

T ray bott om

B

T-headed brad Optional felt padding Parts A ami n a re both '1J6-ill .-thick mallOg(OIy. whose graill r Ulls vert ica lly. A is 1 '1.1 ill . soide u ntl B is ~ ill. soide, Pa rt C is 'lI6·ill.·th ick . l -i n. ne id e birch. End graill is orien ted h orisson ta lly to givc strength to ga llcry. Pa rt D is 'lI6-ill.-th ick .

~-i ll. -w idc

bra ss .

po siti vel y iden tifi ed. Nor is it po ssibl e to determine wh ere th e brass e nds a nd the wo od b egin s beca use th e jo int is cove re d o n bo th sides. b u t I s us pec t th at th e brass is a bo u t Y2 in. wid e . The third s tr ip is 1 Y2- in.- wid e mah ogany ve neer, identi cal to th e fir st. Th e upper edge o f th e sa ndwic h created by th e se thre e layers o f vene e r is ro u nde d , e xposing th e brass j us t a hai r ab ove th e mah ogany e dge banding that flanks it. Th e brass protects th e frag ile e nd gra in o f th e mah ogan y a nd al so ta ke s on a light go ld colo r wh en poli sh ed , c rea ting an interesting hi ghlight aga ins t th e dark wo od . Th e fo u rt h layer o f ve nee r is Y2 -in. -wid e mah ogany edge ba nd ing , laid o ve r the low er part of th e third la yer. A s trip o f th e sa me width and thickne ss was appli ed to th e o u tside b ottom edge o f th e handle s a fte r asse m b ly. These Y2 -in.wid e s tri ps create a ste pped low er edge , whi ch is visuall y more inte re st ing than a s tra igh t, un broken lin e would be . Th e b ottom of this tra y is oa k. vene ered with mah ogany . Thi s see ms s tra nge because eve n th ou gh du ring th e Federal peri od mah ogany was a mo re costly wood , th e labor ne ed ed to ve nee r th e bo tt om would ha ve exce ede d th e cos t o f a s hort. solid ma h og a ny bo a rd . I wo uld mak e th e b ottom o u t o f a si ng le Ys-in.-th ick p iec e of mahogan y. -

The construction o f th e tra y it self is sim ple . The laminated galle ry and th e handles are butted against th e e dge o f th e ov a l bottom b oa rd . Tw o .y; 6-in.-d e e p vertical grooves are cut into th e ends o f th e handl es, and th e e nds of the ga lle ry a re se t into these groo ves . No nai ls were used to se c u re th e ga lle ry o f m y o riginal tra y. It was simply glued in place . Th is produced a le ss-tha n-reliabl e glue joint, h ow ev er. sinc e glu e d o es not adhere well to th e e nd grain at th e e nds o f the oval b ottom . The mak er o f this tray so lve d the pr oblem by securing th e handl es to th e bottom with brads. whi ch are h idden by th e o u te r st rip o f edge banding. Wh en d eciding how to finish th e tray. keep in mind th at it may o fte n b e used for transporting vessel s th at c ontain liq u ids and hot fo od . Th e o rig ina l is fini sh ed with shella c . so we keep it well wax ed a nd nlways us e an insula ting pad wh en c a rry ing anything hot. I wo uld finish a new tra y with varnish o r lacqu er, how ever. G lu e a la yer o f fel t o r s mall felt pads to th e bo tto m s u rface o f th e tra y to pr e vent it from sc ra tc h ing table tops.

76 -

Edge banding To cut the edge banding for the gallery, you need about 1 Y2 sq . ft . of veneer, Y16 in. thick. The original is made of San Domingo mahogany , but you could use almost any veneer you prefer. You also need two veneer strips at least 26 in . long for the core . I used birch , but any type of veneer will do , as it is never seen. You can buy veneers, but I make my own by resawing scrap. I joint one edge of the veneer on a shooting board, as shown at right. Be sure to joint a side that is edge grain, not end grain. If you need to joint more than one sheet, lay them together and tap their edges on the b ench top to align them before inserting them in the shooting board. Since the gallery is to be fitted into the handles at either end of the tray, you will be creating two lengths of laminated edge banding, each about 26 in. long (allowing a littl e extra for waste) . In addition to the sheets of veneer, you will also need two strips of brass, Y2 in. wide by Y1 6 in . thick, at least 26 in . long. Brass can be purchased from many industrial suppliers. Ask if they have a 3-ft. shear, and have them cut the strips to width-this will save you a lot of work . Rough both sides of the brass with SO-grit sandpaper so that glue will bond well to it. To cut the banding, lay a sheet of veneer on a smooth surface. Put the jointed edge against a large square so that the blade of the square runs across the grain of the veneer, and with a mat knife square the end of the sheet. Now measure in 1 Y2 in. from this newly cut end and use the square and mat knife to cut off a strip o f banding the width of the sheet of veneer. Repeat this process until you have enough strips to total more than the 104 linear inches needed for the first and third layers of the tray's gallery . Next cut about 52 in. of Y2- in. -wide banding for the lower lip, or fourth layer, that will circumscribe the bottom outside edge of the tray. Joint one edge of the internal layer of birch veneer on the shooting board. To strengthen the banding, the grain in the birch has to run parallel to the tray bottom rather than perpendicular to it , so here you will be cutting with the grain. Cu t two 26-in.-Iong strips of l vln.vwide birch veneer, being careful that the knife does not get caught and follow the direction of the grain instead of the edge of the square. At this point you will have all the strips of veneer needed to make up the gallery . On the strips of mahogany edge banding, only one end is now square with the two edges, so use the square and mat knife to trim the second end square as well. To get lengths of edge banding long enough to make one-half of the gallery , you will probably need to join two or more strips together for each of the first, third and fourth layers . (My strips were 10 in . long, so I used three pieces for each layer and trimmed off the excess after the lamination was glued together.) Butt the pieces together to check the tightness of each joint, and if need be. recut the ends square. Then rape the pieces to gether with masking tape to make four 1 Y2-in. -wide lengths of edge banding and two Y2- in .-wide lengths.

You can makc a !iimplc !ihooting hoard to joint thc vencee strips hy tacking two straight strips of *-in. hoard, about 3 in. widc by 36 in. long, to a widc base, Slip the veneer (making sure to align the edge!i if you're .jointing more than one strip at a time) between the narrow pleecs of plywood and clamp it in plaec by hammering thc nail!i partway into the base,

--77 -

Use a large !iquare and a mat knife to eut a seeund edge on the veneer, this one end grain and at a right angle to the first edge (top). Cut enough 1 Y.-in.-wide !itrip!i to make up the fir!it and third layer» of edge banding for the gallery of the tray-c-abuut 104 linear inches, Thcn butt thc !itrips togcthcr end-to-end to get the Iengchs you need for each half of the gallery, and tape the p icces together (hottom).

-

The sandwich formed by the 1 Y:!- in.-wide mahogany and the birch-and -brass core will be glued up first ; the Y:!-in.wide edge banding will be added later. Although the strips are alrea dy c u t to width , you should do a trial run to fa milia rize yourself with the relationship of these layers whil e th ey 're dry . This way , when everything is wet with glue. you will be able to work with spe ed and confidence. Begin by laying o ne of the wid e mahogan y strips tapedsid e -d own on a smooth surfac e, and place a strip of brass on it. The brass may not have a perfectly straight edge , so wh en positioning it be sure that its upper edge does not dip below th e edge of the mah ogany at any point , eve n if in so me places it projects more th an in others. Lay a strip o f birch beside th e brass to make up th e rest of th e se co nd layer. Now add anoth er strip of mah ogany ov er this core. Now you are ready to glue th e se laminations together. I uscd white glue , but you can use an y glu e you pr efer. Ga the r the clamps yo u will need . and also two pieces of wo od to clamp th e ga lle ry between while the glue dries . Th e e xac t dimensions o f these cauls are not critical. but th e pi ec es must b e wider than the ga lle ry and slightly lon ger. Th ey should also be thick e no ug h (at least -Y.i in .) so that the y won 't bend . Lay on e o f th e cauls o n the bench top and cov er it with a shee t o f wax ed paper to pr ev ent glue sq ueeze-o u t from adhering th e gallery to the board (the wax ed paper it self will not stick to th e glue) . Disa ssemble your test lamination and spread glue on the untapcd side o f the inn ermost strip of mahogany . Lay this pi ec e taped -side-down o n th e wax ed paper, making sure th at neith er the e nd s nor e dges o ve rha ng th e caul. Lay the bra ss o n th e glued su rfa ce , o nce ag a in making sure that its upper edge no wh ere dips bel ow th e upper ed ge of th e mah ogan y. Next lay in the birch . Now spread glue o n th e ins ide s urface o f th e third lay er o f e dge banding and lay it glue d-s tde- do wn o n the bra ss and birch , making sure th e

Place the sundwieh of vcneera on a board between sheets of waxed paper. Clamp another board on top, appl)'ing unjform presNure along the length of the lamination until the glue NetN.

edges of all the layers are ali gn ed . Place another sh eet of waxed paper on top o f the sa ndwich and se t th e sec ond caul over this . Position clamps e ve nly along th e tw o cauls to e nsu re eve n pres sure. Wh en the glue is dry, unclamp th e boards and remove th e tape. Place the lamination in a vise with th e brass e dge fa cing up . If th e brass protrudes in pla ce s, join t it with a file , holding th e file a t a n a ngle to th e edge o f th e brass. This is known as drawfillng a nd will remov e th e metal quickly and easily. Wh en th e brass is flush with the mahogany, us e th e file to bev el both ed ge s and re mo ve th e a rris from th e wood . Th is will leave the brass p rotrud ing slightl y so that it take s th e forc e of any bl ow to th e banding. Now sand th e file marks out o f both th e mahogan y and the brass. The final e le me nt to be added to this sa ndwic h is th e Y:! -in.-wide o u te r strip o f mah ogany ve nee r. Apply glue to the untaped s ide of thi s s trip and position it flush with th e lower edge o f th e wider laminati on. As before , c lam p th e veneers between tw o boards protected with wa xed pap er. When th e glue is dry , unclarnp a nd remov e th e ta pe. Jo int th e bottom e dge o f th e ga lle ry o n th e shoo ting boa rd . Now bend th e galle ry pieces a round th e tra y bo tto m , and with a mat knife trim the e nds o f th e laminated stri ps wh ere th e y will fit into the handle s. Th e knife will c u t o nly th e wood , not th e b rass, so peel awa y th e excess wood a nd cut the metal with a hacksaw. Eve n th ou gh th e mah ogany its elf is very fragil e , th e e n tire sa ndwic h is quite flexibl e becau se o f the stre ng th o f th e bras s-and-birch co re . Apply glue to th e o u ts ide e dge o f th e tray bo ttom and c la mp th e galle ry in pla c e with a band o r bar cl amp . Slip th e handle s into pla c e . th eir two grooves fitting ove r the e nds o f th e galle ry . Att ac h e a c h handle with two l-in .-Ion g T·h eaded brads. Fina lly, glue th e o u te r Y:! -in. -wid e strips o f mah ogan y edge banding o n th e bottom o f each handl e.

Wbere the braNN projeet» above the edge of the mahogan)', Joint it b)' drawfiling. Then file away the arriN of the mahogany on either edge of the brass. Sand the file marks and putish with 000 steel wool. The upper edge of the gallery should be s li g h tl )· domed so that the hraNs will protect the fragile end grain of the mahogany.

-

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TRAY Scale:

-

P ATIERN FOR TRAY Grid: ~ in. = 1 in .

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.-----,Tray bottom, oak veneered on t<>p with mahoguny

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Note: Mll.l:imum dimensions of tray '"-bottom are I J U in. by 21 14 in. Gallery is glued JIIICI tucked in position uround bottom ut bundles.

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Top View

End View

21'0/16 - - - - - - - -----'"..,

Side View

YI6-in.-thic k - - -- ---""-'.;-->,'" mahogany

SECTION A-A Scale: 1 in . = 1 in .

SECTION 8-8 Scale: 74 in. = 1 in.

Brass inlay - - - . -- -./

'YI6- in.-d ia. - -- - , - -- - - --\-- handle grip

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Handle upright, ~ x%

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I l-in.-Iong ----t-~ T-h cadcd brad Brass - -- - -'-- - - - --/;.,.// (b i rc h below) -

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- - 79 - -

8

The maker of this formal lIepple w hite dining chair chose to reNtrain the chair's ornament and concentrate hiN efforts on the elaborate Nplat, hose shupe iN uetuulty an amalgam of deNigns from both lIepple hite'N and Sheraton's pattern books. (Project: Angled mortiNe-and-teIloIlN, p, 83.)

- - HO - -

HeQQlewhite Chair Chapter 9

h is chair has an interesting story. [ was antiquing one day. with some friends in a town near Portsmouth. We stopped at a shop housed in a barn, and high in the old hay [oft, amidst a clutter of nondescript castaways, [ found this chair. The dealer announced condescendingly that it was just a reproduction , which was obvious, he said, because it was so light in weight. [ examined the chair and was certain he was wrong. l t looked to be of good-quality Fcderal-pcrtod workmanship and a nice example of a style often made in Rhode Island and Connecticut between 1790 and 1800. An exceptionally delicate chair, it was light in weight because it was made of Honduras mahogany . [ purchased it , thinking that, if [ were right, its low price would compensate for the dealer's insinuation that my knowledge of Federal-period chairs was inadequate . Since we were in a small car, I was forced to ride home with the chair upside down in my lap . With the bottom of the chair staring up at me , I noticed a piece of paper inserted under the upholstery webbing. Its contents made me crow my vindication . The note , which was dated September 27, 1938, and signed Emily W. Tapley, read: "This chair came from the Reade House at 41 Main Street, Dover, N.H . It was inherited by my aunt Susan Tapley Moulton, who had spent much of her early life with her Read e aunts, in the old house. as her father, John 'I'apley , died when she was only 2 years old . She gave the chair to my sisters and me a few years before she died. There were six chairs of this set. One other Aunt Susan gave to Mary Reade Welch and it is now the property of John Tapley Welch of Dover, N.H. The other 4 were sold after Aunt Susan's death to a dealer in antiques in Boston. The Reade household was broken up in 1855. [ do not know how long the chairs had been in existence before that date ." A couple of years passed, and one day the curator of the New Hampshire H istorieal Society carne to our house to

T

examine some furniture he thought he might like to include in an exhibition of New Hampshire cabinetmaking. [ drew his attention to the chair, noting that it was probably made in southern New England but had an interesting New Hampshire history . As he read the note. he could not contain his excitement. He explained that he was doing the research necessary to have the Reade House listed in the National Register of Historic Places . He told me much about the chair's original owner, Michael Reade, a successful lumber merchant who had built the Reade House. One of Reade 's daughters had married a Tapley. To further verify the note, the curator sent me a copy of the inventory of Reade 's estate taken in 1820 after his death. His household contents included a set of six mahogany dining chairs . This was undoubtedly one of them . One might wonder why Reade would own chairs that were stylistically related to southern New England when the major cabinetmaking center of Portsmouth was only ten miles away. The reason may have been that Federalperiod cabinetmakers were extremely productive and frequently shipped their surplus furniture on vessels sailing from every major port to wherever American ships traded . It is also possible that Reade's chairs were made locally by a man who had trained in southern New England and who retained a preference for this style of chair. \Vhoever the chairmnker, this piece is an exceptional accomplishment. It is a restrained chair, yet its aesthetic statement is neither subdued nor static. At first glance , one m ight assume that it was made by a rural craftsman who was either unable to accomplish more demanding ornament or who did not know how to use such decoration . The shape of the splat, however, is an amalgam of several designs from the two most important furniture pattern books of the day-The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer 's Guide by George Hepplewhite and The Cabinet-Maker and Up hols tere r 's Drawing-Book by

-81--

Th om as Sheraton-indicating that the cabinetmaker was familiar with high Federal style. O n this chair, he ma st erfully c ho seto make the splat th e dominant element. Thi s d e tail is an exuberant burst o f emotion that is th e res u lt o f four s tro ng verticals , ea c h of which quickly draws th e e ye upward like a fireworks di spl a y. Eve n th ough th e work o n th e s p la t may ha ve b een s ubco nt ra c te d to a sp e c ia l carver, th e decisi on to include it in th e chair wa s the maker's . I have no doubt th at th e c ha ir's sim plic ity re sults not from a lack of skill o n th e part o f the c ra fts ma n but from o the r considerations . It ma y be that the chair's re strain ed d esi gn was d etermin ed by how much Micha el Reade wa s willing to pay for hi s se t. Were this the case , the d esign o f the c ha ir is parti cularly noteworthy , since it is usually much easier to feign s uccess with an elaborate pi ece o f furniture than with a very sim ple one . Wh ether or not the ohairmaker was working with su c h limitations in crafting this chair, he could have opted to use a number of typical Federal-period chair e m bellis hme n ts, such a s molded front legs, stringing, inlay. ven eer, a se rpe nt ine front rail and d ecorative row s o f brass tacks . He co uld have kept th e cost low by using se ve ra l of th ese possibiliti e s a nd execu ting th em halfheartedly. but h e was to o much o f a craftsman to p rodu ce so me th ing medi ocre. Instead , h e c hose to in clude o ne fin el y e xec u te d feature . th e spl at, a nd b y ex te ns io n the floral ca rto uc he o n th e c res t rail , making th e se th e fo cal points o f th e c ha ir. Eve ry th ing else th at mi ght com pe te with th e splat wa s elimina te d . Even th e cove ring o f th e sea t , whi ch is o rigina l. seems to ha ve b e en se lected with this in mind . The o nly o the r o rn a me n t th e mak er used o n th e ch a ir is as purposeful as hi s d eci si on to e m p has ize the splat. Aware of the Federal -p eriod c usto m of lining up dining ch a irs ag ainst th e wall so that, wh en not in use, th ey were see n from th e front , h e o u tl ine d th e e nt ire front o f th e c ha ir by molding th e e dge s o f th e front le gs, seat frame , s t iles and crest rail. The profile us ed on th e straight edge s o f th e legs and seat frame is an ovo lo , a quarter-round se t o ff b y a fillet on either sid e . Thi s o vo lo is seen as a se ries o f three straight, parall el lin es-conca ve , convex a nd concave . Th e molding used o n th e c u rve d edge s of th e s tiles a nd crest rail is com posed of tw o reeds separated by a V-groove . This molding has th e o p pos ite profile-convex , co ncave, convex- b u t from th e front the three c u rvilinea r e le me nts are lik ewise read as tight, parall el lines. In elimina ting so m any o f th e e m bellis h me nts that normally o rna me n te d Federal -p eri od dining chairs, th e mak er risk ed creating what appeared to b e a strippeddown version o f this typ e o f c hair. To pr e vent this possibility, he reduced th e chair's o ve rall sca le , making it a p pe a r even more delicate th an most o f it s co nte m po ra ries. Indeed , this c ha ir wei gh s o nly ten pounds a nd is redu ced to six with th e se a t removed . Yet s tre ng th wa s not sac rific ed. This c ha ir ha s be en in use for ab out 180 years , and we know that it s five companions s u rv ive d until at least 1938 . The chair's constructi on is as s tra igh tfo rwa rd a s it s d esign. It is joined throughout with mortise-and-tenons .

which was one of tw o popular m eth ods o f joi ni ng Fede ral period chairs. Produced mainly b y cabinetm ake rs, joine d chairs used parts cut o r sh a ped from sa wn lu m b e r for th eir rectangular morti se-and -tenons. These chai rs are usually distingui sh ed not b y individu al typ e but by general s tyle o r peri od-Chippendal e, He pplew hir e or Sheraton, for e xa m ple . In contrast to joine d c ha irs, socke te d c ha ir s were co ns truc te d with turned o r whittl ed tenons fit into drilled. round holes. Th e se ch ai rs reli ed h e avil y o n parts mad e from un sea son ed stock, riven directl y fro m a log and turned o n a lath e. Socketed c hai rs lik e ladder-backs . Fancies and Wind sors were usually p roduced b y specialized cha irmakers . This Heppl ewhite c h a ir is made o f Hondu ra s ma hogany . If you choos e to rep rodu c e it and want to ma ke th e cha ir in an other wo od , c he rry would work well. th ough I woul d darken it with potassium permangenate b e for e fini shing it. I would suggest av oiding mapl e o r birch , whi ch a rc too light in c ol or for this pi ec e . The s pla t c a n b e c u t o u t with a fin e- to o th co p ing saw or ji gsaw with about 20 p oints p er inch , and th e edges of th c cutouts can b e cl e an ed up with a file . The sp lat is mortised into th e b ottom o f th e crest rail an d in to a pr oj ecti on above th e rear sca t rail calle d a s hoe . Th e ovo lo molding a nd d oubl e reed are c ut after the completed chair fram e ha s b e en te st -fitted and di sassembl ed . Th e o vo lo m olding ca n b e cut with a mol ding plane o r a ro u te r. Fo r th e dou bl e re e d ru n around th e s tiles a nd c res t ra il. it 's important th at th e cen ter F-groove run perfectly pa rall el to th e curved edges o f the chair. The d oubl e re ed ca n b e c u t with th e same sc ratc h to ol used for mak in g th e si m u la te d cock beading o n the c hes t o f drawers (p . 17 0) if yo u adj us t th e too l to follow a c u rve d line by rounding th e face that se rves as a fence . Aft er cutting th e V-groo ve a bo u t 1116 in. d e e p, back the screw out of th e sc ra tc h to ol with a sc re wd river to doub le the width betwe en th e h ead and th e fenc e . Do u bling th is distance positions the sc re w to mark th e in sid e edge of the inside b ead. Thu s , wh en drawn around b oth edges o f th e s tiles and crest rail, it sco res a no th e r lin e parall el to th e first. This se co nd lin e und ercuts th e in sid e edge of th e inside re ed, making it e as ie r to remo ve th e wo od in between . After th e tw o lin e s ha ve b e en inc ised aro u nd both edges o f th e s tiles and crest rail , c h ise l ou t the wo od in b etween to a d epth o f -YJ2 in. O n man y Fed eral -period c h a irs . th e uph ols te ry cove rs th e se a t rail s. Th is c h a ir, h ow ev er. was constructed with a se pa ra te , remov able sea t, calle d a slip sea t. The slip-seat fram e , which is p roba bly m ade o f maple o r b irc h , fits b etween th e rail s a nd is cove re d by th e uph ols tery, leaving a border o f mahogany e x posed aro u nd th e fabric . Th e chair se a t is s tu ffe d with horseh a ir a nd covered with a 19th-century fabri c kn own as haircl oth , wh ic h is made from dy ed horsehair woven o n a loom . The re s ultin g cloth h as a slig h t shee n that re sembles sa ti n, bu t it s texture and toughne ss are akin to the wov en p las tic webbing us ed o n mod ern , aluminum-framed lawn chai rs. This fabric is so durabl e that I am not surprise d to find this o riginal scat cover s t ill intact.

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Since I doubt that haircloth is s t ill available, yo u will lik ely nc ed to sel ect a modern fabric if you decide to make a se t o f th e se chairs. In choosing a fabric, think about th e visua l interacti on b etween the c overing and the rest of the chair. The o rig ina l haircloth is a dark gra y-b ro wn, which , I think. was s elec te d for it s s u b tle ty. The chair could not ca rry a printed , s t riped o r boldly colored co ver. I want to includ e one last observation about this chair bef ore m ov in g o n to di scuss its joinery. This is a formal c ha ir, intended for use in the parlor or din ing room , rather th a n in the kitch en where it would ge t hard wear. The fact that it is s till intact is proof that the chair is not fragi le . It is not as s t ro ng a s a Windsor or a ladder-back chair, h ow e ver-n or was it m eant to be. If you make a set of th ese c h ai rs. it 's im po rta nt to di sc ourage guests, children a nd even yo u rse lf fro m lounging in them or rocking back o n th e rear legs. Th e latter is a recipe for disaster.

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Rear leg

T rou gh is cu t to width and a ng le of pa rt being mortised. Mortise is d rilled at a right a ng le to cradle.

C'

Cradle, End View

stretc her

Ten on shou lde r, cu t to 78° vertical angle

Angled mortise-and-tenons Th e indi vidual parts o f thi s chair are easy to make, bu t c u tt ing it s num erou s morti se-and -tenons. few of which are at right angles, is a fairl y complex process. In a sense , th e joinery is the c h a ir's very essenc e , but it 's so invo lved that to full y di scuss all o f th e different joints would require m ore s pace than is available here . Th e follow ing e x pla na tio n o f h ow to c u t o ne o f th e compound-angled joints. how ever, will give yo u the basic information needed to cut th e o t he rs . Be ca us e o f this joinery's complexity , I s tro ng ly urge that b efore beginning a se t of chairs , yo u m ak e a m ock-up in a so ft, easy-to -wo rk wood like pine . The wo rk o f cutting the an gled mortises , whether on a d rill press or b y hand . will b e much ea sie r if yo u us e spec ial c ra d les to h old th e part b eing m ortised at the de si red an gle in relati on to th e drill-pres s table or to the to p a nd front e dge o f the workbench . My cradles are maple . glue d up in bl ocks a bo u t 8 in. long by 4 1h in. wide by 6 in . hi gh . A trou gh is cut into th e upper surface of each block matching th e width of the part being mortised and th e angles o f the m orti se. This trough holds the part at th e de sired a ng le and ke eps it from rocking o u t o f ali gnm ent when th e mortise is ro ug h ed out. Since I don 't o wn a drill pre ss , I' ve sho wn here how to rough out the m ortise s b y hand with a bit and brace , gripping th e cradle in the jaws o f the front vi se o n my bench . I aligned the bit ve rt ica lly b y sighting a lo ng a try square , as shown in the c ha p te r o n the ga te leg table (p. 90) . Making th e c ra d les require s so m e th ought and e ffo rt, b u t s inc e th ey are m erely h olding de vic e s, o nly the angles o f th e tr ou gh 's wall s ne ed be preei se . You can accurate ly c ut th e be vel ed s ides o f the trough by tilting the b lade o f a ta b lcsa w to th e ne cess ary a ngle . The flat-bottomed trough of th e cra d les ne eded for th e front legs can be chiseled wit h a firm e r chisel to th e depth of the sawcuts and then finis hed with a rabb et plane. Th e bottom of the trough for th e b ack-leg c rad les is m ore difficult to make , as it has to be sh a ped to th e contour o f th e curved rear surface of the legs. This , too , can be done with a firmer chisel. If you plan to m a ke a se t o f th e se chairs rather th an just one , t hese c ra d les will sa ve a lot of tim e . -

Cradle, Side View

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Un like flat-bottom ed trou ghs fo r o ther cra d les f or this cha ir, bottom of this trough is co nvex to fi t co nc ave rear su rf ace of bac k legs.

Cutting this chair's many angled mortises is s imp li fi e d by using s pec ial cradles to hold the parts being mortised at the desired angles.

83 -

For the information on making and using these cradles, [ am indebted to my good friend A[ Breed of South Berwick, Main e, who makes joined chairs in both Queen Ann e and Ch ippe ndale styles . Whether or not such cradles were us ed before the invention o f the drill pres s is unknown , and if a ny have su rvive d . [ am unaware of them . Such devices would have served no purpos e after the style of c ha ir for which th ey were made went out of fashion . Each cold day would have imperil ed th eir ex is te nce- most were probably burned in th e sh op stove . Before proce eding furth er. let's es tablis h how the mortises and the tenons are an gled on this chair. If you look a t th e shoulders of the ten on a t the back of th e side stre tche r, you 'll see that it is bev el ed in two directions. Looking at the sid e o f th e chair. th e shoulder of the tenon is angled backward from the upper corner to th e lower corner. Thi s angle, which ['II c a ll th e vertical an gle , would be measured by laying a b evel sq ua re along th e top edge o f th e stretch er, as sho wn in th e ph oto below. Looking d own on th e j oint from above , you'll see that th e shoulder is also bev el ed at the front surface o f th e rear [egoThi s an gle , which ['II c a ll the horizontal an gle , could be mea sured by laying the bev el sq ua re against the outside o f th e stre tc he r. All of th e tenon sh oulders. with th e exce p tio n o f those on th e front se a t rail , arc angl ed eith er horizontally o r vertically. O nly th e shoulders on the ten ons at th e back o f th e s ide stre tc he rs are angled in both direction s.

To measure the compound angle of the tenon shoulder at the back of one side stretcher, first lay the bevel square on the top edge (top) and then along the side of the stretcher (bottom).

[ find that at [east four c ra d le s are necessary for thi s chair, sinc e several of the mortises can be cut using the same cradle. The joints between the side stre tc he rs a nd side seat rails and the front legs, for exa mple. a re bevel ed in only o ne direction . Th e s ide seat rails are a ngled horizontally at 8 0° to the front legs, and both morti ses c an be cut with the sa m e c ra d le (h old the right leg in th e cradle in th e opposite direction from the left leg). Th e si de stretchers are angled horizontally at 78 ° to th e front leg. and th e mortises ca n both b e cut using a second cradl e. All of th e mortises in th e front legs should be c u t whil e th e legs are still square stock. After the e nt ire ch a ir ha s be en satisfactorily test-fitted. the front le gs ' inside e dges a re tapered and th eir outside e dges are be vel ed tlu sh with th e seat rails. Because th e back surface of the rear leg s is co ncave . th e bottom of th e third and fourth cradle s ha s to be co nvex . Remember that the cradle for th e m ortises hou sing th e rear side-stretch er tenons must hold th e back legs at a co m po u nd a ngle . A cradle is unnecessary for cutting th e mort ise s th at house th e back seat rail and back stre tc he r in th e rear legs. The rail and s tre tc he r are angled vertically but a re at a right angle to the sides, so you can rough th em o ut simply by tilting the drill -press table or the leg in th e vise to 9 5 °. Any sligh t error made in cutting these morti se s will occ ur in the narrow ends o f the mortise rather than in its lon g sides and will becom e e vid e n t during th e chai r's asse mb ly . The offending surface , which will be end gra in. c a n be shaved with a chisel to fit th e ten on. For thi s project, [ decided to make the mort ise that houses th e rear tenon o n the sid e stre tche r , si nce th e joint is angled both vertically and horizontally and is th e most difficult to cut. Though th e mortise is not se t a t a right angl e to the forward fac e o f the leg, it is parall el to th e leg's o u ts ide e dge and can be [aid out with a sq ua re and a marking gauge . [ placed th e leg in its c ra d le and roughed o u t th e mortise using a lA-in . spo on bit. I se le c te d a spoo n bit fo r several reasons. Because th e surface to be mo rti sed is se t at an angle , a bit with a scribe will not alwa ys be abl e to score a complete c ircle and mi ght cau se tea rou t. A bit with a lead , however. might break through th e o the r sid e before th e necessary depth ha s been cut. Also , beca use th e spoo n bit cuts with pressure , rath er th an being pull ed through by a threaded lead , it cuts very fas t. It ca n also change th e an gle o f the hol e it is drilling. a welcom e feature when you 're rou ghing out angled mort ises by hand . The virtues of th e spoon bit ma y explain wh y. wh en I'm repairing antiqu e , j oined chairs o f thi s type. [ ha ve often noticed the unmistakable evid e nce o f a spoo n bit's round nos e at th e bottom oi n m ortise . To begin th e mortise, [ drilled a row o f l ·in .·d e ep hole s that did not quite intersect with o ne a no the r. (If th ey had . th e spoo n bit would have wandered into th e adjacen t hole. ) I c hecke d th e bit 's a ng le by holding a sq uare next to it. By looking alternately head-on and along th e fro nt e dge of th e bench , I made su re th e bit wa s ve rt ic al to th e bench top and e n te ring th e mortise at th e de sired angle .

- - H4 -

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Drilling the row of holes removed most of the wood in the mortise. and I cut the remainder loose with a ¥a-in . mort ise chisel. Agai n. when shaping th e sides of th e mortise you can use the sq uare to make sure the c hisel stays perpendic ular to the benc h top. After the mortise was cut, I laid out the te non on the stretcher. Wh ile the shoulders of most of the chair's teno ns are cut to at least one angle so th ey si t flu sh with the surface of the adjo ining leg, the te no ns the mselves are a lways cut parallel to the seat rails or s tre tc hers . Th us their thickness can be la id o ut with a ma rkin g gauge se t to ¥a in. I la id out the shou lder an d the top h a un c h wit h a bevel square. The horizon tal angle is 102°, the supplementary angle for the front sho ulders, whic h are beveled at 78°. I the n contin ued th e sho u lder d own th e outside of the stretcher, again usi ng th e bevel squa re se t to 102 ° for the vertical angle. r shaped the tenon with a dovetail saw, c utting right dow n to the line on the shoulder but leavin g th e teno n slig ht ly oversize. This gave me extra wood to pare down when fitting th e tenon to the mortise. It 's wort h noting that the chair's make r used an interesti ng technique to facilitate c u tti ng th e s tretc her tenons and to strengthe n the joi nery on th e se th inner members. The tenons he cut have a shoul der o nly o n th e outside , while the in sid e is flush with th e edge o f th e mortise . Because the stretc hers are th inner than the rail s , this design allows the mortises to be plac ed closer to th e

center of each leg than they would have been had a shoulder been cut on the inside edge . The seat-rail tenons h ave a n add itional 1/s-in. inside shoulder and a re further stre ngthe ned by glue blocks applied in all four corners, wh ich s up port the slip seat. (The rear glue blocks present e nd-g ra in surfaces to the insides of the seat rails. so they h ave been reinforced with screws. Since the grain in the front glue blocks ru ns vertically, no screws are required.) The back seat rail is 1 1/s in . thick, so that its tenons can be cen tered without weakening the leg . Except for th e rear seat-rail tenons, the tops of the tenons jo in ing th e seat frame and stretchers to the legs are also offset by a s ha llow h a u nc h. Without this, the mortises ' uppe r corners wou ld be exposed when the seat rails were molde d or the stretc hers' upper su rfaces rounded . The bo ttoms of the tenons are flush with the bottoms of the mortises . Glued to the upper surface of the rear seat rail is the mold ed shoe , into which the sp lat is tenoned . The rear seat-ra il tenons run the full height of the rail, and the ends of th e shoe that b utt the stiles function as a haunch . The mo rtise -and- tenons joining the center stretcher to th e side stretchers and the stiles to the crest rail are a lso cons truc ted differently. The maker's choice of a two sho uldered mortise -and -tenon joint between the center a nd side stretchers is unusual. On most Federa l-period c ha irs I have examined , the center stretcher is secured to th e si de stre tc he rs with sliding dovetails cut in from the bo tto m, so that the joint is visible only from underneath .

Because this angled mortise is parallel to the outside edge of the leg, it ean be laid out with a sq u a re and a marking gauge (top left). With the cradled leg held in the front vise of the bench, keep the bit and brace aligned with a tl')' s q u a re while roughing out the mortise (above). Clean up the rough morti se with a 'Yo- i n. morti se chisel (hottom left).

- - 85 - -

La " out the compound 102 ' angle on the top and s ide of the s t r e t c h e r (top). Cut the tenon with a dovetail s a w , leaving it s li g h tly ov ersize for now s o yo u can later fit it (b otto m).

IIEPPLEWHITE CHAIR Scale: IA. in . = 1 in.

SLIP SEAT Sealc: IA. in . = 1 in.

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Notc: Dimensions of slip seut are upproxituute. Cut suul fit lifter chuir is nssciublcd.

Notc: Huck stiles arc lnuul-shupcd, with huck side rudiuscd utul Iront side double-reeded on buth cdgcs. 19%

Vertical bevels uchievcd bv tCllOll shoulders are shown ill trout IlIId side d~lI's. Horizontul bevels achieved through IlIIglcd mortises urc shown in top dcll's IlIId sections on opposite pu!!e.

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Co rn e r block. screwed to back and side rails ' ....+--- Side seat rail.

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SECTION A-A, PARTIAL DETAIL Sc ale: Y2 in. = 1 in.

x 2

Corner block. ~Iued to front and side rails

!Al-in. shoulder (typ. side a nd front rails) - -F- - - - -""'--1 \-""""'=---\-

Front scat rail. ')4 x 2

Note: 'J1.-in. tenons are typicnl on all Joints.

except center stretcher. which is full width.

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_ _7 Rear stretcher above SECTION 8-8 Sc ale: 'Yi6 in. = 1 in .

Rear leg

Rear stretcher. % x 1 !4

SECTION 8-8, PARTIAL DETAIL Sc ale: Y2 in. = 1 in .

Side stretcher. % x 1 !4 Ce nte r stretcher. % x l !Al

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This cies» is identieal to front 'View. except thut this edgc is planed to match ung!« of rem' leg. - -

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FRONT VIEW (slip scat removed) Scale: ¥.6 in. = 1 in .

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Double-reeded molding outlines edges ,~f c re s t mil urul stiles , DETAIL D Scale: 1 in. = 1 in.

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This ~ateleg table is a Federal interpretation of a de sign for eollap!iible ruble spuee that originated in the fir!it half of the 18th eentury, (Projeet: Wooden hinge, p, 94.)

- - l) ( ) --

Gateleg Table Chapter 10

hink of all th e things we do at a table-eat, prepare food , write and work , for exampleand you 'll realize how important this piece of furniture is in o u r daily lives . Yet e ve n though we regularly need to us c a broad. flat surface. we o fte n begrudge th e am ount of space a large tabletop rak es up in a room . This b ook presents plan s for seve ra l tables that resolve this problem in different ways. Th e answer in the case of thi s particular tabl e is drop leaves. Th e table 's fixed top ha s a le af hinged o n either side. When a surface larger than th e 16 1/2-in .-wid e by 42 -in. -long fixed top is needed. o ne o r b oth o f th e 12 -in .-wide leaves can be raised to increa se th e working area o f th e folded table nearly twoor thre efold . Wh en the leaves arc low ered. the table can be placed o u t of the way ag a ins t a wall. To s u p po rt th e raised leaves. a hinged gatelcg swings o u t at a ri ght angle from the skirt on both sides o f the tabl e . Th e tabl e' s tw o fix ed le gs , positioned diagonally across from o ne an oth er, meanwhile support the fixed top . This d esi gn for collapsible table space originated in the first half o f the 18th century. and similarly constructed ga te lcg tables e x is t in both the Qu e en Ann e and Ch ip pe nda le styles . In the former, th e se tabl es have cabri ole legs and pad feet. while in the latter th ey have sq ua re . mold ed legs o r c a b rio le -typc legs with ball-andc la w feet . On this Federal interpretation o f the gateJeg form. th e tapered leg associates it with the Hepplewhite s tyle. "ad th e pi e c e be en made in th e Sh eraton style. it would have had turned legs th at might have been reed ed . For a lon g time this was our kitchen table. It is such a plain pi ece that it wa s probably o rigina lly intended for thi s purpose . Th e table 's top. leaves, four le gs and two fixed e nd rail s are made o f hard maple . while the hinged side rail s and th e inside nailers are white pine. The cho ice of white pin e as a seco nda ry wo od leads me to s us pec t that th e tabl e was made in northern New England .

II

If you choos e to mak e this ta bl e , fir st d e cide how and where it will be us ed . If it is intended for th e ki tch en , yo u might want to stay fairly cl ose to th e o rig ina l d e si gn a nd choice of wo od . You c ould. o f cou rse, s ubs titu te c he rry for maple if you want a more pronounc ed figure . And if yo u want to paint o r stain th e table , you mi ght try usin g b irc h . since this ha s a lm os t no notice able figure . Pine is e as ie r to work with and is o fte n more readily ava ila b le in wid er width s than c he rry or birch . ye t it is so fte r a nd m o re e a sily dented and scratched . If th e tabl e is intended for a more formal setting , yo u might want to make it in mahogany o r walnut. th ough. o f course , curly maple o r wav y birch is ni ce in a ny ro om in th e house . Veneer works well o n th e fix ed e nd rails if yo u make th e top in a darker wood suc h a s mahogany, a nd you could a lso inlay b anding o n th e b ottom e dge of th e sk irt or th e ankles. If yo u re ally want to make yo u r table in high- style Hepplewhite, look at th e ca rd ta bl e o n p. 10 for so me ideas o n formal decoration . If you ne ed to seat no more than six pe ople , use th e dimensions give n in th e drawings. A 48- in .-sq ., open ed top will seat eight. although , o f co u rse. it requires a large room . For a sm alle r k itchen . yo u ca n d ecre ase th e o pe n cup to as littl e as 3 6 in . sq ., whi ch will comfo rta b ly seat four. Because th e full width of th e fix ed top o n th e o r igina l table is 17 1;.. in .. including th e -Ys-in. molded e dges o f th e two rule j o in ts. it will not b e diffi cult to find th e ne c e ssary stock in mahogany , but lo cating native wo ods o f that width will require some sea rc h ing. Depending o n th e wo od and th e table size you ch oo se . yo u ma y ha ve to b e gin the project by gluing up th e to p . Before leaving a side th e qu e stion of whi ch wo od to use for th e tabl e. I want to sh a re o ne final obse rva tio n. Afte r ab out 170 ye a rs of use. th e wo oden h in ges o n th e side rail s o f th e o rigina l table h ad worn e no ug h to all ow th e legs to chuck back and forth . Th eref ore a co u p le o f years ago, Carol and I de cided that since eve ry day use

-- 91 -

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e nd a ng e re d th e tabl e . it s ho u ld b e retired upstairs, wh ere we now usc it to c a t s u p pe r at while watching th e even ing new s. Based o n thi s e xpe rie nc e. I would rec omm end using ha rdw o od ins tea d o f pin e for th e side rail s. If yo u do usc pi ne . how e ve r, th e p roblem o f a worn joint will p robably no t occu r in yo u r lifetim e. Wh e th er or not yo u glue up th e to p. th e wo od will h ave to be s u rface d . The to p o f the o rig ina l ta ble is ~ in . thi ck. Were it a ny thi cke r, it would vio la te th e fe eling o f d eli c acy th at was so important to Federal -p eri od fu rn itu re ma ke rs . Whil e it is. o f co urse . po ssibl e to tak e a 1-in .-thi ek b o a rd dow n to ;y.; in. with a hand plan e . thi s is h eav y. te di ou s work. I would s ugges t tha t you take yo u r stoc k to a lum berya rd that d o e s c usto m milling if yo u don 't have a thi ckn ess plan e r. Have the m thi c kn ess-pl an e th e to p to sligh tly ove r ~ in.. th en yo u ca n hand-plan e away the milling marks. Aft er th e le av e s ha ve b e en su rfaced . they shou ld be molded o n o ne e dge to a s pec ia l sha pe called a ru le j oi nt. This join t was fir st c rea te d in th e ea rly l S th cen tur y an d ha s be en s ta nd a rd fo r d rop-le af tab les e ve r since . Th c rea son it is so long-li ved is sim p ly th at it works well. Its p r\ncip al fun ction is to hide th e ta bl e 's hinges . but it a lso se rves a h ygieni c purpose . Beca use thi s ta bl e is used for bo th ea ting a t a nd preparing foo d o n. a gre a t deal o f mat eri al in ev itabl y works it s way into th e j o int s be tw een

th e leave s. Wh en th e le av es o n the ga te leg are low ered . th e rul e joints are s u ffici e ntly exposed to be clea ne d with a sp onge. O n th e o riginal ta b le . th e rule jo int was s haped wi th a pair o f s pec ia l mold in g plane s call ed table -le a f planes . (I hav e includ ed a pi cture o f m y plane s in th e chapter on the Pem b roke ta bl e o n p. 15 6) . If yo u cannot fin d a set of tabl e -le af plan es , m ak e yo ur rul e j o int with a ro ute r. Befo re c u tting th e ac tual rul e joint. I suggest you make a tr ial joint o n sc ra pwood. Th en I re c omme nd mo ldi ng the edges o f th e lea ves be fo re c u tting th e le aves to fina l width-th at wa y. if yo u mak e a mi stake. yo u may still ha ve e no ug h roo m to re joi nt th e e dge an d try aga in . Beg in the rul e joi n t by sh a p ing th e c onvex cu rve of the joint o n b oth sides of th e fix ed top. Ne x t shape the co ncave c urve of the insi de e dge of th e two le av e s. Wh e n thi s is do ne . lay the le ave s a nd fixed top d ow n. right side up . a nd mesh the two ru le join ts to tes t th e ir fit. Wh e n the fit is correc t. secu re th e join ts p erman entl y in positio n wi th fo u r ta ble -lea f hinge s. Th e m ount ing o f this special hinge is d iscu ssed in deta il in th e Pemb rok e- ta ble c ha pt er. After co m ple ti ng th e rul e joint a nd mount ing the ta bl e leaf hinges . mak e th e wood en hinge s in th e side ra ils that a llow th e ga te legs to swing o u t . You 'll fin d fu ll in structi o ns for mak ing these h in ge s in th e proj ect sec tion of this ch apte r o n p. 9 4.

A woodcn hin~c in both sidc rail s allows onc of thc rails to swin~ out and thc at ruched ~utclc~s to support thc raised leave s of thc tuhlc, sC~J11cnt

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Wh en th e wood en hi nges a rc finish ed. mak e and assemble th e parts o f th e base . Beg in by sha p ing th e legs . Th e tw o in side s u rfa c es of th e low er legs a re tapered. whil e th e upper e nds arc sq ua re , as s ho wn in th e d rawing o n p . 9 8. Thi s d esi gn allo ws th e o u ts ide s u rfaces o f the legs to b c pa rall el to the s k irt and al so makes th e legs appear thinner tha n rh ey re all y a re. Layo u t th e tapers with a pencil a nd a s t ra igh te dge and plan e to th e lin e with a sm oothing plan e . Wh ile sh a pi ng t he legs. rem em ber to c ha m fer th e in side co rne r wh e re th e tape rs m e e t. Th is will add a su b tle but pleasi ng d e tail to th e ove rall look of th e table . Next cut th e m orti se -and-tenon jo in ts o n th e s ide a nd en d ra ils a nd th e legs. Th e tw o fix ed legs are joined o n o ne si de to th e fixed e nd rail and o n th e oth er s ide to th e fix ed portion o f the si de rail. The tw o ga tc legs arc join ed to th e m ova bl e p orti on of th e s ide rail. Th erefore each fix ed leg h as tw o m o rti se s. whil e each ga tc lcg has o nly o ne. I would begi n by c u t t ing th e m ortise -and-ten ons for th e fix ed legs a nd th en c u t th o se fo r the ga tc legs. Alth ou gh yo u will . of cou rse. ne e d to te s t-fit th ese pa rts. I would s ugges t doing a ny asse mbly at t his po in t dry. waiting to glue th e parts until eve ryt h ing h as bee n cu t and fit. O n th e o rigina l table, each joi nt wa s al so sec ured with two wood en whittled pins th at pierce d th e m ort isc -and-ten on s. You mi ght want to add s im ila r pi ns. s ince the y e ns u re aga ins t glue failu re. With th e j o ints for th e legs c o m ple te d. yo u ca n turn yo ur a ttc nt io n to d o vcr ntling th e in side nail ers to th e fre e e nd of each en d ra il. These in s id e b oards c an b e cut to fini sh ed length after the d o vetail s have b e en fit . Note that thc cut-off length of th ese bo a rd s is not c ruc ia l. When a ll th e join ts a rc com ple te . asse mble th e wooden hmge in th e s ide ra il a nd slide in th e m etal pin. mu shroom ed e nd up . to hold th e hinge in po siti on. ( Ins t ruc t io ns fo r m aking th e m etal pin are included with th o se for th e wo od en hinge in th e proj e ct scc tio n .) Th e result o f all this j oinery has b een to create tw o thre e -sid ed fram e s . Eac h fram e ha s a leg attach ed to both e nds o f th e s ide rail. Wh en th ese two thre e- sided fram es a re ne st ed . th e y form th e base o f th e table. All th at rem ains to co m ple te th e base is to combin e the tw o fra mes. Do th is by s mea ring glue on the back s u rface o f th e fix e d porti on of th e si de rail a nd c la m p ing th e parts into po sit ion to dry . O n th e o rigi na l table . th e se glue joints were furth er sec u red with wro ug h t-iro n cl ench na ils. Th ese nail s are ve ry soft and were drawn o u t by a nail o r (a s pec ia l t yp e of blacksmith ) to a needle point. Wh en a c le nc h nail is d ri ven through a board a nd into a he avy m et al hamm er. it will c le nc h , o r turn back o n it self. much lik e a fishho ok . Wh en co rrcc t ly cl en ch ed , o nly th c nail h ead a nd th c a pex of th e c u rve in th e ho ok a re visible . The way a nail is c le nc hed nowad a ys is a very different m atter. It is s im p ly driv en through a board a nd th e ex posed en d banged down . a c rude facsimil e o f wh at wa s o nce a very ne at . p erm anent m eth od o f fin ishing o ff and sec u ring a nail. If you kn ow a bl a ck smith wh o is willing to mak c wrought nail s o u t of mild stee l. you can cl ench th em properl y yo u rself. If yo u pref er a sim ple r app roach . I sugges t sec uri ng the tw o glue d faces o n th e ba sc b y driving so me wo od sc re ws thro ug h th em .

To a tta c h th e to p to th e b ase , wrou gh t-ir on T-h ead ed fini sh nails. al so o nce made b y nailors . were u sed o n th c o rig inal. Nail s were driven th rou gh th e to p into eac h o f th e fix ed le gs and in to th e skirt nea r th e dovc ta ll joints . Wh en thi s nail is se t, a ll th at is vis ible is a thin s live r o f m e tal . S ince th e se nail s a re no longer made , h ow e ve r, a nd it m a y b e diffi cult to find a blacksmith willing to p rodu c c th cm for yo u , I would s ugges t a n a lte rn a tivc m eth od fo r jo in ing th e top a nd ba sc . Th is m eth od require s o nly s ta nda rd wo od sc re ws a nd is in vi sibl e fro m th e to p. O n the ins ide surfaces o f thc rails. use a n in -can nel gouge to c ut a way four sc re w pockets lik e th ose sho wn in th e d rawi ng o n p . 98. At eac h o f th e se pla c es, drill a h ol e (s light ly larger th an th c sc re w 's diam eter) a t a s te e p a ng le fro m th e b ottom o f th e cut to th e to p e dge o f th c rail. Slide a sc re w in thi s hol e until it bite s in to th e ta bl e top . As yo u work . watch for th e telltal e dimpl e th at ind ica tes th e sc re w is about to come through th e upper s u rfac e. If ne c e ssary . back o u t the sc re w a nd grind aw a y th e po in t. O n th e table I m ad e for o ur kitch en . I fa st en ed tw o thin bl ock s to th e und ersid e o f each lcaf to s t ra d d le th c gate le g wh en it is o pe n . These bl ock s e ns u re th at th e ga te leg is alw a ys positioned to be st s u p port t he lea f. The bl o cks ca n be se c u re d w ith glue. o r yo u mi gh t use b ra ds. O ne wo rd of warning about using your tabl e : Ne ver lift a le a f a ny h igh er than nece ssa ry to o pe n th e ga te lcg. Doi ng so would pu t s tra in o n th e hinges and mi ght ca use a sec tio n of t he ru le joint to b re a k o u t. O nce th e co ns t ru ct io n is co m ple te. t he tab le is re ad y for fini shing . Beca use th e o rigina l tabl e was a purel y fun cti on al pi ece o f furniture pu t to hard use . it wa s painted with a thin red wash . whi ch a n tiq ue co llecto rs o fte n c all " old red stain ." Th is fini sh was pe rfec tly s ui ted to th e table ' s purpose . as it wa s re s ist ant to a lmost a ny th ing th e table 's o wne rs co uld pla c e o r s p ill o n it. Th e wa sh . a th in paint with littl e body . was largel y ab sorb cd into th e wo od immedi atcl y up on a pplica tio n. T h is meant th at hot pans from th e fir epla ce would not b lis te r it. nor would alcohol o r o t he r h arsh h ou sehold so lu tio ns di ssolve it. Furthermore . it would no t readil y sc rub o ff. The thin paint in thi s red wa sh co ns is te d of a n ironox ide pi gm ent su sp end ed in a n o il ba se . It p ro b a bl y a lso co nt a ine d so me white lead. since t ha t was a s ta nda rd in gr edient o f paint a t th e time . but b e cau se thi s tabl e wa s an in expen siv e pi ec e . th e ca bi ne tma ker probably sk im ped o n the lead . Th e re sulting mixtu re wa s a wa sh with abo u t the sa me b od y as a wiping sta in. I m ak e a s im ila r wash with a com me rcia l milk paint. th inning it m arc than th e in stru cti ons sugges t. I th en bru sh it o n lik c a n o il w iping s ta in. O ve r this I appl y a light coa t o f lin se ed o il. thinned with turpentine , whi ch gives a mat shee n to th e ve ry flat milk paint. If you do not want to fini sh your tabl e with a colo re d wa sh. I sugges t a matte varnish. which wa sh e s easily a nd is durabl e . If you make yo u r tabl e in m ah ogany . walnu t. c u rly m apl e o r so me o the r e xo tic wood a nd you wi sh to put it to m ore form al use . yo u mi ght consider a sh ella c fini sh. In time . thi s fini sh will d e vel op its o w n patina and c reate a ve ry handsome e ffect.

- - <)3 - -

Wooden hinge Fro m th e tim e this particular s ty le o f gateleg table was introduced, the wo oden hinge becam e th e s ta nda rd for suc h ta bles. Although th e c oncept o f the hinge remained un changed . th e workmanship from table to table was as individual as a signature , and e ac h Fe de ra l-pe rio d craftsman see me d to prefer hi s own d esign. size and number o f knuckl e s. meth od o f und ercutting, and so forth. To lay out th e knuckles of th e hinge on th e side rail. begin with st ock that is 31 % in. long by 1 1;:1 in . thick by 6 in . wid e . Firs t measure 9 112 in. from the shoulder of the I 1h-in . tenon that se cures the ga te le g . Using a square , sc rib e a vertical line at this point. Next draw an ad d itional parall el line o n e ith e r sid e of the first line, 1 Va in . from it. Exte nd th ese three lin e s o n b oth e nds o f the board around th e other sid e . Th e se three lin e s sh ould next be crisscrossed at right an gle s by a se ries o f four lines that delin eate th e knuckles . Th e distance betwe en ea c h of th e se new lines is 1 ¥I6 in ., with th e top and bottom lines equidistant from th e top a nd bottom edges of th e board . Before separating the tw o se c t io ns o f the side rail. mark th e waste sq ua res o f the knuckles with an X to prevent

A ft e r determining the pl acement of the hinge , la you t th e k n uckle s o n both s id es of th e board and mark the w a s te a re as.

Head of pill is 1/Iushroolll ed ooc r to k eep it from slidillg througll.

\4-in.-d ia. ste el pin , approximatel y 7 in. lo ng. cut flush to hinge bottom

/

X

The wooden hinge in each s i de rail divides the rail into two s e c t io ns, one that be comes fixed and one that s w ings out and ~ 1 \4 is joined to a AateleA. / ~

Movabl e ra il

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T

No te: Knu ckles arc 1:Hi in . IOIlg. T h r ee interio r knu ck le s are J .y, ,, i n . wide, wi t h rcmuining m uteriul cq lw lly d h 'ided fo r two ex te rio r knuckles.

Baek s ide of m oc a bl e-rail kllu ckles is ra d iu setl to a llow free IIIO'Oelll ellt. - -- -- -

-94 -

II'li ell kllu ekles a re c u r, bu ek' sides a re ooerc u r by about lh ill. and area is remoced late r to allo w free lIIotioll .

Scparatc thc knucklcs with a s a w e u t that' s about '12 in. d eepe r o n the back of thc board than on t hc front [ ub o ve }, C u t away the inncr wa ste a r e as with a coping s a w, lind u sc II hacksuw to cut off thc outsidc waste areas on thc movable licct i o n of thc hinAc (ri~ht).

Us e II chisel to rclicvc the back s ide of each hlnge s ce t to n where the waste areas have been cut IIWII~' [above}, Itound the back corncr of thc knuckles on the movable liidc of thc hinAc with a chi licl to II110w thc hingc to sw ive l without blnding (riAht).

la te r co nfusion . (T he fixed section will h a ve thre e kn uc kle s, and the movab le sectio n wit h th e ga te leg will h a ve two.) The n cu t a long the center ve rt ica l lin e wi th a crosscut saw to separate th e two sectio ns of th e sk irt. Place eac h of th e sectio ns in a vise, wit h th e knu ckl es up a nd the la you t lines facing you , a nd conti n ue the h o rizontal la yout lin e s o n th e e nd g ra in a nd d o wn th e back s ide . Wi th a hac ksaw. c u t a lo ng t he lin es tha t d ivide th e kn uckles. O n bo t h sec tio ns of the rail. be su re to m ak e yo u r c u ts on th e wa ste side of th e lin e. This will c re a te a tigh ter fit a nd give more leewa y for adj us ti ng th e m esh o f th e kn uc kl e s . To make it easier late r to re lieve th e back side b el ow each was te section . lift th e sa w handle whil e cutt ing th e knuckle a nd exte nd th e kerf do wn o n th e re ar side to u nd erc u t t he wood a ppro xim a te ly 112 in . belo w th e fro nt li ne. -

Use a co p ing sa w to rem ov e th e inner wa ste a reas b etween the knuckle s. and th e hacksaw to cut away th e tw o e nd piece s o f wa st e . Tes t-fit th e tw o p arts o f th e hinge a nd sha ve any ti ght areas with a c h isel. If the knuckl e s a re too tight. th e y may bind wh en th e wood swe lls with sea sonal m oi sture c ha nges . You sho u ld b e a b le to see a fin e halo of da ylight around ea c h part o f th e j oint. Take th e pi ece o u t o f th e vise a nd turn it ove r to work o n th e back s ide . Wh ere th e wa ste ha s b e en remov ed . reli ev e the backs for a distance of about 112 in . with a chisel. Ne x t place th e m ov able ga releg section of th e hinge in th e vis e , with its tw o knu ckle s up and th e b ack s u rfa c e facin g yo u, and round th e back co rne r o f both knu ckl e s with a chi sel. You ma y have to fin e -tun e th e se c u ts a fte r th e joint is a ssembl ed . but it is easier to rem o ve m ost o f th e corn er now . - 95 --

While drilli n g a I/o-in. ph'o t hole through the center of the knuckl e s on t h e fi xe d section of the hinge, u sc a s q u a re to help keep the bit ve r t ic a l.

Once you have ground a rounded end on a l/o-in.-dia., s o ft - s te el pin, peen the o t h e r end with a hamm er to mu shroom the head.

After th e knuckle s ha ve bee n shaped, m ou nt the fixed sectio n o f th e hinge horizontall y in th e vise . Locate the center of th e topm ost , o u ts ide knu ckl e by ma rking an X from corne r to co rner o n th e knu ckl e ' s to p ed ge. Pierce the ce n te r of this knu c kle with a l;.t·in. drill. If you work wit h a brac e a nd bit o r a n e lect ric ha nd drill. use a square to e ns ure th at th e b it stays ve rtica l. Drill through the first knuc kle a nd th en ce nte r the b it o n th e m id dle knuckle . Drill o nly abo u t hal fway thro ug h thi s knuckle . Flip the board ove r a nd rem ou nt it in the vise. The n find a nd d rill the ce n ter of th e o the r o u ts ide k nu c kle in the sa me wa y as th e fir st. O nce the bit has drilled completely th rough thi s knu c kle , ce n te r it o n th e m iddl e knuc kle a nd drill until the b it b rea ks th rough th e hol e drille d hal fwa y th rough from th e o the r s ide. Re assem bl e the fixed a nd mova bl e si des of the hinge a nd place bo th pi e ce s together in the vise, mak ing s u re they a re p ro perly aligned. Place th e bi t in the hole yo u have al read y drill ed in th e top k nuc kle . This hol e sho uld hold th e bi t in line while you co nt inue to bo re throu gh th e remaining two knuckles on th e fixed side. Yo u sho uld be a ble to d rill completely th rough th e hinge witho u t tu rning th e rail over. To hold the h inge in po sition , a me tal pin must be frictio n-fit in th e hole s . To mak e th is pin, first grind or file a ro unded tip o n o ne e nd of a Ik in. so ft-stee l rod that is abo ut 7 1f2 in. lon g. Next pla c e th e rod in a vise wit h the un sh aped e nd protruding above th e jaw s . Peen th is e nd of th e pin with a hamm e r by strik ing th e e dges with gla nc ing blows, wo rking aro u nd th e e n t ire e dge so th a t it is evenly m us h roo me d. Si nc e the hole s in th e k nu ckl es will c ha nge d iam eter seaso na lly a nd will eve nt ua lly wear. this mu sh ro om ed e nd will preve nt th e p in fro m falling o ut of th e jo in t. Assem ble th e join t fo r th e fina l tim e. Insert the pin from th e top side and drive it in with a hamm er. The ro u nded tip will pr e ven t it from han gin g up as it pa sses thro ug h the ro w o f hol es in the knuckle s , Wh en th e pin is comple te ly in serted , use a ha ck saw to c u t th e e nd of the pin tlus h with th e low er e dge o f th e ra il. With th e hinge asse m ble d . th e knu ckl e s sho uld clear eac h o the r. If th e y d o not , use a c hisel to adj ust the fit. O nce th e joint swi ngs fre el y. la y th e side ra il flat on th e s urface o f th e work bench a nd hold th e fixed section firml y d own with o ne hand . Use yo u r fre e hand to rai se the ga te leg sectio n. Yo u will be a ble to fe el if the rou nded back sides o f th e knuckl es rub agai ns t th e bench to p . The rubbing sho uld marl, th e hi gh spots so th a t th e y can be eas ily found a nd shaved with a c hisel.

- - 96 --

GATE LEG T AULE Scale: 'J-S2 in. = 1 in.

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Top Vicw (top removed]

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Front Vicw

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DETAIL A (taken in section) Scale: \6 in. = 1 in.

LEG Scale: 14 in. = 1 in.

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Wood screws set ---./ / in pockets call be substituted for clench nails.

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l-In. nailer -

114-in. fixed -

table leaf (closed)

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rail

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Pivot center of llillJ!e is located .y,; ill. from fixed top's edJ!e.

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TAIJLE FRAME Scale: ~ in . = 1 in.

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DETAIL B (secrlon through joint) Scale: ~ in . = 1 in.

Movable rail (closed)

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Glue joints of nailers to fixed rail arc further secured with clench nails or wood screws.

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Optional dowel Note: Tenon is 5 in . high.

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stcel pin

DETAIL C [seerion through joint) Scale: ~ in. = 1 in. - f-- -

- --I-in. nailer. attached to end mil with half-blind dovetail on one end

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lJottom View

Notc: Tenon is 5 ill. lIigh and Hush with bottom of momble mil.

- - 99 - -

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Introduced in the late 18th century, Fancy chairs quickly gained enormous popularity, and Fane)' and \Vindsor chair shops became some of the laboratorie.. in which the principle.. of mu....producing furniture were developed and te..ted. (Projeete Reeding with a plane, p, 103.)

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10 0 -

Fancy Chair Chapter 11

h is c ha ir is kn own tod ay . as it wa s in th e Fe de ra l peri od. as a Fa ncy c ha ir. Most of th e pi e c es pre sented in th is book represent Fede ra l in te rp re ta tio ns of fo rm s o f furniture th at were well kn own bef ore th e period. This is not so with the Fa ncy c ha ir. how ever. whi ch was introduced in the late 18th cen tury . The Fa ncy c ha ir e mbod ies th e Fede ra l conce p t o f de licacy with out fragility. It wei gh s o nly a bo u t 8 lb .. ye t is c a pable o f s u p po rt ing 20 0 lb . It is not o nly lightwei ght. s tro ng a nd portabl e but a lso co mfort a ble and good looking . Ne arl y tw o cen tu ries afte r it wa s built. the ch air sho wn h ere (as we ll a s th e o the rs from th e se t o f ten Fa nc ies we hav e in o u r dining roo m) s till retains these qualiti es. which is partl y wh y [ selected it for the bo ok. Th c manufacture of both Fancy ch airs and Windsor chairs repres ented an important mil estone in th e history of furniturcmak ing . Tho ug h introdu ced later th an Windsors, Fan ci e s ga ine d popul arity ove r Windsors with Fed eral peri od Am erican s . In tim e , Fa ncy ch airmakcrs largel y ab sorbed th e produ ction o f Windsor c ha irs and b egan to o ffe r both typ e s o f c ha irs . The Fede ra l-pe rio d sho ps in whi ch th ese chairs were m ad e becam e laboratori es in whi ch th e ma ss-producti on principl es o f interchan ge a ble parts . su bco nt rac ti ng a nd th e asse m bly lin e were appli ed and test ed . In th e se la b ora to ries and in th e Windso r a nd Fa ncy c hairs th emselves a re th e roots of o u r modern furn it u re indu stry. In fa ct. Lambert Hit chc ock the man gc nc rnlly c re d ite d with c rea ting th e first furniture fa c tory in th e ea rly 19th ce nt ury in Riverton. Co nne c t ic u t. was. as a b oy. apprentic ed to a nd train ed b y a Fancy c ha irrn ak cr. Th e ubiquitous Hitchc ock ch a ir is really nothing more than a [ate Fed eral-period int erpretation o f th e Fa nc y. An oth er reason [ wanted to include a Fancy chair in thi s bo ok is that it presents an hi storical perspective on our c u rre nt attitud e toward wood that may seem unusual to

T

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modern -da y woodworkers . \Ve tend now to d e vote co nside ra ble a tte ntio n in woodworking to cho o sing j us t th e right wood for a give n p roj e c t. An e labo ra te fig u re is co ns ide re d d esira bl e an d . as a re sult. is integral to m ost modern c usto m furniture. The Fa ncy c hairm a kcrs a tt itu de to wa rd wood was q uite different. For h im , it was th e fin ish , not th e wo od it self. th at was of inte res t. In fact , th e Fa ncy c ha ir's painted a nd decora te d fin ish was o f s uc h importan ce th at it gave rise to th e c hai r's nam e a nd , as you 'll see in a moment. also dete rm ine d its d e si gn . Wh en a Fa ncy c ha irrn ake r se lecte d h is wood , h e wa s principally conce rned with it s workability and th e smoo th ness o f it s s u rface . He was intere sted in figure and grnin o nly insofar as th e y affected the wo od 's us e as a foundati on for th e fini sh . For exam ple, he would not choo se oak for his chairs b ecau se it s open grain would not paint well. This seco nda ry interest in figure and gra in is reflected in o th e r pi eces in thi s b ook as well , namely the so fa (p. 30) . th e Windsor chair (p. 11 8 ) and th e di splay sh elf (p. 12 6) . Although modern woodworkers m a y co ns ide r it h ere sy to gra nt s uc h rel ati vel y minor importanc e to th e wo od itself in a pi e ce of furnitur e, this idea was not unu su al in the past. Ce rta inly some o f th e fin e st furniture ever mad e treated wo od in this mann er. and th e mak er o f this c ha ir was no le ss a wo odworker than th e c ra fts me n respon sibl e for th e ca rd table (p. 10 ) . th e large tip -top ta bl e (p. 50 ) o r th e sec re tary ( p . 58 ) . all o f whi ch ca p ita lize o n e labo rate figu re . Th e Fancy's painted fin is h not o nly di ctated th e se lec tio n o f material. it al so d etermined th e chair's d e si gn . Th e cha trma ke r had to provid e th e decorative painter with as man y flat su rfa ces as p ossible- a ta sk that required so me cl e ver d esi gn work , si nce the c h a ir is basic all y m ad e o f turned parts. This ne ed for unmolded s u rfa ces to d ecorate expla ins th e Fan c y's traditionally flattened stil es, th e thin se a t band and such features as th e medalli on s us pe nd ed betwe en th e crest rail s .

- 101 - -

Th e Fancy chairs in our set are made almost entirely of soft maple . Thi s wood turns e asily and is smo o th when fini sh ed . Th e front seat rail with two exposed and d ec orated triangular blocks is also soft maple, but the side and back seat rails, which are e nt irely hidden b y th e rush, a re ash. Th e se a t b and is pin e. Th e s tock for these Fanci es was riven , which means the turning billets were split directly from th e log. Since riving results in straight gra in, th e s t iles, front s tre tc he rs and back s tre tc he r and rails c ould b e bent with almost no risk o f breaking. That sa me straight gra in e ns u re d that the wood in th e front legs would b e s tro ng enough to b e turned to a %-in.-th ic k neck j us t bel ow th e se a t b and. If you decid e to make this c h a ir a nd d o not riv e your wood , be careful to se lec t stoc k that is p erfectly s tra igh t. Th e front le gs on thi s chair are re eded a ro u nd three q ua rt e rs o f their circumferenc e . (A d etailed exp la na tio n of how to re ed th e le gs foll ow s o n th e facing pa ge .) In th e unre eded area , socke ts are drilled with a spoon bit for the front and side s tre tc he rs. These s t re tc h e rs as well a s th e c res t rails a nd ba ck rails are all turned and th en s te ame d and b ent to sh a pe o n a form. Th e tenons o n all of the c ha ir 's rail s and s tre tc he rs are rounded on the e nds to bette r fit th e hol e s cut by th e spoon bit. Note th at th e spoo n bit can drill to very nearly th e full thickne ss o f the legs with out breaking through th e wood , a nd th at th e chair is be st constructed with th e d e epe st po ssible sockets and th e longest possi bl e tenons.

Painted striping and stenciled designs decorate the Funey chair's unmolded surfaces, The stripinA mimics the strinA inla~' found on more formal Federal furniture, and the stenciled desi~ns simulate OrIUOIIl" or cllMt-braMl!i ornanlcnt.

The rear legs are joined to the crest and back rails , th e back stretcher, the side stretchers, and the ba ck and sid e seat rails . In the case of the latter two rail s, th e rear se a t rail sh ould be installed first. Th e side seat-rail socke t can then be drilled and will intersect th e re ar rail. The pine seat band is a ¥a· in.- th ic k, steam-b ent s trip applied after th e se a t is wov en . When softened in a stearnbox , this strip can b e bent ri ght ove r th e o u tl ine of the seat and held in place with a b ar clamp until dry. The band , made o f two separate pi ec es for th e front o f th e se a t and the se c tio n betwe en the rear legs, is tacked in positio n with T-headed brads. The brad h eads b ecom e nearly invisible under the five coats of fini sh . Th e med alli on between th e two cre st rails is also h eld in plac e with brads, one in serted from above and th e other from b el ow . Th e finish o n this Fancy chair, called japanni ng, is built up of numerous layers of o il paint and varnish . The fir st lay er of paint is a Ch inese red, which is polish ed smo o th with an abrasive su c h as 000 st eel wo ol. A seco nd coa t of th e same color is then applied, but no furth er b uffi ng is required. A la yer of flat black is next laid ov er th e red and is " false -graine d" to present an abstract interpretati on o f an exotic , real wood , in this case mahogany. Thi s technique was commonly used during th e Federal peri od to d ec orate informal furniture , and ranged in executi on from th e abstract to th e tru e trompe l'oeil. To fals e-gra in this c hai r, apply the black paint to the red a small area a t a time . If the black is applied to the entire chair at o nce, it may set up so that it cannot b e gra ined . I used a ra g so a ke d in turpentine and wrung as drya s possible to p roduce th e gra ining. Instead of drawing the ra g ov er th e wo od, I rem oved th e black with s t ro ke s that were halfway b e twee n a pat and a sla p. If you 're unhappy with th e re sult, more black can simply be laid ov er th e e xpo se d red a nd th e graining proc ess begun an ew. Two pie ces o f advic e may be h elpful in producing successful gra in ing : Be s ub tle-the effect is supposed to b e s u b d u e d . Also , b e random-real wood figure do es not occur in a repeated pattern. Th e painted decorati on on this chair is a c om b ina tio n of s trip ing a nd stenciled sym me tric a l d esi gn s. (The book b y Blanchard in th e bibliograph y e xp la ins how to do b oth o f these te chniques .) Striping sim u la tes th e s tring inlay used to decorate more form al Federal furniture , lik e the ca rd table on p . 10. The s te nc ils are used to sim ula te o rmo lu , the cast-brass decorati on that appears o n late Federa lperiod furnitu re a nd was popularized b y French cabinetmakers who came to America fle eing th e Fre nc h Revolution and Rei gn o f Terror. Once th e s trip ing and s te nc iling are dry , two coa ts o f clear varnish a re laid ove r th e e n tire chair. Thi s produ ce s a fini sh th at is five lay ers thick and ex tre mely du rabl e . The rush se a t on the Fancy chair was painte d as well. Th e o rigina l se a ts on o u r dining-ro om se t o f c hai rs, onc e painted light blu e-gr ay , have been repl aced wi th sim ila rly painted sea ts . Those wh o want to make this c h a ir will find information o n so u rc es for ru sh in th e s u p pliers list a t the ba ck o f the book, and instru ct ions for weavin g a rus h sea t in a pamphlet in th e bibli ograph y.

- - 102 - -

Reeding with a plane During the Federal period. Fancy chairs were inexpensive pieces of furniture . and the ornament on these chairs was usually produced with relatively easy and moderately priced methods . The reeding on the front legs of this particular Fancy. for example, was done with a reeding plane. called a center-bead plane. and was less difficult and less costly than reeding carved by hand . Because th e plane can track only along a straight line, this method of reeding cannot be used on a vase-shaped turning like the arm post of the sofa (p . 30). The slight taper of the legs on this chair does cause the reeds to lea n as they progress around the legs, but this angled reeding is not noticeable once the chair is assembled . If you do not have a ¥a-in. center-bead plane, the reeding can also be made with a Stanley #55 or #45 or with a multi-plane . Whatever plane you use, the edges of the cutter must produce a V-groove ra ther than a tlatbottomed cut , called a quirk . If the cutter makes a qu ir k. the reeds will be undercut and damaged. If your pla ne does not have such a cutter. regrind a ¥a-in. cutter blade to the shape shown below.

PAITERN FO R FRONT LEG Grid: ~ in. = 1 in .

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The Fancy chair's legs arc reeded around three-quarters of their circumference; the unreedcd area houses the 'lockets for the 'lt r e t e h c rs .

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To resha pe a c u tte r blade for reeding. grind its flat-bottomed sides (left) to V -shaped legs (righ t).

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Reeding

I I. Witl, parting tool . rim a straigl,t line to begin tracking groove.

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J. Noll pl an e so that both legs c u t. and make seve ra l pa sses to s lut pe f i rs t reed . 4. To k e ep re eds s t ra ig h t . shap e s ix o r se ve n . wo rk ing i n on e directio n : return to first reed and work othe r in o p po s ite direetion,

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-

103-

5. Needs s ho u ld be left s lig h tly flat all top to keep tl lCm from being undercut_

Afte r turn ing o ne o f th e front legs to th e sha pe sho wn o n the previo us page , sh ut o ff th e la th e a nd pull th e plu g to preve nt an acc ide n ta l sta rt- u p . Remov e th e turning and :l }ig n the tool re st perfe ctl y o n th e ce nte rline be tween th e tail an d dri ve ce n te rs o f the lathe , as d escrib ed in the proje ct section of th e so fa c hap ter on p. 33 . The n sw ing the rest out of the way, re mou nt the turning a nd push the tool res t tightly aga ins t the area to be reeded. Trace a lin e using the res t as a stra ightedge . Swi ng th e rest away fro m th e turn ing a nd ro ta te th e turning so that th e lin e is o n top. Ru n th is lin e out with a V-sha ped pa rting tool. Use th e groove to gui de o ne s ide of the ce n ter-bead's c utter, whose firs t pass will m ak e the groove perfec tly straight. This groove ca n th en be use d as a tracki ng groove to begi n the reeding. I find it easiest to do th e reeding from be hind the la th e , reaching over th e leg to work. Draw the pla ne back so th a t one leg of the c u tter is in the V-groove yo u ju st c ut. Ma ke the first pass, ro lling the pla ne slig h tly so th at o nly th e o ne leg in the groove is c utti ng. This pass will deepe n and straighten the groove. Then ro ll the pla ne so tha t both sides of th e c utter a re ma king contact wit h the leg and make a no ther pass, whi c h wi ll prod uce a seco nd be vel e d groove a nd defi ne th e first reed. If necessa ry , ma ke a not her pass to co m ple te th e cu ts. Do no t de velo p th e

reed so it is a full half -round , howe ve r; it should be slig htly fla t on to p, o r yo u will run into proble m s in cutting the next reed. Afte r th e first re ed is c om pl e te d , return the plane to the starting po int o f the re eding and place it so that the leg at' the c u tter tha t wi ll do the track ing rid e s in the nearest of the two grooves just ma de . This will cause the plane to tra ck parall el to th e first re e d while cutting the second. Mak e a no ther pa ss or two to develop the second reed. Move th e pla ne so th a t aga in one leg of the cutter rides in the neares t groove a nd the other leg rides on the unreeded su rface . Cut the th ird reed in th e sa me manner as the fir st two. As th e number of reeds in c re a se s, they will begin to sla nt due to the leg's slight ta pe r. You can minimize this slant by wo rk ing six or seven re e d s in one direction, then returning to the firs t reed and working the remaining reeds in the o p pos ite d ire ction. Usc a small parting tool to do a ny c lea nup ne ed ed at the top or bottom of the reeds . Reed on ly abo u t th re e -fou rth s of the circumference of th e leg. The tota l num be r of reeds is unimportant, though of cou rse th e more consistent the re e d ing on the four legs of th e chair, th e be tte r it wi ll look. In our set of Fancies, th e re a re as few as 13 reeds o n a leg an d as many as 1S. The unreeded area o n eac h fron t leg will be positioned di agon ally backwa rd so that it faces the opposite rear leg .

U8i n g the tool re st a 8 a guide, draw a 8t ra ig h t line to mark the fir8t reed.

Move the re st out of the way and cut a groove al on g t h e p en c il line with a parting tool .

The plane will t ruck in the groove to s h a p e the fir8t reed. Mal,e the fir8t cut with the plane guided by one le g.

T o minimi ze the s la n t of the reeding caused hy the leg' 8 taper, work half of the reeds in one direction around the circumference of the leg, then return to the fir8t ree d and fi nish re eding in the oppostte direction.

-104-

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Top View

Fnlsc -gruiuiug' und d ecorati ve striping u rc p u in t e d with o il p u i u t u u d th e stenciling with bronz e p owders.

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REAR LEG AND STILE SECTIONS Scale: 'h in. = 1 in.

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Crest mils (2) . 0 d x 12 u.. bent; tenons, 0 d.\: ~ Buck mils (.J) . r.hd x 12 0. bent: tenons, r.hd .\: ~ Buck stretc he r (1 ) . ~ d x 11 Yt<; renons, 0 d x ~ Front stretchers (.J) . r. hd x 11 0. bent: tenons. r.hd x ~ S id e stre tchers (4) . ~ d .\: 12 0 (top) und la y. (bo tto m); tenons. 0 d x ~

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In Federal homes, where the only source of heat was the fire plaee, bellows were an essential tool for quickly building a fire and keepin~ it ablaze. (Projectl Front-board dccoration, p, II")

-

108 -

Bellows Chapter 12

efo re th e d evelopm ent of the woodstove in the late 18th century, fir epla ce s were the onl y so u rce o f h eat in a hou se . In Xew England . • wh ere th e temperature in winter regularl y falls well belo w zero, th e ability to keep a fir e blazing o r to qui ckly build a new o ne meant th e difference betwee n rel ati ve co m fo rt a nd ex tre me d iscomfort for the Fe de ra l-perio d famil y. At night wh en e ve ryo ne retired. fires were banked with as hes h eap ed ove r th e live coal s. Th e next morning, b ef ore th e househ old could start its d ail y routin e , th e a sh e s were sho ve le d awa y to e x pose th e s till-glo wing co als. and kindling wa s placed o n these coa ls. If o ne waited for the fires to ca tc h by themselves . it meant dressing in a su b fre e zing room . It also meant ea ting a ve ry cold breakfa st , since all cooking was done in th e kitch en fir epla c e , whose fire wa s also banked during the night. The device that e n su re d the quick rekindling of a fire wa s th e b ell ow s. This esse n tia l fireplace to ol is basically a leather lung, which is ex p a nde d to fill with air and c ompre ssed to e x pe l th e air and fan an incipient fire. Like most Fed e ral h om e s, o u r h ou se ha s a fireplace in all the maj or rooms. We don 't rel y o n these fir eplace s as o u r primary heat so urce, but we do enjoy using th em . Therefore we find it h andy to hang a pair o f bell ow s next to ea ch . The se ve ral bell ow s we own retl e ct th e fun ction and c ha rac te r o f th e ro oms in whi ch th e y are kept . Th os e mad e o f turned and carved mah ogany are hung in th e most formal rooms, while th e pairs with painted decoration are kept in th e bedchambers. The o ne ch osen for this chapter is kept in th e dining ro om and hangs from a brass knob sc re we d into th e backband around th e fir eplace a rc h itrave. Th e kn ob is nearly as o ld as the house, and its pre sence indicates that this is where th e Lord family hung the b ell ow s th e y used in this room . Wh en th e fireplace was bricked up and a st ove in stalled in th e mid-19th c entury, no o ne b oth ered to remove the kn ob.

m •

Since the awkward sha pe o f a pair o f b ell ow s do e sn 't all ow th em to stand b y th emselv es . th ey are usu all y hung wh en not in use. Gen erally, b ell ow s a re s us p e nded b y e ith e r a strap attached to o r a hol e bored through o ne of th e handl es, and , wh en th ey are hung, o nly o ne s ide is normally visible. Since th e ba ckboard h ouse s th e air va lve that makes the bell ow s work a nd mu st b e fac e d own for th e mech anism to functi on , this side is unse en wh en th e b ell ows are in use . Th e front bo ard is th erefore th e o ne that is usually seen and mo st o fte n e m b e llish e d . Th e maker o f the bellow s sho wn here o rn a me nted th e front board with a combination o f turning a nd carving, a nd for that reason used mahogany for the front. Fo r th e b ack however, he switched to a very e ve n-g ra ine d , nati ve hardwood , which might be poplar, tulipwood o r so ft maple-I can 't positively identify it through the finish. Faceplate turning wa s a common d ec oration on Federal period bellows, even though col orful , painted ornament was more prevalent. Since period cabinetmakers were fond o f geometric shapes but were usually unable to incorporate concentric circl es in th eir furniture d esigns , th e turned rings o n a se t o f bell ow s were se e n a s a ni c e c ontrapuntal detail in a ro om full o f e ssentially lin e ar and curvilinear furniture . While the va rie ty o f o rna me nt possi bl e with painted d ec orati on was limited o nly b y th e artis t's imagination, turning impos ed certain di st inct co ns tra in ts . Turn ed decorations, for example , cou ld b e no more than an interesting series of concav e o r c onvex rings o f variou s width s, which could not b e de eply c u t since the b o ard it self was generally rath er thin (the b oard used o n th e se bellows is only % in . thick). Yet e ve n though th e turned rings on these bellows are s ha llow, they appear much deeper in the shadow s o f candl eli ght.

- - 10 9 - -

I a m partic u la rly fo nd o f th ese b ell ow s be cau se th eir m ak er wen t several s te ps beyo nd s im p le turning in th eir o rna mentatio n . He ad ded te xture b y ca rving seve ra l o f th e ri ngs. and de pth by a ttac h ing in th e ce nte r o f th e front boa rd a se parately turned a nd carved boss. Th is b oss is co mposed of a n o u ter rin g a nd a ra ised a nd carved c enter. The presence of th e boss crea tes a differenc e o f a lmos t an inc h be twee n th e to p o f t h is p roj e cti on a nd th e low est po int in th e ri ngs- quite a n acco m p lis h me nt o n a % -in.thi ck board. As a result o f t h is design. t he b ell ow s c ha ng e c harac ter under different lighting cond itio ns. O n a bright . su nny day. th e sha llow, turned rings cast alm ost no shado ws a nd a rc re d uced to conce nt ric lin es. Wh en thi s happen s. th e te xtured carving a lo ne s u p plies vis ua l interest. With the roo m lit by t he softe r, o b lique ligh t of ca ndles. th e ca rvi ng loses mu ch o f its impa c t and th e pl a y of s hadows among th e co nve x a nd co ncave rings se izes th e vie we r's eye . So mu ch t hough t we nt in to c reati ng t he front board that it is not su rpris ing th at th e m ak e r added so me detail to th e backboard. Th is s ide is a lso d ecora ted with t u rn ings. done in co nj u nc tio n with c utt ing th e h ol e for th e va lve. (I f yo u deci de to m ake th e se be llo ws a nd likewise c u t th e valve h ol e o n th e lath e . yo u will want to sa nd wic h so me th in s hi ms between th e wo od a nd t he la th e fac epl at e . perh aps a co up le of wash ers o r a pl yw o od s h im s lid ove r th e attac h me nt sc re ws. This wa y. yo ur too l will not come in contact with th e m e tal la th e face plate wh en it pi erce s the bou rd .) While t he backboa rd was s p in n ing . th e maker c u t th e cente r va lve h ol e with a skew c hise l. p roducing an o pen ing with s ides th a t c u rve in wa rd a nd whi ch m e asures 2 14 in. in di a me te r at t he fro nt o f th e bo ard and 1·Y.! in . a t th e back. li e a lso turned a series of four sh allo w. eve nly s paced rin gs o n the back. These rin gs. th ou gh se ldo m see n. a rc quiet evi de nce o f d edi c a t io n to h is c ra ft. :-'l aking a pa ir o f b ell ows p re sen ts so me co ns tru c tio n de ta ils no t e nco u nte re d e lsewhe re in thi s boo k , th e mo st obv io us bei ng th e fac eplat e turni ng. whi ch will be furth er di scu ssed in th e project sec tio n . a nd the leath er work. Th e leath er work is no t d ifficult. bu t you m a y non eth el ess want to fin d a compete n t le a th er worke r to do th e job . Th e main lea th er co m po ne n t o f th e b ell ows is th e le a th er bag tha t joins th e fro nt b o ard a nd b ac kboard . a nd th e m ost com plicated leath er c le me nt is th e wo ven hinge . From th e d ra wings o n p p. 1 13-115 . you sho u ld b e a b le to co nst ruc t th ese a nd th e o t her le ath er parts.

The rib" of the bellow", eut from Areen "hoot", keep the Ieat her bllA from eollllp"inA when the bellow" lire not intlllted.

-

Anoth er el ement o f c onstru cti on uniqu e to the bello ws is th e va lve. Loc ated o n th e in side s u rface Of the backboard . this thin , wooden flap tacked to a leather hinge c overs th e air hol e in th e ce nte r o f th e backbonrd . Wh en th e h andle s a rc pull ed apart . th e va lve ope ns a nd all ow s ai r to b e drawn into th e b ell ows; wh en the h a ndl e s are c ompressed , it c loses to forc e th e a ir o ut the nozzle . (A lo ose . 1-in.-wid e leath er s t ra p a tta c hed to the inside of th e backb oard prev ents th e va lve from o pe ning too far a nd be coming hung up o n th e front boa rd.) As ai r is d ra wn into th e bello ws. gra vit y holds th e valve loosel y aga inst the ba ckboard . Wh en th e tw o handles a re forc ed toget her, the increased a ir pres sure in th e b ell ows seals th e va lve . Be cau se th e valve sea ls o nly if it is fir st h eld c losed by gra vity, th e b ell ows mu st b e used with th e d eco rat ed front board face-up . Finally. th e b ent ribs in sid e th e be llo ws warra nt no te . Th e fu nc tio n o f th ese tw o ri b s is to pre vent th e bello ws' leath er ba g from co lla ps ing into a shap el e ss fo rm wh en no t filled with ai r. The ribs arc m ade from gree n switches about 2() in . long and rou ghl y 'Yl6 in . in d iam e te r. The switch e s sho uld b e s t ra igh t and va ry littl e in diameter from e nd to e nd . If yo u are ga the ri ng shoots in th e fall a nd winter wh en th ey are leafless , flex th em to see if they arc ali ve . If th e y a re, the y will b e s u p p le. wh erea s dead shoots will s na p. I c u t th e s hoo ts I used from a lila c bush in o ur ba ck yard . O u t of c urios ity . I a lso tri ed fo rsyth ia a nd wild c he rry switc hes. whi ch worked e q ua lly we ll. I suspect that an y d ecidu ou s sa p ling o r any bu sh th at puts out suc ke rs will also work , which m eans th a t thi s raw m at e ri al should b e readily avail able in urban area s to o . To m ak e th ese rib s. fir st c u t th e s hoo ts to 26 -in . lengths a nd trim a ny s ma ll b ranch es . alt ho ug h yo u can le a ve th e bark o n . Lo cat e th e po siti on for th e four h ol e s o n th e in sid e o f th e ba ckb oard , as sho wn in t he d ra wing o n p. 114 . Since th e e nds of t he sw itc hes s ho u ld fit tig h tly in th ese hol es. drill test hol e s in a pi ec e of sc rap to d et ermine th e right di am eter b efore drilling th e actua l h ol e s. If ne ed b e . s have a tigh t e nd o n a switch ra th e r than se ttl ing for an ove rsi ze h ol e a nd loo se fit. In sert o ne e nd of a sw itc h into th e up p e r h ole o n one s ide. bend th e sw itch ove r a nd pre ss it tlat aga in s t the ba ckboard . Test th e sw itc h for s tre ng th by b e nding it to the rou gh sh a pe o f the b ell ows . If it do e sn ' t break. mark o n th e switc h th e po siti on o f th e seco nd upper ho le . add % in . to thi s m easurem ent and c u t t he switc h to length . Sec u re th e fir st e nd in place with an u ph ol s tery tack and again b end th e sw itc h a round th e peri me ter of the bell ow s. Then in se rt th e seco nd e nd into it s hol e , p ress the sw itc h tlat against th e backb oard a nd tack t his e nd in place . Repeat th e proce ss to m ake th e seco nd rib , fitti ng t he e nds of thi s switc h into th e low e r pai r o f h ol es . Wh en finish ed , th e seco nd rib s ho uld se para te from t he firs t a nd lie in a hi gh er plane . as in th e pho to at left. Don 't wo rr y if th e switc hes don 't perfectl y retain th e d esire d s ha pe . They a rc very flexible and th e leath er b ag . wh en attac hed . will pu sh th em ba ck wh ere th e y b el ong.

- 1 10 - -

The cas t-brass nozzle , wh ic h di rects th e s trea m of air from th e be llows, can be p urc hased from th e s u p ply so u rces list ed in th e back of th e book fo r reproduction furn iture h a rdwa re . (To attach th e nozzle , yo u need o nly shave th e e nd o f th e bello ws until it fits .) Th e tacks, wh ic h sec ure th e le ath e r bag to the fro nt board a nd ba ck board , are brass-h e ad e d upholstery tacks a nd ca n b e o b ta ine d from a ny uph ols te ry s u p ply house. Mo st upholstery s ho ps have th e se tac ks o n han d as we ll a nd will usually se ll th em in sma ll a mou nts . Be s ure to as k for tack s with so lid- b rass he ad s, since pl ate d tacks wo uld qui ckl y wear through to th e base me tal. (T he tac ks so ld a t most hardwa re sto res are b rass-platcd .) This pai r of bello ws was finishe d with shellac, but a ny c le a r fini sh cou ld be used . If yo u mak e yo u r b ell ow s o u t o f a nat ive h a rd wo o d wit h litt le figure, th ey co u ld b e give n a co lo red wa sh that complements th e roo m fo r wh ich th e y a re in te nde d . I ma ke suc h a wash o ut of diluted mill, paint an d use j ust o ne coat. Another coa t o f lin se ed o il. thinned wit h tu rpe ntine , can be ad de d if yo u wish a b it more s hee n than the tlat mi ll, pai n t provides . A coa t o f wa x will se a l th e oi l. Since be llows are us ua lly h u ng ne a r a fire place , yo u nc ed to remember that thc he at fro m th e fireplac e will eve ntua lly dry o ut the le a th er. G iving the leath e r o n yo u r be llo ws a yearly wi pi ng with neat's-foot o il o r c lear s hoe polish will keep it s u pple an d p revent crac king .

-

I I I I I i

r-r-r-

PATTE RN "'OR MEDALLION Grid: ¥16 in. = Y.! in. +-+----jl--+--+

r/1

Fr o n t-bo a r d deco ration To b egin th e front b oard , thickne ss-pl an e a nd su rface a b oard that is l Oin . wid e by 17 in. long b y % in . thick . While the board is a rectangle , locate and mark its ce n te r. Th e n cu t off the corners so that th e b oard will b e better bal anced a nd le ss inclined to vibrate whil e b eing turned . Ce n te r th e lathe faceplate ov er th e cente r m ark o n th e bo ard and drive in th e sc re ws to se c u re th e fa c eplate to th e b oard. I gro u nd th e tips o f th e thre e sc re ws to s ho rt e n them so th e y wouldn 't c om e in cont ac t with th e lathe tool s. Sinc e this elim ina te d th e sc re ws ' se lf-ta p p ing abili ty, howe ver, I first made pil ot hol es with a brad awl. O n m y lathe th e h e ad st ock a nd tail s to ck a re e leva te d , so I can turn inboard a pi ece o f wood th e size of th e b ell ow s. But wh eth er yo u turn yours inbo ard o r o u tboa rd , fir st lay out e ac h o f th e rin gs with a pair of di vid ers. I made th e de epest c u ts first -the seco nd from th e ce n te r and the third from th e o u ts ide. By esta b lis h ing th e se de ep c u ts , you cre ate ref erence points th at m ak e th e o the r c u ts eas ie r. Afte r co m p le ti ng th e rings on th e front bo ard , turn th e bo ss . Since th e b oss is to o sma ll for thre e sc rews to be used in the fac eplate , I a ttac he d it with a si ng le screw in th e cen te r. O nc e the b ell ow s' fro nt b oard a nd boss h ave bee n tu rned, hold th em down o n th e benc h to do th e ca rv ing. Th e sty lized motif used o n th e wid est ring o n th e fr ont

Diugo na l crossllatcllillg, o r cllec kerillg, deco rates cen te r of boss and o u te r rillg.

I--+--/--

I

I

I

I I

S tylized carvillg of ac a llthus leaves Onlll mellts wides t rillg.

Because of its turned and carved de:e:oration and the projee:ting bos s , the: %- in .- t h ie:k front board of the: bellows appears thicker than it is.

-

-111 -

-

board is typically found o n furniture made late in th e Fe de ra l p eri od after about 1810. It probably e volve d from a depiction o f th e acanthus leaf, a c lass ical motif used on th e capitals of Co rin th ia n colu m ns. Ea rly Federal-period c a rve rs mad e accurate c opi e s o f th e G re co-Ro ma n sty liza tio n o f th e acanthus lea f. Over time , th e leaf was gra d ua lly ab stra cted a nd redu c ed to a pattern o f go uge s tro kes a nd vei ning . Thus , this be c am e more o f a textural motif th an a sha pe a nd co uld b e a p plie d to a ny su rface, eve n a rin g. To produc e this m otif, s ta rt with th e go ug e work, for whi ch I used a No .8 swee p, :y.J -in. go uge . Each d epressi on s ho uld b e mad e with a sing le s tro ke, and th e resulting s ha pe s ho uld re semble a c u rved teardrop . Try to mak e th e go uge s tro kes uniform and e venl y s paced . You r firs t a tte m p ts ma y b e very tentative , but a fte r mak in g se vera l c uts. yo u r hand will b e c om e surer. Th ere will be va ria tio ns in th e ca rv ing , as th is is th e nature o f work done by hand , but di sc repanci es will b e hidden by th e vis ua l com ple x ity of the ca rvi ng . Ve in ing joins th e go uge c u ts. Two h e avy s tro kes, ca rve d with a V-sh aped partin g too l, fill th e spa ces betwe en th e go uge stro kes . A pair o f fin er lin e s is c u t in to th e depre ssion s th emsel ve s . The texture o n th e o u te r rin g is ca lle d c hecke ring, a pat tern that results fro m diagonal crossh a tc h ing . Th e se lin e s are al so c u t with th e parting tool. Start by mak ing a ll th e c u ts in o ne di re ction . They sho uld be at a bo u t a 45 ° a ngle to th e ri ngs a bove a nd belo w a nd sho uld h av e a slight a rc . It is ea sy for th e an gle o f th e se lin es to in crea se a nd for th e c u ts to b e come more vertic a l. If yo u find th is

happening, don 't make a s ud d e n c h a nge in th e a ngle o f th e next cut; inst ead , gra d u a lly work th e line ba c k o ut to the d esired angle. In carving th ese lin e s, try to ke ep th e depth of th e cuts and th e di stanc e b etwe en th em un iform . Whe n th e first serie s of lin e s is fini sh ed , c u t th ose run ni ng in th e opposite directi on , ag a in ke eping in mind th e uniform ity of th e cuts. Ea ch new lin e will now re sult in a se ries of sma ll diamonds, o r c hecke rs. Wh en th e pi ec e is c ompleted , sha do ws will fall in th e lin es, and the fin ish on the c hecke rs will refl ect glis te ni ng s po ts of ligh t. Th e bos s ha s thre e turn ed rings, whi ch a rc also orna me nte d with carvin g . Becau se th e b oss is so sma ll, in o rde r to be ca rved it ne eds to b e h eld in th e woode n jaw o f a handscrew, with th e handscrew clamped in a vise . Also be cau se of th e b o ss' s ize , th e detail in th e carving is e ve n le ss c le a r th an th at o n th e front bo ard . The center dome o f th e bo ss is al so ch eckered , alth o ugh on the o riginal pair of b ell ow s , wear and h andling during the las t 17 0 ye a rs have e rased much of this pattern . Th e bo ss ' sma ll inner ring is sim p ly ni ck ed vertically with a partin g to ol. As with th e o the r carvin g. try to keep th e s pac ing even o n th e se cuts . The d ec oratio n on the o u te r rin g is a se ries o f in verted, an gled Vs, also cut wit h th e parting to ol. Tw o pa sse s o f th e tool c u ts th e le gs of the V, a nd a single stroke c lea ns o u t th e s pa ce betwee n th em . Wh en th e ca rv ing o n th e front b oard and boss is compl ete , tra c e th e pattern o f th e b ell ow s o n to the front b oard , glue th e bo ss o nto th e ce nte r and c ut th e board to sh a pe . The sa wn e dges will for th e most part b e covered by leather, but th e y sho u ld noneth el e ss be cl e a ned u p with a s pokesh a ve .

A stylized acanthus-Ieaf motif deeorates one ring of thc front board and is comprised of a serfes of gougc cuts (top) and veininla (bottom), or pairs of fine lines.

To make the checkering on the outer rinla, carve a s e r ie s of diagonal cuts angled at 45 ' to thc rinlas and unjformly "paced. A second set of diagonul cuts in the oppositc dircction overlaps the fir"t to create the checkered pattern.

- - 112 --

HELLOWS Sc a le : !4 in ,

1 in.

=

Bra ss no zzlc ~

~

A

L

Top Ylew (shown nut)

T u rned and carved me dall ion

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Sidc Vicw """":----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --21 - - - -- - - - - -- - -- - - - --:-

- - -- - - - _.-- - - - - - -- - H4d

:'iotc: Pluunom lin es il/(licl/lc - - --:3-origiuu I 1O-i n . by 17·ill . bo ard fr om \I" hich O IlC sitlt: of bellows n ';'S

cut

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I' ATTERN FOR BELLOWS (bacl, view) G rid: !4 in. = 1 ill.

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\116·ill. ,T. grb ov cs (4)

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DETAIl. A Scale: I in.

=

I in.

S E CTIO ~

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Scalc: \4 in . = I in.

!4-i n.

()pc ni n~

"

/

~ I)ctail n

(valve a ssembly]

DETAIl.

n

(efosed position) Scalc: \.6 in . = 1 in .

Lea ther strap. 1 in . wi de, ---....,~'5' to re s t r ic t movement ,...:o~.::;o;~~...J:~1~;;;:l;;;;r======::::::;F:;;;;;t.:===;;;':;::";'4~=::;:;-Iof w o ode n block

Lcathe r

hi n~c

Vu lve asscmhl y (Icathcr st ra p removed)

TOI) \'I EW (front hoard removed ) Scale : \4 in. = I in.

Woodcn b lock with l/u,-in. groove carved d own ce n ter.

glucd to backboard Lea ther lun~. tucked : tl o n ~ pcrimctcr of front board a nd buckboard

- - 114 -

-

HINGE ASSEMBLY Scale: 14 in . = I in .

2

J

I. Gut leath er to bag pattern, Fasten to outer edges offront ami back boards witll fl a t-head ed upholstery tacks. Trim excess,

2. Gover e lld of no-sele al/d narrow end of front board witll strip of leath er, AI/cllor witll tu cks and trim excess.

J. Make woven IIinge. cutting a lea tiler trapessoid , 4 ::0: 5 x 4. Fril/ge bottom. leaving J 'h -i ll.- Io n g . sh oela ce -uridt li strips _Gu t separate. shoelaee-saidth s trips and w ea v e in. Wrap IIinge around nossssle end. tu ck top ClIul sides. and trim ex cess , 4. \l'rap l -in i-ssside leather s t ri p over bottom edge and J ~- i l/ .-w iele strip over top cd ge of woven IIil/ge . {lIICllOr both soith tacks . and add de eoratioe brass u ph oistery tucks, Trim excess. 5. Fasten ~16-i n . -w ide leather strip 01/ both edges offront board and backboard witll decorative brass upholstery tacks.

4

LEATHER LUNG Scale: ¥I6 in. = 1 in .

I . E d~c tacked to I front -h oard c d ~e

Note: For bag, "II/"e utul hinge decoration, usc

top-grain Icnthcr

(110

thicker

tlWII

y,. iu.}

like cnliskin or glcwe-t:","cd cowhide. For hillgc. usc stronger leather lik» vcgctublc-tunned cowbidc.

f 6

~L..-----r-T I ll.!

_

Ed~c

~-l.--

_ tucked

to

bnckbourd cdec

~l

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k ::--- - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .15 - - -- - - - - - - - - ------,;-

- - 115 - -

THE KITCHEN

T

o kitchen', rna;', pU'P0'c during the Federal period , as it is tnday, was for fnnd preparation. Meal, were cooked in a

fireplace, as the cast-iron cookstove was not then widely available . Because preparation , cooking and cleanup tool, so much time , the kitchen was a spot of nearly constant activity from morning to evening. The cooking fireplace was usually the largest in the house. It was wider, higher and deeper than the other fireplaces to accommodate numerous cast-iron cooking vessels and to provide the cook easy access to them . The kitchen fireplace also contained an oven , which was a brick cavity built into either the side wall (called a cheek) or rear wall of the firebox. We have restored the kitchen in our house to its original appearance but felt the room was too important to be modernized to function as a 20th-century kitchen. We use this room only for informal eating and socializing, although we do enjoy cooking in the fireplace and baking in the oven, especially for guests who appreciate the experience . A modern kitchen has been built in an adjacent chamber, and closing a door is all that's necessary to separate the tw o. Our kitchen is long and narrow , about 18 ft. by 10 ft., and one wall is dominated by the large mouth of the fireplace . The opening, 51 in . high by 71 in . long, is set off by the color of the cheeks and jambs of the fireplace , painted red , as they originally were . Set into a whitewashed plaster wall , this fireplace creates a dramatic effect. Although there is a lot of woodwork in the kitchen (six passage doors , two cased posts and wainscoting) , the work is quite simple and is painted its original gray . The pine floorboards are unpainted, as they would have been during the Federal period, and I periodically clean them by scrubbing them with steel wool and a mixture of water and bleach . The custom of the day was to cover wooden floors with a thin sprtnkling of fine sand , which , with traffic through the room , acted like a fine sandpaper, keeping the floors free of stains. Like sawdust on a barroom floor, the sand absorbed spills and could be swept up when dirty . When a fresh layer of sand was spread, housewives sometimes made patterns in it with a broom . This is perhaps the most ephemeral of early American decorative arts, lasting only until the first new footsteps across the floor. Our kitchen is lighted by a single window with a northerly exposure . The window is such a natural place to locate the table that, when I was removing the paint from the wainscoting, I was not surprised to find a long depression about 29 in . above the floor. This mark had been worn by the edge of all the earlier kitchen tabletops that had been placed in the sa m e spot. -117-

The most endurin~ of 1111 Federal furniture forms, the Windsor chatr hils been continuoush' made siuee it WIIS first introduccd to thc Colonics iu thc mid-17()os. This Windsor desi~n, known liS II rud-baek, subsritute» II squurc back for the trllditionlll bcnt bow. (I'rojcct: Shllpin~ thc scar, p, 122.)

- - 1 11 ' - -

Windsor Chair Chapter 13

o o t he r furniture form presented in this book is as uni versally recogn ize d as th e Windsor c hai r. Eve n if vo u did not kn ow th ese c ha irs b y name . c h a nces are yo u are fa m ilia r with th em . They a re so wid el y reproduc ed that we see the m everywhere . Ye t t he ir c ur re n t popul a rity d oe s not resuit from th eir b e in g redisco vered . S ince Windsors we re fir st introduc ed to th e Co lo n ies during th e mid-18th ce ntury. America ns ha ve nev er s to pped makin g them . No t o nly ha s the Windso r form e nd u re d . a tremendous number of th e o rigi na l c ha irs have s urvive d as well. Th e reaso n for thi s is th at during th e Fede ra l period these c ha irs were m ade in larger quantitie s th an almost any o the r typ e o f furnit ure. \Vindsors were b oth a produ ct of and a co nt rib u to r to th e Indu stri al Re voluti on . Th e Fed eral period wa s ripe with a s p irit o f e nte r p rise a s Am ericans looked for new ways to m ak e p rodu cts m ore quickl y . more e ffic ie ntly and m ore c hea ply . In Windsor-chair sho ps. th e co nce p ts o f inte rc ha ngea b le parts a nd a divi sion o f labor among spec ialists were a p plie d and test ed . By using th ese new tec h ni q ues. crafts me n cou ld p roduc e a n a ve rage c h a ir o f the type s ho wn in t h is c ha p ter in o nly e igh t to ten manhours. Th is e nable d Windso r c hu irrna ke rs to turn o u t th eir produc ts a t a n unprecedented ra te a nd to reduce their pri ces to a lev el nearl y e ve ryo ne co uld affo rd. In res po nse. Fede ra lperio d America ns we n t o n a Win dsor-chnir-bu ytn g binge . often pu rc hasi ng se ts in numbers th at we mi ght co ns ide r excessive. In t he 1805 inve nto ry of o u r eigh t-roo m hou se , for e xa mple . 40 c ha irs a re list ed , 18 of th em Windsors , The new s peed o f m anufacture. wh ic h all ow ed a thre e man c hai r shop to turn o u t ne arl y a th ou sand c ha irs a year. had an important co nseq ue nce. Mass production fre ed Windsor c h a irmake rs to ex pe rime nt with d esi gn -if a new id ea fa iled. o nly a day 's e ffo rt wa s lost. This a b ility to dail y m odify th e c ha ir form yiel ded d esi gn s so s uc ce ssfu l th at th e y h av e e nd u re d un changed for alm ost 200 years .

N

Th e fir st Windsors introdu ce d in America we re large , co m mo d io us easy cha ir s. m ea nt for comfortable si tt ing rath er th an for fo rmal dini ng. During the Fe dera l p e riod , Windsors became sma ller, porta bl e, and inexpe ns ive e no ug h to b e purch ased in se ts. As a resu lt, W in d s o r's b ec am e popular sea ts fo r wo rking, relaxi ng , dining a nd innumerable o t h e r purpose s. Du ring th e Federal pe ri od , everyday furni tu re wa s usu all y painted . Paint p ro vid ed a durable , was hab le su rface a nd al so sa tisfie d peo ple 's de si re for co lor in th e home . Since \Vindsors we re informa l in na ture , th e y too were painted. Th e usu al c hoice o f colo r wa s gree n , probably in im itation o f th e co nte m pora ry Euro pea n fashion o f having g ree n c ha irs in th e garde n . Knowing th at hi s work would b e pa inted. t he c ha irrnake r had no reas o n to us e figured wood, and th erefore focu sed hi s attention o n the m ore difficult a nd more c ha lle ng ing cl em ent o f lin e . As a re sult, st ron g vertic al and horizontal lin e s a nd se ns uo us curves m o ve th e vi ewer's eye thro ug h th e se c ha irs in a purpo seful manner m ad e possible by a uni form colo r. Th e four Windsors sho wn in thi s c ha pte r a re m o re th a n good e xa m ples of th is c ha ir form . Th e y a rc ac h ieve me nts in th e e le me n t o f lin e . Each is com plex, a nd none allows itself to be see n e nt ire ly unl e ss th e viewe r s tands too far back to g rasp d etail. Upo n close inspectio n, ho wever. one w ill find a logic al vis ual flo w through each c hair, wh ich re sults from th e m ak er's understanding o f h o w line produ ce s visua l m o vem en t. O ne of the c hai rrnakers most important co nce rns was to rest rain t he design of t he c ha ir's individu al parts so th at no o ne c leme nt d o m ina te d a nd di srupted th e c ha ir's overa ll vis ua l im pact. By b ec oming ve ry co nsc ious o f m y o w n interactio n wit h th ese c ha irs, I grad ua lly di sc o vered th at m a king a s uccessfu l Windsor is a ki n to d esign in g a good ma ga zin e a d vertiseme nt . In both c ases , t he vie wer's visual in volvement ge ne ra lly la st s o nly a few seco nds. In th e case of th e su ccessfu l Windsor, th is inv ol vement occu rs

- - 119 - -

T hc continuous-arm \\'ind!!or chair was introduccd a rou nd ISOO.

On thc sack-back c hair, the arm rail is h i ~ h c r than on othcr Win dsors.

b etwe en th e time on e d ecide s to si t and do es so. Bec au se we d on 't usually lo ok carefully a t a cha ir b ef ore occu py ing it a nd we ca n' t really d o so o nce se tt le d in it , the chair' s design mu st s ubco nsc io us ly co nnec t with us b ef ore we sit a nd ca use us to tak e a longe r look. Windsors d o this by drawing th e eye a nd hand to the most logical plac e to gras p th e c ha ir-us ua lly th e top o f th e ba ck From h ere, so me s tro ng lin e must pull th e eye b ac k dow n to th e se a t. T h a t motion , plus th e visual co m ple x ity of th e sea t, prol ongs th e vie we r's inv olvement. The chairrnaker ha s s u ccee ded whe n th e person ready to sit do wn says, "Tha t's a ni c e -loo kin g c ha ir." The co nti nuo us -a rm chair, lik e th at sho wn in th e ph oto at to p left, is usu all y co nsi de re d the pure st exp ressio n o f Ame rica n Windsor d e sign. It wa s th e fir st typ e o f Windsor mad e in Ame rica th at did not ha ve a direct English antec ed ent, a nd it was th e last s ty le in tro d uced b ef ore th e Sherato n influ en c e produ c ed th e sq ua re- bac k Windsor. Theo rtgins of th e continu ous-arm s ty le are uncertain. It wa s prob abl y d evel oped in Ne w York City a nd seems to b e th e Windsor interpretation o f th e u pholstered French b ergere cha ir, wh ose armre sts are a n ex te nsio n o f th e c urve of it s ro u nde d back. The doubl e bend o f th e arm o n this chair e lim ina tes th e joints th at occur o n all o ther Windsor a rmc ha irs. This proj ect ion int o tw o plan e s all ows th e co nt inuo us arm to mov e the eye mo re smoo th ly a nd farthe r with out in te rru p tio n than an y o the r s ty le of Windsor. Th e sa ck- b ac k Windso r c hai r is a co nte m pora ry o f th e cont inuo us -a rm. It too uses th e ele me nt o f lin e , but doe s so differentl y. T he maj or differenc e be twee n this c ha ir and mo st o the r Windso rs is th e h e ight of th e a rm ra il in rel ation to th e upper su rface of th e sea t . In th e case o f th e exa m ple sho wn a t top c enter, th e a rm ra il is almost 2 in.

T he ov a l- b ac k Win dsor was often made without t hc tailpicce a nd bracing s p i n d les .

hi gh er than usual. With the arm rail thu s ra ised , the ma ke r sho rte ned th e upper se c tio n o f th e long s p ind les , e lim ina ting th e visu al uplift typical o f Windso rs . The tlattened curve in th e c enter o f th e b ow , th e arm rail, th e sea t and the center s tre tc he r divide th e c hai r into thre e sec tio ns and s ugges t width rather than uplift . A long c urve along th e front edge o f th e seat pr odu ce s a s moo th, ge nt le swe e p to the p ommel , o r peak o f th e seat, and co ntrib u tes to a c irc u la r visua l flow that b egins and c nds at the to p o f th e bow . Th e use o f lin e in thi s c ha ir co ntras ts marked ly with that in th e con tin uo us -a rm . Th e overa ll movem ent is smoo th a nd circular. as c ompared with th e grace fu l d an c e o f S-shaped curve s in th e co n tinuo us-a rm. The chair sho wn at top right is now commo nly calle d a bow -ba ck , a ho op-back o r a lo op-ba ck. It s maker would ha ve call ed it an ova l-b ac k, the term I pre fer since the oth er nam es a re o fte n applied to sa c k-backs as wel l. This ch a ir is th e mo st e xu be ra n t Windsor show n in th is chapter. Its o va l ba ck sei ze s th e eye in typical Windsor fashi on , drawing it u p to th e apex o f th e bow wi th th e sp indle s. As the e ye ascends, it e nco u n te rs tw o a ng led, bracing spindles that intersect with th e to p a nd add intere st to a back o the rwise made of seve re , nea rly parall el vertical s. Wh en the eye trav el s d own the cu rved ou tline o f th e back, th ere is nothing to slo w its free- fa ll descent until it reach e s th e se a t. Th ere it fin d s, c u t into th e sidc o f th e sea t, a dy na m ic, S-s h a pc d cy ma curve . The b old , vigorous c u rve is not repeated o n th e seat's front edg e , since to d o so would ha ve b e en ove rs ta te me n t a nd would hav e also e lim ina te d s u ppo rt for th e si t ter's thigh s . The mak er inst ead heavil y reli ev ed th e sca t's u pper a nd low er su rfaces and drew o u t th e front to a knife edge . Th is thin fro nt edge a c ts as a visual b rake to slo w th e eye as it co nc ludes it s turbul ent rid e .

- - 120 - -

For m e , th e chair s ho w n on p . 11 8 is probably th e most important pi ece in thi s b o ok . If not for it , I would never have begu n working wo od o r written this bo ok . Ca ro l and I were m arried during m y junior yea r in college. I wa s a Fre nc h maj or a nd planned to go o n to e a rn m y doctorate. At th e time I d idn 't 100 0W a thing about wo odworking. W e had very littl c m on e y to furni sh o u r a pa rt m e nt . As a result, I o fte n unwillingly a c com pa n ie d Ca ro l to yard sa les, a nd it wa s at o ne in S u tto n , Massa chu setts. that I found thi s chair. For the first t im e in m y life. I b e cam e visually inv ol ved with a pi e c e of fu rniture. Th ere was so me th ing a b out this wooden chair that wa s d ifferent from a ny o the r I had eve r see n. I 100 CW I had to o wn it , e ve n th ough it s S 10 price ta g wa s th en o ne- q ua rte r o f our m onthly rent . I would s it up at ni ght , looking a t thi s c hair aft er Ca ro l had go ne to bcd. I quickl y di sc overed that it took on a different c h a rac ter und er di fferent typ es o f illumination , which I have s ince Icarn cd is a fea t ure of m ost Fed eral furniturc . Trying to find out what thi s ch air wa s, I s pent hours pouring o ve r b o oks at th e library a nd at last found pi ctures o f \Vindsors . I wanted to o wn m ore o f th em but quickl y di scovered that o ld Windsors ge ne ra lly sold for far m ore th at I h ad paid fo r this o ne . Th e o nly c ha irs I could aff ord were th o se th at were b adly dama ged . I tau ght myself to make repairs on th e broken Windsors I was abl e to b u y . I repla c ed a ba ck here . a le g there a nd eve n som c of th e parts in b etween . Making a n e n tire chair bec am e a p ersonal c ha lle nge . I became so involved with th e se c ha irs that I d on 't kn ow h ow I mad c it thro ugh my se n io r yea r, ~I an y da ys I d idn 't eve n both er to attend c lass , working in s te ad o n m y c ha irs in my parents ' barn . By gra d u a tio n I h ad rented a ga rage a nd h ad c ontracted with th e Earl y Ame ric a n Soci ety to mak e an initial run o f SO c ha irs . T he Ph [) in Fr ench wa s c ompl etely forgotten . I was in bu s in e ss as a Wind sor ch airmakcr. Perhaps with th e e xce p t io n o f m y marriage, nothing e lse has had suc h a p rofound e ffec t o n my life as has this ch air. It is next to m e while I write , and I ca n fe el tha t it s till ha s tha t o ld ma gic . The name Sti ckne y is pencil ed o n th e bottom o f th e sea t. Co m pa ring thi s rath er uniqu e hand with th e s ig na t u res o n a s tac k o f re c eipts in th e co llec t io n o f the Be verl y II isr o rical So ciety in Beverly, Massachusetts, lea ves no d oubt th a t this c hai r wa s made b y Samu cl Stickney, a Bev e rly cu b tnc tma kc r in th e lat e 18th and ea rly 19th c cnturi cs . This is thc o nly pi e c e o f hi s work th at has b e en id cnt ificd , which is rc gr ettahlc becau se h e was a n iu si ghtful desi gn er. I o nce made 18 c ha irs for the rotunda o f Mon ti c ell o. Th om a s J efferson's horn e in C h a rlo t tesv ille . Viq; inia . I b a s ed th o s e c ha irs o n th c d e si gn of this o nc . Sti ck ne y did not d e vel op th e c ha ir's form . It is a rod back Wind sor, introduc ed a bo u t 18 00 . I ts sq ua re back co ns is ts o f tw o s t iles a nd a crest ra il. in ste ad of a b ent bow , s ho wi ng the intlucnce o f Sh eraton mah ogan y c ha irs. Had this c h a ir been made in an urban s ho p by a formally tra in ed Windsor m aker. it would have had bnmboo -Iike rin gs turned o n th e s p ind les, le gs a nd s t re tc he rs (intl uc nce from Ame rica's g ro wing inv olv em ent in the Ch ina trade) and would h av e di splayed a diminished interest in th e c le me n t o f lin c in fa vor of paintcd and carved o rn a me n t.

Stickney, how e ver, to ok th e u rb an c hai r a nd s trip ped it o f o rn a me nt in o rde r to co nt in ue to wo rk with hi s perhaps c onservat ive preferenc e for lin e . With ou t a c urved ba ck to pull the e ye down to th e c ha ir's seat, h e m ade th e c res t rail as thin as p o ssibl e so th at it a p pears to o d eli c a te to b e us ed to lift th e chair. One th erefore in stin cti vel y re ac hes for th e m ore su bsta n tia l s tiles . Th ese tw o m embers a re th e s tro ng lin e s . wh o se angles pull th e e ye to th e s h ie ld-s ha ped seat with it s bold. S -c u rved edges . Th e ch air has a pine sca t; th e res t is riven h ick o ry, which is e xtre m ely s tro ng and ca n be worked in to ve ry s le nde r parts without the pie c e being weaken ed. Th e use o f hi ckory make s possible th e airy, d elicate fe eling o f th e c h a ir, which, e ve n with it s so lid- wood sea t, wei gh s o nly 8 lb . Sti ckney co u ld finis h th is pi e c e in no o t he r co lo r th an black . To d o so would h a vc robb ed it o f th e dramatic starkness that's so important to its e ffec t. A natural fin ish would have been a di sa ster. Lik e other Wind sors, Fa nc ies a nd ladder-b a ck c ha irs, this rod-back is co ns t ru c te d with socke ted joints . In co nt ras t to joine d c h a irs, lik e th e Heppl ewhite o n p . 80. which have rectangular mortise -and-tenon joints , soc ke te d chairs are assembled with turned o r wh ittled tenons th at fit into drill ed hol es. Drilling th e se h ol es a t th e c orre ct angles is th e m ost difficult ta sk in mak in g a Wind sor, which is why a ma st er ch airrn ak er, ca lle d a c ha ir fram er, did only th e assembly. Often th e c h a ir's t u rned p arts were su b co nt rac te d to a turner a nd its o ther parts m a d e by a p p re n tices o r journe ym en. I us c s poo n bits to drill th e socke ts , since th eir ro u nd cutting lip a nd lack o f le ad mak e it possibl e to correc t an angle e ve n after th e socke t h as be en sta r ted . To correct a ngles, you can set b ev el sq ua res and s ig h t a lo ng th em, as e x pla ine d for roughing o u t th e Hepple white c ha ir 's m orti ses o n p. 83 . This c h a ir us es both blind joints and through j oints, all of whi ch a rc glued . I3lind joints co n nec t t he s t re tc he rs to th e legs, th e sp ind les to th e sca t a nd the c res t rail to the stil es . The o the r joints a re th rou gh joi nts, fu rt he r se c u re d with wedges, Afte r th e join ts arc asse mble d, th e sp lits for th ese wedges can be m a d e by dri ving a c h ise l into th e e x p osed e n d of th e ten on s. T his is s im pler than c u tt ing th e s pli ts w it h a sa w and all o ws yo u to eas ily place th em a t a right a ng le to th e g ra in o f the part h ousing th e soc ke t. Mo st Windsor c ha irs ha ve be nt pa rt s in the ir ba ck . In this rod-back it is th e crest rail th a t' s be nt. Th is rail ca n b e so fte ne d, o r pl asticized , in a ste a m b ox o r in bo ili ng water in a flat pan . I bend s ho rt parts in a p re s s, a form w ith convex and c oncave fa c es, c u t from a length o f 2x6 s toc k sli ghtly longer th an th e part be in g be nt . A bar c la m p is sufficient to pull b oth s ides o f th e pre ss toge t he r, bendi ng the c res t rail a t th e same time . If yo u le a ve th e rail in th e pre ss until it dri es , it will h old its sh a pe . Wh cn making a Windsor, I a lways asse m b le th e undercarriage and th en a ttac h it to th e sea t. All four o f th e legs ' th rou gh joints a re wedged a nd th e wedge s s h aved tlu sh with th e upper su rface o f th e seat. I asse m b le the back o f th e c ha ir last.

- - 12 1 - -

Sha p ing the seat The one thing all Windsor chairs have in common is th e solid-wood se a t that acts as the anchor for the two separate systems of the chair's undercarriage and back. But not only docs this l ,}.j-iIl.-thick slab have to hold the chair together. it also has to work with the element of line that is so important in the chair's design . There is a logic about mnkmg the seat, which rakes into account its contribution to the chair's design , construction and comfort. Windsor chnirmakcrs found various ways to lighten the appearance of th e scat , while leaving it still nearly full thickness at the joints. Their visual legerdemain also included chamfering or shaping the edges of the seat to pull them back out of sight and at the same time create lines to draw the viewer's eye to the seat. Shaping the seat requires some tools that will be unfamiliar to many woodworkers . Some of these tools arc even obsolete, but most arc available in antique-tool shops or as reproductions, o r th ey can b e made by adapting other tools . Begin by finding a pi ece of 1:r.l- in.- th ic k pine, 16 in . by 17 in . If need be , glu e up two or m ore pieces, with the grain running along the 17-in . side. Next trace the seat pattern on the blank , making sure that the grain runs front to back. Then remove the waste, using either a handsaw or a bowsaw. I prefer a 25-in. -Iong bowsaw (I don't own a bundsaw}, and wh en using it. my speed is cornpct itivc with that o f a handsaw.

To shape the edge o f the seat , place th e blank in a vise. The front vise on my workbench works well fo r this, b u t yo u cou ld also use a leg vise or even clamp the seat to the bench top upside down . Start shaping the seat at the rear edge , which should be fashioned to a nat bevel rather than a rounded contour. This edge can be worked entire ly with a spokeshave, and I find that a wooden-bodied s have produces far superior resu lts to those obtained with a metal-bodied shave . If the shave is sharp, it will leave very gentle tracks, which I don 't bother to sa nd . The bevel on the two concave sides of th e seat is steeper than that across the back. I therefore remove as much of the wood as I can in this section with a drawknife and then finish the surface with a spokeshave. The drawknife is a largely unapprec iated tool but is a marvelous device for removing a lot of wood quickly wi th a surprising amount of control. Since many readers may be unfamiliar with this tool. I should me ntion that it is used correctly with its bevel up. Always p ull it toward you in a smooth, complete stroke , being careful to cut, no t hack . If you try to use the drawknife as a two-handled hatchet, it will never give you the re s ult s it 's capable of. After the initial shaping with the d rawknife, I use a small spokeshave to work and c lean up the radius of the curve. The seat 's front edge is similar to t he rear edge and can be shaped completely with a spokeshave . Since the front edge will need to be blended with the sea t's uppe r surface , it should be shaped after this surface is saddled .

I-

PATTERN )<'OR SEAT _ G rid: 'Yi. in. = 1 in.

r--..... -.-:: ~

-,

The Windsor scat is deftl~· s h a p e d by hand to maintain nearly full thickness at the joints, appear delicate overult, and create lines that draw the viewer' s eye.

'~ ~

I\..

~

,'~

1\ ~

16~

J SECTION AT

/

It 14 'J4r '

No t e: Topogrupbieul lines indic:lte depth of s a d dl i n g : b e ginnin g e t '/"0 ill . an d proce eding ill increments of v,. ill . to :1 iinul depth of about r,'oill .

SECTION AT A

- - 122 - -

--- V ,..,..."

To p re pa re for saddling the seat, clamp the seat to the wo rkbenc h, placing the clamps away from the area to be wo rke d . Trace the line that separates the saddling from the flat area where the spindles will be joined to the back of the seat. In the photos, I'm working with white pine, which is very soft. For this reason, and also because this seat is no t as deeply saddled as those on the other Windsor chairs shown in this chapter. I can use a scorp with a semici rcular blade to remove most of the waste . (Scorps with a flat-bottomed. U-shaped blade do not work very we ll on a concave chair seat.) If you're working with a h a rd e r wo o d or making the saddle deeper. use a gutter adze to remove wood before working with the scorp. Th e sa ddling is a single, shallow curve running from front to back on the seat. I stand in front of the seat to re move th e wood from th e back of the saddle area . Then, ins tead of u ncl a rnp ing and shifting the seat to remove th e wood at the fro nt. I sit on the bench and work from behind . Wh en you are satisfied with the shape of the saddling, yo u ' ll nee d to smooth the surface tool marks left by the scorp. I do this in two steps. first working with a small co mpass pla ne and then with a travisher, The compass p lane I generally use in my own work is an antique , ebony p lane. The one I take for giving workshops, however, is o ne I made by adapting a Japanese compass plane purchased from a tool catalog. It was originally designed to be pu lled . Japanese-style , but because I prefer to push a plane, I trimmed the toe considerably. I also removed the

U s c a drawknife to s h a p e the c o nca ve s i d e s of the s e a t ,

corners to prevent blisters and planed the sides to narrow the stock. or body. The sole was already rounded front to back, but I reshaped it to round it side to side as well. Then I reground the iron to match the sole's new shape . To use the compass plane. hold it with both hands. being careful not to cover the mouth and make it choke. Use short strokes from the top to the bottom of the saddle. Lift the plane off the wood before it ascends the saddle 's opposite slope to prevent tea rout on that side. Work from both directions to smooth away the scorp marks . To clean up the gentle furrows left by the compass plane. I use a travisher, a tool that looks like a bent spokeshave. This tool seems to have been developed and used exclusively by Windsor chairrnakers. As far as I know, it is no longer produced and would have to be found on the antique-tool market or made . Travishers d o ve ry fine cleanup, leaving a surface that needs little , if any, sanding. The tool is used like the compass plane. Stroke from the front and rear edges of the seat toward the center, being careful not to catch the tool in the grain in the far side of the saddling. If you don 't have a travisher among your tools , you can clean up after the compass plane with fine sandpaper. Once the saddled area is smooth. use a spokeshave to round the upper front edge of the seat. All that rema ins is to carve the groove around the saddling that defines the back of the seat. I do this carving freehand with a #11 veiner.

Rough out the s a dd le with a seorp, working from top to bottom on the hollowed area.

You can Ilt a n d in front of the s c a t to sh ape the back of the s a d d le and s i t on the bench hehind it to s h a p e the front.

A tool that was apparently developed by \Vi n d s o r ehairmakers, the travi sher i s used for fine cleanup after the sc a t has been saddled and initially s m o n t h e d with a com pails plane.

Round the upper front edge of the seat with a spokeshave.

- - 123 - -

ROD-BACK WINDSOR CHAIR Sca le:

~

in.

=

1 in.

Note: Sp illdies and s til es lire 2 % ill. 011 cente r lit crest rail.

Note: Holes ill seat for s tiles and spilldies lire 2 YI,. ill . 011 ccnrer.

1%-ill. fl at surface is o u tlined witll o)//6-ill. V-g ro ove. [

'J'

'hd

\\'edged tenon

-r

-"\.- - -__ 6' o-''t--

-

-;;- ll'

%d

Top View (seat on I)')

T o p View

"""""~------ l 'J -------?o-

I

I

J4 'h

16 15 \4

~--l-L....-l Side View

Front View

-

- 124 -

-

UPPER AND WWER PARTS Scale: ~ in. = 1 in.

45' c ha mfe r. l.1. in. deep

~ ----j

19 11l

1 J,-S-in. deflection

j------~

--------'I,. ------------- ....:;:..~

Notel Diumeter of mil is

I I1l

1\

~

ill. at chamFcr end

L

--~

I J,-S

I

--(~6

1

- - Taper ends.

~ 5~

-

- I l.1.

---'Y!.

1

-- ~

v,. in.

at center,

L

t-

--~

--%

3

- _ Il.1.

- - 1\4

7 14 --1 5~

- - 1\4

1O ~.

6~

--%

---~

- - 1\4

--%

J I1l

-

-

- 1

T aller begins . - - 1\4

5

4 11l

--~

T

•

r--=

Side Stretcher

--%

r

-J,-S

e e nte r Stretcher

Spindle - -%

Stile

Notel Dim ensions

Oil

IcFt ure lcngtlis: dimen sions Oil right a re diam et ers. Oil 1/11 purts ut tCIIOII shoulders,

A V" ,.ill.-dccp cluuufer is typicn!

-

- 125 -

-

--%

This informal pine display shelf has held mementoes and cherished objects for its various owners for almost two centuries. (Project: Stop dodoes. p, 128.)

-

- 126 - -

Dis~lay

Shelf

Chapter 14

ve ry h ou sehol d ha s a num b e r o f sma ll obj ects that a re c herished bv th ei r owne rs . Unfo rt u nate ly, th ough , wh en th e se a rt icles a re di spl a yed o n va rio us su rfaces in a roo m, th e y a re of te n lost a mo ng th e larger furni sh in gs. Th e s he lf sho w n h e re was mad e during th e Fe de ra l peri od sp ec ific all y to s ho w o ff so rneo nc 's small posse ssi ons . a nd it ca n be e ithe r hung o n a wall o r stood on a flat surfac e . ~ Iy wife a nd I purch ased it to h ou se o bj ec ts that are important to us, a nd I h ave inc luded it in thi s book b ecause yo u mi ght wa nt to mak e one fo r 'th e s pecial de c orati ve b el ongings in yo u r own h ome . I rem ember wh en th e pi ec e wa s bro ug h t to me by a n ant iqu e d e al e r. I h eld it up , s tu dyi ng th e lobes o n th e sides o f th e s he lf, whi ch see m to d roo p, a nd th ought , " It look s like it wa s pl ac e d too ne ar the fire and began to melt. " When I se t th e s he lf o n a table a nd stood back to exami ne it from th e perspect ive the ma ker had inten d e d , h owe ve r, I re alized that he was more so ph ist ica te d th an I had fir st im agin ed, a nd so was hi s s he lf. Fro m a di stance , th e lo b es seem to casc ade lighth eartedl y, a d e si gn th a t offered th e mak er an e as y a nd natural wa y to establis h the gra d ua ting s he lves . The upward swee p at th e to p o f each lob e mak e s th e lo b e a ppe a r to b e smiling , a nd each tim e I stu dy thi s pi e ce , I find m yself s m iling too . Wh en th e shelf is han g ing o n a wall , m y e ye doe s not go into fre e-fall aft er tra veling to th e botto m lob e . Th e lobe acts a s a logical termin ati on. Yet wh e n the pi e ce is placed o n a table o r bureau , th e c u t-o u t area belo w this projection create s th e e ffe c t o f fe et b y a llow ing light to pa ss underneath. Th is e ffec t s ugges ts th at th e shelf wa s probably meant to b e s tood o n a flat su rface ra the r th an hung o n a wall. Wh en I purch ased this p iece , it was painted black and had b e en c ru dely str ipe d with go ld radi ato r paint. Holding th e s he lf so th at light co uld pass obliq ue ly o ver it, I co uld

E

see decorati ve painting underneath th e o u te r la yer. I th en decided to remov e th e black a nd go ld paint, yet save th e o rigina l s u rface . Th is I did by ap plyi ng p aint s t rip per wi th a n a rt is ts ' brush , o ne sq u a re inch at a time . The o u te r coa t o f paint immed iatel y sh rive le d a nd lifted , a nd I co u ld wipe it aw a y without disturbing th e o rigi na l fini sh . It took an e nt ire Saturday morn in g, but th e s helf s u rvived, looking j us t as it mu st have b e fore th e bl ack wa s a p plie d-we a r spo ts a nd a ll. Ca re ful s trip p ing had re vealed a hand-painted blu e p eony with a ye llo w cente r o n eac h o f th e four s mall upper lobe s, and red -and-white ca rna t io ns o n th e four low er lob es. A pair o f gree n vines with s ha ded gree n lea ve s c onne cts th e four flowe rs o n eac h e nd o f th e pi ec e , a nd an other gree n tendril undulates a lo ng th e front e dge o f th e top s he lf. I also di sco vered th a t th e painted d eco ration h ad b een a pp lie d ove r a coa t of o ra nge shellac, whi ch h a s darkened to a d eep brown. The tloral desi gn is so integ ra l to th e shelf, th e pi ec e wo ul d a p pear nak ed in j us t natural wood . In th e hope th at yo u will want to a d d th e flow er-and -vin e de co rati on wh en yo u m ak e th e d ispl ay s he lf, I have included th e pattern . Th e o riginal she lf is mad e o f p in e. You cou ld a lso use poplar, tulipwood , b ir ch o r so ft maple , d epending o n wh at yo u h ave o n hand. No ne of these woods h as a p ronounc ed figure , a n important co ns ide ra tio n si nce th e wood is visib le b en eath the shellac fini sh a nd yo u d on 't want it s figu re to com pe te with th e hand-p ainted foli a ge . O n th e o the r hand , if yo u are not go ing to em bellis h th e pi e c e, you m ight want to use a wo od with a n intere sting figure-perhaps mah ogan y, walnut, che rry o r c u rly m aple .

- - 12 7 -

-

Stop dad o. 1,h x ¥J.6 lin d ¥J.6 in .

sho rt e r th a n she lf depth 1,h-in.- t h ic k shelf

You ca n probably make th is she lf in a n a fternoo n . If th e o riginal is not siza ble e no ug h for yo ur ne eds, yo u can e nla rge it. I don 't think th e de sign wou ld work o n 11 sma ller scale, how ev er. Begin by c utt ing th e sides o ut of -}:l oi n. stock with 11 co ping sa w o r a bandsaw. Since the edges of th e c urves are very notic eable, clea n the m u p with a spo keshave a nd c h ise l, th en sa nd th em ligh tly with 10 0 - a nd 22 0 -gri t paper, ke eping th e edges sharp and we ll defined . The she lves sit in stop dadoe s c ut in th e sides. Th is co ns truc tio n, ex pla ine d belo w, make s the wh ole piece suffic ie nt ly rigid , si nce th e o nly load th e she lves have to be ar is vertica l. If you a re plann ing to han g th e she lf, bo re and co unte rsi nk a sc rew hol e in e ach side just be low th e top lob e . Prepa re th e surface for painting by a pplyi ng two coats of ora nge she llac, rubbing betwe en c oats with 000 steel wool. Don ' t stai n th e woo d befo re sealing it ; thi s would acc entu ate the figu re of the wood and th erefo re de tract from th e tlo ral design. If yo u lack co nfi de nce in your a b ilit y to do the pa inted decoration bu t want to le arn how , c on sult th e books in th e b ibliogra phy o n de co ra ti ve technique s, o r tak e a co nt inui ng-ed uca tio n co u rse in decorative pai nting. Even if yo u de cide not to do th e painting yo urself. the ins tructo r of suc h 11 course mi ght ag ree to do it for yo u for a reasona ble fee, or mig h t sugges t so meone who wo uld. I wou ld rec omm end th at th e artist not stray fa r from th e o rig inal pattern , but the re is ro om for se lf-expression. The a rt ist wh o did my she lf proba bly co uld not have pa int ed it exactly th e sa me wa y a seco nd tim e .

Sto p d ado es Eac h she lf is hou sed in a Y2- in .-wide by ~16- i n . - d e e p sto p dado c ut in the sides. These dad oe s are ca lled stop dad oes because th e y d o not run th e co m ple te de pth of the sides . Th erefore yo u ca nno t use a dado plan e to ma ke these jo ints. If yo u ha ve c hose n a so ft , even-gra ined wood lik e pine , howeve r, th e dad oe s ca n b e cut with a ma t kn ife and clea ne d ou t with a ch ise l. Clam p o ne side of the display she lf to th e ben ch top with th e in side surface fac ing u p. Eac h she lf is to be sq ua re to a nd tlu sh with th e back e dge of th e side, so to lay out each dado , sta rt a t th e back e dge a nd mark two pa rall el lines with a pencil, Y2 in. a pa rt and as lon g lIS th e dept h of th e shelf. Mark th e blind, o r stop, e nd of th e dad o 0/1 6 in. sho rt o f th e full she lf depth. (Yo u' ll ne ed to c ut a co rre sp ond ing 0/1 6-in .-dee p notch in th e front co rne rs of th e she lf itself to make th e ten o ns tha t slide into th e sto p dadoe s.)

Thc shelves in thi s di spla)' s h c lf s it in s t o p dadocs cut into the s id cs a n d s h o u ld fit s n u g ly to prevent racking.

-

- 128 -

-

Lay a square along each o f th e parall el lines a nd score th e wood with a mac k nife. (Be sure to put in a new blade , as a dull o ne won 't make a clean cu t across th e gra in .) You 'll need to m ak e severa l passes to cut de ep e no ug h to prev ent th e dado e dges fro m tearing while the wast e is be ing removed . Ne x t score th e sto p end of th e d ad o . Be ca ref ul-you' ll b e cutting al on g th e gra in and it is easy to slip a nd c u t farth er th an yo u' d lik e . It 's also po ssible to bre ak off th e e nd o f th e lobe ac ros s thi s se c tio n o f sho rt grai n, so don 't e xe rt to o much pr e ssure here . Use a lon g, Y2 -in.-wide firm er chise l to pare th e wast e o u t o f th e dado . With a lon g chisel yo u' ll be able to ge t down into th e co rne rs wh ere th e dad o sto ps a nd remove all slive rs th at mi ght inte rfe re with th e fit o f th e shelf. Use th e ch ise l with th e bevel up-riding on it s flat , bottom fa ce , th e tool will le av e a smoo th, un iform bottom on the d ad o , where as if used be vel -down it ma y produc e an un ev en su rface . Test-fit each shelf in its d ad o . It sho uld be tight, or th e joint will not be rig id e no ug h to pr event th e pi ec e from ra ck ing o u t o f sq ua re . If th e fit is too snug , th ou gh , pare fin e shavings o ff th e sho ulders of th e d ado, test ing a fter each c ut. Wh en all is asse m ble d , sec u re th e she lves in th e ir dad oe s with T-he aded brads, usin g tw o evenly s paced bra ds per lobe fo r th e upper tw o shelves a nd th ree brad s per lobe o n th e bottom sh elf . To allo w for seasona l movement o f th e wo od , d o not glue th e she lves in plac e, o r th e si des ma y even tually c ra ck. In an y event , th ere 's no po int in tr ying to glue e nd gra in to lon g gra in-yo u' ll ne ver ge t a stro ng glue joint.

Make seve ra l passes with a sharp mat Imife along the blade of a s q u a re to cut the two parallel lines for each dado. Then s c o r e the stop ends.

Clear the waste out of the dodo with 0 long firmer chisel, u sed bevel side up (left). He s u re to remove oil s live rs from the inside corners so the s h e lf will fit properly [abuve),

--129 -

DISPLAY SHELF Scale: 716 ill.

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Thi!; informal oak box stored the eandles that would i1luminatc a Federul-pcrfnd homc at ni/tht. (I'rojcct: Sliding lid, p, 134.)

- - 1J2 - -

Candle Box Chapter 15

ne o f the things I've di sc ove red wh ile livin g in a Fe dera l-perio d h ouse is th at bo th th e h ouse a nd the fu rni tu re ta ke on ano the r cha rac ter b y ca nd le ligh t. Pe ri od ca binetmake rs a nd joine rs kn ew tha t a fte r s un do wn th e ir work wo uld be seen unde r th e se co nd itio ns, a nd de signed a nd b u ilt with this in mind . I d erive a gre a t d eal of pleasure fro m watching sha do ws fl ic ke r in deep moldings, across textured s u rfaces and be hi nd c u rve d o u tlines . To ex pe rie nce th is e njoy me nt, Carol an d I b urn a lo t of cand les . a nd th at is wh y we own thi s b ox , c rea te d spe c ific ally to s to re th em . Ca ndles are laid in side th e box lengthwise. th e lid cl o sed a nd th e box hung up . Wh en a fresh ca nd le is ne eded , th e lid ca n be slid upwa rd and th e c a nd le drawn o u t. Th is is th e o nly tim e we interact with th is pi ec e ; th e res t o f th e time it's j us t an other interest in g o bject. We hang o u r c a nd le box in the kitch en o n o ne o f th e cased posts typi cally found in a Fed eral braced-frame house. Visi to rs d o not sit in o u r kit chen long b ef o re th ey reach up to to u ch th e bo x a nd say, "That' s a ni ce bo x. Wh at 's it fo r? " Th e o rigina l box is mad e o f riv en oak, meaning that th e s tock was sp li t from th e log rather th an sa wn. This sugges ts th at th e b ox mi ght b e Eng lis h o r Co n ti ne ntal. since th e use o f ri ven oa k was more co m mo n in Eu ro pe than in Am erica. The b o x co uld also b e Ame rica n. how ev er. mad e b y a n immig rant wh o re tained old-wo rld pref erences. (The ba ck o f th e box is b randed " L.D.. " whi ch cou ld b e th e initial s of th e maker, an owne r, o r just so meo ne with a h ot branding iron .) By riving th e wood , th e maker o b ta ine d quartered boards, which are dimensi onally more s ta b le than flat -sawn b oards. With oak, this gra in o r ie nta tio n al so p roduc es a p ronounced tleck on th e wood 's s u rface . Th is box ca n b e c ompleted in an afterno on a nd mad e o f a ny wo od yo u choose. The lid and backbo ard a re ¥a in . thi ck. whil e th e sides . to p and b ottom are all Y2 in. thick.

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The b ox is do ve ta ile d toge ther. and since th e directio n of pull is do wnward , th e tail s are cut on the sides an d th e pi ns cu t o n the top and bottom. Th e si de s a nd bo tto m a re wid er th a n the to p so that th e lid ca n slide u ne ncu mbere d in its grooves; th e fu ll widt h of the bottom pre ve nt s it fro m falli ng out. Th e re a r edge o f the to p is recessed ¥a in.. th e thic kne ss o f th e backboard . Th is allows the backboard to be inse t. T he backboard rests o n th e bottom o f th e box a nd is h eld in plac e with T-he aded b rads. These a re d rive n throug h th e rear e dges of th e sides into the backboard , a nd th ro ugh its rear u pper edge into th e top . The s hape of the to p of the backboard is famili ar to a nyo ne wh o h as ever spent t ime in o ld cemete r ies . as it is co m mo n o n Federal-pe riod gravesto nes . It was a lso a po pula r Georgian/Fede ra l molding p rofil e c a lle d a n as tragal a nd cove . and was wid ely used o n c h a ir rail s a nd th e e dges of in teri or windo w sills and stair trea ds . The p ro file of the top o f the backboard easily lends it self to se lf-express io n, sho uld yo u decide not to use th e as tragal a nd cove . I reco m me nd the survey b o oks in th e bi bli ograph y for ideas for a lt ernative mol ding profiles . The slid ing lid is a si m p le rai sed pan el. All four e dges a re b e vel ed o n th e front su rface . The b e vel s on th e s ides of th e lid allo w it to slid e easi ly in the grooves; th e to p and b ottom e dges a re beveled for vis ua l effect. A sem ic ircu la r fin gerhold is c u t ne a r th e uppe r edge . Th e o rigina l b ox a ppea rs to ha ve b e en fini sh ed with oil and wax , wh ich turned it a ple asant d e ep brown . How yo u fini sh yo u r b ox sho uld be a fun c tion o f the wo od used . Mah ogany, walnut and o ther h e avil y figured wo od s demand cle a r fini sh e s. Pin e . b ass, p oplar or tulipwo o d ca n b e painted , fal se -gra in ed o r e ve n s te nc ile d . You m ight de corate th e b ox with yo u r ow n d esign s o r with co u n try o r folk motifs. The po ssi bili t ies for pa inted de c ora ti on a re infin ite. and I would recomm end for re fe re nc e the b o oks o n d ec oratin g tech n iqu e s lis te d in the b ib liogra p hy . 133 - -

Sliding lid

Adjust the plow plane to make a Y. - i n . - w i d~ groov~ , Y. in. deep and ¥. . in. from the in!lide front ~dge!l of the candle-box !l i d ~s. In an antique Ames-lean s e t of gradu ated irons, the No . 2 iron i!l y. in. wide.

Lay out the bevels on the front and ~dg~!l of the panet u!ling a markin.l! .l!auge (e e n t ~ r) . Bevel rbe errds of rbe panel first (bott o m ). To prevent chipping, clamp a waste block again!lt the corner you arc planing toward. Us e a s m o ot h ing plan e to remove most of the wood and fini !lh with a bloek plane on t he end grllin.

Before mak ing th e lid , yo u sho uld cut th e pie ce s for th e box it will fit into and groo ve th e s ides to take the sliding pan el. Since th e tw o sides, th e bottom a nd the to p of the ca ndle bo x a re th e sa me th ic kn e ss , th ey ca n a11 be cue fro m the sa me bo a rd . Cu t th e bo ttom, but before c utting th e sides to le ngth , ru n a groove Y4 in. wide by J;.t in. deep, ¥J6 in . from the insid e fron t e dge of the board to take the lid . I used an adjusta bl e plow plane , mad e of boxwood and p rod uc ed in a Co n necticu t tool fa c tory abo ut the time of th e Civ il War. New pl ow plan e s, howeve r , are still av a ilable th rough man y tool ca ta logs in this country. Mod ern plan e s have a ll th e sa me fea tu res as m in e , ex cep t th at my se t of irons is gra d ua te d in sixteenths of an inch , whil e th o se made in Eu ro pe a nd J ap an are often gr ad uated in millimeters. A grad ua te d se t of irons allows the user to se lec t a ny o f eigh t po ssi bl e wid ths . The plow pla ne ha s a fen ce a ttached to the body by two threaded a rms . The d istan c e betwe en the fence an d th e sale of the plan e is adj us te d wi th four locking nuts . Depth of c ut is set by tu rn ing a thum bscrew in th e to p of th e body. which advan ce s o r re tracts th e adj us table sale lo cat e d in front of the cu tter. These th re e fea tu res a llow th e use r to make grooves of va rio us wid ths a nd d epths. at various dista nces from th e edge o f th e board . O n this ca ndle box, th e J;.t -in.wid e by J;.t· in.·deep grooves req uire the No .2 iron . Se t th e plan e and gr ip th e stock le ngthwise between the ben chdogs , insi de fac e up. Se t th e e dge of the plane's fence o n th e edge of th e board. As yo u pu sh the plow . hold the fen c e tightl y aga inst th e wo rk -s-do not let it wa nder, o r th e groove will no t be straigh t. Each pa ss will tak e o u t a shaving th a t lo ok s lik e a co rksc rew c u rl. When th e groove is th e de sired depth . th e adj us table sale will pre vent th e pl an e from c u tt ing a ny d eepe r. To make th e slid ing lid , yo u will ne ed a mar ki ng ga uge. a sm oothing plan e a nd a bl ock plane . Begi n by squa ring a 5 Y2- in. b y 13 %-in . bo ard . Se t th e m arking ga uge to 1 \116 in. and run a lin e parallel to all four edges o n th e outs ide face o f th e board. Re set th e m arking ga ug e to ¥J 6 in. an d run a no the r lin e o n a ll four e dges . Th e se tw o lin es mark th e hi gh e st a nd low e st points of th e be vel s. Yo u need to be abl e to see th e lin e s, but be su re th at yo u make them as light as po ssible. (The lin es in th e ph otos were da rke ned so th e y would be visible .) If th e y're too de ep . you wo n't be able to pl ane th em a way a nd still maintai n the correct be vel o n th e edges of th e boa rd . Start working th e be vel ac ross th e e nd grai n a t the top o r bottom of th e pan el. Cla m p th e lid betwee n the ben chd ogs so that o ne e nd of th e board ove rha ngs th e bench. To avo id chipp ing th e co rne r , mak e s ure th e re is a strip o f wast e o n th e fa r si de . tlu sh with th e surface a nd th e e nd o f th e panel . as sho wn a t lef t. You should pla ne th e tw o e nds befo re pla ning th e sides . If yo u plan e th e bevel o n th e si des first, th e waste bl o ck will p rote ct o nly th e co rne r and ca nnot pr ev ent te arout a lo ng th e mi ter. Remo ve mo st o f th e wood with th e smoo thing plane . When the be vel ge ts close to th e lin es o n th e su rface an d e nd, sw itc h to th e block pl an e ; th e low a ngle of its iron will e ns u re a cleane r c u t o n th e e nd gra in.

- - 13 4 - -

Top

Fingcrhold

Bevefcd cdgc s o n thc lid e n a b le it to s li dc opcn in g ro ()\'cs c u t in the s idcs of thc b o x.

Sliding lid. 5 Y.i x 1.3 %

----7~_'PC_

----t-_ ,.

Lid is beveled on all four front edges to f it in to grooves i n w ilic11 it slides. For properly mitered corners. side ami end bevels sho u ld meet a t a perfect rig ilt angle.

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A corner that is improperly mitered ca n be

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co rre cted by pla ni ng dow n side to w ilic h m iter is biased.

Wh en th e be vel m e ets both sc ribe d lin es at ea ch e nd . se t th e boa rd a lo ng it s length betwe en th e dogs and c re ate th e be vel o n each s ide e dge of th e lid . Thi s can be don e co m ple te ly with th e smoo thing plan e since yo u 'll be working o n edge gra in. The miters a t th e tw o corners will develop as yo u com ple te e ac h side bev el. It 's imperative that th e miters work o ut correc tly bec au se th e y a re very visible . If a miter does not co me o u t perfectly, adj us t it by planing m ore wo od from th e side to wh ich th e miter is bi ased. o r to o full y c ut. Test th e lid in th e grooves. It sho uld slide ea sily . If it doe sn 't, look to see wh e re it's bi nding . If th e lid is binding in th e bottom o f a groove, th e pan el ma y be to o wide. You ca n co rrec t thi s by pl aning a bit from each edge to sligh tly reduc e th e panel 's width . If th e beveled su rfa ce is binding, th e be vel a ngle m a y b e to o stee p and can be d ecreased with a block plane. Eithe r o f th ese adjustments mi ght also mcan co rrec ting th e m it e rs so that th ey o nce again m eet a t th e c orners. O nce yo u' re sa tis fie d that th e lid fit s properly, make the finge rho ld in th e uppe r e nd o f th e pan el. With a Ys·in. c h ise l, sco re a lin e about 1 in. bel ow a nd parallel to th e bevel o n th e top e dge o f th e lid a nd ce nte red ac ro ss it s width . Hold th e chisel pe rfectly ve rt ical, with th e chisel bevel facing th e bottom of th e pan el , and strike th e handle sha rply with a mallet to make a ¥I6-in .·deep lin e Ys in. lon g. Sk etch a se m ic ircle under this line a nd exca va te a slo ping finge rh old wi th a ¥4- in. go uge.

I

Us c a ~- i n . g o uge to excavate a scmicircular fi ngcrho ld that s lo p cs downward to mcct a ¥. 6- in.- dc c p chiscled Ii nc.

-135 -

CANDLE BOX Scale: % in.

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I'ATTER;\, FOIt UACKUOARD Gri d: \4 in. = \4 in .

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13 7 -

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This stand-up de"k, which it" maker would have called a dc ek on frame, was de"i~ned for u sc in a commercial e stabli shment. (Project: Simulated four-way miter joints , p, 141 .)

-

IJH -

Desk on Frame Chapter 16

I I]

i all th e furniture illu strated in thi s b ook , o nly

Windsor c ha irs a re more wid el y recognized th an this p iec e . It is ge ne ra lly re ferred to as a sc hoo lmas te rs d esk . hot this term ts really a mi sn om er. Th e maker would have called it a d e s), o n frame . O rigina lly designed for us c in a commercia l est abli shm ent . thi s s ta nd- u p d esk reflects the fact that it is m ore e ffic ie nt to handle many b us iness a ffa irs whil e s ta nd ing rath er th an sco u ting up a c ha ir and a fre e writing s urface for eve ry brief cl eri cal task . With di vid ed co m pa rtme nts and a de ep well to provid e sto rage for acco u n t books a nd papers . th e d esk 's interior s pa c e wa s perfe ctly d e s ign ed for th e pi e ce 's functi on . ) o rigi na lly purcha sed thi s de sk for use in my sho p at S t ra wbe ry Banke . a house mu seum in Portsm outh , wh ere my bu sines s was located for four years . When I left Strawbery Banke . m y wif e c ommandeered th e piece for her kitch en and us e s it while a tte nding to th e many ro u tine cl eri cal tas ks ne c essary to managing a hou sehold. Th e divid ed c u bbyho les in th e ba ck o f th e well neatly h o use paperwork a nd w riti ng paraphernalia . while th e well it self holds large r it em s. It 's also a handy spo t for s tas h ing no rm al h ou s eh old cl u t te r wh en we are su r p rised b y un expected vi si tors . Thi s des], o n fram e is quite large . m ea suring 50 -X in. hi gh and just o ve r :39 V1 in . wid e . Since we liv e in a big hou se . we hav e th e s pac e that thi s piece requires . If yo u r s pace is limited and you want to m ak e thi s de sk . you ma y want to sca le down yo u r c opy. If yo u do . I recommend dec reas ing th e width rath er than th e dep th a nd hei ght. ~I a king th e d esk narrower may m ean e limi na ting o ne o f th e inte rio r co m pa rt me n ts . O n th e o riginal d esk, b oth p in e and mapl e were u sed as p rim ary wo ods . re fle cting th e pi ec e 's utilitarian purpose . Like m an y in formal Fed eral -peri od pieces. thi s desk wa s pai nted. The h e a vy-b odied. light mustard-yell ow paint that th e m ak er se lec te d served . a mong other functions , to unify

th e de sk 's va rio us wo ods. Ye t th e pai nt's fu nction was not o nlv ae sthetic; this fin ish was also the onlv one avai lab le in th e period that was able to sta nd u p to 'ha rd use . Si n~e your d esk will p robably not be s u bjec te d to th e exte ns ive wear o f th e o rigina l, a c le a r fini sh co u ld b e u sed if yo u like , whi ch al so m ea ns that th e pi e ce co u ld be m ade of a single s pec ies o f wo od. Maple wa s us ed for the d esk 's base, or frame , since t ha t part o f the pi ec e wo uld be s u bjecte d to t he m o s t wear. Pin e was used for all t he o t he r parts. Cherry. birch . ma ple o r eve n walnut would be a p propriate if yo u want to use o nly o ne prim ary wo od for th e p ie ce . If you want to wo rk with tw o primary wo od s , pine. popla r or t u li p wood wo u ld be eq u a lly acceptable for th e d esk it self, b u t I would not recommend these wo ods for th e fram e , as th e y are not a s strong as the base requires . I would al so avo id oa k a nd ash , s ince th eir gra in is too coarse for a writing s urface. and mahogany is to o formal for suc h a s im p le p ie c e. Bef o re se lec ting a wo od , thi nk a bo u t ho w yo u want to fini sh th e desk and whe re yo u wa nt to pl a c e it. The u p per se c tio n ha s b ro ad s urfaces that wou ld be idea l for fal se grai n ing a nd perhaps so me o rna me nta l s t r ip ing . Th e co ns t ruc t io n o f th e base is s tra igh tforward . The fo u r s im ple. sq ua re legs a re h eld toge t he r by a sk irt a nd a box stretch er. whose j oints are sta ndard m ortise- and -tenons, which are furth er sec u re d with pins . Ove r the yea rs th e se pins have rai sed abo ve th e su rface o f the le gs , b ut I wouldn 't think o f shaving th em flu sh . Th e y a re part of the desk 's c ha rac te r a nd ac t as p oints of intere st o n th e s u rface much as brass ha rdwa re . inl a y o r ca rv ing wo uld . Although th e m aker ce rta inly d idn 't intend fo r th e pins to sho w in thi s wa y. th e y se rve as a reminder th at wood furniture is a n o rga nic, c ha ngi ng entity.

- - 139 - -

Th e o nly joint that is not m ortise -and-tenoned occ u rs ove r th e la rge . low er drawer. Thi s pi ece of th e sk irt is fitt ed in to a lap j oint cut in to th e to p o f b oth front legs a nd held in place by nails dri ven th rough it into th e e nd gra in o f th e le gs . Th is meth od o f co ns tru c tio n is s u ffic ie ntly s tu rdy h ere . sin c e th e b ase 's fun cti on is sim ply to b e a r th e wei ght o f th e d e sk box . A bea d mol ding is run o n th e bo tto m edge o f th e ski rt . a nd the same sha pe is repe ated o n th e to p edges o f th e box s tre tc her. These a re si m p le b u t nec essary details . Without so me o rna me n t. th e de sk co uld eas ily read as a sim p le . clu nky bo x. Th c draw e r in th e b ase is d es ign ed di fferentl y fro m th e ot he r drawers sho wn in this b o ok . It do es not si t flu sh with the front of th e ba se , nor is it bea de d lik e th e draw ers o n th e sec re ta ry (p. 58 ) o r th o se o n the c hes t of draw ers (p. 17 0 ) . Inst ead . th is drawer p roj e cts sligh tly o ve r th e fra me . and th e molding used o n th e edges o f th e drawer fro nt is call ed a thumbnail (lo ok at th e thumbnail molding in th e d ra wing o n p . 145 a nd you 'll underst and it s nam e) . Thi s molding d etail is unu su al o n Fede ra l furniture a nd is a su rviva l fea ture dat in g fro m th e p re viou s peri od . If yo u choose to make thi s d esk . a b ead molding co u ld eas ily be used o n th e d ra we r front witho u t u psetting it s desi gn . Bu t if yo u e lec t to co p y th e thum bn ail molding o n th e o rigina l. run th e rabb et a ro u nd th e ba ck . to p a nd si de edges o f th e drawer front first. Th is ra bbet c rea tes a thin lip , o n th e o u te r e dge o f whi ch th e molding is c u t. With thi s e xce p tio n. th e draw er is co ns truc te d in trad iti on al fashi on : th e ba ck o f th e d rawer is joi ne d to th e si des with th rough do vetail s. th e sides are joine d to th e front with ha lf-blind do vetail s. and th e b ottom slides in to grooves c u t in th e sides. Th e draw er ru n ne rs are nail ed to th e insid e o f the sk irt . The d e sk bo x is o f Ys-in .-th ic k pi ne . If yo u mak e yo ur desk o u t o f hardwo od . you ma y wan t to th ic kness- pla ne yo ur stock to -Y.I in . If yo u sca le down yo u r d esk and mak e the box o f hardwood , you ca n p la ne it as th in as % in. Th e carcase o f th e de sk b o x is jo ine d with th ro ugh dove tail s. Afte r making th e joints a nd te st -fitting th em. di sassembl e th e fou r sides and ma rk th e dadoe s for th e horizon tal tier o f th e divided co mpartme n ts. Th e re is no re ason yo u ha ve to use th e same la yout as th at o n th e origi na l. Ma ke th e se co m pa rt ments as sma ll o r as large as yo u like. You ca n c u t th e d ado e s with a ro u te r o r. if yo u' re wo rki ng with a so ftwood. with a ma t kn ife a nd chise l. as ex pla ine d in th e chapt er o n th e di spla y she lf (p . 12 6 ). Th e o rigi na l d esk use s a s ing le lh-i n.-t hi cl{ horizontal board a nd 14-i n.- thic k ve rtica l d ivid ers to crea te th e tw o ti ers o f co m pa rt me n ts. If yo u' re usin g hardw o od for th e se p arts. th e y ca n be mad e eve n th in n e r. The h ori zont al pi ec e has F-shaped grooves cu t into it , to p and bo tto m . a nd th e co rres po nd ing e dge o n th e vertica l di vid e r is bev el ed o n b oth s ides. d u plicat ing th e F sha pe. Wh en bo th th e upper a nd lo we r di vid ers are in plac e . th e j oints appe ar to be mitered. Th e vis ua l effec t of this co ns tructio n is far more s uccessfu l th an sq ua re-s ide d da does would be, a nd a d e scrip ti on o f how to make th ese simula ted fo u r-way miter joi nts is p ro vide d o n th e fac in g page.

Before you b egin making th e to p o f th e de sk . not e th at b oth th e fixed part o f th e to p and th e hinged lid sligh tly ove rh a ng th e carcase and th at th eir ove rhanging edges a re ro u nde d. Alth ough thi s m old ed e dge ca n be produced in a num be r of wa ys, I would use a no sin g pla ne . U you d on't have this pa rti cular pl an e , the ro u nd ing o n th is pi ec e ca n be done with a b ench plan e o r a ro uter. The edge o f the fix ed top to whi ch th e lid is hinged is c ut at a 98 ° a ngle a nd can b e b evel ed ei the r with a plan e o r by tilting the blade o f a tabl esaw . O nce th e ca rc ase o f th e d e sk b o x is co m pleted an d the top a nd b ottom cu t to s ha pe. th e b ottom is si mply nailed to th e ca rcase. (The s to p d ad o e s. whi ch a re cut into the b ottom to h old th e low e r divid ers in plac e . shou ld, of co u rse. be fitt ed be fore th e b ot tom is na iled on.) O rd ina rily o ne would not n ail th e b ottom o n to a box. as th e lo ad would pull th e nail s lo o se. Na iling wo rks he re . however, becau se th e bo tto m o f th e bo x actually sits o n to p o f th e low er fra me's sk ir t, whi ch b e a rs th e weig ht of th e de sk . Th e fixed p art o f the top is also nail e d in place . sinc e it to o h as no lo ad to bea r. Nex t mak e th e de sk 's sma ll inte rior drawers a nd lid . Thc drawers a re just sma ll ve rs io ns o f th e o ther drawe rs sho wn in thi s book , with the co rne rs d ove tail ed a nd the bottom slid in to groo ves c u t in th e draw er si des. The lid h as th ree e dges that a re round ed ; th e fourth is c u t a t a 98 ° angle a nd b u tts ag ai ns t th e fix ed to p. Th e re are two wide b attens atta ch ed to th e unders ide of th e lid . wh o se purpo se is to p rev ent th e wid e lid from warping. Both a re b ead ed o n th ei r lon g edges and c ha m fe re d ac ross th e ir width . Th e y a rc a ttached with wr ough t c le nc h nail s o n th e o r igina l d esk bu t cou ld just as e asily b e se c ured wi th screws . If I were making th is d e sk. I would p ro b a bly a lso add a thin s tri p o f wood to the o u ts ide b ot to m edge of the lid to keep papers a nd pe nc ils fro m slid ing off . This strip co uld sim ply b e ta cked in pla c e with brad s, or a groove co u ld be routed a nd the s trip glued in pl a c e . O n th e o rigina l desk. th e lid is hinged to the top with hand -wr ought ta bl e- leaf hinge s. wh ich are attached wit h wrought cl en ch nail s. The cab inet ma ker un d o u b tedl y ha d th ese hinges o n ha nd a nd th ough t the m adequate for suc h a u tili ta r ian pi ec e . Other hinge s. like b utt h in ges fo r e xa m ple, co u ld be used in s te ad. If you don' t want the hinges to lay n at like th e origi na ls , mo unt th e m so that th ei r le aves arc h idd en b y th e join t of the lid and top . Th e knuckl es will p rotrud e . but not enough to be a proble m. Foli ate d b rass h in ge s co u ld al so be use d a nd would be b oth d ec o rati ve a nd fu nc t io na l. Th e last ste p in co m ple t ing th e de sk 's construction is making th e cove mol ding th at fo rm s a lip o n the top of the fram e a nd hol d s th e d e sk bo x in place . It' s useful to wait until bo th parts o f th e d e sk are fini sh e d be fore ap plying thi s mo ldi ng . so th at it c a n be fitte d to th e carcase a nd acco m moda te a ny va ria tio ns from the plan s in th e pi ec e 's fina l dim en si ons. Th e molding is m ite red at th e corners a nd h el d in plac e with T-headed fin ish na ils. The mol d in g pro file is sim p le a nd a p pro p ria te fo r such a plain p iece of fur ni ture .

- - 140 -

-

Sim ula te d four-way miter joints

Before finishin g th e pi ec e , give so me thought to its hardware. Thi s d esk has wo od en pulls on the front drawer, but th es e are not o r igina l. Th ey probably replaced brass mushroom kn obs sim ila r in sha pe but larger than th ose on th e sma ll interi or draw ers . This de sk is so generic in de sign that almost any type o f Federal reproduction hardware would be appropriate . Wood en pulls like those o n thi s d esk cou ld , o f course , be made, but they would look best if th e e n tire pi e ce were painted or false-gra ined in a simpl e pattern . If yo u have used a hardwo od suc h as walnut or ch erry for th e d e sk , I would recommend brass hardware . A si m ple versi on of the Ch ippe nda le but 's-wing drawer pulls would be in keeping with the thumbnail molding o n th e drawer. Alt ernatively , Heppl ewhite oval pulls o r Sheraton ro settes would do well , to o. If yo u d ecide to use brass pulls, place escutcheons on bo th the lower drawer and th e d e sk e ven if you don 't fit the piece with locl{s . All o f th e hardware mention ed a bo ve can be o b ta ine d from reproduction-hardware su p plie rs list ed in the appendice s at th e back o f th e book.

The small compartments inside thi s d e sk a re c omm only called pigeonholes, probably because th ey re sembl e th e coops in which racing pigeons ar e raised . Th e d e sk 's pigeonholes are handy because th ey allow va rio us papers to be stored separatel y, and as a result th e y are still a common feature o n mod ern de sk s. Even if you change th e number and s ize o f th e pigeonholes when making thi s de sk , you will s till want to use th e sa me construction techniqu e s used o n th e o rigina l piece . The ends o f the pige onhole dividers that a re fitt ed into the top, bottom and sides of th e de sk carca se are ho used in sto p dadoes, a j o int that is neat and well concealed. If you are working with hand to ol s, I would cu t these stop dadoes in the way sh own in th e proj e ct sec tio n of the displa y-shelf chapter (p . 12 8 ) . Wh ere th e ve rt ic a l pigeonhole dividers intersect the horizontal she lf, however, th e joint is visibl e , and th e maker th eref ore u sed something more interesting to lo ok a t th an a dad o: a simulated four-way miter.

The V-shaped ends of the vertical dividers fit into V-shaped grooves in the horizontal divider to create the s im u la te d four-way miter joints.

v-g roovc plane

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T o co rrectly place V-gro ove . off set f eli ce from

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" -' " ,-d ,' o' vcrt ica l di vid e r V-groove sho u ld be as w id e as vertica l m ember is thick,

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horizontal di vid e r Des k-box bottom

- - 14 1 -

-

liNC a low-ang!e block p lanc to shape onc cnd of cach ve rtfea l dh'idcr into a 90" l '.

A spee iul l'-~ro",'c planc (ccntcr) iN nccdcd to cut thc ~roovcN i n thc horizontal dlvtdcr, Ucforc cllttinA thc l '-ArOCl\'c, NCt III' a fcncc, pONitioncd to allow for thc ArOCl\'c'N full width, and placc a piccc of scrap bchind thc dividcr to prevent tcarout (bottom) .

A real four-way miter joint is used to connect the applied muntins on the doors of the secretary (p. 58). On th at piece, e ac h muntin piece terminat es o n one e nd in a 90 ° V shape , and at two points in th e ce n te r o f ea ch door four muntins interse ct , creating four-way mite rs. Thi s [oint. produces a visual continuity of the muntins' narrow moldings , which would be impossible with a butt joint. In th e pigeonhol es o n thi s desk , the vertical and horizontal dividers are also very narrow but, unlike th e secre ta ry' s muntins, are very d e ep . As a re sult, these join ts ne ed to be made differently. Whil e the se c re ta ry's four-w ay miter joints a re made o f muntins that all e nd in the same shape , the de sk 's joints are co m po sed o f two sepa ra te c ontours : V- sh ap ed e nds o n th e vertical dividers and V- shaped gr o ov e s o n th e long, horizontal divider. To begin this joint. locate th e center of th e bottom edge of the ve rt ica l divider and marl, it. With a miter sq ua re , lay out the 9 0° V. A low -an gle bl o ck plane . o nce call ed a miter plan e , is id eal for fashioning th e V-shaped ends o f the ve rt ic al dividers . Do so o n all o f th e vertical dividers, both abov e and bel ow th e horizontal divider. Rememb er to sha pe o nly o ne e nd o f th e ve rti ca ls; th e o the r fits into a stop dado and is left sq ua re . I would s uggest waiting until a fte r th e miters hav e be en fit to c u t th e vertical dividers to final len gth. This will e nsure a tight fit a t the top . To make th e groo ve s in th e horizontal di vid er, an oth er spe c ia lty plane c alle d a V-groov e plane is required . Si m ple V-groove planes lik e the one I'm using in th e pho to s at left are co mmo nly available from most old- to ol d eal ers. Be fore cutting the V-gr oo ve s . se t up a fence for th e plan e using a stra igh t-e dge d pi ec e o f sc ra p and a"clamp. Th e fe nce sho uld be at lea st 1 in . thick to provid e a good bearing surface for the flat side o f th e plane. Also , th e fen c e sho uld not be placed tightl y a gainst th e mark, beca use th e center of th e V is o ffse t from th e side of th e plane . Hold th e point o f the plan e 's sale on th e centerline and place th e fence tightly against th e plan e before cl amping it in place . It is also necessary to c la m p a strip of wa st e behind th e far edge o f th e work so that any tearout will oc c u r in th e waste , not o n th e e dge o f th e divider. If yo u r plan e ha s a depth sto p, it can be preset to stop the cutting a c tio n. If it do esn 't have this device, yo u' ll have to peri odicall y te st the fit with the V-sha pe d e nd of th e ve rt ic al di vid er. Wh en you 're sa t isfied with th e fit of the divider, th e V-groove is don e . O nce one side of th e horizontal divider has bee n gr oov ed , turn the divider ov er and make th e V-grooves o n the op po site sid e . For the four-way miter to work visuall y, the V-gro ov e s o n both s id es mu st lin e up . Be ca re fu l not to ove rc u t th e groo ves a nd weaken th e horizontal piece o r cut it in two . The horizontal di vid er is inserted into its stop dad o whil e th e d ovetail ed sides o f th e d esk ca rc as e are be ing assembled. Th e low er vertical d ividers a re se t in wh en th e bottom o f th e desk box is attached . and th e upper vertical s are put in place b ef ore the top is nail ed o n .

- - 14 2 --

D ESK ON FRAME Sc ale:

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Notc: Desk und buse ...ith dr u...er nrc t ...o separate pi ece s. Desk rests 0 11 base, s ur r o unded by app lie d, mitered molding o n Irou t and side s.

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--143 - -

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- - 14 4 - -

Lower Drawer

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- 14 5 - -

THE BEDROOM

T

e pa rents o f the fam ilies th .u ha ve lived in ,,' " ,""""

,,,"'0 always used

th e east bedc hambe r as the ir bedroom, j ust

as we do . Th e ro om ha s a so u the rly e xposu re. and th e sunlight that streams in m ak e s it a wo nde rfu l room to wake u p in. The original bedroo m was a c hee ry roo m with it s woodwork painted "russian blu e. Seve ral yea rs ago whe n I was insula ti ng the att ic . I found about a square foot of th e bedroo m's original wallpaper under th e a ttic tlo o rb oards . Re c ently we found a n example o f the patte rn's fu ll repeat in the collectio n o f th e Soci ety for th e Pr e servati on of Ne w England Antiq uities , a nd we can now have the o rigi na l paper re prod u ced . This paper was p robabl y an Ame r ic a n ve rsi on of th e neo cl ass ical Frenc h pa pers popular duri ng the Federa l period. The bac kgro u nd colo r is a light b lue . a nd e ac h repe at co ns ists o f a central urn , topped by a c upid and surrounded by te ndrils wi th perc h ed birds. Th e urn is plac ed a bove a ba r draped with swags a nd ta ssel s . We pn intcd t he room 's woodwo rk t he o rigina l co lo r and , to m aintain th e blu e- on -blue e ffect, used the backgrou nd color of the o rig ina l wall pa per o n the pl ast e r wall s. So meday. a fte r we have had th e o rigi na l pape r re p rodu ce d , t he roo m's bas ic decor wi ll appear just as t he o rig ina l owners intend ed . Acco rding to t he 18 0 5 invento ry o f the hou se, th e b ed in thi s room was o ne o f th e o wne rs ' m os t expensive p o sse ssi ons. Mos t of the va lue no te d for the pi ece re prese n ted th e bed furnitur e , that is. th e pill ow s, shee ts. b la nke ts a nd b ed c u rtai ns . The patte rn o n the bed c urtai ns pro bab ly co mple mented tha t in th e wallpaper a nd windo w c urta ins . The va rious beds used in th e roo m le ft den ts in th e flo orb oards, Eac h b ed wa s pl ac ed nea r th e front windows so t ha t it a nd the bed furn it ure cou ld be full y seen a nd a p p rec ia te d b y those passing by th e bedroo m doo r. Beca use t he 20th c e n tury h as brou ght a streetlig ht an d a uto mob ile tra ffic to o u r front door, we h a ve pl ac ed o u r b ed agai ns t th e roo m's re a r wall. Federa l-period America ns sa w th e be dcham b er as a ro om to be liv ed in . Wh en I s t rip ped the bedroom tlo or (wh ic h was no t painted un til t he 20th ce nt ury) . I found pattern s o f wear in th e raw pin e boards that co nfirmed th e roo m's regu lar use . In front of ea c h win d ow someo ne ro uti ne ly sa t in a Windsor c ha ir. \Vh en that person rocked b ackward in th e c ha ir , the turned feet of the Wi ndsor m a d e c risp hal f-m oon dents in th e so ft wooden tloor. Ano t he r row o f suc h dents occurs abo ut 8 ft. fro m the mouth of the fireplace. the d ista nc e I ha ve found m ost c o m fo rt a b le wh en s itti ng in fro nt of a fir e. From th e se p atterns of wearI dctermin cd the loca tio n of some of t he 18 Windsors listed in th e 1805 in ven to ry. - - 147 -

-

When the fires were banked for the night in a Federal-period home, the temperature indoors mi~ht drop well below freezin~. To combat the cold, the full-Ien~th curtains ori~inall,· han~in~ from this bed's canopy frame were drawn to form a tent that trapped heat inside. (Project: Roping the frame, p, 151.)

- - 14S -

-

lfigh-Post Bed Chapter 17

I' yo u h a ve ever sle p t in a hou se heat ed o nly b y a firepl ac e o r a wood st ov e , yo u will und erst and a nd a p p re ci a te th e o rigina l purpo se o f th e hi gh-po st b ed. Th e tall po st s . to p ped o n th is be d b y a wo od en arch call ed a ca no py fram e . we re no t inte nde d to ju st look nic e . C u rt a ins cove red th e to p a nd all four sides o f the b ed . c rea ting. in e ffect. a tent. Tha t tent tr apped heat in side a nd prote cted th e p eople huddled under th e cove rs from room tempera tu re s th at o fte n dipped well b el ow fre ezin g. These c u rta ins cove re d th e b ed so completel y th at th ere was little rea son to mak e e la bo ra te post s . It is th eref ore a tr ib u te to th e ca b uie tm a ker wh o mad e this b ed th at h e produ ced b e au tifull y turn ed . if quite sim p le . posts . Since ce n tra l h e a ting ha s e lim ina te d the ne ed fo r c u rta ins that ca n b e d ra wn s h u t aga ins t th e night c h ill, a t th e sa me tim e hiding th e b edpost s, we can a pprecia te th e b ed in a wa y it s o r igina l owner ma y not have . Fo r us, a hi gh -po st be d ma y be mo re intere sting as an archite ctural size pi ec e of furniture that wo rk s in thre e dimensions. Ma ny mo d ern b e d s are. b y co nt ras t. essen tia lly b road , flat , tw o -dim ensi onal slee pi ng s urfaces, whi ch sh a re little with th e hi gh -po st bed , exce p t that th ey too tak e up much o f th e 110 01' sp ace in a bed roo m . The hi gh-post bed , h ow e ver, occ u p ies bo th an e x pa nse o f 110 01' s pace a nd a lso co ns ide ra ble sp ace a bove the mattress. ~I a kin g a be d is a rew arding p roj ec t, ye t it will require a grea t deal o f adva nced planning. Amo ng th e things to th ink ab out b ef ore beginn ing is th at yo u will ne ed access to a lath e with a 6-ft. b ed (t he post s are 5 ft. 1 % in. long) . You will al so ne ed to locate a so u rce for e no ug h -l-in .vthi ck hardwood for th e bc d 's four J 1kin .·di a . po st s and fou r J 14 in .vthick ra ils (with th e e xce p tio n o f it s poplar h eadboard , th e o rigina l bed is mad e o f birch ). Native hardwoods this thi ck ca n be pu rc ha sed fro m wh ol e sal e lumberyards. but it may take so me fas t talking to co nvince th em to se ll yo u o nly e no ug h woo d fo r o ne bed .

I

Th e stock I usc for be ds ca me fro m m y fa m ily's farm. For m.my ye ars I had a dm ired a grove of c herry tre e s th ere . which had to come d own wh en my fa the r o pe ne d a new pasture . Am ong th e se tr ee s were five th at we re a t least 18 in. in diam ete r. I to ld th e sawye r th a t I wanted th e crown pla nk ( the o ne with th e pith in it) from each to be 4 in. thi ck . Th e woo d on eithe r side of th e pith represents a radi al c u t a nd is ve ry stab le wh en sa wn this wa y. Your fath er ma y not h ave a grove of c herry tre e s h e wants to c u t d own , b u t th ere may be a s ma ll sawm ill so me where c los e by. A mill will us ua lly sell you a lo g a nd c u t it to yo u r spe ci ficatio ns a t e no ug h of a p re m iu m to mak e up fo r th e e x tra e ffort invo lve d in d e aling with a s ma ll-tim er. If . how e ver. th e re a re su rp rises s uc h as rot o r wind sha kes insid e th e log, th e sa wye r ma y remind yo u that yo u bought it. Ta ke your losse s with eq ua n im ity. If yo u bu y wo od th is way, pa int th e ends o f the planks to prev ent rapid drying a nd c hecki ng , a nd immediatel y rip th e crown planks in a lin e th at ro ug h ly follo ws the pith. The timber th en ne eds to b e stac ke d o n sk ids and a ir-d rie d for severa l yea rs . Ano ther thing to th ink a bou t is the type of m attre ss you will us e . Th e mattre ss o n th e o rigi na l bed was s u p po rted b y a wov en rope web , whi ch is d iscu sse d in d e tail o n p. 151 . I laid a shee t of :y.;·in. ·th ic l, plywo od o ver thi s ro pe web a nd a mat tress over th at. I use a h orseh air m attre ss, which is q u it e h a rd (it 's d one wonders for m y b a ck problem s) . If yo u want so me th ing so fte r, try a futo n o r a d ense foam mattress ove r the plywo od. Fo r a b ox sp r ing and mattre ss, yo u' ll h ave to sus pe nd th e b ox s pri ng b etwe en th e rail s with an gle bracke ts. Th e o rigina l bed measure s o nly 74 % in. by 54 % in . and was de si gn ed to h old a th ree-quarter- si ze matt re ss . This d esi gn is fin e for pe ople lik e m yself wh o a re o nly 5 ft. 8 in . tall. but yo u ma y wa nt to expa nd yo ur bed to tak e a s ta nda rd , full -si ze mattre ss. You ca n do this by app ropriatel y length en in g the ra ils , h e ad b o a rd a nd canopy

- - 149 - -

fram e . I would warn aga ins t m aking th e b ed wid e e no ug h and long e no ug h for a qu e en-si ze o r kin g-size mattress, though. Suc h pro portion s would mak e th e bed look foolish. Beg in the bed by ripping th e plank into sto ck for th e bed posts and ra ils. No t ice that th e post s a re 3 14 in . sq. in cross sec tion. while the ra ils are 31;:1 in. d e ep b y a full 4 in. wide. Su rfa ce th em to th e se d im en si ons. The n hand pla ne the ra ils a nd c h a mfe r a ll four e dges to prev ent bed cove rs from catching o n a ny slive rs or th e a rris. Plane th e s toc k for the post s in th e a re a o f th e mort ise s to ke ep m illin g marks from s ho wing o n yo ur fini sh ed b ed. Turn th e fou r post s to th e sha pe sho wn in th e drawing o n p. 15 5 . Th e o rigina l po st s were neve r sa nded. as th e tu rner was sk illfu l e no ug h to tu rn a cle a n s u rface using o nly la th e too ls. If yo u are not eq ua lly compe tent at th e lath e . I reco m me nd sa nd ing th e po st s, but not while th e la th e is turning. Th at would sc ra tc h th e turning ac ro ss th e gra in. so me th ing none o f us woul d dre am of doing o n an y ot her pi e c e of wo od . b u t which man y o f us d o ro u tine ly with turn in gs. Eve n if yo u try to sa nd th ese scratc hes away . th e y will re a p pear wh en yo u a p ply the fin ish . For this rea son . I s ugges t sh u tting o ff th e lath e a nd. with the tu rning s till mounted betwee n cen te rs, sa nd ing lightl y with 220-grit paper in th e dire cti on of th e gra in. After the po st s ha ve bee n tu rn ed. th e bed is re ad y to b e joine d with s ta nda rd m orti se -and -tenons. Unless yo u've d on e tim ber fram in g. yo u ha ve prob abl y never c u t mo rt ise -and -tenons thi s large , but th e y are done th e sa me way as smalle r jo ints. Lay th em o u t with a sq u a re a nd a mo rt ise ga uge. I c ut th e %- in . mo rti se s with a morti se c hisel. I wo uld not m a ke th em a ny sma lle r than % in . and . if fac ed wi th a c hoice o f larger c h ise l sizes. would o pt to make th em ~ in . Unlike most sm a lle r jo ine d p iec e s o f furn iture. b eds occasio na lly h ave to b e di sassem bl ed fo r th e purpo se o f moving o r re deco ra t ing. Fo r this re ason , no glue is used o n the joints . To e ns u re th e b ed 's co rrec t reassembly. I sugges t foll ow in g wh at was s ta nda rd practice in th e Federa l peri od : numbering th e mortise -and-tenon s. Ch ise l Ro man num e ral s ne xt to th e morti se s and o n th e e nds o f the rail s near th e tenons. Sta rt with th e right mortise o n th e le ft head po st a nd a d va nce c lockwise aro u nd th e bed in the tradit ion al seq ue nce . The jo ints o f th e o rig ina l b ed a re furth er secured with a ro pe web. woven throu gh a se ries o f 3 0 holes in th e rail s. Eac h side rail has nine hol es a nd e ac h e nd rail s ix hol es. All of th e hol es are % in . in di a m eter a nd a re reli ev ed on the o uts ide o f th e ra il to ke ep th e rope from ch afing. They a re eve nly spaced alo ng .e ac h rail a nd alig ne d with th e hol es o n the o pposite rail. Alth ou gh ro ping works well to tigh ten th e bed fram e. it inrerferes with fitti ng a box s pring be twee n the rail s. You ma y th e ref o re wa nt ins te ad to ti ghten th e frame with b ed bo lts , whi ch c a n b e purch ased fro m th e re prod uc tio n hardware d e al ers list e d in th e a ppendices . O nce th e joine ry for the ra ils is co m p le te. yo u c an c u t the morti se s fo r th e h e adboard . On th e o rigina l b ed the he adbo ard is 112 in. thi ck . but it co uld easily be % in. th ick. whi ch wo uld a llo w yo u to use th e sa me morti se

chisel through out. I would a vo id making it ~ in . thi ck howev er. since this b egins to viola te Fe dera l-pe riod c a b ine tma ke rs' tradition o f d elicate furn itu re . Th ere 's no reason not to m ak e th e h ea d boa rd of so me th ing more exotic th an poplar. a nd almost any wood could b e used . If yo u ha ve e nlarged th e dim ens io ns of the bed, e xpa nd yo u r h eadb oard from th e m idd le of the pattern rath e r th an from the e nds . With th e h e ad b oa rd com ple te d. turn yo u r attention to th e can opy fram e . O n th e o rig ina l bed thi s frame is a s im ple a rc h mad e of b irch . but a ny h a rdw oo d wou ld do a nd th e fram e 's s ha pe co u ld just as we ll be serpentine. Eigh t pi e ce s mak e up the fram e : four a rc hed segme nts and four c ross s tru ts. The arc hed segments a re set up in pai rs to mak e tw o fu ll arc hes running th e length of the bed. Th ese segme n ts me e t in th e m iddl e with a b utt joint and are sec u re d o n th e unde rs id e with a leath e r h inge . Alt ernati vel y. a s mall me tal hinge co u ld b e use d. The e nti re ca no py is asse mble d with out glue to fac ilita te kn ockdown for moving. To co ns truc t th e ca no py fra m e . firs t transfer the shape of th e four arch es from th e d raw in g to yo ur wood. nesting th e patterns toge the r to minimize wast e. The arc hes are mad e from full -in ch stoc k a nd ca n b e c ut o ut on a bandsaw or with a how saw . Th e sa w n edges can be cl ean ed up with a spokesha ve or a co mpass plane . Next c u t th e four cross s tru ts fo r th e c a nopy. which are ~ in . thi ck b y 1 lis in . wide . Th e tw o s truts at the head and foo t o f th e b ed as well as th e hinged arch es arc mounted o n top o f th e po st s wit h a m etal p in. You ca n make these pins from 8d fin ish nail s by c u tti ng o ff th e na il heads \\ ith a h ack saw . Drill a fr ic tio n -t igh t h ol e in th e to p of the post (the lath e c enter ma rk s the s pot). a nd ta p the nail in place . point up . You'll ne ed to d rill a so mew hat la rge r ho le th rough each e nd o f the cross s tru ts a nd through the lowe r e nd o f eac h a rch ed segme n t , so b oth th c strut and arch can slide ove r th e nail s in the po s ts . Wh en assembling the canopy. put th e s tru ts in pla c e fir st and set thc arc hes on top o f th em . Bef ore these pi ec e s arc asse m b le d , how eve r. the two ce nte r s tru ts ne c d to b e joi ne d with h alf-bli nd dovetails to th e top s u rface of th e a rc hes . These st ruts are pos itioned to di vid e th e arch es int o thre e e q u a l sect io ns . When in plac e . th e y do more than jus t s u p port the cloth canopy. Th ey al so pr event lateral sway o f th e arc hes. O nce th e bed is co ns tructed . yo u' ll want to think about fini shing th e pi ec e . The origina l bed was fini sh e d wi th she llac, but b e ca use o f the we a r from th e mat tre ss and bedding, I would s ugges t so met h ing ha rde r, like varnish or la cqu er. If yo u r b ed ro om h a s a co u nt ry deco r. you m ight want to use a red or b lue mil k-pa int sta in, mixed the way I de sc ribed in th e c ha pte r o n th c ga te lcg ta bl e (p. 90) . If yo u wa n t to mak e b cd curta ins . co ns ult the book on te xtil es in th e b ib liogra p hy. Yo u ma y prefe r instead a sim ple. printed co tto n ca no py . o r a croc heted fishne t ca no py. You 'll ne ed to mak e yo u r o wn co tton canopy, but fishnet ca no p ies a rc a vai la b le th rough a num b e r of stores, wh ich usually advertise in th e a nt iq ues maga zlncs listed in th e so u rces o f su p ply at th e c nd o f the bo ok.

- - 150 - -

Although s o me h ed fr ame s wer e t ig hte n e d with bed holts, many, like thi s one, w ere s t r e n g t h e n e d h)' roping. T his produced a woven rope weh that al so s u p p o r t e d the he d's mattres s.

I. Afte r kno tting one cnd of ro pc and tl/p ing o t he r, bcg in ro ping a t end of side m il a nd work down bed's lcngth .

3

3. Af ter we b is woven. tighten s tra nds w i t h be d w l·cnc h. work i ng in s a me se q ue nce as fo r weav ing. a nd secure e nd w ith soooden plug.

2. With crosswise stra nds roped. pass rop e under f ra me and in sid e of leg. and bcgin wea~i ng len gth wisc strands.

Ropin g the fra me To rope a three-quarter-size bed , you 'll need about 97 ft. of % -in . he m p rope. and if you have expanded your bed to full -size. you 'll need an extra 10 ft. of rope . Don 't use nylon rope-it s t re tc h es . You ' ll also ne ed two whittled and tapered . 9 ·in .-long hardwood pins, along with a hammer (I prefer a cobbler's hammer, but a carpenter's hammer will do) a nd a bed wr ench . The wrench can be easily made from a turned dowel , 2 in. thick by 14 in . long. Cut a slot a t least % in . wide in one end of the dowel , and pierce the ot her end with a I-in . bit at a right angle to the center of the dowel. Insert a handle into this ho le to complete the T-shapeJ tool.

To prepare the rope, whip one end by wrapp ing it wit h electrical or masking tape to keep it from fraying and mushrooming as you work . Tie a half-knot in the other end. which will anchor this e nd in the first ho le . Begin roping the frame in one corner, threading the whipped end of the rope from the outside through the first hole in the side rai l. Pass the rope across the width of the bed and out through the corresponding hole in the opposite rail. Then pull the rope until the knot is tight . aga ins t the first rail.

A s im p l)' co nst ru c t ed b ed w ren c h is u se d to tighten t he wove n rope web,

- - 15 1 - -

Working o n th e side o f th e bed o p posite th e kn ot, pas s th e ro pe through th e seco nd hol e in that rail a nd out the co rres po nd ing hol e in th e fir st side . Co n tin ue working buck a nd forth in this wa y al on g th e e nt ire len gth o f th e bed. wh ich will pr oduc e th e fou nda tio n threa ds for th e wov en we b . Wh en yo u 've pull ed th e ro pe th rough th e last holc in th e side rail . pa ss it under th e ra il, insid e o f the post a nd up to th e o u tside o f the e nd ra il. Thread th e ro pe into th c firs t hole in th e e nd rai l. weave it a lte rn a te ly over a nd unde r th e crosswise stra nds to th e o p pos ite rail a nd pa ss it ou t th e o p pos ite hol e. Move to th e next hol e. just as yo u did o n th e side rail s, a nd co n ti nue to weave the we b . If you need to ti e anoth er piece o f ro pe o n to th e first. usc a sq ua re kn o t; thi s is stro ng b ut will u nt ie eas ily if yo u ne ed to di sassem bl e th e bcd . Wh en th e we b is co m ple te d. it ne eds to bc t igh te ne d. Sta rt a t th e co rne r o f th e si de rail o pposi te the kno t a nd slip th e wr ench down ov e r the short e xposed len gth o f th e ro pc betwe en th e fir st two hol e s in th e ra il. Twist th e wr en ch cl ockwi se as tigh tl y as you c a n. Wh en I'm d oing this by mysel f. I hold th e wr en ch wit h o ne hand a nd my thi gh . which le ave s my o the r han d free to pick up a tape red pin . Pre ss th e point o f the pin into th e firs t hol e a nd drive it with th e hamm er tigh t e no ug h to keep th e ro pe from slipp ing wh en th e wren ch is loo sen ed . Go to th e o p pos ite s ide o f th e be d and tighten th e ro pe in th e next hol e in th e sa me wa y. us ing th e seco nd pin to

a nc ho r the rope . Th en remove th e fir st pin by pulling it stra igh t back whil e you tap it s si de with th e hammer as c lose as possible to th e rail. Th e tapping will slow ly loosen th e pin. Avo id working th e pin from side to side. as th e ti p may sna p o ff in th e hol e. Tighten th e next stra nd of the foundati on th read s in th e sa me way. using the firs t pin to hold th e rope . Work in this le ap-frog fa shi on d own the e nt ire len gth of th e bed. Th e ro pe sho uld be tight e no ug h to vibrate wh en plucked like a guita r stri ng . You ma y also see a noti ce abl e bow in the hea vy side rail s. After I had fini sh ed rop ing this bed. the di st ance betwe en th e rails me a sured 112 in . less in the middle than a t the e nds . T igh te n th e len gthwi se st ra nds in th e sa me way, working ac ross th e width of th e bed fram e . Wh en th e las t st rand is t igh ten ed , loci, it with th e fre e pin. Th en saw o ff the pin c lose to th e ra il so th at it will not inte rfere with the bedding. To di sassembl e o r retighten th e be d. you ca n dri ve o u t thi s sho rt pin from the in sid e . Don ' t c ut the ex tra len gth of ro pe off- you 'll ne ed it the ne x t time you hav e to ro pe th e bed . Ins te ad, pa ss it under the foot rail a nd wea ve it o ve r th e stra nds so th at it does n't han g d own und er th e bed . Altho ug h it 's be en remo ved for th e ph otogr aph , we usu all y hang a dust ruffle from th e rail s. wh ich is actua lly tack ed to th e shee t o f plyw o od. Th e e ffec t of this ru ffle is to e nla rge th e bed 's m ass (a nd hide th e rope) .

The knotted end keeps the rope from pullin~ throu~h the first hole and anchors the woven web,

The bed wrench and tapered pins arc u sed to tighten the webbing, working in the sequence in which it was woven [above], To keep from 'losing the ten sion on the rope, tighten and loci. it in two con securlve boles in leap-frog fashion around tbe bed. Witb the rope thu s secured, remove the tapered pin from the first hole by pulling straight backward and tapping the pin with a hammer near the rail. Once the crosswise strands arc rhreuded, pass the rope under the side rail, in side of the post and to the outsidc of the end rail to be~in the len~tbwise threads.

After tightening the rope in the last hol e, drive in the tapered pin with the hammer and s a w off the end to make a plug.

- - 15 2 -

-

HIGH -POST B ED Scale: Y16 in .

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C:/IWPY is usscmblcd without ,4/ue to Iucilitutc knockdown for moving,

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n um era ls chiseled near mortises und 01/ tenons e u s u r e bed's correct rcnsscm b ly,

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- - 153 - -

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.c:::;;.--i DETAIL A Sea Ie: ~ in . = 1 in.

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PATTERN FOR HEADIJOARD AN D POSTS Grid: \4 in. = 2 in .

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- 15 4 -

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~- i n . - t h i c k

headb o ard

~

I

-----

I:f trI

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r-.... ~

I

II

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r---.. I"--.. r-, ......... r-,

"'r-..... ...... 1""-

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PATIERN FOR CANOPY G r id: t\. in. 1 in.

r-, "i'... ['I'... I'.

I<

"

35 1h

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"'- "'" 1" \ '\

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I

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SECTION AT B Sc ale : 1h in . = 1 in.

~

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\ - \

Side rail

r 3 \4-in.-sq. bedpost (ty p.)

SECTION AT C Sca le: 1h in. = 1 in.

Ca no py arch

1

,

~..J-----~--'L E nd rail

Top Vicw

Top Vicw

SIDE RAIl. (post removed) Scale: 1h in. = 1 in.

St ru t do vetailed to canopy a rc h

/

4

::-l,

Sidc Vicw

o/,.-i n. chamfer .L;

St ru t

End Vicw %-in.-d ia . roping h ol e

- - 155 - -

\Vith a wide, fixcd top and narrow leaves, the Pcmhroke table wus oriltinall,· desiltned us a portublc table on which to have breakfast or tea, Introduced duriug the Chippendale period, it guincd even grcatcr pnpufarfty in the Federal period. (Project: Rule joints, p. 158.)

- - 156 -

-

Pembroke Table Chapter 18

h e table pre sented in this c ha p te r is c alle d a Pe m b roke . The fea tu re that distinguishes a Pem b roke from o the r sma ll drop-leaf tables is th e p ro po rt io n o f th e wid e top to th e narrow le a ves . Legend h as it tha t th e Ea rl o f Pembroke was th e fir st person to orde r a sma ll, portable table of th ese proportions, a nd he is reported to ha ve had no le ss a cab ine tmake r th an Tho mas Chi p pe nda le make th e pi ece for h im. As a result, Pe m b ro ke 's name wa s fore ver linked to this fu rn it u re form. The o nly part of the s to ry th at ca n be acce p te d with ce rta inty is th at th e Pembrok e table wa s introduced during the Chi p pe nda le period a nd fir st made in th at furniture s ty le. Th e form re ached it s grea tes t popul arity during th e Fed eral p eri od , wh en Pern broke s were mad e in gre a t q ua nt ity. Co nse quen tly, a tremendous number of Fed era l e xa m ples o f this for m still s urvive in b oth Hepplewhite a nd Sh era ton s ty les . Pembro ke s we re o r igina lly intended to b e light, mo vabl e tabl es at whi ch o ne co uld ea t breakfast o r take te a . When th e tabl e wa s not in use , it s le ave s co uld be low ered a nd th e pi ece pla c ed o u t o f th e way against a wall. Alt ho ug h we d on 't o ften eat at this Pem b ro ke , Ca ro l and I use it for innum erabl e o ther pu rp ose s. In fact, I wr ote thi s b ook whil e sitt ing a t this ta bl e. Eve n in it s c losed po siti on aga ins t th e wall , thi s pi ec e is a n interesting a nd d ynamic fo rm . It s appeal res u lts from a ch a rac te ris t ic of Fe deral furniture to which I have ref erred aga in a nd ag ai n in thi s bo ok: th e cre ation o f illu si on. Th is pi e ce co n ta ins severa l exa m ples o f illu sion , th e fir st be ing it s de c epti vel y d eli cate a ppea ra nce. Th e double tap ered leg ma kes th e table a p pea r to b e perched o n tiptoe . Like the leg o n th e gatel eg table (p . 90) , th e Pe m b ro ke's leg is a n a m ple 1 0/1 6 in. sq . at th e top and tapers ge n tly from th e top o n tw o sides. Bu t unlike the le g o n th e ga te leg, th e Pem b roke leg narrows a t th e ankle in an eve n s tee per ta per o n a ll four sides . By com pariso n

with th e ga teleg, which is 1 in . sq. a t th e foot. th e Pemb roke leg is o nly % in . sq. a t th e b ottom . Besid es c re a t ing a n illus io n, th e d oubl e -tapered le g a lso presents a de si gn probl em . The su dde n brea k from th e first taper into th e seco nd cou ld a p pea r to b e a mi stak e . A viewer mi ght wonder if th e s tee per ta per a t the foo t resulted from th e cabinetmaker's ina bility to co n tro l hi s to ols (d id he allow th e plane to ro ll a s it neared th e bottom of th e leg ?) . Aware o f thi s po ssibl e p e rc epti on , th e maker ado pte d a so lu tio n co m monly used on double -ta pered le gs : a band o f inla y a t th e point of tran sit ion , whi ch announces th at th e se cond ta per wa s ex p ressly inte nde d . An oth e r de c eptive e le me n t found in th e table in vol ve s th e two e nds of th e skirt, whi ch ap pea r to b e so lid b o ard s with a n inlaid s tri p alo ng th e b ottom edge. In re alit y, o nly o ne is a so lid b o ard , while th e o the r is th e front of a draw er ru n ning th e wid th o f th e skirt . Th e draw e r, whi ch ha s no kn obs, is pulled o u t by its botto m fro nt e dge, m ad e acce ssible b y th e reli e ved front o n th e lo we r dra wer ra il. Man y Pembroke ta b les ha ve a draw er in o ne e nd , but it is not usually hidd en . In fac t, fal se drawers in Pern b ro kes a re more co m mo n th an real , hidden drawers . Th e most s trik ing illu si on is th e vis u a l razzl e -d azzle produc ed by th e shape o f th e to p . Like th e d oubl e -tapered leg, th e top's s ha pe is not uniqu e to Pern brok es. It wa s a com mo n o u tli ne for th e tops o f Fede ra l-pe rio d c a rd tabl es , but o n a card table it would h ave been b isected to fold in hal f. This sy m m e try meant that, eve n wh en fold ed, th e card tabl e 's top cou ld b e e as ily imag ine d in full. Visualizing the o pe n tabl e top o n thi s Pembroke , wh en c lose d, is m ore diffi cult. The maker placed th e rul e jo ints that connect the fix ed top and lea ves a bou t tw o-th irds o f th e way down th e c u rve o f th e top's se rpe nti ne e nds. Wh en th e leaves are low ered , th e e nds becom e ellip tica l, just like the sides . Th us , upon first see ing th e cl o sed tabl e , o ne is ltkely to ex pec t th e o pe n top to be c irc u la r. Fo r th e to p 's sha pe to be gras pe d, it mu st be see n with th e leaves rai sed .

- - 15 7 - -

The o rigina l table is made of cherry, which tim e has turned a rich tobacco gold . The inlay on the ends of the skirt and runn ing across th e legs is made up of a strip of dark mahogany banding, o u tline d top and bottom by ligh tcolored stringin g, which is probably birch . The banding ac cents the edges of the skirt and th e transition at the ankle s without co m pe t ing with th e sha pe o f th e top . If you c opy this table , I recommend using the same simple ba nd ing. Doing so , however, limits th e choice of prim ary wood to som ething o f a medium color that would be lighter than the banding's c o re but darker than the stringing. Cherry or a light mah ogany would work well. Th e table' s c on stru ction is fairl y straightforward , and o nly several feature s require d e scription . Th e fir st is th e fly rail that holds cach drop le a f in its rai sed position. This piece is a sho rt e x te nsio n o f e ac h side rail , attached to it with a wo od en hinge lik e th at o n the gat e leg table . This hin ge is composed of a se ries of meshing wooden knuckles, pi erced by a c entral hol e and held to gether by a long, steel pin . (Ins tru c tio ns o n making a wo oden hinge can be found in the c ha p te r on th e gatel e g tabl e, o n p. 9 4 .) Th e hinge all ows th e fly rail to piv ot at a right angl e to the skirt and su p po rt th e rai sed leaf. Not e that this rail 's sha pe differs from th e profile o f th e adjac ent ski rt sect io n, allowing th e tly rail to be e as ily grip ped , Th e ba ck of the rail is also reli ev ed to su p ply a fing erh old. The fly rail require s that th e sk irt be constructed of two lay ers. O n th e original table th e ski rt 's outer la yer is ch erry and th e inn er lay er pine . After the fly rail and its hin ge were made, th e tw o la yers o f th e skirt were jointed and glue d to geth er. Th e skirt was th en tr eated as a single pi ec e o f wood. The tenon wa s laid o u t so that th e glue joint ra n right d own its center. apparently in th e interest o f making a st ro nge r skir t. An oth er construction d etail o f note is found in the skirt e nd containing th e hidden drawer. No rm ally a drawer is se t betwe en tw o visibl e . narrow , horizontal drawer rails, th e upper o ne usually d ov etailed into th e top e nds of th e legs and the low er o ne m ortise-and-ten on ed . On thi s table th e drawer rail s a re s u rp rising ly wid e : J :y,j in . for th e upper ra il and J in . for th e low er o ne . This extra width all owed th e maker suffici ent room to c u t a se ries o f three d oveta il pins o n th e upper rail , which prev ents th e skirt fram e from racking o u t o f square . The lower drawer rail is secured by two tenons, o ne j oined to th e side skirt and on e to the leg. Both th ese rail s are se t ba ck to all ow the drawer front to fit just behind th e su rfa ce o f the legs. The front o f th e drawer ha s a pronounced lip o n both its upper and lowe r e dges . Th ese lip s o ve rha ng th e re c e ssed rail s and butt up aga inst them when th e drawer is cl osed . In thi s position , th e drawer front effectively m a squ erade s as a sta tio na ry part o f the skirt. I refinishe d the original table with three c oats o f J -lb .c u t orange sh ell ac . Th e colo r o f th e fini sh e nha nce s th e patina of th e c he rry, and together th ey produce the table 's go ld e n-to ba cco color. If you mak e yo u r table o f th e sa me wood, you can a p p ro xima te thi s co lo r by first sta ining th e wood with a sa tu ra te d so lu tion of potassium perman genate , A lay er o f wax will protect the she llac from liquids.

Rule joints Th e fixed top and h inge d le ave s on this Pembroke tabl e and on the gareleg table are co n ne c te d by rul e j oints. Thi s joint is composed of a convex molding profil e ru n o n both edges of the fixed top, a nd a concave molding profile run on o ne edge of each le af. I m ad e th ese pr ofil e s with a pair of table -leaf planes. Th e plane shown o n the left in th e photo below is used to cut the convex mold ing. Thi s plan e has a fence but no depth stop. The plane sho wn o n th e right is used to cut the concave molding. and it ha s both a fence a nd a d epth st op. To begin the rule j oints. joint the edges o f th e boa rds th at will become th e leave s and fixed top . Pla ce o ne leaf in th e front vise of your be nc h, with the undersid e o f th e le a f facing away from the ben ch. Set th e fence o f th e plan e sha ping th e concave p rofi le against the o u ts ide su rface o f th e leaf, gripping th e plane with e ve n pressure fro m behind and ho lding th e fenc e against th e o u tsi de o f th e le a f. This grip will make the plane c u t a lon g. thin shavi ng. and at th e sa me time ke ep it from wand ering a nd c u tting an incompl ete profile . Be s u re your hand do e sn 't in te rfere with c h ip ejec tio n, o r th e plane will ch ok e. Ea c h pass of th e plane will form more o f th e m olding. and each c u t will p roduc e a wid er sha ving . As th e molding take s shape and th e surface area with which th e plan e come s in c ontact increases , yo u' ll find it progressi vel y more difficult to cut. Try to make e ac h c u t wi th out stalling, or you 'll create a d ef ect in th e molding. Ea ch new pa ss will remov e a defect in th e previ ou s pa ss. b u t it' s good to develop a clean. end-to -end c u tt ing m oti on fro m th e beginning. Wh en th e depth s to p o n the plane c ontacts the edg e of the board , the pl ane wi ll cease cutt ing. Aft er running the concave p rofiles o n both leaves. pla c e the fix ed top in th e front vis e , with th e undersid e o f th e top facing out. The plane us ed to shape the co nve x prof ile o n both edg es o f the fix ed top sho uld bc grip pe d lik e th e o the r plan e . Sinc e it d o e s not have a d epth sto p. how e ver. it will cut indefinitel y. and you sho uld th erefore simply st op c u tt ing when th e p rofile is c ompl etely form ed . To c u t th e profile o n th e o the r edge of th e fixed top . turn th e pi ec e ove r in the vise . ag ain making su re th e u nd e rsid e of the top faces out. When both sets o f moldings are complete , lay them to ge the r to se e how th ey ne st.

T rll dit iona ll~',

rute j oints arc c u t w it h a pair o f ru b le -l e af p lun c s likc t h e xe , T he pl an e o n t hc Icft s h a pes t he co nvex c dAC o f t hc joint a n d th c o nc o n t he r iAht the con ca\'c cdAc.

- - 158 - -

Locate pivot center of hi1lge in. from edge of fix ed top,

.»j

I~%r

Leaf

Cutting Concavc I'rofilc

Cutting Convcx I'rofilc

Convex molding plane

Concave molding plane

Depth stop

Rulc joints, compused of eoneave and convex molding profilcs, attach thc rable's fixcd top and Ieaves,

\ <,

Fence

Table leaf

Fixed top

To correctly cut rule joint's concave and couoex profiles. grip table-leaf planes with even pressure from behind and against

edge of boa rd.

To cut the molding on the tahle's leaves and top, hold the ptcecs in the front vlse of the workbench, with thc understde facing away from the bench [abuve}, Run the eoncave molding profilc on onc edge of each Ic a f (top right). In the photo, the plane has wandered slightl~' in the cut, hnt it will correct with subsequent pusses, Run the convcx molding profilc ou hoth cdgcs of thc fixcd top (right).

- - 159 -

-

IIIN(a: LA "'OUT

Leaf houses IOllg leg of h i ll ~e.

Begin layillg o u t ill lets f or Ilillge by lo cating Ilillge side 1'% ill. ill from s ide of fixed top .

C rea te c h ann el w ith 'Ceille r f or e leu ru nce of Ilill~ e klluekle . ali~lIill~ it w ith ce n rc r of m oldillg 's radius.

Ncst thc convex and co neuve molding profilcs togcthcr to form thc rulc joint, ICllvin~ II sli~ht ~IIP between thcir uppcr cd~cs to prevent bindin~ with seasonn l wood rnuvement,

The rul e joints are held in place with a pair of s pecial hinges called table-leaf hinges . Th e se hinge s have o ne le af . o r leg. lon ger than th e o the r , whi ch a llo ws th e sc rews to be placed below th e co nc a ve molding of th e rule jo int. To mount th e se hinge s , la y out th eir po siti on by firs t mea suring o n the underside of th e fixed top 1 ¥s in . in from ea ch corn er o n th e long sides . Use a squa re to dra w lin e s loc ating th e o u tside e dges o f th e four hinges. Wit h th e hinge s po sitioned o n these lin e s, th e hinge knu ckl e s will be parallel to th e e dge o f th e le af , allowing th e table lea ve s to piv ot with out binding. With th e fixed top a nd lea ve s laid o n th e workb ench , undersid e up. ne st th e tw o rule j o ints. Don 't b ut t th e le aves too tightl y against th e top: a sligh t ga p between th e upper e dges o f th e to p and th e leave s will preve n t th e joints from binding. Now la y out th e inle ts fo r the hinge s. Place a hinge j us t in side o ne o f th e sq ua re d lin es you sc ribe d . Locate th e hinge 's knu ckle about ¥s in. inside the edge o f th e fix ed top (a lig ne d with th e center of the molding's radiu s) and sc ribe th e o u tline of th e hinge o n th e undersid e o f both th e top and th e c orresp o nd ing le a f. Repeat th ese ste ps to la y out all four hinges . Cu t th ese lin e s with a d ov etail sa w o r score them with a broad butt ch ise l at lea st 1 in . wid e . Th en pare o u t th e inl et for th e hinge . Be s u re to occas io nally test-fit th e hinge whil e working, since you want it to sit tlus h wit h . not below , the s u rface o f th e und ersid e . Repe a t thi s pr oc edure for e ac h o f th e e igh t inl ets . To mount the table -leaf hinges so th at th ei r knuckles a re invisibl e . you ne ed to undercut a groove fo r th e kn uc kle in th e unde rsid e o f the fixe d top . This ste p ca n be a bi t tricky . Don 't c u t a ny d e eper than ne c essary, o r yo u ma y weaken th e d elicate e dge . I used a U-shaped ve rne r a nd c lea ne d up th e e nds of thi s c ha n ne l with a 14-in. c h ise l. To te st th e rul e j oint 's fun cti on , drive a si ngle sc re w into both legs o f th e two hinge s al ong o ne join t. I started a pil ot hole with a hand-held gimle t, b u t a b rad awl will a lso work. Do n' t ove rt igh te n th e sc re w. o r yo u 'll risk c rea ting a dimple o n th e top su rface . I'd sugges t that yo u drive th e sc rew in alm o st a ll th e wa y. th en b ack it o ut and gri nd o ff its po int. This will e lim ina te th e po ssibility of a d im ple. whil e taking advantage o f the sc re w 's se lf-ta p ping ability . With o ne sc re w in each hinge , you ca n ca re fully tes t th e acti on o f th e rul e joint. It sho uld not bind. If it do es, c heck to se e that th e hinge s a re tlu sh. If th ey are an d th e joint still binds, yo u ma y hav e to slig h tly in cre ase th e ga p betwe en the leaf and th e fixed top. To do th is, re move o ne leg o f e ac h hinge and plu g th e screw hole with a wo od en plug. Then attach th e hinge in it s new position. If th e joi nt works well , back th e sc re ws o u t so that yo u can c u t th e top a nd le av es to th eir finis hed sha pes . Finally, re place th e hinge s and drive all remaining sc re ws .

Thc dcsign of t abfe-Ie af hin~cs, used to conncct rulc joints, hils not e h un ae d in 200 years, a s seen in thc modcrn hingc IIbCI\'c lind its h an d -forge d , J<' cdcrlll-pcriod eounrcrpart,

- - 160 -

-

PEMBROKE TABLE Scale: i---Eo----

-

-

-

/'

J S - --

-

~2

in.

=

1 in.

LEG DETAIL Scale : 14 in. = 1 in.

- - - - - - - - - ---""-1

\ -

.-

Vto-in. Ii~ht_,\ col ored inlay

-

4 Yto

" '0". mah ogan y

T"P"'~

18'>:l

~1

bcgills 011 inncr sides .

IJ -

r .-1--+--+--+--1i-------'+ --+--+-..Lf--/tl-+--j _ L II

I 9%

_~

--=~t=Hri.~-+--+--+----+-4-+----i . Top View

I--+--+--+ PATIERN FOR TOP +---t--i G r id: ¥to in.

= 2

in . 28 %

r

I

Sho rt fixed rail

I--

S teep taper is planed 011

«u I"''' s ides . ~ Bands o f inlay. as above

::;;;:. ~-t= ="iI-Y I

II

r o

Side View

-

-

16 1 -

-

SE<:TION A-A Sc ale : % in. = I, in.

T o p se c u re d to skirt with angled sc rew (3 sides)

r--"'=-----~.Ir_ 23 % - - - - - -- -------:0-., Upper d rawer rail . % x 3 'M . do vetail ed to leg and ski rt

Co r ne r hloc k

2 (max.)

r-

fl

\

o/1. -i n.-t h ie k drawer bottom

{

,I

2~

Ll ~

II

3 Y.!

,I

J

G roove, ~ x .y."

4Y1.

II I

I

Lcg - -+-Bandi ng

%-in . d rawerpull c lea ra nce

Lo we r drawer rail . '% x 3. double-tenoncd to leg a nd skirt

I

Fi n~c rhold - >-......i--

.:

/

V

---

l-\ ~--

1-

...-

-

-

I V

Fly rail

/

/1' /J

Fly rail (o pe n po sition)

Sho rt fi xcd rail

/ /

A

/

I

B

.f I

I

8

I

H-

PATTERN FOR FLY RAIL AND -

I

I

S~~:~~:~F~):~I~L

Drawer-puIl cl earance

-

Notc: Fir mil and IOllg iixcd ruil arc both ~ y" . ill . ill height und cq unllv divided into five knuckles that m esh to form wooden hinge.

End Vicw

- - 16 2 - -

SECTION B-B = 1 in.

Sc ale : \4 in.

~ 1~6~

Detail A

-

I

_.,4-- "--.. 1

I~

:l\ ~6 1

-)

End rail . 1716 x 4 316

i

~,

716-in. tenon \

DETAIL A = I in .

Scale : % in.

Co rner bl ock. 1% x 1% (2) I..L- - -Drawer runner. 0/16 x

-L.-<-_

}fl

(2)

Interi or rail. % x 4 Yt6

%-in. ten on

L?--W----------- 18 ~--++___t:::'~

......;."""-----+- Gl uc li ne

Note: Typicul

tCIIOIi is Iixed Il1Id inner rails, Y/ (. ill . Oil end ruil ,

.M; ill. 011 '

M,-i

15 Yt6

I

4~~

~---J-..j-l-+---- Drawer interior

L =-- - - - - - -lO Ul

-

'!J6

DETAIL B = 1 in .

Ul-in.-d ia. steel pin

Sca le: % in. 'JoS-in. double tenon, lower drawer rail

Drawer ru n ne r Lower drawer rail - -- - --Uppe r drawer ra il

Detail II

Dra we r front

/

L -

163 -

'!J6

3

Drawer front

Yt6

Storage chests like this one were the Federal-period equivalent of cardhoard boxes; yet unlike the many purely functional exampies of such chests that have survived from the period, this piece is distinguished by its careful workmanship, graceful lines and pleasing bracket base. (Project: Rabbeted lid moldings, p, 166.)

- - 164 - -

Bracket-Base Blanket Chest Chapter 19

s it po ssible to eve r have enough storage space in a h ouse? It certainly wa sn 't in either th e hou se I grew up in o r th e one I live in now. Since I s us pe c t that most homes need more o f s uc h space, I decided to include this che st. It will provide almost 6 cu . ft. of additional storage area . and although mundane in functi on , this chest is a estheticall y plea sing and su ccessful. Co nte m p la te st orage for a minute . We all have doz ens o f ca rd bo a rd cart ons in th e atti c and in close ts . which are idea l for th eir purpo se becau se th ey are broad and d e ep . In functi on th ere is little difference between th ose c a rd boa rd box e s and this eh est: it is a deep box into which alm ost anything can b e put. The fellow I bought it from raised basenjis and used it in the kenn el to store the dogs ' b lankets. The chest 's o riginal owner probably stored household items in it , just a s we now do. Thc dil emma faced by the craftsman who made this ch est wa s h ow to b e innovative when the piece 's functi on so emphatically dictat ed it s form. With little room left for self-expre ssi on, h e noneth el e ss managed to create an unusual and s uc cess fu l de si gn . We can appreciate his tal ent by c omparing thi s ch est with o the rs made during th e Fed eral peri od for h ouseh old s to rage . Th e latter are all q u ite large and s u fficient ly s tro ng , but the quality o f th eir workmanship is unimpressive. Most are sim ply rabbeted a nd nail cd . None is ugly, but th ey arc all quite plain a nd uninteresting to lo ok a t. Th ey are what they were intend ed to be-th e c a rd bo a rd box es o f th e Federal period . The rea son I am so fond o f this pi e c e is that. unlike many o the r c he s ts . it is well design ed and well made. eve n th ough it ne ed not b e to perform it s functi on. Th e de sign feature that mo st di stingui shes this ch est from more com mo n e xam ples is it s bracket base. This ba se doc s more than just lift the c he s t off the floor and allow a parti al view underneath th e piece . If these were the only functi ons of th e ba se . it could easily have been

designed with simpl er b ootjack e nds. Instead , this bracket ba se is a logical a esthetic co m po ne nt o f the pi ece , gi ving it a visual beginning and end . With thi s type o f base , th e c hes t becomes more than j us t a raised box for s to rage . It b ecomes a pi ece o f furniture, e lev a te d o n fe et lik e a table. c ha ir o r b ed. Th e ba se o n this ch est is restrained in c omparison with th e bracket base on th e c hes t o f drawers (I'. 17 0 ) ; yet it is amply co m ple x in it s own right. Th e fe et c urve in o n themselv es just before rea ching th e flo or, s ugges t ing French feet , which are com mo n o n Hepplewhite- style case pi e c es and are used o n th e secre ta ry (I'. 5 8) . Th e upper e dge o f the base is o u tl ine d by a stepped -c o ve m olding. Here th e concave shape s ta rts as a narrow fillet, giving th e illusion that the base is made o f thinner stock than it really is. This reflects th e co nc e rn o f Fed eral -period cabinetmakers for creating the a p pe a ra nce o f delicateness without sacrificing s tre ngth . Th e s te p pe d cove works so well o n this piece that I would hesitate to s u bstitu te an other shape. Th e c ove molding c a n b e made with a molding plane o r a sh a pe r. Whil e c u tte rs for th e c ov e it self are easy to find, finding o ne th at ca n produce th e steppedcove profil e is likely to b e a problem . You mi ght b e tempted to leave th e s te p o u t, b u t I would ad vise a gainst it. Without that extra fillet. from a bove th e molding would read a s just a s im ple c ha m fe r. If yo u c a n' t find e ithe r a ste p pe d -cove molding plane o r a sh a p e r c u tte r th at is s te ppe d . you ca n make th e s te p by h and after th e cove is cut. Cla m p a fence o n a rabbet plan e , a nd adjust it for a very narrow cut, which sho u ld work nicely. Th e lid e m p loys a sim ila r visu a l d evice. It is m ad e from a Ys -in.- th ic k board a nd ha s a lh-in.-d eep b y ,y,;- in .-wid e rabbet cut into the undersid e o f the ove rh a ng . Th e rab bet reduce s th e visibl e o u te r edge to Ys in . and ha s se t into it a molding with a s teep ogee-a nd-as trag al profile. This molding reinforces th e illu si on o f th inn ess b ecause it st eps quickly back out o f s igh t, and it a lso works as a cornice.

--165 - -

Co rn ices us ua lly appear on tall pi eces of furniture where th ey wil l be quite vi sible . Si nce this blanker chest is lo w . th e hint o f a co rn ice m ol d ing acts as a visua l tease . It ca n be see n in its e n tire ty on ly wh en th e vie we r is d own o n hands a nd kn e e s o r has o pe ne d th e lid . Su ch su b tle ty. unu su al eve n o n e la bo ra te pi e c e s. is ext re mely rare in a s im ple sto rage c hes t. Alt ho ugh th e ogcc -a nd- nst raga l p ro file ne ed not be used . you will want to ch oo se a s ha pe th at ste ps bac k j us t a s q uickl y . T h is will m aint ain th e illus io n of thinne ss a nd produ c e a m olding that coyly hints at its p rese nce . T h is molding a lso se rves a pra cti c al purpose . It is run o u t o f ·X-in. stock a nd se t in a Ih · in .· dee p rabbe t. T he ext ra I;.j.i n. ove rha ng se rves as a lip that fit s down ove r t hree s ides o f th e c hes t. ke eping o u t du st and moth s b etter th an a s im ple flut to p would . Like th e bra ck e t ba s e . th e jo ine ry in th e b ody o f th e ches t is pl ea sing to th e e ye . I c a n not re c all seei ng e lse whe re s uc h pre c isi on in h and-cu t d o ve tail s. T he y are so perfe ct tha t if I did not kn ow th e a ge o f thi s pi e c e . I wo u ld s us pec t th ey were d on e b y m a chine . The usc o f join c ry as a d es ign d eta il is c ha ruc tcris tic a llv modern and is partic ula rly unu su al in a Fe de ra l-pe riod pi e c e . wh ere t he dcr ui ls o f co nst ruc tio n were typically co ncea le d . Th e pron oun c e d pat tern o f th e hi ghl y refined d o vetailing undo ub te d ly acco u nts in part for th e s tro ng appe a l o f thi s c hest for mo st p e opl e wh o see it. If yo u a rc un abl e to c u t s uc h e xacti ng d o vetail s b y han d . yo u m ay want to u se a route r and a dov etail j ig. To reta in th e flav or o f thi s pi e c e . I wo uld re comm end dupli c ating as cl o sel y as po ssibl e the s pac ing o f the o rigina l d o vetail s . Wh eth er you d o th e jo ine ry b y hand o r wit h a rout er. us c a m arking ga ugc to scribe la yout lin es t he de pt h o f the ta ils a nd p in s o n a ll ca rcase s ides . Th ese la you t lin es se t off the re gular. p re ci s e patt ern o f th e doveta ils and prev ent th at patt ern from be ing ove rs hadowed by the wo od 's rand o m . e r ra tic figure . The bot tom of th e c hes t fi ts in si d e th e d ov etail e d ca rcasc a nd is sec ured wi th Sd or 10 d drawn o r c u t finis h na ils d riven thro ugh th e botto m e dges o f th e four sides. This co ns t ruc tio n ma y seem c ru de a nd o f qu e sti on abl e s t re ng t h. but th e nail s a re cove re d b y th e b rac ke t base a nd th e ir re si st an c e to shea r is very hi gh . Co nseq ue n tly. a lot o f we ig h t c a n be safely s to re d in th e c hest. For a dded s t re ng t h . t he re a rc d iago na l brac es su p po rti ng the rear fe et . a tta ch ed with drawn o r cut finish na ils d rive n throu gh the fe et an d in to th e back of th e c hest. Th e bra ck et bas e is nail ed o nto th e c hes t wi th T-h e ad ed b rad s. T he vi rtue o f th e T-hea ded brad is th a t . o nce it is set. t he fibe rs o f th e wood s pring back to pa rti ally . and so me times co m ple te ly. hide t he h e a d o f th e b ra d . (A source ior T-hea dcd b m ds-ca llc d h e ad le ss brad s b y this s u p p lie r-is in clu d ed in th e so u rces o f s u p ply at t he back o f th e b o ok. ) Always dri ve T-headed b rad s wit h the leng th of the he ad o rie nted in th e sa me d irect io n as th e gr a in o f the wood . Very littl e filler. if a ny. will be ne ed e d . The tw o fro nt co rne rs o f th e b ra ck e t base are m ite red . a nd th ese sho uld be glued a nd a lso nail e d . in bo th directi on s. wit h two b ra ds o n each si de.

Th is chest is made of walnut. Th e d ark c ol o r gives it a serio us appe aranc e . and t h e hardne ss o f th e wo od m akes possibl e c ri sp details o n th e base a nd cornice-effects th a t would b e difficu lt to ac h ie ve in pine o r po pl a r. Whe n making this pi ece . th erefore . ch o ose a h ard wood. like walnut o r mah ogan y . that works eas ily a nd w ill not los e d etail with we a r. Th e c hes t's broad s u rfaces w ill handsom ely di splay th e wo od 's fig ure, wh ere as if a mo re e ve n-gra ined material lik e birch o r m apl e were used. t hey would read as ve ry pl ain . Be s u re to hand-plan e th e boa rds to remo ve milling m arks from a thickne ss pla ner o n any of th e visibl e surfaces. Don 't ov e rs a nd, o r yo u' ll risk ro undi ng th e c ris p a rrises o n th e c hes t's e dges a nd co rne rs. The re was a lock o n th e o rig ina l blanket c hest. b ut as usuall y occurs with old c hes ts, th at lo ci, is no w gone . I assume th at a t so me point th e key wa s los t, th e lock jimmied a nd the d amaged lock rem o ved . If you wa nt to add a lo ck. yo u ca n find o ne th rou gh o ne of th e h a rd wa re s u p plie rs listed in the a p pe nd ices . Wh en sele c ting a finish . c onsider h ow yo u plan to use th e ch e st. If it will b e pl a c ed in a room wh ere glasses o r o t he r vessel s ma y be se t o n it . co ns ide r fini shi ng it wit h va rnis h o r la cq uer. Sh ella c will m ell o w to a n ice pa ti na in a number o f yea rs; h ow ev er. it will bl oo m. o r turn wh it e wh en e xposed to m o st liquids . O il and wa x a re wa terre si st ant and . unlike s hellac . a re quick a nd easy to apply .

Rabbeted lid moldin gs Th e ogce -a nd -as t rag a l m o lding around th e o u ter e dge of the ch est lid is se t into a rabb et. This m ethod of co ns t ruc tio n is s t ro nge r and neater th an s im ply naili ng t he m olding o nto th e lid 's lower surface , a nd , as d iscu sse d o n p . 165 . th e slim visi b le e dge o f th e lid c rea tes the ill us io n th at th e to p is q u ite thin . If th e to p were act ually tha t thin. it would be too fragile . To c u t th e ra bb et. I u sed a uni ve rsal fillis ter p lane. nl y fillist cr. mad e m o stl y o f wood , wa s produc ed in Co nnec tic u t durin g th e mid -1 9th ce ntu ry . Man y tool c ompanies sell m e tal fill lstcr a nd ra bbet plane s. Th e uni versal fill ister a dj us ts in a s im ila r m a nne r to a n a dj usta b le pl ow pl ane (descri b e d in th e c ha p ter o n the candle box o n p . 13 2) a nd ca n c u t ra b b ets of vario us d epths a nd width s. To se t th e width o f th e rabbet (up to I lh in .) . loos en th e tw o sc rews in the bottom of the fe nce. s lide th e fenc e to th e d e sired width . th en re tigh ten th e sc re ws . Th e pl ane a lso has an a dj u s ta b le stop that ca n be set to a ma ximum d epth o f 112 in . by m e ans of a brass thumbscrew in th e fro nt of t he s toc k. Two fe ature s o f this plane work toge ther to produce a c le a n c u t: th e sc ribe a nd the ske wed iron . The scribe is located j us t in fron t o f th e ir o n . Wh en th e pla ne is cu tti ng a c ro ss e nd gra in. the scri be n icks th e fib ers in front of the c u t to h elp e lim ina te te arout . T he ske wed iron is set so that t he in s id e co rner is fo rwa rd a nd c le a nly c uts th e woo d fibers firs t seve re d by th e scri be . If tea ro u t occurs so mew he re across th e width of th e ra bbet as t h e b lade co nt in ues c u tti ng. th e s pli t c a n no t run o n a nd d a m a ge th e sho ulder: the in s id e e dge o f th e rab b e t will ha ve a lrea dy be en c ut by the fo rwa rd co rner o f th e ske wed iron.

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The molding on the edge of the lid is set into a rabbet, which both strengthens its cons truction and adds to the illusion that the lid is extremely thin.

Top

Applied mold ing

Molding is % ill. d eeper

thall rabbet.

Set the fiIlist e r to ma ke a rabbet 04 in . wide by 112 in . de ep , a nd wo rk th e two e nds of the chest lid first. Clamp th e lid, un derside up , betwee n bench dogs with a strip of wast e o n the fa r side, as sho wn in the photo below, to pr event chi p p ing th e co rner. Hold th e pla ne so th at your h a nd does not cover the throat a nd cause the tool to c hoke . Appl y pr essure fro m be hind and against the fe nce to ke ep th e plan e from wand e rin g. Try to ho ld th e plane sq uare . If it s ho uld tip, no da mage will be done , as the plane is se lf-co rrec ting a nd will clea n up squa re wh en it reac hes th e bo tto m of th e c ut. Afte r c u tt ing rabbets in th e two e nds , rabbet the fro nt e dge. (No was te s trip is neede d to prote c t the e nd of thi s c u t be cau se th e plan e is c u tti ng o n edge gra in.) If any of th e rabbets h ave rough s u rfaces, they can be c lea ne d up with a metal rabbet pla ne . Th c o ne I'm using in th e ph otograph is a n old Ba iley Pa tent No . 10 , an ea rly vers io n o f a me ta l ra b bet plan e mad e ab ou t 19 00 . A lo w-a ngl ed sho ulder rabbet plan e will a lso work. Both p lanes are ava ila b le th rough ca talog tool d eal e rs. Wh en th e rabbet ha s been c u t, tes t-fit th e mo ldi ng . If th e tw o s urfaces o f th e rab be t are square wi th the surface o f th e c hest lid a nd if the ba ck tw o edges o f the m olding a re sq uare , th e fit sho uld b e tight along th e entire rab bet. If it 's not , check to see wh eth e r th e mol d ing o r th e rabbet is o u t o f sq ua re. Co rrec t by p la n ing th e p ro bl em s urface .

The universal fillister plane cuts rabbets of various depths and widths. The s c r ib e, set in front of the s k e w e d iron on the bottom of the plane, nicks the fibers ahead of the cut to eliminate tearout.

Run the end rabbets first. Clamp the lid between dogs, with a s t r i p of waste on the side of the lid toward which )'ou arc running the plane [above], The s t r i p will prevent chipping the corner. Mal.ing s u re )'our hand docs not cover the tool's throat, appty pressure from behind the plane and hold the fence tight again st the edge to keep the cut s t ra ig h t (far left). Clean up an)' rough s u r fa c es with a metal plane (left), such as the Baile)' N o. 10 rabbet plane, or a low-angfed s h o u ld e r rabbet plane.

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BR A CK ET-BASE BLANKET CH E ST Scale: t.\, in . A

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The elaborate curves of the base transform this simple, informal ehest of drawers into a piece that is at once functional and quite "isual1~' pleasing. (Project: Simulated cock beading, p, 173.)

- - 170 - -

Chest of Drawers Chapter 20

he s ts oi drawers arc' usually personal pi eces oi fu rn it urc . Unlike the b l.m kcr c hest on p . ] (,..j . wh ic h ha s a deep well ior storrulc . this chest ha s readi ly ncccssi b lc drawers to ho ld clothing ne e d ed on a daily ba sis. Its top se rves as a h.md v s he lf ior a mirror. brush. to iletries or other perso na l ite ms t hat would not be stored in a draw er. ~ Iy wif e a nd I e ac h h :I\T our own bu reau. and anyone who sees t he m in our hou se c a n tell at a glanee wh ich is m in e and wh ich is hers by t h e t h ings o n top . This c hes t. wh ich is m y pe rson al b ureau . is ma de oi h irc h , a wo o d co n u uo nly u sed throug hout no rth ern :\ e w E n .~ la nd io r inform ul fu rni tu rc in a ll ea rly furnitur e pe riod s. T he top oi t he c hes t ha s a sq ua re , unmold cd edge . Th e draw er fro n ts a re very plai n . e mbe llis hed on ly wit h s im u late d coc k hea d ing . a hnlf-round mol din g sha pe c u t int o th e e dges o i t he dra wer front s to h el p a rt icul urc th e ia e a d e . It 's difficul t to dete rm ine if th e wood en pull s a re t he o rigina ls . b u t eve n if th ey arc not. t he y are in ke eping with t he pla in fa c ndc . T he o nly pla c e el ab orat e o rna me nta t io n is fou nd is o n t he hra ck ct base . whi ch is a riot o i c u rves . Thi s ch e st oi d raw ers is ve ry s im ple in de si gn . m os t likc ly becau se th e c ra fts m a n wa s c o ns tra in cd by th e c us ro mcrs wi sh no t to spe nd a lot o f mon e y o n dcco rn tivc , rim c -c on sumlng features. But. as with man y Fc d c ru l -pc riod pi e c e s . wa ys were tound to mnk c t h is i nc x pcn s ivc . fu nct io uu l pi e c e plea sing to 1001, at. All di s t ract i nu det a ils . e ve n bra ss esc u tc heo ns . whi ch were alm o st alw a~' s us ed o n Fede ra l c hests oi d raw ers. were e lim ina te d from the fa cndc of thi s c h est . T h is to tal luck o i o rn a me nt a llo ws th e viewer's eye to ta ll qu ickl v to t he e la bo rate cu rves o f th e b ase . Sin c e the te e t o i th e ba se a re hi gh e no ug h to a llo w ligh t un de rneat h . th e se curve s a re not obsc u re d by a s hadowed ha ck gr ound bu t a re. in effec t. baeld igh ted. m ak in g thei r s ilho u e t te th e dominant fea t u re o t th e c h es t :

C

-

The jo in e ry in t his piece is u nco mp ltcnr cd a nd t y p ic al o t Federa l c hes t co nst r uc tio n . The carca sc botto m is d ov etail ed to t he si des . 1\ lon g d o vc ta il te no n is c u t o n t he upper e nd o i eac h s ide. a nd th e un d e rsi d e ot t h e top has ma tchuu; g ro m 'es to slide o nto t he ten on s. The d o vct n ils a rc s to pped 1 % in . ir om th e top 's fron t edge . Thi s s lid ingdov etail joint pr e ve nt s th e wide s u rfa c e s o f th e top an d si des ir om warping b ut a llo ws ior s e aso na l move me nt . T he draw er di vid e rs a lso ti t insid e th e cn rcasc wit h sliding dove tail s. T h is co ns t ruct ion de s ign ha s tw o im portant fu uct io ns: it hold s t he dividers s e c u re ly in plac e a nd it al so p rev ent s th e c nrcasc fro m rn ck i rul. Ex pose d do vetail s were unu su al in t he Fed eral pe rio d . T h is was not an at tempt to be sec ret ive: cn b iuctmakcrs si m ply c hose not to e xp la in visu nll v ho w a p ie ce was put to geth er. prc fcrrin a in s te a d to cove r joints an d ot he r co nst ru c t ion d etail s . O n t h is c hest . a III-in. taei n .~ s t ri p oi b irc h cove rs th e dovcta ils o n th e d ra we r d iv idcrs . T his s tr ip is se t into a III-in . haun ch c u t in to th e d ivid crs. so t ha t the ir o ute r e dges a nd t he tae i n .~ s trip a re flus h . l \ S a re sul t. th e dra wer di vid ers appe ar to be si m p ly hut te d a .~a ins t th e s ides o i the c urcasc . O n m ost I,' ed eral c hes ts oi d rawe rs . the b a c kb o a rd s are nail ed in to a rabb et a t th e ha ck e dges o i t he si d es . T he m ak e r o i thi s c h e s t c hose in s tea d to ru n two Ill -in .-wi de b y ·}1;-il1.-de e p groov es lIS in . irom th e re a r ins id e e d ge s oi the sid e s a nd iloa ted th e ba ckhourd s in th e se g rooves to ke e p th eir seaso na l movem ent un c on strn ined . Th e ba ckb oard s th em sel ves a re wid e pin e b o ard s h u tted to gether and left un glu ed . T he u p pe r h oard is ] HIII in . wid e . and the low er o ne IS % in. wi de . Bot h a re ro ughl y pl an ed to a thickn ess o i ah out lIS in . a nd c hn m fe rc d o n th eir e nds to s ligh tly le ss than III in . Befo re t he invc ut i o n o f pl yw o od . wid e ho ard s lik e t hese offe red a n easy a nd in e xp en si ve wa y to c ove r b road s u rfa c c s . Ii you us e plywo od ior th e b a ckbo nrd . mak e the gro m 'e in wh ich it is to s it as wid e a s th e pl yw o od is t hick .

- 171 -

-

To ass embl e th e ca rcasc, first glue a nd attach th e do veta ils that join the s ides to th e bo tto m. Ne x t inse rt the backboards . The n slide t he to p o nto th e tw o dove ta ile d te no ns o n the e nds of the s ides . In sert th e d rawer d ivide rs witho ut glue a nd nail on th e 1;.1- iI1. facing strips . On the origina l c hest. t he drawer runn e rs are attached with nails a nd arc sti ll secure af ter 17 0 yea rs . Usc sc rews if you prefer. Cut out the bracket base with a bowsaw o r a handsaw. a nd t he n clean up t he edges with a c hisel or a spo kes ha ve. ~ I iter the ends of thc fro nt and si des of th e base whe re they meet . Attach the base in t he sa me m a nn e r as th e m e thod desc ribed for thc wa lnut braclwt.b:;se bla nke t ches t (p. I (i-l} . Because t his c hest is la rge . you ' ll need to usc glue b locks be hin d a ll fo u r feet and a long th e front a nd s ides of the bracket base. Glue b locks arc co m m o nly u sed to re inforce two surfaces th a t meet at a rig ht a ng le . The b locks a rc placed in t he back of a jo int. glued to e ac h surface and tucked into p lace. Thcv ma ke the base rigid nnd less lia bl e to hre uk if the c hest is d ragged o n it s fee t. l lcrc . thc blocks arc short lengths of pi ne. I in . sq . in cross section and abo u t -I in . lo ng. (G lue bloc ks a rc mad e of scrnpwood , and neith e r d ime nsio n is crlt ic ul.) Ap pl y glue til two adjacent s ides of eac h bl oc k. then po s ition it and tack it in pla ce . After the bl ock s a rc a ttac hed . th e y ca n be c hamfered to make them less vis ib le . If yo u can't find wo od en drawer pulls. you ca n mak e t hem you rself. Turn them to t he shape shown in the drawing o n p. I 7S. a nd place t hem o n the hori zontal ce nter of t he drawer fro nt. Secure them in pl ace wi th a wood sc rew passed fro m the in s id e of t he d raw e r. Much fu rniture of th e Federa l pc riod ca n be int erp re ted e it her form all y o r informa lly w ith ou t m ajor ch an ges in des ign o r co ns t ructio n. This informa l c hest. fo r exa mple . ca n be transfo rmed lik c a Cindcrc llu wi th o nly su pc rflci nl a ltcra tion s. The po ssibiliti es arc vast. an d . fo r o bv io us reaso ns o f space . t hey ca n not a ll b e give n he re . Ins te ad I'll sim ply offe r ge ne rn l s uggcstio ns for m aking a m o re sophis t ica ted ve rs ion o f this c hest a nd refe r re ad ers interested in suc h a n in te rp re tati on to th e s u rvey boo ks in t he b ibliog ra phy. wh ic h contai n m an y exa mples o f fo rm al ve rsio ns o f t his c hest. Th is chest co u ld be made of m ah ogany or wal n ut. Bo t h woods a rc dark a nd ha ve a pronou nced figurc. wh ic h make these species more suitable for forma l furn it ure. O n a formal c hest. th e sides a nd front edges of th e to p would proba bly he mold e d . Thc shape typica lly used was a s ha llow re ve rse ogcc, a s u rviva l feat u re fro m a Chip pe nda le chest of dra wers. To artic ula te its fac ad e . eac h draw e r front wo ul d have real. rat he r th an s im u la te d. cock bea di ng (that is. a th in st rip o f wo od with a halfro u nd edge would b e a p plied to the edges o f th e d rawer fro nt in st ead o f this m ol d in g s hape be ing c ut d ire c tly into th e draw e r fro nt). Brass d ra we r pull s would be almos t obligato ry. The y p ro bab ly wo uld ha ve b e en of the ov alhac kplnrc va rie ty associated w it h the Hcppl e wh itc s tyle. S ma ll ova l esc u tc heons wo ul d be used wi th this typ e o f p ull.

Th e fina l alterati on [ would s ugges t would be to re pl ac e th e s im ple ovalo m olding o n th e e dge of th e b ase with a m ore so p h is t ica te d sha pe, s uc h as a s te p ped cove. A s tep ped agee would al so b e e ffec tive . Both th e cove a nd th e ogee a re co m mo n Fe dera l a rc h itect u ra l a nd furnit ure m olding profil es . Wh en th ey a re u sed o n a bracket base, t hey a re see n from a bove . a perspective th at can m a ke it diffi cult to disce rn th e profil e ' s sha pe. To h el p articu la te th e se m old in gs, a n add it io na l s te p, o r fillet, was of ten added to th e u p pe r e dge. Th e d etail is co nta ined in th e pla ne used to m ak e th e m olding, a nd s uc h plan e s we re mo st of te n intended for furnitur cma kcrs rath e r than c ra fts me n in th e b u ild ing trad e s. These plane s are di s tin gu ish ed from o t he rs th a t m ake th e sa me shape w ith ou t th e s te p and arc ca lled s te p ped-cove pla nes or s te p pcd-ogee plane s. Each o f th e se form al d etail s is a s u b tle add itio n . We ca nnot. ho wev er. a dd s uc h de ta ils withou t pay ing atte ntio n to how t hey will relat e to th e b as e . O n the o rigina l c hes t . th e ba se is co m p le x beca use th e fa cad e is so plain . Ye t if the o rig ina l b as e were to be re ta ine d o n a form al ve rs io n o f t he c hest. th e de si gn would be ove rpo we ri ng and cease to b e s uccessful. Fo r th e form al ve rs io n, th e base co u ld be s implified by e lim ina ti ng eve ry t h ing be twe e n th e s p u rs o n th e feet. This would lea ve a s tra igh t lin e ac ross m ost o f th e bo ttom edge of th e sk irt, bo th o n th e front a nd o n th e sides. ~I an y c hes ts o f thi s typ e a re o nly 36 in . h igh , wh ile th is exa mp le is -II in . The sca le o f thi s ch e st is appropriate for our bedro o m, th ough , whi ch is 14 ft. b y 17 ft. with a 7· ft. ce iling. Ano the r s imi la r Fe de ra l c hes t we o w n ha s g ra dua te d draw ers a nd is o n ly 36 in. hi gh . th e difference being in the h ei ght o f th e drawer fronts, whic h a re each I 1;.1 in . narro wer than th o se o n th is c hest. If you want to redu ce the he ight o f th e ch e st yo u are m aking, yo u ca n do so in th e sa m e m anner. If yo u ha ve mad e th e ch est in mah ogan y o r wal nut. use a c lea r fin ish to let th e figure o f th e wo od show thro ug h . O il a nd wax are acc eptabl e fo r an informal ch es t, bu t th e y're too flat fo r a fo rma l interpretati on . O n a fo rmal c hes t. [ would s ugges t a harder fini sh , lik e va rnis h or lacqu er. which will retl ect hi ghlights . [ usu all y p refer th e a p pea ra nce o f she llac , b u t it' s e as ily di ss ol ved a nd ca n be d am aged by liquids kept o n a ch est top , s uc h as nail -pol lsh rem ov er o r a fte rs ha ve. The o rigina l c hes t wa s s ta ine d with a red wash. The se lec tio n o f birch as th e primary wo od ma y ha ve affected thi s c ho ic e o f fini sh . Birc h ha s a lmos t no figure , so the re is no rea son to use a cl ear fini sh -there is noth in g to see. O n this c hes t, a m ore recent coat o f red paint over the original wa sh h as becom e quit e worn . but [ h a ve not di sturb ed it b e cau se the a nr iqu e m ark er plac e s a h igh value o n o ld paint . a nd [ would damage m y in ve stment if I st ripped th e c hest.

- - 17 2 --

Sim ulated cock beading A bead is :1 simple, half-round mo lding shape cut into or added onto the edge of an architectural or furniture part. Cock beading consists of a separate piece of wood , us ua lly a thin strip of edge-grain mahogany, glued into a shallow rabbet so that it projects slightly above the surface of the wood . The raised and rounded lip of the cock beading serves to enhance a flat , uniform facade a nd , when added to a veneered piece, like the secretary on p . 58, also hel ps protect the edges of the veneer from chipping. Cock beading replaced the thumbna il molded lip commonly used in the Queen Anne and Chi ppendale periods on unveneered drawer fronts like those on the desk on frame (p. 138) . Eventually it became a convention used by nearly all Federal-period cabinetmakers. Rea l cock beading often adorned formal furnit ure o f the period , while simulated cock beading, cu t into the edge of the piece, was frequently used on informal furniture . Unlike real cock beading, this incised beading is flush with the flat surface it decorates and is set off from it by a groove . If this groove has a flat bottom , called a quirk, the mo lding is known as a quirked bead. If the groove is V-shaped, the molding is called a bead and bevel. On this chest it was not necessary to use cock beading to protect the edges of the drawers because they are solid birch , but the piece is so simple that some decoration was required to break up the plain front. Although the maker and the customer most likely wanted to avoid the extra work and expense of veneer and real cock beading, they would have undoubtedly been uncomfortable without the detail that was such a universal part of the Federal-furniture idiom . The compromise use d on this chest was simulated cock beading in the form of a bead and bevel. This molding shape is usually made with a molding plane, but a plane will leave intersecting lines crisscrossing at the corners of the drawer fronts . Therefore I made the simulated cock beading with a scratch tool. Although the tool seems primitive , the way it works is fairly sophisticated. I made mine from a block of tulipwood , Vs in . by 1 14 in . by 4 Vs in. The exact dimensions are not important, however. My tool was made from a piece of scrap, cut to fit my rather small hands. The wood makes up the body, or stock, of the scratch tool and acts as both a handle and a fence. The cutting is done by the slot of a No. 16, 1 lj2-in. wood screw, which is screwed into the block leaving about % in. of the head exposed. To make the tool, drill a pilot hole 1-:1 in . from one end of thc stock and drive in the screw. The scratch tool is similar to a universal p low plane , or moving fillister plane, in that the width of cut is adjustable. With the scratch tool, this adjustment is made by turning the screw to drive or retract it , thus enabling it to make beads of different widths. For the tool to work properly , the three edges of the screw-the flat head, the beveled underside and the slot-must meet at a sharp point. I used a soft Arkansas stone to sharpen both the tlat surface of the head and the beveled underside. -

To help articulate the chest's plain facade, the drawer front s are decorated with s imulate d cock beading, a halfround molding shape cut into the edges of the drawers.

4%

A s im p le sc ratch tool. ",adc of u woodclI block an d II wood screw w i t h II s lwrpelled head, ClllI be used to cut II V ·g rooved bead 1l1l,1 bevel. A q uirhed bead mllst be pro d u ced with II mo ld ing p lane. N ores Pr o fil e is comple ted by rounding

urri s with

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Bead and bevel

Qnirked bead

I>ROI>ERL\' AN(iUNG THE SCREW SLOT

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A. W it ll s lot 'Vert i· ca l, to ol WOlI't c u t,

B, Co rre c t s lo t WI wood.

~le to cO ll tllC t

{ C. Too lIIu c1l (l/I~/e , tool Ju s t scores lin e.

To usc th e tool, fir st pla c e th e bl ock fir mly aga ins t th e e dge o f th e drawer front with th e edge o f th e screw h ead in co ntac t with th e wo od ' s s urface . Th en tu rn the sc re w to th e a ng le a t which th e slo t c u ts b e st , as s ho wn in th e d rawi ng at le ft. If th e slo t is ve rt ica l, as in A, tile cool won ' t cut. In B, th e le ad in g edge of th e slo t is ra ise d so tha t th e c u t ca n be mad e by the e dge th at foll o ws . T ilti ng th e slot too mu ch (C) , h ow e ver. raises th e c u tti ng p o in t so tha t yo u merel y score a li ne wit h the edge o f the sc re w h ead with out remo vin g a ny wo od . Use th e sc ra tc h tool to make a groove as d ee p as th e to ol will cut o n ea c h o f the four e dges o f each d rawe r front. The to ol wo rks we ll o n b oth th e long edges a nd th e sho rt e dges . O n th e latte r, the chip will cu rl up into and b e ejec te d b y th e sc re w slo t, mu ch lik e it would be in th e th roa t o f a m olding pl an e . Try to make th e grooves come as cl ose toge th er in th e fo u r corne rs as yo u c a n without ove rla p p ing th em. You ca n use a sm a ll parting too l to join th e groo ves in the co rne rs wh ere th e sc ra tch tool will not reach . Th ese groo ves estab lis h th e b e vel part of th e bea d -a ndb ev el molding profil e . Round in g th e arris with a b lock plane will com ple te th e ro u nded part o f th e pr o file. O n th e two e nds o f th e d rawer front , wh ere th ere is e nd gra in , yo u risk c h ip p ing th e co rners if yo u plan e s traigh t across th em . Th erefo re plan e fro m th e co rners to wa rd the m iddl e wh en wo rking o n th e ends . Afte r yo u ' re fini sh ed . usc a sc ra p bl ock o f woo d with 120 -grit sa ndpa pe r wrapped aro un d it to smoot h aw ay th e fac eted plane marks. You ca n also use this scra tc h tool to c u t beadi ng o n seve ra l o the r p iec e s sho w n in th is b ook, s uc h as th e backs of th e co nt inuo us -arm a nd o va l-back Windso rs on p. 120 . The flat fe nce o f this tool will not work o n the inside edge of a pi ec e o f be nt wo od . tho ug h, s uc h as o n th e be nt b ac ks o f th e Win dso r c ha irs. To c ut a bead o n th e se c u rve d s u rfaces , yo u 'll ha ve to mak e a no the r tool wi th a round ed fence so that it ca n c ut o n the in sid e of a radius .

Thc body of thc serureh tool uets II'" II handle lind 1I fcncc (top). Pu ah or pull thc tool firml~' "A"in",t the edge of thc drawer front. Thc s lo t in thc s c r e w will cut 1I nur r'nw ArllO\·c. about ,/,. in. deep, c,icctinA thc chip "'" it creates thc Aroo\·c. Usc 1I smatl pllrting tool to .jo i n thc Aroc}\'c", lit t hc e e r ne r s (.. hove], Thcn with 1I block ptanc, round thc a rri ", of each cdAc (riAht).

- - 174 - -

CIIf<:ST OF I)I{A WEltS Scale: .Y", in. = 1 in.

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Drawer divider

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SECTION B-B Sc ale: fl6 in . = 1 in . ~--- Slidin l!.

Y16- in. clearanc e to drawer top. 'YI6-in. to drawer s ide

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- - 17 7 - -

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been removed ubovc,

Sources of Sup]21y

Fini sh es

Veneer and inlay

Old F us h io ned Mill. Puint Company, Box 222 . Gro to n. ~[A 0 14 50

The W oodworkerts Store, 2 180 1 Indu strial Blvd .. Rogers . ~[N 55374

Constanrine, 2050 Eastch est er Rd., Bro nx. NY 10461

Hardware Hnll and Hull, 4 63 W, Linco ln Hwy ., Exton. P A 19 341

Other so u r c es of su p p ly and information 18th C e n t u ry' Hurdwure Co m p a ny, 131 E, Third s., Derry. PA 15 627 Horton Brus s e », Noo ks II ill Rd., Box Cro m we ll, CT 0 641 6

For suppliers o f ru sh . reproduction fa bric a nd related products. see th e adverti sers in th e foll owing ma gazines: 120~ IA,

Colonial Homes , The Hearst Co rp .. 17 00 Broadway. New Yor k. l\'Y 10 01 9

Tremont N nil ce., 8 Elm sr. , Box 111. Ware ham . 1\[1\ 02571

El, r /)' A m er ica n Life; Historica l Times , Inc ., Box 8 200 . 2245 Kohn Rd ,. Harri sburg . 1'1\ 17105

The Ml,gl,zille A n t iques, Straight En te r p r ises . In c .. 55] Fifth Ave.. N ew York . NY 1017 6

Reverse g lass p ainting Gilders Worl. shop, 7 Sh effield Rd. , Winchester, ~[1\ 02 8 90

Yankee , Yankee Publi shing. Inc., Dublin , Nil 0 3 4 44

- - 179--

Glossary

IIc"ntltus-lc"f d ec urat i on O rn a me nt a t io n rese m b ling acanthu s leave s u sed in c lass ica l a re h itcctu re . Ea rly in th e Fed eral p eri od . this m o t if w as a C0 I11I110n , carved d e c orati on . acc u ratc ly cop ied from c lass ica l so u rces; it lat er gre w mo rc a nd more s ty lized and eve nt uu lly becamc pu re ly te xtural carvi ng . apron

Sc c s k ire.

are h jrrave Th e low e s t c le me nt of a n c nta b lat ure . O fte n us ed sc parately "ro u nd d o o r . win d o w a nd fire pl a c e o pe ni ngs in int erio r arch itec ture . "str"g,, 1 A project ing. h alf -round mol d in g . o ftc n se t o ff b y a fillet on c ithc r s ide . wh ic h is freq ue n tly u s e d i n ~ co mbi nat ion with ot her mol ding pro filcs. ~ such as a co ve o r a n \ ogee. .

bae kbund T he mol d in g a p p lie d to the o ute r or u pp er edge of a n a rc h it rave . bu l f-u ud- ulaw foot A d e c o ra ti ve m o t if used with t hc Ch ip pe nda le cab rio lc le g a n d ca rve d in t hc s hape of a hirds c law with thre e tal ons graspi ng a ba ll. blinding

Sce

ed~e 1)(lHdin~.

b ed bo lt A b olt with a flange a ro u nd th e bottom o f th c h e ad , used to se cure a heavy mort isc -and -tcnon join t s uc h as that o n a b ed fram e . b c d-bo lt cove r A de c orative plate , usually mad c o f stamped brass. ta cked ove r th e h e ads o f b ed b olts.

c:::J c=::r buutj ae k A c u t-o u t s h a pe res emblin g a b o okj a c k (t he d e vic e used to h clp rem ove hi gh bo ot s). which wa s so mc t imcs us ed o n th e b ott om o f s im p le case piec es .

card-rubl e hing c A s pec ia l sc isso r h inge. us ed to attach the le a ve s o f a c a rd tabl e .

case i n pain t An inexpe nsive a lte rnative to o il p aint for ut ilitarian purpo se s, whi ch uses milk ca sein a s a bind er. Also calle d milk p ain t.

e uverto

S e e cove.

C h i p pe nda lc Th e furnit u r e p eri od in t roduced to Am erica from Engla nd in th e m id 18th ce nt u ry , which followed th e Qu e e n An ne p eriod and pre c ed ed th e Fed e ra l p eri od. Cha racterized by robust, o fte n ornately d e c o ra te d furniture , whi ch mad e fre qu e n t use of such roco c o motifs as ca rve d shells . t he ball-and c la w fo ot a nd th e C-sc ro l\. c law-an d - b a ll foot

bn n km ur e h cd veneer S hee ts o f ve n ee r fro m t he sa me flit ch . butted toge th e r to pro d uce a pattern a nd its mirror image . boss I ) O n a pede stal tabl e , th e base o f th c p ed e st al int o whi ch th e table ' s le gs a re j oined. 2 ) A ro u nd . ce n t ra l. proj ecting o rn a me n t. whi ch is usu ally appli ed.

bra cket bas e Th c s ha p e d b oard s a p p lie d to th c ba s e o f a pi e c e o f case furniture to form th c fc c t. M ore co m mo n in th e 18th c entu ry. thi s ba s e wa s largel y replac ed during the Federa l peri od b y French fcct o r turn ed legs .

elcu t A th in , wo od en ba tte n. us ua lly a p plied to th e und erside o f a wid e s u rface s uc h as a tabl e top o r lid to minimize warpa ge . Clea ts c an b c m ade to fun ction mechani c all y as part of a hinge bl ock.

c le nc h n ail A so ft. wrought nail th a t tu rns b ack o n it self wh en dri ven through wo od a nd a gainst a m etal surfac e . Unt il ma ch ine -made wood screws were d e ve loped in th e early 19t h ce n tu ry . c le nc h nails were com mo nly used to p erm an ently se c u re tw o pi e c e s o f wo od . cock be adi n g

bend An inc ised. ha lf-ro u nd m ol ding. co mmon ly uscd in arc h itect u re a nd o n fu rn it u re. sometimes s imu la ting cock b e a ding . Ru n o n a n edge of an arc h itect u ra l or fu rnitu re p art , the be ad is tlu sh wi th thc s u rface a nd set off hy " \I-g roove ( t he n called a bead and beve l) o r b y a flat -bo tto med groovc , o r q u irk (the n ca lled a q u irkc d b e a d ).

bricl d aid A method o f s t re ng the n ing c u rve d s u rfaces , s uc h as a table s k irt, b y glu ing togeth er tw o or m ore la yers of wo od with stagge re d join ts . whi ch re semble bri ckwork. h ro l.cn p cdim c nt

cllbriolc Ic g bClldi ng, c oc l. A thin s trip of wood with a ro un d ed ou ter edge , whi ch is often a p plied to th c e dg es o f ve n o e r c d d ra we rs for d c c orati on a nd p ro te cti on.

Se e p ed im ent.

See bull-arul-clau: fool.

See beading. cock.

c o r n icc The u p p e r h orizontal sect io n o f an e nt a b la t u re, co ns is t ing o f o ne o r m ore mol d in gs a n d so me t imes a ro w of d entils. O fte n sepa ra te d fro m th e e nta b la t ure a nd us e d ind epende ntly , (or e xa m ple, in architec ture under an ea ve , o r, in furnitu re , on th e to p of tall c a sc pi e c e s a n d so me m irrors.

Sec leg , cub r iolc.

cllnop~'

Th e c lo t h cu rt ai ns suspe nded fro m th c fram e . o r tes te r, of a hi gh -p ost b ed. In th e la te 19 th ce ntu ry . a s im p lifie d ca no py o f c lo t h or knotted nc rtin g wa s o fte n us e d as a purel y d c c ora t ive covcrrng o n th e fram e .

- - 18 0 -

-

{J -

cove A c oncave qua rter-ro u nd m old in g pro filc (ne a r right ). Also ca lle d a ca ve t to . Wh en thi s m old in g is s te p ped , th e profil e is callc d a s te p ped cove

(fa r right ).

'--_ _.......

cre st rail The horizontal me mber at the top of a cha ir back that co n nects the cha ir's two stiles. crown glass Wind ow or sheet glass co mmo nl y made u nt il th e ea rly 19th cent ury by sp inn ing a large . tlat wh e el o r di sc of glass fro m wh ich pa nes we re t hen c ut. crown plank The boa rd c u t from th e ce nter of a lo g . whi ch co n tains th e pith . or he a rtw ood . Th e wo o d o n ei t he r sid e of the pit h is desira ble beca use it is e xcep tio na lly stable . eyma eu rve An S -s ha pe d d oubl e curve . wh ic h is of te n used as a molding profile and wh ich is also ca lle d a n ogee . Wh en the top of the c urve is co nc a ve , it is called a cy ma recta o r reve rse ogee (be low left ). Wh en the c urve is co nvex o n top , it is ca lle d a c yma re versa but is o fte n simpl y re fe rred to as a n ogee (below r ig ht) .

false-graining A painting te chniqu e for sim ula ting the figure and gra in o f re al wo od with two o r more la yer s of paint. Th e effe c t pr oduced can range in ve r isim ilitu de from trompe l' oeil to a bs t ra ct. Also called, a s in Fre nc h , fau x -boi s. Fancy chair A turn ed , Fed eral -peri od chair with a japanned finish , usually dec orated with s tr ip ing , ste nciling or freehand painting . This inexpensive chair ge ne ra lly had a wo ven cane or rus h se at. fillet A narrow , flat surface used to se t off a molding o r to se pa ra te tw o moldings. finial A turned ele me nt ofte n us ed to su rmount a post or a pediment. tliteh A shea f of success ive, o r siste r, c u ts of ve ne e r.

flut ing A seri es of vertical a nd parall el , co nc av e g r oo ve s ca rv e d o n a s u rfa c e . T he o p po site o f reeding. tly rail The mov able part of the hinged sk irt that su ppo r ts a le af o n so me drop-leaf tabl es.

dcmi-Iunc A hal f-round sh a pe. Man y Fe dc rnl -pe r io d ca rd tables a nd pi er tables. as well as so me commo d es . s ideboa rds and c hests o f drawers . ha d demi -Iun e tops . dcntil, or dcnticulatcd, molding A mold ing . of te n used in a co rn ice. composed o f a series of rectan gul ar b locks re sembling te eth.

W .-II-.lLJU I

foot, French A tla red foot, a ssoc ia te d with th e Hepplewhite style and o fte n us ed o n ca se furniture . foot, pad A sha pe d foot set o n, o r el ev ated by , a thin platform . foot, spade A sharply tapered , ne arly d iamond-sh ap ed foot , sometimes used o n th e tap ered leg associ ated with th e Hepplewhite st yle . frieze The middle el ement o f a n e nta bla t ure, which is found beneath th e co rnic e a nd a b ove th e architra ve .

drop-leaf table A tabl e with a fix ed top and hin ged lea ves that ca n be rai sed a nd low e red . edge banding A narrow b and o r st rip of ve rtical-gra in vene e r. Empire The furn iture period origin a tin g in Euro pe a t the b egin ning of th e 19th century. whic h be came popul ar in America a ro u nd 18 15 a nd gra d ua lly b ro ug ht th e Fed eral perio d to a close. The peri od took its nam e from Napoleo n Bona pa r te 's Fre nc h Em p ire a nd was intluenced by t he ar c hae ol ogic al finds at G ree k a nd Egyp tian sites . Em pi re furniture tended to be he a vier th an Federa l furniture a nd was frequ entl y o rna me nted with Greek a nd Egy p t ia n m ot if s a n d w it h m at chin g mah ogany ven e ers . A colu m n t har projects o n th e fro nt b u t is tlat on the ba c k a nd atta ched to a wall or o t he r su rfa ce.

gallery A raised edge often used o n table to ps, ch ests o f drawers. trays and o ther furniture . which can be solid or p ierced. gateleg table A drop-l eaf table whose leaves a re su ppo rted b y hinged, swingin g legs rath er th an by tly rail s.

iron oxide A ru st- c ol ored p igm ent used to mak e red paint. japanning A fin ish ing p ro c e ss im it at in g o ri e nta l la cqu erwork, co ns is t ing o f se ve ra l la ye rs of va rn ish ap plied ove r a pa inted a nd o fte n gilde d su rface . Ja pa nni ng was po p ular o n painted Fe deral furn itu re lik e Fa ncy c ha irs a nd o n tinwa re of t he period .

keeper A de vic e to lock into pos itio n a lat ch bar o r lock bolt securing a door, lid o r to p of a ti p-top ta bl e.

leg, cabriole A cu rved leg wit h a p ro je c ting kn e e a nd a n in curved a nkle , which is asso ci ated with th e Q uee n Anne a nd Ch ippe nda le peri ods. This leg ca n te rm ina te in a va rie ty of feet; for exa mp le . ba ll-a nd -claw, scroll o r pad . leg, turned A leg shaped o n t he la th e . Tu rned legs, with o r wit hout ree ding. we re ofte n u sed o n Sherato n a nd Empi re furni ture . Marlborough leg A sq ua re leg. e ithe r plain o r more comm onl y molded, th at was popul ar durmg the Chi p penda le period . mill. paint

Se e casein p a illt.

molding A nar row , co nt in uo us s t r ip o f wood used for decorati on , ge nera lly sha ped as a concave o r co nvex profil e , o r a co m b ina t io n of th e two , but whi ch ca n also be flat .

gesso A paste made of whiting a nd e ithe r sizin g or glu e, used as a smoo th base for gilding, japanning or painting.

muntin A th in. wood en m olding st r ip d ivid ing th e pan es of glass in a window o r d oor. Als o ca lle d m ulli on o r munni on . Th ou gh mulli on ac tually refe rs to t he ve rtica l div ide rs , th e terms a re ge ne ra lly used interch ange abl y.

gimlet A sm all tool with a threaded point, use d to prebore a sc re w hol e .

entablature Th e archit e ctural e le m e n ts above th e capitals of colum ns a nd bel ow the ped ime nt . consisting o f th e c ornice , friez e a nd a rc hit ra ve .

Gothic arch A pointed arch , borrowed from Go th ic a rc h it ec t ure . which has a joint a t it s a pex rather th an a keystone.

escutcheon A pla te . usu all y b ras s, a pplie d ove r o r inla id arou nd a ke yh ol e .

haircloth A tough fa b ric with a sheen lik e satin , whose warp is cotton, linen or wool and wh ose weft is hair from horse manes a nd tails . Often used a s uph ol stery fabric during the Fed eral period.

A sim ulated d raw er front.

hinge block Th e wood e n block te no ne d to t he top of a t rip od-ta bl e ped est al a nd a ttac he d to th e c lea ts o n whi ch th e tab leto p pi vot s .

Georgian A style of architecture popular iri Eng la nd in th e late 17th c entu ry , which co incided with the Chippendale p e ri od . Ge o rgia n a rc hi te ctu re became fashionable in Americ a through out most of th e 18th c entury and preceded Federal arch itecture .

cngugcd colnmn

false drawer

Hepplewhite O ne interp retati o n of neoclas s ic a l fu rn i tu re pop u la r ize d by t he 17 88 pub lic a tio n in Engla nd o f Geo rge He p ple white 's pat te rn boo k, The Ca binet·maker and Up ho lstere r's Guide . Thoug h Hep pl ewhi te furnitu re typi call y inco rpora tes suc h fe ature s as curved lin es, ta pered le gs. a nd Fre nc h or sp ad e fee t. it ma y also fea tu re th e sq ua re r lin e s a nd turned legs ge nera lly assoc iate d with Sh eraton furn itu re . Th e se tw o co n te m po raneous furniture sty les were a ctu all y very similar but were assigne d so mewha t a rb itrary distincti on s by lat e 19th-c entu ry a nd ea rly 20th- centu ry co llec to rs .

-

18 1 -

mullion

See muntin.

neoclassical The peri od in furn iture an d a rc h itec t ure o r igina ting in Eu ro pe in th e m id 18th century, which foll ow ed th e Chi ppe nda le p eri od and b e c am e popul ar in Ame r ica arou nd 179 0 . Tri ggered by a rc haeolog ica l dis co ve rie s at cl assi cal sites. th e rev iva l o f interest in class ica l G reek a nd Rom an fo rm s ex p ressed itself in Am eri ca in wh at is ca lle d Fed eral a rt a nd arch itect ure .

II/.lCC

(~\' II111 e ll

See

mil

r v e.

IIld red s t a i n Antiqu e d eal ers' term for an ine xpe nsi ve. thin red paint . so me ti mes used to fini sh utilitari an woodwork. O n formal mah o gan y furniture . th e same sta in was so meti mes ap p lied to lig h t·colo re d seco nda r y woo ds to lessen th eir co nt ras t with th e d ark p rimary wo od . IIrill IIIII The cast-b rass de corat ion o n lat e Fede ra l a nd Em pire furniture . whi ch wa s populari zed by Fren ch ca bi ne tma ke rs wh o imm igrated 10 Am eri ca flee ing th e Fre nc h

A hori zontal member Of a fra me .

reeding A se r ies Of para llel. convex mo ld in gs used 10 decorate flat o r curved surfaces. An o rn a me nt associ at ed with th e Sherat on st yle . re eding is th e o p posite o f flutin g. Itc gcn c~' In England. th e ea rly l Oth -ce n rury furn iture period inspired by class ical G reek a nd Egy ptia n forms and motifs , wh ich corre sp ond s to th e ea rl y Em p ire peri od in Am eri ca .

re verse II/.lCC

Sec ey m u c ur-ee .

Revoluti on .

A q ua rte r-rou nd molding profil e . o il WI' a nd bou om by a fillel. 0\'(,111

SCI

revers e painting Painting o n the ba ck side o f gla ss o r so me rimes mi ca ; a co m mo n Fede ra l-pe r iod techniqu e priz ed for it s luminance a nd lifelike depth and qua lity.

parer» A sma ll. o rn a me nt a l disc . oval. round o r squ ar e . applied 10 or inlaid o n a flut su rface.

rh'cn wood Wood used for furn it u re , c ooperage or co nstruction that is sp lit . ra ther tha n sawn . from t he log.

pu t ina Disc ol o rati on . usually a da rkening. of a wo od en su rface du e 10 age and use .

rosette A disc ornamented wit h reli ev ed. foliate d ecorati on o r co nce nt ric circl es . Ros e lle dr aw er pull s ar c asso ciated with Sh erat on -stvl e furniture and that o f the ea rly Em pire peri od .

pattern hllol. s Bo ok s published from th e mid -Lxth ce ntu ry through mo st o f th e 19th ce nt ury by individu al ca b ine t ma ke rs o r o the r membe rs of th e furniture t rad e . wh ich were int ended 10 famili ari ze cab inet ma ke rs a nd thei r c us to me rs wi th th e lat e st desi gn s in fu rni rure an d interio r dec o r. p cdimcnt 1) The tr iangul ar sp a ce fo rm ing th e gab le of a pi tc he d roof, 2) A devi ce of th e sa me o r a si m ila r sha pe used ove r doo rwa ys a nd wind ow s. o r 10 10 1' so me pi e c es of furniture . Som cthu es a pedim ent is o pen a t it s a pe x a nd is th e n ca lle d a bro ke n ped im ent. Pembroke tu h le A small drop -leaf ruble with a wid e . fixed top and narrow leav es . Int ro du ced in th e Ch ippe nda le peri od as a port uhl e tabl e o n whi ch to have breakfast or tea . th e Pembrok e form became e ve n morc popular in th e Fed eral peri od. picr The spa ce on a wall betw een tw o op en ings. wh eth er doors o r windows . pilllstcr A flatt en ed pillar. rectan gular in cross sec tio n. th at is applied 10 a wa ll or o the r surface and o rn a me nte d as a column . plinth A sq ua re o r rectangu lar bl ock se rv ing as th e ba se for a colu m n . pil ast er. finial o r eve n a sta t ue . pomm el

seeundury w o od An in expen sive, ea sy- towork wood use d 10 make furniture parts th at a re un se en ; fo r e xa m ple . drawer interi ors. bac kboa rds a nd th e core of a veneered pan el. Shcrllton An interpretation of ne oclassical furniture nam ed for the English ca b ine tma ke r Th omas Sh crat on. wh ose pattern book. Til e Cu b ine t·m u ke r's and Upho ls te re r's DruwingHook ( 179 1·9 3) , sp rea d th e style first in England and th en to America. Straight lin es, turned legs and reeded decorat io n are generall y associated wit h Sherato n fu rni t ure , b ut it also occasio na lly carries the c urved lines. tapered legs a nd o rn ament co nsidered c haractcrtsnc of the co nte mporaneous Hopple white sty le . s k i r t The horizontal frame beneath :1 tab letop tha t joins th e legs and may be plai n or sha pe d. Also called a n apron. slip s c a t A padded and uphols tered . remov a ble se a l rhat fit s inside th e sea t rails of a c ha ir.

The e lev a te d ce nte r in th e front

WI' edge of a Windsor c ha ir se a l. wh ich fit s

be tween th e sit tc rs le gs . prim al')' woud Th e speci es o f wood used o n th e vis ible su rfaces o f a piec c of fu rniture .

Qu c en

rulc jniut A hinged joint used o n dr op-leaf tabl es. co m po se d o f a concave ed ge o n a dr op leaf and a co nve x edge o n th e fixed top,

AIIIIC

Ea rly

18 th -c entury furnit ur e

period in Engla nd a nd Am erica , whi ch pr e ce ded th e Chi p pe nda le peri od. Qu een Ann e fu rn it u re is deli c at e . re st rain ed in it s o rnurnent a nd st ro ngly c u rv ilinea r. quirl, A flat -hottorn cd gro ove used 10 se t 011 a molding. Quirked moldings be cam e stylish during the Federal pcri od .

s p irul turning A rop c -Iike det ail . ass ociated with th e Em pire peri od . that is c a rve d o n a pi ece tha t ha s be en turn ed o n a la t he . s p la t The thin . verti cal member filling th e a rea in th e back of a chair between the stil es. Th c design of spla ts vari ed from period to pcri od a nd cou ld be pi erc ed . c a rve d o r ve neered . s t il c 1) A vert ical member o f a frame. 2) Th e se c tio ns o f the rear legs above the scat rail s. which fram e a c ha ir ba ck and are con nect ed at th e top by the c res t rail.

- - IS2 - -

s t r e t c h e r O ne Of a syst em o f memb er s conn ecting th e legs of a ch air o r ta ble . Fede ra l-pe rio d chairs were usuall y co ns t ruc te d with e ither box st re tc he rs or /I·stretch ers. s t r i n g inlll~' Th in st rips o f wood co nt ras ting in colo r (u su ally lighter) with the pr im a ry wood . laid in rece ssed inle ts in th e su rface o f a pi ec e o f furniture . s t ring ing

See s t ring inl uy .

s t r i p i n g Thin. painted lin es. usu all y of a co nt rasting col or. s im ula ting the st r ing in la y used o n so me formal furniture . S t ri ping o fte n decorated Fancy chairs . Win dsor c ha irs a nd other painted furni ture both d uri ng and afte r the Federal period. s u rv ivu l feuture A feature c hnra c te r isn c of o ne furn tture period that rem ains in use . o r "survives ." in succeed ing periods.

tablc-Ieaf hinge A rectangul ar hinge with o ne le g lon ge r th an the o t he r. desi gn ed fo r dr op -lea f table s. tester Th e wood en ca no py fram e o n a high post b ed. T- h e lld e d fini sh nail A c u t o r wrought nail with a thin . T-sh aped he ad th at is d ifficul t to sec when set because th e wood fib ers spri ng ba ck to parti ally hide tr. Th e se nail s ra nge in s ize from brads to 16d floorin g na ils . thumbnuit molding A quarter-e llipse mo ldin g profile co m mo nly u se d o n Geo rg ia n interi or wo odwork a nd o n th e edge o f drawe rs in th e Qu een Anne and Ch ip pe nda le period s . tip-top table A ped est al tabl e wh ose to p is hinged to a llow it to be ra ise d a nd low ered. trifid s u p p o r t A three -legg ed iron plat e . nai led to th e bottom o f th e boss o n tr ip od tables to st re ngth e n the tabl e -leg joints. tripod table A pedestal table with three radiati ng le gs that are usua lly dovetail ed to th e boss. Popu lar fro m the earl y 18th c e ntu ry . pedesta l tables were produced in e ve n g re a te r q ua ntity d uri ng the Federal pe r io d . twi st turning

See spiral turning.

urn A cl assic al vase sha pe with squa re , rather than round . sho ulde rs a nd a sq ua re o r round pedestal bottom. Thi s was a popul ar motif in Federal furniture . o ften used o n suc h places as tripod-tabl e ped est als. fin ials an d c ha ir splats.

- - - -- - - - -

A common turning sh ape that is bul bou s a t the bottom a nd has round sho ulde rs a nd a nnrrow. e lo nga te d nc c k . l 'II SC

Windsor chair An inf ormal . painted c hai r made primaril y Of turned o r whittled pans . with a so lid-wood seat and usu all y so me bent cle me nts . Int ro d u ce d in Am eric a in th e mid 18t h ce n tu ry . the Windsor re a ch ed th e height of its popu larity during th e Fe de ral peri od.

Bibliogra~hy

'Uanchllrd••tobcrtll RII~·. /1 0 '(4' to Rest o r« wid Dcco ru te Ch u irs. :\ew Yo rk: ~ 1. Ba rrows a nd Co .. Inc .. 1(62 .

Hewitt, Benhumin A., Parrje ia E. Kline, lind Gerald W.R. WlIrd. Th e Work of Many Hands : Ca rd Tabl es in Fe de ra l A me rica 1790 1820. New Ha ven : Yale Unive rs ity Art Ga lle ry. 19 8 2 .

Uogdonoff. ;li ll n c ~' nick. l lundsroce n Textiles 'd '\"e'(4' En glund: The Legucy ,~,. u Rural People. Ha r rtsbu rg, Penn .: Slac kpo le Book s . 1975 . Ur a zer. Es t h e r. Eurly Ame ricw i Decora tiu n. 1947 . Rep rint ed . Xew York : A ~IS Press. Co ms t o cl c, IIc1en. The Loo k ing Glus» in A merica. 1700·18 25. New York: The Stud io l'u bl icar ion s. Inc .. 1968. Co ms toc l•• •tllth U. Rush Seats fo r Chairs (pa mph le t) . lthi ca : Cornell Um ve rs it v Press. 19 68 .

Hummel. C h a r les F. W ith Hamm er i ll Hand. Charlo t tesvi lle : Unive rs tty Pre ss o f Vir gini a . 19 68 . Kline , 1)lItrieill E. JOO Years of Ame r ica n Seating Fu rn itu re. Bos to n: Xcw York Gra phic Soci et y. 197 6 . Lea, ZilllI Rider, cd, Th e O rna me n ted Chair: It s De'l:elopme llC in Amerit'll (1700-18 90 ) . Rutland . VI.: Cha rles E. Tu t tle Co .• 1960. Montgume~',

C h a r'les F. Ame r ic a n Furniture. Th e Federal Period, in t he llen ry Francis du Pont Winterthur Mu s eum . Lo ndo n: Thames an d II ud son , LId .. 19 66 .

C r a ft o n • .John Se\·ille. Th e London Upholste re r 's Co m pl lllio n. Londo n. 18 3 4 . Dunbar, ~'ichllel . A n ril / ue Wood'll )(//'king Tools. New York : Ha st ings Hou se , Inc .. 1977 .

Mor"e, John D., cd. Cou llCry Ca bi ne two rk and Simple City Furniture. Charlot tesville : Unive rs ity Pre ss o f Virgi nia . 19 70 . Nutting, \VlIlIlIce. Furniture Tr ea sury . New York: Macnri llan Publi shi ng Co .. Inc .. 19 28 .

___ . .\I a k e u Winds o r Ch u ir w ith Michu el Dunbar. Xewt own , Con n.: The Tau nto n Pre ss . 1984 .

- - -. A Winds o r Hand book. Rutland , VI.: Cha rles E. T u ttl e Co .. 197 3 .

G a r re t t , E ' isllbe t h nuna gh~·. " The Ame rica n hom e . Parr I. " Th e .\Iu~ w:. i ll e AriC iq ues 123 (Ja n ua ry 1( 8 3 ): 214 · 25 . _ _ _ . " The American hom e . Pa rr II. " Th e .\I ug u z in e AllCiqu es 123 (February 1(83) : 408·17 .

Ormsbee. Thomas H. Th e Winds or Cha ir. G reat Xe c k , X.Y.: Deerfi eld Book s. Inc .. 19 6 2.

( Xl u r c h 1()/i3) : 612·25 .

Pcteraon, Huruld L. A me rica n IllC er io rs f ro m Co lo n ia l Tim es co th e Late \' ictorill/ls. A Pi ctorial So u rcebook. 19 71. Reprinted. New York: Cha rles Sc rib ne r's Son s , 197 8 .

- - -. " Th e Ame rican hom e . Pa rr 1\·." Th e .\I ug u z i lle Allriq ue s 12 6 (O c to be r 1( 84 ): 9 10·22.

Slick, Albert. Fine P oillCS of Furn itu re: Ea rly American. Ne w Yo rk : Cro wn Publishers , In c .. 195 0 .

___ . " The Ame rica n hom e . Part V." The .\ Ia ga z ine An riq ues 12 8 (Au gus t 1( 8 5 ): 259·6 5 .

SlIntore, Chartes, Th e Winds o r S tyle in A merica. Philadel ph ia : Running Pr e ss. 1981.

_ _ _ . " Th e Am e ric an hom e . Parr VI." Th e Muga zin e A ntiqu es 128 (Dece mber 1( 85 ): 12 10 ·2 3 .

Sheruton, Thomas, Th e Ca bi ne t·Ma ke r and Upho ls te rer's DraWingHook . New York: Do ver Publica li on s. In c ., 197 2.

_ __. " The Am eri c a n hom e . Pa rr III. " The .\I ug uzine An tiq ues 123

IIepplewhite. ( ;eorge. Th e Cu bi ne t -Mu ke r a nd Upholnte re r '« G u ide. New York: Dov er Publi c a li on s . Inc .. 19 6 9 .

- - l HJ - -

Publish er, Book s : Les lie Caro la Associatc Ed itors: Debora h Can narella, Sco t t Landis , Ch ris tine Ti m mo ns Design Dircctor: Roge r Ba rnes As so cia tc Art Director: He ath er Brine Lambert Co py / P rod u c tio n Editor: Nancy Stabile Illustrations: Bria n G ulick, Hea ther Brine Lambert ~Iana~cr of Production Serv ices. Gary Mnncin i Co o r d in a to r of Production Services: Dave DeFco Syste m Operator: Clau dia Blake Ap plega te Production Assi stants: Deb o ra h Coope r, Dina h George Pa st eup: Marty Higha m , Deb Rives-Skilcs. Barbara Snyder Typeface: Caslo n Boo k , 9 1/ 2 po int Printer and Bindcr: Aa rh uus Sufrsbogtrvkkerie . Ar h us , De nmark